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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12652 ***
+
+[Illustration: Frontispiece]
+
+American Statesmen
+
+STANDARD LIBRARY EDITION
+
+
+[Illustration: _The Home of the Washington Family_]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+GEORGE WASHINGTON
+
+      BY
+
+HENRY CABOT LODGE
+
+  IN TWO VOLUMES
+     VOL. I.
+
+      1889
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+This edition has been carefully revised, and although very little has
+been added of late years to our knowledge of the facts of Washington's
+life, I have tried to examine all that has appeared. The researches of
+Mr. Waters, which were published just after these volumes in the first
+edition had passed through the press, enable me to give the Washington
+pedigree with certainty, and have turned conjecture into fact. The
+recent publication in full of Lear's memoranda, although they tell
+nothing new about Washington's last moments, help toward a completion
+of all the details of the scene.
+
+H.C. LODGE.
+
+WASHINGTON, February 7, 1898.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+CHAPTER.
+
+        INTRODUCTION
+     I. THE OLD DOMINION
+    II. THE WASHINGTONS
+   III. ON THE FRONTIER
+    IV. LOVE AND MARRIAGE
+     V. TAKING COMMAND
+    VI. SAVING THE REVOLUTION
+   VII. "MALICE DOMESTIC, AND FOREIGN LEVY"
+  VIII. THE ALLIES
+    IX. ARNOLD'S TREASON, AND THE WAR IN THE SOUTH
+     X. YORKTOWN
+    XI. PEACE
+
+        INDEX
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+GEORGE WASHINGTON
+
+From the painting by Gilbert Stuart in the Museum of Fine Arts,
+Boston. This painting is owned by the Boston Athenæum and is known as
+the Athenæum portrait.
+
+Autograph is from Washington's signature to a bill of exchange, from
+"Talks about Autographs" by George Birkbeck Hill.
+
+The vignette of the residence of the Washington family is from "Homes
+of American Statesman," published by Alfred W. Putnam, New York.
+
+
+LAWRENCE WASHINGTON
+
+From an original painting in the possession of Lawrence Washington,
+Esq., Alexandria, Va., a great-great-great-nephew.
+
+Autograph from MS. in New York Public Library, Lenox Building.
+
+
+MISS MARY CARY
+
+From an original painting owned by Dr. James D. Moncure of Virginia,
+one of her descendants.
+
+No autograph can be found.
+
+
+MISS MARY PHILIPSE
+
+From Irving's "Washington," published by G.P. Putnam's Sons.
+
+Autograph from Appleton's "Cyclopædia of American Biography."
+
+
+WASHINGTON CROSSING THE DELAWARE
+
+From the original painting by Emanuel Leutze in the New York
+Metropolitan Museum. The United States flag shown in the picture is an
+anachronism. The stars and stripes were first adopted by Congress in
+June, 1777; and any flag carried by Washington's army in December,
+1776, would have consisted of the stripes with the crosses of St.
+George and St. Andrew in the blue field where the stars now appear.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+February 9 in the year 1800 was a gala day in Paris. Napoleon had
+decreed a triumphal procession, and on that day a splendid military
+ceremony was performed in the Champ de Mars, and the trophies of the
+Egyptian expedition were exultingly displayed. There were, however,
+two features in all this pomp and show which seemed strangely out
+of keeping with the glittering pageant and the sounds of victorious
+rejoicing. The standards and flags of the army were hung with crape,
+and after the grand parade the dignitaries of the land proceeded
+solemnly to the Temple of Mars, and heard the eloquent M. de Fontanes
+deliver an "Eloge Funèbre."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: A report recently discovered shows that more even was
+intended than was actually done.
+
+The following is a translation of the paper, the original of which
+is Nos. 172 and 173 of volume 51 of the manuscript series known as
+_Etats-Unis_, 1799, 1800 (years 7 and 8 of the French republic):--
+
+    "_Report of Talleyrand, Minister of Foreign Affairs, on the
+    occasion of the death of George Washington_.
+
+    "A nation which some day will he a great nation, and which today
+    is the wisest and happiest on the face of the earth, weeps at the
+    bier of a man whose courage and genius contributed the most to
+    free it from bondage, and elevate it to the rank of an independent
+    and sovereign power. The regrets caused by the death of this
+    great man, the memories aroused by these regrets, and a proper
+    veneration for all that is held dear and sacred by mankind, impel
+    us to give expression to our sentiments by taking part in an event
+    which deprives the world of one of its brightest ornaments, and
+    removes to the realm of history one of the noblest lives that ever
+    honored the human race.
+
+    "The name of Washington is inseparably linked with a memorable
+    epoch. He adorned this epoch by his talents and the nobility of
+    his character, and with virtues that even envy dared not assail.
+    History offers few examples of such renown. Great from the outset
+    of his career, patriotic before his country had become a nation,
+    brilliant and universal despite the passions and political
+    resentments that would gladly have checked his career, his fame
+    is to-day imperishable,--fortune having consecrated his claim to
+    greatness, while the prosperity of a people destined for grand
+    achievements is the best evidence of a fame ever to increase.
+
+    "His own country now honors his memory with funeral ceremonies,
+    having lost a citizen whose public actions and unassuming grandeur
+    in private life were a living example of courage, wisdom, and
+    unselfishness; and France, which from the dawn of the American
+    Revolution hailed with hope a nation, hitherto unknown, that was
+    discarding the vices of Europe, which foresaw all the glory that
+    this nation would bestow on humanity, and the enlightenment of
+    governments that would ensue from the novel character of the
+    social institutions and the new type of heroism of which
+    Washington and America were models for the world at
+    large,--France, I repeat, should depart from established usages
+    and do honor to one whose fame is beyond comparison with that of
+    others.
+
+    "The man who, amid the decadence of modern ages, first dared
+    believe that he could inspire degenerate nations with courage to
+    rise to the level of republican virtues, lived for all nations and
+    for all centuries; and this nation, which first saw in the life
+    and success of that illustrious man a foreboding of its destiny,
+    and therein recognized a future to be realized and duties to be
+    performed, has every right to class him as a fellow-citizen. I
+    therefore submit to the First Consul the following decree:--
+      "Bonaparte, First Consul of the republic, decrees as follows:--
+      "Article 1. A statue is to be erected to General Washington.
+      "Article 2. This statue is to be placed in one of the squares of
+    Paris, to be chosen by the minister of the interior, and it shall
+    be his duty to execute the present decree."]
+
+About the same time, if tradition may be trusted, the flags upon the
+conquering Channel fleet of England were lowered to half-mast in token
+of grief for the same event which had caused the armies of France to
+wear the customary badges of mourning.
+
+If some "traveler from an antique land" had observed these
+manifestations, he would have wondered much whose memory it was that
+had called them forth from these two great nations, then struggling
+fiercely with each other for supremacy on land and sea. His wonder
+would not have abated had he been told that the man for whom they
+mourned had wrested an empire from one, and at the time of his death
+was arming his countrymen against the other.
+
+These signal honors were paid by England and France to a simple
+Virginian gentleman who had never left his own country, and who when
+he died held no other office than the titular command of a provisional
+army. Yet although these marks of respect from foreign nations were
+notable and striking, they were slight and formal in comparison with
+the silence and grief which fell upon the people of the United States
+when they heard that Washington was dead. He had died in the fullness
+of time, quietly, quickly, and in his own house, and yet his death
+called out a display of grief which has rarely been equaled in
+history. The trappings and suits of woe were there of course, but what
+made this mourning memorable was that the land seemed hushed with
+sadness, and that the sorrow dwelt among the people and was neither
+forced nor fleeting. Men carried it home with them to their firesides
+and to their churches, to their offices and their workshops. Every
+preacher took the life which had closed as the noblest of texts, and
+every orator made it the theme of his loftiest eloquence. For more
+than a year the newspapers teemed with eulogy and elegy, and both
+prose and poetry were severely taxed to pay tribute to the memory of
+the great one who had gone. The prose was often stilted and the verse
+was generally bad, but yet through it all, from the polished sentences
+of the funeral oration to the humble effusions of the obscurest poet's
+corner, there ran a strong and genuine feeling, which the highest art
+could not refine nor the clumsiest expression degrade.
+
+From that time to this, the stream of praise has flowed on, ever
+deepening and strengthening, both at home and abroad. Washington alone
+in history seems to have risen so high in the estimation of men that
+criticism has shrunk away abashed, and has only been heard whispering
+in corners or growling hoarsely in the now famous house in Cheyne Row.
+
+There is a world of meaning in all this, could we but rightly
+interpret it. It cannot be brushed aside as mere popular superstition,
+formed of fancies and prejudices, to which intelligent opposition
+would be useless. Nothing is in fact more false than the way in which
+popular opinions are often belittled and made light of. The opinion
+of the world, however reached, becomes in the course of years or
+centuries the nearest approach we can make to final judgment on
+human things. Don Quixote may be dumb to one man, and the sonnets of
+Shakespeare may leave another cold and weary. But the fault is in
+the reader. There is no doubt of the greatness of Cervantes or
+Shakespeare, for they have stood the test of time, and the voices of
+generations of men, from which there is no appeal, have declared them
+to be great. The lyrics that all the world loves and repeats, the
+poetry which is often called hackneyed, is on the whole the best
+poetry. The pictures and statues that have drawn crowds of admiring
+gazers for centuries are the best. The things that are "caviare to the
+general" often undoubtedly have much merit, but they lack quite as
+often the warm, generous, and immortal vitality which appeals alike to
+rich and poor, to the ignorant and to the learned.
+
+So it is with men. When years after his death the world agrees to call
+a man great, the verdict must be accepted. The historian may whiten or
+blacken, the critic may weigh and dissect, the form of the judgment
+may be altered, but the central fact remains, and with the man, whom
+the world in its vague way has pronounced great, history must reckon
+one way or the other, whether for good or ill.
+
+When we come to such a man as Washington, the case is still stronger.
+Men seem to have agreed that here was greatness which no one could
+question, and character which no one could fail to respect. Around
+other leaders of men, even around the greatest of them, sharp
+controversies have arisen, and they have their partisans dead as they
+had them living. Washington had enemies who assailed him, and friends
+whom he loved, but in death as in life he seems to stand alone, above
+conflict and superior to malice. In his own country there is no
+dispute as to his greatness or his worth. Englishmen, the most
+unsparing censors of everything American, have paid homage to
+Washington, from the days of Fox and Byron to those of Tennyson and
+Gladstone. In France his name has always been revered, and in distant
+lands those who have scarcely heard of the existence of the United
+States know the country of Washington. To the mighty cairn which the
+nation and the states have raised to his memory, stones have come
+from Greece, sending a fragment of the Parthenon; from Brazil and
+Switzerland, Turkey and Japan, Siam and India beyond the Ganges. On
+that sent by China we read: "In devising plans, Washington was more
+decided than Ching Shing or Woo Kwang; in winning a country he was
+braver than Tsau Tsau or Ling Pi. Wielding his four-footed falchion,
+he extended the frontiers and refused to accept the Royal Dignity. The
+sentiments of the Three Dynasties have reappeared in him. Can any man
+of ancient or modern times fail to pronounce Washington peerless?"
+These comparisons so strange to our ears tell of a fame which has
+reached farther than we can readily conceive.
+
+Washington stands as a type, and has stamped himself deep upon the
+imagination of mankind. Whether the image be true or false is of no
+consequence: the fact endures. He rises up from the dust of history as
+a Greek statue comes pure and serene from the earth in which it has
+lain for centuries. We know his deeds; but what was it in the man
+which has given him such a place in the affection, the respect, and
+the imagination of his fellow men throughout the world?
+
+Perhaps this question has been fully answered already. Possibly every
+one who has thought upon the subject has solved the problem, so that
+even to state it is superfluous. Yet a brilliant writer, the latest
+historian of the American people, has said: "General Washington is
+known to us, and President Washington. But George Washington is an
+unknown man." These are pregnant words, and that they should be true
+seems to make any attempt to fill the great gap an act of sheer and
+hopeless audacity. Yet there can be certainly no reason for adding
+another to the almost countless lives of Washington unless it be done
+with the object in view which Mr. McMaster indicates. Any such attempt
+may fail in execution, but if the purpose be right it has at least an
+excuse for its existence.
+
+To try to add to the existing knowledge of the facts in Washington's
+career would have but little result beyond the multiplication of
+printed pages. The antiquarian, the historian, and the critic have
+exhausted every source, and the most minute details have been and
+still are the subject of endless writing and constant discussion.
+Every house he ever lived in has been drawn and painted; every
+portrait, and statue, and medal has been catalogued and engraved. His
+private affairs, his servants, his horses, his arms, even his clothes,
+have all passed beneath the merciless microscope of history. His
+biography has been written and rewritten. His letters have been drawn
+out from every lurking place, and have been given to the world in
+masses and in detachments. His battles have been fought over and
+over again, and his state papers have undergone an almost verbal
+examination. Yet, despite his vast fame and all the labors of the
+antiquarian and biographer, Washington is still not understood,--as a
+man he is unfamiliar to the posterity that reverences his memory. He
+has been misrepresented more or less covertly by hostile critics and
+by candid friends, and has been disguised and hidden away by the
+mistaken eulogy and erroneous theories of devout admirers. All that
+any one now can do, therefore, is to endeavor from this mass of
+material to depict the very man himself in the various conjunctures of
+his life, and strive to see what he really was and what he meant then,
+and what he is and what he means to us and to the world to-day.
+
+In the progress of time Washington has become in the popular
+imagination largely mythical; for mythical ideas grow up in this
+nineteenth century, notwithstanding its boasted intelligence, much as
+they did in the infancy of the race. The old sentiment of humanity,
+more ancient and more lasting than any records or monuments, which led
+men in the dawn of history to worship their ancestors and the founders
+of states, still endures. As the centuries have gone by, this
+sentiment has lost its religious flavor, and has become more and
+more restricted in its application, but it has never been wholly
+extinguished. Let some man arise great above the ordinary bounds of
+greatness, and the feeling which caused our progenitors to bow down
+at the shrines of their forefathers and chiefs leads us to invest
+our modern hero with a mythical character, and picture him in our
+imagination as a being to whom, a few thousand years ago, altars would
+have been builded and libations poured out.
+
+Thus we have to-day in our minds a Washington grand, solemn, and
+impressive. In this guise he appears as a man of lofty intellect, vast
+moral force, supremely successful and fortunate, and wholly apart
+from and above all his fellow-men. This lonely figure rises up to our
+imagination with all the imperial splendor of the Livian Augustus, and
+with about as much warmth and life as that unrivaled statue. In this
+vague but quite serious idea there is a great deal of truth, but
+not the whole truth. It is the myth of genuine love and veneration
+springing from the inborn gratitude of man to the founders and chiefs
+of his race, but it is not by any means the only one of its family.
+There is another, equally diffused, of wholly different parentage.
+In its inception this second myth is due to the itinerant parson,
+bookmaker, and bookseller, Mason Weems. He wrote a brief biography of
+Washington, of trifling historical value, yet with sufficient literary
+skill to make it widely popular. It neither appealed to nor was read
+by the cultivated and instructed few, but it reached the homes of the
+masses of the people. It found its way to the bench of the mechanic,
+to the house of the farmer, to the log cabins of the frontiersman and
+pioneer. It was carried across the continent on the first waves of
+advancing settlement. Its anecdotes and its simplicity of thought
+commended it to children both at home and at school, and, passing
+through edition after edition, its statements were widely spread, and
+it colored insensibly the ideas of hundreds of persons who never had
+heard even the name of the author. To Weems we owe the anecdote of the
+cherry-tree, and other tales of a similar nature. He wrote with Dr.
+Beattie's life of his son before him as a model, and the result is
+that Washington comes out in his pages a faultless prig. Whether Weems
+intended it or not, that is the result which he produced, and that is
+the Washington who was developed from the wide sale of his book. When
+this idea took definite and permanent shape it caused a reaction.
+There was a revolt against it, for the hero thus engendered had
+qualities which the national sense of humor could not endure in
+silence. The consequence is, that the Washington of Weems has afforded
+an endless theme for joke and burlesque. Every professional American
+humorist almost has tried his hand at it; and with each recurring 22d
+of February the hard-worked jesters of the daily newspapers take it
+up and make a little fun out of it, sufficient for the day that is
+passing over them. The opportunity is tempting, because of the ease
+with which fun can be made when that fundamental source of humor, a
+violent contrast, can be employed. But there is no irreverence in it
+all, for the jest is not aimed at the real Washington, but at the
+Washington portrayed in the Weems biography. The worthy "rector of
+Mount Vernon," as he called himself, meant no harm, and there is a
+good deal of truth, no doubt, in his book. But the blameless and
+priggish boy, and the equally faultless and uninteresting man, whom he
+originated, have become in the process of development a myth. So in
+its further development is the Washington of the humorist a myth.
+Both alike are utterly and crudely false. They resemble their great
+original as much as Greenough's classically nude statue, exposed to
+the incongruities of the North American climate, resembles in dress
+and appearance the general of our armies and the first President of
+the United States.
+
+Such are the myth-makers. They are widely different from the critics
+who have assailed Washington in a sidelong way, and who can be better
+dealt with in a later chapter. These last bring charges which can be
+met; the myth-maker presents a vague conception, extremely difficult
+to handle because it is so elusive.
+
+One of our well-known historical scholars and most learned
+antiquarians, not long ago, in an essay vindicating the "traditional
+Washington," treated with scorn the idea of a "new Washington" being
+discovered. In one sense this is quite right, in another totally
+wrong. There can be no new Washington discovered, because there never
+was but one. But the real man has been so overlaid with myths and
+traditions, and so distorted by misleading criticisms, that, as
+has already been suggested, he has been wellnigh lost. We have
+the religious or statuesque myth, we have the Weems myth, and the
+ludicrous myth of the writer of paragraphs. We have the stately hero
+of Sparks, and Everett, and Marshall, and Irving, with all his great
+deeds as general and president duly recorded and set down in polished
+and eloquent sentences; and we know him to be very great and wise and
+pure, and, be it said with bated breath, very dry and cold. We are
+also familiar with the common-place man who so wonderfully illustrated
+the power of character as set forth by various persons, either from
+love of novelty or because the great chief seemed to get in the way of
+their own heroes.
+
+If this is all, then the career of Washington and his towering fame
+present a problem of which the world has never seen the like. But this
+cannot be all: there must be more behind. Every one knows the famous
+Stuart portrait of Washington. The last effort of the artist's cunning
+is there employed to paint his great subject for posterity. How serene
+and beautiful it is! It is a noble picture for future ages to look
+upon. Still it is not all. There is in the dining-room of Memorial
+Hall at Cambridge another portrait, painted by Savage. It is cold and
+dry, hard enough to serve for the signboard of an inn, and able, one
+would think, to withstand all weathers. Yet this picture has something
+which Stuart left out. There is a rugged strength in the face which
+gives us pause, there is a massiveness in the jaw, telling of an iron
+grip and a relentless will, which has infinite meaning.
+
+  "Here's John the Smith's rough-hammered head. Great eye,
+  Gross jaw, and griped lips do what granite can
+  To give you the crown-grasper. What a man!"
+
+In death as in life, there is something about Washington, call it
+greatness, dignity, majesty, what you will, which seems to hold men
+aloof and keep them from knowing him. In truth he was a most difficult
+man to know. Carlyle, crying out through hundreds of pages and myriads
+of words for the "silent man," passed by with a sneer the most
+absolutely silent great man that history can show. Washington's
+letters and speeches and messages fill many volumes, but they are all
+on business. They are profoundly silent as to the writer himself. From
+this Carlyle concluded apparently that there was nothing to tell,--a
+very shallow conclusion if it was the one he really reached. Such an
+idea was certainly far, very far, from the truth.
+
+Behind the popular myths, behind the statuesque figure of the orator
+and the preacher, behind the general and the president of the
+historian, there was a strong, vigorous man, in whose veins ran warm,
+red blood, in whose heart were stormy passions and deep sympathy for
+humanity, in whose brain were far-reaching thoughts, and who was
+informed throughout his being with a resistless will. The veil of his
+silence is not often lifted, and never intentionally, but now and then
+there is a glimpse behind it; and in stray sentences and in little
+incidents strenuously gathered together; above all, in the right
+interpretation of the words, and the deeds, and the true history known
+to all men,--we can surely find George Washington "the noblest figure
+that ever stood in the forefront of a nation's life."
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+GEORGE WASHINGTON
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE OLD DOMINION
+
+
+To know George Washington, we must first of all understand the society
+in which he was born and brought up. As certain lilies draw their
+colors from the subtle qualities of the soil hidden beneath the water
+upon which they float, so are men profoundly affected by the obscure
+and insensible influences which surround their childhood and youth.
+The art of the chemist may discover perhaps the secret agent which
+tints the white flower with blue or pink, but very often the elements,
+which analysis detects, nature alone can combine. The analogy is
+not strained or fanciful when we apply it to a past society. We can
+separate, and classify, and label the various elements, but to combine
+them in such a way as to form a vivid picture is a work of surpassing
+difficulty. This is especially true of such a land as Virginia in the
+middle of the last century. Virginian society, as it existed at that
+period, is utterly extinct. John Randolph said it had departed before
+the year 1800. Since then another century, with all its manifold
+changes, has wellnigh come and gone. Most important of all, the last
+surviving institution of colonial Virginia has been swept away in the
+crash of civil war, which has opened a gulf between past and present
+wider and deeper than any that time alone could make.
+
+Life and society as they existed in the Virginia of the eighteenth
+century seem, moreover, to have been sharply broken and ended. We
+cannot trace our steps backward, as is possible in most cases, over
+the road by which the world has traveled since those days. We are
+compelled to take a long leap mentally in order to land ourselves
+securely in the Virginia which honored the second George, and looked
+up to Walpole and Pitt as the arbiters of its fate.
+
+We live in a period of great cities, rapid communication, vast and
+varied business interests, enormous diversity of occupation, great
+industries, diffused intelligence, farming by steam, and with
+everything and everybody pervaded by an unresting, high-strung
+activity. We transport ourselves to the Virginia of Washington's
+boyhood, and find a people without cities or towns, with no means
+of communication except what was afforded by rivers and wood roads;
+having no trades, no industries, no means of spreading knowledge, only
+one occupation, clumsily performed; and living a quiet, monotonous
+existence, which can now hardly be realized. It is "a far cry to
+Loch-Awe," as the Scotch proverb has it; and this old Virginian
+society, although we should find it sorry work living in it, is both
+pleasant and picturesque in the pages of history.
+
+The population of Virginia, advancing toward half a million, and
+divided pretty equally between the free whites and the enslaved
+blacks, was densest, to use a most inappropriate word, at the water's
+edge and near the mouths of the rivers. Thence it crept backwards,
+following always the lines of the watercourses, and growing ever
+thinner and more scattered until it reached the Blue Ridge. Behind
+the mountains was the wilderness, haunted, as old John Lederer said a
+century earlier, by monsters, and inhabited, as the eighteenth-century
+Virginians very well knew, by savages and wild beasts, much more real
+and dangerous than the hobgoblins of their ancestors.
+
+The population, in proportion to its numbers, was very widely
+distributed. It was not collected in groups, after the fashion with
+which we are now familiar, for then there were no cities or towns
+in Virginia. The only place which could pretend to either name was
+Norfolk, the solitary seaport, which, with its six or seven thousand
+inhabitants, formed the most glaring exception that any rule
+solicitous of proof could possibly desire. Williamsburg, the capital,
+was a straggling village, somewhat overweighted with the public
+buildings and those of the college. It would light up into life and
+vivacity during the season of politics and society, and then relapse
+again into the country stillness. Outside of Williamsburg and Norfolk
+there were various points which passed in the catalogue and on the map
+for towns, but which in reality were merely the shadows of a name. The
+most populous consisted of a few houses inhabited by storekeepers and
+traders, some tobacco warehouses, and a tavern, clustered about the
+church or court-house. Many others had only the church, or, if a
+county seat, the church and court-house, keeping solitary state in the
+woods. There once a week the sound of prayer and gossip, or at longer
+intervals the voices of lawyers and politicians, and the shouts of the
+wrestlers on the green, broke through the stillness which with the
+going down of the sun resumed its sway in the forests.
+
+There was little chance here for that friction of mind with mind, or
+for that quick interchange of thought and sentiment and knowledge
+which are familiar to the dwellers in cities, and which have driven
+forward more rapidly than all else what we call civilization. Rare
+meetings for special objects with persons as solitary in their lives
+and as ill-informed as himself, constituted to the average Virginian
+the world of society, and there was nothing from outside to supply the
+deficiencies at home. Once a fortnight a mail crawled down from
+the North, and once a month another crept on to the South. George
+Washington was four years old when the first newspaper was published
+in the colony, and he was twenty when the first actors appeared at
+Williamsburg. What was not brought was not sought. The Virginians did
+not go down to the sea in ships. They were not a seafaring race, and
+as they had neither trade nor commerce they were totally destitute of
+the inquiring, enterprising spirit, and of the knowledge brought
+by those pursuits which involve travel and adventure. The English
+tobacco-ships worked their way up the rivers, taking the great staple,
+and leaving their varied goods, and their tardy news from Europe,
+wherever they stopped. This was the sum of the information and
+intercourse which Virginia got from across the sea, for travelers were
+practically unknown. Few came on business, fewer still from curiosity.
+Stray peddlers from the North, or trappers from beyond the mountains
+with their packs of furs, chiefly constituted what would now be called
+the traveling public. There were in truth no means of traveling except
+on foot, on horseback, or by boat on the rivers, which formed the
+best and most expeditious highways. Stage-coaches, or other public
+conveyances, were unknown. Over some of the roads the rich man, with
+his six horses and black outriders, might make his way in a lumbering
+carriage, but most of the roads were little better than woodland
+paths; and the rivers, innocent of bridges, offered in the uncertain
+fords abundance of inconvenience, not unmixed with peril. The taverns
+were execrable, and only the ever-ready hospitality of the people
+made it possible to get from place to place. The result was that the
+Virginians stayed at home, and sought and welcomed the rare stranger
+at their gates as if they were well aware that they were entertaining
+angels.
+
+It is not difficult to sift this home-keeping people, and find out
+that portion which was Virginia, for the mass was but an appendage
+of the small fraction which ruled, led, and did the thinking for the
+whole community. Half the people were slaves, and in that single
+wretched word their history is told. They were, on the whole, well
+and kindly treated, but they have no meaning in history except as an
+institution, and as an influence in the lives, feelings, and character
+of the men who made the state.
+
+Above the slaves, little better than they in condition, but separated
+from them by the wide gulf of race and color, were the indented white
+servants, some convicts, some redemptioners. They, too, have their
+story told when we have catalogued them. We cross another gulf and
+come to the farmers, to the men who grew wheat as well as tobacco on
+their own land, sometimes working alone, sometimes the owners of a few
+slaves. Some of these men were of the class well known since as the
+"poor whites" of the South, the weaker brothers who could not resist
+the poison of slavery, but sank under it into ignorance and poverty.
+They were contented because their skins were white, and because they
+were thereby part of an aristocracy to whom labor was a badge of
+serfdom. The larger portion of this middle class, however, were
+thrifty and industrious enough. Including as they did in their ranks
+the hunters and pioneers, the traders and merchants, all the freemen
+in fact who toiled and worked, they formed the mass of the white
+population, and furnished the bone and sinew and some of the
+intellectual power of Virginia. The only professional men were the
+clergy, for the lawyers were few, and growing to importance only as
+the Revolution began; while the physicians were still fewer, and as a
+class of no importance at all. The clergy were a picturesque
+element in the social landscape, but they were as a body very poor
+representatives of learning, religion, and morality. They ranged from
+hedge parsons and Fleet chaplains, who had slunk away from England
+to find a desirable obscurity in the new world, to divines of real
+learning and genuine piety, who were the supporters of the college,
+and who would have been a credit to any society. These last, however,
+were lamentably few in number. The mass of the clergy were men who
+worked their own lands, sold tobacco, were the boon companions of the
+planters, hunted, shot, drank hard, and lived well, performing their
+sacred duties in a perfunctory and not always in a decent manner.
+
+The clergy, however, formed the stepping-stone socially between
+the farmers, traders, and small planters, and the highest and most
+important class in Virginian society. The great planters were the
+men who owned, ruled, and guided Virginia. Their vast estates were
+scattered along the rivers from the seacoast to the mountains. Each
+plantation was in itself a small village, with the owner's house in
+the centre, surrounded by outbuildings and negro cabins, and the
+pastures, meadows, and fields of tobacco stretching away on all sides.
+The rare traveler, pursuing his devious way on horseback or in a boat,
+would catch sight of these noble estates opening up from the road or
+the river, and then the forest would close in around him for several
+miles, until through the thinning trees he would see again the white
+cabins and the cleared fields of the next plantation.
+
+In such places dwelt the Virginian planters, surrounded by their
+families and slaves, and in a solitude broken only by the infrequent
+and eagerly welcomed stranger, by their duties as vestrymen and
+magistrates, or by the annual pilgrimage to Williamsburg in search of
+society, or to sit in the House of Burgesses. They were occupied by
+the care of their plantations, which involved a good deal of riding in
+the open air, but which was at best an easy and indolent pursuit made
+light by slave labor and trained overseers. As a result the planters
+had an abundance of spare time, which they devoted to cock-fighting,
+horse-racing, fishing, shooting, and fox-hunting,--all, save the
+first, wholesome and manly sports, but which did not demand any undue
+mental strain. There is, indeed, no indication that the Virginians
+had any great love for intellectual exertion. When the amiable
+attorney-general of Charles II. said to the Virginian commissioners,
+pleading the cause of learning and religion, "Damn your souls! grow
+tobacco!" he uttered a precept which the mass of the planters seem to
+have laid to heart. For fifty years there were no schools, and down to
+the Revolution even the apologies bearing that honored name were
+few, and the college was small and struggling. In some of the great
+families, the eldest sons would be sent to England and to the great
+universities: they would make the grand tour, play a part in the
+fashionable society of London, and come back to their plantations fine
+gentlemen and scholars. Such was Colonel Byrd, in the early part of
+the eighteenth century, a friend of the Earl of Orrery, and the author
+of certain amusing memoirs. Such at a later day was Arthur Lee,
+doctor and diplomat, student and politician. But most of these young
+gentlemen thus sent abroad to improve their minds and manners led a
+life not materially different from that of our charming friend, Harry
+Warrington, after his arrival in England.
+
+The sons who stayed at home sometimes gathered a little learning from
+the clergyman of the parish, or received a fair education at the
+College of William and Mary, but very many did not have even so much
+as this. There was not in truth much use for learning in managing a
+plantation or raising horses, and men get along surprisingly well
+without that which they do not need, especially if the acquisition
+demands labor. The Virginian planter thought little and read less,
+and there were no learned professions to hold out golden prizes and
+stimulate the love of knowledge. The women fared even worse, for
+they could not go to Europe or to William and Mary's, so that after
+exhausting the teaching capacity of the parson they settled down to a
+round of household duties and to the cares of a multitude of slaves,
+working much harder and more steadily than their lords and masters
+ever thought of doing.
+
+The only general form of intellectual exertion was that of governing.
+The planters managed local affairs through the vestries, and ruled
+Virginia in the House of Burgesses. To this work they paid strict
+attention, and, after the fashion of their race, did it very well and
+very efficiently. They were an extremely competent body whenever they
+made up their minds to do anything; but they liked the life and habits
+of Squire Western, and saw no reason for adopting any others until it
+was necessary.
+
+There were, of course, vast differences in the condition of the
+planters. Some counted their acres by thousands and their slaves by
+hundreds, while others scrambled along as best they might with one
+plantation and a few score of negroes. Some dwelt in very handsome
+houses, picturesque and beautiful, like Gunston Hall or Stratford, or
+in vast, tasteless, and extravagant piles like Rosewell. Others were
+contented with very modest houses, consisting of one story with a
+gabled roof, and flanked by two massive chimneys. In some houses there
+was a brave show of handsome plate and china, fine furniture, and
+London-made carriages, rich silks and satins, and brocaded dresses.
+In others there were earthenware and pewter, homespun and woolen, and
+little use for horses, except in the plough or under the saddle.
+
+But there were certain qualities common to all the Virginia planters.
+The luxury was imperfect. The splendor was sometimes barbaric. There
+were holes in the brocades, and the fresh air of heaven would often
+blow through a broken window upon the glittering silver and the costly
+china. It was an easy-going aristocracy, unfinished, and frequently
+slovenly in its appointments, after the fashion of the warmer climates
+and the regions of slavery.
+
+Everything was plentiful except ready money. In this rich and poor
+were alike. They were all ahead of their income, and it seems as if,
+from one cause or another, from extravagance or improvidence, from
+horses or the gaming-table, every Virginian family went through
+bankruptcy about once in a generation.
+
+When Harry Warrington arrived in England, all his relations at
+Castlewood regarded the handsome young fellow as a prince, with his
+acres and his slaves. It was a natural and pleasing delusion, born of
+the possession of land and serfs, to which the Virginians themselves
+gave ready credence. They forgot that the land was so plentiful that
+it was of little value; that slaves were the most wasteful form of
+labor; and that a failure of the tobacco crop, pledged before it was
+gathered, meant ruin, although they had been reminded more than once
+of this last impressive fact. They knew that they had plenty to eat
+and drink, and a herd of people to wait upon them and cultivate their
+land, as well as obliging London merchants always ready to furnish
+every luxury in return for the mortgage of a crop or an estate. So
+they gave themselves little anxiety as to the future and lived in the
+present, very much to their own satisfaction.
+
+To the communities of trade and commerce, to the mercantile and
+industrial spirit of to-day, such an existence and such modes of life
+appear distressingly lax and unprogressive. The sages of the bank
+parlors and the counting-rooms would shake their heads at such
+spendthrifts as these, refuse to discount their paper, and confidently
+predict that by no possibility could they come to good. They had their
+defects, no doubt, these planters and farmers of Virginia. The life
+they led was strongly developed on the animal side, and was perhaps
+neither stimulating nor elevating. The living was the reverse of
+plain, and the thinking was neither extremely high nor notably
+laborious. Yet in this very particular there is something rather
+restful and pleasant to the eye wearied by the sight of incessant
+movement, and to the ear deafened by the continual shout that nothing
+is good that does not change, and that all change must be good. We
+should probably find great discomforts and many unpleasant limitations
+in the life and habits of a hundred years ago on any part of the
+globe, and yet at a time when it seems as if rapidity and movement
+were the last words and the ultimate ideals of civilization, it is
+rather agreeable to turn to such a community as the eighteenth-century
+planters of Virginia. They lived contentedly on the acres of their
+fathers, and except at rare and stated intervals they had no other
+interests than those furnished by their ancestral domain. At the
+court-house, at the vestry, or in Williamsburg, they met their
+neighbors and talked very keenly about the politics of Europe, or the
+affairs of the colony. They were little troubled about religion, but
+they worshiped after the fashion of their fathers, and had a serious
+fidelity to church and king. They wrangled with their governors over
+appropriations, but they lived on good terms with those eminent
+persons, and attended state balls at what they called the palace, and
+danced and made merry with much stateliness and grace. Their every-day
+life ran on in the quiet of their plantations as calmly as one of
+their own rivers. The English trader would come and go; the infrequent
+stranger would be received and welcomed; Christmas would be kept in
+hearty English fashion; young men from a neighboring estate would
+ride over through the darkening woods to court, or dance, or play
+the fiddle, like Patrick Henry or Thomas Jefferson; and these simple
+events were all that made a ripple on the placid stream. Much time was
+given to sports, rough, hearty, manly sports, with a spice of danger,
+and these, with an occasional adventurous dash into the wilderness,
+kept them sound and strong and brave, both in body and mind. There was
+nothing languid or effeminate about the Virginian planter. He was a
+robust man, quite ready to fight or work when the time came, and well
+fitted to deal with affairs when he was needed. He was a free-handed,
+hospitable, generous being, not much given to study or thought, but
+thoroughly public-spirited and keenly alive to the interests of
+Virginia. Above all things he was an aristocrat, set apart by the
+dark line of race, color, and hereditary servitude, as proud as the
+proudest Austrian with his endless quarterings, as sturdy and vigorous
+as an English yeoman, and as jealous of his rights and privileges
+as any baron who stood by John at Runnymede. To this aristocracy,
+careless and indolent, given to rough pleasures and indifferent to the
+finer and higher sides of life, the call came, as it comes to all men
+sooner or later, and in response they gave their country soldiers,
+statesmen, and jurists of the highest order, and fit for the great
+work they were asked to do. We must go back to Athens to find another
+instance of a society so small in numbers, and yet capable of such an
+outburst of ability and force. They were of sound English stock, with
+a slight admixture of the Huguenots, the best blood of France; and
+although for a century and a half they had seemed to stagnate in
+the New World, they were strong, fruitful, and effective beyond the
+measure of ordinary races when the hour of peril and trial was at
+hand.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE WASHINGTONS
+
+
+Such was the world and such the community which counted as a small
+fraction the Washington family. Our immediate concern is with that
+family, for before we approach the man we must know his ancestors. The
+greatest leader of scientific thought in this century has come to
+the aid of the genealogist, and given to the results of the latter's
+somewhat discredited labors a vitality and meaning which it seemed
+impossible that dry and dusty pedigrees and barren tables of descent
+should ever possess. We have always selected our race-horses according
+to the doctrines of evolution, and we now study the character of a
+great man by examining first the history of his forefathers.
+
+Washington made so great an impression upon the world in his lifetime
+that genealogists at once undertook for him the construction of a
+suitable pedigree. The excellent Sir Isaac Heard, garter king-at-arms,
+worked out a genealogy which seemed reasonable enough, and then wrote
+to the president in relation to it. Washington in reply thanked him
+for his politeness, sent him the Virginian genealogy of his own
+branch, and after expressing a courteous interest said, in his simple
+and direct fashion, that he had been a busy man and had paid but
+little attention to the subject. His knowledge about his English
+forefathers was in fact extremely slight. He had heard merely that
+the first of the name in Virginia had come from one of the northern
+counties of England, but whether from Lancashire or Yorkshire, or one
+still more northerly, he could not tell. Sir Isaac was not thoroughly
+satisfied with the correctness of his own work, but presently Baker
+took it up in his history of Northamptonshire, and perfected it to
+his own satisfaction and that of the world in general. This genealogy
+derived Washington's descent from the owners of the manor of Sulgrave,
+in Northamptonshire, and thence carried it back to the Norman knight,
+Sir William de Hertburn. According to this pedigree the Virginian
+settlers, John and Lawrence, were the sons of Lawrence Washington of
+Sulgrave Manor, and this genealogy was adopted by Sparks and Irving,
+as well as by the public at large. Twenty years ago, however, Colonel
+Chester, by his researches, broke the most essential link in the chain
+forged by Heard and Baker, proving clearly that the Virginian settlers
+could not have been the sons of Lawrence of Sulgrave, as identified by
+the garter king-at-arms. Still more recently the mythical spirit has
+taken violent possession of the Washington ancestry, and an ingenious
+gentleman has traced the pedigree of our first president back to
+Thorfinn and thence to Odin, which is sufficiently remote, dignified,
+and lofty to satisfy the most exacting Welshman that ever lived. Still
+the breach made by Colonel Chester was not repaired, although many
+writers, including some who should have known better, clung with
+undiminished faith to the Heard pedigree. It was known that Colonel
+Chester himself believed that he had found the true line, coming, it
+is supposed, through a younger branch of the Sulgrave race, but he
+died before he had discovered the one bit of evidence necessary to
+prove an essential step, and he was too conscientiously accurate to
+leave anything to conjecture. Since then the researches of Mr. Henry
+E. Waters have established the pedigree of the Virginian Washingtons,
+and we are now able to know something of the men from whom George
+Washington drew his descent.
+
+In that interesting land where everything, according to our narrow
+ideas, is upside down, it is customary, when an individual arrives at
+distinction, to confer nobility upon his ancestors instead of upon
+his children. The Washingtons offer an interesting example of the
+application of this Chinese system in the Western world, for, if they
+have not been actually ennobled in recognition of the deeds of their
+great descendant, they have at least become the subjects of intense
+and general interest. Every one of the name who could be discovered
+anywhere has been dragged forth into the light, and has had all that
+was known about him duly recorded and set down. By scanning family
+trees and pedigrees, and picking up stray bits of information here and
+there, we can learn in a rude and general fashion what manner of men
+those were who claimed descent from William of Hertburn, and who bore
+the name of Washington in the mother-country. As Mr. Galton passes
+a hundred faces before the same highly sensitized plate, and gets a
+photograph which is a likeness of no one of his subjects, and yet
+resembles them all, so we may turn the camera of history upon these
+Washingtons, as they flash up for a moment from the dim past, and hope
+to obtain what Professor Huxley calls a "generic" picture of the race,
+even if the outlines be somewhat blurred and indistinct.
+
+In the North of England, in the region conquered first by Saxons and
+then by Danes, lies the little village of Washington. It came into the
+possession of Sir William de Hertburn, and belonged to him at the time
+of the Boldon Book in 1183. Soon after, he or his descendants took
+the name of De Wessyngton, and there they remained for two centuries,
+knights of the palatinate, holding their lands by a military tenure,
+fighting in all the wars, and taking part in tournaments with becoming
+splendor. By the beginning of the fifteenth century the line of feudal
+knights of the palatinate was extinct, and the manor passed from the
+family by the marriage of Dionisia de Wessyngton. But the main stock
+had in the mean time thrown out many offshoots, which had taken firm
+root in other parts and in many counties of England. We hear of
+several who came in various ways to eminence. There was the learned
+and vigorous prior of Durham, John de Wessyngton, probably one of the
+original family, and the name appears in various places after his time
+in records and on monuments, indicating a flourishing and increasing
+race. Lawrence Washington, the direct ancestor of the first President
+of the United States, was, in the sixteenth century, the mayor of
+Northampton, and received from King Henry VIII. the manor of Sulgrave
+in 1538. In the next century we find traces of Robert Washington of
+the Adwick family, a rich merchant of Leeds, and of his son Joseph
+Washington, a learned lawyer and author, of Gray's Inn. About the same
+time we hear of Richard Washington and Philip Washington holding high
+places at University College, Oxford. The Sulgrave branch, however,
+was the most numerous and prosperous. From the mayor of Northampton
+were descended Sir William Washington, who married the half-sister of
+George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham; Sir Henry Washington, who made a
+desperate defense of Worcester against the forces of the Parliament in
+1646; Lieutenant-Colonel James Washington, who fell at the siege of
+Pontefract, fighting for King Charles; another James, of a later time,
+who was implicated in Monmouth's rebellion, fled to Holland and became
+the progenitor of a flourishing and successful family, which has
+spread to Germany and there been ennobled; Sir Lawrence Washington, of
+Garsdon, whose grand-daughter married Robert Shirley, Baron Ferrers;
+and others of less note, but all men of property and standing. They
+seem to have been a successful, thrifty race, owning lands and
+estates, wise magistrates and good soldiers, marrying well, and
+increasing their wealth and strength from generation to generation.
+They were of Norman stock, knights and gentlemen in the full sense of
+the word before the French Revolution, and we can detect in them here
+and there a marked strain of the old Norse blood, carrying with it
+across the centuries the wild Berserker spirit which for centuries
+made the adventurous Northmen the terror of Europe. They were a strong
+race evidently, these Washingtons, whom we see now only by glimpses
+through the mists of time, not brilliant apparently, never winning the
+very highest fortune, having their failures and reverses no doubt,
+but on the whole prudent, bold men, always important in their several
+stations, ready to fight and ready to work, and as a rule successful
+in that which they set themselves to do.
+
+In 1658 the two brothers, John and Lawrence, appeared in Virginia. As
+has been proved by Mr. Waters, they were of the Sulgrave family,
+the sons of Lawrence Washington, fifth son of the elder Lawrence of
+Sulgrave and Brington. The father of the emigrants was a fellow of
+Brasenose College, Oxford, and rector of Purleigh, from which living
+he was ejected by the Puritans as both "scandalous" and "malignant."
+That he was guilty of the former charge we may well doubt; but that he
+was, in the language of the time, "malignant," must be admitted, for
+all his family, including his brothers, Sir William Washington of
+Packington, and Sir John Washington of Thrapston, his nephew, Sir
+Henry Washington, and his nephew-in-law, William Legge, ancestor of
+the Earl of Dartmouth, were strongly on the side of the king. In a
+marriage which seems to have been regarded as beneath the dignity of
+the family, and in the poverty consequent upon the ejectment from
+his living, we can find the reason for the sons of the Rev. Lawrence
+Washington going forth into Virginia to find their fortune, and flying
+from the world of victorious Puritanism which offered just then so
+little hope to royalists like themselves. Yet what was poverty in
+England was something much more agreeable in the New World of America.
+The emigrant brothers at all events seem to have had resources of a
+sufficient kind, and to have been men of substance, for they purchased
+lands and established themselves at Bridges Creek, in Westmoreland
+County. With this brief statement, Lawrence disappears, leaving us
+nothing further than the knowledge that he had numerous descendants.
+John, with whom we are more concerned, figures at once in the colonial
+records of Maryland. He made complaint to the Maryland authorities,
+soon after his arrival, against Edward Prescott, merchant, and captain
+of the ship in which he had come over, for hanging a woman during the
+voyage for witchcraft. We have a letter of his, explaining that he
+could not appear at the first trial because he was about to baptize
+his son, and had bidden the neighbors and gossips to the feast. A
+little incident this, dug out of the musty records, but it shows us an
+active, generous man, intolerant of oppression, public-spirited and
+hospitable, social, and friendly in his new relations. He soon after
+was called to mourn the death of his English wife and of two children,
+but he speedily consoled himself by taking a second wife, Anne Pope,
+by whom he had three children, Lawrence, John, and Anne. According to
+the Virginian tradition, John Washington the elder was a surveyor, and
+made a location of lands which was set aside because they had been
+assigned to the Indians. It is quite apparent that he was a forehanded
+person who acquired property and impressed himself upon his neighbors.
+In 1667, when he had been but ten years in the colony, he was chosen
+to the House of Burgesses; and eight years later he was made a colonel
+and sent with a thousand men to join the Marylanders in destroying
+the "Susquehannocks," at the "Piscataway" fort, on account of some
+murdering begun by another tribe. As a feat of arms, the expedition
+was not a very brilliant affair. The Virginians and Marylanders killed
+half a dozen Indian chiefs during a parley, and then invested the
+fort. After repulsing several sorties, they stupidly allowed the
+Indians to escape in the night and carry murder and pillage through
+the outlying settlements, lighting up first the flames of savage war
+and then the fiercer fire of domestic insurrection. In the next year
+we hear again of John Washington in the House of Burgesses, when Sir
+William Berkeley assailed his troops for the murder of the Indians
+during the parley. Popular feeling, however, was clearly with the
+colonel, for nothing was done and the matter dropped. At that point,
+too, in 1676, John Washington disappears from sight, and we know only
+that as his will was proved in 1677, he must have died soon after the
+scene with Berkeley. He was buried in the family vault at Bridges
+Creek, and left a good estate to be divided among his children. The
+colonel was evidently both a prudent and popular man, and quite
+disposed to bustle about in the world in which he found himself. He
+acquired lands, came to the front at once as a leader although a
+new-comer in the country, was evidently a fighting man as is shown by
+his selection to command the Virginian forces, and was honored by his
+neighbors, who gave his name to the parish in which he dwelt. Then
+he died and his son Lawrence reigned in his stead, and became by his
+wife, Mildred Warner, the father of John, Augustine, and Mildred
+Washington.
+
+This second son, Augustine, farmer and planter like his forefathers,
+married first Jane Butler, by whom he had three sons and a daughter,
+and second, Mary Ball, by whom he had four sons and two daughters. The
+eldest child of these second nuptials was named George, and was born
+on February 11 (O.S.), 1732, at Bridges Creek. The house in which
+this event occurred was a plain, wooden farmhouse of the primitive
+Virginian pattern, with four rooms on the ground floor, an attic story
+with a long, sloping roof, and a massive brick chimney. Three years
+after George Washington's birth it is said to have been burned, and
+the family for this or some other reason removed to another estate in
+what is now Stafford County. The second house was like the first, and
+stood on rising ground looking across a meadow to the Rappahannock,
+and beyond the river to the village of Fredericksburg, which was
+nearly opposite. Here, in 1743, Augustine Washington died somewhat
+suddenly, at the age of forty-nine, from an attack of gout brought on
+by exposure in the rain, and was buried with his fathers in the old
+vault at Bridges Creek. Here, too, the boyhood of Washington was
+passed, and therefore it becomes necessary to look about us and see
+what we can learn of this important period of his life.
+
+We know nothing about his father, except that he was kindly and
+affectionate, attached to his wife and children, and apparently
+absorbed in the care of his estates. On his death the children came
+wholly under the maternal influence and direction. Much has been
+written about the "mother of Washington," but as a matter of fact,
+although she lived to an advanced age, we know scarcely more about her
+than we do about her husband. She was of gentle birth, and possessed
+a vigorous character and a good deal of business capacity. The
+advantages of education were given in but slight measure to the
+Virginian ladies of her time, and Mrs. Washington offered no exception
+to the general rule. Her reading was confined to a small number of
+volumes, chiefly of a devotional character, her favorite apparently
+being Hale's "Moral and Divine Contemplations." She evidently knew no
+language but her own, and her spelling was extremely bad even in that
+age of uncertain orthography. Certain qualities, however, are clear to
+us even now through all the dimness. We can see that Mary Washington
+was gifted with strong sense, and had the power of conducting business
+matters providently and exactly. She was an imperious woman, of strong
+will, ruling her kingdom alone. Above all she was very dignified, very
+silent, and very sober-minded. That she was affectionate and loving
+cannot be doubted, for she retained to the last a profound hold upon
+the reverential devotion of her son, and yet as he rose steadily to
+the pinnacle of human greatness, she could only say that "George
+had been a good boy, and she was sure he would do his duty." Not a
+brilliant woman evidently, not one suited to shine in courts, conduct
+intrigues, or adorn literature, yet able to transmit moral qualities
+to her oldest son, which, mingled with those of the Washingtons, were
+of infinite value in the foundation of a great Republic. She found
+herself a widow at an early age, with a family of young children to
+educate and support. Her means were narrow, for although Augustine
+Washington was able to leave what was called a landed estate to each
+son, it was little more than idle capital, and the income in ready
+money was by no means so evident as the acres.
+
+Many are the myths, and deplorably few the facts, that have come
+down to us in regard to Washington's boyhood. For the former we are
+indebted to the illustrious Weems, and to that personage a few more
+words must be devoted. Weems has been held up to the present age
+in various ways, usually, it must be confessed, of an unflattering
+nature, and "mendacious" is the adjective most commonly applied to
+him. There has been in reality a good deal of needless confusion about
+Weems and his book, for he was not a complex character, and neither he
+nor his writings are difficult to value or understand. By profession a
+clergyman or preacher, by nature an adventurer, Weems loved notoriety,
+money, and a wandering life. So he wrote books which he correctly
+believed would be popular, and sold them not only through the regular
+channels, but by peddling them himself as he traveled about the
+country. In this way he gratified all his propensities, and no doubt
+derived from life a good deal of simple pleasure. Chance brought him
+near Washington in the closing days, and his commercial instinct
+told him that here was the subject of all others for his pen and
+his market. He accordingly produced the biography which had so much
+success. Judged solely as literature, the book is beneath contempt.
+The style is turgid, overloaded, and at times silly. The statements
+are loose, the mode of narration confused and incoherent, and the
+moralizing is flat and common-place to the last degree. Yet there
+was a certain sincerity of feeling underneath all the bombast and
+platitudes, and this saved the book. The biography did not go, and was
+not intended to go, into the hands of the polite society of the great
+eastern towns. It was meant for the farmers, the pioneers, and the
+backwoodsmen of the country. It went into their homes, and passed with
+them beyond the Alleghanies and out to the plains and valleys of the
+great West. The very defects of the book helped it to success among
+the simple, hard-working, hard-fighting race engaged in the conquest
+of the American continent. To them its heavy and tawdry style, its
+staring morals, and its real patriotism all seemed eminently befitting
+the national hero, and thus Weems created the Washington of the
+popular fancy. The idea grew up with the country, and became so
+ingrained in the popular thought that finally everybody was affected
+by it, and even the most stately and solemn of the Washington
+biographers adopted the unsupported tales of the itinerant parson and
+book-peddler.
+
+In regard to the public life of Washington, Weems took the facts known
+to every one, and drawn for the most part from the gazettes. He then
+dressed them up in his own peculiar fashion and gave them to the
+world. All this, forming of course nine tenths of his book, has
+passed, despite its success, into oblivion. The remaining tenth
+described Washington's boyhood until his fourteenth or fifteenth year,
+and this, which is the work of the author's imagination, has lived.
+Weems, having set himself up as absolutely the only authority as to
+this period, has been implicitly followed, and has thus come to demand
+serious consideration. Until Weems is weighed and disposed of, we
+cannot even begin an attempt to get at the real Washington.
+
+Weems was not a cold-blooded liar, a mere forger of anecdotes. He was
+simply a man destitute of historical sense, training, or morals, ready
+to take the slenderest fact and work it up for the purposes of the
+market until it became almost as impossible to reduce it to its
+original dimensions as it was for the fisherman to get the Afrit back
+into his jar. In a word, Weems was an approved myth-maker. No better
+example can be given than the way in which he described himself. It
+is believed that he preached once, and possibly oftener, to a
+congregation which numbered Washington among its members. Thereupon he
+published himself in his book as the rector of Mount Vernon parish.
+There was, to begin with, no such parish. There was Truro parish, in
+which was a church called indifferently Pohick or Mount Vernon church.
+Of this church Washington was a vestryman until 1785, when he joined
+the church at Alexandria. The Rev. Lee Massey was the clergyman of the
+Mount Vernon church, and the church at Alexandria had nothing to do
+with Mount Vernon. There never was, moreover, such a person as the
+rector of Mount Vernon parish, but it was the Weems way of treating
+his appearance before the great man, and of deceiving the world with
+the notion of an intimacy which the title implied.
+
+Weems, of course, had no difficulty with the public life, but in
+describing the boyhood he was thrown on his own resources, and out
+of them he evolved the cherry-tree, the refusal to fight or permit
+fighting among the boys at school, and the initials in the garden.
+This last story is to the effect that Augustine Washington planted
+seeds in such a manner that when they sprouted they formed on the
+earth the initials of his son's name, and the boy being much delighted
+thereby, the father explained to him that it was the work of the
+Creator, and thus inculcated a profound belief in God. This tale
+is taken bodily from Dr. Beattie's biographical sketch of his son,
+published in England in 1799, and may be dismissed at once. As to the
+other two more familiar anecdotes there is not a scintilla of evidence
+that they had any foundation, and with them may be included the colt
+story, told by Mr. Custis, a simple variation of the cherry-tree
+theme, which is Washington's early love of truth. Weems says that
+his stories were told him by a lady, and "a good old gentleman," who
+remembered the incidents, while Mr. Custis gives no authority for his
+minute account of a trivial event over a century old when he wrote.
+To a writer who invented the rector of Mount Vernon, the further
+invention of a couple of Boswells would be a trifle. I say Boswells
+advisedly, for these stories are told with the utmost minuteness, and
+the conversations between Washington and his father are given as if
+from a stenographic report. How Mr. Custis, usually so accurate, came
+to be so far infected with the Weems myth as to tell the colt story
+after the Weems manner, cannot now be determined. There can be no
+doubt that Washington, like most healthy boys, got into a good deal of
+mischief, and it is not at all impossible that he injured fruit-trees
+and confessed that he had done so. It may be accepted as certain that
+he rode and mastered many unbroken thoroughbred colts, and it is
+possible that one of them burst a blood-vessel in the process and
+died, and that the boy promptly told his mother of the accident. But
+this is the utmost credit which these two anecdotes can claim. Even so
+much as this cannot be said of certain other improving tales of like
+nature. That Washington lectured his playmates on the wickedness of
+fighting, and in the year 1754 allowed himself to be knocked down in
+the presence of his soldiers, and thereupon begged his assailant's
+pardon for having spoken roughly to him, are stories so silly and
+so foolishly impossible that they do not deserve an instant's
+consideration.
+
+There is nothing intrinsically impossible in either the cherry-tree or
+the colt incident, nor would there be in a hundred others which might
+be readily invented. The real point is that these stories, as told by
+Weems and Mr. Custis, are on their face hopelessly and ridiculously
+false. They are so, not merely because they have no vestige of
+evidence to support them, but because they are in every word and
+line the offspring of a period more than fifty years later. No
+English-speaking people, certainly no Virginians, ever thought or
+behaved or talked in 1740 like the personages in Weems's stories,
+whatever they may have done in 1790, or at the beginning of the next
+century. These precious anecdotes belong to the age of Miss Edgeworth
+and Hannah More and Jane Taylor. They are engaging specimens of the
+"Harry and Lucy" and "Purple Jar" morality, and accurately reflect the
+pale didacticism which became fashionable in England at the close of
+the last century. They are as untrue to nature and to fact at the
+period to which they are assigned as would be efforts to depict
+Augustine Washington and his wife in the dress of the French
+revolution discussing the propriety of worshiping the Goddess of
+Reason.
+
+To enter into any serious historical criticism of these stories would
+be to break a butterfly. So much as this even has been said only
+because these wretched fables have gone throughout the world, and it
+is time that they were swept away into the dust-heaps of history. They
+represent Mr. and Mrs. Washington as affected and priggish people,
+given to cheap moralizing, and, what is far worse, they have served
+to place Washington himself in a ridiculous light to an age which has
+outgrown the educational foibles of seventy-five years ago. Augustine
+Washington and his wife were a gentleman and lady of the eighteenth
+century, living in Virginia. So far as we know without guessing or
+conjecture, they were simple, honest, and straight-forward, devoted to
+the care of their family and estate, and doing their duty sensibly and
+after the fashion of their time. Their son, to whom the greatest wrong
+has been done, not only never did anything common or mean, but from
+the beginning to the end of his life he was never for an instant
+ridiculous or affected, and he was as utterly removed from canting
+or priggishness as any human being could well be. Let us therefore
+consign the Weems stories and their offspring to the limbo of
+historical rubbish, and try to learn what the plain facts tell us of
+the boy Washington.
+
+Unfortunately these same facts are at first very few, so few that they
+tell us hardly anything. We know when and where Washington was born;
+and how, when he was little more than three years old,[1] he was taken
+from Bridges Creek to the banks of the Rappahannock. There he was
+placed under the charge of one Hobby, the sexton of the parish, to
+learn his alphabet and his pothooks; and when that worthy man's store
+of learning was exhausted he was sent back to Bridges Creek, soon
+after his father's death, to live with his half-brother Augustine,
+and obtain the benefits of a school kept by a Mr. Williams. There he
+received what would now be called a fair common-school education,
+wholly destitute of any instruction in languages, ancient or modern,
+but apparently with some mathematical training.
+
+[Footnote 1: There is a conflict about the period of this removal (see
+above, p. 37). Tradition places it in 1735, but the Rev. Mr. McGuire
+(_Religious Opinions of Washington_) puts it in 1739.]
+
+That he studied faithfully cannot be doubted, and we know, too, that
+he matured early, and was a tall, active, and muscular boy. He could
+outwalk and outrun and outride any of his companions. As he could
+no doubt have thrashed any of them too, he was, in virtue of these
+qualities, which are respected everywhere by all wholesome minds, and
+especially by boys, a leader among his school-fellows. We know further
+that he was honest and true, and a lad of unusual promise, not because
+of the goody-goody anecdotes of the myth-makers, but because he
+was liked and trusted by such men as his brother Lawrence and Lord
+Fairfax.
+
+There he was, at all events, in his fourteenth year, a big, strong,
+hearty boy, offering a serious problem to his mother, who was
+struggling along with many acres, little money, and five children.
+Mrs. Washington's chief desire naturally was to put George in the way
+of earning a living, which no doubt seemed far more important than
+getting an education, and, as he was a sober-minded boy, the same idea
+was probably profoundly impressed on his own mind also. This condition
+of domestic affairs led to the first attempt to give Washington a
+start in life, which has been given to us until very lately in a
+somewhat decorated form. The fact is, that in casting about for
+something to do, it occurred to some one, very likely to the boy
+himself, that it would be a fine idea to go to sea. His masculine
+friends and relatives urged the scheme upon Mrs. Washington, who
+consented very reluctantly, if at all, not liking the notion of
+parting with her oldest son, even in her anxiety to have him earn his
+bread. When it came to the point, however, she finally decided against
+his going, determined probably by a very sensible letter from her
+brother, Joseph Ball, an English lawyer. In all the ornamented
+versions we are informed that the boy was to enter the royal navy,
+and that a midshipman's warrant was procured for him. There does not
+appear to be any valid authority for the royal navy, the warrant, or
+the midshipman. The contemporary Virginian letters speak simply of
+"going to sea," while Mr. Ball says distinctly that the plan was to
+enter the boy on a tobacco-ship, with an excellent chance of being
+pressed on a man-of-war, and a very faint prospect of either getting
+into the navy, or even rising to be the captain of one of the petty
+trading-vessels familiar to Virginian planters. Some recent writers
+have put Mr. Ball aside as not knowing what was intended in regard to
+his nephew, but in view of the difficulty at that time of obtaining
+commissions in the navy without great political influence, it seems
+probable that Mrs. Washington's brother knew very well what he was
+talking about, and he certainly wrote a very sensible letter. A bold,
+adventurous boy, eager to earn his living and make his way in the
+world, would, like many others before him, look longingly to the sea
+as the highway to fortune and success. To Washington the romance of
+the sea was represented by the tobacco-ship creeping up the river and
+bringing all the luxuries and many of the necessaries of life from
+vaguely distant countries. No doubt he wished to go on one of these
+vessels and try his luck, and very possibly the royal navy was hoped
+for as the ultimate result. The effort was certainly made to send
+him to sea, but it failed, and he went back to school to study more
+mathematics.
+
+Apart from the fact that the exact sciences in moderate degree were
+about all that Mr. Williams could teach, this branch of learning had
+an immediate practical value, inasmuch as surveying was almost the
+only immediately gainful pursuit open to a young Virginia gentleman,
+who sorely needed a little ready money that he might buy slaves and
+work a plantation. So Washington studied on for two years more, and
+fitted himself to be a surveyor. There are still extant some early
+papers belonging to this period, chiefly fragments of school
+exercises, which show that he already wrote the bold, handsome
+hand with which the world was to become familiar, and that he made
+geometrical figures and notes of surveys with the neatness and
+accuracy which clung to him in all the work of his life, whether great
+or small. Among those papers, too, were found many copies of legal
+forms, and a set of rules, over a hundred in number, as to etiquette
+and behavior, carefully written out. It has always been supposed that
+these rules were copied, but it was reserved apparently for the storms
+of a mighty civil war to lay bare what may have been, if not the
+source of the rules themselves, the origin and suggestion of their
+compilation. At that time a little volume was found in Virginia
+bearing the name of George Washington in a boyish hand on the
+fly-leaf, and the date 1742. The book was entitled, "The Young Man's
+Companion." It was an English work, and had passed through thirteen
+editions, which was little enough in view of its varied and extensive
+information. It was written by W. Mather, in a plain and easy style,
+and treated of arithmetic, surveying, forms for legal documents, the
+measuring of land and lumber, gardening, and many other useful topics,
+and it contained general precepts which, with the aid of Hale's
+"Contemplations," may readily have furnished the hints for the rules
+found in manuscript among Washington's papers.[1] These rules were in
+the main wise and sensible, and it is evident they had occupied deeply
+the boy's mind.[2] They are for the most part concerned with the
+commonplaces of etiquette and good manners, but there is something not
+only apt but quite prophetic in the last one, "Labor to keep alive in
+your breast that little spark of celestial fire called conscience." To
+suppose that Washington's character was formed by these sententious
+bits of not very profound wisdom would be absurd; but that a series of
+rules which most lads would have regarded as simply dull should have
+been written out and pondered by this boy indicates a soberness and
+thoughtfulness of mind which certainly are not usual at that age.
+The chief thought that runs through all the sayings is to practice
+self-control, and no man ever displayed that most difficult of virtues
+to such a degree as George Washington. It was no ordinary boy who took
+such a lesson as this to heart before he was fifteen, and carried it
+into his daily life, never to be forgotten. It may also be said that
+very few boys ever needed it more; but those persons who know what
+they chiefly need, and pursue it, are by no means common.
+
+[Footnote 1: An account of this volume was given in the _New York
+Tribune_ in 1866, and also in the _Historical Magazine_ (x. 47).]
+
+[Footnote 2: The most important are given in Sparks' _Writings of
+Washington_, ii. 412, and they may be found complete in the little
+pamphlet concerning them, excellently edited by Dr. J.M. Toner, of
+Washington.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+ON THE FRONTIER
+
+
+While Washington was working his way through the learning purveyed
+by Mr. Williams, he was also receiving another education, of a much
+broader and better sort, from the men and women among whom he found
+himself, and with whom he made friends. Chief among them was his
+eldest brother, Lawrence, fourteen years his senior, who had been
+educated in England, had fought with Vernon at Carthagena, and had
+then returned to Virginia, to be to him a generous father and a loving
+friend. As the head of the family, Lawrence Washington had received
+the lion's share of the property, including the estate at Hunting
+Creek, on the Potomac, which he christened Mount Vernon, after his
+admiral, and where he settled down and built him a goodly house. To
+this pleasant spot George Washington journeyed often in vacation
+time, and there he came to live and further pursue his studies, after
+leaving school in the autumn of 1747.
+
+Lawrence Washington had married the daughter of William Fairfax, the
+proprietor of Belvoir, a neighboring plantation, and the agent for
+the vast estates held by his family in Virginia. George Fairfax, Mrs.
+Washington's brother, had married a Miss Gary, and thus two large and
+agreeable family connections were thrown open to the young surveyor
+when he emerged from school. The chief figure, however, in that
+pleasant winter of 1747-48, so far as an influence upon the character
+of Washington is concerned, was the head of the family into which
+Lawrence Washington had married. Thomas, Lord Fairfax, then sixty
+years of age, had come to Virginia to live upon and look after the
+kingdom which he had inherited in the wilderness. He came of a noble
+and distinguished race. Graduating at Oxford with credit, he served in
+the army, dabbled in literature, had his fling in the London world,
+and was jilted by a beauty who preferred a duke, and gave her faithful
+but less titled lover an apparently incurable wound. His life having
+been thus early twisted and set awry, Lord Fairfax, when well past his
+prime, had determined finally to come to Virginia, bury himself in the
+forests, and look after the almost limitless possessions beyond the
+Blue Ridge, which he had inherited from his maternal grandfather, Lord
+Culpeper, of unsavory Restoration memory. It was a piece of great
+good-fortune which threw in Washington's path this accomplished
+gentleman, familiar with courts and camps, disappointed, but not
+morose, disillusioned, but still kindly and generous. From him the boy
+could gain that knowledge of men and manners which no school can give,
+and which is as important in its way as any that a teacher can impart.
+
+Lord Fairfax and Washington became fast friends. They hunted the fox
+together, and hunted him hard. They engaged in all the rough sports
+and perilous excitements which Virginia winter life could afford, and
+the boy's bold and skillful riding, his love of sports and his fine
+temper, commended him to the warm and affectionate interest of the old
+nobleman. Other qualities, too, the experienced man of the world saw
+in his young companion: a high and persistent courage, robust and calm
+sense, and, above all, unusual force of will and character. Washington
+impressed profoundly everybody with whom he was brought into personal
+contact, a fact which is one of the most marked features of his
+character and career, and one which deserves study more than almost
+any other. Lord Fairfax was no exception to the rule. He saw in
+Washington not simply a promising, brave, open-hearted boy, diligent
+in practicing his profession, and whom he was anxious to help, but
+something more; something which so impressed him that he confided to
+this lad a task which, according to its performance, would affect both
+his fortune and his peace. In a word, he trusted Washington, and told
+him, as the spring of 1748 was opening, to go forth and survey the
+vast Fairfax estates beyond the Ridge, define their boundaries, and
+save them from future litigation. With this commission from Lord
+Fairfax, Washington entered on the first period of his career. He
+passed it on the frontier, fighting nature, the Indians, and the
+French. He went in a schoolboy; he came out the first soldier in the
+colonies, and one of the leading men of Virginia. Let us pause a
+moment and look at him as he stands on the threshold of this momentous
+period, rightly called momentous because it was the formative period
+in the life of such a man.
+
+[Illustration: LAWRENCE WASHINGTON]
+
+He had just passed his sixteenth birthday. He was tall and muscular,
+approaching the stature of more than six feet which he afterwards
+attained. He was not yet filled out to manly proportions, but was
+rather spare, after the fashion of youth. He had a well-shaped,
+active figure, symmetrical except for the unusual length of the arms,
+indicating uncommon strength. His light brown hair was drawn back from
+a broad forehead, and grayish-blue eyes looked happily, and perhaps a
+trifle soberly, on the pleasant Virginia world about him. The face was
+open and manly, with a square, massive jaw, and a general expression
+of calmness and strength. "Fair and florid," big and strong, he was,
+take him for all in all, as fine a specimen of his race as could be
+found in the English colonies.
+
+Let us look a little closer through the keen eyes of one who studied
+many faces to good purpose. The great painter of portraits, Gilbert
+Stuart, tells us of Washington that he never saw in any man such large
+eye-sockets, or such a breadth of nose and forehead between the
+eyes, and that he read there the evidences of the strongest passions
+possible to human nature. John Bernard the actor, a good observer,
+too, saw in Washington's face, in 1797, the signs of an habitual
+conflict and mastery of passions, witnessed by the compressed mouth
+and deeply indented brow. The problem had been solved then; but in
+1748, passion and will alike slumbered, and no man could tell which
+would prevail, or whether they would work together to great purpose
+or go jarring on to nothingness. He rises up to us out of the past in
+that early springtime a fine, handsome, athletic boy, beloved by those
+about him, who found him a charming companion and did not guess that
+he might be a terribly dangerous foe. He rises up instinct with life
+and strength, a being capable, as we know, of great things whether for
+good or evil, with hot blood pulsing in his veins and beating in his
+heart, with violent passions and relentless will still undeveloped;
+and no one in all that jolly, generous Virginian society even dimly
+dreamed what that development would be, or what it would mean to the
+world.
+
+It was in March, 1748, that George Fairfax and Washington set forth on
+their adventures, and passing through Ashby's Gap in the Blue Ridge,
+entered the valley of Virginia. Thence they worked their way up the
+valley of the Shenandoah, surveying as they went, returned and swam
+the swollen Potomac, surveyed the lands about its south branch and in
+the mountainous region of Frederick County, and finally reached Mount
+Vernon again on April 12. It was a rough experience for a beginner,
+but a wholesome one, and furnished the usual vicissitudes of frontier
+life. They were wet, cold, and hungry, or warm, dry, and well fed, by
+turns. They slept in a tent, or the huts of the scattered settlers,
+and oftener still beneath the stars. They met a war party of Indians,
+and having plied them with liquor, watched one of their mad dances
+round the camp-fire. In another place they came on a straggling
+settlement of Germans, dull, patient, and illiterate, strangely unfit
+for the life of the wilderness. All these things, as well as the
+progress of their work and their various resting-places, Washington
+noted down briefly but methodically in a diary, showing in these rough
+notes the first evidences of that keen observation of nature and men
+and of daily incidents which he developed to such good purpose in
+after-life. There are no rhapsodies and no reflections in these hasty
+jottings, but the employments and the discomforts are all set down in
+a simple and matter-of-fact way, which omitted no essential thing and
+excluded all that was worthless. His work, too, was well done, and
+Lord Fairfax was so much pleased by the report that he moved across
+the Blue Ridge, built a hunting lodge preparatory to something more
+splendid which never came to pass, and laid out a noble manor, to
+which he gave the name of Greenway Court. He also procured for
+Washington an appointment as a public surveyor, which conferred
+authority on his surveys and provided him with regular work. Thus
+started, Washington toiled at his profession for three years, living
+and working as he did on his first expedition. It was a rough life,
+but a manly and robust one, and the men who live it, although often
+rude and coarse, are never weak or effeminate. To Washington it was
+an admirable school. It strengthened his muscles and hardened him to
+exposure and fatigue. It accustomed him to risks and perils of various
+kinds, and made him fertile in expedients and confident of himself,
+while the nature of his work rendered him careful and industrious.
+That his work was well done is shown by the fact that his surveys were
+considered of the first authority, and stand unquestioned to this day,
+like certain other work which he was subsequently called to do. It was
+part of his character, when he did anything, to do it in a lasting
+fashion, and it is worth while to remember that the surveys he made as
+a boy were the best that could be made.
+
+He wrote to a friend at this time: "Since you received my letter of
+October last, I have not slept above three or four nights in a bed,
+but, after walking a good deal all the day, I have lain down before
+the fire upon a little hay, straw, fodder, or a bearskin, whichever
+was to be had, with man, wife, and children, like dogs and cats; and
+happy is he who gets the berth nearest the fire. Nothing would make it
+pass off tolerably but a good reward. A doubloon is my constant gain
+every day that the weather will permit of my going out, and sometimes
+six pistoles." He was evidently a thrifty lad, and honestly pleased
+with honest earnings. He was no mere adventurous wanderer, but a man
+working for results in money, reputation, or some solid value,
+and while he worked and earned he kept an observant eye upon the
+wilderness, and bought up when he could the best land for himself and
+his family, laying the foundations of the great landed estate of which
+he died possessed.
+
+There was also a lighter and pleasanter side to this hard-working
+existence, which was quite as useful, and more attractive, than
+toiling in the woods and mountains. The young surveyor passed much of
+his time at Greenway Court, hunting the fox and rejoicing in all field
+sports which held high place in that kingdom, while at the same time
+he profited much in graver fashion by his friendship with such a man
+as Lord Fairfax. There, too, he had a chance at a library, and his
+diaries show that he read carefully the history of England and the
+essays of the "Spectator." Neither in early days nor at any other time
+was he a student, for he had few opportunities, and his life from the
+beginning was out of doors and among men. But the idea sometimes put
+forward that Washington cared nothing for reading or for books is an
+idle one. He read at Greenway Court and everywhere else when he had an
+opportunity. He read well, too, and to some purpose, studying men and
+events in books as he did in the world, for though he never talked of
+his reading, preserving silence on that as on other things concerning
+himself, no one ever was able to record an instance in which he showed
+himself ignorant of history or of literature. He was never a learned
+man, but so far as his own language could carry him he was an educated
+one. Thus while he developed the sterner qualities by hard work and a
+rough life, he did not bring back the coarse habits of the backwoods
+and the camp-fire, but was able to refine his manners and improve his
+mind in the excellent society and under the hospitable roof of Lord
+Fairfax.
+
+Three years slipped by, and then a domestic change came which much
+affected Washington's whole life. The Carthagena campaign had
+undermined the strength of Lawrence Washington and sown the seeds of
+consumption, which showed itself in 1749, and became steadily more
+alarming. A voyage to England and a summer at the warm springs were
+tried without success, and finally, as a last resort, the invalid
+sailed for the West Indies, in September, 1751. Thither his brother
+George accompanied him, and we have the fragments of a diary kept
+during this first and last wandering outside his native country. He
+copied the log, noted the weather, and evidently strove to get some
+idea of nautical matters while he was at sea and leading a life
+strangely unfamiliar to a woodsman and pioneer. When they arrived at
+their destination they were immediately asked to breakfast and dine
+with Major Clarke, the military magnate of the place, and our young
+Virginian remarked, with characteristic prudence and a certain touch
+of grim humor, "We went,--myself with some reluctance, as the smallpox
+was in the family." He fell a victim to his good manners, for two
+weeks later he was "strongly attacked with the smallpox," and was
+then housed for a month, getting safely and successfully through
+this dangerous and then almost universal ordeal. Before the disease
+declared itself, however, he went about everywhere, innocently
+scattering infection, and greatly enjoying the pleasures of the
+island. It is to be regretted that any part of this diary should have
+been lost, for it is pleasant reading, and exhibits the writer in an
+agreeable and characteristic fashion. He commented on the country and
+the scenery, inveighed against the extravagance of the charges for
+board and lodging, told of his dinner-parties and his friends, and
+noted the marvelous abundance and variety of the tropical fruits,
+which contrasted strangely with the British dishes of beefsteak and
+tripe. He also mentioned being treated to a ticket to see the play of
+"George Barnwell," on which he offered this cautious criticism:
+"The character of Barnwell and several others were said to be well
+performed. There was music adapted and regularly conducted."
+
+Soon after his recovery Washington returned to Virginia, arriving
+there in February, 1752. The diary concluded with a brief but
+perfectly effective description of Barbadoes, touching on its
+resources and scenery, its government and condition, and the manners
+and customs of its inhabitants. All through these notes we find the
+keenly observant spirit, and the evidence of a mind constantly alert
+to learn. We see also a pleasant, happy temperament, enjoying with
+hearty zest all the pleasures that youth and life could furnish. He
+who wrote these lines was evidently a vigorous, good-humored young
+fellow, with a quick eye for the world opening before him, and for the
+delights as well as the instruction which it offered.
+
+From the sunshine and ease of this tropical winter Washington passed
+to a long season of trial and responsibility at home and abroad. In
+July, 1752, his much-loved brother Lawrence died, leaving George
+guardian of his daughter, and heir to his estates in the event of
+that daughter's death. Thus the current of his home life changed, and
+responsibility came into it, while outside the mighty stream of public
+events changed too, and swept him along in the swelling torrent of a
+world-wide war.
+
+In all the vast wilderness beyond the mountains there was not room for
+both French and English. The rival nations had been for years slowly
+approaching each other, until in 1749 each people proceeded at last to
+take possession of the Ohio country after its own fashion. The French
+sent a military expedition which sank and nailed up leaden plates; the
+English formed a great land company to speculate and make money, and
+both set diligently to work to form Indian alliances. A man of far
+less perception than Lawrence Washington, who had become the chief
+manager of the Ohio Company, would have seen that the conditions on
+the frontier rendered war inevitable, and he accordingly made ready
+for the future by preparing his brother for the career of a soldier,
+so far as it could be done. He brought to Mount Vernon two old
+companions-in-arms of the Carthagena time, Adjutant Muse, a Virginian,
+and Jacob Van Braam, a Dutch soldier of fortune. The former instructed
+Washington in the art of war, tactics, and the manual of arms, the
+latter in fencing and the sword exercise. At the same time Lawrence
+Washington procured for his brother, then only nineteen years of age,
+an appointment as one of the adjutants-general of Virginia, with the
+rank of major. To all this the young surveyor took kindly enough so
+far as we can tell, but his military avocations were interrupted by
+his voyage to Barbadoes, by the illness and death of his brother, and
+by the cares and responsibilities thereby thrust upon him.
+
+Meantime the French aggressions had continued, and French soldiers and
+traders were working their way up from the South and down from the
+North, bullying and cajoling the Indians by turns, taking possession
+of the Ohio country, and selecting places as they went for that
+chain of forts which was to hem in and slowly strangle the English
+settlements. Governor Dinwiddie had sent a commissioner to remonstrate
+against these encroachments, but his envoy had stopped a hundred
+and fifty miles short of the French posts, alarmed by the troublous
+condition of things, and by the defeat and slaughter which the
+Frenchmen had already inflicted upon the Indians. Some more vigorous
+person was evidently needed to go through the form of warning France
+not to trespass on the English wilderness, and thereupon Governor
+Dinwiddie selected for the task George Washington, recently
+reappointed adjutant-general of the northern division, and major in
+the Virginian forces. He was a young man for such an undertaking, not
+yet twenty-two, but clearly of good reputation. It is plain enough
+that Lord Fairfax and others had said to the governor, "Here is the
+very man for you; young, daring, and adventurous, but yet sober-minded
+and responsible, who only lacks opportunity to show the stuff that is
+in him."
+
+Thus, then, in October, 1753, Washington set forth with Van Braam, and
+various servants and horses, accompanied by the boldest of Virginian
+frontiersmen, Christopher Gist. He wrote a report in the form of a
+journal, which was sent to England and much read at the time as part
+of the news of the day, and which has an equal although different
+interest now. It is a succinct, clear, and sober narrative. The little
+party was formed at Will's Creek, and thence through woods and over
+swollen rivers made its way to Logstown. Here they spent some days
+among the Indians, whose leaders Washington got within his grasp after
+much speech-making; and here, too, he met some French deserters from
+the South, and drew from them all the knowledge they possessed of New
+Orleans and the military expeditions from that region. From Logstown
+he pushed on, accompanied by his Indian chiefs, to Venango, on the
+Ohio, the first French outpost. The French officers asked him to sup
+with them. The wine flowed freely, the tongues of the hosts were
+loosened, and the young Virginian, temperate and hard-headed, listened
+to all the conversation, and noted down mentally much that was
+interesting and valuable. The next morning the Indian chiefs,
+prudently kept in the background, appeared, and a struggle ensued
+between the talkative, clever Frenchmen and the quiet, persistent
+Virginian, over the possession of these important savages. Finally
+Washington got off, carrying his chiefs with him, and made his way
+seventy miles further to the fort on French Creek. Here he delivered
+the governor's letter, and while M. de St. Pierre wrote a vague and
+polite answer, he sketched the fort and informed himself in regard to
+the military condition of the post. Then came another struggle over
+the Indians, and finally Washington got off with them once more, and
+worked his way back to Venango. Another struggle for the savages
+followed, rum being always the principal factor in the negotiation,
+and at last the chiefs determined to stay behind. Nevertheless, the
+work had been well done, and the important Half-King remained true to
+the English cause.
+
+Leaving his horses, Washington and Gist then took to the woods on
+foot. The French Indians lay in wait for them and tried to murder
+them, and Gist, like a true frontiersman, was for shooting the
+scoundrel whom they captured. But Washington stayed his hand, and
+they gave the savage the slip and pressed on. It was the middle of
+December, very cold and stormy. In crossing a river, Washington fell
+from the raft into deep water, amid the floating ice, but fought his
+way out, and he and his companion passed the night on an island, with
+their clothes frozen upon them. So through peril and privation, and
+various dangers, stopping in the midst of it all to win another savage
+potentate, they reached the edge of the settlements and thence went
+on to Williamsburg, where great praise and glory were awarded to the
+youthful envoy, the hero of the hour in the little Virginia capital.
+
+It is worth while to pause over this expedition a moment and to
+consider attentively this journal which recounts it, for there are
+very few incidents or documents which tell us more of Washington. He
+was not yet twenty-two when he faced this first grave responsibility,
+and he did his work absolutely well. Cool courage, of course, he
+showed, but also patience and wisdom in handling the Indians, a clear
+sense that the crafty and well-trained Frenchmen could not blind, and
+a strong faculty for dealing with men, always a rare and precious
+gift. As in the little Barbadoes diary, so also in this journal,
+we see, and far more strongly, the penetration and perception that
+nothing could escape, and which set down all things essential and let
+the "huddling silver, little worth," go by. The clearness, terseness,
+and entire sufficiency of the narrative are obvious and lie on the
+surface; but we find also another quality of the man which is one of
+the most marked features in his character, and one which we must dwell
+upon again and again, as we follow the story of his life. Here it
+is that we learn directly for the first time that Washington was a
+profoundly silent man. The gospel of silence has been preached in
+these latter days by Carlyle, with the fervor of a seer and prophet,
+and the world owes him a debt for the historical discredit which he
+has brought upon the man of mere words as compared with the man of
+deeds. Carlyle brushed Washington aside as "a bloodless Cromwell," a
+phrase to which we must revert later on other grounds, and, as
+has already been said, failed utterly to see that he was the most
+supremely silent of the great men of action that the world can show.
+Like Cromwell and Frederic, Washington wrote countless letters, made
+many speeches, and was agreeable in conversation. But this was all in
+the way of business, and a man may be profoundly silent and yet talk a
+great deal. Silence in the fine and true sense is neither mere holding
+of the tongue nor an incapacity of expression. The greatly silent man
+is he who is not given to words for their own sake, and who never
+talks about himself. Both Cromwell, greatest of Englishmen, and the
+great Frederic, Carlyle's especial heroes, were fond of talking of
+themselves. So in still larger measure was Napoleon, and many others
+of less importance. But Washington differs from them all. He had
+abundant power of words, and could use them with much force and point
+when he was so minded, but he never used them needlessly or to hide
+his meaning, and he never talked about himself. Hence the inestimable
+difficulty of knowing him. A brief sentence here and there, a rare
+gleam of light across the page of a letter, is all that we can find.
+The rest is silence. He did as great work as has fallen to the lot of
+man, he wrote volumes of correspondence, he talked with innumerable
+men and women, and of himself he said nothing. Here in this youthful
+journal we have a narrative of wild adventure, wily diplomacy, and
+personal peril, impossible of condensation, and yet not a word of the
+writer's thoughts or feelings. All that was done or said important to
+the business in hand was set down, and nothing was overlooked, but
+that is all. The work was done, and we know how it was done, but the
+man is silent as to all else. Here, indeed, is the man of action and
+of real silence, a character to be much admired and wondered at in
+these or any other days.
+
+Washington's report looked like war, and its author was shortly
+afterwards appointed lieutenant-colonel of a Virginian regiment,
+Colonel Fry commanding. Now began that long experience of human
+stupidity and inefficiency with which Washington was destined to
+struggle through all the years of his military career, suffering from
+them, and triumphing in spite of them to a degree unequaled by any
+other great commander. Dinwiddie, the Scotch governor, was eager
+enough to fight, and full of energy and good intentions, but he was
+hasty and not overwise, and was filled with an excessive idea of his
+prerogatives. The assembly, on its side, was sufficiently patriotic,
+but its members came from a community which for more than half a
+century had had no fighting, and they knew nothing of war or its
+necessities. Unaccustomed to the large affairs into which they were
+suddenly plunged, they displayed a narrow and provincial spirit.
+Keenly alive to their own rights and privileges, they were more
+occupied in quarreling with Dinwiddie than in prosecuting the war. In
+the weak proprietary governments of Maryland and Pennsylvania there
+was the same condition of affairs, with every evil exaggerated
+tenfold. The fighting spirit was dominant in Virginia, but in
+Quaker-ridden Pennsylvania it seems to have been almost extinct. These
+three were not very promising communities to look to for support in a
+difficult and costly war.
+
+With all this inertia and stupidity Washington was called to cope, and
+he rebelled against it in vigorous fashion. Leaving Colonel Fry to
+follow with the main body of troops, Washington set out on April 2,
+1754, with two companies from Alexandria, where he had been recruiting
+amidst most irritating difficulties. He reached Will's Creek three
+weeks later; and then his real troubles began. Captain Trent, the
+timid and halting envoy, who had failed to reach the French, had been
+sent out by the wise authorities to build a fort at the junction of
+the Alleghany and Monongahela, on the admirable site selected by the
+keen eye of Washington. There Trent left his men and returned to
+Will's Creek, where Washington found him, but without the pack-horses
+that he had promised to provide. Presently news came that the French
+in overwhelming numbers had swept down upon Trent's little party,
+captured their fort, and sent them packing back to Virginia.
+Washington took this to be war, and determined at once to march
+against the enemy. Having impressed from the inhabitants, who were not
+bubbling over with patriotism, some horses and wagons, he set out on
+his toilsome march across the mountains.
+
+It was a wild and desolate region, and progress was extremely slow.
+By May 9 he was at the Little Meadows, twenty miles from his
+starting-place; by the 18th at the Youghiogany River, which he
+explored and found unnavigable. He was therefore forced to take up his
+weary march again for the Monongahela, and by the 27th he was at the
+Great Meadows, a few miles further on. The extreme danger of his
+position does not seem to have occurred to him, but he was harassed
+and angered by the conduct of the assembly. He wrote to Governor
+Dinwiddie that he had no idea of giving up his commission. "But," he
+continued, "let me serve voluntarily; then I will, with the greatest
+pleasure in life, devote my services to the expedition, without any
+other reward than the satisfaction of serving my country; but to be
+slaving dangerously for the shadow of pay, through woods, rocks,
+mountains,--I would rather prefer the great toil of a daily laborer,
+and dig for a maintenance, provided I were reduced to the necessity,
+than serve upon such ignoble terms; for I really do not see why the
+lives of his Majesty's subjects in Virginia should be of less value
+than those in other parts of his American dominions, especially when
+it is well known that we must undergo double their hardship." Here we
+have a high-spirited, high-tempered young gentleman, with a contempt
+for shams that it is pleasant to see, and evidently endowed also with
+a fine taste for fighting and not too much patience.
+
+Indignant letters written in vigorous language were, however, of
+little avail, and Washington prepared to shift for himself as best he
+might. His Indian allies brought him news that the French were on the
+march and had thrown out scouting parties. Picking out a place in the
+Great Meadows for a fort, "a charming field for an encounter," he in
+his turn sent out a scouting party, and then on fresh intelligence
+from the Indians set forth himself with forty men to find the enemy.
+After a toilsome march they discovered their foes in camp. The French,
+surprised and surrounded, sprang to arms, the Virginians fired, there
+was a sharp exchange of shots, and all was over. Ten of the French
+were killed and twenty-one were taken prisoners, only one of the party
+escaping to carry back the news.
+
+This little skirmish made a prodigious noise in its day, and was much
+heralded in France. The French declared that Jumonville, the leader,
+who fell at the first fire, was foully assassinated, and that he and
+his party were ambassadors and sacred characters. Paris rang with this
+fresh instance of British perfidy, and a M. Thomas celebrated the
+luckless Jumonville in a solemn epic poem in four books. French
+historians, relying on the account of the Canadian who escaped,
+adopted the same tone, and at a later day mourned over this black
+spot on Washington's character. The French view was simple nonsense.
+Jumonville and his party, as the papers found on Jumonville showed,
+were out on a spying and scouting expedition. They were seeking to
+surprise the English when the English surprised them, with the usual
+backwoods result. The affair has a dramatic interest because it was
+the first blood shed in a great struggle, and was the beginning of a
+series of world-wide wars and social and political convulsions, which
+terminated more than half a century later on the plains of Waterloo.
+It gave immortality to an obscure French officer by linking his name
+with that of his opponent, and brought Washington for the moment
+before the eyes of the world, which little dreamed that this Virginian
+colonel was destined to be one of the principal figures in the great
+revolutionary drama to which the war then beginning was but the
+prologue.
+
+Washington, for his part, well satisfied with his exploit, retraced
+his steps, and having sent his prisoners back to Virginia, proceeded
+to consider his situation. It was not a very cheerful prospect.
+Contrecoeur, with the main body of the French and Indians, was moving
+down from the Monongahela a thousand strong. This of course was to
+have been anticipated, and it does not seem to have in the least
+damped Washington's spirits. His blood was up, his fighting temper
+thoroughly roused, and he prepared to push on. Colonel Fry had died
+meanwhile, leaving Washington in command; but his troops came forward,
+and also not long after a useless "independent" company from South
+Carolina. Thus reinforced Washington advanced painfully some thirteen
+miles, and then receiving sure intelligence of the approach of the
+French in great force fell back with difficulty to the Great Meadows,
+where he was obliged by the exhausted condition of his men to stop. He
+at once resumed work on Fort Necessity, and made ready for a desperate
+defense, for the French were on his heels, and on July 3 appeared at
+the Meadows. Washington offered battle outside the fort, and this
+being declined withdrew to his trenches, and skirmishing went on all
+day. When night fell it was apparent that the end had come. The men
+were starved and worn out. Their muskets in many cases were rendered
+useless by the rain, and their ammunition was spent. The Indians had
+deserted, and the foe outnumbered them four to one. When the French
+therefore offered a parley, Washington was forced reluctantly to
+accept. The French had no stomach for the fight, apparently, and
+allowed the English to go with their arms, exacting nothing but a
+pledge that for a year they would not come to the Ohio.
+
+So ended Washington's first campaign. His friend the Half-King, the
+celebrated Seneca chief, Thanacarishon, who prudently departed on the
+arrival of the French, has left us a candid opinion of Washington and
+his opponents. "The colonel," he said, "was a good-natured man, but
+had no experience; he took upon him to command the Indians as his
+slaves, and would have them every day upon the scout and to attack
+the enemy by themselves, but would by no means take advice from the
+Indians. He lay in one place from one full moon to the other, without
+making any fortifications, except that little thing on the meadow;
+whereas, had he taken advice, and built such fortifications as I
+advised him, he might easily have beat off the French. But the French
+in the engagement acted like cowards, and the English like fools."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Enquiry into the Causes and Alienations of the Delaware
+and Shawanee Indians_, etc. London, 1759. By Charles Thomson,
+afterwards Secretary of Congress.]
+
+There is a deal of truth in this opinion. The whole expedition was
+rash in the extreme. When Washington left Will's Creek he was aware
+that he was going to meet a force of a thousand men with only a
+hundred and fifty raw recruits at his back. In the same spirit he
+pushed on; and after the Jumonville affair, although he knew that the
+wilderness about him was swarming with enemies, he still struggled
+forward. When forced to retreat he made a stand at the Meadows and
+offered battle in the open to his more numerous and more prudent
+foes, for he was one of those men who by nature regard courage as a
+substitute for everything, and who have a contempt for hostile odds.
+He was ready to meet any number of French and Indians with cheerful
+confidence and with real pleasure. He wrote, in a letter which
+soon became famous, that he loved to hear bullets whistle, a sage
+observation which he set down in later years as a folly of youth. Yet
+this boyish outburst, foolish as it was, has a meaning to us, for it
+was essentially true. Washington had the fierce fighting temper of the
+Northmen. He loved battle and danger, and he never ceased to love them
+and to give way to their excitement, although he did not again set
+down such sentiments in boastful phrase that made the world laugh.
+Men of such temper, moreover, are naturally imperious and have a fine
+disregard of consequences, with the result that their allies, Indian
+or otherwise, often become impatient and finally useless. The campaign
+was perfectly wild from the outset, and if it had not been for
+the utter indifference to danger displayed by Washington, and the
+consequent timidity of the French, that particular body of Virginians
+would have been permanently lost to the British Empire.
+
+But we learn from all this many things. It appears that Washington was
+not merely a brave man, but one who loved fighting for its own sake.
+The whole expedition shows an arbitrary temper and the most reckless
+courage, valuable qualities, but here unrestrained, and mixed
+with very little prudence. Some important lessons were learned by
+Washington from the rough teachings of inexorable and unconquerable
+facts. He received in this campaign the first taste of that severe
+experience which by its training developed the self-control and
+mastery of temper for which he became so remarkable. He did not spring
+into life a perfect and impossible man, as is so often represented. On
+the contrary, he was educated by circumstances; but the metal came out
+of the furnace of experience finely tempered, because it was by nature
+of the best and with but little dross to be purged away. In addition
+to all this he acquired for the moment what would now be called a
+European reputation. He was known in Paris as an assassin, and in
+England, thanks to the bullet letter, as a "fanfaron" and brave
+braggart. With these results he wended his way home much depressed in
+spirits, but not in the least discouraged, and fonder of fighting than
+ever.
+
+Virginia, however, took a kinder view of the campaign than did her
+defeated soldier. She appreciated the gallantry of the offer to fight
+in the open and the general conduct of the troops, and her House of
+Burgesses passed a vote of thanks to Washington and his officers, and
+gave money to his men. In August he rejoined his regiment, only to
+renew the vain struggle against incompetence and extravagance, and as
+if this were not enough, his sense of honor was wounded and his temper
+much irritated by the governor's playing false to the prisoners taken
+in the Jumonville fight. While thus engaged, news came that the French
+were off their guard at Fort Duquesne, and Dinwiddie was for having
+the regiment of undisciplined troops march again into the wilderness.
+Washington, however, had learned something, if not a great deal, and
+he demonstrated the folly of such an attempt in a manner too clear to
+be confuted.
+
+Meantime the Burgesses came together, and more money being voted,
+Dinwiddie hit on a notable plan for quieting dissensions between
+regulars and provincials by dividing all the troops into independent
+companies, with no officer higher than a captain. Washington, the
+only officer who had seen fighting and led a regiment, resented quite
+properly this senseless policy, and resigning his commission withdrew
+to Mount Vernon to manage the estate and attend to his own affairs. He
+was driven to this course still more strongly by the original cause of
+Dinwiddie's arrangement. The English government had issued an order
+that officers holding the king's commission should rank provincial
+officers, and that provincial generals and field officers should have
+no rank when a general or field officer holding a royal commission was
+present. The degradation of being ranked by every whipper-snapper who
+might hold a royal commission by virtue, perhaps, of being the bastard
+son of some nobleman's cast-off mistress was more than the temper
+of George Washington at least could bear, and when Governor Sharpe,
+general by the king's commission, and eager to secure the services
+of the best fighter in Virginia, offered him a company and urged his
+acceptance, he replied in language that must have somewhat astonished
+his excellency. "You make mention in your letter," he wrote to Colonel
+Fitzhugh, Governor Sharpe's second in command, "of my continuing in
+the service, and retaining my colonel's commission. This idea has
+filled me with surprise; for, if you think me capable of holding a
+commission that has neither rank nor emolument annexed to it, you must
+entertain a very contemptible opinion of my weakness, and believe
+me to be more empty than the commission itself.... In short, every
+captain bearing the king's commission, every half-pay officer, or
+others, appearing with such a commission, would rank before me.... Yet
+my inclinations are strongly bent to arms."
+
+It was a bitter disappointment to withdraw from military life, but
+Washington had an intense sense of personal dignity; not the small
+vanity of a petty mind, but the quality of a proud man conscious of
+his own strength and purpose. It was of immense value to the American
+people at a later day, and there is something very instructive in this
+early revolt against the stupid arrogance which England has always
+thought it wise to display toward this country. She has paid dearly
+for indulging it, but it has seldom cost her more than when it drove
+Washington from her service, and left in his mind a sense of indignity
+and injustice.
+
+Meantime this Virginian campaigning had started a great movement.
+England was aroused, and it was determined to assail France in Nova
+Scotia, from New York and on the Ohio. In accordance with this plan
+General Braddock arrived in Virginia February 20, 1755, with two
+picked regiments, and encamped at Alexandria. Thither Washington used
+to ride and look longingly at the pomp and glitter, and wish that he
+wore engaged in the service. Presently this desire became known, and
+Braddock, hearing of the young Virginian's past experience, offered
+him a place on his staff with the rank of colonel where he would
+be subject only to the orders of the general, and could serve as a
+volunteer. He therefore accepted at once, and threw himself into
+his new duties with hearty good-will. Every step now was full of
+instruction. At Annapolis he met the governors of the other
+colonies, and was interested and attracted by this association with
+distinguished public men. In the army to which he was attached he
+studied with the deepest attention the best discipline of Europe,
+observing everything and forgetting nothing, thus preparing himself
+unconsciously to use against his teachers the knowledge he acquired.
+
+He also made warm friends with the English officers, and was treated
+with consideration by his commander. The universal practice of all
+Englishmen at that time was to behave contemptuously to the colonists,
+but there was something about Washington which made this impossible.
+They all treated him with the utmost courtesy, vaguely conscious that
+beneath the pleasant, quiet manner there was a strength of character
+and ability such as is rarely found, and that this was a man whom it
+was unsafe to affront. There is no stronger instance of Washington's
+power of impressing himself upon others than that he commanded now
+the respect and affection of his general, who was the last man to be
+easily or favorably affected by a young provincial officer.
+
+Edward Braddock was a veteran soldier, a skilled disciplinarian, and a
+rigid martinet. He was narrow-minded, brutal, and brave. He had led a
+fast life in society, indulging in coarse and violent dissipations,
+and was proud with the intense pride of a limited intelligence and a
+nature incapable of physical fear. It would be difficult to conceive
+of a man more unfit to be entrusted with the task of marching through
+the wilderness and sweeping the French from the Ohio. All the
+conditions which confronted him were unfamiliar and beyond his
+experience. He cordially despised the provincials who were essential
+to his success, and lost no opportunity of showing his contempt for
+them. The colonists on their side, especially in Pennsylvania, gave
+him, unfortunately, only too much ground for irritation and disgust.
+They were delighted to see this brilliant force come from England to
+fight their battles, but they kept on wrangling and holding back,
+refusing money and supplies, and doing nothing. Braddock chafed and
+delayed, swore angrily, and lingered still. Washington strove to help
+him, but defended his country fearlessly against wholesale and furious
+attacks.
+
+Finally the army began to move, but so slowly and after so much delay
+that they did not reach Will's Creek until the middle of May. Here
+came another exasperating pause, relieved only by Franklin, who,
+by giving his own time, ability, and money, supplied the necessary
+wagons. Then they pushed on again, but with the utmost slowness. With
+supreme difficulty they made an elaborate road over the mountains as
+they marched, and did not reach the Little Meadows until June 16. Then
+at last Braddock turned to his young aide for the counsel which had
+already been proffered and rejected many times. Washington advised the
+division of the army, so that the main body could hurry forward in
+light marching order while a detachment remained behind and brought
+up the heavy baggage. This plan was adopted, and the army started
+forward, still too heavily burdened, as Washington thought, but in
+somewhat better trim for the wilderness than before. Their progress,
+quickened as it was, still seemed slow to Washington, but he was taken
+ill with a fever, and finally was compelled by Braddock to stop for
+rest at the ford of Youghiogany. He made Braddock promise that he
+should be brought up before the army reached Fort Duquesne, and wrote
+to his friend Orme that he would not miss the impending battle for
+five hundred pounds.
+
+As soon as his fever abated a little he left Colonel Dunbar, and,
+being unable to sit on a horse, was conveyed to the front in a wagon,
+coming up with the army on July 8. He was just in time, for the next
+day the troops forded the Monongahela and marched to attack the fort.
+The splendid appearance of the soldiers as they crossed the river
+roused Washington's enthusiasm; but he was not without misgivings.
+Franklin had already warned Braddock against the danger of surprise,
+and had been told with a sneer that while these savages might be
+a formidable enemy to raw American militia, they could make no
+impression on disciplined troops. Now at the last moment Washington
+warned the general again and was angrily rebuked.
+
+The troops marched on in ordered ranks, glittering and beautiful.
+Suddenly firing was heard in the front, and presently the van was
+flung back on the main body. Yells and war-whoops resounded on every
+side, and an unseen enemy poured in a deadly fire. Washington begged
+Braddock to throw his men into the woods, but all in vain. Fight in
+platoons they must, or not at all. The result was that they did not
+fight at all. They became panic-stricken, and huddled together,
+overcome with fear, until at last when Braddock was mortally wounded
+they broke in wild rout and fled. Of the regular troops, seven
+hundred, and of the officers, who showed the utmost bravery, sixty-two
+out of eighty-six, were killed or wounded. Two hundred Frenchmen and
+six hundred Indians achieved this signal victory. The only thing
+that could be called fighting on the English side was done by
+the Virginians, "the raw American militia," who, spread out as
+skirmishers, met their foes on their own ground, and were cut off
+after a desperate resistance almost to a man.
+
+Washington at the outset flung himself headlong into the fight. He
+rode up and down the field, carrying orders and striving to rally "the
+dastards," as he afterwards called the regular troops. He endeavored
+to bring up the artillery, but the men would not serve the guns,
+although to set an example he aimed and discharged one himself. All
+through that dreadful carnage he rode fiercely about, raging with the
+excitement of battle, and utterly exposed from beginning to end. Even
+now it makes the heart beat quicker to think of him amid the smoke and
+slaughter as he dashed hither and thither, his face glowing and his
+eyes shining with the fierce light of battle, leading on his own
+Virginians, and trying to stay the tide of disaster. He had two horses
+shot under him and four bullets through his coat. The Indians thought
+he bore a charmed life, while his death was reported in the colonies,
+together with his dying speech, which, he dryly wrote to his brother,
+he had not yet composed.
+
+When the troops broke it was Washington who gathered the fugitives and
+brought off the dying general. It was he who rode on to meet Dunbar,
+and rallying the fugitives enabled the wretched remnants to take up
+their march for the settlements. He it was who laid Braddock in the
+grave four days after the defeat, and read over the dead the solemn
+words of the English service. Wise, sensible, and active in the
+advance, splendidly reckless on the day of battle, cool and collected
+on the retreat, Washington alone emerged from that history of disaster
+with added glory. Again he comes before us as, above all things,
+the fighting man, hot-blooded and fierce in action, and utterly
+indifferent to the danger which excited and delighted him. But the
+earlier lesson had not been useless. He now showed a prudence and
+wisdom in counsel which were not apparent in the first of his
+campaigns, and he no longer thought that mere courage was
+all-sufficient, or that any enemy could be despised. He was plainly
+one of those who could learn. His first experience had borne good
+fruit, and now he had been taught a series of fresh and valuable
+lessons. Before his eyes had been displayed the most brilliant
+European discipline, both in camp and on the march. He had studied
+and absorbed it all, talking with veterans and hearing from them many
+things that he could have acquired nowhere else. Once more had he
+been taught, in a way not to be forgotten, that it is never well to
+underrate one's opponent. He had looked deeper, too, and had seen what
+the whole continent soon understood, that English troops were not
+invincible, that they could be beaten by Indians, and that they were
+after all much like other men. This was the knowledge, fatal in
+after days to British supremacy, which Braddock's defeat brought to
+Washington and to the colonists, and which was never forgotten. Could
+he have looked into the future, he would have seen also in this
+ill-fated expedition an epitome of much future history. The expedition
+began with stupid contempt toward America and all things American, and
+ended in ruin and defeat. It was a bitter experience, much heeded by
+the colonists, but disregarded by England, whose indifference was paid
+for at a heavy cost.
+
+After the hasty retreat, Colonel Dunbar, stricken with panic, fled
+onward to Philadelphia, abandoning everything, and Virginia was left
+naturally in a state of great alarm. The assembly came together, and
+at last, thoroughly frightened, voted abundant money, and ordered a
+regiment of a thousand men to be raised. Washington, who had returned
+to Mount Vernon ill and worn-out, was urged to solicit the command,
+but it was not his way to solicit, and he declined to do so now.
+August 14, he wrote to his mother: "If it is in my power to avoid
+going to the Ohio again, I shall; but if the command is pressed upon
+me by the general voice of the country, and offered upon such terms as
+cannot be objected against, it would reflect dishonor on me to refuse
+it." The same day he was offered the command of all the Virginian
+forces on his own terms, and accepted. Virginia believed in
+Washington, and he was ready to obey her call.
+
+He at once assumed command and betook himself to Winchester, a general
+without an army, but still able to check by his presence the existing
+panic, and ready to enter upon the trying, dreary, and fruitless work
+that lay before him. In April, 1757, he wrote: "I have been posted
+then, for more than twenty months past, upon our cold and barren
+frontiers, to perform, I think I may say, impossibilities; that is, to
+protect from the cruel incursions of a crafty, savage enemy a line of
+inhabitants, of more than three hundred and fifty miles in extent,
+with a force inadequate to the task." This terse statement covers
+all that can be said of the next three years. It was a long struggle
+against a savage foe in front, and narrowness, jealousy, and stupidity
+behind; apparently without any chance of effecting anything, or
+gaining any glory or reward. Troops were voted, but were raised with
+difficulty, and when raised were neglected and ill-treated by the
+wrangling governor and assembly, which caused much ill-suppressed
+wrath in the breast of the commander-in-chief, who labored day and
+night to bring about better discipline in camp, and who wrote long
+letters to Williamsburg recounting existing evils and praying for a
+new militia law.
+
+The troops, in fact, were got out with vast difficulty even under the
+most stinging necessity, and were almost worthless when they came.
+Of one "noble captain" who refused to come, Washington wrote: "With
+coolness and moderation this great captain answered that his wife,
+family, and corn were all at stake; so were those of his soldiers;
+therefore it was impossible for him to come. Such is the example
+of the officers; such the behavior of the men; and upon such
+circumstances depends the safety of our country!" But while the
+soldiers were neglected, and the assembly faltered, and the militia
+disobeyed, the French and Indians kept at work on the long, exposed
+frontier. There panic reigned, farmhouses and villages went up in
+smoke, and the fields were reddened with slaughter at each fresh
+incursion. Gentlemen in Williamsburg bore these misfortunes with
+reasonable fortitude, but Washington raged against the abuses and the
+inaction, and vowed that nothing but the imminent danger prevented his
+resignation. "The supplicating tears of the women," he wrote, "and
+moving petitions of the men melt me into such deadly sorrow that
+I solemnly declare, if I know my own mind, I could offer myself
+a willing sacrifice to the butchering enemy, provided that would
+contribute to the people's ease." This is one of the rare flashes
+of personal feeling which disclose the real man, warm of heart and
+temper, full of human sympathy, and giving vent to hot indignation in
+words which still ring clear and strong across the century that has
+come and gone.
+
+Serious troubles, moreover, were complicated by petty annoyances. A
+Maryland captain, at the head of thirty men, undertook to claim rank
+over the Virginian commander-in-chief because he had held a king's
+commission; and Washington was obliged to travel to Boston in order to
+have the miserable thing set right by Governor Shirley. This affair
+settled, he returned to take up again the old disheartening struggle,
+and his outspoken condemnation of Dinwiddie's foolish schemes and of
+the shortcomings of the government began to raise up backbiters
+and malcontents at Williamsburg. "My orders," he said, "are dark,
+doubtful, and uncertain; to-day approved, to-morrow condemned. Left
+to act and proceed at hazard, accountable for the consequences, and
+blamed without the benefit of defense." He determined nevertheless
+to bear with his trials until the arrival of Lord Loudon, the new
+commander-in-chief, from whom he expected vigor and improvement.
+Unfortunately he was destined to have only fresh disappointment from
+the new general, for Lord Loudon was merely one more incompetent man
+added to the existing confusion. He paid no heed to the South, matters
+continued to go badly in the North, and Virginia was left helpless. So
+Washington toiled on with much discouragement, and the disagreeable
+attacks upon him increased. That it should have been so is not
+surprising, for he wrote to the governor, who now held him in much
+disfavor, to the speaker, and indeed to every one, with a most galling
+plainness. He was only twenty-five, be it remembered, and his high
+temper was by no means under perfect control. He was anything but
+diplomatic at that period of his life, and was far from patient, using
+language with much sincerity and force, and indulging in a blunt irony
+of rather a ferocious kind. When he was accused finally of getting up
+reports of imaginary dangers, his temper gave way entirely. He wrote
+wrathfully to the governor for justice, and added in a letter to
+his friend, Captain Peachey: "As to Colonel C.'s gross and infamous
+reflections on my conduct last spring, it will be needless, I dare
+say, to observe further at this time than that the liberty which he
+has been pleased to allow himself in sporting with my character is
+little else than a comic entertainment, discovering at one view his
+passionate fondness for your friend, his inviolable love of truth,
+his unfathomable knowledge, and the masterly strokes of his wisdom in
+displaying it. You are heartily welcome to make use of any letter or
+letters which I may at any time have written to you; for although
+I keep no copies of epistles to my friends, nor can remember the
+contents of all of them, yet I am sensible that the narrations are
+just, and that truth and honesty will appear in my writings; of which,
+therefore, I shall not be ashamed, though criticism may censure my
+style."
+
+Perhaps a little more patience would have produced better results,
+but it is pleasant to find one man, in that period of stupidity and
+incompetency, who was ready to free his mind in this refreshing way.
+The only wonder is that he was not driven from his command. That they
+insisted on keeping him there shows beyond everything that he
+had already impressed himself so strongly on Virginia that the
+authorities, although they smarted under his attacks, did not dare to
+meddle with him. Dinwiddie and the rest could foil him in obtaining a
+commission in the king's army, but they could not shake his hold upon
+the people.
+
+In the winter of 1758 his health broke down completely. He was so
+ill that he thought that his constitution was seriously injured;
+and therefore withdrew to Mount Vernon, where he slowly recovered.
+Meantime a great man came at last to the head of affairs in England,
+and inspired by William Pitt, fleets and armies went forth to conquer.
+Reviving at the prospect, Washington offered his services to General
+Forbes, who had come to undertake the task which Braddock had failed
+to accomplish. Once more English troops appeared, and a large army
+was gathered. Then the old story began again, and Washington, whose
+proffered aid had been gladly received, chafed and worried all summer
+at the fresh spectacle of delay and stupidity which was presented
+to him. His advice was disregarded, and all the weary business of
+building new roads through the wilderness was once more undertaken. A
+detachment, sent forward contrary to his views, met with the fate of
+Braddock, and as the summer passed, and autumn changed to winter, it
+looked as if nothing would be gained in return for so much toil and
+preparation. But Pitt had conquered the Ohio in Canada, news arrived
+of the withdrawal of the French, the army pressed on, and, with
+Washington in the van, marched into the smoking ruins of Fort
+Duquesne, henceforth to be known to the world as Fort Pitt.
+
+So closed the first period in Washington's public career. We have seen
+him pass through it in all its phases. It shows him as an adventurous
+pioneer, as a reckless frontier fighter, and as a soldier of great
+promise. He learned many things in this time, and was taught much in
+the hard school of adversity. In the effort to conquer Frenchmen and
+Indians he studied the art of war, and at the same time he learned
+to bear with and to overcome the dullness and inefficiency of the
+government he served. Thus he was forced to practise self-control in
+order to attain his ends, and to acquire skill in the management of
+men. There could have been no better training for the work he was to
+do in the after years, and the future showed how deeply he profited by
+it. Let us turn now, for a moment, to the softer and pleasanter side
+of life, and having seen what Washington was, and what he did as a
+fighting man, let us try to know him in the equally important and far
+more attractive domain of private and domestic life.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+LOVE AND MARRIAGE
+
+
+Lewis Willis, of Fredericksburg, who was at school with Washington,
+used to speak of him as an unusually studious and industrious boy, but
+recalled one occasion when he distinguished himself and surprised his
+schoolmates by "romping with one of the largest girls."[1] Half a
+century later, when the days of romping were long over and gone, a
+gentleman writing of a Mrs. Hartley, whom Washington much admired,
+said that the general always liked a fine woman.[2] It is certain that
+from romping he passed rapidly to more serious forms of expressing
+regard, for by the time he was fourteen he had fallen deeply in love
+with Mary Bland of Westmoreland, whom he calls his "Lowland Beauty,"
+and to whom he wrote various copies of verses, preserved amid the
+notes of surveys, in his diary for 1747-48. The old tradition
+identified the "Lowland Beauty" with Miss Lucy Grymes, perhaps
+correctly, and there are drafts of letters addressed to "Dear Sally,"
+which suggest that the mistake in identification might have arisen
+from the fact that there were several ladies who answered to that
+description. In the following sentence from the draft of a letter to a
+masculine sympathizer, also preserved in the tell-tale diary of 1748,
+there is certainly an indication that the constancy of the lover was
+not perfect. "Dear Friend Robin," he wrote: "My place of residence at
+present is at his Lordship's, where I might, were my heart disengaged,
+pass my time very pleasantly, as there is a very agreeable young lady
+in the same house, Colonel George Fairfax's wife's sister. But that
+only adds fuel to the fire, as being often and unavoidably in company
+with her revives my former passion for your Lowland Beauty; whereas
+were I to live more retired from young women, I might in some measure
+alleviate my sorrow by burying that chaste and troublesome passion in
+oblivion; I am very well assured that this will be the only antidote
+or remedy." Our gloomy young gentleman, however, did not take to
+solitude to cure the pangs of despised love, but preceded to calm his
+spirits by the society of this same sister-in-law of George Fairfax,
+Miss Mary Cary. One "Lowland Beauty," Lucy Grymes, married Henry Lee,
+and became the mother of "Legion Harry," a favorite officer and friend
+of Washington in the Revolution, and the grandmother of Robert E. Lee,
+the great soldier of the Southern Confederacy. The affair with Miss
+Cary went on apparently for some years, fitfully pursued in the
+intervals of war and Indian fighting, and interrupted also by matters
+of a more tender nature. The first diversion occurred about 1752, when
+we find Washington writing to William Fauntleroy, at Richmond, that he
+proposed to come to his house to see his sister, Miss Betsy, and that
+he hoped for a revocation of her former cruel sentence.[3] Miss Betsy,
+however, seems to have been obdurate, and we hear no more of love
+affairs until much later, and then in connection with matters of a
+graver sort.
+
+[Footnote 1: Quoted from the Willis MS. by Mr. Conway, in _Magazine of
+American History_, March, 1887, p. 196.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Magazine of American History_, i. 324.]
+
+[Footnote 3: _Historical Magazine_, 3d series, 1873. Letter
+communicated by Fitzhugh Lee.]
+
+[Illustration: Mary Cary]
+
+When Captain Dagworthy, commanding thirty men in the Maryland
+service, undertook in virtue of a king's commission to outrank the
+commander-in-chief of the Virginian forces, Washington made up his
+mind that he would have this question at least finally and properly
+settled. So, as has been said, he went to Boston, saw Governor
+Shirley, and had the dispute determined in his own favor. He made
+the journey on horseback, and had with him two of his aides and two
+servants. An old letter, luckily preserved, tells us how he looked,
+for it contains orders to his London agents for various articles, sent
+for perhaps in anticipation of this very expedition. In Braddock's
+campaign the young surveyor and frontier soldier had been thrown among
+a party of dashing, handsomely equipped officers fresh from London,
+and their appearance had engaged his careful attention. Washington was
+a thoroughly simple man in all ways, but he was also a man of
+taste and a lover of military discipline. He had a keen sense of
+appropriateness, a valuable faculty which stood him in good stead in
+grave as well as trivial matters all through his career, and which in
+his youth came out most strongly in the matter of manners and personal
+appearance. He was a handsome man, and liked to be well dressed and to
+have everything about himself or his servants of the best. Yet he
+was not a mere imitator of fashions or devoted to fine clothes. The
+American leggins and fringed hunting-shirt had a strong hold on his
+affections, and he introduced them into Forbes's army, and again into
+the army of the Revolution, as the best uniform for the backwoods
+fighters. But he learned with Braddock that the dress of parade has as
+real military value as that of service, and when he traveled northward
+to settle about Captain Dagworthy, he felt justly that he now was
+going on parade for the first time as the representative of his troops
+and his colony. Therefore with excellent sense he dressed as befitted
+the occasion, and at the same time gratified his own taste.
+
+Thanks to these precautions, the little cavalcade that left Virginia
+on February 4, 1756, must have looked brilliant enough as they rode
+away through the dark woods. First came the colonel, mounted of course
+on the finest of animals, for he loved and understood horses from the
+time when he rode bareback in the pasture to those later days when he
+acted as judge at a horse-race and saw his own pet colt "Magnolia"
+beaten. In this expedition he wore, of course, his uniform of buff
+and blue, with a white and scarlet cloak over his shoulders, and a
+sword-knot of red and gold. His "horse furniture" was of the best
+London make, trimmed with "livery lace," and the Washington arms were
+engraved upon the housings. Close by his side rode his two aides,
+likewise in buff and blue, and behind came his servants, dressed in
+the Washington colors of white and scarlet and wearing hats laced with
+silver. Thus accoutred, they all rode on together to the North.
+
+The colonel's fame had gone before him, for the hero of Braddock's
+stricken field and the commander of the Virginian forces was known by
+reputation throughout the colonies. Every door flew open to him as he
+passed, and every one was delighted to welcome the young soldier. He
+was dined and wined and fêted in Philadelphia, and again in New York,
+where he fell in love at apparently short notice with the heiress Mary
+Philipse, the sister-in-law of his friend Beverly Robinson. Tearing
+himself away from these attractions he pushed on to Boston, then
+the most important city on the continent, and the head-quarters of
+Shirley, the commander-in-chief. The little New England capital had at
+that time a society which, rich for those days, was relieved from its
+Puritan sombreness by the gayety and life brought in by the royal
+officers. Here Washington lingered ten days, talking war and politics
+with the governor, visiting in state the "great and general court,"
+dancing every night at some ball, dining with and being fêted by the
+magnates of the town. His business done, he returned to New York,
+tarried there awhile for the sake of the fair dame, but came to no
+conclusions, and then, like the soldier in the song, he gave his
+bridle-rein a shake and rode away again to the South, and to the
+harassed and ravaged frontier of Virginia.
+
+How much this little interlude, pushed into a corner as it has been by
+the dignity of history,--how much it tells of the real man! How the
+statuesque myth and the priggish myth and the dull and solemn myth
+melt away before it! Wise and strong, a bearer of heavy responsibility
+beyond his years, daring in fight and sober in judgment, we have here
+the other and the more human side of Washington. One loves to picture
+that gallant, generous, youthful figure, brilliant in color and manly
+in form, riding gayly on from one little colonial town to another,
+feasting, dancing, courting, and making merry. For him the myrtle and
+ivy were entwined with the laurel, and fame was sweetened by youth. He
+was righteously ready to draw from life all the good things which
+fate and fortune then smiling upon him could offer, and he took his
+pleasure frankly, with an honest heart.
+
+We know that he succeeded in his mission and put the captain of thirty
+men in his proper place, but no one now can tell how deeply he was
+affected by the charms of Miss Philipse. The only certain fact is that
+he was able not long after to console himself very effectually. Riding
+away from Mount Vernon once more, in the spring of 1758, this time to
+Williamsburg with dispatches, he stopped at William's Ferry to dine
+with his friend Major Chamberlayne, and there he met Martha Dandridge,
+the widow of Daniel Parke Custis. She was young, pretty, intelligent,
+and an heiress, and her society seemed to attract the young soldier.
+The afternoon wore away, the horses came to the door at the appointed
+time, and after being walked back and forth for some hours were
+returned to the stable. The sun went down, and still the colonel
+lingered. The next morning he rode away with his dispatches, but on
+his return he paused at the White House, the home of Mrs. Custis, and
+then and there plighted his troth with the charming widow. The wooing
+was brief and decisive, and the successful lover departed for the
+camp, to feel more keenly than ever the delays of the British officers
+and the shortcomings of the colonial government. As soon as Fort
+Duquesne had fallen he hurried home, resigned his commission in the
+last week of December, and was married on January 6, 1759. It was a
+brilliant wedding party which assembled on that winter day in the
+little church near the White House. There were gathered Francis
+Fauquier, the gay, free-thinking, high-living governor, gorgeous in
+scarlet and gold; British officers, redcoated and gold-laced, and all
+the neighboring gentry in the handsomest clothes that London credit
+could furnish. The bride was attired in silk and satin, laces and
+brocade, with pearls on her neck and in her ears; while the bridegroom
+appeared in blue and silver trimmed with scarlet, and with gold
+buckles at his knees and on his shoes. After the ceremony the bride
+was taken home in a coach and six, her husband riding beside her,
+mounted on a splendid horse and followed by all the gentlemen of the
+party.
+
+[Illustration: Mary Morris born Mary Philipse]
+
+The sunshine and glitter of the wedding-day must have appeared to
+Washington deeply appropriate, for he certainly seemed to have all
+that heart of man could desire. Just twenty-seven, in the first flush
+of young manhood, keen of sense and yet wise in experience, life
+must have looked very fair and smiling. He had left the army with a
+well-earned fame, and had come home to take the wife of his choice and
+enjoy the good-will and respect of all men. While away on his last
+campaign he had been elected a member of the House of Burgesses, and
+when he took his seat on removing to Williamsburg, three months after
+his marriage, Mr. Robinson, the speaker, thanked him publicly in
+eloquent words for his services to the country. Washington rose to
+reply, but he was so utterly unable to talk about himself that he
+stood before the House stammering and blushing, until the speaker
+said, "Sit down, Mr. Washington; your modesty equals your valor, and
+that surpasses the power of any language I possess." It is an old
+story, and as graceful as it is old, but it was all very grateful to
+Washington, especially as the words of the speaker bodied forth the
+feelings of Virginia. Such an atmosphere, filled with deserved respect
+and praise, was pleasant to begin with, and then he had everything
+else too.
+
+He not only continued to sit in the House year after year and help to
+rule Virginia, but he served on the church vestry, and so held in his
+hands the reins of local government. He had married a charming
+woman, simple, straightforward, and sympathetic, free from gossip or
+pretense, and as capable in practical matters as he was himself. By
+right of birth a member of the Virginian aristocracy, he had widened
+and strengthened his connections through his wife. A man of handsome
+property by the death of Lawrence Washington's daughter, he had become
+by his marriage one of the richest men of the country. Acknowledged
+to be the first soldier on the continent, respected and trusted in
+public, successful and happy in private life, he had attained before
+he was thirty to all that Virginia could give of wealth, prosperity,
+and honor, a fact of which he was well aware, for there never breathed
+a man more wisely contented than George Washington at this period.
+
+He made his home at Mount Vernon, adding many acres to the estate, and
+giving to it his best attention. It is needless to say that he was
+successful, for that was the ease with everything he undertook. He
+loved country life, and he was the best and most prosperous planter in
+Virginia, which was really a more difficult achievement than the mere
+statement implies. Genuinely profitable farming in Virginia was not
+common, for the general system was a bad one. A single great staple,
+easily produced by the reckless exhaustion of land, and varying widely
+in the annual value of crops, bred improvidence and speculation.
+Everything was bought upon long credits, given by the London
+merchants, and this, too, contributed largely to carelessness and
+waste. The chronic state of a planter in a business way was one of
+debt, and the lack of capital made his conduct of affairs extravagant
+and loose. With all his care and method Washington himself was often
+pinched for ready money, and it was only by his thoroughness and
+foresight that he prospered and made money while so many of his
+neighbors struggled with debt and lived on in easy luxury, not knowing
+what the morrow might bring forth.
+
+A far more serious trouble than bad business methods was one which was
+little heeded at the moment, but which really lay at the foundation of
+the whole system of society and business. This was the character of
+the labor by which the plantations were worked. Slave labor is well
+known now to be the most expensive and the worst form of labor that
+can be employed. In the middle of the eighteenth century, however, its
+evils were not appreciated, either from an economical or a moral point
+of view. This is not the place to discuss the subject of African
+slavery in America. But it is important to know Washington's opinions
+in regard to an institution which was destined to have such a powerful
+influence upon the country, and it seems most appropriate to consider
+those opinions at the moment when slaves became a practical factor in
+his life as a Virginian planter.
+
+Washington accepted the system as he found it, as most men accept the
+social arrangements to which they are born. He grew up in a world
+where slavery had always existed, and where its rightfulness had never
+been questioned. Being on the frontier, occupied with surveying and
+with war, he never had occasion to really consider the matter at all
+until he found himself at the head of large estates, with his own
+prosperity dependent on the labor of slaves. The first practical
+question, therefore, was how to employ this labor to the best
+advantage. A man of his clear perceptions soon discovered the defects
+of the system, and he gave great attention to feeding and clothing
+his slaves, and to their general management. Parkinson[1] says in a
+general way that Washington treated his slaves harshly, spoke to them
+sharply, and maintained a military discipline, to which he attributed
+the General's rare success as a planter. There can be no doubt of
+the success, and the military discipline is probably true, but the
+statement as to harshness is unsupported by any other authority.
+Indeed, Parkinson even contradicts it himself, for he says elsewhere
+that Washington never bought or sold a slave, a proof of the highest
+and most intelligent humanity; and he adds in his final sketch of the
+General's character, that he "was incapable of wrong-doing, but did to
+all men as he would they should do to him. Therefore it is not to be
+supposed that he would injure the negro." This agrees with what we
+learn from all other sources. Humane by nature, he conceived a great
+interest and pity for these helpless beings, and treated them with
+kindness and forethought. In a word, he was a wise and good master,
+as well as a successful one, and the condition of his slaves was
+as happy, and their labor as profitable, as was possible to such a
+system.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Tour in America_, 1798-1800.]
+
+So the years rolled by; the war came and then the making of the
+government, and Washington's thoughts were turned more and more, as
+was the case with all the men of his time in that era of change and
+of new ideas, to the consideration of human slavery in its moral,
+political, and social aspects. To trace the course of his opinions
+in detail is needless. It is sufficient to summarize them, for the
+results of his reflection and observation are more important than the
+processes by which they were reached. Washington became convinced that
+the whole system was thoroughly bad, as well as utterly repugnant to
+the ideas upon which the Revolution was fought and the government of
+the United States founded. With a prescience wonderful for those days
+and on that subject, he saw that slavery meant the up-growth in the
+United States of two systems so radically hostile, both socially and
+economically, that they could lead only to a struggle for political
+supremacy, which in its course he feared would imperil the Union. For
+this reason he deprecated the introduction of the slavery question
+into the debates of the first Congress, because he realized its
+character, and he did not believe that the Union or the government
+at that early day could bear the strain which in this way would be
+produced. At the same time he felt that a right solution must be found
+or inconceivable evils would ensue. The inherent and everlasting wrong
+of the system made its continuance, to his mind, impossible. While
+it existed, he believed that the laws which surrounded it should be
+maintained, because he thought that to violate these only added one
+wrong to another. He also doubted, as will be seen in a later chapter,
+where his conversation with John Bernard is quoted, whether the
+negroes could be immediately emancipated with safety either to
+themselves or to the whites, in their actual condition of ignorance,
+illiteracy, and helplessness. The plan which he favored, and which,
+it would seem, was his hope and reliance, was first the checking
+of importation, followed by a gradual emancipation, with proper
+compensation to the owners and suitable preparation and education for
+the slaves. He told the clergymen Asbury and Coke, when they visited
+him for that purpose, that he was in favor of emancipation, and was
+ready to write a letter to the assembly to that effect.[1] He wished
+fervently that such a spirit might take possession of the people of
+the country, but he wrote to Lafayette that he despaired of seeing it.
+When he died he did all that lay within his power to impress his views
+upon his countrymen by directing that all his slaves should be set
+free on the death of his wife. His precepts and his example in this
+grave matter went unheeded for many years by the generations which
+came after him. But now that slavery is dead, to the joy of all men,
+it is well to remember that on this terrible question Washington's
+opinions were those of a humane man, impatient of wrong, and of a
+noble and far-seeing statesman, watchful of the evils that threatened
+his country.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Magazine of American History_, 1880, p. 158.]
+
+[Footnote 2: For some expressions of Washington's opinions on slavery,
+see Sparks, viii. 414, ix. 159-163, and x. 224.]
+
+After this digression let us return to the Virginian farmer, whose
+mind was not disturbed as yet by thoughts of the destiny of the United
+States, or considerations of the rights of man, but who was much
+exercised by the task of making an honest income out of his estates.
+To do this he grappled with details as firmly as he did with the
+general system under which all plantations in that day were carried
+on. He understood every branch of farming; he was on the alert for
+every improvement; he rose early, worked steadily, gave to everything
+his personal supervision, kept his own accounts with wonderful
+exactness, and naturally enough his brands of flour went unquestioned
+everywhere, his credit was high, and he made money--so far as it
+was possible under existing conditions. Like Shakespeare, as Bishop
+Blougram has it, he
+
+  "Saved money, spent it, owned the worth of things."
+
+He had no fine and senseless disregard for money or the good things of
+this world, but on the contrary saw in them not the value attached to
+them by vulgar minds, but their true worth. He was a solid, square,
+evenly-balanced man in those days, believing that whatever he did was
+worth doing well. So he farmed, as he fought and governed, better than
+anybody else.
+
+While thus looking after his own estates at home, he went further
+afield in search of investments, keeping a shrewd eye on the western
+lands, and buying wisely and judiciously whenever he had the
+opportunity. He also constituted himself now, as in a later time, the
+champion of the soldiers, for whom he had the truest sympathy and
+affection, and a large part of the correspondence of this period is
+devoted to their claims for the lands granted them by the assembly.
+He distinguished carefully among them, however, those who were
+undeserving, and to the major of the regiment, who had been excluded
+from the public thanks on account of cowardice at the Great Meadows,
+he wrote as follows: "Your impertinent letter was delivered to me
+yesterday. As I am not accustomed to receive such from any man, nor
+would have taken the same language from you personally without letting
+you feel some marks of my resentment, I would advise you to be
+cautious in writing me a second of the same tenor. But for your
+stupidity and sottishness you might have known, by attending to the
+public gazette, that you had your full quantity of ten thousand acres
+of land allowed you. But suppose you had really fallen short, do you
+think your superlative merit entitles you to greater indulgence than
+others?... All my concern is that I ever engaged in behalf of so
+ungrateful a fellow as you are." The writer of this letter, be it said
+in passing, was the man whom Mr. Weems and others tell us was knocked
+down before his soldiers, and then apologized to his assailant. It may
+be suspected that it was well for the recipient of this letter that
+he did not have a personal interview with its author, and it may
+be doubted if he ever sought one subsequently. Just, generous, and
+magnanimous to an extraordinary degree, Washington had a dangerous
+temper, held well under control, but blazing out now and again against
+injustice, insolence, or oppression. He was a peaceful man, leading a
+peaceful life, but the fighting spirit only slumbered, and it
+would break out at wrong of any sort, in a way which was extremely
+unpleasant and threatening to those who aroused it.
+
+Apart from lands and money and the management of affairs, public and
+private, there were many other interests of varied nature which all
+had their share of Washington's time and thought. He was a devoted
+husband, and gave to his stepchildren the most affectionate care. He
+watched over and protected them, and when the daughter died, after a
+long and wasting illness, in 1773, he mourned for her as if she
+had been his own, with all the tenderness of a deep and reserved
+affection. The boy, John Custis, he made his friend and companion from
+the beginning, and his letters to the lad and about him are wise and
+judicious in the highest degree. He spent much time and thought on the
+question of education, and after securing the best instructors took
+the boy to New York and entered him at Columbia College in 1773. Young
+Custis, however, did not remain there long, for he had fallen in love,
+and the following year was married to Eleanor Calvert, not without
+some misgivings on the part of Washington, who had observed his ward's
+somewhat flighty disposition, and who gave a great deal of anxious
+thought to his future. At home as abroad he was an undemonstrative
+man, but he had abundance of that real affection which labors for
+those to whom it goes out more unselfishly and far more effectually
+than that which bubbles and boils upon the surface like a shallow,
+noisy brook.
+
+From the suggestions that he made in regard to young Custis, it is
+evident that Washington valued and respected education, and that he
+had that regard for learning for its own sake which always exists
+in large measure in every thoughtful man. He read well, even if his
+active life prevented his reading much, as we can see by his vigorous
+English, and by his occasional allusions to history. From his London
+orders we see, too, that everything about his house must have denoted
+that its possessor had refinement and taste. His intense sense
+of propriety and unfailing instinct for what was appropriate are
+everywhere apparent. His dress, his furniture, his harnesses, the
+things for the children, all show the same fondness for simplicity,
+and yet a constant insistence that everything should be the best of
+its kind. We can learn a good deal about any man by the ornaments of
+his house, and by the portraits which hang on his walls; for these
+dumb things tell us whom among the great men of earth the owner
+admires, and indicate the tastes he best loves to gratify. When
+Washington first settled with his wife at Mount Vernon, he ordered
+from Europe the busts of Alexander the Great, Charles XII. of Sweden,
+Julius Cæsar, Frederick of Prussia, Marlborough, and Prince Eugene,
+and in addition he asked for statuettes of "two wild beasts." The
+combination of soldier and statesman is the predominant admiration,
+then comes the reckless and splendid military adventurer, and lastly
+wild life and the chase. There is no mistaking the ideas and fancies
+of the man who penned this order which has drifted down to us from the
+past.
+
+But as Washington's active life was largely out of doors, so too were
+his pleasures. He loved the fresh open-air existence of the woods
+and fields, and there he found his one great amusement. He shot and
+fished, but did not care much for these pursuits, for his hobby was
+hunting, which gratified at once his passion for horses and dogs and
+his love for the strong excitement of the chase, when dashed with just
+enough danger to make it really fascinating. He showed in his sport
+the same thoroughness and love of perfection that he displayed in
+everything else. His stables were filled with the best horses that
+Virginia could furnish. There were the "blooded coach-horses" for Mrs.
+Washington's carriage, "Magnolia," a full-blooded Arabian, used by
+his owner for the road, the ponies for the children, and finally, the
+high-bred hunters Chinkling and Valiant, Ajax and Blueskin, and the
+rest, all duly set down in the register in the handwriting of the
+master himself. His first visit in the morning was to the stables;
+the next to the kennels to inspect and criticise the hounds, also
+methodically registered and described, so that we can read the names
+of Vulcan and Ringwood, Singer and Truelove, Music and Sweetlips, to
+which the Virginian woods once echoed nearly a century and a half ago.
+His hounds were the subject of much thought, and were so constantly
+and critically drafted as to speed, keenness, and bottom, that when in
+full cry they ran so closely bunched that tradition says, in classic
+phrase, they could have been covered with a blanket. The hounds met
+three times a week in the season, usually at Mount Vernon, sometimes
+at Belvoir. They would get off at daybreak, Washington in the midst of
+his hounds, splendidly mounted, generally on his favorite Blueskin, a
+powerful iron-gray horse of great speed and endurance. He wore a blue
+coat, scarlet waistcoat, buckskin breeches, and a velvet cap. Closely
+followed by his huntsman and the neighboring gentlemen, with the
+ladies, headed, very likely, by Mrs. Washington in a scarlet habit,
+he would ride to the appointed covert and throw in. There was no
+difficulty in finding, and then away they would go, usually after a
+gray fox, sometimes after a big black fox, rarely to be caught. Most
+of the country was wild and unfenced, rough in footing, and offering
+hard and dangerous going for the horses, but Washington always made it
+a rule to stay with his hounds. Cautious or timid riders, if they were
+so minded, could gallop along the wood roads with the ladies, and
+content themselves with glimpses of the hunt, but the master rode at
+the front. The fields, it is to be feared, were sometimes small, but
+Washington hunted even if he had only his stepson or was quite alone.
+
+His diaries abound with allusions to the sport. "Went a-hunting with
+Jacky Custis, and catched a fox after three hours chase; found it in
+the creek." "Mr. Bryan Fairfax, Mr. Grayson, and Phil. Alexander came
+home by sunrise. Hunted and catched a fox with these. Lord Fairfax,
+his brother, and Colonel Fairfax, all of whom, with Mr. Fairfax and
+Mr. Wilson of England, dined here." Again, November 26 and 29, "Hunted
+again with the same party." "1768, Jan. 8th. Hunting again with same
+company. Started a fox and run him 4 hours. Took the hounds off at
+night." "Jan. 15. Shooting." "16. At home all day with cards; it
+snowing." "23. Rid to Muddy Hole and directed paths to be cut for
+foxhunting." "Feb. 12. Catched 2 foxes." "Feb. 13. Catched 2 more
+foxes." "Mar. 2. Catched fox with bob'd tail and cut ears after
+7 hours chase, in which most of the dogs were worsted." "Dec. 5.
+Fox-hunting with Lord Fairfax and his brother and Colonel Fairfax.
+Started a fox and lost it. Dined at Belvoir and returned in the
+evening."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: MS. Diaries in State Department.]
+
+So the entries run on, for he hunted almost every day in the season,
+usually with success, but always with persistence. Like all true
+sportsmen Washington had a horror of illicit sport of any kind, and
+although he shot comparatively little, he was much annoyed by a
+vagabond who lurked in the creeks and inlets on his estate, and
+slaughtered his canvas-back ducks. Hearing the report of a gun one
+morning, he rode through the bushes and saw his poaching friend just
+shoving off in a canoe. The rascal raised his gun and covered his
+pursuer, whereupon Washington, the cold-blooded and patient person
+so familiar in the myths, dashed his horse headlong into the water,
+seized the gun, grasped the canoe, and dragging it ashore pulled the
+man out of the boat and beat him soundly. If the man had yielded at
+once he would probably have got off easily enough, but when he put
+Washington's life in imminent peril, the wild fighting spirit flared
+up as usual.
+
+The hunting season was of course that of the most lavish hospitality.
+There was always a great deal of dining about, but Mount Vernon was
+the chief resort, and its doors, ever open, were flung far back when
+people came for a meet, or gathered to talk over the events of a good
+run. Company was the rule and solitude the exception. When only the
+family were at dinner, the fact was written down in the diary with
+great care as an unusual event, for Washington was the soul of
+hospitality, and although he kept early hours, he loved society and a
+houseful of people. Profoundly reserved and silent as to himself,
+a lover of solitude so far as his own thoughts and feelings were
+concerned, he was far from being a solitary man in the ordinary
+acceptation of the word. He liked life and gayety and conversation, he
+liked music and dancing or a game of cards when the weather was bad,
+and he enjoyed heartily the presence of young people and of his own
+friends. So Mount Vernon was always full of guests, and the master
+noted in his diary that although he owned more than a hundred cows he
+was obliged, nevertheless, to buy butter, which suggests an experience
+not unknown to gentlemen farmers of any period, and also that company
+was never lacking in that generous, open house overlooking the
+Potomac.
+
+Beyond the bounds of his own estate he had also many occupations and
+pleasures. He was a member of the House of Burgesses, diligent in his
+attention to the work of governing the colony. He was diligent also in
+church affairs, and very active in the vestry, which was the seat of
+local government in Virginia. We hear of him also as the manager
+of lotteries, which were a common form of raising money for local
+purposes, in preference to direct taxation. In a word, he was
+thoroughly public-spirited, and performed all the small duties which
+his position demanded in the same spirit that he afterwards brought
+to the command of armies and to the government of the nation. He had
+pleasure too, as well as business, away from Mount Vernon. He liked
+to go to his neighbors' houses and enjoy their hospitality as they
+enjoyed his. We hear of him at the courthouse on court days, where all
+the country-side gathered to talk and listen to the lawyers and hear
+the news, and when he went to Williamsburg his diary tells us of a
+round of dinners, beginning with the governor, of visits to the club,
+and of a regular attendance at the theatre whenever actors came to the
+little capital. Whether at home or abroad, he took part in all the
+serious pursuits, in all the interests, and in every reasonable
+pleasure offered by the colony.
+
+Take it for all in all, it was a manly, wholesome, many-sided life. It
+kept Washington young and strong, both mentally and physically. When
+he was forty he flung the iron bar, at some village sports, to a point
+which no competitor could approach. There was no man in all Virginia
+who could ride a horse with such a powerful and assured seat.
+There was no one who could journey farther on foot, and no man at
+Williamsburg who showed at the governor's receptions such a commanding
+presence, or who walked with such a strong and elastic step. As with
+the body so with the mind. He never rusted. A practical carpenter and
+smith, he brought the same quiet intelligence and firm will to the
+forging of iron or the felling and sawing of trees that he had
+displayed in fighting France. The life of a country gentleman did not
+dull or stupefy him, or lead him to gross indulgences. He remained
+well-made and athletic, strong and enduring, keen in perception and in
+sense, and warm in his feelings and affections. Many men would have
+become heavy and useless in these years of quiet country life, but
+Washington simply ripened, and, like all slowly maturing men, grew
+stronger, abler, and wiser in the happy years of rest and waiting
+which intervened between youth and middle age.
+
+Meantime, while the current of daily life flowed on thus gently at
+Mount Vernon, the great stream of public events poured by outside. It
+ran very calmly at first, after the war, and then with a quickening
+murmur, which increased to an ominous roar when the passage of the
+Stamp Act became known in America. Washington was always a constant
+attendant at the assembly, in which by sheer force of character, and
+despite his lack of the talking and debating faculty, he carried more
+weight than any other member. He was present on May 29, 1765, when
+Patrick Henry introduced his famous resolutions and menaced the king's
+government in words which rang through the continent. The resolutions
+were adopted, and Washington went home, with many anxious thoughts,
+to discuss the political outlook with his friend and neighbor George
+Mason, one of the keenest and ablest men in Virginia. The utter
+folly of the policy embodied in the Stamp Act struck Washington very
+forcibly. With that foresight for which he was so remarkable, he
+perceived what scarcely any one else even dreamt of, that persistence
+in this course must surely lead to a violent separation from the
+mother-country, and it is interesting to note in this, the first
+instance when he was called upon to consider a political question of
+great magnitude, his clearness of vision and grasp of mind. In what he
+wrote there is no trace of the ambitious schemer, no threatening nor
+blustering, no undue despondency nor excited hopes. But there is a
+calm understanding of all the conditions, an entire freedom from
+self-deception, and the power of seeing facts exactly as they were,
+which were all characteristic of his intellectual strength, and to
+which we shall need to recur again and again.
+
+The repeal of the Stamp Act was received by Washington with sober but
+sincere pleasure. He had anticipated "direful" results and "unhappy
+consequences" from its enforcement, and he freely said that those who
+were instrumental in its repeal had his cordial thanks. He was no
+agitator, and had not come forward in this affair, so he now retired
+again to Mount Vernon, to his farming and hunting, where he remained,
+watching very closely the progress of events. He had marked the
+dangerous reservation of the principle in the very act of repeal; he
+observed at Boston the gathering strength of what the wise ministers
+of George III. called sedition; he noted the arrival of British troops
+in the rebellious Puritan town; and he saw plainly enough, looming in
+the background, the final appeal to arms. He wrote to Mason (April 5,
+1769), that "at a time when our lordly masters in Great Britain will
+be satisfied with nothing less than the deprivation of American
+freedom, something should be done to avert the stroke and maintain the
+liberty which we have derived from our ancestors. But the manner of
+doing it, to answer the purpose effectually, is the point in question.
+That no man should scruple or hesitate a moment to use arms in defense
+of so valuable a blessing is clearly my opinion. Yet arms, I would beg
+leave to add, should be the last resource, the _dernier ressort_." He
+then urged the adoption of the only middle course, non-importation,
+but he had not much hope in this expedient, although an honest desire
+is evident that it may prove effectual.
+
+When the assembly met in May, they received the new governor, Lord
+Botetourt, with much cordiality, and then fell to passing spirited
+and sharp-spoken resolutions declaring their own rights and defending
+Massachusetts. The result was a dissolution. Thereupon the burgesses
+repaired to the Raleigh tavern, where they adopted a set of
+non-importation resolutions and formed an association. The resolutions
+were offered by Washington, and were the result of his quiet country
+talks with Mason. When the moment for action arrived, Washington came
+naturally to the front, and then returned quietly to Mount Vernon,
+once more to go about his business and watch the threatening political
+horizon. Virginia did not live up to this first non-importation
+agreement, and formed another a year later. But Washington was not in
+the habit of presenting resolutions merely for effect, and there
+was nothing of the actor in his composition. His resolutions meant
+business, and he lived up to them rigidly himself. Neither tea nor
+any of the proscribed articles were allowed in his house. Most of
+the leaders did not realize the seriousness of the situation, but
+Washington, looking forward with clear and sober gaze, was in grim
+earnest, and was fully conscious that when he offered his resolutions
+the colony was trying the last peaceful remedy, and that the next step
+would be war.
+
+Still he went calmly about his many affairs as usual, and gratified
+the old passion for the frontier by a journey to Pittsburgh for the
+sake of lands and soldiers' claims, and thence down the Ohio and into
+the wilderness with his old friends the trappers and pioneers. He
+visited the Indian villages as in the days of the French mission, and
+noted in the savages an ominous restlessness, which seemed, like the
+flight of birds, to express the dumb instinct of an approaching storm.
+The clouds broke away somewhat under the kindly management of Lord
+Botetourt, and then gathered again more thickly on the accession of
+his successor, Lord Dunmore. With both these gentlemen Washington was
+on the most friendly terms. He visited them often, and was consulted
+by them, as it behooved them to consult the strongest man within the
+limits of their government. Still he waited and watched, and scanned
+carefully the news from the North. Before long he heard that
+tea-chests were floating in Boston harbor, and then from across the
+water came intelligence of the passage of the Port Bill and other
+measures destined to crush to earth the little rebel town.
+
+When the Virginia assembly met again, they proceeded to congratulate
+the governor on the arrival of Lady Dunmore, and then suddenly, as
+all was flowing smoothly along, there came a letter through the
+corresponding committee which Washington had helped to establish,
+telling of the measures against Boston. Everything else was thrown
+aside at once, a vigorous protest was entered on the journal of the
+House, and June 1, when the Port Bill was to go into operation, was
+appointed a day of fasting, humiliation, and prayer. The first result
+was prompt dissolution of the assembly. The next was another meeting
+in the long room of the Raleigh tavern, where the Boston bill
+was denounced, non-importation renewed, and the committee of
+correspondence instructed to take steps for calling a general
+congress. Events were beginning to move at last with perilous
+rapidity. Washington dined with Lord Dunmore on the evening of that
+day, rode with him, and appeared at her ladyship's ball the next
+night, for it was not his way to bite his thumb at men from whom he
+differed politically, nor to call the motives of his opponents in
+question. But when the 1st of June arrived, he noted in his diary that
+he fasted all day and attended the appointed services. He always meant
+what he said, being of a simple nature, and when he fasted and prayed
+there was something ominously earnest about it, something that his
+excellency the governor, who liked the society of this agreeable
+man and wise counselor, would have done well to consider and draw
+conclusions from, and which he probably did not heed at all. He might
+well have reflected, as he undoubtedly failed to do, that when men
+of the George Washington type fast and pray on account of political
+misdoings, it is well for their opponents to look to it carefully.
+
+Meantime Boston had sent forth appeals to form a league among the
+colonies, and thereupon another meeting was held in the Raleigh
+tavern, and a letter was dispatched advising the burgesses to consider
+this matter of a general league and take the sense of their respective
+counties. Virginia and Massachusetts had joined hands now, and they
+were sweeping the rest of the continent irresistibly forward with
+them. As for Washington, he returned to Mount Vernon and at once set
+about taking the sense of his county, as he had agreed. Before doing
+so he had some correspondence with his old friend Bryan Fairfax. The
+Fairfaxes naturally sided with the mother-country, and Bryan was much
+distressed by the course of Virginia, and remonstrated strongly, and
+at length by letter, against violent measures. Washington replied
+to him: "Does it not appear as clear as the sun in its meridian
+brightness that there is a regular, systematic plan formed to fix the
+right and practice of taxation on us? Does not the uniform conduct of
+Parliament for some years past confirm this? Do not all the debates,
+especially those just brought to us in the House of Commons, on the
+side of government expressly declare that America must be taxed in
+aid of the British funds, and that she has no longer resources within
+herself? Is there anything to be expected from petitioning after this?
+Is not the attack upon the liberty and property of the people of
+Boston, before restitution of the loss to the India Company was
+demanded, a plain and self-evident proof of what they are aiming at?
+Do not the subsequent bills (now I dare say acts) for depriving the
+Massachusetts Bay of its charter, and for transporting offenders into
+other colonies, or to Great Britain for trial, where it is impossible
+from the nature of the thing that justice can be obtained, convince us
+that the administration is determined to stick at nothing to carry
+its point? Ought we not, then, to put our virtue and fortitude to the
+severest test?" He was prepared, he continued, for anything except
+confiscating British debts, which struck him as dishonorable. These
+were plain but pregnant questions, but what we mark in them, and
+in all his letters of this time, is the absence of constitutional
+discussion, of which America was then full. They are confined to a
+direct presentation of the broad political question, which underlay
+everything. Washington always went straight to the mark, and he now
+saw, through all the dust of legal and constitutional strife, that
+the only real issue was whether America was to be allowed to govern
+herself in her own way or not. In the acts of the ministry he
+perceived a policy which aimed at substantial power, and he believed
+that such a policy, if insisted on, could have but one result.
+
+The meeting of Fairfax County was held in due course, and Washington
+presided. The usual resolutions for self-government and against
+the vindictive Massachusetts measures were adopted. Union and
+non-importation were urged; and then the congress, which they
+advocated, was recommended to address a petition and remonstrance to
+the king, and ask him to reflect that "from our sovereign there can
+be but one appeal." Everything was to be tried, everything was to be
+done, but the ultimate appeal was never lost sight of where Washington
+appeared, and the final sentence of these Fairfax County resolves is
+very characteristic of the leader in the meeting. Two days later he
+wrote to the worthy and still remonstrating Bryan Fairfax, repeating
+and enlarging his former questions, and adding: "Has not General
+Gage's conduct since his arrival, in stopping the address of his
+council, and publishing a proclamation more becoming a Turkish bashaw
+than an English governor, declaring it treason to associate in any
+manner by which the commerce of Great Britain is to be affected,--has
+not this exhibited an unexampled testimony of the most despotic system
+of tyranny that ever was practiced in a free government?... Shall we
+after this whine and cry for relief, when we have already tried it in
+vain? Or shall we supinely sit and see one province after another fall
+a sacrifice to despotism?" The fighting spirit of the man was rising.
+There was no rash rushing forward, no ignorant shouting for war, no
+blinking of the real issue, but a foresight that nothing could dim,
+and a perception of facts which nothing could confuse. On August 1
+Washington was at Williamsburg, to represent his county in the
+meeting of representatives from all Virginia. The convention passed
+resolutions like the Fairfax resolves, and chose delegates to a
+general congress. The silent man was now warming into action. He "made
+the most eloquent speech that ever was made," and said, "I will raise
+a thousand men, subsist them at my own expense, and march them to the
+relief of Boston." He was capable, it would seem, of talking to the
+purpose with some fire and force, for all he was so quiet and so
+retiring. When there was anything to say, he could say it so that it
+stirred all who listened, because they felt that there was a mastering
+strength behind the words. He faced the terrible issue solemnly and
+firmly, but his blood was up, the fighting spirit in him was aroused,
+and the convention chose him as one of Virginia's six delegates to
+the Continental Congress. He lingered long enough to make a few
+preparations at Mount Vernon. He wrote another letter to Fairfax,
+interesting to us as showing the keenness with which he read in the
+meagre news-reports the character of Gage and of the opposing people
+of Massachusetts. Then he started for the North to take the first step
+on the long and difficult path that lay before him.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+TAKING COMMAND
+
+
+In the warm days of closing August, a party of three gentlemen rode
+away from Mount Vernon one morning, and set out upon their long
+journey to Philadelphia. One cannot help wondering whether a tender
+and somewhat sad remembrance did not rise in Washington's mind, as he
+thought of the last time he had gone northward, nearly twenty years
+before. Then, he was a light-hearted young soldier, and he and his
+aides, albeit they went on business, rode gayly through the forests,
+lighting the road with the bright colors they wore and with the
+glitter of lace and arms, while they anticipated all the pleasures of
+youth in the new lands they were to visit. Now, he was in the prime of
+manhood, looking into the future with prophetic eyes, and sober as was
+his wont when the shadow of coming responsibility lay dark upon his
+path. With him went Patrick Henry, four years his junior, and Edmund
+Pendleton, now past threescore. They were all quiet and grave enough,
+no doubt; but Washington, we may believe, was gravest of all, because,
+being the most truthful of men to himself as to others, he saw more
+plainly what was coming. So they made their journey to the North, and
+on the memorable 5th of September they met with their brethren from
+the other colonies in Carpenters' Hall in Philadelphia.
+
+The Congress sat fifty-one days, occupied with debates and discussion.
+Few abler, more honest, or more memorable bodies of men have ever
+assembled to settle the fate of nations. Much debate, great and
+earnest in all directions, resulted in a declaration of colonial
+rights, in an address to the king, in another to the people of Canada,
+and a third to the people of Great Britain; masterly state papers,
+seldom surpassed, and extorting even then the admiration of England.
+In these debates and state papers Washington took no part that is now
+apparent on the face of the record. He was silent in the Congress, and
+if he was consulted, as he unquestionably was by the committees, there
+is no record of it now. The simple fact was that his time had not
+come. He saw men of the most acute minds, liberal in education,
+patriotic in heart, trained in law and in history, doing the work
+of the moment in the best possible way. If anything had been done
+wrongly, or had been left undone, Washington would have found his
+voice quickly enough, and uttered another of the "most eloquent
+speeches ever made," as he did shortly before in the Virginia
+convention. He could speak in public when need was, but now there was
+no need and nothing to arouse him. The work of Congress followed
+the line of policy adopted by the Virginia convention, and that had
+proceeded along the path marked out in the Fairfax resolves, so that
+Washington could not be other than content. He occupied his own time,
+as we see by notes in his diary, in visiting the delegates from
+the other colonies, and in informing himself as to their ideas and
+purposes, and those of the people whom they represented. He was
+quietly working for the future, the present being well taken care of.
+Yet this silent man, going hither and thither, and chatting pleasantly
+with this member or that, was in some way or other impressing himself
+deeply on all the delegates, for Patrick Henry said: "If you speak
+of solid information and sound judgment, Colonel Washington is
+unquestionably the greatest man on the floor."
+
+We have a letter, written at just this time, which shows us how
+Washington felt, and we see again how his spirit rose as he saw more
+and more clearly that the ultimate issue was inevitable. The letter is
+addressed to Captain Mackenzie, a British officer at Boston, and an
+old friend. "Permit me," he began, "with the freedom of a friend (for
+you know I always esteemed you), to express my sorrow that fortune
+should place you in a service that must fix curses to the latest
+posterity upon the contrivers, and, if success (which, by the by, is
+impossible) accompanies it, execrations upon all those who have been
+instrumental in the execution." This was rather uncompromising talk
+and not over peaceable, it must be confessed. He continued: "Give me
+leave to add, and I think I can announce it as a fact, that it is not
+the wish or intent of that government [Massachusetts], or any other
+upon this continent, separately or collectively, to set up for
+independence; but this you may at the same time rely on, that none
+of them will ever submit to the loss of those valuable rights and
+privileges which are essential to the happiness of every free state,
+and without which life, liberty, and property are rendered totally
+insecure.... Again give me leave to add as my opinion that more blood
+will be spilled on this occasion, if the ministry are determined
+to push matters to extremity, than history has ever yet furnished
+instances of in the annals of North America, and such a vital wound
+will be given to the peace of this great country, as time itself
+cannot cure or eradicate the remembrance of." Washington was not a
+political agitator like Sam Adams, planning with unerring intelligence
+to bring about independence. On the contrary, he rightly declared that
+independence was not desired. But although he believed in exhausting
+every argument and every peaceful remedy, it is evident that he felt
+that there now could be but one result, and that violent separation
+from the mother country was inevitable. Here is where he differed from
+his associates and from the great mass of the people, and it is to
+this entire veracity of mind that his wisdom and foresight were so
+largely due, as well as his success when the time came for him to put
+his hand to the plough.
+
+When Congress adjourned, Washington returned to Mount Vernon, to the
+pursuits and pleasures that he loved, to his family and farm, and to
+his horses and hounds, with whom he had many a good run, the last that
+he was to enjoy for years to come. He returned also to wait and
+watch as before, and to see war rapidly gather in the east. When the
+Virginia convention again assembled, resolutions were introduced to
+arm and discipline men, and Henry declared in their support that
+an "appeal to arms and to the God of Hosts" was all that was left.
+Washington said nothing, but he served on the committee to draft a
+plan of defense, and then fell to reviewing the independent companies
+which were springing up everywhere. At the same time he wrote to his
+brother John, who had raised a troop, that he would accept the command
+of it if desired, as it was his "full intention to devote his life and
+fortune in the cause we are engaged in, if needful." At Mount Vernon
+his old comrades of the French war began to appear, in search of
+courage and sympathy. Thither, too, came Charles Lee, a typical
+military adventurer of that period, a man of English birth and of
+varied service, brilliant, whimsical, and unbalanced. There also came
+Horatio Gates, likewise British, and disappointed with his prospects
+at home; less adventurous than Lee, but also less brilliant, and not
+much more valuable.
+
+Thus the winter wore away; spring opened, and toward the end of April
+Washington started again for the North, much occupied with certain
+tidings from Lexington and Concord which just then spread over the
+land. He saw all that it meant plainly enough, and after noting the
+fact that the colonists fought and fought well, he wrote to George
+Fairfax in England: "Unhappy it is to reflect that a brother's sword
+has been sheathed in a brother's breast, and that the once happy and
+peaceful plains of America are either to be drenched in blood or
+inhabited by slaves. Sad alternative. But can a virtuous man hesitate
+in his choice?" Congress, it would seem, thought there was a good deal
+of room for hesitation, both for virtuous men and others, and after
+the fashion of their race determined to do a little more debating and
+arguing, before taking any decisive step. After much resistance and
+discussion, a second "humble and dutiful petition" to the king was
+adopted, and with strange contradiction a confederation was formed at
+the same time, and Congress proceeded to exercise the sovereign powers
+thus vested in them. The most pressing and troublesome question before
+them was what to do with the army surrounding Boston, and with the
+actual hostilities there existing.
+
+Washington, for his part, went quietly about as before, saying
+nothing and observing much, working hard as chairman of the military
+committees, planning for defense, and arranging for raising an army.
+One act of his alone stands out for us with significance at this
+critical time. In this second Congress he appeared habitually on the
+floor in his blue and buff uniform of a Virginia colonel. It was his
+way of saying that the hour for action had come, and that he at least
+was ready for the fight whenever called upon.
+
+Presently he was summoned. Weary of waiting, John Adams at last
+declared that Congress must adopt the army and make Washington, who at
+this mention of his name stepped out of the room, commander-in-chief.
+On June 15, formal motions were made to this effect and unanimously
+adopted, and the next day Washington appeared before Congress and
+accepted the trust. His words were few and simple. He expressed his
+sense of his own insufficiency for the task before him, and said that
+as no pecuniary consideration could have induced him to undertake the
+work, he must decline all pay or emoluments, only looking to Congress
+to defray his expenses. In the same spirit he wrote to his soldiers
+in Virginia, to his brother, and finally, in terms at once simple
+and pathetic, to his wife. There was no pretense about this, but the
+sternest reality of self-distrust, for Washington saw and measured as
+did no one else the magnitude of the work before him. He knew that he
+was about to face the best troops of Europe, and he had learned by
+experience that after the first excitement was over he would be
+obliged to rely upon a people who were brave and patriotic, but also
+undisciplined, untrained, and unprepared for war, without money,
+without arms, without allies or credit, and torn by selfish local
+interests. Nobody else perceived all this as he was able to with his
+mastery of facts, but he faced the duty unflinchingly. He did not put
+it aside because he distrusted himself, for in his truthfulness he
+could not but confess that no other American could show one tithe
+of his capacity, experience, or military service. He knew what was
+coming, knew it, no doubt, when he first put on his uniform, and he
+accepted instantly.
+
+John Adams in his autobiography speaks of the necessity of choosing a
+Southern general, and also says there were objectors to the selection
+of Washington even among the Virginia delegates. That there were
+political reasons for taking a Virginian cannot be doubted. But the
+dissent, even if it existed, never appeared on the surface, excepting
+in the case of John Hancock, who, with curious vanity, thought that he
+ought to have this great place. When Washington's name was proposed
+there was no murmur of opposition, for there was no man who could for
+one moment be compared with him in fitness. The choice was inevitable,
+and he himself felt it to be so. He saw it coming; he would fain have
+avoided the great task, but no thought of shrinking crossed his mind.
+He saw with his entire freedom from constitutional subtleties that an
+absolute parliament sought to extend its power to the colonies. To
+this he would not submit, and he knew that this was a question which
+could be settled only by one side giving way, or by the dread appeal
+to arms. It was a question of fact, hard, unrelenting fact, now to be
+determined by battle, and on him had fallen the burden of sustaining
+the cause of his country. In this spirit he accepted his commission,
+and rode forth to review the troops. He was greeted with loud acclaim
+wherever he appeared. Mankind is impressed by externals, and those
+who gazed upon Washington in the streets of Philadelphia felt their
+courage rise and their hearts grow strong at the sight of his virile,
+muscular figure as he passed before them on horseback, stately,
+dignified, and self-contained. The people looked upon him, and were
+confident that this was a man worthy and able to dare and do all
+things.
+
+On June 21 he set forth accompanied by Lee and Schuyler, and with a
+brilliant escort. He had ridden but twenty miles when he was met by
+the news of Bunker Hill. "Did the militia fight?" was the immediate
+and characteristic question; and being told that they did fight, he
+exclaimed, "Then the liberties of the country are safe." Given the
+fighting spirit, Washington felt he could do anything. Full of this
+important intelligence he pressed forward to Newark, where he was
+received by a committee of the provincial congress, sent to conduct
+the commander-in-chief to New York. There he tarried long enough to
+appoint Schuyler to the charge of the military affairs in that colony,
+having mastered on the journey its complicated social and political
+conditions. Pushing on through Connecticut he reached Watertown, where
+he was received by the provincial congress of Massachusetts, on July
+2, with every expression of attachment and confidence. Lingering less
+than an hour for this ceremony, he rode on to the headquarters at
+Cambridge, and when he came within the lines the shouts of the
+soldiers and the booming of cannon announced his arrival to the
+English in Boston.
+
+The next day he rode forth in the presence of a great multitude, and
+the troops having been drawn up before him, he drew his sword beneath
+the historical elm-tree, and took command of the first American army.
+"His excellency," wrote Dr. Thatcher in his journal, "was on horseback
+in company with several military gentlemen. It was not difficult to
+distinguish him from all others. He is tall and well proportioned, and
+his personal appearance truly noble and majestic." "He is tall and of
+easy and agreeable address," the loyalist Curwen had remarked a few
+weeks before; while Mrs. John Adams, warm-hearted and clever, wrote
+to her husband after the general's arrival: "Dignity, ease, and
+complacency, the gentleman and the soldier, look agreeably blended in
+him. Modesty marks every line and feature of his face. Those lines of
+Dryden instantly occurred to me,--
+
+  'Mark his majestic fabric! He's a temple
+  Sacred by birth, and built by hands divine;
+  His soul's the deity that lodges there;
+  Nor is the pile unworthy of the God.'"
+
+Lady, lawyer, and surgeon, patriot and tory, all speak alike, and as
+they wrote so New England felt. A slave-owner, an aristocrat, and a
+churchman, Washington came to Cambridge to pass over the heads
+of native generals to the command of a New England army, among a
+democratic people, hard-working and simple in their lives, and
+dissenters to the backbone, who regarded episcopacy as something
+little short of papistry and quite equivalent to toryism. Yet the
+shout that went up from soldiers and people on Cambridge common on
+that pleasant July morning came from the heart and had no jarring
+note. A few of the political chiefs growled a little in later days at
+Washington, but the soldiers and the people, high and low, rich and
+poor, gave him an unstinted loyalty. On the fields of battle and
+throughout eight years of political strife the men of New England
+stood by the great Virginian with a devotion and truth in which was no
+shadow of turning. Here again we see exhibited most conspicuously
+the powerful personality of the man who was able thus to command
+immediately the allegiance of this naturally cold and reserved people.
+What was it that they saw which inspired them at once with so much
+confidence? They looked upon a tall, handsome man, dressed in plain
+uniform, wearing across his breast a broad blue band of silk, which
+some may have noticed as the badge and symbol of a certain solemn
+league and covenant once very momentous in the English-speaking world.
+They saw his calm, high bearing, and in every line of face and figure
+they beheld the signs of force and courage. Yet there must have been
+something more to call forth the confidence then so quickly given, and
+which no one ever long withheld. All felt dimly, but none the less
+surely, that here was a strong, able man, capable of rising to the
+emergency, whatever it might be, capable of continued growth and
+development, clear of head and warm of heart; and so the New England
+people gave to him instinctively their sympathy and their faith, and
+never took either back.
+
+The shouts and cheers died away, and then Washington returned to his
+temporary quarters in the Wadsworth house, to master the task before
+him. The first great test of his courage and ability had come, and he
+faced it quietly as the excitement caused by his arrival passed by. He
+saw before him, to use his own words, "a mixed multitude of people,
+under very little discipline, order, or government." In the language
+of one of his aides:[1] "The entire army, if it deserved the name, was
+but an assemblage of brave, enthusiastic, undisciplined, country lads;
+the officers in general quite as ignorant of military life as the
+troops, excepting a few elderly men, who had seen some irregular
+service among the provincials under Lord Amherst." With this force,
+ill-posted and very insecurely fortified, Washington was to drive the
+British from Boston. His first step was to count his men, and it took
+eight days to get the necessary returns, which in an ordinary army
+would have been furnished in an hour. When he had them, he found that
+instead of twenty thousand, as had been represented, but fourteen
+thousand soldiers were actually present for duty. In a short time,
+however, Mr. Emerson, the chaplain, noted in his diary that it
+was surprising how much had been done, that the lines had been so
+extended, and the works so shrewdly built, that it was morally
+impossible for the enemy to get out except in one place purposely left
+open. A little later the same observer remarked: "There is a great
+overturning in the camp as to order and regularity; new lords, new
+laws. The Generals Washington and Lee are upon the lines every day.
+The strictest government is taking place, and great distinction is
+made between officers and soldiers." Bodies of troops scattered here
+and there by chance were replaced by well-distributed forces, posted
+wisely and effectively in strong intrenchments. It is little wonder
+that the worthy chaplain was impressed, and now, seeing it all from
+every side, we too can watch order come out of chaos and mark the
+growth of an army under the guidance of a master-mind and the steady
+pressure of an unbending will.
+
+[Footnote 1: John Trumbull, _Reminiscences_, p. 18.]
+
+Then too there was no discipline, for the army was composed of raw
+militia, who elected their officers and carried on war as they
+pleased. In a passage suppressed by Mr. Sparks, Washington said:
+"There is no such thing as getting officers of this stamp to carry
+orders into execution--to curry favor with the men (by whom they were
+chosen, and on whose smile they may possibly think that they may again
+rely) seems to be one of the principal objects of their attention.
+I have made a pretty good slam amongst such kind of officers as the
+Massachusetts government abounds in, since I came into this camp,
+having broke one colonel and two captains for cowardly behavior in
+the action on Bunker Hill, two captains for drawing more pay and
+provisions than they had men in their company, and one for being
+absent from his post when the enemy appeared there and burnt a house
+just by it. Besides these I have at this time one colonel, one major,
+one captain, and two subalterns under arrest for trial. In short, I
+spare none, and yet fear it will not all do, as these people seem to
+be too attentive to everything but their own interests." This may
+be plain and homely in phrase, but it is not stilted, and the quick
+energy of the words shows how the New England farmers and fishermen
+were being rapidly brought to discipline. Bringing the army into
+order, however, was but a small part of his duties. It is necessary
+to run over all his difficulties, great and small, at this time, and
+count them up, in order to gain a just idea of the force and capacity
+of the man who overcame them.
+
+Washington, in the first place, was obliged to deal not only with his
+army, but with the general congress and the congress of the province.
+He had to teach them, utterly ignorant as they were of the needs and
+details of war, how to organize and supply their armies. There was no
+commissary department, there were no uniforms, no arrangements for
+ammunition, no small arms, no cannon, no resources to draw upon for
+all these necessaries of war. Little by little he taught Congress
+to provide after a fashion for these things, little by little he
+developed what he needed, and by his own ingenuity, and by seizing
+alertly every suggestion from others, he supplied for better or worse
+one deficiency after another. He had to deal with various governors
+and various colonies, each with its prejudices, jealousies, and
+shortcomings. He had to arrange for new levies from a people unused
+to war, and to settle with infinite anxiety and much wear and tear of
+mind and body, the conflict as to rank among officers to whom he could
+apply no test but his own insight. He had to organize and stimulate
+the arming of privateers, which, by preying on British commerce, were
+destined to exercise such a powerful influence on the fate of the war.
+It was neither showy nor attractive, such work as this, but it was
+very vital, and it was done.
+
+By the end of July the army was in a better posture of defense;
+and then at the beginning of the next month, as the prospect was
+brightening, it was suddenly discovered that there was no gunpowder.
+An undrilled army, imperfectly organized, was facing a disciplined
+force and had only some nine rounds in the cartridge-boxes. Yet there
+is no quivering in the letters from headquarters. Anxiety and strain
+of nerve are apparent; but a resolute determination rises over all,
+supported by a ready fertility of resource. Couriers flew over the
+country asking for powder in every town and in every village. A vessel
+was even dispatched to the Bermudas to seize there a supply of powder,
+of which the general, always listening, had heard. Thus the immediate
+and grinding pressure was presently relieved, but the staple of war
+still remained pitifully and perilously meagre all through the winter.
+
+Meantime, while thus overwhelmed with the cares immediately about him,
+Washington was watching the rest of the country. He had a keen eye
+upon Johnson and his Indians in the valley of the Mohawk; he followed
+sharply every movement of Tryon and the Tories in New York; he refused
+with stern good sense to detach troops to Connecticut and Long Island,
+knowing well when to give and when to say No, a difficult monosyllable
+for the new general of freshly revolted colonies. But if he would not
+detach in one place, he was ready enough to do so in another. He sent
+one expedition by Lake Champlain, under Montgomery, to Montreal, and
+gave Arnold picked troops to march through the wilds of Maine and
+strike Quebec. The scheme was bold and brilliant, both in conception
+and in execution, and came very near severing Canada forever from the
+British crown. A chapter of little accidents, each one of which proved
+as fatal as it was unavoidable, a moment's delay on the Plains of
+Abraham, and the whole campaign failed; but there was a grasp of
+conditions, a clearness of perception, and a comprehensiveness about
+the plan, which stamp it as the work of a great soldier, who saw
+besides the military importance, the enormous political value held out
+by the chance of such a victory.
+
+The daring, far-reaching quality of this Canadian expedition was much
+more congenial to Washington's temper and character than the wearing
+work of the siege. All that man could do before Boston was done, and
+still Congress expected the impossible, and grumbled because without
+ships he did not secure the harbor. He himself, while he inwardly
+resented such criticism, chafed under the monotonous drudgery of the
+intrenchments. He was longing, according to his nature, to fight, and
+was, it must be confessed, quite ready to attempt the impossible in
+his own way. Early in September he proposed to attack the town in
+boats and by the neck of land at Roxbury, but the council of officers
+unanimously voted against him. A little more than a month later he
+planned another attack, and was again voted down by his officers.
+Councils of war never fight, it is said, and perhaps in this case
+it was well that such was their habit, for the schemes look rather
+desperate now. To us they serve to show the temper of the man, and
+also his self-control in this respect at the beginning of the war, for
+Washington became ready enough afterwards to override councils when he
+was wholly free from doubt himself.
+
+Thus the planning of campaigns, both distant and near, went on, and at
+the same time the current of details, difficult, vital, absolute in
+demanding prompt and vigorous solution, went on too. The existence of
+war made it necessary to fix our relations with our enemies, and that
+these relations should be rightly settled was of vast moment to our
+cause, struggling for recognition. The first question was the matter
+of prisoners, and on August 11 Washington wrote to Gage:--
+
+"I understand that the officers engaged in the cause of liberty and
+their country, who by the fortune of war have fallen into your hands,
+have been thrown indiscriminately into a common gaol appropriated
+for felons; that no consideration has been had for those of the most
+respectable rank, when languishing with wounds and sickness; and that
+some have been even amputated in this unworthy situation.
+
+"Let your opinion, sir, of the principle which actuates them be what
+it may, they suppose that they act from the noblest of all principles,
+a love of freedom and their country. But political principles, I
+conceive, are foreign to this point. The obligations arising from the
+rights of humanity and claims of rank are universally binding and
+extensive, except in case of retaliation. These, I should have hoped,
+would have dictated a more tender treatment of those individuals whom
+chance or war had put in your power. Nor can I forbear suggesting
+its fatal tendency to widen that unhappy breach which you, and those
+ministers under whom you act, have repeatedly declared your wish is to
+see forever closed.
+
+"My duty now makes it necessary to apprise you, that for the future I
+shall regulate all my conduct towards those gentlemen who are or may
+be in our possession, exactly by the rule you shall observe towards
+those of ours now in your custody.
+
+"If severity and hardship mark the line of your conduct, painful as it
+may be to me, your prisoners will feel its effects. But if kindness
+and humanity are shown to ours, I shall with pleasure consider those
+in our hands only as unfortunate, and they shall receive from me that
+treatment to which the unfortunate are ever entitled."
+
+This is a letter worthy of a little study. The affair does not look
+very important now, but it went then to the roots of things; for this
+letter would go out to the world, and America and the American cause
+would be judged by their leader. A little bluster or ferocity, any
+fine writing, or any absurdity, and the world would have sneered,
+condemned, or laughed. But no man could read this letter and fail to
+perceive that here was dignity and force, justice and sense, with just
+a touch of pathos and eloquence to recommend it to the heart. Men
+might differ with the writer, but they could neither laugh at him nor
+set him aside.
+
+Gage replied after his kind. He was an inconsiderable person, dull
+and well meaning, intended for the command of a garrison town,
+and terribly twisted and torn by the great events in which he was
+momentarily caught. His masters were stupid and arrogant, and he
+imitated them with perfect success, except that arrogance with him
+dwindled to impertinence. He answered Washington's letter with denials
+and recriminations, lectured the American general on the political
+situation, and talked about "usurped authority," "rebels,"
+"criminals," and persons destined to the "cord." Washington, being a
+man of his word, proceeded to put some English prisoners into jail,
+and then wrote a second note, giving Gage a little lesson in manners,
+with the vain hope of making him see that gentlemen did not scold
+and vituperate because they fought. He restated his case calmly
+and coolly, as before, informed Gage that he had investigated the
+counter-charge of cruelty and found it without any foundation, and
+then continued: "You advise me to give free operation to truth, and
+to punish misrepresentation and falsehood. If experience stamps value
+upon counsel, yours must have a weight which few can claim. You best
+can tell how far the convulsion, which has brought such ruin on both
+countries, and shaken the mighty empire of Britain to its foundation,
+may be traced to these malignant causes.
+
+"You affect, sir, to despise all rank not derived from the same source
+with your own. I cannot conceive one more honorable than that which
+flows from the uncorrupted choice of a brave and free people, the
+purest source and original fountain of all power. Far from making it a
+plea for cruelty, a mind of true magnanimity and enlarged ideas would
+comprehend and respect it."
+
+Washington had grasped instinctively the general truth that Englishmen
+are prone to mistake civility for servility, and become offensive,
+whereas if they are treated with indifference, rebuke, or even
+rudeness, they are apt to be respectful and polite. He was obliged to
+go over the same ground with Sir William Howe, a little later, and
+still more sharply; and this matter of prisoners recurred, although at
+longer and longer intervals, throughout the war. But as the British
+generals saw their officers go to jail, and found that their impudence
+and assumption were met by keen reproofs, they gradually comprehended
+that Washington was not a man to be trifled with, and that in him
+was a pride and dignity out-topping theirs and far stronger, because
+grounded on responsibility borne and work done, and on the deep sense
+of a great and righteous cause.
+
+It was probably a pleasure and a relief to give to Gage and Sir
+William Howe a little instruction in military behavior and general
+good manners, but there was nothing save infinite vexation in dealing
+with the difficulties arising on the American side of the line. As the
+days shortened and the leaves fell, Washington saw before him a New
+England winter, with no clothing and no money for his troops. Through
+long letters to Congress, and strenuous personal efforts, these
+wants were somehow supplied. Then the men began to get restless and
+homesick, and both privates and officers would disappear to their
+farms, which Washington, always impatient of wrongdoing, styled "base
+and pernicious conduct," and punished accordingly. By and by the terms
+of enlistment ran out and the regiments began to melt away even before
+the proper date. Recruiting was carried on slowly and with difficulty,
+new levies were tardy in coming in, and Congress could not be
+persuaded to stop limited enlistments. Still the task was done. The
+old army departed and a new one arose in its place, the posts were
+strengthened and ammunition secured.
+
+Among these reinforcements came some Virginia riflemen, and it must
+have warmed Washington's heart to see once more these brave and hardy
+fighters in the familiar hunting shirt and leggins. They certainly
+made him warm in a very different sense by getting into a
+rough-and-tumble fight one winter's day with some Marblehead
+fishermen. The quarrel was at its height, when suddenly into the brawl
+rode the commander-in-chief. He quickly dismounted, seized two of the
+combatants, shook them, berated them, if tradition may be trusted,
+for their local jealousies, and so with strong arm quelled the
+disturbance. He must have longed to take more than one colonial
+governor or magnate by the throat and shake him soundly, as he did his
+soldiers from the woods of Virginia and the rocks of Marblehead, for
+to his temper there was nothing so satisfying as rapid and decisive
+action. But he could not quell governors and assemblies in this way,
+and yet he managed them and got what he wanted with a patience and
+tact which it must have been in the last degree trying to him to
+practice, gifted as he was with a nature at once masterful and
+passionate.
+
+Another trial was brought about by his securing and sending out
+privateers which did good service. They brought in many valuable
+prizes which caused infinite trouble, and forced Washington not only
+to be a naval secretary, but also made him a species of admiralty
+judge. He implored the slow-moving Congress to relieve him from this
+burden, and suggested a plan which led to the formation of special
+committees and was the origin of the Federal judiciary of the United
+States. Besides the local jealousies and the personal jealousies, and
+the privateers and their prizes, he had to meet also the greed and
+selfishness as well of the money-making, stock-jobbing spirit which
+springs up rankly under the influence of army contracts and large
+expenditures among a people accustomed to trade and unused to war.
+Washington wrote savagely of these practices, but still, despite all
+hindrances and annoyances, he kept moving straight on to his object.
+
+In the midst of his labors, harassed and tried in all ways, he was
+assailed as usual by complaint and criticism. Some of it came to him
+through his friend and aide, Joseph Reed, to whom he wrote in reply
+one of the noblest letters ever penned by a great man struggling with
+adverse circumstances and wringing victory from grudging fortune. He
+said that he was always ready to welcome criticism, hear advice, and
+learn the opinion of the world. "For as I have but one capital object
+in view, I could wish to make my conduct coincide with the wishes of
+mankind, as far as I can consistently; I mean, without departing from
+that great line of duty which, though hid under a cloud for some
+time, from a peculiarity of circumstances, may, nevertheless, bear
+a scrutiny." Thus he held fast to "the great line of duty," though
+bitterly tried the while by the news from Canada, where brilliant
+beginnings were coming to dismal endings, and cheered only by the
+arrival of his wife, who drove up one day in her coach and four, with
+the horses ridden by black postilions in scarlet and white liveries,
+much to the amazement, no doubt, of the sober-minded New England folk.
+
+Light, however, finally began to break on the work about him. Henry
+Knox, sent out for that purpose, returned safely with the guns
+captured at Ticonderoga, and thus heavy ordnance and gunpowder were
+obtained. By the middle of February the harbor was frozen over, and
+Washington arranged to cross the ice and carry Boston by storm.
+Again he was held back by his council, but this time he could not be
+stopped. If he could not cross the ice he would go by land. He had
+been slowly but surely advancing his works all winter, and now he
+determined on a decisive stroke. On the evening of Monday, March
+4, under cover of a heavy bombardment which distracted the enemy's
+attention, he marched a large body of troops to Dorchester Heights
+and began to throw up redoubts. The work went forward rapidly, and
+Washington rode about all night encouraging the men. The New England
+soldiers had sorely tried his temper, and there were many severe
+attacks and bitter criticisms upon them in his letters, which were
+suppressed or smoothed over for the most part by Mr. Sparks, but
+which have come to light since, as is sometimes the case with facts.
+Gradually, however, the General had come to know his soldiers better,
+and six months later he wrote to Lund Washington, praising his
+northern troops in the highest terms. Even now he understood them as
+never before, and as he watched them on that raw March night, working
+with the energy and quick intelligence of their race, he probably felt
+that the defects were superficial, but the virtues, the tenacity, and
+the courage were lasting and strong.
+
+When day dawned, and the British caught sight of the formidable works
+which had sprung up in the night, there was a great excitement and
+running hither and thither in the town. Still the men on the heights
+worked on, and still Washington rode back and forth among them. He was
+stirred and greatly rejoiced at the coming of the fight, which he now
+believed inevitable, and as always, when he was deeply moved, the
+hidden springs of sentiment and passion were opened, and he reminded
+his soldiers that it was the anniversary of the Boston massacre, and
+appealed to them by the memories of that day to prepare for battle
+with the enemy. As with the Huguenots at Ivry,--
+
+  "Remember St. Bartholomew was passed from man to man."
+
+But the fighting never came. The British troops were made ready, then
+a gale arose and they could not cross the bay. The next day it
+rained in torrents, and the next day it was too late. The American
+intrenchments frowned threateningly above the town, and began to send
+in certain ominous messengers in the shape of shot and shell. The
+place was now so clearly untenable that Howe determined to evacuate
+it. An informal request to allow the troops to depart unmolested was
+not answered, but Washington suspended his fire and the British made
+ready to withdraw. Still they hesitated and delayed, until Washington
+again advanced his works, and on this hint they started in earnest, on
+March 17, amid confusion, pillage, and disorder, leaving cannon and
+much else behind them, and seeking refuge in their ships.
+
+All was over, and the town was in the hands of the Americans. In
+Washington's own words, "To maintain a post within musket-shot of the
+enemy for six months together, without powder, and at the same time
+to disband one army and recruit another within that distance of
+twenty-odd British regiments, is more, probably, than ever was
+attempted." It was, in truth, a gallant feat of arms, carried through
+by the resolute will and strong brain of one man. The troops on
+both sides were brave, but the British had advantages far more than
+compensating for a disparity of numbers, always slight and often
+more imaginary than real. They had twelve thousand men, experienced,
+disciplined, equipped, and thoroughly supplied. They had the best arms
+and cannon and gunpowder. They commanded the sea with a strong fleet,
+and they were concentrated on the inside line, able to strike with
+suddenness and overwhelming force at any point of widely extended
+posts. Washington caught them with an iron grip and tightened it
+steadily until, in disorderly haste, they took to their boats without
+even striking a blow. Washington's great abilities, and the incapacity
+of the generals opposed to him, were the causes of this result. If
+Robert Clive, for instance, had chanced to have been there the end
+might possibly have been the same, but there would have been some
+bloody fighting before that end was reached. The explanation of the
+feeble abandonment of Boston lies in the stupidity of the English
+government, which had sown the wind and then proceeded to handle the
+customary crop with equal fatuity.
+
+There were plenty of great men in England, but they were not
+conducting her government or her armies. Lord Sandwich had declared
+in the House of Lords that all "Yankees were cowards," a simple and
+satisfactory statement, readily accepted by the governing classes, and
+flung in the teeth of the British soldiers as they fell back twice
+from the bloody slopes of Bunker Hill. Acting on this pleasant idea,
+England sent out as commanders of her American army a parcel of
+ministerial and court favorites, thoroughly second-rate men, to whom
+was confided the task of beating one of the best soldiers and hardest
+fighters of the century. Despite the enormous material odds in favor
+of Great Britain, the natural result of matching the Howes and Gages
+and Clintons against George Washington ensued, and the first lesson
+was taught by the evacuation of Boston.
+
+Washington did not linger over his victory. Even while the British
+fleet still hung about the harbor he began to send troops to New York
+to make ready for the next attack. He entered Boston in order to see
+that every precaution was taken against the spread of the smallpox,
+and then prepared to depart himself. Two ideas, during his first
+winter of conflict, had taken possession of his mind, and undoubtedly
+influenced profoundly his future course. One was the conviction that
+the struggle must be fought out to the bitter end, and must bring
+either subjugation or complete independence. He wrote in February:
+"With respect to myself, I have never entertained an idea of an
+accommodation, since I heard of the measures which were adopted in
+consequence of the Bunker's Hill fight;" and at an earlier date he
+said: "I hope my countrymen (of Virginia) will rise superior to any
+losses the whole navy of Great Britain can bring on them, and that the
+destruction of Norfolk and threatened devastation of other places
+will have no other effect than to unite the whole country in one
+indissoluble band against a nation which seems to be lost to every
+sense of virtue and those feelings which distinguish a civilized
+people from the most barbarous savages." With such thoughts he
+sought to make Congress appreciate the probable long duration of the
+struggle, and he bent every energy to giving permanency to his army,
+and decisiveness to each campaign. The other idea which had grown in
+his mind during the weary siege was that the Tories were thoroughly
+dangerous and deserved scant mercy. In his second letter to Gage he
+refers to them, with the frankness which characterized him when he
+felt strongly, as "execrable parricides," and he made ready to
+treat them with the utmost severity at New York and elsewhere. When
+Washington was aroused there was a stern and relentless side to his
+character, in keeping with the force and strength which were his chief
+qualities. His attitude on this point seems harsh now when the
+old Tories no longer look very dreadful and we can appreciate the
+sincerity of conviction which no doubt controlled most of them. But
+they were dangerous then, and Washington, with his honest hatred of
+all that seemed to him to partake of meanness or treason, proposed to
+put them down and render them harmless, being well convinced, after
+his clear-sighted fashion, that war was not peace, and that mildness
+to domestic foes was sadly misplaced.
+
+His errand to New England was now done and well done. His victory was
+won, everything was settled at Boston; and so, having sent his army
+forward, he started for New York, to meet the harder trials that still
+awaited him.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+SAVING THE REVOLUTION
+
+
+After leaving Boston, Washington proceeded through Rhode Island and
+Connecticut, pushing troops forward as he advanced, and reached New
+York on April 13. There he found himself plunged at once into the same
+sea of difficulties with which he had been struggling at Boston, the
+only difference being that these were fresh and entirely untouched.
+The army was inadequate, and the town, which was the central point
+of the colonies, as well as the great river at its side, was wholly
+unprotected. The troops were in large measure raw and undrilled, the
+committee of safety was hesitating, the Tories were virulent and
+active, corresponding constantly with Tryon, who was lurking in a
+British man-of-war, while from the north came tidings of retreat
+and disaster. All these harassing difficulties crowded upon the
+commander-in-chief as soon as he arrived. To appreciate him it is
+necessary to understand these conditions and realize their weight and
+consequence, albeit the details seem petty. When we comprehend the
+difficulties, then we can see plainly the greatness of the man who
+quietly and silently took them up and disposed of them. Some he
+scotched and some he killed, but he dealt with them all after a
+fashion sufficient to enable him to move steadily forward. In his
+presence the provincial committee suddenly stiffened and grew strong.
+All correspondence with Tryon was cut off, the Tories were repressed,
+and on Long Island steps were taken to root out "these abominable
+pests of society," as the commander-in-chief called them in his
+plain-spoken way. Then forts were built, soldiers energetically
+recruited and drilled, arrangements made for prisoners, and despite
+all the present cares anxious thought was given to the Canada
+campaign, and ideas and expeditions, orders, suggestions, and
+encouragement were freely furnished to the dispirited generals and
+broken forces of the north.
+
+One matter, however, overshadowed all others. Nearly a year before,
+Washington had seen that there was no prospect or possibility of
+accommodation with Great Britain. It was plain to his mind that the
+struggle was final in its character and would be decisive. Separation
+from the mother country, therefore, ought to come at once, so that
+public opinion might be concentrated, and above all, permanency ought
+to be given to the army. These ideas he had been striving to impress
+upon Congress, for the most part less clearsighted than he was as to
+facts, and as the months slipped by his letters had grown constantly
+more earnest and more vehement. Still Congress hesitated, and at last
+Washington went himself to Philadelphia and held conferences with
+the principal men. What he said is lost, but the tone of Congress
+certainly rose after his visit. The aggressive leaders found their
+hands so much strengthened that little more than a month later they
+carried through a declaration of independence, which was solemnly and
+gratefully proclaimed to the army by the general, much relieved to
+have got through the necessary boat-burning, and to have brought
+affairs, military and political, on to the hard ground of actual fact.
+
+Soon after his return from Philadelphia, he received convincing
+proof that his views in regard to the Tories were extremely sound.
+A conspiracy devised by Tryon, which aimed apparently at the
+assassination of the commander-in-chief, and which had corrupted his
+life-guards for that purpose, was discovered and scattered before it
+had fairly hardened into definite form. The mayor of the city and
+various other persons were seized and thrown into prison, and one of
+the life-guards, Thomas Hickey by name, who was the principal tool in
+the plot, was hanged in the presence of a large concourse of people.
+Washington wrote a brief and business-like account of the affair to
+Congress, from which one would hardly suppose that his own life had
+been aimed at. It is a curious instance of his cool indifference to
+personal danger. The conspiracy had failed, that was sufficient for
+him, and he had other things besides himself to consider. "We expect
+a bloody summer in New York and Canada," he wrote to his brother, and
+even while the Canadian expedition was coming to a disastrous close,
+and was bringing hostile invasion instead of the hoped-for conquest,
+British men-of-war were arriving daily in the harbor, and a large army
+was collecting on Staten Island. The rejoicings over the Declaration
+of Independence had hardly died away, when the vessels of the enemy
+made their way up the Hudson without check from the embryo forts, or
+the obstacles placed in the stream.
+
+July 12 Lord Howe arrived with more troops, and also with ample
+powers to pardon and negotiate. Almost immediately he tried to open
+a correspondence with Washington, but Colonel Reed, in behalf of the
+General, refused to receive the letter addressed to "Mr. Washington."
+Then Lord Howe sent an officer to the American camp with a second
+letter, addressed to "George Washington, Esq., etc., etc." The bearer
+was courteously received, but the letter was declined. "The etc., etc.
+implies everything," said the Englishman. It may also mean "anything,"
+Washington replied, and added that touching the pardoning power of
+Lord Howe there could be no pardon where there was no guilt, and where
+no forgiveness was asked. As a result of these interviews, Lord Howe
+wrote to England that it would be well to give Mr. Washington his
+proper title. A small question, apparently, this of the form of
+address, especially to a lover of facts, and yet it was in reality
+of genuine importance. To the world Washington represented the young
+republic, and he was determined to extort from England the first
+acknowledgment of independence by compelling her to recognize the
+Americans as belligerents and not rebels. Washington cared as little
+for vain shows as any man who ever lived, but he had the highest sense
+of personal dignity, and of the dignity of his cause and country.
+Neither should be allowed to suffer in his hands. He appreciated the
+effect on mankind of forms and titles, and with unerring judgment
+he insisted on what he knew to be of real value. It is one of the
+earliest examples of the dignity and good taste which were of such
+inestimable value to his country.
+
+He had abundant occasion also for the employment of these same
+qualities, coupled with unwearied patience and tact, in dealing with
+his own men. The present army was drawn from a wider range than that
+which had taken Boston, and sectional jealousies and disputes, growing
+every day more hateful to the commander-in-chief, sprang up rankly.
+The men of Maryland thought those of Connecticut ploughboys; the
+latter held the former to be fops and dandies. These and a hundred
+other disputes buzzed and whirled about Washington, stirring his
+strong temper, and exercising his sternest self-control in the
+untiring effort to suppress them and put them to death. "It
+requires," John Adams truly said, "more serenity of temper, a deeper
+understanding, and more courage than fell to the lot of Marlborough,
+to ride in this whirlwind." Fortunately these qualities were all
+there, and with them an honesty of purpose and an unbending directness
+of character to which Anne's great general was a stranger.
+
+Meantime, while the internal difficulties were slowly diminished, the
+forces of the enemy rapidly increased. First it became evident that
+attacks were not feasible. Then the question changed to a mere choice
+of defenses. Even as to this there was great and harassing doubt, for
+the enemy, having command of the water, could concentrate and attack
+at any point they pleased. Moreover, the British had thirty thousand
+of the best disciplined and best equipped troops that Europe could
+furnish, while Washington had some twenty thousand men, one fourth of
+whom were unfit for duty, and with the remaining three fourths, raw
+recruits for the most part, he was obliged to defend an extended line
+of posts, without cavalry, and with no means for rapid concentration.
+Had he been governed solely by military considerations he would have
+removed the inhabitants, burned New York, and drawing his forces
+together would have taken up a secure post of observation. To have
+destroyed the town, however, not only would have frightened the timid
+and the doubters, and driven them over to the Tories, but would have
+dispirited the patriots not yet alive to the exigencies of war, and
+deeply injured the American cause. That Washington well understood the
+need of such action is clear, both from the current rumors that the
+town was to be burned, and from his expressed desire to remove the
+women and children from New York. But political considerations
+overruled the military necessity, and he spared the town. It was bad
+enough to be thus hampered, but he was even more fettered in other
+ways, for he could not even concentrate his forces and withdraw to the
+Highlands without a battle, as he was obliged to fight in order to
+sustain public feeling, and thus he was driven on to almost sure
+defeat. With Brooklyn Heights in the hands of the enemy New York was
+untenable, and yet it was obvious that to hold Brooklyn when the enemy
+controlled the sea was inviting defeat. Yet Washington under the
+existing conditions had no choice except to fight on Long Island and
+to say that he hoped to make a good defense.
+
+Everything, too, as the day of battle drew near, seemed to make
+against him. On August 22 the enemy began to land on Long Island,
+where Greene had drawn a strong line of redoubts behind the village of
+Brooklyn, to defend the heights which commanded New York, and had made
+every arrangement to protect the three roads through the wooded hills,
+about a mile from the intrenchments. Most unfortunately, and just at
+the critical moment, Greene was taken down with a raging fever, so
+that when Washington came over on the 24th he found much confusion in
+the camps, which he repressed as best he could, and then prepared for
+the attack. Greene's illness, however, had caused some oversights
+which were unknown to the commander-in-chief, and which, as it turned
+out, proved fatal.
+
+After indecisive skirmishing for two or three days, the British
+started early on the morning of the 26th. They had nine thousand men
+and were well informed as to the country. Advancing through woodpaths
+and lanes, they came round to the left flank of the Americans. One
+of the roads through the hills was unguarded, the others feebly
+protected. The result is soon told. The Americans, out-generaled and
+out-flanked, were taken by surprise and surrounded, Sullivan and
+his division were cut off, and then Lord Stirling. There was some
+desperate fighting, and the Americans showed plenty of courage, but
+only a few forced their way out. Most of them were killed or taken
+prisoners, the total loss out of some five thousand men reaching as
+high as two thousand.
+
+From the redoubts, whither he had come at the sound of the firing,
+Washington watched the slaughter and disaster in grim silence. He saw
+the British troops, flushed with victory, press on to the very edge
+of his works and then withdraw in obedience to command. The British
+generals had their prey so surely, as they believed, that they
+mercifully decided not to waste life unnecessarily by storming the
+works in the first glow of success. So they waited during that
+night and the two following days, while Washington strengthened his
+intrenchments, brought over reinforcements, and prepared for the
+worst. On the 29th it became apparent that there was a movement in the
+fleet, and that arrangements were being made to take the Americans in
+the rear and wholly cut them off. It was an obvious and sensible plan,
+but the British overlooked the fact that while they were lingering,
+summing up their victory, and counting the future as assured, there
+was a silent watchful man on the other side of the redoubts who for
+forty-eight hours never left the lines, and who with a great capacity
+for stubborn fighting could move, when the stress came, with the
+celerity and stealth of a panther.
+
+Washington swiftly determined to retreat. It was a desperate
+undertaking, and a lesser man would have hesitated and been lost. He
+had to transport nine thousand men across a strait of strong tides and
+currents, and three quarters of a mile in width. It was necessary to
+collect the boats from a distance, and do it all within sight and
+hearing of the enemy. The boats were obtained, a thick mist settled
+down on sea and land, the water was calm, and as the night wore away,
+the entire army with all its arms and baggage was carried over,
+Washington leaving in the last boat. At daybreak the British awoke,
+but it was too late. They had fought a successful battle, they had had
+the American army in their grasp, and now all was over. The victory
+had melted away, and, as a grand result, they had a few hundred
+prisoners, a stray boat with three camp-followers, and the deserted
+works in which they stood. To grasp so surely the happy chance of wind
+and weather and make such a retreat as this was a feat of arms as
+great as most victories, and in it we see, perhaps as plainly as
+anywhere, the nerve and quickness of the man who conducted it. It is
+true, it was the only chance of salvation, but the great man is he who
+is entirely master of his opportunity, even if he have but one.
+
+The outlook, nevertheless, was, as Washington wrote, "truly
+distressing." The troops were dispirited, and the militia began to
+disappear, as they always did after a defeat. Congress would not
+permit the destruction of the city, different interests pulled in
+different directions, conflicting opinions distracted the councils
+of war, and, with utter inability to predict the enemy's movements,
+everything led to halfway measures and to intense anxiety, while Lord
+Howe tried to negotiate with Congress, and the Americans waited for
+events. Washington, looking beyond the confusion of the moment, saw
+that he had gained much by delay, and had his own plan well defined.
+He wrote: "We have not only delayed the operations of the campaign
+till it is too late to effect any capital incursion into the country,
+but have drawn the enemy's forces to one point.... It would be
+presumption to draw out our young troops into open ground against
+their superiors both in number and discipline, and I have never spared
+the spade and pickaxe." Every one else, however, saw only past defeat
+and present peril.
+
+The British ships gradually made their way up the river, until it
+became apparent that they intended to surround and cut off the
+American army. Washington made preparations to withdraw, but
+uncertainty of information came near rendering his precautions futile.
+September 15 the men-of-war opened fire, and troops were landed near
+Kip's Bay. The militia in the breastworks at that point had been
+at Brooklyn and gave way at once, communicating their panic to two
+Connecticut regiments. Washington, galloping down to the scene of
+battle, came upon the disordered and flying troops. He dashed in among
+them, conjuring them to stop, but even while he was trying to rally
+them they broke again on the appearance of some sixty or seventy of
+the enemy, and ran in all directions. In a tempest of anger Washington
+drew his pistols, struck the fugitives with his sword, and was only
+forced from the field by one of his officers seizing the bridle of his
+horse and dragging him away from the British, now within a hundred
+yards of the spot.
+
+Through all his trials and anxieties Washington always showed the
+broadest and most generous sympathy. When the militia had begun to
+leave him a few days before, although he despised their action and
+protested bitterly to Congress against their employment, yet in his
+letters he displayed a keen appreciation of their feelings, and saw
+plainly every palliation and excuse. But there was one thing which
+he could never appreciate nor realize. It was from first to last
+impossible for him to understand how any man could refuse to fight, or
+could think of running away. When he beheld rout and cowardly panic
+before his very eyes, his temper broke loose and ran uncontrolled. His
+one thought then was to fight to the last, and he would have thrown
+himself single-handed on the enemy, with all his wisdom and prudence
+flung to the winds. The day when the commander held his place merely
+by virtue of personal prowess lay far back in the centuries, and no
+one knew it better than Washington. But the old fighting spirit awoke
+within him when the clash of arms sounded in his ears, and though we
+may know the general in the tent and in the council, we can only know
+the man when he breaks out from all rules and customs, and shows the
+rage of battle, and the indomitable eagerness for the fray, which lie
+at the bottom of the tenacity and courage that carried the war for
+independence to a triumphant close.
+
+The rout and panic over, Washington quickly turned to deal with the
+pressing danger. With coolness and quickness he issued his orders, and
+succeeded in getting his army off, Putnam's division escaping most
+narrowly. He then took post at King's Bridge, and began to strengthen
+and fortify his lines. While thus engaged, the enemy advanced, and
+on the 16th Washington suddenly took the offensive and attacked the
+British light troops. The result was a sharp skirmish, in which the
+British were driven back with serious loss, and great bravery was
+shown by the Connecticut and Virginia troops, the two commanding
+officers being killed. This affair, which was the first gleam of
+success, encouraged the troops, and was turned to the best account by
+the general. Still a successful skirmish did not touch the essential
+difficulties of the situation, which then as always came from
+within, rather than without. To face and check twenty-five thousand
+well-equipped and highly disciplined soldiers Washington had now some
+twelve thousand men, lacking in everything which goes to make an army,
+except mere individual courage and a high average of intelligence.
+Even this meagre force was an inconstant and diminishing quantity,
+shifting, uncertain, and always threatening dissolution.
+
+The task of facing and fighting the enemy was enough for the ablest
+of men; but Washington was obliged also to combat and overcome the
+inertness and dullness born of ignorance, and to teach Congress how to
+govern a nation at war. In the hours "allotted to sleep," he sat in
+his headquarters, writing a letter, with "blots and scratches," which
+told Congress with the utmost precision and vigor just what was
+needed. It was but one of a long series of similar letters, written
+with unconquerable patience and with unwearied iteration, lighted here
+and there by flashes of deep and angry feeling, which would finally
+strike home under the pressure of defeat, and bring the patriots of
+the legislature to sudden action, always incomplete, but still action
+of some sort. It must have been inexpressibly dreary work, but quite
+as much was due to those letters as to the battles. Thinking for other
+people, and teaching them what to do, is at best an ungrateful duty,
+but when it is done while an enemy is at your throat, it shows a grim
+tenacity of purpose which is well worth consideration.
+
+In this instance the letter of September 24, read in the light of the
+battles of Long Island and Kip's Bay, had a considerable effect. The
+first steps were taken to make the army national and permanent, to
+raise the pay of officers, and to lengthen enlistments. Like most of
+the war measures of Congress, they were too late for the immediate
+necessity, but they helped the future. Congress, moreover, then felt
+that all had been done that could be demanded, and relapsed once more
+into confidence. "The British force," said John Adams, chairman of the
+board of war, "is so divided, they will do no great matter this
+fall." But Washington, facing hard facts, wrote to Congress with his
+unsparing truth on October 4: "Give me leave to say, sir, (I say it
+with due deference and respect, and my knowledge of the facts, added
+to the importance of the cause and the stake I hold in it, must
+justify the freedom,) that your affairs are in a more unpromising way
+than you seem to apprehend. Your army, as I mentioned in my last, is
+on the eve of its political dissolution. True it is, you have voted
+a larger one in lieu of it; but the season is late; and there is a
+material difference between voting battalions and raising men."
+
+The campaign as seen from the board of war and from the Plains of
+Harlem differed widely. It is needless to say now which was correct;
+every one knows that the General was right and Congress wrong, but
+being in the right did not help Washington, nor did he take petty
+pleasure in being able to say, "I told you how it would be." The
+hard facts remained unchanged. There was the wholly patriotic but
+slumberous, and for fighting purposes quite inefficient Congress still
+to be waked up and kept awake, and to be instructed. With painful
+and plain-spoken repetition this work was grappled with and done
+methodically, and like all else as effectively as was possible.
+
+Meanwhile the days slipped along, and Washington waited on the Harlem
+Plains, planning descents on Long Island, and determining to make a
+desperate stand where he was, unless the situation decidedly changed.
+Then the situation did change, as neither he nor any one else
+apparently had anticipated. The British warships came up the Hudson
+past the forts, brushing aside our boasted obstructions, destroying
+our little fleet, and getting command of the river. Then General Howe
+landed at Frog's Point, where he was checked for the moment by the
+good disposition of Heath, under Washington's direction. These two
+events made it evident that the situation of the American army was
+full of peril, and that retreat was again necessary. Such certainly
+was the conclusion of the council of war, on the 16th, acting this
+time in agreement with their chief. Six days Howe lingered on Frog's
+Point, bringing up stores or artillery or something; it matters little
+now why he tarried. Suffice it that he waited, and gave six days to
+his opponent. They were of little value to Howe, but they were
+of inestimable worth to Washington, who employed them in getting
+everything in readiness, in holding his council of war, and then on
+the 17th in moving deliberately off to very strong ground at White
+Plains. On his way he fought two or three slight, sharp, and
+successful skirmishes with the British. Sir William followed closely,
+but with much caution, having now a dull glimmer in his mind that at
+the head of the raw troops in front of him was a man with whom it was
+not safe to be entirely careless.
+
+On the 28th, Howe came up to Washington's position, and found the
+Americans quite equal in numbers, strongly intrenched, and awaiting
+his attack with confidence. He hesitated, doubted, and finally feeling
+that he must do something, sent four thousand men to storm Chatterton
+Hill, an outlying post, where some fourteen hundred Americans were
+stationed. There was a short, sharp action, and then the Americans
+retreated in good order to the main army, having lost less than half
+as many men as their opponents. With caution now much enlarged, Howe
+sent for reinforcements, and waited two days. The third day it rained,
+and on the fourth Howe found that Washington had withdrawn to a higher
+and quite impregnable line of hills, where he held all the passes in
+the rear and awaited a second attack. Howe contemplated the situation
+for two or three days longer, and then broke camp and withdrew to
+Dobbs Ferry to secure Fort Washington, which treachery offered him as
+an easy and inviting prize. Such were the great results of the victory
+of Long Island, two wasted months, and the American army still
+untouched.
+
+Howe was resolved that his campaign should not be utterly fruitless,
+and therefore directed his attention to the defenses of the Hudson,
+and here he met with better success. Congress, in its military wisdom,
+had insisted that these forts must and could be held. So thought the
+generals, and so most especially, and most unluckily, did Greene.
+Washington, with his usual accurate and keen perception, saw, from the
+time the men-of-war came up the Hudson, and, now that the British
+army was free, more clearly than ever, that both forts ought to be
+abandoned. Sure of his ground, he overruled Congress, but was so far
+influenced by Greene that he gave to that officer discretionary orders
+as to withdrawal. This was an act of weakness, as he afterwards
+admitted, for which he bitterly reproached himself, never confusing or
+glossing over his own errors, but loyal there, as elsewhere, to facts.
+An attempt was made to hold both forts, and both were lost, as he
+had foreseen. From Fort Lee the garrison withdrew in safety. Fort
+Washington, with its plans all in Howe's hands through the treachery
+of William Demont, the adjutant of Colonel Magaw, was carried by
+storm, after a severe struggle. Twenty-six hundred men and all the
+munitions of war fell into the hands of the enemy. It was a serious
+and most depressing loss, and was felt throughout the continent.
+
+Meantime Washington had crossed info the Jerseys, and, after the loss
+of Fort Lee, began to retreat before the British, who, flushed with
+victory, now advanced rapidly under Lord Cornwallis. The crisis of his
+fate and of the Revolution was upon him. His army was melting away.
+The militia had almost all disappeared, and regiments whose term of
+enlistment had expired were departing daily. Lee, who had a division
+under his command, was ordered to come up, but paid no attention,
+although the orders were repeated almost every day for a month. He
+lingered, and loitered, and excused himself, and at last was taken
+prisoner. This disposed of him for a time very satisfactorily, but
+meanwhile he had succeeded in keeping his troops from Washington,
+which was a most serious misfortune.
+
+On December 2 Washington was at Princeton with three thousand ragged
+men, and the British close upon his heels. They had him now surely
+in their grip. There could be no mistake this time, and there was
+therefore no need of a forced march. But they had not yet learned that
+to Washington even hours meant much, and when, after duly resting,
+they reached the Delaware, they found the Americans on the other side,
+and all the boats destroyed for a distance of seventy miles.
+
+It was winter now, the short gray days had come, and with them
+piercing cold and storms of sleet and ice. It seemed as if the
+elements alone would finally disperse the feeble body of men still
+gathered about the commander-in-chief. Congress had sent him blank
+commissions and orders to recruit, which were well meant, but were not
+practically of much value. As Glendower could call spirits from the
+vasty deep, so they, with like success, sought to call soldiers from
+the earth in the midst of defeat, and in the teeth of a North American
+winter. Washington, baffling pursuit and flying from town to town,
+left nothing undone. North and south went letters and appeals for men,
+money, and supplies. Vain, very vain, it all was, for the most part,
+but still it was done in a tenacious spirit. Lee would not come, the
+Jersey militia would not turn out, thousands began to accept Howe's
+amnesty, and signs of wavering were apparent in some of the Middle
+States. Philadelphia was threatened, Newport was in the hands of the
+enemy, and for ninety miles Washington had retreated, evading ruin
+again and again only by the width of a river. Congress voted not
+to leave Philadelphia,--a fact which their General declined to
+publish,--and then fled.
+
+No one remained to face the grim realities of the time but Washington,
+and he met them unmoved. Not a moment passed that he did not seek in
+some way to effect something. Not an hour went by that he did not turn
+calmly from fresh and ever renewed disappointment to work and action.
+
+By the middle of December Howe felt satisfied that the American army
+would soon dissolve, and leaving strong detachments in various posts
+he withdrew to New York. His premises were sound, and his conclusions
+logical, but he made his usual mistake of overlooking and
+underestimating the American general. No sooner was it known that
+he was on his way to New York than Washington, at the head of his
+dissolving army, resolved to take the offensive and strike an outlying
+post. In a letter of December 14, the day after Howe began to move, we
+catch the first glimpse of Trenton. It was a bold spirit which, in the
+dead of winter, with a broken army, no prospect of reinforcements, and
+in the midst of a terror-stricken people, could thus resolve with
+some four thousand men to attack an army thoroughly appointed, and
+numbering in all its divisions twenty-five thousand soldiers.
+
+It is well to pause a moment and look at that situation, and at the
+overwhelming difficulties which hemmed it in, and then try to realize
+what manner of man he was who rose superior to it, and conquered it.
+Be it remembered, too, that he never deceived himself, and never for
+one instant disguised the truth. Two years later he wrote that at this
+supreme moment, in what were called "the dark days of America," he was
+never despondent; and this was true enough, for despair was not in his
+nature. But no delusions lent him courage. On the 18th he wrote to his
+brother "that if every nerve was not strained to recruit this new army
+the game was pretty nearly up;" and added, "You can form no idea of
+the perplexity of my situation. No man, I believe, ever had a greater
+choice of difficulties, and less means to extricate himself from them.
+However, under a full persuasion of the justice of our cause, I cannot
+entertain an idea that it will finally sink, though it may remain
+for some time under a cloud." There is no complaint, no boasting, no
+despair in this letter. We can detect a bitterness in the references
+to Congress and to Lee, but the tone of the letter is as calm as a May
+morning, and it concludes with sending love and good wishes to the
+writer's sister and her family.
+
+Thus in the dreary winter Washington was planning and devising and
+sending hither and thither for men, and never ceased through it all
+to write urgent and ever sharper letters and keep a wary eye upon the
+future. He not only wrote strongly, but he pledged his own estate and
+exceeded his powers in desperate efforts to raise money and men. On
+the 20th he wrote to Congress: "It may be thought that I am going a
+good deal out of the line of my duty to adopt these measures, or to
+advise thus freely. A character to lose, an estate to forfeit, the
+inestimable blessings of liberty at stake, and a life devoted, must be
+my excuse." Even now across the century these words come with a grave
+solemnity to our ears, and we can feel as he felt when he alone saw
+that he stood on the brink of a great crisis. It is an awful thing to
+know that the life of a nation is at stake, and this thought throbs in
+his words, measured and quiet as usual, but deeply fraught with much
+meaning to him and to the world.
+
+By Christmas all was ready, and when the Christian world was rejoicing
+and feasting, and the British officers in New York and in the New
+Jersey towns were reveling and laughing, Washington prepared to
+strike. His whole force, broken into various detachments, was less
+than six thousand men. To each division was assigned, with provident
+forethought, its exact part. Nothing was overlooked, nothing omitted;
+and then every division commander failed, for good reason or bad, to
+do his duty. Gates was to march from Bristol with two thousand
+men, Ewing was to cross at Trenton, Putnam was to come up from
+Philadelphia, Griffin was to make a diversion against Donop. When
+the moment came, Gates, disapproving the scheme, was on his way
+to Congress, and Wilkinson, with his message, found his way to
+headquarters by following the bloody tracks of the barefooted
+soldiers. Griffin abandoned New Jersey and fled before Donop. Putnam
+would not even attempt to leave Philadelphia, and Ewing made no effort
+to cross at Trenton. Cadwalader, indeed, came down from Bristol,
+but after looking at the river and the floating ice, gave it up as
+desperate.
+
+But there was one man who did not hesitate nor give up, nor halt on
+account of floating ice. With twenty-four hundred hardy veterans,
+Washington crossed the Delaware. The night was bitter cold and the
+passage difficult. When they landed, and began their march of nine
+miles to Trenton, a fierce storm of sleet drove in their faces.
+Sullivan; marching by the river, sent word that the arms of his men
+were wet. "Then tell your general," said Washington, "to use the
+bayonet, for the town must be taken." In broad daylight they came to
+the town. Washington, at the front and on the right of the line, swept
+down the Pennington road, and as he drove in the pickets he heard the
+shouts of Sullivan's men, as, with Stark leading the van, they charged
+in from the river. A company of yägers and the light dragoons slipped
+away, there was a little confused fighting in the streets, Colonel
+Rahl fell, mortally wounded, his Hessians threw down their arms, and
+all was over. The battle had been fought and won, and the Revolution
+was saved.
+
+[Illustration: WASHINGTON CROSSING THE DELAWARE]
+
+Taking his thousand prisoners with him, Washington recrossed the
+Delaware to his old position. Had all done their duty, as he had
+planned, the British hold on New Jersey would have been shattered. As
+it was, it was only loosened. Congress, aroused at last, had invested
+Washington with almost dictatorial powers; but the time for action was
+short. The army was again melting away, and only by urgent appeals
+were some veterans retained, and enough new men gathered to make a
+force of five thousand men. With this army Washington prepared to
+finish what he had begun.
+
+Trenton struck alarm and dismay into the British, and Cornwallis, with
+seven thousand of the best troops, started from New York to redeem
+what had been lost. Leaving three regiments at Princeton, he pushed
+hotly after Washington, who fell back behind the Assunpink River,
+skirmishing heavily and successfully. When Cornwallis reached the
+river he found the American army drawn up on the other side awaiting
+him. An attack on the bridge was repulsed, and the prospect looked
+uninviting. Some officers urged an immediate assault; but night was
+falling, and Cornwallis, sure of the game, decided to wait till
+the morrow. He, too, forgot that he was facing an enemy who never
+overlooked a mistake, and never waited an hour. With quick decision
+Washington left his camp-fires burning on the river bank, and taking
+roundabout roads, which he had already reconnoitred, marched on to
+Princeton. By sunrise he was in the outskirts of the town. Mercer,
+detached with some three hundred men, fell in with Mawhood's regiment,
+and a sharp action ensued. Mercer was mortally wounded, and his men
+gave way just as the main army came upon the field. The British
+charged, and as the raw Pennsylvanian troops in the van wavered,
+Washington rode to the front, and reining his horse within thirty
+yards of the British, ordered his men to advance. The volleys of
+musketry left him unscathed, the men stood firm, the other divisions
+came rapidly into action, and the enemy gave way in all directions.
+The two other British regiments were driven through the town and
+routed. Had there been cavalry they would have been entirely cut off.
+As it was, they were completely broken, and in this short but bloody
+action they lost five hundred men in killed, wounded, and prisoners.
+It was too late to strike the magazines at Brunswick, as Washington
+had intended, and so he withdrew once more with his army to the high
+lands to rest and recruit.
+
+His work was done, however. The country, which had been supine, and
+even hostile, rose now, and the British were attacked, surprised, and
+cut off in all directions, until at last they were shut up in the
+immediate vicinity of New York. The tide had been turned, and
+Washington had won the precious breathing-time which was all he
+required.
+
+Frederick the Great is reported to have said that this was the most
+brilliant campaign of the century. It certainly showed all the
+characteristics of the highest strategy and most consummate
+generalship. With a force numerically insignificant as compared with
+that opposed to him, Washington won two decisive victories, striking
+the enemy suddenly with superior numbers at each point of attack.
+The Trenton campaign has all the quality of some of the last battles
+fought by Napoleon in France before his retirement to Elba. Moreover,
+these battles show not only generalship of the first order, but great
+statesmanship. They display that prescient knowledge which recognizes
+the supreme moment when all must be risked to save the state. By
+Trenton and Princeton Washington inflicted deadly blows upon the
+enemy, but he did far more by reviving the patriotic spirit of the
+country fainting under the bitter experience of defeat, and by sending
+fresh life and hope and courage throughout the whole people.
+
+It was the decisive moment of the war. Sooner or later the American
+colonies were sure to part from the mother-country, either peaceably
+or violently. But there was nothing inevitable in the Revolution of
+1776, nor was its end at all certain. It was in the last extremities
+when the British overran New Jersey, and if it had not been for
+Washington that particular revolution would have most surely failed.
+Its fate lay in the hands of the general and his army; and to the
+strong brain growing ever keener and quicker as the pressure became
+more intense, to the iron will gathering a more relentless force
+as defeat thickened, to the high, unbending character, and to the
+passionate and fighting temper of Washington, we owe the brilliant
+campaign which in the darkest hour turned the tide and saved the cause
+of the Revolution.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+"MALICE DOMESTIC, AND FOREIGN LEVY"
+
+
+After the "two lucky strokes at Trenton and Princeton," as he himself
+called them, Washington took up a strong position at Morristown and
+waited. His plan was to hold the enemy in check, and to delay all
+operations until spring. It is easy enough now to state his purpose,
+and it looks very simple, but it was a grim task to carry it out
+through the bleak winter days of 1777. The Jerseys farmers, spurred by
+the sufferings inflicted upon them by the British troops, had turned
+out at last in deference to Washington's appeals, after the victories
+of Trenton and Princeton, had harassed and cut off outlying parties,
+and had thus straitened the movements of the enemy. But the main army
+of the colonies, on which all depended, was in a pitiable state. It
+shifted its character almost from day to day. The curse of short
+enlistments, so denounced by Washington, made itself felt now with
+frightful effect. With the new year most of the continental troops
+departed, while others to replace them came in very slowly, and
+recruiting dragged most wearisomely. Washington was thus obliged, with
+temporary reinforcements of raw militia, to keep up appearances; and
+no commander ever struggled with a more trying task. At times it
+looked as if the whole army would actually disappear, and more than
+once Washington expected that the week's or the month's end would find
+him with not more than five hundred men. At the beginning of March he
+had about four thousand men, a few weeks later only three thousand raw
+troops, ill-fed, ill-clad, ill-shod, ill-armed, and almost unpaid.
+Over against him was Howe, with eleven thousand men in the field, and
+still more in the city of New York, well disciplined and equipped,
+well-armed, well-fed, and furnished with every needful supply. The
+contrast is absolutely grotesque, and yet the force of one man's
+genius and will was such that this excellent British army was hemmed
+in and kept in harmless quiet by their ragged opponents.
+
+Washington's plan, from the first, was to keep the field at all
+hazards, and literally at all hazards did he do so. Right and left
+his letters went, day after day, calling with pathetic but dignified
+earnestness for men and supplies. In one of these epistles, to
+Governor Cooke of Rhode Island, written in January, to remonstrate
+against raising troops for the State only, he set forth his intentions
+in a few words. "You must be sensible," he said, "that the season is
+fast approaching when a new campaign will open; nay, the former is not
+yet closed; nor do I intend it shall be, unless the enemy quits the
+Jerseys." To keep fighting all the time, and never let the fire of
+active resistance flicker or die out, was Washington's theory of the
+way to maintain his own side and beat the enemy. If he could not fight
+big battles, he would fight small ones; if he could not fight little
+battles, he would raid and skirmish and surprise; but fighting of some
+sort he would have, while the enemy attempted to spread over a State
+and hold possession of it. We can see the obstacles now, but we can
+only wonder how they were sufficiently overcome to allow anything to
+be done.
+
+Moreover, besides the purely physical difficulties in the lack of men,
+money, and supplies, there were others of a political and personal
+kind, which were even more wearing and trying, but which,
+nevertheless, had to be dealt with also, in some fashion. In order to
+sustain the courage of the people Washington was obliged to give out,
+and to allow it to be supposed, that he had more men than was really
+the case, and so Congress and various wise and well-meaning persons
+grumbled because he did not do more and fight more battles. He never
+deceived Congress, but they either could not or would not understand
+the actual situation. In March he wrote to Robert Morris: "Nor is it
+in my power to make Congress fully sensible of the real situation
+of our affairs, and that it is with difficulty, if I may use the
+expression, that I can by every means in my power keep the life and
+soul of this army together. In a word, when they are at a distance,
+they think it is but to say, _Presto, begone_, and everything is done.
+They seem not to have any conception of the difficulty and perplexity
+attending those who are to execute." It was so easy to see what they
+would like to have done, and so simple to pass a resolve to that
+effect, that Congress never could appreciate the reality of the
+difficulty and the danger until the hand of the enemy was almost at
+their throats. They were not even content with delay and neglect, but
+interfered actively at times, as in the matter of the exchange of
+prisoners, where they made unending trouble for Washington, and showed
+themselves unable to learn or to keep their hands off after any amount
+of instruction.
+
+In January Washington issued a proclamation requiring those
+inhabitants who had subscribed to Howe's declaration to come in within
+thirty days and take the oath of allegiance to the United States. If
+they failed to do so they were to be treated as enemies. The measure
+was an eminently proper one, and the proclamation was couched in the
+most moderate language. It was impossible to permit a large class
+of persons to exist on the theory that they were peaceful American
+citizens and also subjects of King George. The results of such conduct
+were in every way perilous and intolerable, and Washington was
+determined that he would divide the sheep from the goats, and know
+whom he was defending and whom attacking. Yet for this wise and
+necessary action he was called in question in Congress and accused of
+violating civil rights and the resolves of Congress itself. Nothing
+was actually done about it, but such an incident shows from a single
+point the infinite tact and resolution required in waging war under a
+government whose members were unable to comprehend what was meant, and
+who could not see that until they had beaten England it was hardly
+worth while to worry about civil rights, which in case of defeat would
+speedily cease to exist altogether.
+
+Another fertile source of trouble arose from questions of rank.
+Members of Congress, in making promotions and appointments, were
+more apt to consider local claims than military merit, and they also
+allowed their own personal prejudices to affect their action in
+this respect far too much. Thence arose endless heart-burnings
+and jealousies, followed by resignations and the loss of valuable
+officers. Congress, having made the appointments, would go cheerfully
+about its business, while the swarm of grievances thus let loose would
+come buzzing about the devoted head of the commander-in-chief. He
+could not adjourn, but was compelled to quiet rivalries, allay
+irritated feelings, and ride the storm as best he might. It was all
+done, however, in one way or another: by personal appeals, and by
+letters full of dignity, patriotism, and patience, which are very
+impressive and full of meaning for students of character, even in this
+day and generation.
+
+Then again, not content with snarling up our native appointments,
+Congress complicated matters still more dangerously by its treatment
+of foreigners. The members of Congress were colonists, and the fact
+that they had shaken off the yoke of the mother country did not in the
+least alter their colonial and perfectly natural habit of regarding
+with enormous respect Englishmen and Frenchmen, and indeed anybody who
+had had the good fortune to be born in Europe. The result was that
+they distributed commissions and gave inordinate rank to the many
+volunteers who came over the ocean, actuated by various motives, but
+all filled with a profound sense of their own merits. It is only fair
+to Congress to say that the American agents abroad were even more to
+blame in this respect. Silas Deane especially scattered promises of
+commissions with a lavish hand, and Congress refused to fulfill many
+of the promises thus made in its name. Nevertheless, Congress was far
+too lax, and followed too closely the example of its agents. Some of
+these foreigners were disinterested men and excellent soldiers, who
+proved of great value to the American cause. Many others were mere
+military adventurers, capable of being turned to good account,
+perhaps, but by no means entitled to what they claimed and in most
+instances received.
+
+The ill-considered action of Congress and of our agents abroad in
+this respect was a source of constantly recurring troubles of a very
+serious nature. Native officers, who had borne the burden and heat of
+the day, justly resented being superseded by some stranger, unable
+to speak the language, who had landed in the States but a few days
+before. As a result, resignations were threatened which, if carried
+out, would affect the character of the army very deeply. Then again,
+the foreigners themselves, inflated by the eagerness of our agents and
+by their reception at the hands of Congress, would find on joining the
+army that they could get no commands, chiefly because there were none
+to give. They would then become dissatisfied with their rank and
+employment, and bitter complaints and recriminations would ensue.
+All these difficulties, of course, fell most heavily upon the
+commander-in-chief, who was heartily disgusted with the whole
+business. Washington believed from the beginning, and said over and
+over again in various and ever stronger terms, that this was an
+American war and must be fought by Americans. In no other way, and
+by no other persons, did he consider that it could be carried to any
+success worth having. He saw of course the importance of a French
+alliance, and deeply desired it, for it was a leading element in the
+solution of the political and military situation; but alliance with
+a foreign power was one thing, and sporadic military volunteers were
+another. Washington had no narrow prejudices against foreigners,
+for he was a man of broad and liberal mind, and no one was more
+universally beloved and respected by the foreign officers than he; but
+he was intensely American in his feelings, and he would not admit for
+an instant that the American war for independence could be righteously
+fought or honestly won by others than Americans. He was well aware
+that foreign volunteers had a value and use of which he largely and
+gratefully availed himself; but he was exasperated and alarmed by the
+indiscriminate and lavish way in which Congress and our agents abroad
+gave rank and office to them. "Hungry adventurers," he called them in
+one letter, when driven beyond endurance by the endless annoyances
+thus forced upon him; and so he pushed their pretensions aside,
+and managed, on the whole, to keep them in their proper place. The
+operation was delicate, difficult, and unpleasant, for it seemed to
+savor of ingratitude. But Washington was never shaken for an instant
+in his policy, and while he checked the danger, he showed in many
+instances, like Lafayette and Steuben, that he could appreciate and
+use all that was really valuable in the foreign contingent.
+
+The service rendered by Washington in this matter has never been
+justly understood or appreciated. If he had not taken this position,
+and held it with an absolute firmness which bordered on harshness, we
+should have found ourselves in a short time with an army of American
+soldiers officered by foreigners, many of them mere mercenaries,
+"hungry adventurers," from France, Poland or Hungary, from Germany,
+Ireland or England. The result of such a combination would have been
+disorganization and defeat. That members of Congress and some of our
+representatives in Europe did not see the danger, and that they were
+impressed by the foreign officers who came among them, was perfectly
+natural. Men are the creatures of the time in which they live, and
+take their color from the conditions which surround them, as the
+chameleon does from the grass or leaves in which it hides. The rulers
+and lawmakers of 1776 could not cast off their provincial awe of
+the natives of England and Europe as they cast off their political
+allegiance to the British king. The only wonder is that there should
+have been even one man so great in mind and character that he could
+rise at a single bound from the level of a provincial planter to the
+heights of a great national leader. He proved himself such in all
+ways, but in none more surely than in his ability to consider all men
+simply as men, and, with a judgment that nothing could confuse, to
+ward off from his cause and country the dangers inherent in colonial
+habits of thought and action, so menacing to a people struggling for
+independence. We can see this strong, high spirit of nationality
+running through Washington's whole career, but it never did better
+service than when it stood between the American army and undue favor
+to foreign volunteers.
+
+Among other disagreeable and necessary truths, Washington had told
+Congress that Philadelphia was in danger, that Howe probably meant to
+occupy it, and that it would be nearly impossible to prevent his doing
+so. This warning being given and unheeded, he continued to watch his
+antagonist, doing so with increased vigilance, as signs of activity
+began to appear in New York. Toward the end of May he broke up his
+cantonments, having now about seven thousand men, and took a strong
+position within ten miles of Brunswick. Here he waited, keeping
+an anxious eye on the Hudson in case he should be mistaken in his
+expectations, and should find that the enemy really intended to go
+north to meet Burgoyne instead of south to capture Philadelphia.
+
+Washington's doubts were soon to be resolved and his expectations
+fulfilled. May 31, a fleet of a hundred sail left New York, and
+couriers were at once sent southward to warn the States of the
+possibility of a speedy invasion. About the same time transports
+arrived with more German mercenaries, and Howe, thus reinforced,
+entered the Jerseys. Washington determined to decline battle, and if
+the enemy pushed on and crossed the Delaware, to hang heavily on their
+rear, while the militia from the south were drawn up to Philadelphia.
+He adopted this course because he felt confident that Howe would never
+cross the Delaware and leave the main army of the Americans behind
+him. His theory proved correct. The British advanced and retreated,
+burned houses and villages and made feints, but all in vain.
+Washington baffled them at every point, and finally Sir William
+evacuated the Jerseys entirely and withdrew to New York and Staten
+Island, where active preparations for some expedition were at once
+begun. Again came anxious watching, with the old fear that Howe meant
+to go northward and join the now advancing Burgoyne. The fear was
+groundless. On July 23 the British fleet set sail from New York,
+carrying between fifteen and eighteen thousand men. Not deceived by
+the efforts to make him think that they aimed at Boston, but still
+fearing that the sailing might be only a ruse and the Hudson the real
+object after all, Washington moved cautiously to the Delaware, holding
+himself ready to strike in either direction. On the 31st he heard that
+the enemy were at the Capes. This seemed decisive; so he sent in
+all directions for reinforcements, moved the main army rapidly to
+Germantown, and prepared to defend Philadelphia. The next news was
+that the fleet had put to sea again, and again messengers went north
+to warn Putnam to prepare for the defense of the Hudson. Washington
+himself was about to re-cross the Delaware, when tidings arrived that
+the fleet had once more appeared at the Capes, and after a few more
+days of doubt the ships came up the Chesapeake and anchored.
+
+Washington thought the "route a strange one," but he knew now that he
+was right in his belief that Howe aimed at Philadelphia. He therefore
+gathered his forces and marched south to meet the enemy, passing
+through the city in order to impress the disaffected and the timid
+with the show of force. It was a motley array that followed him. There
+was nothing uniform about the troops except their burnished arms and
+the sprigs of evergreen in their hats. Nevertheless Lafayette, who had
+just come among them, thought that they looked like good soldiers, and
+the Tories woke up sharply to the fact that there was a large body of
+men known as the American army, and that they had a certain obvious
+fighting capacity visible in their appearance. Neither friends nor
+enemies knew, however, as they stood on the Philadelphia sidewalks
+and watched the troops go past, that the mere fact of that army's
+existence was the greatest victory of skill and endurance which
+the war could show, and that the question of success lay in its
+continuance.
+
+Leaving Philadelphia, Washington pushed on to the junction of the
+Brandywine and Christiana Creek, and posted his men along the heights.
+August 25, Howe landed at the Head of Elk, and Washington threw out
+light parties to drive in cattle, carry off supplies, and annoy the
+enemy. This was done, on the whole, satisfactorily, and after some
+successful skirmishing on the part of the Americans, the two armies
+on the 5th of September found themselves within eight or ten miles of
+each other. Washington now determined to risk a battle in the field,
+despite his inferiority in every way. He accordingly issued a
+stirring proclamation to the soldiers, and then fell back behind the
+Brandywine, to a strong position, and prepared to contest the passage
+of the river.
+
+Early on September 11, the British advanced to Chad's Ford, where
+Washington was posted with the main body, and after some skirmishing
+began to cannonade at long range. Meantime Cornwallis, with the main
+body, made a long détour of seventeen miles, and came upon the right
+flank and rear of the Americans. Sullivan, who was on the right, had
+failed to guard the fords above, and through lack of information was
+practically surprised. Washington, on rumors that the enemy were
+marching toward his right, with the instinct of a great soldier was
+about to cross the river in his front and crush the enemy there, but
+he also was misled and kept back by false reports. When the truth was
+known, it was too late. The right wing had been beaten and flung back,
+the enemy were nearly in the rear, and were now advancing in earnest
+in front. All that man could do was done. Troops were pushed forward
+and a gallant stand was made at various points; but the critical
+moment had come and gone, and there was nothing for it but a hasty
+retreat, which came near degenerating into a rout.
+
+The causes of this complete defeat, for such it was, are easily seen.
+Washington had planned his battle and chosen his position well. If he
+had not been deceived by the first reports, he even then would have
+fallen upon and overwhelmed the British centre before they could
+have reached his right wing. But the Americans, to begin with, were
+outnumbered. They had only eleven thousand effective men, while the
+British brought fifteen of their eighteen thousand into action. Then
+the Americans suffered, as they constantly did, from misinformation,
+and from an absence of system in learning the enemy's movements.
+Washington's attack was fatally checked in this way, and Sullivan
+was surprised from the same causes, as well as from his own culpable
+ignorance of the country beyond him, which was the reason of his
+failure to guard the upper fords. The Americans lost, also, by the
+unsteadiness of new troops when the unexpected happens, and when
+the panic-bearing notion that they are surprised and likely to be
+surrounded comes upon them with a sudden shock.
+
+This defeat was complete and severe, and it was followed in a few days
+by that of Wayne, who narrowly escaped utter ruin. Yet through all
+this disaster we can see the advance which had been made since the
+equally unfortunate and very similar battle on Long Island. Then, the
+troops seemed to lose heart and courage, the army was held together
+with difficulty, and could do nothing but retreat. Now, in the few
+days which Howe, as usual, gave his opponent with such fatal effect to
+himself, Washington rallied his army, and finding them in excellent
+spirits marched down the Lancaster road to fight again. On the eve of
+battle a heavy storm came on, which so injured the arms and munitions
+that with bitter disappointment he was obliged to withdraw; but
+nevertheless it is plain how much this forward movement meant. At the
+moment, however, it looked badly enough, especially after the defeat
+of Wayne, for Howe pressed forward, took possession of Philadelphia,
+and encamped the main body of his army at Germantown.
+
+Meantime Washington, who had not in the least given up his idea of
+fighting again, recruited his army, and having a little more than
+eight thousand men, determined to try another stroke at the British,
+while they were weakened by detachments. On the night of October 3 he
+started, and reached Germantown at daybreak on the 4th. At first the
+Americans swept everything before them, and flung the British back
+in rout and confusion. Then matters began to go wrong, as is always
+likely to happen when, as in this case, widely separated and yet
+accurately concerted action is essential to success. Some of the
+British threw themselves into a stone house, and instead of leaving
+them there under guard, the whole army stopped to besiege, and a
+precious half hour was lost. Then Greene and Stephen were late in
+coming up, having made a circuit, and although when they arrived all
+seemed to go well, the Americans were seized with an inexplicable
+panic, and fell back, as Wayne truly said, in the very moment of
+victory. One of those unlucky accidents, utterly unavoidable, but
+always dangerous to extensive combinations, had a principal effect on
+the result. The morning was very misty, and the fog, soon thickened by
+the smoke, caused confusion, random firing, and, worst of all, that
+uncertainty of feeling and action which something or nothing converted
+into a panic. Nevertheless, the Americans rallied quickly this time,
+and a good retreat was made, under the lead of Greene, until safety
+was reached. The action, while it lasted, had been very sharp, and the
+losses on both sides were severe, the Americans suffering most.
+
+Washington, as usual when matters went ill, exposed himself
+recklessly, to the great alarm of his generals, but all in vain. He
+was deeply disappointed, and expressed himself so at first, for he saw
+that the men had unaccountably given way when they were on the edge
+of victory. The underlying cause was of course, as at Long Island
+and Brandywine, the unsteadiness of raw troops, and Washington felt
+rightly, after the first sting had passed, that he had really achieved
+a great deal. Congress applauded the attempt, and when the smoke of
+the battle had cleared away, men generally perceived that its having
+been fought at all was in reality the important fact. It made also
+a profound impression upon the French cabinet. Eagerly watching the
+course of events, they saw the significance of the fact that an army
+raised within a year could fight a battle in the open field, endure
+a severe defeat, and then take the offensive and make a bold and
+well-planned attack, which narrowly missed being overwhelmingly
+successful. To the observant and trained eyes of Europe, the defeat
+at Germantown made it evident that there was fighting material among
+these untrained colonists, capable of becoming formidable; and that
+there was besides a powerful will and directing mind, capable on
+its part of bringing this same material into the required shape and
+condition. To dispassionate onlookers, England's grasp on her colonies
+appeared to be slipping away very rapidly. Washington himself saw the
+meaning of it all plainly enough, for it was but the development of
+his theory of carrying on the war.
+
+There is no indication, however, that England detected, in all that
+had gone on since her army landed at the Head of Elk, anything more
+than a couple of natural defeats for the rebels. General Howe was
+sufficiently impressed to draw in his troops, and keep very closely
+shut up in Philadelphia, but his country was not moved at all. The
+fact that it had taken forty-seven days to get their army from the
+Elk River to Philadelphia, and that in that time they had fought two
+successful battles and yet had left the American army still active
+and menacing, had no effect upon the British mind. The English were
+thoroughly satisfied that the colonists were cowards and were sure to
+be defeated, no matter what the actual facts might be. They regarded
+Washington as an upstart militia colonel, and they utterly failed to
+comprehend that they had to do with a great soldier, who was able to
+organize and lead an army, overcome incredible difficulties, beat and
+outgeneral them, bear defeat, and then fight again. They were unable
+to realize that the mere fact that such a man could be produced and
+such an army maintained meant the inevitable loss of colonies three
+thousand miles away. Men there were in England, undoubtedly, like
+Burke and Fox, who felt and understood the significance of these
+things, but the mass of the people, as well as the aristocracy, the
+king, and the cabinet, would have none of them. Rude contempt for
+other people is a warming and satisfying feeling, no doubt, and the
+English have had unquestionably great satisfaction from its free
+indulgence. No one should grudge it to them, least of all Americans.
+It is a comfort for which they have paid, so far as this country is
+concerned, by the loss of their North American colonies, and by a few
+other settlements with the United States at other and later times.
+
+But although Washington and his army failed to impress England, events
+had happened in the north, during this same summer, which were so
+sharp-pointed that they not only impressed the English people keenly
+and unpleasantly, but they actually penetrated the dull comprehension
+of George III. and his cabinet. "Why," asked an English lady of an
+American naval officer, in the year of grace 1887--"why is your ship
+named the Saratoga?" "Because," was the reply, "at Saratoga an English
+general and an English army of more than five thousand men surrendered
+to an American army and laid down their arms." Although apparently
+neglected now in the general scheme of British education, Saratoga
+was a memorable event in the summer of 1777, and the part taken by
+Washington in bringing about the great result has never, it would
+seem, been properly set forth. There is no need to trace here the
+history of that campaign, but it is necessary to show how much was
+done by the commander-in-chief, five hundred miles away, to win the
+final victory.
+
+In the winter of 1776-77 reports came that a general and an army were
+to be sent to Canada to invade the colonies from the north by way
+of Lake Champlain. The news does not seem to have made a very deep
+impression generally, nor to have been regarded as anything beyond
+the ordinary course of military events. But there was one man,
+fortunately, who in an instant perceived the full significance of this
+movement. Washington saw that the English had at last found an idea,
+or, at least, a general possessed of one. So long as the British
+confined themselves to fighting one or two battles, and then, taking
+possession of a single town, were content to sit down and pass their
+winter in good quarters, leaving the colonists in undisturbed control
+of all the rest of the country, there was nothing to be feared. The
+result of such campaigning as this could not be doubtful for a moment
+to any clear-sighted man. But when a plan was on foot, which, if
+successful, meant the control of the lakes and the Hudson, and of a
+line of communication from the north to the great colonial seaport,
+the case was very different. Such a campaign as this would cause
+the complete severance of New England, the chief source for men and
+supplies, from the rest of the colonies. It promised the mastery, not
+of a town, but of half a dozen States, and this to the American cause
+probably would be ruin.
+
+So strongly and clearly did Washington feel all this that his
+counter-plan was at once ready, and before people had fairly grasped
+the idea that there was to be a northern invasion, he was sending,
+early in March, urgent letters to New England to rouse up the militia
+and have them in readiness to march at a moment's notice. To Schuyler,
+in command of the northern department, he began now to write
+constantly, and to unfold the methods which must be pursued in order
+to compass the defeat of the invaders. His object was to delay the
+army of Burgoyne by every possible device, while steadily avoiding a
+pitched battle. Then the militia and hardy farmers of New England and
+New York were to be rallied, and were to fall upon the flank and
+rear of the British, harass them constantly, cut off their outlying
+parties, and finally hem them in and destroy them. If the army and
+people of the North could only be left undisturbed, it is evident from
+his letters that Washington felt no doubt as to the result in that
+quarter.
+
+But the North included only half the conditions essential to success.
+The grave danger feared by Washington was that Howe would understand
+the situation, and seeing his opportunity, would throw everything else
+aside, and marching northward with twenty thousand men, would make
+himself master of the Hudson, effect a junction with Burgoyne at
+Albany, and so cut the colonies in twain. From all he could learn,
+and from his knowledge of his opponents' character, Washington felt
+satisfied that Howe intended to capture Philadelphia, advancing,
+probably, through the Jerseys. Yet, despite his well-reasoned judgment
+on this point, it seemed so incredible that any soldier could fail to
+see that decisive victory lay in the north, and in a junction with
+Burgoyne, that Washington could not really and fully believe in such
+fatuity until he knew that Howe was actually landing at the Head
+of Elk. This is the reason for the anxiety displayed in the
+correspondence of that summer, for the changing and shifting
+movements, and for the obvious hesitation of opinion, so unusual with
+Washington at any time. Be it remembered, moreover, that it was an
+awful doubt which went to bed and got up and walked with him through
+all those long nights and days. If Howe, the dull and lethargic,
+should awake from his dream of conquering America by taking now and
+again an isolated town, and should break for the north with twenty
+thousand men, the fortunes of the young republic would come to their
+severest test.
+
+In that event, Washington knew well enough what he meant to do. He
+would march his main army to the Hudson, unite with the strong body
+of troops which he kept there constantly, contest every inch of the
+country and the river with Howe, and keep him at all hazards from
+getting to Albany. But he also knew well that if this were done the
+odds would be fearfully against him, for Howe would then not only
+outnumber him very greatly, but there would be ample time for the
+British to act, and but a short distance to be covered. We can
+imagine, therefore, his profound sense of relief when he found that
+Howe and his army were really south of Philadelphia, after a waste of
+many precious weeks. He could now devote himself single-hearted to the
+defense of the city, for distance and time were at last on his side,
+and all that remained was to fight Howe so hard and steadily that
+neither in victory nor defeat would he remember Burgoyne. Pitt said
+that he would conquer Canada on the plains of Germany, and Burgoyne
+was compelled to surrender in large measure by the campaign of
+Washington in New Jersey and Pennsylvania.
+
+If we study carefully Washington's correspondence during that eventful
+summer, grouping together that relating to the northern campaign, and
+comparing it with that which dealt with the affairs of his own army,
+all that has just been said comes out with entire clearness, and it is
+astonishing to see how exactly events justified his foresight. If
+he could only hold Howe in the south, he was quite willing to trust
+Burgoyne to the rising of the people and to the northern wilderness.
+Every effort he made was in this direction, beginning, as has been
+said, by his appeals to the New England governors in March. Schuyler,
+on his part, was thoroughly imbued with Washington's other leading
+idea, that the one way to victory was by retarding the enemy. At the
+outset everything went utterly and disastrously wrong. Washington
+counted on an obstinate struggle, and a long delay at Ticonderoga, for
+he had not been on the ground, and could not imagine that our officers
+would fortify everything but the one commanding point.
+
+The loss of the forts appalled the country and disappointed
+Washington, but did not shake his nerve for an instant. He wrote to
+Schuyler: "This stroke is severe indeed, and has distressed us much.
+But notwithstanding things at present have a dark and gloomy aspect,
+I hope a spirited opposition will check the progress of General
+Burgoyne's army, and that the confidence derived from his success will
+hurry him into measures that will, in their consequences, be favorable
+to us. We should never despair; our situation has before been
+unpromising, and has changed for the better; so I trust it will again.
+If new difficulties arise we must only put forth new exertions, and
+proportion our efforts to the exigency of the times." Even after this
+seemingly crushing defeat he still felt sure of Burgoyne, so long as
+he was unsupported. Suiting the action to the word, he again bent
+every nerve to rouse New England and get out her militia. When he was
+satisfied that Howe was landing below Philadelphia, the first thing he
+did was to send forth the same cry in the same quarter, to bring out
+more men against Burgoyne. He showed, too, the utmost generosity
+toward the northern army, sending thither all the troops he could
+possibly spare, and even parting with his favorite corps of Morgan's
+riflemen. Despite his liberality, the commanders in the north
+were unreasonable in their demands, and when they asked too much,
+Washington flatly declined to send more men, for he would not weaken
+himself unduly, and he knew what they did not see, that the fate of
+the northern invasion turned largely on his own ability to cope with
+Howe.
+
+The blame for the loss of the forts fell of course upon Schuyler,
+who was none too popular in Congress, and who with St. Clair was
+accordingly made a scape-goat. Congress voted that Washington should
+appoint a new commander, and the New England delegates visited him to
+urge the selection of Gates. This task Washington refused to perform,
+alleging as a reason that the northern department had always been
+considered a separate command, and that he had never done more than
+advise. These reasons do not look very weighty or very strong, and it
+is not quite clear what the underlying motive was. Washington never
+shrank from responsibility, and he knew very well that he could pick
+out the best man more unerringly than Congress. But he also saw
+that Congress favored Gates, whom he would not have chosen, and he
+therefore probably felt that it was more important to have some one
+whom New England believed in and approved than a better soldier who
+would have been unwelcome to her representatives. It is certain that
+he would not have acted thus, had he thought that generalship was an
+important element in the problem; but he relied on a popular uprising,
+and not on the commander, to defeat Burgoyne. He may have thought,
+too, that it was a mistake to relieve Schuyler, who was working in the
+directions which he had pointed out, and who, if not a great soldier,
+was a brave, high-minded, and sensible man, devoted to his chief and
+to the country. It was Schuyler indeed who, by his persistent labor in
+breaking down bridges, tearing up roads, and felling trees, while he
+gathered men industriously in all directions, did more than any one
+else at that moment to prepare the way for an ultimate victory.
+
+Whatever his feelings may have been in regard to the command of the
+northern department, Washington made no change in his own course after
+Gates had been appointed. He knew that Gates was at least harmless,
+and not likely to block the natural course of events. He therefore
+felt free to press his own policy without cessation, and without
+apprehension. He took care that Lincoln and Arnold should be there to
+look after the New England militia, and he wrote to Governor Clinton,
+in whose energy and courage he had great confidence, to rouse up the
+men of New York. He suggested the points of attack, and at every
+moment advised and counseled and watched, holding all the while a firm
+grip on Howe. Slowly and surely the net, thus painfully set, tightened
+round Burgoyne. The New Englanders whipped one division at Bennington,
+and the New Yorkers shattered another at Oriskany and Fort Schuyler.
+The country people turned out in defense of their invaded homes and
+poured into the American camp. Burgoyne struggled and advanced,
+fought and retreated. Gates, stupid, lethargic, and good-natured, did
+nothing, but there was no need of generalship; and Arnold was there,
+turbulent and quarrelsome, but full of daring; and Morgan, too,
+equally ready; and they and others did all the necessary fighting.
+
+Poor Burgoyne, a brave gentleman, if not a great general, had
+the misfortune to be a clever man in the service of a stupid
+administration, and he met the fate usually meted out under such
+circumstances to men of ideas. Howe went off to the conquest of
+Philadelphia, Clinton made a brief burning and plundering raid up the
+river, and the northern invasion, which really had meaning, was left
+to its fate. It was a hard fate, but there was no escape. Outnumbered,
+beaten, and caught, Burgoyne surrendered. If there had been a
+fighting-man at the head of the American army, the British would have
+surrendered as prisoners of war, and not on conditions. Schuyler, we
+may be sure, whatever his failings, would never have let them off
+so easily. But it was sufficient as it was. The wilderness, and the
+militia of New York and New England swarming to the defense of their
+homes, had done the work. It all fell out just as Washington had
+foreseen and planned, and England, despising her enemy and their
+commander, saw one of her armies surrender, and might have known, if
+she had had the wit, that the colonies were now lost forever. The
+Revolution had been saved at Trenton; it was established at Saratoga.
+In the one case it was the direct, in the other the indirect, work of
+Washington.
+
+Poor Gates, with his dull brain turning under the impression that this
+crowning mercy had been his own doing, lost his head, forgot that
+there was a commander-in-chief, and sending his news to Congress, left
+Washington to find out from chance rumors, and a tardy letter from
+Putnam, that Burgoyne had actually surrendered. This gross slight,
+however, had deeper roots than the mere exultation of victory acting
+on a heavy and common mind. It represented a hostile feeling which
+had been slowly increasing for some time, which had been carefully
+nurtured by those interested in its growth, and which blossomed
+rapidly in the heated air of military triumph. From the outset it had
+been Washington's business to fight the enemy, manage the army,
+deal with Congress, and consider in all its bearings the political
+situation at home and abroad; but he was now called upon to meet a
+trouble outside the line of duty, and to face attacks from within,
+which, ideally speaking, ought never to have existed, but which, in
+view of our very fallible humanity, were certain to come sooner or
+later. Much domestic malice Washington was destined to encounter in
+the later years of political strife, but this was the only instance in
+his military career where enmity came to overt action and open speech.
+The first and the last of its kind, this assault upon him has much
+interest, for a strong light is thrown upon his character by studying
+him, thus beset, and by seeing just how he passed through this most
+trying and disagreeable of ordeals.
+
+The germ of the difficulties was to be found where we should expect
+it, in the differences between the men of speech and the man of
+action, between the lawmakers and the soldier. Washington had been
+obliged to tell Congress a great many plain and unpleasant truths.
+It was part of his duty, and he did it accordingly. He was always
+dignified, calm, and courteous, but he had an alarmingly direct way
+with him, especially when he was annoyed. He was simple almost to
+bluntness, but now and then would use a grave irony which must
+have made listening ears tingle. Congress was patriotic and
+well-intentioned, and on the whole stood bravely by its general,
+but it was unversed in war, very impatient, and at times wildly
+impracticable. Here is a letter which depicts the situation, and the
+relation between the general and his rulers, with great clearness.
+March 14, 1777, Washington wrote to the President: "Could I accomplish
+the important objects so eagerly wished by Congress,--'confining the
+enemy within their present quarters, preventing their getting
+supplies from the country, and totally subduing them before they are
+reinforced,'--I should be happy indeed. But what prospect or hope can
+there be of my effecting so desirable a work at this time?"
+
+We can imagine how exasperating such requests and suggestions must
+have been. It was very much as if Congress had said: "Good General,
+bring in the Atlantic tides and drown the enemy; or pluck the moon
+from the sky and give it to us, as a mark of your loyalty." Such
+requests are not soothing to any man struggling his best with great
+anxieties, and with a host of petty cares. Washington, nevertheless,
+kept his temper, and replied only by setting down a few hard facts
+which answered the demands of Congress in a final manner, and with all
+the sting of truth. Thus a little irritation had been generated
+in Congress against the general, and there were some members who
+developed a good deal of pronounced hostility. Sam Adams, a born
+agitator and a trained politician, unequaled almost in our history as
+an organizer and manager of men, able, narrow, coldly fierce, the man
+of the town meeting and the caucus, had no possibility of intellectual
+sympathy with the silent, patient, hard-gripping soldier, hemmed with
+difficulties, but ever moving straight forward to his object, with
+occasional wild gusts of reckless fighting passion. John Adams, too,
+brilliant of speech and pen, ardent, patriotic, and high-minded,
+was, in his way, out of touch with Washington. Although he moved
+Washington's appointment, he began almost immediately to find fault
+with him, an exercise to which he was extremely prone. Inasmuch as he
+could see how things ought to be done, he could not understand
+why they were not done in that way at once, for he had a fine
+forgetfulness of other people's difficulties, as is the case with most
+of us. The New England representatives generally took their cue from
+these two, especially James Lovell, who carried his ideas into action,
+and obtained a little niche in the temple of fame by making
+himself disagreeably conspicuous in the intrigue against the
+commander-in-chief, when it finally developed.
+
+There were others, too, outside New England who were discontented, and
+among them Richard Henry Lee, from the General's own State. He was
+evidently critical and somewhat unfriendly at this time, although the
+reasons for his being so are not now very distinct. Then there was Mr.
+Clark of New Jersey, an excellent man, who thought the General was
+invading popular rights; and to him others might be added who vaguely
+felt that things ought to be better than they were. This party,
+adverse to Washington, obtained the appointment of Gates to the
+northern department, under whom the army won a great victory, and they
+were correspondingly happy. John Adams wrote his wife that one
+cause of thanksgiving was that the tide had not been turned by the
+commander-in-chief and southern troops, for the adulation would have
+been intolerable; and that a man may be wise and virtuous and not a
+deity.
+
+Here, so far as the leading and influential men were concerned, the
+matter would have dropped, probably; but there were lesser men like
+Lovell who were much encouraged by the surrender of Burgoyne, and who
+thought that they now might supplant Washington with Gates. Before
+long, too, they found in the army itself some active and not
+over-scrupulous allies. The most conspicuous figure among the military
+malcontents was Gates himself, who, although sluggish in all things,
+still had a keen eye for his own advancement. He showed plainly how
+much his head had been turned by the victory at Saratoga when he
+failed to inform Washington of the fact, and when he afterward delayed
+sending back troops until he was driven to it by the determined energy
+of Hamilton, who was sent to bring him to reason. Next in importance
+to Gates was Thomas Mifflin, an ardent patriot, but a rather
+light-headed person, who espoused the opposition to Washington for
+causes now somewhat misty, but among which personal vanity played no
+inconsiderable part. About these two leaders gathered a certain number
+of inferior officers of no great moment then or since.
+
+The active and moving spirit in the party, however, was one Conway, an
+Irish adventurer, who made himself so prominent that the whole affair
+passed into history bearing his name, and the "Conway cabal" has
+obtained an enduring notoriety which its hero never acquired by any
+public services. Conway was one of the foreign officers who had gained
+the favor of Congress and held the rank of brigadier-general, but this
+by no means filled the measure of his pretensions, and when De Kalb
+was made a major-general Conway immediately started forward with
+claims to the same rank. He received strong support from the factious
+opposition, and there was so much stir that Washington sharply
+interfered, for to his general objection to these lavish gifts of
+excessive rank was added an especial distrust in this particular
+case. In his calm way he had evidently observed Conway, and with his
+unerring judgment of men had found him wanting. "I may add," he wrote
+to Lee, "and I think with truth, that it will give a fatal blow to
+the existence of the army. Upon so interesting a subject I must speak
+plainly. General Conway's merit then as an officer, and his importance
+in this army, exist more in his own imagination than in reality."
+This plain talk soon reached Conway, drove him at once into furious
+opposition, and caused him to impart to the faction a cohesion and
+vigor which they had before lacked. Circumstances favored them. The
+victory at Saratoga gave them something tangible to go upon, and the
+first move was made when Gates failed to inform Washington of the
+surrender, and then held back the troops sent for so urgently by the
+commander-in-chief, who had sacrificed so much from his own army to
+secure that of the north.
+
+At this very moment, indeed, when Washington was calling for troops,
+he was struggling with the utmost tenacity to hold control of the
+Delaware. He made every arrangement possible to maintain the forts,
+and the first assaults upon them were repulsed with great slaughter,
+the British in the attack on Fort Mercer losing Count Donop, the
+leader, and four hundred men. Then came a breathing space, and then
+the attacks were renewed, supported by vessels, and both forts were
+abandoned after the works had been leveled to the ground by the
+enemy's fire. Meanwhile Hamilton, sent to the north, had done his
+work; Gates had been stirred, and Putnam, well-meaning but stubborn,
+had been sharply brought to his bearings. Reinforcements had come, and
+Washington meditated an attack on Philadelphia. There was a good deal
+of clamor for something brilliant and decisive, for both the army and
+the public were a little dizzy from the effects of Saratoga, and with
+sublime blindness to different conditions, could not see why the same
+performance should not be repeated to order everywhere else. To oppose
+this wish was trying, doubly trying to a man eager to fight, and with
+his full share of the very human desire to be as successful as his
+neighbor. It required great nerve to say No; but Washington did not
+lack that quality, and as general and statesman he reconnoitred the
+enemy's works, weighed the chances, said No decisively, and took up an
+almost impregnable position at White Marsh. Thereupon Howe announced
+that he would drive Washington beyond the mountains, and on December
+4 he approached the American lines with this highly proper purpose.
+There was some skirmishing along the foot of the hills of an
+unimportant character, and on the third day Washington, in high
+spirits, thought an attack would be made, and rode among the soldiers
+directing and encouraging them. Nothing came of it, however, but more
+skirmishing, and the next day Howe marched back to Philadelphia. He
+had offered battle in all ways, he had invited action; but again, with
+the same pressure both from his own spirit and from public opinion,
+Washington had said No. On his own ground he was more than ready to
+fight Howe, but despite the terrible temptation he would fight on no
+other. Not the least brilliant exploit of Wellington was the retreat
+to the shrewdly prepared lines of Torres Vedras, and one of the most
+difficult successes of Washington was his double refusal to fight as
+the year 1777 drew to a close.
+
+Like most right and wise things, Washington's action looks now, a
+century later, so plainly sensible that it is hard to imagine how any
+one could have questioned it; and one cannot, without a great effort,
+realize the awful strain upon will and temper involved in thus
+refusing battle. If the proposed attack on Philadelphia had failed, or
+if our army had come down from the hills and been beaten in the fields
+below, no American army would have remained. The army of the north, of
+which men were talking so proudly, had done its work and dispersed.
+The fate of the Revolution rested where it had been from the
+beginning, with Washington and his soldiers. Drive them beyond the
+mountains and there was no other army to fall back upon. On their
+existence everything hinged, and when Howe got back to Philadelphia,
+there they were still existent, still coherent, hovering on his flank,
+cooping him up in his lines, and leaving him master of little more
+than the ground his men encamped upon, and the streets his sentinels
+patrolled. When Franklin was told in Paris that Howe had taken
+Philadelphia, his reply was, "Philadelphia has taken Howe."
+
+But, with the exception of Franklin, contemporary opinion in the month
+of December, 1777, was very different from that of to-day, and the
+cabal had been at work ever since the commander-in-chief had stepped
+between Conway and the exorbitant rank he coveted. Washington, indeed,
+was perfectly aware of what was going on. He was quiet and dignified,
+impassive and silent, but he knew when men, whether great or small,
+were plotting against him, and he watched them with the same keenness
+as he did Howe and the British.
+
+In the midst of his struggle to hold the Delaware forts, and of his
+efforts to get back his troops from the north, a story came to him
+that arrested his attention. Wilkinson, of Gates's staff, had come to
+Congress with the news of the surrender. He had been fifteen days on
+the road and three days getting his papers in order, and when it was
+proposed to give him a sword, Roger Sherman suggested that they had
+better "give the lad a pair of spurs." This thrust and some delay
+seem to have nettled Wilkinson, who was swelling with importance, and
+although he was finally made a brigadier-general, he rode off to the
+north much ruffled. In later years Wilkinson was secretive enough; but
+in his hot youth he could not hold his tongue, and on his way back to
+Gates he talked. What he said was marked and carried to headquarters,
+and on November 9 Washington wrote to Conway:--
+
+    "A letter which I received last night contained the following
+    paragraph,--'In a letter from General Conway to General Gates he
+    says, "_Heaven has determined to save your country, or a weak
+    general and bad counsellors would have ruined it_" I am, sir, your
+    humble servant,'" etc.
+
+This curt note fell upon Conway with stunning effect. It is said that
+he tried to apologize, and he certainly resigned. As for Gates, he
+fell to writing letters filled with expressions of wonder as to who
+had betrayed him, and writhed most pitiably under the exposure.
+Washington's replies are models of cold dignity, and the calm
+indifference with which he treated the whole matter, while holding
+Gates to the point with relentless grasp, is very interesting. The
+cabal was seriously shaken by this sudden blow. It must have dawned
+upon them dimly that they might have mistaken their man, and that the
+silent soldier was perhaps not so easy to dispose of by an intrigue as
+they had fancied. Nevertheless, they rallied, and taking advantage of
+the feeling in Congress created by Burgoyne's surrender, they set to
+work to get control of military matters. The board of war was enlarged
+to five, with Gates at its head and Mifflin a member, and, thus
+constituted, it proceeded to make Conway inspector-general, with the
+rank of major-general. This, after Conway's conduct, was a direct
+insult to Washington, and marks the highest point attained by his
+opponents.
+
+In Congress, too, they became more active, and John Jay said that
+there was in that body a party bitterly hostile to Washington. We know
+little of the members of that faction now, for they never took the
+trouble to refer to the matter in after years, and did everything that
+silence could do to have it all forgotten. But the party existed none
+the less, and significant letters have come down to us, one of them
+written by Lovell, and two anonymous, addressed respectively to
+Patrick Henry and to Laurens, then president, which show a bitter and
+vindictive spirit, and breathe but one purpose. The same thought is
+constantly reiterated, that with a good general the northern army had
+won a great victory, and that the main army, if commanded in the same
+way, would do likewise. The plan was simple and coherent. The cabal
+wished to drive Washington out of power and replace him with Gates.
+With this purpose they wrote to Henry and Laurens; with this purpose
+they made Conway inspector-general.
+
+When they turned from intrigue to action, however, they began to fail.
+One of their pet schemes was the conquest of Canada, and with
+this object Lafayette was sent to the lakes, only to find that no
+preparations had been made, because the originators of the idea were
+ignorant and inefficient. The expedition promptly collapsed and was
+abandoned, with much instruction in consequence to Congress and
+people. Under their control the commissariat also went hopelessly to
+pieces, and a committee of Congress proceeded to Valley Forge and
+found that in this direction, too, the new managers had grievously
+failed. Then the original Conway letter, uncovered so unceremoniously
+by Washington, kept returning to plague its author. Gates's
+correspondence went on all through the winter, and with every letter
+Gates floundered more and more, and Washington's replies grew more
+and more freezing and severe. Gates undertook to throw the blame on
+Wilkinson, who became loftily indignant and challenged him. The two
+made up their quarrel very soon in a ludicrous manner, but Wilkinson
+in the interval had an interview with Washington, which revealed an
+amount of duplicity and perfidy on the part of the cabal, so shocking
+to the former's sensitive nature, that he resigned his secretaryship
+of the board of war on account, as he frankly said, of the treachery
+and falsehood of Gates. Such a quarrel of course hurt the cabal, but
+it was still more weakened by Gates himself, whose only idea seemed
+to be to supersede Washington by slighting him, refusing troops, and
+declining to propose his health at dinner,--methods as unusual as they
+were feeble.
+
+The cabal, in fact, was so weak in ability and character that the
+moment any responsibility fell upon its members it was certain to
+break down, but the absolutely fatal obstacle to its schemes was the
+man it aimed to overthrow. The idea evidently was that Washington
+could be driven to resign. They knew that they could not get either
+Congress or public opinion to support them in removing him, but they
+believed that a few well-placed slights and insults would make him
+remove himself. It was just here that they made their mistake.
+Washington, as they were aware, was sensitive and high-spirited to
+the last degree, and he had no love for office, but he was not one of
+those weaklings who leave power and place in a pet because they are
+criticised and assailed. He was not ambitious in the ordinary personal
+sense, but he had a passion for success. Whether it was breaking a
+horse, or reclaiming land, or fighting Indians, or saving a state,
+whatever he set his hand to, that he carried through to the end. With
+him there never was any shadow of turning back. When, without any
+self-seeking, he was placed at the head of the Revolution, he made
+up his mind that he would carry it through everything to victory, if
+victory were possible. Death or a prison could stop him, but neither
+defeat nor neglect, and still less the forces of intrigue and cabal.
+
+When he wrote to his brother announcing Burgoyne's surrender, he had
+nothing to say of the slight Gates put upon him, but merely added in
+a postscript, "I most devoutly congratulate my country and every
+well-wisher to the cause on this signal stroke of Providence." This
+was his tone to every one, both in private and public. His complaint
+of not being properly notified he made to Gates alone, and put it in
+the form of a rebuke. He knew of the movement against him from the
+beginning, but apparently the first person he confided in was Conway,
+when he sent him the brief note of November 9. Even after the cabal
+was fully developed, he wrote about it only once or twice, when
+compelled to do so, and there is no evidence that he ever talked about
+it except, perhaps, to a few most intimate friends. In a letter to
+Patrick Henry he said that he was obliged to allow a false impression
+as to his strength to go abroad, and that he suffered in consequence;
+and he added, with a little touch of feeling, that while the
+yeomanry of New York and New England poured into the camp of Gates,
+outnumbering the enemy two to one, he could get no aid of that sort
+from Pennsylvania, and still marvels were demanded of him.
+
+Thus he went on his way through the winter, silent except when obliged
+to answer some friend, and always ready to meet his enemies. When
+Conway complained to Congress of his reception at camp, Washington
+wrote the president that he was not given to dissimulation, and that
+he certainly had been cold in his manner. He wrote to Lafayette that
+slander had been busy, and that he had urged his officers to be
+cool and dispassionate as to Conway, adding, "I have no doubt that
+everything happens for the best, that we shall triumph over all our
+misfortunes, and in the end be happy; when, my dear Marquis, if you
+will give me your company in Virginia, we will laugh at our past
+difficulties and the folly of others." But though he wrote thus
+lightly to his friends, he followed Gates sternly enough, and kept
+that gentleman occupied as he drove him from point to point. Among
+other things he touched upon Conway's character with sharp irony,
+saying, "It is, however, greatly to be lamented that this adept in
+military science did not employ his abilities in the progress of the
+campaign, in pointing out those wise measures which were calculated to
+give us 'that degree of success we could reasonably expect.'"
+
+Poor Gates did not find these letters pleasant reading, and one more
+curt note, on February 24, finished the controversy. By that time the
+cabal was falling to pieces, and in a little while was dispersed.
+Wilkinson's resignation was accepted, Mifflin was put under
+Washington's orders, and Gates was sent to his command in the north.
+Conway resigned one day in a pet, and found his resignation accepted
+and his power gone with unpleasant suddenness. He then got into a
+quarrel with General Cadwalader on account of his attacks on the
+commander-in-chief. The quarrel ended in a duel. Conway was badly
+wounded, and thinking himself dying, wrote a contrite note of apology
+to Washington, then recovered, left the country, and disappeared from
+the ken of history. Thus domestic malice and the "bitter party" in
+Congress failed and perished. They had dashed themselves in vain
+against the strong man who held firmly both soldiers and people.
+"While the public are satisfied with my endeavors, I mean not to
+shrink from the cause." So Washington wrote to Gordon as the cabal
+was coming to an end, and in that spirit he crushed silently and
+thoroughly the faction that sought to thwart his purpose, and drive
+him from office by sneers, slights, and intrigues.
+
+These attacks upon him came at the darkest moment of his military
+career. Defeated at Brandywine and Germantown, he had been forced from
+the forts after a desperate struggle, had seen Philadelphia and the
+river fall completely into the hands of the enemy, and, bitterest of
+all, he had been obliged to hold back from another assault on the
+British lines, and to content himself with baffling Howe when that
+gentleman came out and offered battle. Then the enemy withdrew to
+their comfortable quarters, and he was left to face again the harsh
+winter and the problem of existence. It was the same ever recurring
+effort to keep the American army, and thereby the American Revolution,
+alive. There was nothing in this task to stir the blood and rouse the
+heart. It was merely a question of grim tenacity of purpose and of the
+ability to comprehend its overwhelming importance. It was not a work
+that appealed to or inspirited any one, and to carry it through to a
+successful issue rested with the commander-in-chief alone.
+
+In the frost and snow he withdrew to Valley Forge, within easy
+striking distance of Philadelphia. He had literally nothing to rely
+upon but his own stern will and strong head. His soldiers, steadily
+dwindling in numbers, marked their road to Valley Forge by the blood
+from their naked feet. They were destitute and in rags. When they
+reached their destination they had no shelter, and it was only by the
+energy and ingenuity of the General that they were led to build huts,
+and thus secure a measure of protection against the weather. There
+were literally no supplies, and the Board of War failed completely to
+remedy the evil. The army was in such straits that it was obliged
+to seize by force the commonest necessaries. This was a desperate
+expedient and shocked public opinion, which Washington, as a
+statesman, watched and cultivated as an essential element of success
+in his difficult business. He disliked to take extreme measures, but
+there was nothing else to be done when his men were starving, when
+nearly three thousand of them were unfit for duty because "barefoot
+and otherwise naked," and when a large part of the army were obliged
+to sit up all night by the fires for warmth's sake, having no blankets
+with which to cover themselves if they lay down. With nothing to eat,
+nothing to burn, nothing wherewith to clothe themselves, wasting away
+from exposure and disease, we can only wonder at the forbearance which
+stayed the hand of violent seizure so long. Yet, as Washington had
+foreseen, there was even then an outcry against him. Nevertheless, his
+action ultimately did more good than harm in the very matter of public
+opinion, for it opened men's eyes, and led to some tardy improvements
+and some increased effort.
+
+Worse even than this criticism was the remonstrance of the legislature
+of Pennsylvania against the going into winter-quarters. They expected
+Washington to keep the open field, and even to attack the British,
+with his starving, ragged army, in all the severity of a northern
+winter. They had failed him at every point and in every promise, in
+men, clothing, and supplies. They were not content that he covered
+their State and kept the Revolution alive among the huts of Valley
+Forge. They wished the impossible. They asked for the moon, and then
+cried out because it was not given to them. It was a stupid, unkind
+thing to do, and Washington answered their complaints in a letter to
+the president of Congress. After setting forth the shortcomings of the
+Pennsylvanians in the very plainest of plain English, he said: "But
+what makes this matter still more extraordinary in my eye is that
+these very gentlemen should think a winter's campaign, and the
+covering of these States from the invasion of an enemy, so easy and
+practicable a business. I can answer those gentlemen, that it is a
+much easier and less distressing thing to draw remonstrances in a
+comfortable room, by a good fireside, than to occupy a cold, bleak
+hill, and sleep under frost and snow, without clothes or blankets.
+However, although they seem to have little feeling for the naked and
+distressed soldiers, I feel superabundantly for them, and from my soul
+I pity those miseries which it is neither in my power to relieve or
+prevent."
+
+This was not a safe man for the gentlemen of Pennsylvania to cross too
+far, nor could they swerve him, with all his sense of public opinion,
+one jot from what he meant to do. In the stern rebuke, and in the
+deep pathos of these sentences, we catch a glimpse of the silent and
+self-controlled man breaking out for a moment as he thinks of his
+faithful and suffering men. Whatever happened, he would hold them
+together, for in this black time we detect the fear which haunted
+him, that the people at large might give way. He was determined on
+independence. He felt a keen hatred against England for her whole
+conduct toward America, and this hatred was sharpened by the efforts
+of the English to injure him personally by forged letters and other
+despicable contrivances. He was resolved that England should never
+prevail, and his language in regard to her has a fierceness of tone
+which is full of meaning. He was bent, also, on success, and if under
+the long strain the people should weaken or waver, he was determined
+to maintain the army at all hazards.
+
+So, while he struggled against cold and hunger and destitution,
+while he contended with faction at home and lukewarmness in the
+administration of the war, even then, in the midst of these trials, he
+was devising a new system for the organization and permanence of his
+forces. Congress meddled with the matter of prisoners and with the
+promotion of officers, and he argued with and checked them, and still
+pressed on in his plans. He insisted that officers must have better
+provision, for they had begun to resign. "You must appeal to their
+interest as well as to their patriotism," he wrote, "and you must give
+them half-pay and full pay in proper measure." "You must follow the
+same policy with the men," he said; "you must have done with short
+enlistments. In a word, gentlemen, you must give me an army,
+a lasting, enduring, continental army, for therein lies
+independence."[1] It all comes out now, through the dust of details
+and annoyances, through the misery and suffering of that wretched
+winter, through the shrill cries of ignorance and hostility,--the
+great, clear, strong policy which meant to substitute an army for
+militia, and thereby secure victory and independence. It is the burden
+of all his letters to the governors of States, and to his officers
+everywhere. "I will hold the army together," he said, "but you on all
+sides must help me build it up."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: These two quotations are not literal, of course, but give
+the substance of many letters.]
+
+Thus with much strenuous labor and many fervent appeals he held his
+army together in some way, and slowly improved it. His system began to
+be put in force, his reiterated lessons were coming home to Congress,
+and his reforms and suggestions were in some measure adopted. Under
+the sound and trained guidance of Baron Steuben a drill and discipline
+were introduced, which soon showed marked results. Greene succeeded
+Mifflin as quartermaster-general, and brought order out of chaos. The
+Conway cabal went to pieces, and as spring opened Washington began to
+see light once more. To have held on through that winter was a great
+feat, but to have built up and improved the army at such a time was
+much more wonderful. It shows a greatness of character and a force of
+will rarer than military genius, and enables us to understand better,
+perhaps, than almost any of his victories, why it was that the success
+of the Revolution lay in such large measure in the hands of one man.
+
+After Howe's withdrawal from the Jerseys in the previous year, a
+contemporary wrote that Washington was left with the remnants of an
+army "to scuffle for liberty." The winter had passed, and he was
+prepared to scuffle again. On May 11 Sir Henry Clinton relieved Sir
+William Howe at Philadelphia, and the latter took his departure in
+a blaze of mock glory and resplendent millinery, known as the
+Mischianza, a fit close to a career of failure, which he was too dull
+to appreciate. The new commander was more active than his predecessor,
+but no cleverer, and no better fitted to cope with Washington. It was
+another characteristic choice on the part of the British ministry, who
+could never muster enough intellect to understand that the Americans
+would fight, and that they were led by a really great soldier. The
+coming of Clinton did not alter existing conditions.
+
+Expecting a movement by the enemy, Washington sent Lafayette forward
+to watch Philadelphia. Clinton and Howe, eager for a victory before
+departure, determined to cut him off, and by a rapid movement nearly
+succeeded in so doing. Timely information, presence of mind, and
+quickness alone enabled the young Frenchman to escape, narrowly but
+completely. Meantime, a cause for delay, that curse of the British
+throughout the war, supervened. A peace commission, consisting of the
+Earl of Carlisle, William Eden, and Governor Johnstone, arrived. They
+were excellent men, but they came too late. Their propositions three
+years before would have been well enough, but as it was they were
+worse than nothing. Coolly received, they held a fruitless interview
+with a committee of Congress, tried to bribe and intrigue, found that
+their own army had been already ordered to evacuate Philadelphia
+without their knowledge, and finally gave up their task in
+angry despair, and returned to England to join in the chorus of
+fault-finding which was beginning to sound very loud in ministerial
+ears.
+
+Meanwhile, Washington waited and watched, puzzled by the delay, and
+hoping only to harass Sir Henry with militia on the march to New York.
+But as the days slipped by, the Americans grew stronger, while the
+British had been weakened by wholesale desertions. When he finally
+started, he had with him probably sixteen to seventeen thousand men,
+while the Americans had apparently at least thirteen thousand, nearly
+all continental troops.[1] Under these circumstances, Washington
+determined to bring on a battle. He was thwarted at the outset by his
+officers, as was wont to be the case. Lee had returned more whimsical
+than ever, and at the moment was strongly adverse to an attack, and
+was full of wise saws about building a bridge of gold for the flying
+enemy. The ascendancy which, as an English officer, he still retained
+enabled him to get a certain following, and the councils of war
+which were held compared unfavorably, as Hamilton put it, with the
+deliberations of midwives. Washington was harassed of course by all
+this, but he did not stay his purpose, and as soon as he knew that
+Clinton actually had marched, he broke camp at Valley Forge and
+started in pursuit. There were more councils of an old-womanish
+character, but finally Washington took the matter into his own
+hands, and ordered forth a strong detachment to attack the British
+rear-guard. They set out on the 25th, and as Lee, to whom the command
+belonged, did not care to go, Lafayette was put in charge. As soon as
+Lafayette had departed, however, Lee changed his mind, and insisted
+that all the detachments in front, amounting to five thousand men,
+formed a division so large that it was unjust not to give him the
+command. Washington, therefore, sent him forward next day with two
+additional brigades, and then Lee by seniority took command on the
+27th of the entire advance.
+
+[Footnote 1: The authorities are hopelessly conflicting as to the
+numbers on both sides. The British returns on March 26 showed over
+19,000 men. They had since that date been weakened by desertions, but
+to what extent we can only conjecture. The detachments to Florida
+and the West Indies ordered from England do not appear to have taken
+place. The estimate of 16,000 to 17,000 seems the most reasonable.
+Washington returned his rank and file as just over 10,000, which would
+indicate a total force of 13,000 to 14,000, possibly more. Washington
+clearly underestimated the enemy, and the best conclusion seems to be
+that they were nearly matched in numbers, with a slight inferiority on
+the American side.]
+
+In the evening of that day, Washington came up, reconnoitred the
+enemy, and saw that, although their position was a strong one, another
+day's unmolested march would make it still stronger. He therefore
+resolved to attack the next morning, and gave Lee then and there
+explicit orders to that effect. In the early dawn he dispatched
+similar orders, but Lee apparently did nothing except move feebly
+forward, saying to Lafayette, "You don't know the British soldiers;
+we cannot stand against them." He made a weak attempt to cut off a
+covering party, marched and countermarched, ordered and countermanded,
+until Lafayette and Wayne, eager to fight, knew not what to do, and
+sent hot messages to Washington to come to them.
+
+Thus hesitating and confused, Lee permitted Clinton to get his baggage
+and train to the front, and to mass all his best troops in the rear
+under Cornwallis, who then advanced against the American lines. Now
+there were no orders at all, and the troops did not know what to do,
+or where to go. They stood still, then began to fall back, and then to
+retreat. A very little more and there would have been a rout. As it
+was, Washington alone prevented disaster. His early reports from the
+front from Dickinson's outlying party, and from Lee himself, were all
+favorable. Then he heard the firing, and putting the main army in
+motion, he rode rapidly forward. First he encountered a straggler, who
+talked of defeat. He could not believe it, and the fellow was pushed
+aside and silenced. Then came another and another, all with songs of
+death. Finally, officers and regiments began to come. No one knew why
+they fled, or what had happened. As the ill tidings grew thicker,
+Washington spurred sharper and rode faster through the deep sand, and
+under the blazing midsummer sun. At last he met Lee and the main body
+all in full retreat. He rode straight at Lee, savage with anger, not
+pleasant to look at, one may guess, and asked fiercely and with a deep
+oath, tradition says, what it all meant. Lee was no coward, and did
+not usually lack for words. He was, too, a hardened man of the world,
+and, in the phrase of that day, impudent to boot. But then and there
+he stammered and hesitated. The fierce question was repeated. Lee
+gathered himself and tried to excuse and palliate what had happened,
+but although the brief words that followed are variously reported to
+us across the century, we know that Washington rebuked him in such a
+way, and with such passion, that all was over between them. Lee had
+committed the one unpardonable sin in the eyes of his commander. He
+had failed to fight when the enemy was upon him. He had disobeyed
+orders and retreated. It was the end of him. He went to the rear,
+thence to a court-martial, thence to dismissal and to a solitary life
+with a well-founded suspicion of treason hanging about him. He was an
+intelligent, quick-witted, unstable man, much overrated because he
+was an English officer among a colonial people. He was ever treated
+magnanimously by Washington after the day of battle at Monmouth, but
+he then disappeared from the latter's life.
+
+When Lee bowed before the storm and stepped aside, Washington was left
+to deal with the danger and confusion around him. Thus did he tell the
+story afterwards to his brother: "A retreat, however, was the fact, be
+the causes what they may; and the disorder arising from it would have
+proved fatal to the army, had not that bountiful Providence, which has
+never failed us in the hour of distress, enabled me to form a regiment
+or two (of those that were retreating) in the face of the enemy, and
+under their fire; by which means a stand was made long enough (the
+place through which the enemy were pressing being narrow) to form the
+troops, that were advancing, upon an advantageous piece of ground in
+the rear." We cannot add much to these simple and modest words, for
+they tell the whole story. Having put Lee aside, Washington rallied
+the broken troops, brought them into position, turned them back, and
+held the enemy in check. It was not an easy feat, but it was done, and
+when Lee's division again fell back in good order the main army was in
+position, and the action became general. The British were repulsed,
+and then Washington, taking the offensive, drove them back until he
+occupied the battlefield of the morning. Night came upon him still
+advancing. He halted his army, lay down under a tree, his soldiers
+lying on their arms about him, and planned a fresh attack, to be made
+at daylight. But when the dawn came it was seen that the British had
+crept off, and were far on their road. The heat prevented a rapid
+pursuit, and Clinton got into New York. Between there and Philadelphia
+he had lost at least two thousand men by desertions in addition to
+nearly five hundred who fell at Monmouth.
+
+It is worth while to pause a moment and compare this battle with the
+rout of Long Island, the surprise at the Brandywine, and the fatal
+unsteadiness at Germantown. Here, too, a check was received at the
+outset, owing to blundering which no one could have foreseen. The
+troops, confused and without orders, began to retreat, but without
+panic or disorder. The moment Washington appeared they rallied,
+returned to the field, showed perfect steadiness, and the victory
+was won. Monmouth has never been one of the famous battles of the
+Revolution, and yet there is no other which can compare with it as an
+illustration of Washington's ability as a soldier. It was not so much
+the way in which it was fought, although that was fine enough, that
+its importance lies as in the evidence which it gives of the way
+in which Washington, after a series of defeats, during a winter
+of terrible suffering and privation, had yet developed his ragged
+volunteers into a well-disciplined and effective army. The battle was
+a victory, but the existence and the quality of the army that won it
+were a far greater triumph.
+
+The dreary winter at Valley Forge had indeed borne fruit. With a
+slight numerical superiority Washington had fought the British in the
+open field, and fairly defeated them. "Clinton gained no advantage,"
+said the great Frederic, "except to reach New York with the wreck of
+his army; America is probably lost for England." Another year had
+passed, and England had lost an army, and still held what she had
+before, the city of New York. Washington was in the field with a
+better army than ever, and an army flushed with a victory which had
+been achieved after difficulties and trials such as no one now can
+rightly picture or describe. The American Revolution was advancing,
+held firm by the master-hand of its leader. Into it, during these days
+of struggle and of battle, a new element had come, and the next step
+is to see how Washington dealt with the fresh conditions upon which
+the great conflict had entered.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE ALLIES
+
+
+On May 4, 1778, Congress ratified the treaties of commerce and
+alliance with France. On the 6th, Washington, waiting at Valley Forge
+for the British to start from Philadelphia, caused his army, drawn out
+on parade, to celebrate the great event with cheers and with salvos of
+artillery and musketry. The alliance deserved cheers and celebration,
+for it marked a long step onward in the Revolution. It showed that
+America had demonstrated to Europe that she could win independence,
+and it had been proved to the traditional enemy of England that
+the time had come when it would be profitable to help the revolted
+colonies. But the alliance brought troubles as well as blessings in
+its train. It induced a relaxation in popular energy, and carried
+with it new and difficult problems for the commander-in-chief. The
+successful management of allies, and of allied forces, had been one
+of the severest tests of the statesmanship of William III., and had
+constituted one of the principal glories of Marlborough. A similar
+problem now confronted the American general.
+
+Washington was free from the diplomatic and political portion of the
+business, but the military and popular part fell wholly into his
+hands, and demanded the exercise of talents entirely different from
+those of either a general or an administrator. It has been not
+infrequently written more or less plainly, and it is constantly said,
+that Washington was great in character, but that in brains he was
+not far above the common-place. It is even hinted sometimes that the
+father of his country was a dull man, a notion which we shall have
+occasion to examine more fully further on. At this point let the
+criticism be remembered merely in connection with the fact that
+to coöperate with allies in military matters demands tact, quick
+perception, firmness, and patience. In a word, it is a task which
+calls for the finest and most highly trained intellectual powers, and
+of which the difficulty is enhanced a thousandfold when the allies are
+on the one side, an old, aristocratic, punctilious people, and on the
+other, colonists utterly devoid of tradition, etiquette, or fixed
+habits, and very much accustomed to go their own way and speak their
+own minds with careless freedom. With this problem Washington was
+obliged suddenly to deal, both in ill success and good success, as
+well as in many attempts which came to nothing. Let us see how he
+solved it at the very outset, when everything went most perversely
+wrong.
+
+On July 14 he heard that D'Estaing's fleet was off the coast, and at
+once, without a trace of elation or excitement, he began to consider
+the possibility of intercepting the British fleet expected to arrive
+shortly from Cork. As soon as D'Estaing was within reach he sent
+two of his aides on board the flagship, and at once opened a
+correspondence with his ally. These letters of welcome, and those of
+suggestion which followed, are models, in their way, of what such
+letters ought always to be. They were perfectly adapted to satisfy the
+etiquette and the love of good manners of the French, and yet there
+was not a trace of anything like servility, or of an effusive
+gratitude which outran the favors granted. They combined stately
+courtesy with simple dignity, and are phrased with a sober grace which
+shows the thoroughly strong man, as capable to turn a sentence, if
+need be, as to rally retreating soldiers in the face of the enemy.
+
+In this first meeting of the allies nothing happened fortunately.
+D'Estaing had had a long passage, and was too late to cut off Lord
+Howe at the Delaware. Then he turned to New York, and was too late
+there, and found further that he could not get his ships over the bar.
+Hence more delays, so that he was late again in getting to Newport,
+where he was to unite with Sullivan in driving the British from Rhode
+Island, as Washington had planned, in case of failure at New York,
+while the French were still hovering on the coast. When D'Estaing
+finally reached Newport, there was still another delay of ten days,
+and then, just as he and Sullivan were preparing to attack, Lord Howe,
+with his squadron reinforced, appeared off the harbor. Promising to
+return, D'Estaing sailed out to give the enemy battle, and after
+much manoeuvring both fleets were driven off by a severe storm, and
+D'Estaing came back only to tell Sullivan that he must go to Boston at
+once to refit. Then came the protest addressed to the Count and signed
+by all the American officers; then the departure of D'Estaing, and an
+indiscreet proclamation to the troops by Sullivan, reflecting on the
+conduct of the allies.
+
+When D'Estaing had actually gone, and the Americans were obliged to
+retreat, there was much grumbling in all directions, and it looked as
+if the first result of the alliance was to be a very pretty quarrel.
+It was a bad and awkward business. Congress had the good sense to
+suppress the protest of the officers, and Washington, disappointed,
+but perhaps not wholly surprised, set himself to work to put matters
+right. It was no easy task to soothe the French, on the one hand, who
+were naturally aggrieved at the utterances of the American officers
+and at the popular feeling, and on the other to calm his own people,
+who were, not without reason, both disappointed and provoked. To
+Sullivan, fuming with wrath, he wrote: "Should the expedition fail
+through the abandonment of the French fleet, the officers concerned
+will be apt to complain loudly. But prudence dictates that we should
+put the best face upon the matter, and to the world attribute the
+removal to Boston to necessity. The reasons are too obvious to need
+explaining." And again, a few days later: "First impressions, you
+know, are generally longest remembered, and will serve to fix in a
+great degree our national character among the French. In our conduct
+towards them we should remember that they are a people old in war,
+very strict in military etiquette, and apt to take fire when others
+scarcely seem warmed. Permit me to recommend, in the most particular
+manner, the cultivation of harmony and good agreement, and your
+endeavor to destroy that ill-humor which may have got into officers."
+To Lafayette he wrote: "Everybody, sir, who reasons, will acknowledge
+the advantages which we have derived from the French fleet, and the
+zeal of the commander of it; but in a free and republican government
+you cannot restrain the voice of the multitude. Every man will speak
+as he thinks, or, more properly, without thinking, and consequently
+will judge of effects without attending to the causes. The censures
+which have been leveled at the French fleet would more than probably
+have fallen in a much higher degree upon a fleet of our own, if we
+had had one in the same situation. It is the nature of man to be
+displeased with everything that disappoints a favorite hope or
+flattering project; and it is the folly of too many of them to condemn
+without investigating circumstances." Finally he wrote to D'Estaing,
+deploring the difference which had arisen, mentioning his own efforts
+and wishes to restore harmony, and said: "It is in the trying
+circumstances to which your Excellency has been exposed that the
+virtues of a great mind are displayed in their brightest lustre, and
+that a general's character is better known than in the moment of
+victory. It was yours by every title that can give it; and the adverse
+elements that robbed you of your prize can never deprive you of
+the glory due you. Though your success has not been equal to your
+expectations, yet you have the satisfaction of reflecting that you
+have rendered essential services to the common cause." This is not the
+letter of a dull man. Indeed, there is a nicety about it that partakes
+of cleverness, a much commoner thing than greatness, but something
+which all great men by no means possess. Thus by tact and
+comprehension of human nature, by judicious suppression and equally
+judicious letters, Washington, through the prudent exercise of all his
+commanding influence, quieted his own people and soothed his allies.
+In this way a serious disaster was averted, and an abortive expedition
+was all that was left to be regretted, instead of an ugly quarrel,
+which might readily have neutralized the vast advantages flowing from
+the French alliance. Having refitted, D'Estaing bore away for the West
+Indies, and so closed the first chapter in the history of the alliance
+with France. Nothing more was heard of the allies until the spring was
+well advanced, when M. Gerard, the minister, wrote, intimating that
+D'Estaing was about to return, and asking what we would do. Washington
+replied at length, professing his willingness to coöperate in any way,
+and offering, if the French would send ships, to abandon everything,
+run all risks, and make an attack on New York. Nothing further came
+of it, and Washington heard that the fleet had gone to the Southern
+States, which he learned without regret, as he was apprehensive as to
+the condition of affairs in that region. Again, in the autumn, it
+was reported that the fleet was once more upon the northern coast.
+Washington at once sent officers to be on the lookout at the most
+likely points, and he wrote elaborately to D'Estaing, setting forth
+with wonderful perspicuity the incidents of the past, the condition of
+the present, and the probabilities of the future. He was willing to do
+anything, or plan anything, provided his allies would join with him.
+The jealousy so habitual in humanity, which is afraid that some one
+else may get the glory of a common success, was unknown to Washington,
+and if he could but drive the British from America, and establish
+American independence, he was perfectly willing that the glory should
+take care of itself. But all his wisdom in dealing with the allies
+was, for the moment, vain. While he was planning for a great stroke,
+and calling out the militia of New England, D'Estaing was making ready
+to relieve Georgia, and a few days after Washington wrote his second
+letter, the French and Americans assaulted the British works at
+Savannah, and were repulsed with heavy losses. Then D'Estaing sailed
+away again, and the second effort of France to aid England's revolted
+colonies came to an end. Their presence had had a good moral effect,
+and the dread of D'Estaing's return had caused Clinton to withdraw
+from Newport and concentrate in New York. This was all that was
+actually accomplished, and there was nothing for it but to await still
+another trial and a more convenient season.
+
+With all his courtesy and consideration, with all his readiness to
+fall in with the wishes and schemes of the French, it must not be
+supposed that Washington ever went an inch too far in this direction.
+He valued the French alliance, and proposed to use it to great
+purpose, but he was not in the least dazzled or blinded by it. Even
+in the earliest glow of excitement and hope produced by D'Estaing's
+arrival, Washington took occasion to draw once more the distinction
+between a valuable alliance and volunteer adventurers, and to
+remonstrate again with Congress about their reckless profusion in
+dealing with foreign officers. To Gouverneur Morris he wrote on July
+24, 1778: "The lavish manner in which rank has hitherto been bestowed
+on these gentlemen will certainly be productive of one or the other of
+these two evils: either to make it despicable in the eyes of Europe,
+or become the means of pouring them in upon us like a torrent and
+adding to our present burden. But it is neither the expense nor the
+trouble of them that I most dread. There is an evil more extensive in
+its nature, and fatal in its consequences, to be apprehended, and
+that is the driving of all our own officers out of the service, and
+throwing not only our army, but our military councils, entirely into
+the hands of foreigners.... Baron Steuben, I now find, is also wanting
+to quit his inspectorship for a command in the line. This will be
+productive of much discontent to the brigadiers. In a word, although I
+think the baron an excellent officer, I do most devoutly wish that we
+had not a single foreigner among us except the Marquis de Lafayette,
+who acts upon very different principles from those which govern the
+rest." A few days later he said, on the same theme, to the president
+of Congress: "I trust you think me so much a citizen of the world as
+to believe I am not easily warped or led away by attachments merely
+local and American; yet I confess I am not entirely without them, nor
+does it appear to me that they are unwarrantable, if confined within
+proper limits. Fewer promotions in the foreign line would have been
+productive of more harmony, and made our warfare more agreeable to all
+parties." Again, he said of Steuben: "I regret that there should be a
+necessity that his services should be lost to the army; at the same
+time I think it my duty explicitly to observe to Congress that his
+desire of having an actual and permanent command in the line cannot be
+complied with without wounding the feelings of a number of officers,
+whose rank and merits give them every claim to attention; and that the
+doing of it would be productive of much dissatisfaction and extensive
+ill consequences."
+
+Washington's resistance to the colonial deference for foreigners has
+already been pointed out, but this second burst of opposition, coming
+at this especial time, deserves renewed attention. The splendid fleet
+and well-equipped troops of our ally were actually at our gates, and
+everybody was in a paroxysm of perfectly natural gratitude. To the
+colonial mind, steeped in colonial habits of thought, the foreigner at
+this particular juncture appeared more than ever to be a splendid and
+superior being. But he did not in the least confuse or sway the cool
+judgment that guided the destinies of the Revolution. Let us consider
+well the pregnant sentences just quoted, and the letters from which
+they are taken. They deserve it, for they throw a strong light on a
+side of Washington's mind and character too little appreciated. One
+hears it said not infrequently, it has been argued even in print with
+some solemnity, that Washington was, no doubt, a great man and rightly
+a national hero, but that he was not an American. It will be necessary
+to recur to this charge again and consider it at some length. It is
+sufficient at this point to see how it tallies with his conduct in
+a single matter, which was a very perfect test of the national and
+American quality of the man. We can get at the truth by contrasting
+him with his own contemporaries, the only fair comparison, for he was
+a man and an American of his own time and not of the present day,
+which is a point his critics overlook.
+
+Where he differed from the men of his own time was in the fact that he
+rose to a breadth and height of Americanism and of national feeling
+which no other man of that day touched at all. Nothing is more intense
+than the conservatism of mental habits, and although it requires now
+an effort to realize it, it should not be forgotten that in every
+habit of thought the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies were wholly
+colonial. If this is properly appreciated we can understand the mental
+breadth and vigor which enabled Washington to shake off at once all
+past habits and become an independent leader of an independent
+people. He felt to the very core of his being the need of national
+self-respect and national dignity. To him, as the chief of the armies
+and the head of the Revolution, all men, no matter what tongue they
+spake or what country they came from, were to be dealt with on a
+footing of simple equality, and treated according to their merits.
+There was to him no glamour in the fact that this man was a Frenchman
+and that an Englishman. His own personal pride extended to his people,
+and he bowed to no national superiority anywhere. Hamilton was
+national throughout, but he was born outside the thirteen colonies,
+and knew his fellow-citizens only as Americans. Franklin was national
+by the force of his own commanding genius. John Adams grew to the same
+conception, so far as our relations to other nations were concerned.
+But beyond these three we may look far and closely before we find
+another among all the really great men of the time who freed himself
+wholly from the superstition of the colonist about the nations of
+Europe.
+
+When Washington drew his sword beneath the Cambridge elm he stood
+forth as the first American, the best type of man that the New World
+could produce, with no provincial taint upon him, and no shadow of the
+colonial past clouding his path. It was this great quality that gave
+the struggle which he led a character it would never have attained
+without a leader so constituted. Had he been merely a colonial
+Englishman, had he not risen at once to the conception of an American
+nation, the world would have looked at us with very different eyes.
+It was the personal dignity of the man, quite as much as his fighting
+capacity, which impressed Europe. Kings and ministers, looking on
+dispassionately, soon realized that here was no ordinary agitator
+or revolutionist, but a great man on a great stage with great
+conceptions. England, indeed, talked about a militia colonel, but this
+chatter disappeared in the smoke of Trenton, and even England came to
+look upon him as the all-powerful spirit of the Revolution. Dull men
+and colonial squires do not grasp a great idea and carry it into
+action on the world's stage in a few months. To stand forward at the
+head of raw armies and of a colonial people as a national leader,
+calm, dignified, and far-seeing, requires not only character, but
+intellect of the highest and strongest kind. Now that we have come
+as a people, after more than a century's struggle, to the national
+feeling which Washington compassed in a moment, it is well to consider
+that single achievement and to meditate on its meaning, whether in
+estimating him, or in gauging what he was to the American people when
+they came into existence.
+
+Let us take another instance of the same quality, shown also in the
+winter of 1778. Congress had from the beginning a longing to conquer
+Canada, which was a wholly natural and entirely laudable desire, for
+conquest is always more interesting than defense. Washington, on the
+other hand, after the first complete failure, which was so nearly
+a success in the then undefended and unsuspicious country, gave up
+pretty thoroughly all ideas of attacking Canada again, and opposed
+the various plans of Congress in that direction. When he had a
+life-and-death struggle to get together and subsist enough men
+to protect their own firesides, he had ample reason to know that
+invasions of Canada were hopeless. Indeed, not much active opposition
+from the commander-in-chief was needed to dispose of the Canadian
+schemes, for facts settled them as fast as they arose. When the
+cabal got up its Canadian expedition, it consisted of Lafayette, and
+penetrated no farther than Albany. So Washington merely kept his eye
+watchfully on Canada, and argued against expeditions thither, until
+this winter of 1778, when something quite new in that direction came
+up.
+
+Lafayette's imagination had been fired by the notion of conquering
+Canada. His idea was to get succors from France for this especial
+purpose, and with them and American aid to achieve the conquest.
+Congress was impressed and pleased by the scheme, and sent a report
+upon it to Franklin, to communicate to the French court, but
+Washington, when he heard of the plan, took a very different view.
+He sent at once a long dispatch to Congress, urging every possible
+objection to the proposed campaign, on the ground of its utter
+impracticability, and with this official letter, which was necessarily
+confined to the military side of the question, went another addressed
+to President Laurens personally, which contained the deeper reasons of
+his opposition. He said that there was an objection not touched upon
+in his public letter, which was absolutely insurmountable. This was
+the introduction of French troops into Canada to take possession of
+the capital, in the midst of a people of their own race and religion,
+and but recently severed from them.
+
+He pointed out the enormous advantages which would accrue to France
+from the possession of Canada, such as independent posts, control of
+the Indians, and the Newfoundland trade. "France, ... possessed of New
+Orleans on our right, Canada on our left, and seconded by the
+numerous tribes of Indians in our rear, ... would, it is much to be
+apprehended, have it in her power to give law to these States." He
+went on to show that France might easily find an excuse for such
+conduct, in seeking a surety for her advances of money, and that she
+had but little to fear from the contingency of our being driven to
+reunite with England. He continued: "Men are very apt to run into
+extremes. Hatred to England may carry some into an excess of
+confidence in France, especially when motives of gratitude are thrown
+into the scale. Men of this description would be unwilling to suppose
+France capable of acting so ungenerous a part. I am heartily disposed
+to entertain the most favorable sentiments of our new ally, and to
+cherish them in others to a reasonable degree. But it is a maxim,
+founded on the universal experience of mankind, that no nation is
+to be trusted farther than it is bound by its own interest; and no
+prudent statesman or politician will venture to depart from it. In our
+circumstances we ought to be particularly cautious; for we have not
+yet attained sufficient vigor and maturity to recover from the shock
+of any false steps into which we may unwarily fall."
+
+We shall have occasion to recall these utterances at a later day, but
+at this time they serve to show yet again how broadly and clearly
+Washington judged nations and policies. Uppermost in his mind was the
+destiny of his own nation, just coming into being, and from that firm
+point he watched and reasoned. His words had no effect on Congress,
+but as it turned out, the plan failed through adverse influences in
+the quarter where Washington least expected them. He believed that
+this Canadian plan had been put into Lafayette's mind by the cabinet
+of Louis XVI., and he could not imagine that a policy of such obvious
+wisdom could be overlooked by French statesmen. In this he was
+completely mistaken, for France failed to see what seemed so simple to
+the American general, that the opportunity had come to revive her old
+American policy and reestablish her colonies under the most favorable
+conditions. The ministers of Louis XVI., moreover, did not wish the
+colonies to conquer Canada, and the plan of Lafayette and the Congress
+received no aid in Paris and came to nothing. But the fruitless
+incident exhibits in the strongest light the attitude of Washington as
+a purely American statesman, and the comprehensiveness of his mind in
+dealing with large affairs.
+
+The French alliance and the coming of the French fleet were of
+incalculable advantage to the colonies, but they had one evil effect,
+as has already been suggested. To a people weary with unequal
+conflict, it was a debilitating influence, and America needed at that
+moment more than ever energy and vigor, both in the council and
+the field. Yet the general outlook was distinctly better and more
+encouraging. Soon after Washington had defeated Clinton at Monmouth,
+and had taken a position whence he could watch and check him, he wrote
+to his friend General Nelson in Virginia:--
+
+"It is not a little pleasing, nor less wonderful to contemplate, that,
+after two years' manoeuvring and undergoing the strangest vicissitudes
+that perhaps ever attended any one contest since the creation, both
+armies are brought back to the very point they set out from, and that
+the offending party at the beginning is now reduced to the spade and
+pickaxe for defense. The hand of Providence has been so conspicuous in
+all this that he must be worse than an infidel that lacks faith, and
+more than wicked that has not gratitude enough to acknowledge his
+obligations. But it will be time enough for me to turn preacher when
+my present appointment ceases."
+
+He had reason to congratulate himself on the result of his two years'
+campaigning, but as the summer wore away and winter came on he found
+causes for fresh and deep alarm, despite the good outlook in the
+field. The demoralizing effects of civil war were beginning to show
+themselves in various directions. The character of Congress, in point
+of ability, had declined alarmingly, for the ablest men of the first
+Congress, with few exceptions, had departed. Some had gone to the
+army, some to the diplomatic service, and many had remained at home,
+preferring the honors and offices of the States to those of the
+Confederation. Their successors, patriotic and well-meaning though
+they were, lacked the energy and force of those who had started the
+Revolution, and, as a consequence, Congress had become feeble and
+ineffective, easily swayed by influential schemers, and unable to cope
+with the difficulties which surrounded them.
+
+Outside the government the popular tone had deteriorated sadly. The
+lavish issues of irredeemable paper by the Confederation and the
+States had brought their finances to the verge of absolute ruin. The
+continental currency had fallen to something like forty to one in
+gold, and the decline was hastened by the forged notes put out by the
+enemy. The fluctuations of this paper soon bred a spirit of gambling,
+and hence came a class of men, both inside and outside of politics,
+who sought, more or less corruptly, to make fortunes by army
+contracts, and by forestalling the markets. These developments filled
+Washington with anxiety, for in the financial troubles he saw ruin
+to the army. The unpaid troops bore the injustice done them with
+wonderful patience, but it was something that could not last, and
+Washington knew the danger. In vain did he remonstrate. It seemed to
+be impossible to get anything done, and at last, in the following
+spring, the outbreak began. Two New Jersey regiments refused to march
+until the assembly made provision for their pay. Washington took high
+ground with them, but they stood respectfully firm, and finally had
+their way. Not long after came another outbreak in the Connecticut
+line, with similar results. These object lessons had some result, and
+by foreign loans and the ability of Robert Morris the country was
+enabled to stumble along; but it was a frightful and wearing anxiety
+to the commander-in-chief.
+
+Washington saw at once that the root of the evil lay in the feebleness
+of Congress, and although he could not deal with the finances, he was
+able to strive for an improvement in the governing body. Not content
+with letters, he left the army and went to Philadelphia, in the winter
+of 1779, and there appealed to Congress in person, setting forth the
+perils which beset them, and urging action. He wrote also to his
+friends everywhere, pointing out the deficiencies of Congress, and
+begging them to send better and stronger men. To Benjamin Harrison he
+wrote: "It appears to me as clear as ever the sun did in its meridian
+brightness, that America never stood in more eminent need of the wise,
+patriotic, and spirited exertions of her sons than at this period; ...
+the States separately are too much engaged in their local concerns,
+and have too many of their ablest men withdrawn from the general
+council, for the good of the common weal." He took the same high tone
+in all his letters, and there can be seen through it all the desperate
+endeavor to make the States and the people understand the dangers
+which he realized, but which they either could not or would not
+appreciate.
+
+On the other hand, while his anxiety was sharpened to the highest
+point by the character of Congress, his sternest wrath was kindled by
+the gambling and money-making which had become rampant. To Reed he
+wrote in December, 1778: "It gives me sincere pleasure to find that
+there is likely to be a coalition of the Whigs in your State, a few
+only excepted, and that the assembly is so well disposed to second
+your endeavors in bringing those murderers of our cause, the
+monopolizers, forestallers, and engrossers, to condign punishment. It
+is much to be lamented that each State, long ere this, has not hunted
+them down as pests to society and the greatest enemies we have to
+the happiness of America. I would to God that some one of the most
+atrocious in each State was hung in gibbets upon a gallows five times
+as high as the one prepared by Haman. No punishment, in my opinion, is
+too great for the man who can build his greatness upon his country's
+ruin." He would have hanged them too had he had the power, for he was
+always as good as his word.
+
+It is refreshing to read these righteously angry words, still ringing
+as sharply as when they were written. They clear away all the
+myths--the priggish, the cold, the statuesque, the dull myths--as the
+strong gusts of the northwest wind in autumn sweep off the heavy mists
+of lingering August. They are the hot words of a warm-blooded man, a
+good hater, who loathed meanness and treachery, and who would have
+hanged those who battened upon the country's distress. When he went
+to Philadelphia, a few weeks later, and saw the state of things with
+nearer view, he felt the wretchedness and outrage of such doings more
+than ever. He wrote to Harrison: "If I were to be called upon to draw
+a picture of the times and of men, from what I have seen, heard, and
+in part know, I should in one word say, that idleness, dissipation,
+and extravagance seem to have laid fast hold of most of them; that
+speculation, peculation, and an insatiable thirst for riches seem to
+have got the better of every other consideration, and almost of every
+order of men; that party disputes and personal quarrels are the great
+business of the day; whilst the momentous concerns of an empire, a
+great and accumulating debt, ruined finances, depreciated money, and
+want of credit, which, in its consequences, is the want of everything,
+are but secondary considerations, and postponed from day to day, from
+week to week, as if our affairs wore the most promising aspect."
+
+Other men talked about empire, but he alone grasped the great
+conception, and felt it in his soul. To see not only immediate success
+imperiled, but the future paltered with by small, mean, and dishonest
+men, cut him to the quick. He set himself doggedly to fight it, as he
+always fought every enemy, using both speech and pen in all quarters.
+Much, no doubt, he ultimately effected, but he was contending with
+the usual results of civil war, which are demoralizing always, and
+especially so among a young people in a new country. At first,
+therefore, all seemed vain. The selfishness, "peculation, and
+speculation" seemed to get worse, and the tone of Congress and the
+people lower, as he struggled against them. In March, 1779, he wrote
+to James Warren of Massachusetts: "Nothing, I am convinced, but
+the depreciation of our currency, aided by stock-jobbing and party
+dissensions, has fed the hopes of the enemy, and kept the British
+arms in America to this day. They do not scruple to declare this
+themselves, and add that we shall be our own conquerors. Can not our
+common country, America, possess virtue enough to disappoint them? Is
+the paltry consideration of a little pelf to individuals to be placed
+in competition with the essential rights and liberties of the present
+generation, and of millions yet unborn? Shall a few designing men, for
+their own aggrandizement, and to gratify their own avarice, overset
+the goodly fabric we have been rearing, at the expense of so much
+time, blood, and treasure? And shall we at last become the victims
+of our own lust of gain? Forbid it, Heaven! Forbid it, all and every
+State in the Union, by enacting and enforcing efficacious laws for
+checking the growth of these monstrous evils, and restoring matters,
+in some degree, to the state they were in at the commencement of the
+war."
+
+"Our cause is noble. It is the cause of mankind, and the danger to it
+is to be apprehended from ourselves. Shall we slumber and sleep, then,
+while we should be punishing those miscreants who have brought these
+troubles upon us, and who are aiming to continue us in them; while we
+should be striving to fill our battalions, and devising ways and means
+to raise the value of the currency, on the credit of which everything
+depends?" Again we see the prevailing idea of the future, which
+haunted him continually. Evidently, he had some imagination, and
+also a power of terse and eloquent expression which we have heard of
+before, and shall note again.
+
+Still the appeals seemed to sound in deaf ears. He wrote to George
+Mason: "I have seen, without despondency, even for a moment, the hours
+which America has styled her gloomy ones; but I have beheld no
+day since the commencement of hostilities that I have thought her
+liberties in such imminent danger as at present.... Indeed, we are
+verging so fast to destruction that I am filled with sensations to
+which I have been a stranger till within these three months." To
+Gouverneur Morris he said: "If the enemy have it in their power to
+press us hard this campaign, I know not what may be the consequence."
+He had faced the enemy, the bleak winters, raw soldiers, and all the
+difficulties of impecunious government, with a cheerful courage that
+never failed. But the spectacle of widespread popular demoralization,
+of selfish scrambles for plunder, and of feeble administration at
+the centre of government weighed upon him heavily. It was not the
+general's business to build up Congress and grapple with finance, but
+Washington addressed himself to the new task with his usual persistent
+courage. It was slow and painful work. He seemed to make no progress,
+and then it was that his spirits sank at the prospect of ruin and
+defeat, not coming on the field of battle, but from our own vices and
+our own lack of energy and wisdom. Yet his work told in the end, as it
+always did. His vast and steadily growing influence made itself felt
+even through the dense troubles of the uneasy times. Congress turned
+with energy to Europe for fresh loans. Lafayette worked away to get
+an army sent over. The two Morrises, stimulated by Washington, flung
+themselves into the financial difficulties, and feeble but distinct
+efforts toward a more concentrated and better organized administration
+of public affairs were made both in the States and the confederation.
+
+But, although Washington's spirits fell, and his anxieties became
+wellnigh intolerable in this period of reaction which followed the
+French alliance, he made no public show of it, but carried on his own
+work with the army and in the field as usual, contending with all the
+difficulties, new and old, as calmly and efficiently as ever. After
+Clinton slipped away from Monmouth and sought refuge in New York,
+Washington took post at convenient points and watched the movements
+of the enemy. In this way the summer passed. As always, Washington's
+first object was to guard the Hudson, and while he held this vital
+point firmly, he waited, ready to strike elsewhere if necessary. It
+looked for a time as if the British intended to descend on Boston,
+seize the town, and destroy the French fleet, which had gone there
+to refit. Such was the opinion of Gates, then commanding in that
+department, and as Washington inclined to the same belief, the fear of
+this event gave him many anxious moments. He even moved his troops
+so as to be in readiness to march eastward at short notice; but he
+gradually became convinced that the enemy had no such plan. Much
+of his thought, now and always, was given to efforts to divine the
+intentions of the British generals. They had so few settled ideas,
+and were so tardy and lingering when they had plans, that it is small
+wonder that their opponents were sorely puzzled in trying to find out
+what their purposes were, when they really had none. The fact was that
+Washington saw their military opportunities with the eye of a great
+soldier, and so much better than they, that he suffered a good deal of
+needless anxiety in devising methods to meet attacks which they had
+not the wit to undertake. He had a profound contempt for their policy
+of holding towns, and believing that they must see the utter futility
+of it, after several years of trial, he constantly expected from them
+a well-planned and extensive campaign, which in reality they were
+incapable of devising.
+
+The main army, therefore, remained quiet, and when the autumn had
+passed went into winter-quarters in well-posted detachments about New
+York. In December Clinton made an ineffectual raid, and then all was
+peaceful again, and Washington was able to go to Philadelphia and
+struggle with Congress, leaving his army more comfortable and secure
+than they had been in any previous winter.
+
+In January he informed Congress as to the next campaign. He showed
+them the impossibility of undertaking anything on a large scale, and
+announced his intention of remaining on the defensive. It was a trying
+policy to a man of his temper, but he could do no better, and he knew,
+now as always, what others could not yet see, that by simply holding
+on and keeping his army in the field he was slowly but surely winning
+independence. He tried to get Congress to do something with the navy,
+and he planned an expedition, under the command of Sullivan, to
+overrun the Indian country and check the barbarous raids of the Tories
+and savages on the frontier; and with this he was fain to be content.
+In fact, he perceived very clearly the direction in which the war was
+tending. He kept up his struggle with Congress for a permanent army,
+and with the old persistency pleaded that something should be done for
+the officers, and at the same time he tried to keep the States in good
+humor when they were grumbling about the amount of protection afforded
+them.
+
+But all this wear and tear of heart and brain and temper, while given
+chiefly to hold the army together, was not endured with any
+notion that he and Clinton were eventually to fight it out in the
+neighborhood of New York. Washington felt that that part of the
+conflict was over. He now hoped and believed that the moment would
+come, when, by uniting his army with the French, he should be able to
+strike the decisive blow. Until that time came, however, he knew that
+he could do nothing on a great scale, and he felt that meanwhile the
+British, abandoning practically the eastern and middle States, would
+make one last desperate struggle for victory, and would make it in the
+south. Long before any one else, he appreciated this fact, and saw a
+peril looming large in that region, where everybody was considering
+the British invasion as little more than an exaggerated raid. He
+foresaw, too, that we should suffer more there than we had in the
+extreme north, because the south was full of Tories and less well
+organized.
+
+All this, however, did not change his own plans one jot. He believed
+that the south must work out its own salvation, as New York and New
+England had done with Burgoyne, and he felt sure that in the end it
+would be successful. But he would not go south, nor take his army
+there. The instinct of a great commander for the vital point in a war
+or a battle, is as keen as that of the tiger is said to be for the
+jugular vein of its victim. The British might overrun the north or
+invade the south, but he would stay where he was, with his grip upon
+New York and the Hudson River. The tide of invasion might ebb and flow
+in this region or that, but the British were doomed if they could not
+divide the eastern colonies from the others. When the appointed hour
+came, he was ready to abandon everything and strike the final and
+fatal blow; but until then he waited and stood fast with his army,
+holding the great river in his grasp. He felt much more anxiety about
+the south than he had felt about the north, and expected Congress to
+consult him as to a commander, having made up his mind that Greene was
+the man to send. But Congress still believed in Gates, who had been
+making trouble for Washington all winter; and so Gates was sent,
+and Congress in due time got their lesson, and found once more that
+Washington understood men better than they did.
+
+In the north the winter was comparatively uneventful. The spring
+passed, and in June Clinton came out and took possession of Stony
+Point and Verplanck's Point, and began to fortify them. It looked a
+little as if Clinton might intend to get control of the Hudson by
+slow approaches, fortifying, and then advancing until he reached West
+Point. With this in mind, Washington at once determined to check the
+British by striking sharply at one of their new posts. Having made
+up his mind, he sent for Wayne and asked him if he would storm Stony
+Point. Tradition says that Wayne replied, "I will storm hell, if you
+will plan it." A true tradition, probably, in keeping with Wayne's
+character, and pleasant to us to-day as showing with a vivid gleam of
+rough human speech the utter confidence of the army in their leader,
+that confidence which only a great soldier can inspire. So Washington
+planned, and Wayne stormed, and Stony Point fell. It was a gallant and
+brilliant feat of arms, one of the most brilliant of the war. Over
+five hundred prisoners were taken, the guns were carried off, and the
+works destroyed, leaving the British to begin afresh with a good deal
+of increased caution and respect. Not long after, Harry Lee stormed
+Paulus Hook with equal success, and the British were checked and
+arrested, if they intended any extensive movement. On the frontier,
+Sullivan, after some delays, did his work effectively, ravaging the
+Indian towns and reducing them to quiet, thus taking away another
+annoyance and danger.
+
+In these various ways Clinton's circle of activity was steadily
+narrowed, but it may be doubted whether he had any coherent plan.
+The principal occupation of the British was to send out marauding
+expeditions and cut off outlying parties. Tryon burned and pillaged
+in Connecticut, Matthews in Virginia, and others on a smaller scale
+elsewhere in New Jersey and New York. The blundering stupidity of this
+system of warfare was only equaled by its utter brutality. Houses were
+burned, peaceful villages went up in smoke, women and children were
+outraged, and soldiers were bayoneted after they had surrendered.
+These details of the Revolution are wellnigh forgotten now, but when
+the ear is wearied with talk about English generosity and love of fair
+play, it is well to turn back and study the exploits of Tryon, and it
+is not amiss in the same connection to recall that English budgets
+contained a special appropriation for scalping-knives, a delicate
+attention to the Tories and Indians who were burning and butchering on
+the frontier.
+
+Such methods of warfare Washington despised intellectually, and hated
+morally. He saw that every raid only hardened the people against
+England, and made her cause more hopeless. The misery caused by these
+raids angered him, but he would not retaliate in kind, and Wayne
+bayoneted no English soldiers after they laid down their arms at Stony
+Point. It was enough for Washington to hold fast to the great objects
+he had in view, to check Clinton and circumscribe his movements.
+Steadfastly he did this through the summer and winter of 1779, which
+proved one of the worst that he had yet endured. Supplies did not
+come, the army dwindled, and the miseries of Valley Forge were
+renewed. Again was repeated the old and pitiful story of appeals to
+Congress and the States, and again the undaunted spirit and strenuous
+exertions of Washington saved the army and the Revolution from the
+internal ruin which was his worst enemy. When the new year began, he
+saw that he was again condemned to a defensive campaign, but this made
+little difference now, for what he had foreseen in the spring of 1779
+became certainty in the autumn. The active war was transferred to the
+south, where the chapter of disasters was beginning, and Clinton had
+practically given up everything except New York. The war had taken
+on the new phase expected by Washington. Weak as he was, he began to
+detach troops, and prepared to deal with the last desperate effort of
+England to conquer her revolted colonies from the south.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+ARNOLD'S TREASON, AND THE WAR IN THE SOUTH
+
+
+The spring of 1780 was the beginning of a period of inactivity and
+disappointment, of diligent effort and frustrated plans. During the
+months which ensued before the march to the south, Washington passed
+through a stress of harassing anxiety, which was far worse than
+anything he had to undergo at any other time. Plans were formed, only
+to fail. Opportunities arose, only to pass by unfulfilled. The network
+of hostile conditions bound him hand and foot, and it seemed at times
+as if he could never break the bonds that held him, or prevent or hold
+back the moral, social, and political dissolution going on about him.
+With the aid of France, he meant to strike one decisive blow, and end
+the struggle. Every moment was of importance, and yet the days and
+weeks and months slipped by, and he could get nothing done. He could
+neither gain control of the sea, nor gather sufficient forces of his
+own, although delay now meant ruin. He saw the British overrun the
+south, and he could not leave the Hudson. He was obliged to sacrifice
+the southern States, and yet he could get neither ships nor men to
+attack New York. The army was starving and mutinous, and he sought
+relief in vain. The finances were ruined, Congress was helpless, the
+States seemed stupefied. Treason of the most desperate kind suddenly
+reared its head, and threatened the very citadel of the Revolution.
+These were the days of the war least familiar to posterity. They
+are unmarked in the main by action or fighting, and on this dreary
+monotony nothing stands out except the black stain of Arnold's
+treason. Yet it was the time of all others when Washington had most to
+bear. It was the time of all others when his dogged persistence and
+unwavering courage alone seemed to sustain the flickering fortunes of
+the war.
+
+In April Washington was pondering ruefully on the condition of affairs
+at the south. He saw that the only hope of saving Charleston was in
+the defense of the bar; and when that became indefensible, he saw that
+the town ought to be abandoned to the enemy, and the army withdrawn to
+the country. His military genius showed itself again and again in
+his perfectly accurate judgment on distant campaigns. He seemed to
+apprehend all the conditions at a glance, and although his wisdom
+made him refuse to issue orders when he was not on the ground, those
+generals who followed his suggestions, even when a thousand miles
+away, were successful, and those who disregarded them were not.
+Lincoln, commanding at Charleston, was a brave and loyal man, but he
+had neither the foresight nor the courage to withdraw to the country,
+and then, hovering on the lines of the enemy, to confine them to the
+town. He yielded to the entreaties of the citizens and remained, only
+to surrender. Washington had retreated from New York, and after five
+years of fighting the British still held it, and had gone no further.
+He had refused to risk an assault to redeem Philadelphia, at the
+expense of much grumbling and cursing, and had then beaten the enemy
+when they hastily retreated thence in the following spring. His
+cardinal doctrine was that the Revolution depended upon the existence
+of the army, and not on the possession of any particular spot of
+ground, and his masterly adherence to this theory brought victory,
+slowly but surely. Lincoln's very natural inability to grasp it, and
+to withstand popular pressure, cost us for a time the southern States
+and a great deal of bloody fighting.
+
+In the midst of this anxiety about the south, and when he foresaw the
+coming disasters, Washington was cheered and encouraged by the arrival
+of Lafayette, whom he loved, and who brought good tidings of his
+zealous work for the United States in Paris. An army and a fleet were
+on their way to America, with a promise of more to follow. This was
+great news indeed. It is interesting to note how Washington took it,
+for we see here with unusual clearness the readiness of grasp and
+quickness of thought which have been noted before, but which are
+not commonly attributed to him. It has been the fashion to treat
+Washington as wise and prudent, but as distinctly slow, and when he
+was obliged to concentrate public opinion, either military or civil,
+or when doubt overhung his course, he moved with great deliberation.
+When he required no concentration of opinion, and had made up his
+mind, he could strike with a terribly swift decision, as at Trenton
+or Monmouth. So when a new situation presented itself he seized with
+wonderful rapidity every phase and possibility opened by changed
+conditions.
+
+The moment he learned from Lafayette that the French succors were
+actually on the way, he began to lay out plans in a manner which
+showed how he had taken in at the first glance every chance and every
+contingency. He wrote that the decisive moment was at hand, and that
+the French succors would be fatal if not used successfully now.
+Congress must improve their methods of administration, and for this
+purpose must appoint a small committee to coöperate with him. This
+step he demanded, and it was taken at once. Fresh from his interview
+with Lafayette, he sent out orders to have inquiries made as to
+Halifax and its defenses. Possibly a sudden and telling blow might
+be struck there, and nothing should be overlooked. He also wrote to
+Lafayette to urge upon the French commander an immediate assault on
+New York the moment he landed. Yet despite his thought for New York,
+he even then began to see the opportunities which were destined to
+develop into Yorktown. He had longed to go to the south before, and
+had held back only because he felt that the main army and New York
+were still the key of the position, and could not be safely abandoned.
+Now, while planning the capture of New York, he asked in a letter
+whether the enemy was not more exposed at the southward and therefore
+a better subject for a combined attack there. Clearness and precision
+of plan as to the central point, joined to a perfect readiness to
+change suddenly and strike hard and decisively in a totally different
+quarter, are sure marks of the great commander. We can find them all
+through the correspondence, but here in May, 1780, they come out with
+peculiar vividness. They are qualities arising from a wide foresight,
+and from a sure and quick perception. They are not the qualities of a
+slow or heavy mind.
+
+On June 1 came the news of the surrender of Charleston and the loss of
+the army, which was followed by the return of Clinton to New York. The
+southern States lay open now to the enemy, and it was a severe trial
+to Washington to be unable to go to their rescue; but with the same
+dogged adherence to his ruling idea, he concentrated his attention
+on the Hudson with renewed vigilance on account of Clinton's return.
+Adversity and prosperity alike were unable to divert him from the
+control of the great river and the mastery of the middle States until
+he saw conclusive victory elsewhere fairly within his grasp. In the
+same unswerving way he pushed on the preparations for what he felt to
+be the coming of the decisive campaign and the supreme moment of the
+war. To all the governors went urgent letters, calling on the States
+to fill their lines in the continental army, and to have their militia
+in readiness.
+
+In the midst of these anxieties and preparations, the French arrived
+at Newport, bringing a well-equipped army of some five thousand men,
+and a small fleet. They brought, too, something quite as important,
+in the way of genuine good-will and full intention to do all in their
+power for their allies. After a moment's hesitation, born of unlucky
+memories, the people of Rhode Island gave De Rochambeau a hearty
+welcome, and Washington sent him the most cordial greeting. With the
+greeting went the polite but earnest request for immediate action,
+together with plans for attacking New York; and, at the same time,
+another urgent call went out to the States for men, money, and
+supplies. The long-looked-for hour had arrived, a fine French army was
+in Newport, a French fleet rode in the harbor, and instead of action,
+immediate and effective, the great event marked only the beginning of
+a period of delays and disappointment, wearing heart and nerve almost
+beyond endurance.
+
+First it appeared that the French ships could not get into New York
+harbor. Then there was sickness in the French army. Then the British
+menaced Newport, and rapid preparations had to be made to meet that
+danger. Then it came out that De Rochambeau was ordered to await the
+arrival of the second division of the army, with more ships; and after
+due waiting, it was discovered that the aforesaid second division,
+with their ships, were securely blockaded by the English fleet at
+Brest. On our side it was no better; indeed, it was rather worse.
+There was lack of arms and powder. The drafts were made with
+difficulty, and the new levies came in slowly. Supplies failed
+altogether, and on every hand there was nothing but delay, and ever
+fresh delay, and in the midst of it all Washington, wrestling with
+sloth and incoherence and inefficiency, trampled down one failure and
+disappointment only to encounter another, equally important, equally
+petty, and equally harassing.
+
+On August 20 he wrote to Congress a long and most able letter, which
+set forth forcibly the evil and perilous condition of affairs. After
+reading that letter no man could say that there was not need of the
+utmost exertion, and for the expenditure of the last ounce of energy.
+In it Washington struck especially at the two delusions with which
+the people and their representatives were lulling themselves into
+security, and by which they were led to relax their efforts. One was
+the belief that England was breaking down; the other, that the arrival
+of the French was synonymous with the victorious close of the war.
+Washington demonstrated that England still commanded the sea, and that
+as long as she did so there was a great advantage on her side. She
+was stronger, on the whole, this year than the year before, and her
+financial resources were still ample. There was no use in looking for
+victory in the weakness of the enemy, and on the other hand, to rely
+wholly on France was contemptible as well as foolish. After stating
+plainly that the army was on the verge of dissolution, he said: "To me
+it will appear miraculous if our affairs can maintain themselves much
+longer in their present train. If either the temper or the resources
+of the country will not admit of an alteration, we may expect soon
+to be reduced to the humiliating condition of seeing the cause of
+America, in America, upheld by foreign arms. The generosity of our
+allies has a claim to all our confidence and all our gratitude, but
+it is neither for the honor of America, nor for the interest of the
+common cause, to leave the work entirely to them."
+
+It must have been bitter to Washington above all men, with his high
+dignity and keen sense of national honor, to write such words as
+these, or make such an argument to any of his countrymen. But it was a
+work which the time demanded, and he did it without flinching. Having
+thus laid bare the weak places, he proceeded to rehearse once more,
+with a weariness we can easily fancy, the old, old lesson as to
+organization, a permanent army, and a better system of administration.
+This letter neither scolded, nor bewailed, nor desponded, but it told
+the truth with great force and vigor. Of course it had but slight
+results, comparatively speaking; still it did something, and the final
+success of the Revolution is due to the series of strong truth-telling
+letters, of which this is an example, as much as to any one thing done
+by Washington. There was need of some one, not only to fight battles
+and lead armies, but to drive Congress into some sort of harmony, spur
+the careless and indifferent to action, arouse the States, and kill
+various fatal delusions, and in Washington the robust teller of
+unwelcome truths was found.
+
+Still, even the results actually obtained by such letters came but
+slowly, and Washington felt that he must strike at all hazards.
+Through Lafayette he tried to get De Rochambeau to agree to an
+immediate attack on New York. His army was on the very eve of
+dissolution, and he began with reason to doubt his own power of
+holding it together longer. The finances of the country were going
+ever faster to irremediable ruin, and it seemed impossible that
+anything could postpone open and avowed bankruptcy. So, with his army
+crumbling, mutinous, and half starved, he turned to his one unfailing
+resource of fighting, and tried to persuade De Rochambeau to join
+him. Under the circumstances, Washington was right to wish to risk a
+battle, and De Rochambeau, from his point of view, was equally so in
+refusing to take the offensive, unless the second division arrived or
+De Guichen came with his fleet, or the English force at New York was
+reduced.
+
+In these debates and delays, mingled with an appeal to De Guichen in
+the West Indies, the summer was fast wearing away, and, by way of
+addition, early in September came tidings of the battle of Camden,
+and the utter rout of Gates's army. Despite his own needs and trials,
+Washington's first idea was to stem the current of disaster at the
+south, and he ordered the fresh Maryland troops to turn back at once
+and march to the Carolinas, but Gates fled so fast and far that it
+was some time before anything was heard of him. As more news came of
+Camden and its beaten general, Washington wrote to Rutledge that he
+should ultimately come southward. Meantime, he could only struggle
+with his own difficulties, and rack his brains for men and means to
+rescue the south. It must have seemed to Washington, in those lovely
+September days, as if fate could not have any worse trials in store,
+and that if he could only breast the troubles now surging about him,
+he might count on sure and speedy success. Yet the bitterest trial of
+all was even then hanging over his head, and with a sort of savage
+sarcasm it came upon him in one of those rare moments when he had an
+hour of rest and sunshine.
+
+The story of Arnold's treason is easily told. Its romantic side
+has made it familiar to all Americans, and given it a factitious
+importance. Had it succeeded it would have opened opportunities of
+disaster to the American arms, although it would not have affected
+the final outcome of the Revolution. As it was it failed, and had no
+result whatever. It has passed into history simply as a picturesque
+episode, charged with possibilities which attract the imagination, but
+having, in itself, neither meaning nor consequences beyond the two
+conspirators. To us it is of interest, because it shows Washington in
+one of the sharpest and bitterest experiences of his life. Let us see
+how he met it and dealt with it.
+
+From the day when the French landed, both De Rochambeau and
+Washington had been most anxious to meet. The French general had been
+particularly urgent, but it was difficult for Washington to get away.
+As he wrote on August 21: "We are about ten miles from the enemy. Our
+popular government imposes a necessity of great circumspection. If
+any misfortune should happen in my absence, it would be attended with
+every inconvenience. I will, however, endeavor if possible, and as
+soon as possible, to meet you at some convenient rendezvous." In
+accordance with this promise, a few weeks later, he left Greene in
+command of the army, and, not without misgivings, started on September
+18 to meet De Rochambeau. On his way he had an interview with Arnold,
+who came to him to show a letter from the loyalist Colonel Robinson,
+and thus disarm suspicion as to his doings. On the 20th, the day when
+André and Arnold met to arrange the terms of the sale, Washington was
+with De Rochambeau at Hartford. News had arrived, meantime, that De
+Guichen had sailed for Europe; the command of the sea was therefore
+lost, and the opportunity for action had gone by. There was no need
+for further conference, and Washington accordingly set out on his
+return at once, two or three days earlier than he had intended.
+
+He was accompanied by his own staff, and by Knox and Lafayette with
+their officers. With him, too, went the young Count Dumas, who has
+left a description of their journey, and of the popular enthusiasm
+displayed in the towns through which they passed. In one village,
+which they reached after nightfall, all the people turned out, the
+children bearing torches, and men and women hailed Washington as
+father, and pressed about him to touch the hem of his garments.
+Turning to Dumas he said, "We may be beaten by the English; it is
+the chance of war; but there is the army they will never conquer."
+Political leaders grumbled, and military officers caballed, but
+the popular feeling went out to Washington with a sure and utter
+confidence. The people in that little village recognized the great and
+unselfish leader as they recognized Lincoln a century later, and from
+the masses of the people no one ever heard the cry that Washington was
+cold or unsympathetic. They loved him, and believed in him, and such a
+manifestation of their devotion touched him deeply. His spirits rose
+under the spell of appreciation and affection, always so strong upon
+human nature, and he rode away from Fishkill the next morning at
+daybreak with a light heart.
+
+The company was pleasant and lively, the morning was fair, and as they
+approached Arnold's headquarters at the Robinson house, Washington
+turned off to the redoubts by the river, telling the young men that
+they were all in love with Mrs. Arnold and would do well to go
+straight on and breakfast with her. Hamilton and McHenry followed his
+advice, and while they were at breakfast a note was brought to Arnold.
+It was the letter of warning from André announcing his capture, which
+Colonel Jameson, who ought to have been cashiered for doing it, had
+forwarded. Arnold at once left the table, and saying that he was going
+to West Point, jumped into his boat and was rowed rapidly down the
+river to the British man-of-war. Washington on his arrival was told
+that Arnold had gone to the fort, and so after a hasty breakfast he
+went over there himself. On reaching West Point no salute broke the
+stillness, and no guard turned out to receive him. He was astonished
+to learn that his arrival was unexpected, and that Arnold had not been
+there for two days. Still unsuspecting he inspected the works, and
+then returned.
+
+Meantime, the messenger sent to Hartford with the papers taken on
+André reached the Robinson house and delivered them to Hamilton,
+together with a letter of confession from André himself. Hamilton read
+them, and hurrying out met Washington just coming up from the river.
+He took his chief aside, said a few words to him in a low voice, and
+they went into the house together. When they came out, Washington
+looked as calm as ever, and calling to Lafayette and Knox gave them
+the papers, saying simply, "Whom can we trust now?" He dispatched
+Hamilton at once to try to intercept Arnold at Verplanck's Point, but
+it was too late; the boat had passed, and Arnold was safe on board the
+Vulture. This done, Washington bade his staff sit down with him at
+dinner, as the general was absent, and Mrs. Arnold was ill in her
+room. Dinner over, he immediately set about guarding the post, which
+had been so near betrayal. To Colonel Wade at West Point he wrote:
+"Arnold has gone to the enemy; you are in command, be vigilant." To
+Jameson he sent word to guard André closely. To the colonels and
+commanders of various outlying regiments he sent orders to bring up
+their troops. Everything was done that should have been done, quickly,
+quietly, and without comment. The most sudden and appalling treachery
+had failed to shake his nerve, or confuse his mind.
+
+Yet the strong and silent man was wrung to the quick, and when
+everything possible had been done, and he had retired to his room, the
+guard outside the door heard him marching back and forth through all
+the weary night. The one thing he least expected, because he least
+understood it, had come to pass. He had been a good and true friend to
+the villain who had fled, for Arnold's reckless bravery and dare-devil
+fighting had appealed to the strongest passion of his nature, and he
+had stood by him always. He had grieved over the refusal of Congress
+to promote him in due order and had interceded with ultimate success
+in his behalf. He had sympathized with him in his recent troubles
+in Philadelphia, and had administered the reprimand awarded by the
+court-martial so that rebuke seemed turned to praise. He had sought
+to give him every opportunity that a soldier could desire, and had
+finally conferred upon him the command of West Point. He had admired
+his courage and palliated his misconduct, and now the scoundrel had
+turned on him and fled. Mingled with the bitterness of these memories
+of betrayed confidence was the torturing ignorance of how far this
+base treachery had extended. For all he knew there might be a brood of
+traitors about him in the very citadel of America. We can never know
+Washington's thoughts at that time, for he was ever silent, but as we
+listen in imagination to the sound of the even footfalls which the
+guard heard all through that September night, we can dimly guess the
+feelings of the strong and passionate nature, wounded and distressed
+almost beyond endurance.
+
+There is but little more to tell. The conspiracy stopped with Arnold.
+He had no accomplices, and meant to deliver the post and pocket the
+booty alone. The British tried to spread the idea that other officers
+had been corrupted, but the attempt failed, and Washington's prompt
+measures of defense checked any movement against the forts. Every
+effort was made by Clinton to save André, but in vain. He was tried
+by a court composed of the highest officers in the American service,
+among whom was Lafayette. On his own statement, but one decision was
+possible. He was condemned as a spy, and as a spy he was sentenced to
+be hanged. He made a manly appeal against the manner of his death, and
+begged to be shot. Washington declined to interfere, and André went to
+the gallows.
+
+The British, at the time, and some of their writers afterwards,
+attacked Washington for insisting on this mode of execution, but there
+never was an instance in his career when he was more entirely right.
+André was a spy and briber, who sought to ruin the American cause
+by means of the treachery of an American general. It was a dark and
+dangerous game, and he knew that he staked his life on the result. He
+failed, and paid the penalty. Washington could not permit, he would
+have been grossly and feebly culpable if he had permitted, such an
+attempt to pass without extreme punishment. He was generous and
+magnanimous, but he was not a sentimentalist, and he punished this
+miserable treason, so far as he could reach it, as it deserved. It is
+true that André was a man of talent, well-bred and courageous, and of
+engaging manners. He deserved all the sympathy and sorrow which he
+excited at the time, but nothing more. He was not only technically a
+spy, but he had sought his ends by bribery, he had prostituted a flag
+of truce, and he was to be richly paid for his work. It was all hire
+and salary. No doubt André was patriotic and loyal. Many spies have
+been the same, and have engaged in their dangerous exploits from
+the highest motives. Nathan Hale, whom the British hanged without
+compunction, was as well-born and well-bred as André, and as patriotic
+as man could be, and moreover he was a spy and nothing more. André
+was a trafficker in bribes and treachery, and however we may pity his
+fate, his name has no proper place in the great temple at Westminster,
+where all English-speaking people bow with reverence, and only a most
+perverted sentimentality could conceive that it was fitting to erect a
+monument to his memory in this country.
+
+Washington sent André to the gallows because it was his duty to do so,
+but he pitied him none the less, and whatever he may have thought of
+the means André employed to effect his end, he made no comment upon
+him, except to say that "he met his fate with that fortitude which was
+to be expected from an accomplished man and gallant officer." As to
+Arnold, he was almost equally silent. When obliged to refer to him he
+did so in the plainest and simplest way, and only in a familiar letter
+to Laurens do we get a glimpse of his feelings. He wrote: "I am
+mistaken if at this time Arnold is undergoing the torment of a mental
+hell. He wants feeling. From some traits of his character which have
+lately come to my knowledge, he seems to have been so hackneyed in
+villainy, and so lost to all sense of honor and shame, that, while his
+faculties will enable him to continue his sordid pursuits, there will
+be no time for remorse." With this single expression of measureless
+contempt, Washington let Arnold drop from his life. The first shock
+had touched him to the quick, although it could not shake his steady
+mind. Reflection revealed to him the extraordinary baseness of
+Arnold's real character, and he cast the thought of him out forever,
+content to leave the traitor to the tender mercies of history. The
+calmness and dignity, the firmness and deep feeling which Washington
+exhibited, are of far more interest than the abortive treason, and
+have as real a value now as they had then, when suspicion for a moment
+ran riot, and men wondered "whom they could trust."
+
+The treason of Arnold swept like a black cloud across the sky, broke,
+and left everything as before. That such a base peril should have
+existed was alarming and hateful. That it should have been exploded
+harmlessly made all men give a deep sigh of relief. But neither the
+treason nor its discovery altered the current of events one jot. The
+summer had come and gone. The French had arrived, and no blow had
+been struck. There was nothing to show for the campaign but
+inaction, disappointment, and the loss of the Carolinas. With the
+commander-in-chief, through it all, were ever present two great
+questions, getting more portentous and more difficult of solution with
+each succeeding day. How he was to keep his army in existence was one,
+and how he was to hold the government together was the other. He
+had thirteen tired States, a general government almost impotent, a
+bankrupt treasury, and a broken credit. The American Revolution had
+come down to the question of whether the brain, will, and nerve of one
+man could keep the machine going long enough to find fit opportunity
+for a final and decisive stroke. Washington had confidence in the
+people of the country and in himself, but the difficulties in the way
+were huge, and the means of surmounting them slight. There is here
+and there a passionate undertone in the letters of this period, which
+shows us the moments when the waves of trouble and disaster seemed to
+sweep over him. But the feeling passed, or was trampled under
+foot, for there was no break in the steady fight against untoward
+circumstances, or in the grim refusal to accept defeat.
+
+It is almost impossible now to conceive the actual condition at that
+time of every matter of detail which makes military and political
+existence possible. No general phrases can do justice to the situation
+of the army; and the petty miseries and privations, which made life
+unendurable, went on from day to day in ever varying forms. While
+Washington was hearing the first ill news from the south and
+struggling with the problem on that side, and at the same time was
+planning with Lafayette how to take advantage of the French succors,
+the means of subsisting his army were wholly giving out. The men
+actually had no food. For days, as Washington wrote, there was no meat
+at all in camp. Goaded by hunger, a Connecticut regiment mutinied.
+They were brought back to duty, but held out steadily for their pay,
+which they had not received for five months. Indeed, the whole army
+was more or less mutinous, and it was only by the utmost tact that
+Washington kept them from wholesale desertion. After the summer had
+passed and the chance for a decisive campaign had gone with it, the
+excitement of expected action ceased to sustain the men, and the
+unclothed, unpaid, unfed soldiers began again to get restive. We can
+imagine what the condition of the rank and file must have been when
+we find that Washington himself could not procure an express from
+the quartermaster-general, and was obliged to send a letter to the
+Minister of France by the unsafe and slow medium of the post. He was
+expected to carry on a war against a rich and powerful enemy, and he
+could not even pay a courier to carry his dispatches.
+
+With the commander-in-chief thus straitened, the sufferings of the
+men grew to be intolerable, and the spirit of revolt which had been
+checked through the summer began again to appear. At last, in January,
+1781, it burst all the bounds. The Pennsylvania line mutinied and
+threatened Congress. Attempts on the part of the English to seduce
+them failed, but they remained in a state of open rebellion. The
+officers were powerless, and it looked as if the disaffection would
+spread, and the whole army go to pieces in the very face of the enemy.
+Washington held firm, and intended in his unshaken way to bring them
+back to their duty without yielding in a dangerous fashion. But the
+government of Pennsylvania, at last thoroughly frightened, rushed into
+the field, and patched up a compromise which contained most perilous
+concessions. The natural consequence was a fresh mutiny in the New
+Jersey line, and this time Washington determined that he would not be
+forestalled. He sent forward at once some regiments of loyal troops,
+suppressed the mutiny suddenly and with a strong hand, and hanged
+two of the ringleaders. The difficulty was conquered, and discipline
+restored.
+
+To take this course required great boldness, for these mutinies were
+of no ordinary character. In the first place, it was impossible to
+tell whether any troops would do their duty against their fellows, and
+failure would have been fatal. In the second place, the grievances
+of the soldiers were very great, and their complaints were entirely
+righteous. Washington felt the profoundest sympathy with his men, and
+it was no easy matter to maintain order with soldiers tried almost
+beyond endurance, against their comrades whose claims were just. Two
+things saved the army. One was Washington's great influence with the
+men and their utter belief in him. The other was the quality of
+the men themselves. Lafayette said they were the most patient and
+patriotic soldiers the world had seen, and it is easy to believe him.
+The wonder is, not that they mutinied when they did, but that the
+whole army had not mutinied and abandoned the struggle years before.
+The misfortunes and mistakes of the Revolution, to whomever due, were
+in no respect to be charged to the army, and the conduct of the troops
+through all the dreary months of starvation and cold and poverty is
+a proof of the intelligent patriotism and patient courage of the
+American soldier which can never be gainsaid. To fight successful
+battles is the test of a good general, but to hold together a
+suffering army through years of unexampled privations, to meet endless
+failure of details with unending expedients, and then to fight battles
+and plan campaigns, shows a leader who was far more than a good
+general. Such multiplied trials and difficulties are overcome only by
+a great soldier who with small means achieves large results, and by a
+great man who by force of will and character can establish with all
+who follow him a power which no miseries can conquer, and no suffering
+diminish.
+
+The height reached by the troubles in the army and their menacing
+character had, however, a good as well as a bad side. They penetrated
+the indifference and carelessness of both Congress and the States.
+Gentlemen in the confederate and local administrations and
+legislatures woke up to a realizing sense that the dissolution of the
+army meant a general wreck, in which their own necks would be in very
+considerable danger; and they also had an uneasy feeling that starving
+and mutinous soldiers were very uncertain in taking revenge.
+The condition of the army gave a sudden and piercing reality to
+Washington's indignant words to Mathews on October 4: "At a time when
+public harmony is so essential, when we should aid and assist each
+other with all our abilities, when our hearts should be open to
+information and our hands ready to administer relief, to find
+distrusts and jealousies taking possession of the mind and a party
+spirit prevailing affords a most melancholy reflection, and forebodes
+no good." The hoarse murmur of impending mutiny emphasized strongly
+the words written on the same day to Duane: "The history of the war is
+a history of false hopes and temporary expedients. Would to God they
+were to end here."
+
+The events in the south, too, had a sobering effect. The congressional
+general Gates had not proved a success. His defeat at Camden had
+been terribly complete, and his flight had been too rapid to inspire
+confidence in his capacity for recuperation. The members of Congress
+were thus led to believe that as managers of military matters they
+left much to be desired; and when Washington, on October 11, addressed
+to them one of his long and admirable letters on reorganization, it
+was received in a very chastened spirit. They had listened to many
+such letters before, and had benefited by them always a little,
+but danger and defeat gave this one peculiar point. They therefore
+accepted the situation, and adopted all the suggestions of the
+commander-in-chief. They also in the same reasonable frame of mind
+determined that Washington should select the next general for the
+southern army. A good deal could have been saved had this decision
+been reached before; but even now it was not too late. October 14,
+Washington appointed Greene to this post of difficulty and danger, and
+Greene's assumption of the command marks the turning-point in the
+tide of disaster, and the beginning of the ultimate expulsion of the
+British from the only portion of the colonies where they had made a
+tolerable campaign.
+
+The uses of adversity, moreover, did not stop here. They extended to
+the States, which began to grow more vigorous in action, and to show
+signs of appreciating the gravity of the situation and the duties
+which rested upon them. This change and improvement both in Congress
+and the States came none too soon. Indeed, as it was, the results of
+their renewed efforts were too slow to be felt at once by the army,
+and mutinies broke out even after the new spirit had shown itself.
+Washington also sent Knox to travel from State to State, to see the
+various governors, and lay the situation of affairs before them; yet
+even with such a text it was a difficult struggle to get the States to
+make quick and strong exertions sufficient to prevent a partial mutiny
+from becoming a general revolt. The lesson, however, had had its
+effect. For the moment, at least, the cause was saved. The worst
+defects were temporarily remedied, and something was done toward
+supplies and subsistence. The army would be able to exist through
+another winter, and face another summer. Then the next campaign might
+bring the decisive moment; but still, who could tell? Years, instead
+of months, might yet elapse before the end was reached, and then no
+man could say what the result would be.
+
+Washington saw plainly enough that the relief and improvement were
+only temporary, and that carelessness and indifference were likely to
+return, and be more case-hardened than ever. He was too strong and
+sane a man to waste time in fighting shadows or in nourishing himself
+with hopes. He dealt with the present as he found it, and fought down
+difficulties as they sprang up in his path. But he was also a man of
+extraordinary prescience, with a foresight as penetrating as it was
+judicious. It was, perhaps, his most remarkable gift, and while
+he controlled the present he studied the future. Outside of the
+operations of armies, and the plans of campaign, he saw, as the
+war progressed, that the really fatal perils were involved in the
+political system. At the beginning of the Revolution there was no
+organization outside the local state governments. Congress voted and
+resolved in favor of anything that seemed proper, and the States
+responded to their appeal. In the first flush of revolution, and the
+first excitement of freedom, this was all very well. But as the
+early passion cooled, and a long and stubborn struggle, replete with
+sufferings and defeat, developed itself, the want of system began to
+appear.
+
+One of the earliest tasks of Congress was the formation of articles
+for a general government, but state jealousies, and the delays
+incident to the movements of thirteen sovereignties, prevented their
+adoption until the war was nearly over. Washington, suffering from all
+the complicated troubles of jarring States and general incoherence,
+longed for and urged the adoption of the act of confederation. He saw
+sooner than any one else, and with more painful intensity, the need of
+better union and more energetic government. As the days and months of
+difficulties and trials went by, the suggestions on this question in
+his letters grew more frequent and more urgent, and they showed the
+insight of the statesman and practical man of affairs. How much he
+hoped from the final acceptance of the act of confederation it is not
+easy to say, but he hoped for some improvement certainly. When at last
+it went into force, he saw almost at once that it would not do, and in
+the spring of 1780 he knew it to be a miserable failure. The system
+which had been established was really no better than that which had
+preceded it. With alarm and disgust Washington found himself flung
+back on what he called "the pernicious state system," and with worse
+prospects than ever.
+
+Up to the time of the Revolution he had never given attention to the
+philosophy or science of government, but when it fell to his lot to
+fight the war for independence he perceived almost immediately the
+need of a strong central government, and his suggestions, scattered
+broadcast among his correspondents, manifested a knowledge of the
+conditions of the political problem possessed by no one else at that
+period. When he was satisfied of the failure of the confederation, his
+efforts to improve the existing administration multiplied, and he soon
+had the assistance of his aide-de-camp, Alexander Hamilton, who then
+wrote, although little more than a boy, his remarkable letters on
+government and finance, which were the first full expositions of the
+political necessities from which sprang the Constitution of the United
+States. Washington was vigorous in action and methodical in business,
+while the system of thirteen sovereignties was discordant, disorderly,
+and feeble in execution. He knew that the vices inherent in the
+confederation were ineradicable and fatal, and he also knew that it
+was useless to expect any comprehensive reforms until the war was
+over. The problem before him was whether the existing machine could be
+made to work until the British were finally driven from the country.
+The winter of 1780-81 was marked, therefore, on his part, by an urgent
+striving for union, and by unceasing efforts to mend and improve the
+rickety system of the confederation. It was with this view that he
+secured the dispatch of Laurens, whom he carefully instructed, to get
+money in Paris; for he was satisfied that it was only possible to tide
+over the financial difficulties by foreign loans from those interested
+in our success. In the same spirit he worked to bring about
+the establishment of executive departments, which was finally
+accomplished, after delays that sorely tried his patience. These two
+cases were but the most important among many of similar character, for
+he was always at work on these perplexing questions.
+
+It is an astonishing proof of the strength and power of his mind that
+he was able to solve the daily questions of army existence, to deal
+with the allies, to plan attacks on New York, to watch and scheme for
+the southern department, to cope with Arnold's treason, with mutiny,
+and with administrative imbecility, and at the very same time consider
+the gravest governmental problems, and send forth wise suggestions,
+which met the exigencies of the moment, and laid the foundation of
+much that afterwards appeared in the Constitution of the United
+States. He was not a speculator on government, and after his fashion
+he was engaged in dealing with the questions of the day and hour. Yet
+the ideas that he put forth in this time of confusion and conflict and
+expedients were so vitally sound and wise that they deserve the most
+careful study in relation to after events. The political trials
+and difficulties of this period were the stern teachers from whom
+Washington acquired the knowledge and experience which made him the
+principal agent in bringing about the formation and adoption of the
+Constitution of the United States. We shall have occasion to examine
+these opinions and views more closely when they were afterwards
+brought into actual play. At this point it is only necessary to trace
+the history of the methods by which he solved the problem of the
+Revolution before the political system of the confederation became
+absolutely useless.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+YORKTOWN
+
+
+The failure to accomplish anything in the north caused Washington,
+as the year drew to a close, to turn his thoughts once more toward a
+combined movement at the south. In pursuance of this idea, he devised
+a scheme of uniting with the Spaniards in the seizure of Florida, and
+of advancing thence through Georgia to assail the English in the rear.
+De Rochambeau did not approve the plan, and it was abandoned; but the
+idea of a southern movement was still kept steadily in sight. The
+governing thought now was, not to protect this place or that, but to
+cast aside everything else in order to strike one great blow which
+would finish the war. Where he could do this, time alone would show,
+but if one follows the correspondence closely, it is apparent that
+Washington's military instinct turned more and more toward the south.
+
+In that department affairs changed their aspect rapidly. January 17,
+Morgan won his brilliant victory at the Cowpens, withdrew in good
+order with his prisoners, and united his army with that of Greene.
+Cornwallis was terribly disappointed by this unexpected reverse, but
+he determined to push on, defeat the combined American army, and then
+join the British forces on the Chesapeake. Greene was too weak to risk
+a battle, and made a masterly retreat of two hundred miles before
+Cornwallis, escaping across the Dan only twelve hours ahead of the
+enemy. The moment the British moved away, Greene recrossed the river
+and hung upon their rear. For a month he kept in their neighborhood,
+checking the rising of the Tories, and declining battle. At last he
+received reinforcements, felt strong enough to stand his ground, and
+on March 15 the battle of Guilford Court House was fought. It was a
+sharp and bloody fight; the British had the advantage, and Greene
+abandoned the field, bringing off his army in good order. Cornwallis,
+on his part, had suffered so heavily, however, that his victory turned
+to ashes. On the 18th he was in full retreat, with Greene in hot
+chase, and it was not until the 28th that he succeeded in getting over
+the Deep River and escaping to Wilmington. Thence he determined to
+push on and transfer the seat of war to the Chesapeake. Greene, with
+the boldness and quickness which showed him to be a soldier of a high
+order, now dropped the pursuit and turned back to fight the British in
+detachments and free the southern States. There is no need to follow
+him in the brilliant operations which ensued, and by which he achieved
+this result. It is sufficient to say here that he had altered the
+whole aspect of the war, forced Cornwallis into Virginia within reach
+of Washington, and begun the work of redeeming the Carolinas.
+
+The troops which Cornwallis intended to join had been sent in
+detachments to Virginia during the winter and spring. The first body
+had arrived early in January under the command of Arnold, and a
+general marauding and ravaging took place. A little later General
+Phillips arrived with reinforcements and took command. On May 13,
+General Phillips died, and a week later Cornwallis appeared at
+Petersburg, assumed control, and sent Arnold back to New York.
+
+Meantime Washington, though relieved by Morgan's and Greene's
+admirable work, had a most trying and unhappy winter and spring. He
+sent every man he could spare, and more than he ought to have spared,
+to Greene, and he stripped himself still further when the invasion of
+Virginia began. But for the most part he was obliged, from lack of any
+naval strength, to stand helplessly by and see more and more British
+troops sent to the south, and witness the ravaging of his native
+State, without any ability to prevent it. To these grave trials was
+added a small one, which stung him to the quick. The British came up
+the Potomac, and Lund Washington, in order to preserve Mount Vernon,
+gave them refreshments, and treated them in a conciliatory manner. He
+meant well but acted ill, and Washington wrote:--
+
+"It would have been a less painful circumstance to me to have heard
+that, in consequence of your non-compliance with their request, they
+had burnt my house and laid the plantation in ruins. You ought to have
+considered yourself as my representative, and should have reflected
+on the bad example of communicating with the enemy, and making a
+voluntary offer of refreshments to them, with a view to prevent a
+conflagration."
+
+What a clear glimpse this little episode gives of the earnestness of
+the man who wrote these lines. He could not bear the thought that any
+favor should be shown him on any pretense. He was ready to take his
+share of the marauding and pillaging with the rest, but he was deeply
+indignant at the idea that any one representing him should even appear
+to ask a favor of the British.
+
+Altogether, the spring of 1781 was very trying, for there was nothing
+so galling to Washington as to be unable to fight. He wanted to get to
+the south, but he was bound hand and foot by lack of force. Yet the
+obstacles did not daunt or depress him. He wrote in June that he felt
+sure of bringing the war to a happy conclusion, and in the division of
+the British forces he saw his opportunity taking shape. Greene had
+the southern forces well in hand. Cornwallis was equally removed from
+Clinton on the north and Rawdon on the south, and had come within
+reach; so that if he could but have naval strength he could fall upon
+Cornwallis with superior force and crush him. In naval matters fortune
+thus far had dealt hardly with him, yet he could not but feel that
+a French fleet of sufficient force must soon come. He grasped the
+situation with a master-hand, and began to prepare the way. Still he
+kept his counsel strictly to himself, and set to work to threaten, and
+if possible to attack, New York, not with much hope of succeeding
+in any such attempt, but with a view of frightening Clinton and of
+inducing him either to withdraw troops from Virginia, or at least to
+withhold reinforcements. As he began his Virginian campaign in this
+distant and remote fashion at the mouth of the Hudson, he was cheered
+by news that De Grasse, the French admiral, had sent recruits to
+Newport, and intended to come himself to the American coast. He at
+once wrote De Grasse not to determine absolutely to come to New
+York, hinting that it might prove more advisable to operate to the
+southward. It required great tact to keep the French fleet where he
+needed it, and yet not reveal his intentions, and nothing showed
+Washington's foresight more plainly than the manner in which he made
+the moves in this campaign, when miles of space and weeks of time
+separated him from the final object of his plans. To trace this
+mastery of details, and the skill with which every point was
+remembered and covered, would require a long and minute narrative.
+They can only be indicated here sufficiently to show how exactly each
+movement fitted in its place, and how all together brought the great
+result.
+
+Fortified by the good news from De Grasse, Washington had an interview
+with De Rochambeau, and effected a junction with the French army. Thus
+strengthened, he opened his campaign against Cornwallis by beginning a
+movement against Clinton. The troops were massed above the city, and
+an effort was made to surprise the upper posts and destroy Delancey's
+partisan corps. The attempt, although well planned, failed of its
+immediate purpose, giving Washington opportunity only for an effective
+reconnoissance of the enemy's positions. But the move was perfectly
+successful in its real and indirect object. Clinton was alarmed. He
+began to write to Cornwallis that troops should be returned to New
+York, and he gave up absolutely the idea of sending more men to
+Virginia. Having thus convinced Clinton that New York was menaced,
+Washington then set to work to familiarize skillfully the minds of his
+allies and of Congress with the idea of a southern campaign. With this
+end in view, he wrote on August 2 that, if more troops arrived from
+Virginia, New York would be impracticable, and that the next point
+was the south. The only contingency, as he set forth, was the
+all-important one of obtaining naval superiority. August 15 this
+essential condition gave promise of fulfillment, for on that day
+definite news arrived that De Grasse with his fleet was on his way to
+the Chesapeake. Without a moment's hesitation, Washington began to
+move, and at the same time he sent an urgent letter to the New England
+governors, demanding troops with an earnestness which he had never
+surpassed.
+
+In Virginia, meanwhile, during these long midsummer days, while
+Washington was waiting and planning, Cornwallis had been going up and
+down, harrying, burning, and plundering. His cavalry had scattered the
+legislature, and driven Governor Jefferson in headlong flight over the
+hills, while property to the value of more than three millions had
+been destroyed. Lafayette, sent by Washington to maintain the American
+cause, had been too weak to act decisively, but he had been true to
+his general's teaching, and, refusing battle, had hung upon the flanks
+of the British and harassed and checked them. Joined by Wayne, he had
+fought an unsuccessful engagement at Green Springs, but brought off
+his army, and with steady pertinacity followed the enemy to the coast,
+gathering strength as he moved. Now, when all was at last ready,
+Washington began to draw his net about Cornwallis, whom he had been
+keenly watching during the victorious marauding of the summer. On the
+news of the coming of the French fleet, he wrote to Lafayette to be
+prepared to join him when he reached Virginia, to retain Wayne, who
+intended to join Greene, and to stop Cornwallis at all hazards, if he
+attempted to go southward.
+
+Cornwallis, however, had no intention of moving. He had seen the peril
+of his position, and had wished to withdraw to Charleston; but the
+ministry, highly pleased with his performances, wished him to remain
+on the Chesapeake, and decisive orders came to him to take a permanent
+post in that region. Clinton, moreover, was jealous of Cornwallis,
+and, impressed and deceived by Washington's movements, he not only
+sent no reinforcements, but detained three thousand Hessians, who had
+lately arrived. Cornwallis, therefore, had no choice, and with much
+writing for aid, and some protesting, he obeyed his orders, planted
+himself at Yorktown and Gloucester, and proceeded to fortify, while
+Lafayette kept close watch upon him. Cornwallis was a good soldier and
+a clever man, suffering, as Burgoyne did, from a stupid ministry and
+a dull and jealous commander-in-chief. Thus hampered and burdened,
+he was ready to fall a victim to the operations of a really great
+general, whom his official superiors in England undervalued and
+despised.
+
+August 17, as soon as he had set his own machinery in motion,
+Washington wrote to De Grasse to meet him in the Chesapeake. He was
+working now more anxiously and earnestly than at any time in the
+Revolution, not merely because he felt that success depended on the
+blow, but because he descried a new and alarming danger. He had
+perceived it in June, and the idea pursued him until all was over, and
+kept recurring in his letters during this strained and eager summer.
+To Washington's eyes, watching campaigns and government at home and
+the politics of Europe abroad, the signs of exhaustion, of mediation,
+and of coming peace across the Atlantic were plainly visible. If peace
+should come as things then were, America would get independence, and
+be shorn of many of her most valuable possessions. The sprawling
+British campaign of maraud and plunder, so bad in a military point of
+view, and about to prove fatal to Cornwallis, would, in case of sudden
+cessation of hostilities, be capable of the worst construction. Time,
+therefore, had become of the last importance. The decisive blow must
+be given at once, and before the slow political movements could come
+to a head. On July 14, Washington had his plan mapped out. He wrote in
+his diary:--
+
+"Matters having now come to a crisis, and a decided plan to be
+determined on, I was obliged--from the shortness of Count De Grasse's
+promised stay on this coast, the apparent disinclination of their
+naval officers to force the harbor of New York, and the feeble
+compliance of the States with my requisitions for men hitherto, and
+the little prospect of greater exertions in future--to give up all
+ideas of attacking New York, and instead thereof to remove the French
+troops and a detachment from the American army to the Head of Elk, to
+be transported to Virginia for the purpose of coöperating with the
+force from the West Indies against the troops in that State."
+
+Like most of Washington's plans, this one was clear-cut and direct,
+and looks now simple enough, but at the moment it was hedged with
+almost inconceivable difficulties at every step. The ever-present and
+ever-growing obstacles at home were there as usual. Appeals to Morris
+for money were met by the most discouraging responses, and the States
+seemed more lethargic than ever. Neither men nor supplies could be
+obtained; neither transportation nor provision for the march could be
+promised. Then, too, in addition to all this, came a wholly new set of
+stumbling-blocks arising among the allies. Everything hinged on the
+naval force. Washington needed it for a short time only; but for that
+crucial moment he must have not only superiority but supremacy at sea.
+Every French ship that could be reached must be in the Chesapeake, and
+Washington had had too many French fleets slip away from him at the
+last moment and bring everything to naught to take any chances in this
+direction. To bring about his naval supremacy required the utmost
+tact and good management, and that he succeeded is one of the
+chief triumphs of the campaign. In fact, at the very outset he was
+threatened in this quarter with a serious defection. De Barras, with
+the squadron of the American station, was at Boston, and it was
+essential that he should be united with De Grasse at Yorktown. But De
+Barras was nettled by the favoritism which had made De Grasse, his
+junior in service, his superior in command. He determined therefore to
+take advantage of his orders and sail away to the north to Nova Scotia
+and Newfoundland, and leave De Grasse to fight it out alone. It is a
+hard thing to beat an opposing army, but it is equally hard to bring
+human jealousies and ambitions into the narrow path of self-sacrifice
+and subordination. Alarmed beyond measure at the suggested departure
+of the Boston squadron, Washington wrote a letter, which De Rochambeau
+signed with him, urging De Barras to turn his fleet toward the
+Chesapeake. It was a skillfully drawn missive, an adroit mingling of
+appeals to honor and sympathy and of vigorous demands to perform an
+obvious duty. The letter did its work, the diplomacy of Washington was
+successful, and De Barras suppressed his feelings of disappointment,
+and agreed to go to the Chesapeake and serve under De Grasse.
+
+This point made, Washington pushed on his preparations, or rather
+pushed on despite his lack of preparations, and on August 17, as has
+been said, wrote to De Grasse to meet him in the Chesapeake. He left
+the larger part of his own troops with Heath, to whom in carefully
+drawn instructions he intrusted the grave duty of guarding the Hudson
+and watching the British in New York. This done, he gathered his
+forces together, and on August 21 the army started on its march to the
+south. On the 23d and 24th it crossed the Hudson, without annoyance
+from the British of any kind. Washington had threatened New York so
+effectively, and manoeuvred so successfully, that Clinton could not be
+shaken in his belief that the real object of the Americans was his own
+army; and it was not until September 6 that he fully realized that his
+enemy was going to the south, and that Cornwallis was in danger. He
+even then hesitated and delayed, but finally dispatched Admiral Graves
+with the fleet to the Chesapeake. The Admiral came upon the French
+early on September 5, the very day that Washington was rejoicing in
+the news that De Grasse had arrived in the Chesapeake and had landed
+St. Simon and three thousand men to support Lafayette. As soon as the
+English fleet appeared, the French, although many of their men were
+on shore, sailed out and gave battle. An indecisive action ensued, in
+which the British suffered so much that five days later they burned
+one of their frigates and withdrew to New York. De Grasse returned to
+his anchorage, to find that De Barras had come in from Newport with
+eight ships and ten transports carrying ordnance.
+
+While everything was thus moving well toward the consummation of the
+campaign, Washington, in the midst of his delicate and important work
+of breaking camp and beginning his rapid march to the south, was
+harassed by the ever-recurring difficulties of the feeble and bankrupt
+government of the confederation. He wrote again and again to Morris
+for money, and finally got some. His demands for men and supplies
+remained almost unheeded, but somehow he got provisions enough to
+start. He foresaw the most pressing need, and sent messages in all
+directions for shipping to transport his army down the Chesapeake. No
+one responded, but still he gathered the transports; at first a few,
+then more, and finally, after many delays, enough to move his army to
+Yorktown. The spectacle of such a struggle, so heroically made, one
+would think, might have inspired every soul on the continent with
+enthusiasm; but at this very moment, while Washington was breaking
+camp and marching southward, Congress was considering the reduction
+of the army!--which was as appropriate as it would have been for the
+English Parliament to have reduced the navy on the eve of Trafalgar,
+or for Lincoln to have advised the restoration of the army to a peace
+footing while Grant was fighting in the Wilderness. The fact was that
+the Continental Congress was weakened in ability and very tired in
+point of nerve and will-power. They saw that peace was coming, and
+naturally thought that the sooner they could get it the better. They
+entirely failed to see, as Washington saw, that in a too sudden peace
+lurked the danger of the _uti possidetis_, and that the mere fact of
+peace by no means implied necessarily complete success. They did not,
+of course, effect their reductions, but they remained inert, and so
+for the most part did the state governments, becoming drags upon
+the wheels of war instead of helpers to the man who was driving the
+Revolution forward to its goal. Both state and confederate governments
+still meant well, but they were worn out and relaxed. Yet over and
+through all these heavy masses of misapprehension and feebleness,
+Washington made his way. Here again all that can be said is that
+somehow or other the thing was done. We can take account of the
+resisting forces, but we cannot tell just how they were dealt with.
+We only know that one strong man trampled them down and got what he
+wanted done.
+
+Pushing on after the joyful news of the arrival of De Grasse had been
+received, Washington left the army to go by water from the Head of
+Elk, and hurried to Mount Vernon, accompanied by De Rochambeau. It
+was six years since he had seen his home. He had left it a Virginian
+colonel, full of forebodings for his country, with a vast and unknown
+problem awaiting solution at his hands. He returned to it the first
+soldier of his day, after six years of battle and trial, of victory
+and defeat, on the eve of the last and crowning triumph. As he paused
+on the well-beloved spot, and gazed across the broad and beautiful
+river at his feet, thoughts and remembrances must have come thronging
+to his mind which it is given to few men to know. He lingered there
+two days, and then pressing on again, was in Williamsburg on the 14th,
+and on the 17th went on board the Ville de Paris to congratulate De
+Grasse on his victory, and to concert measures for the siege.
+
+The meeting was most agreeable. All had gone well, all promised well,
+and everything was smiling and harmonious. Yet they were on the eve
+of the greatest peril which occurred in the campaign. Washington
+had managed to scrape together enough transports; but his almost
+unassisted labors had taken time, and delay had followed. Then the
+transports were slow, and winds and tides were uncertain, and there
+was further delay. The interval permitted De Grasse to hear that the
+British fleet had received reinforcements, and to become nervous in
+consequence. He wanted to get out to sea; the season was advancing,
+and he was anxious to return to the West Indies; and above all he
+did not wish to fight in the bay. He therefore proposed firmly and
+vigorously to leave two ships in the river, and stand out to sea with
+his fleet. The Yorktown campaign began to look as if it had reached
+its conclusion. Once again Washington wrote one of his masterly
+letters of expostulation and remonstrance, and once more he prevailed,
+aided by the reasoning and appeals of Lafayette, who carried the
+message. De Grasse consented to stay, and Washington, grateful beyond
+measure, wrote him that "a great mind knows how to make personal
+sacrifice to secure an important general good." Under the
+circumstances, and in view of the general truth of this complimentary
+sentiment, one cannot help rejoicing that De Grasse had "a great
+mind."
+
+At all events he stayed, and thereafter everything went well. The
+northern army landed at Williamsburg and marched for Yorktown on the
+28th. They reconnoitred the outlying works the next day, and prepared
+for an immediate assault; but in the night Cornwallis abandoned all
+his outside works and withdrew into the town. Washington thereupon
+advanced at once, and prepared for the siege. On the night of the 5th,
+the trenches were opened only six hundred yards from the enemy's line,
+and in three days the first parallel was completed. On the 11th the
+second parallel was begun, and on the 14th the American batteries
+played on the two advanced redoubts with such effect that the breaches
+were pronounced practicable. Washington at once ordered an assault.
+The smaller redoubt was stormed by the Americans under Hamilton and
+taken in ten minutes. The other, larger and more strongly garrisoned,
+was carried by the French with equal gallantry, after half an hour's
+fighting. During the assault Washington stood in an embrasure of the
+grand battery watching the advance of the men. He was always given to
+exposing himself recklessly when there was fighting to be done, but
+not when he was only an observer. This night, however, he was much
+exposed to the enemy's fire. One of his aides, anxious and disturbed
+for his safety, told him that the place was perilous. "If you think
+so," was the quiet answer, "you are at liberty to step back." The
+moment was too exciting, too fraught with meaning, to think of peril.
+The old fighting spirit of Braddock's field was unchained for the last
+time. He would have liked to head the American assault, sword in hand,
+and as he could not do that he stood as near his troops as he could,
+utterly regardless of the bullets whistling in the air about him. Who
+can wonder at his intense excitement at that moment? Others saw a
+brilliant storming of two outworks, but to Washington the whole
+Revolution, and all the labor and thought and conflict of six years
+were culminating in the smoke and din on those redoubts, while out of
+the dust and heat of the sharp quick fight success was coming. He
+had waited long, and worked hard, and his whole soul went out as he
+watched the troops cross the abattis and scale the works. He could
+have no thought of danger then, and when all was over he turned to
+Knox and said, "The work is done, and well done. Bring me my horse."
+
+Washington was not mistaken. The work was indeed done. Tarleton early
+in the siege had dashed out against Lauzun on the other side of the
+river and been repulsed. Cornwallis had been forced back steadily into
+the town, and his redoubts, as soon as taken, were included in the
+second parallel. A sortie to retake the redoubts failed, and a wild
+attempt to transport the army across the river was stopped by a gale
+of wind. On the 17th Cornwallis was compelled to face much bloody and
+useless slaughter, or to surrender. He chose the latter course, and
+after opening negotiations and trying in vain to obtain delay, finally
+signed the capitulation and gave up the town. The next day the troops
+marched out and laid down their arms. Over 7000 British and Hessian
+troops surrendered. It was a crushing defeat. The victorious army
+consisted in round numbers of 5500 continentals, 3500 militia, and
+7000 French, and they were backed by the French fleet with entire
+control of the sea.
+
+When Washington had once reached Yorktown with his fleet and army, the
+campaign was really at an end, for he held Cornwallis in an iron grip
+from which there was no escape. The masterly part of the Yorktown
+campaign lay in the manner in which it was brought about, in the
+management of so many elements, and in the rapidity of movement which
+carried an army without any proper supplies or means of transportation
+from New York to the mouth of Chesapeake Bay. The control of the sea
+had been the great advantage of the British from the beginning, and
+had enabled them to achieve all that they ever gained. With these odds
+against him, with no possibility of obtaining a fleet of his own,
+Washington saw that his only chance of bringing the war to a quick and
+successful issue was by means of the French. It is difficult to manage
+allied troops. It is still more difficult to manage allied troops and
+an allied fleet. Washington did both with infinite address, and won.
+The chief factor of his success in this direction lay in his profound
+personal influence on all men with whom he came in contact. His
+courtesy and tact were perfect, but he made no concessions, and
+never stooped. The proudest French noble who came here shrank from
+disagreement with the American general, and yet not one of them had
+anything but admiration and respect to express when they wrote of
+Washington in their memoirs, diaries, and letters. He impressed them
+one and all with a sense of power and greatness which could not
+be disregarded. Many times he failed to get the French fleet in
+coöperation, but finally it came. Then he put forth all his influence
+and all his address, and thus he got De Barras to the Chesapeake, and
+kept De Grasse at Yorktown.
+
+This was one side of the problem, the most essential because
+everything hinged on the fleet, but by no means the most harassing.
+The doubt about the control of the sea made it impossible to work
+steadily for a sufficient time toward any one end. It was necessary to
+have a plan for every contingency, and be ready to adopt any one of
+several plans at short notice. With a foresight and judgment that
+never failed, Washington planned an attack on New York, another on
+Yorktown, and a third on Charleston. The division of the British
+forces gave him his opportunity of striking at one point with an
+overwhelming force, but there was always the possibility of their
+suddenly reuniting. In the extreme south he felt reasonably sure that
+Greene would hold Rawdon, but he was obliged to deceive and amuse
+Clinton, and at the same time, with a ridiculously inferior force,
+to keep Cornwallis from marching to South Carolina. Partly by good
+fortune, partly by skill, Cornwallis was kept in Virginia, while by
+admirably managed feints and threats Clinton was held in New York in
+inactivity. When the decisive moment came, and it was evident that the
+control of the sea was to be determined in the Chesapeake, Washington,
+overriding all sorts of obstacles, moved forward, despite a bankrupt
+and inert government, with a rapidity and daring which have been
+rarely equaled. It was a bold stroke to leave Clinton behind at the
+mouth of the Hudson, and only the quickness with which it was done,
+and the careful deception which had been practiced, made it possible.
+Once at Yorktown, there was little more to do. The combination was
+so perfect, and the judgment had been so sure, that Cornwallis was
+crushed as helplessly as if he had been thrown before the car of
+Juggernaut. There was really but little fighting, for there was no
+opportunity to fight. Washington held the British in a vice, and the
+utter helplessness of Cornwallis, the entire inability of such a good
+and gallant soldier even to struggle, are the most convincing proofs
+of the military genius of his antagonist.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+PEACE
+
+
+Fortitude in misfortune is more common than composure in the hour
+of victory. The bitter medicine of defeat, however unpalatable,
+is usually extremely sobering, but the strong new wine of success
+generally sets the heads of poor humanity spinning, and leads often to
+worse results than folly. The capture of Cornwallis was enough to have
+turned the strongest head, for the moment at least, but it had no
+apparent effect upon the man who had brought it to pass, and who, more
+than any one else, knew what it meant. Unshaken and undismayed in the
+New Jersey winter, and among the complicated miseries of Valley Forge,
+Washington turned from the spectacle of a powerful British army laying
+down their arms as coolly as if he had merely fought a successful
+skirmish, or repelled a dangerous raid. He had that rare gift, the
+attribute of the strongest minds, of leaving the past to take care of
+itself. He never fretted over what could not be undone, nor dallied
+among pleasant memories while aught still remained to do. He wrote to
+Congress in words of quiet congratulation, through which pierced the
+devout and solemn sense of the great deed accomplished, and then,
+while the salvos of artillery were still booming in his ears, and the
+shouts of victory were still rising about him, he set himself, after
+his fashion, to care for the future and provide for the immediate
+completion of his work.
+
+He wrote to De Grasse, urging him to join in an immediate movement
+against Charleston, such as he had already suggested, and he presented
+in the strongest terms the opportunities now offered for the sudden
+and complete ending of the struggle. But the French admiral was by no
+means imbued with the tireless and determined spirit of Washington. He
+had had his fill even of victory, and was so eager to get back to the
+West Indies, where he was to fall a victim to Rodney, that he would
+not even transport troops to Wilmington. Thus deprived of the force
+which alone made comprehensive and extended movements possible,
+Washington returned, as he had done so often before, to making the
+best of cramped circumstances and straitened means. He sent all the
+troops he could spare to Greene, to help him in wresting the southern
+States from the enemy, the work to which he had in vain summoned De
+Grasse. This done, he prepared to go north. On his way he was stopped
+at Eltham by the illness and death of his wife's son, John Custis, a
+blow which he felt severely, and which saddened the great victory he
+had just achieved. Still the business of the State could not wait on
+private grief. He left the house of mourning, and, pausing for an
+instant only at Mount Vernon, hastened on to Philadelphia. At the
+very moment of victory, and while honorable members were shaking each
+other's hands and congratulating each other that the war was now
+really over, the commander-in-chief had fallen again to writing them
+letters in the old strain, and was once more urging them to keep up
+the army, while he himself gave his personal attention to securing a
+naval force for the ensuing year, through the medium of Lafayette.
+Nothing was ever finished with Washington until it was really complete
+throughout, and he had as little time for rejoicing as he had for
+despondency or despair, while a British force still remained in the
+country. He probably felt that this was as untoward a time as he had
+ever met in a pretty large experience of unsuitable occasions, for
+offering sound advice, but he was not deterred thereby from doing it.
+This time, however, he was destined to an agreeable disappointment,
+for on his arrival at Philadelphia he found an excellent spirit
+prevailing in Congress. That body was acting cheerfully on his advice,
+it had filled the departments of the government, and set on foot such
+measures as it could to keep up the army. So Washington remained for
+some time at Philadelphia, helping and counseling Congress in its
+work, and writing to the States vigorous letters, demanding pay and
+clothing for the soldiers, ever uppermost in his thoughts.
+
+But although Congress was compliant, Washington could not convince
+the country of the justice of his views, and of the continued need of
+energetic exertion. The steady relaxation of tone, which the strain of
+a long and trying war had produced, was accelerated by the brilliant
+victory of Yorktown. Washington for his own part had but little trust
+in the sense or the knowledge of his enemy. He felt that Yorktown was
+decisive, but he also thought that Great Britain would still struggle
+on, and that her talk of peace was very probably a mere blind, to
+enable her to gain time, and, by taking advantage of our relaxed and
+feeble condition, to strike again in hope of winning back all that had
+been lost. He therefore continued his appeals in behalf of the
+army, and reiterated everywhere the necessity for fresh and ample
+preparations.
+
+As late as May 4 he wrote sharply to the States for men and money,
+saying that the change of ministry was likely to be adverse to
+peace, and that we were being lulled into a false and fatal sense of
+security. A few days later, on receiving information from Sir Guy
+Carleton of the address of the Commons to the king for peace,
+Washington wrote to Congress: "For my own part, I view our situation
+as such that, instead of relaxing, we ought to improve the present
+moment as the most favorable to our wishes. The British nation
+appear to me to be staggered, and almost ready to sink beneath the
+accumulating weight of debt and misfortune. If we follow the blow with
+vigor and energy, I think the game is our own."
+
+Again he wrote in July: "Sir Guy Carleton is using every art to
+soothe and lull our people into a state of security. Admiral Digby
+is capturing all our vessels, and suffocating as fast as possible in
+prison-ships all our seamen who will not enlist into the service of
+his Britannic Majesty; and Haldimand, with his savage allies, is
+scalping and burning on the frontiers." Facts always were the object
+of Washington's first regard, and while gentlemen on all sides were
+talking of peace, war was going on, and he could not understand the
+supineness which would permit our seamen to be suffocated, and our
+borderers scalped, because some people thought the war ought to be and
+practically was over. While the other side was fighting, he wished to
+be fighting too. A month later he wrote to Greene: "From the former
+infatuation, duplicity, and perverse system of British policy, I
+confess I am induced to doubt everything, to suspect everything." He
+could say heartily with the Trojan priest, "Quicquid id est timeo
+Danaos et dona ferentes." Yet again, a month later still, when the
+negotiations were really going forward in Paris, he wrote to McHenry:
+"If we are wise, let us prepare for the worst. There is nothing which
+will so soon produce a speedy and honorable peace as a state of
+preparation for war; and we must either do this, or lay our account to
+patch up an inglorious peace, after all the toil, blood, and treasure
+we have spent."
+
+No man had done and given so much as Washington, and at the same
+time no other man had his love of thoroughness, and his indomitable
+fighting temper. He found few sympathizers, his words fell upon deaf
+ears, and he was left to struggle on and maintain his ground as best
+he might, without any substantial backing. As it turned out, England
+was more severely wounded than he dared to hope, and her desire for
+peace was real. But Washington's distrust and the active policy which
+he urged were, in the conditions of the moment, perfectly sound,
+both in a military and a political point of view. It made no real
+difference, however, whether he was right or wrong in his opinion.
+He could not get what he wanted, and he was obliged to drag through
+another year, fettered in his military movements, and oppressed with
+anxiety for the future. He longed to drive the British from New York,
+and was forced to content himself, as so often before, with keeping
+his army in existence. It was a trying time, and fruitful in nothing
+but anxious forebodings. All the fighting was confined to skirmishes
+of outposts, and his days were consumed in vain efforts to obtain help
+from the States, while he watched with painful eagerness the current
+of events in Europe, down which the fortunes of his country were
+feebly drifting.
+
+Among the petty incidents of the year there was one which, in its
+effects, gained an international importance, which has left a deep
+stain upon the English arms, and which touched Washington deeply.
+Captain Huddy, an American officer, was captured in a skirmish and
+carried to New York, where he was placed in confinement. Thence he
+was taken on April 12 by a party of Tories in the British service,
+commanded by Captain Lippencott, and hanged in the broad light of day
+on the heights near Middletown. Testimony and affidavits to the
+fact, which was never questioned, were duly gathered and laid before
+Washington. The deed was one of wanton barbarity, for which it would
+be difficult to find a parallel in the annals of modern warfare.
+The authors of this brutal murder, to our shame be it said, were of
+American birth, but they were fighting for the crown and wore the
+British uniform. England, which for generations has deafened the
+world with paeans of praise for her own love of fair play and for
+her generous humanity, stepped in here and threw the mantle of her
+protection over these cowardly hangmen. It has not been uncommon for
+wild North American savages to deliver up criminals to the vengeance
+of the law, but English ministers and officers condoned the murder of
+Huddy, and sheltered his murderers.
+
+When the case was laid before Washington it stirred him to the deepest
+wrath. He submitted the facts to twenty-five of his general officers,
+who unanimously advised what he was himself determined upon, instant
+retaliation. He wrote at once to Sir Guy Carleton, and informed him
+that unless the murderers were given up he should be compelled to
+retaliate. Carleton replied that a court-martial was ordered, and some
+attempt was made to recriminate; but Washington pressed on in the path
+he had marked out, and had an English officer selected by lot and held
+in close confinement to await the action of the enemy. These sharp
+measures brought the British, as nothing else could have done, to some
+sense of the enormity of the crime that had been committed. Sir Guy
+Carleton wrote in remonstrance, and Washington replied: "Ever since
+the commencement of this unnatural war my conduct has borne invariable
+testimony against those inhuman excesses, which, in too many
+instances, have marked its progress. With respect to a late
+transaction, to which I presume your excellency alludes, I have
+already expressed my resolution, a resolution formed on the most
+mature deliberation, and from which I shall not recede." The
+affair dragged along, purposely protracted by the British, and the
+court-martial on a technical point acquitted Lippencott. Sir Guy
+Carleton, however, who really was deeply indignant at the outrage,
+wrote, expressing his abhorrence, disavowed Lippencott, and promised
+a further inquiry. This placed Washington in a very trying position,
+more especially as his humanity was touched by the situation of the
+unlucky hostage. The fatal lot had fallen upon a mere boy, Captain
+Asgill, who was both amiable and popular, and Washington was beset
+with appeals in his behalf, for Lady Asgill moved heaven and earth to
+save her son. She interested the French court, and Vergennes made a
+special request that Asgill should be released. Even Washington's own
+officers, notably Hamilton, sought to influence him, and begged him to
+recede. In these difficult circumstances, which were enhanced by the
+fact that contrary to his orders to select an unconditional prisoner,
+the lot had fallen on a Yorktown prisoner protected by the terms
+of the capitulation,[1] he hesitated, and asked instructions from
+Congress. He wrote to Duane in September: "While retaliation was
+apparently necessary, however disagreeable in itself, I had no
+repugnance to the measure. But when the end proposed by it is answered
+by a disavowal of the act, by a dissolution of the board of refugees,
+and by a promise (whether with or without meaning to comply with it, I
+shall not determine) that further inquisition should be made into the
+matter, I thought it incumbent upon me, before I proceeded any farther
+in the matter, to have the sense of Congress, who had most explicitly
+approved and impliedly indeed ordered retaliation to take place. To
+this hour I am held in darkness."
+
+[Footnote 1: MS, letter to Lincoln.]
+
+He did not long remain in doubt. The fact was that the public, as is
+commonly the case, had forgotten the original crime and saw only the
+misery of the man who was to pay the just penalty, and who was, in
+this instance, an innocent and vicarious sufferer. It was difficult
+to refuse Vergennes, and Congress, glad of the excuse and anxious to
+oblige their allies, ordered the release of Asgill. That Washington,
+touched by the unhappy condition of his prisoner, did not feel
+relieved by the result, it would be absurd to suppose. But he was by
+no means satisfied, for the murderous wrong that had been done rankled
+in his breast. He wrote to Vergennes: "Captain Asgill has been
+released, and is at perfect liberty to return to the arms of an
+affectionate parent, whose pathetic address to your Excellency could
+not fail of interesting every feeling heart in her behalf. I have no
+right to assume any particular merit from the lenient manner in which
+this disagreeable affair has terminated."
+
+There is a perfect honesty about this which is very wholesome. He had
+been freely charged with cruelty, and had regarded the accusation with
+indifference. Now, when it was easy for him to have taken the glory
+of mercy by simply keeping silent, he took pains to avow that the
+leniency was not due to him. He was not satisfied, and no one should
+believe that he was, even if the admission seemed to justify the
+charge of cruelty. If he erred at all it was in not executing some
+British officer at the very start, unless Lippencott had been given up
+within a limited time. As it was, after delay was once permitted, it
+is hard to see how he could have acted otherwise than he did, but
+Washington was not in the habit of receding from a fixed purpose, and
+being obliged to do so in this case troubled him, for he knew that he
+did well to be angry. But the frankness of the avowal to Vergennes is
+a good example of his entire honesty and absolute moral fearlessness.
+
+The matter, however, which most filled his heart and mind during these
+weary days of waiting and doubt was the condition and the future of
+his soldiers. To those persons who have suspected or suggested that
+Washington was cold-blooded and unmindful of others, the letters he
+wrote in regard to the soldiers may be commended. The man whose heart
+was wrung by the sufferings of the poor people on the Virginian
+frontier, in the days of the old French war, never in fact changed
+his nature. Fierce in fight, passionate and hot when his anger was
+stirred, his love and sympathy were keen and strong toward his army.
+His heart went out to the brave men who had followed him, loved him,
+and never swerved in their loyalty to him and to their country.
+Washington's affection for his men, and their devotion to him, had
+saved the cause of American independence more often than strategy or
+daring. Now, when the war was practically over, his influence with
+both officers and soldiers was destined to be put to its severest
+tests.
+
+The people of the American colonies were self-governing in the
+extremest sense, that is, they were accustomed to very little
+government interference of any sort. They were also poor and entirely
+unused to war. Suddenly they found themselves plunged into a bitter
+and protracted conflict with the most powerful of civilized nations.
+In the first flush of excitement, patriotic enthusiasm supplied many
+defects; but as time wore on, and year after year passed, and the
+whole social and political fabric was shaken, the moral tone of the
+people relaxed. In such a struggle, coming upon an unprepared people
+of the habits and in the circumstances of the colonists, this
+relaxation was inevitable. It was likewise inevitable that, as the war
+continued, there should be in both national and state governments, and
+in all directions, many shortcomings and many lamentable errors. But
+for the treatment accorded the army, no such excuse can be made, and
+no sufficient explanation can be offered. There was throughout the
+colonies an inborn and a carefully cultivated dread of standing armies
+and military power. But this very natural feeling was turned most
+unreasonably against our own army, and carried in that direction to
+the verge of insanity. This jealousy of military power indeed pursued
+Washington from the beginning to the end of the Revolution. It cropped
+out as soon as he was appointed, and came up in one form or another
+whenever he was obliged to take strong measures. Even at the very end,
+after he had borne the cause through to triumph, Congress was driven
+almost to frenzy because Vergennes proposed to commit the disposition
+of a French subsidy to the commander-in-chief.
+
+If this feeling could show itself toward Washington, it is easy to
+imagine that it was not restrained toward his officers and men, and
+the treatment of the soldiers by Congress and by the States was not
+only ungrateful to the last degree, but was utterly unpardonable.
+Again and again the menace of immediate ruin and the stern demands of
+Washington alone extorted the most grudging concessions, and saved the
+army from dissolution. The soldiers had every reason to think that
+nothing but personal fear could obtain the barest consideration from
+the civil power. In this frame of mind, they saw the war which they
+had fought and won drawing to a close with no prospect of either
+provision or reward for them, and every indication that they would be
+disbanded when they were no longer needed, and left in many cases
+to beggary and want. In the inaction consequent upon the victory at
+Yorktown, they had ample time to reflect upon these facts, and their
+reflections were of such a nature that the situation soon became
+dangerous. Washington, who had struggled in season and out of season
+for justice to the soldiers, labored more zealously than ever during
+all this period, aided vigorously by Hamilton, who was now in
+Congress. Still nothing was done, and in October, 1782, he wrote to
+the Secretary of War in words warm with indignant feeling: "While I
+premise that no one I have seen or heard of appears opposed to the
+principle of reducing the army as circumstances may require, yet I
+cannot help fearing the result of the measure in contemplation, under
+present circumstances, when I see such a number of men, goaded by a
+thousand stings of reflection on the past and of anticipation on the
+future, about to be turned into the world, soured by penury and what
+they call the ingratitude of the public, involved in debts, without
+one farthing of money to carry them home after having spent the flower
+of their days, and many of them their patrimonies, in establishing the
+freedom and independence of their country, and suffered everything
+that human nature is capable of enduring on this side of death.... You
+may rely upon it, the patriotism and long-suffering of this army
+are almost exhausted, and that there never was so great a spirit of
+discontent as at this instant. While in the field I think it may be
+kept from breaking into acts of outrage; but when we retire into
+winter-quarters, unless the storm is previously dissipated, I cannot
+be at ease respecting the consequences. It is high time for a peace."
+
+These were grave words, coming from such a man as Washington, but they
+passed unheeded. Congress and the States went blandly along as if
+everything was all right, and as if the army had no grievances. But
+the soldiers thought differently. "Dissatisfactions rose to a great
+and alarming height, and combinations among officers to resign at
+given periods in a body were beginning to take place." The outlook
+was so threatening that Washington, who had intended to go to Mount
+Vernon, remained in camp, and by management and tact thwarted these
+combinations and converted these dangerous movements into an address
+to Congress from the officers, asking for half-pay, arrearages, and
+some other equally proper concessions. Still Congress did not stir.
+Some indefinite resolutions were passed, but nothing was done as to
+the commutation of half-pay into a fixed sum, and after such a display
+of indifference the dissatisfaction increased rapidly, and the army
+became more and more restless. In March a call was issued for a
+meeting of officers, and an anonymous address, written with
+much skill,--the work, as afterwards appeared, of Major John
+Armstrong,--was published at the same time. The address was well
+calculated to inflame the passions of the troops; it advised a resort
+to force, and was scattered broadcast through the camp. The army was
+now in a ferment, and the situation was full of peril. A weak man
+would have held his peace; a rash one would have tried to suppress the
+meeting. Washington did neither, but quietly took control of the whole
+movement himself. In general orders he censured the call and the
+address as irregular, and then appointed a time and place for the
+meeting. Another anonymous address thereupon appeared, quieter in
+tone, but congratulating the army on the recognition accorded by the
+commander-in-chief.
+
+When the officers assembled, Washington arose with a manuscript in
+his hand, and as he took out his glasses said, simply, "You see,
+gentlemen, I have grown both blind and gray in your service." His
+address was brief, calm, and strong. The clear, vigorous sentences
+were charged with meaning and with deep feeling. He exhorted them one
+and all, both officers and men, to remain loyal and obedient, true
+to their glorious past and to their country. He appealed to their
+patriotism, and promised them that which they had always had, his
+own earnest support in obtaining justice from Congress. When he had
+finished he quietly withdrew. The officers were deeply moved by
+his words, and his influence prevailed. Resolutions were passed,
+reiterating the demands of the army, but professing entire faith in
+the government. This time Congress listened, and the measures granting
+half-pay in commutation and certain other requests were passed. Thus
+this very serious danger was averted, not by the reluctant action of
+Congress, but by the wisdom and strength of the general, who was loved
+by his soldiers after a fashion that few conquerors could boast.
+
+Underlying all these general discontents, there was, besides, a
+well-defined movement, which saw a solution of all difficulties and a
+redress of all wrongs in a radical change of the form of government,
+and in the elevation of Washington to supreme power. This party was
+satisfied that the existing system was a failure, and that it was
+not and could not be made either strong, honest, or respectable. The
+obvious relief was in some kind of monarchy, with a large infusion of
+the one-man power; and it followed, as a matter of course, that the
+one man could be no other than the commander-in-chief. In May, 1782,
+when the feeling in the army had risen very high, this party of reform
+brought their ideas before Washington through an old and respected
+friend of his, Colonel Nicola. The colonel set forth very clearly the
+failure and shortcomings of the existing government, argued in favor
+of the substitution of something much stronger, and wound up by
+hinting very plainly that his correspondent was the man for the crisis
+and the proper savior of society. The letter was forcible and well
+written, and Colonel Nicola was a man of character and standing. It
+could not be passed over lightly or in silence, and Washington replied
+as follows:--
+
+"With a mixture of surprise and astonishment, I have read with
+attention the sentiments you have submitted to my perusal. Be assured,
+sir, no occurrence in the course of the war has given me more painful
+sensations than your information of there being such ideas existing
+in the army as you have expressed, and [which] I must view with
+abhorrence and reprehend with severity. For the present, the
+communication of them will rest in my own bosom, unless some further
+agitation of the matter shall make a disclosure necessary. I am
+much at a loss to conceive what part of my conduct could have given
+encouragement to an address which seems to me big with the greatest
+mischiefs that can befall my country. If I am not deceived in the
+knowledge of myself, you could not have found a person to whom your
+schemes are more disagreeable. At the same time, in justice to my own
+feelings, I must add that no man possesses a more sincere wish to
+see justice done to the army than I do; and as far as my power and
+influence in a constitutional way extend, they shall be employed to
+the utmost of my abilities to effect it, should there be any occasion.
+Let me conjure you, then, if you have any regard for your country,
+concern for yourself or posterity, or respect for me, to banish these
+thoughts from your mind, and never communicate, as from yourself or
+any one else, a sentiment of the like nature."
+
+This simple but exceedingly plain letter checked the whole movement
+at once; but the feeling of hostility to the existing system of
+government and of confidence in Washington increased steadily through
+the summer and winter. When the next spring had come round, and the
+"Newburgh addresses" had been published, the excitement was at fever
+heat. All the army needed was a leader. It was as easy for Washington
+to have grasped supreme power then, as it would have been for Cæsar
+to have taken the crown from Antony upon the Lupercal. He repelled
+Nicola's suggestion with quiet reproof, and took the actual movement,
+when it reared its head, into his own hands and turned it into other
+channels. This incident has been passed over altogether too carelessly
+by historians and biographers. It has generally been used merely to
+show the general nobility of Washington's sentiments, and no proper
+stress has been laid upon the facts of the time which gave birth to
+such an idea and such a proposition. It would have been a perfectly
+feasible thing at that particular moment to have altered the frame of
+government and placed the successful soldier in possession of supreme
+power. The notion of kingly government was, of course, entirely
+familiar to everybody, and had in itself nothing repulsive. The
+confederation was disintegrated, the States were demoralized, and the
+whole social and political life was weakened. The army was the one
+coherent, active, and thoroughly organized body in the country. Six
+years of war had turned them from militia into seasoned veterans, and
+they stood armed and angry, ready to respond to the call of the great
+leader to whom they were entirely devoted. When the English troops
+were once withdrawn, there was nothing on the continent that could
+have stood against them. If they had moved, they would have been
+everywhere supported by their old comrades who had returned to the
+ranks of civil life, by all the large class who wanted peace and order
+in the quickest and surest way, and by the timid and tired generally.
+There would have been in fact no serious opposition, probably because
+there would have been no means of sustaining it.
+
+The absolute feebleness of the general government was shown a few
+weeks later, when a recently recruited regiment of Pennsylvania troops
+mutinied, and obliged Congress to leave Philadelphia, unable either to
+defend themselves or procure defense from the State. This mutiny was
+put down suddenly and effectively by Washington, very wroth at the
+insubordination of raw troops, who had neither fought nor suffered.
+Yet even such mutineers as these would have succeeded in a large
+measure, had it not been for Washington, and one can easily imagine
+from this incident the result of disciplined and well-planned action
+on the part of the army led by their great chief. In that hour of
+debility and relaxation, a military seizure of the government and
+the erection of some form of monarchy would not have been difficult.
+Whether such a change would have lasted is another question, but there
+is no reason to doubt that at the moment it might have been effected.
+Washington, however, not only refused to have anything to do with the
+scheme, but he used the personal loyalty which might have raised him
+to supreme power to check all dangerous movements and put in motion
+the splendid and unselfish patriotism for which the army was
+conspicuous, and which underlay all their irritations and discontents.
+
+The obvious view of Washington's action in this crisis as a remarkable
+exhibition of patriotism is at best somewhat superficial. In a man in
+any way less great, the letter of refusal to Nicola and the treatment
+of the opportunity presented at the time of the Newburgh addresses
+would have been fine in a high degree. In Washington they were not so
+extraordinary, for the situation offered him no temptation. Carlyle
+was led to think slightingly of Washington, one may believe, because
+he did not seize the tottering government with a strong hand, and
+bring order out of chaos on the instant. But this is a woeful
+misunderstanding of the man. To put aside a crown for love of country
+is noble, but to look down upon such an opportunity indicates a much
+greater loftiness and strength of mind. Washington was wholly free
+from the vulgar ambition of the usurper, and the desire of mere
+personal aggrandizement found no place in his nature. His ruling
+passion was the passion for success, and for thorough and complete
+success. What he could not bear was the least shadow of failure. To
+have fought such a war to a victorious finish, and then turned it to
+his own advantage, would have been to him failure of the meanest
+kind. He fought to free the colonies from England, and make them
+independent, not to play the part of a Cæsar or a Cromwell in the
+wreck and confusion of civil war. He flung aside the suggestion of
+supreme power, not simply as dishonorable and unpatriotic, but because
+such a result would have defeated the one great and noble object
+at which he aimed. Nor did he act in this way through any indolent
+shrinking from the great task of making what he had won worth winning,
+by crushing the forces of anarchy and separation, and bringing order
+and unity out of confusion. From the surrender of Yorktown to the
+day of his retirement from the Presidency, he worked unceasingly to
+establish union and strong government in the country he had made
+independent. He accomplished this great labor more successfully
+by honest and lawful methods than if he had taken the path of the
+strong-handed savior of society, and his work in this field did more
+for the welfare of his country than all his battles. To have restored
+order at the head of the army was much easier than to effect it in the
+slow and law-abiding fashion which he adopted. To have refused supreme
+rule, and then to have effected in the spirit and under the forms
+of free government all and more than the most brilliant of military
+chiefs could have achieved by absolute power, is a glory which belongs
+to Washington alone.
+
+Nevertheless, at that particular juncture it was, as he himself had
+said, "high time for a peace." The danger at Newburgh had been averted
+by his commanding influence and the patriotic conduct of the army. But
+it had been averted only, not removed. The snake was scotched, not
+killed. The finishing stroke was still needed in the form of an end to
+hostilities, and it was therefore fortunate for the United States that
+a fortnight later, on March 23, news came that a general treaty
+of peace had been signed. This final consummation of his work, in
+addition to the passage by Congress of the half-pay commutation and
+the settlement of the army accounts, filled Washington with deep
+rejoicing. He felt that in a short time, a few weeks at most, he would
+be free to withdraw to the quiet life at Mount Vernon for which he
+longed. But public bodies move slowly, and one delay after another
+occurred to keep him still in the harness. He chafed under the
+postponement, but it was not possible to him to remain idle even when
+he awaited in almost daily expectation the hour of dismissal. He saw
+with the instinctive glance of statesmanship that the dangerous point
+in the treaty of peace was in the provisions as to the western posts
+on the one side, and those relating to British debts on the other. A
+month therefore had not passed before he brought to the attention
+of Congress the importance of getting immediate possession of those
+posts, and a little later he succeeded in having Steuben sent out as a
+special envoy to obtain their surrender. The mission was vain, as he
+had feared. He was not destined to extract this thorn for many years,
+and then only after many trials and troubles. Soon afterward he made a
+journey with Governor Clinton to Ticonderoga, and along the valley of
+the Mohawk, "to wear away the time," as he wrote to Congress. He wore
+away time to more purpose than most people, for where he traveled he
+observed closely, and his observations were lessons which he never
+forgot. On this trip he had the western posts and the Indians always
+in mind, and familiarized himself with the conditions of a part of the
+country where these matters were of great importance.
+
+On his return he went to Princeton, where Congress had been sitting
+since their flight from the mutiny which he had recently suppressed,
+and where a house had been provided for his use. He remained there two
+months, aiding Congress in their work. During the spring he had been
+engaged on the matter of a peace establishment, and he now gave
+Congress elaborate and well-matured advice on that question, and on
+those of public lands, western settlement, and the best Indian policy.
+In all these directions his views were clear, far-sighted, and wise.
+He saw that in these questions was involved much of the future
+development and wellbeing of the country, and he treated them with a
+precision and an easy mastery which showed the thought he had given to
+the new problems which now were coming to the front. Unluckily, he was
+so far ahead, both in knowledge and perception, of the body with which
+he dealt, that he could get little or nothing done, and in September
+he wrote in plain but guarded terms of the incapacity of the
+lawmakers. The people were not yet ripe for his measures, and he was
+forced to bide his time, and see the injuries caused by indifference
+and short-sightedness work themselves out. Gradually, however, the
+absolutely necessary business was brought to an end. Then Washington
+issued a circular letter to the governors of the States, which was
+one of the ablest he ever wrote, and full of the profoundest
+statesmanship, and he also sent out a touching address of farewell to
+the army, eloquent with wisdom and with patriotism.
+
+From Princeton he went to West Point, where the army that still
+remained in service was stationed. Thence he moved to Harlem, and
+on November 25 the British army departed, and Washington, with his
+troops, accompanied by Governor Clinton and some regiments of local
+militia, marched in and took possession. This was the outward sign
+that the war was over, and that American independence had been won.
+Carleton feared that the entry of the American army might be the
+signal for confusion and violence, in which the Tory inhabitants would
+suffer; but everything passed off with perfect tranquillity and good
+order, and in the evening Governor Clinton gave a public dinner to the
+commander-in-chief and the officers of the army.
+
+All was now over, and Washington prepared to go to Annapolis and lay
+down his commission. On December 4 his officers assembled in Fraunces'
+Tavern to bid him farewell. As he looked about on his faithful
+friends, his usual self-command deserted him, and he could not control
+his voice. Taking a glass of wine, he lifted it up, and said simply,
+"With a heart full of love and gratitude I now take my leave of you,
+most devoutly wishing that your latter days may be as prosperous and
+happy as your former ones have been glorious and honorable." The toast
+was drunk in silence, and then Washington added, "I cannot come to
+each of you and take my leave, but shall be obliged if you will come
+and take me by the hand." One by one they approached, and Washington
+grasped the hand of each man and embraced him. His eyes were full of
+tears, and he could not trust himself to speak. In silence he bade
+each and all farewell, and then, accompanied by his officers, walked
+to Whitehall Ferry. Entering his barge, the word was given, and as
+the oars struck the water he stood up and lifted his hat. In solemn
+silence his officers returned the salute, and watched the noble and
+gracious figure of their beloved chief until the boat disappeared from
+sight behind the point of the Battery.
+
+At Philadelphia he stopped a few days and adjusted his accounts, which
+he had in characteristic fashion kept himself in the neatest and most
+methodical way. He had drawn no pay, and had expended considerable
+sums from his private fortune, which he had omitted to charge to the
+government. The gross amount of his expenses was about 15,000 pounds
+sterling, including secret service and other incidental outlays. In
+these days of wild money-hunting, there is something worth pondering
+in this simple business settlement between a great general and his
+government, at the close of eight years of war. This done, he started
+again on his journey. From Philadelphia he proceeded to Annapolis,
+greeted with addresses and hailed with shouts at every town and
+village on his route, and having reached his destination, he addressed
+a letter to Congress on December 20, asking when it would be agreeable
+to them to receive him. The 23d was appointed, and on that day, at
+noon, he appeared before Congress.
+
+The following year a French orator and "maître avocat," in an oration
+delivered at Toulouse upon the American Revolution, described this
+scene in these words: "On the day when Washington resigned his
+commission in the hall of Congress, a crown decked with jewels was
+placed upon the Book of the Constitutions. Suddenly Washington seizes
+it, breaks it, and flings the pieces to the assembled people. How
+small ambitious Cæsar seems beside the hero of America." It is worth
+while to recall this contemporary French description, because its
+theatrical and dramatic untruth gives such point by contrast to the
+plain and dignified reality. The scene was the hall of Congress. The
+members representing the sovereign power were seated and covered,
+while all the space about was filled by the governor and state
+officers of Maryland, by military officers, and by the ladies and
+gentlemen of the neighborhood, who stood in respectful silence with
+uncovered heads. Washington was introduced by the Secretary of
+Congress, and took a chair which had been assigned to him. There was
+a brief pause, and then the president said that "the United States
+in Congress assembled were prepared to receive his communication."
+Washington rose, and replied as follows:--
+
+"Mr. President: The great events, on which my resignation depended,
+having at length taken place, I have now the honor of offering my
+sincere congratulations to Congress, and of presenting myself before
+them, to surrender into their hands the trust committed to me, and to
+claim the indulgence of retiring from the service of my country.
+
+"Happy in the confirmation of our independence and sovereignty, and
+pleased with the opportunity afforded the United States of becoming
+a respectable nation, I resign with satisfaction the appointment I
+accepted with diffidence; a diffidence in my abilities to accomplish
+so arduous a task, which, however, was superseded by a confidence in
+the rectitude of our cause, the support of the supreme power of the
+Union, and the patronage of Heaven. The successful termination of the
+war has verified the most sanguine expectations; and my gratitude for
+the interposition of Providence, and the assistance I have received
+from my countrymen, increases with every review of the momentous
+contest." Then, after a word of gratitude to the army and to his
+staff, he concluded as follows: "I consider it an indispensable duty
+to close this last solemn act of my official life by commending the
+interests of our dearest country to the protection of Almighty God,
+and those who have the superintendence of them to his holy keeping.
+
+"Having now finished the work assigned me, I retire from the great
+theatre of action; and bidding an affectionate farewell to this
+august body, under whose orders I have so long acted, I here offer my
+commission, and take my leave of all the employments of public life."
+
+In singularly graceful and eloquent words his old opponent, Thomas
+Mifflin, the president, replied, the simple ceremony ended, and
+Washington left the room a private citizen.
+
+The great master of English fiction, touching this scene with skillful
+hand, has said: "Which was the most splendid spectacle ever witnessed,
+the opening feast of Prince George in London, or the resignation
+of Washington? Which is the noble character for after ages to
+admire,--yon fribble dancing in lace and spangles, or yonder hero
+who sheathes his sword after a life of spotless honor, a purity
+unreproached, a courage indomitable, and a consummate victory?"
+
+There is no need to say more. Comment or criticism on such a farewell,
+from such a man, at the close of a long civil war, would be not only
+superfluous but impertinent. The contemporary newspaper, in its meagre
+account, said that the occasion was deeply solemn and affecting, and
+that many persons shed tears. Well indeed might those then present
+have been thus affected, for they had witnessed a scene memorable
+forever in the annals of all that is best and noblest in human nature.
+They had listened to a speech which was not equaled in meaning and
+spirit in American history until, eighty years later, Abraham Lincoln
+stood upon the slopes of Gettysburg and uttered his immortal words
+upon those who died that the country might live.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX for Volumes I & II
+
+
+  ACKERSON, DAVID,
+    describes Washington's personal appearance, ii. 386-388.
+
+  Adams, Abigail,
+    on Washington's appearance in 1775, i. 137.
+
+  Adams, John,
+    moves appointment of Washington as commander-in-chief, i. 134;
+    on political necessity for his appointment, 135;
+    and objections to it, 135;
+    statement as to Washington's difficulties, 163;
+    over-sanguine as to American prospects, 171;
+    finds fault with Washington, 214, 215;
+    one of few national statesmen, 252;
+    on Washington's opinion of titles, ii. 52;
+    advocates ceremony, 54;
+    returns to United States, 137;
+    attacked by Jefferson as a monarchist, 226;
+    praised by Democrats as superior to Washington, 251;
+    his administration upheld by Washington, 259;
+    advised by Washington, 260;
+    his inauguration, 276;
+    sends special mission to France, 284;
+    urges Washington to take command of provisional army, 285;
+    wishes to make Knox senior to Hamilton, 286;
+    censured by Washington, gives way, 287;
+    lack of sympathy with Washington, 287;
+    his nomination of Murray disapproved by Washington, 292, 293;
+    letter of Washington to, on immigration, 326.
+
+  Adams, J.Q.,
+    on weights and measures, ii. 81.
+
+  Adams, Samuel,
+    not sympathized with by Washington in working for independence, i. 131;
+    his inability to sympathize with Washington, 204;
+    an enemy of Constitution, ii. 71;
+    a genuine American, 309.
+
+  Alcudia, Duke de,
+    interviews with Pinckney, ii. 166.
+
+  Alexander, Philip,
+    hunts with Washington, i. 115.
+
+  Alien and Sedition Laws,
+    approved by Washington and Federalists, ii. 290, 297.
+
+  Ames, Fisher,
+    speech on behalf of administration in Jay treaty affair, ii. 210.
+
+  André, Major,
+    meets Arnold, i. 282;
+    announces capture to Arnold, 284;
+    confesses, 284;
+    condemned and executed, 287;
+    justice of the sentence, 287, 288;
+    Washington's opinion of, 288, ii. 357.
+
+  Armstrong, John, Major,
+    writes Newburg address, i. 335.
+
+  Army of the Revolution,
+    at Boston, adopted by Congress, i. 134;
+    its organization and character, 136-143;
+    sectional jealousies in, at New York, 162;
+    goes to pieces after defeat, 167, 175, 176;
+    condition in winter of 1777, 186;
+    difficulties between officers, 189;
+    with foreign officers, 190-192;
+    improvement as shown by condition after Brandywine and Germantown,
+  200, 201;
+    hard winter at Valley Forge, 228;
+    maintained alive only by Washington, 227, 228, 232;
+    improved morale at Monmouth, 239;
+    mutinies for lack of pay, 258;
+    suffers during 1779, 270;
+    bad condition in 1780, 279;
+    again mutinies for pay, 291, 292, 295;
+    conduct of troops, 292, 293;
+    jealousy of people towards, 332;
+    badly treated by States and by Congress, 333;
+    grows mutinous, 334;
+    adopts Newburg addresses, 335, 336;
+    ready for a military dictatorship, 338, 340;
+    farewell of Washington to, 345.
+
+  Arnold, Benedict,
+    sent by Washington to attack Quebec, i. 144;
+    sent against Burgoyne, 210;
+    plans treason, 281;
+    shows loyalist letter to Washington, 282;
+    meets André, 282;
+    receives news of André's capture, 284;
+    escapes, 284, 285;
+    previous benefits from Washington, 286;
+    Washington's opinion of, 288;
+    ravages Virginia, 303;
+    sent back to New York, 303;
+    one of the few men who deceived Washington, ii. 336.
+
+  Arnold, Mrs.,
+    entertains Washington at time of her husband's treachery, i. 284, 285.
+
+  Articles of Confederation,
+    their inadequacy early seen by Washington, i. 297, 298; ii. 17.
+
+  Asgill, Capt.,
+    selected for retaliation for murder of Huddy, i. 328;
+    efforts for his release, 329;
+    release ordered by Congress, 330.
+
+
+  BACHE, B.F.,
+    publishes Jay treaty in "Aurora," ii. 185;
+    joins in attack on Washington, 238, 244;
+    rejoices over his retirement, 256.
+
+  Baker,----,
+    works out a pedigree for Washington, i. 31.
+
+  Ball, Joseph,
+    advises against sending Washington to sea, i. 49, 50.
+
+  Barbadoes,
+    Washington's description of, i. 64.
+
+  Beckley, John,
+    accuses Washington of embezzling, ii. 245.
+
+  Bernard, John,
+    his conversation with Washington referred to, i. 58, 107;
+    describes encounter with Washington, ii. 281-283;
+    his description of Washington's conversation, 343-348.
+
+  Blackwell, Rev. Dr.,
+    calls on Washington with Dr. Logan, ii. 264.
+
+  Blair, John,
+    appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 73.
+
+  Bland, Mary,
+    "Lowland Beauty," admired by Washington, i. 95, 96.
+
+  Blount, Governor,
+    pacifies Cherokees, ii. 94.
+
+  Boston,
+    visit of Washington to, i. 97, 99;
+    political troubles in, 120;
+    British measures against condemned by Virginia, 122, 123;
+    appeals to colonies, 124;
+    protests against Jay treaty, ii. 186;
+    answered by Washington, 190.
+
+  Botetourt, Lord, Governor of Virginia,
+    quarrels with Assembly, i. 121;
+    manages to calm dissension, 122;
+    on friendly terms with Washington, 122.
+
+  Braddock, General Edward,
+    arrives in Virginia, i. 82;
+    invites Washington to serve on his staff, 82;
+    respects him, 83;
+    his character and unfitness for his position, 83;
+    despises provincials, 83;
+    accepts Washington's advice as to dividing force, 84;
+    rebukes Washington for warning against ambush, 85;
+    insists on fighting by rule, 85;
+    defeated and mortally wounded, 85;
+    death and burial, 87.
+
+  Bradford, William,
+    succeeds Randolph, ii. 246.
+
+  Brandywine,
+    battle of, i. 196-198.
+
+  Bunker Hill,
+    question of Washington regarding battle of, i. 136.
+
+  Burgoyne, General John,
+    junction of Howe with, feared by Washington, i. 194, 195, 205, 206;
+    significance of his defeat, 202;
+    danger of his invasion foreseen by Washington, 203-206;
+    captures Ticonderoga, 207;
+    outnumbered and defeated, 210;
+    surrenders, 211.
+
+  Burke, Edmund,
+    understands significance of Washington's leadership, i. 202;
+    unsettled by French Revolution, ii. 294.
+
+
+  CABOT, GEORGE,
+    entertains Lafayette's son, ii. 366.
+
+  Cadwalader, General,
+    fails to cross Delaware to help Washington, i. 180;
+    duel with Conway, 226.
+
+  Calvert, Eleanor,
+    misgivings of Washington over her marriage to John Custis, i. 111.
+
+  Camden, battle of, i. 281.
+
+  Canada,
+    captured by Wolfe, i. 94;
+    expedition of Montgomery against, 143, 144;
+    project of Conway cabal against, 222; 253;
+    project of Lafayette to attack, 254;
+    plan considered dangerous by Washington, 254, 255;
+    not undertaken by France, 256.
+
+  Carleton, Sir Guy,
+    informs Washington of address of Commons for peace, i. 324;
+    suspected by Washington, 325;
+    remonstrates against retaliation by Washington for murder of
+  Huddy, 328;
+    disavows Lippencott, 328;
+    fears plunder of New York city, 345;
+    urges Indians to attack the United States, ii. 102, 175.
+
+  Carlisle, Earl of,
+    peace commissioner, i. 233.
+
+  Carlyle, Thomas,
+    sneers at Washington, i. 4, 14;
+    calls him "a bloodless Cromwell," i. 69, ii. 332;
+    fails to understand his reticence, i. 70;
+    despises him for not seizing power, 341.
+
+  Carmichael, William,
+    minister at Madrid, ii. 165;
+    on commission regarding the Mississippi, 166.
+
+  Carrington, Paul,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 208;
+    Washington's friendship for, 363.
+
+  Cary, Mary,
+    early love affair of Washington with, i. 96.
+
+  Chamberlayne, Major,
+    entertains Washington at Williams' Ferry, i. 101.
+
+  Charleston,
+    siege and capture of, i. 273, 274, 276.
+
+  Chastellux, Marquis de,
+    Washington's friendship for and letter to, ii. 351;
+    on Washington's training of horses, 380.
+
+  Cherokees,
+    beaten by Sevier, ii. 89;
+    pacified by Blount, 94,101.
+
+  Chester, Colonel,
+    researches on Washington pedigree, i. 31.
+
+  Chickasaws,
+    desert from St. Clair, ii. 96.
+
+  China,
+    honors Washington, i. 6.
+
+  Choctaws,
+    peaceable in 1788, ii. 89.
+
+  Cincinnati, Society of the,
+    Washington's connection with, ii. 4.
+
+  Clarke, Governor,
+    thinks Washington is invading popular rights, i. 215.
+
+  Cleaveland, Rev.----,
+    complimented by Washington, ii. 359.
+
+  Clinton, George,
+    appealed to by Washington to attack Burgoyne, i. 210;
+    journey with Washington to Ticonderoga, 343;
+    enters New York city, 345;
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 1;
+    meets Washington on journey to inauguration, 45;
+    opponent of the Constitution, 71;
+    orders seizure of French privateers, 153.
+
+  Clinton, Sir Henry,
+    fails to help Burgoyne, i. 210;
+    replaces Howe at Philadelphia, his character, 232;
+    tries to cut off Lafayette, 233;
+    leaves Philadelphia, 234;
+    defeats Lee at Monmouth, 236;
+    retreats to New York, 238;
+    withdraws from Newport, 248;
+    makes a raid, 265;
+    fortifies Stony Point, 268;
+    his aimless warfare, 269, 270;
+    after capturing Charleston returns to New York, 276;
+    tries to save André, 287;
+    alarmed at attacks on New York, 306;
+    jealous of Cornwallis, refuses to send reinforcements, 308;
+    deceived by Washington, 311;
+    sends Graves to relieve Cornwallis, 312.
+
+  Congress, Continental,
+    Washington's journey to, i. 128;
+    its character and ability, 129;
+    its state papers, 129;
+    adjourns, 132;
+    in second session, resolves to petition the king, 133;
+    adopts Massachusetts army and makes Washington commander, 134;
+    reasons for his choice, 135;
+    adheres to short-term enlistments, 149;
+    influenced to declare independence by Washington, 160;
+    hampers Washington in campaign of New York, 167;
+    letters of Washington to, 170, 179, 212, 225, 229, 266, 278, 295,
+  321, 323, 333;
+    takes steps to make army permanent, 171;
+    its over-confidence, 171;
+    insists on holding Forts Washington and Lee, 174;
+    dissatisfied with Washington's inactivity, 187;
+    criticises his proclamation requiring oath of allegiance, 189;
+    makes unwise appointments of officers, 189;
+    especially of foreigners, 190-192; 248, 249;
+    applauds Washington's efforts at Germantown, 200;
+    deposes Schuyler and St. Clair, 208;
+    appoints Gates, 210;
+    irritation against Washington, 212-215;
+    falls under guidance of Conway cabal, 221, 222;
+    discovers incompetence of cabal, 223;
+    meddles with prisoners and officers, 231;
+    rejects English peace offers, 233;
+    makes alliance with France, 241;
+    suppresses protests of officers against D'Estaing, 244;
+    decline in its character, 257;
+    becomes feeble, 258;
+    improvement urged by Washington, 259, 266;
+    appoints Gates to command in South, 268;
+    loses interest in war, 278;
+    asks Washington to name general for the South, 295;
+    considers reduction of army, 313;
+    elated by Yorktown, 323;
+    its unfair treatment of army, 333, 335;
+    driven from Philadelphia by Pennsylvania troops, 340;
+    passes half-pay act, 342;
+    receives commission of Washington, 347-349;
+    disbands army, ii. 6;
+    indifferent to Western expansion, 15;
+    continues to decline, 22;
+    merit of its Indian policy, 88.
+
+  Congress, Federal,
+    establishes departments, ii. 64;
+    opened by Washington, 78, 79;
+    ceremonial abolished by Jefferson, 79;
+    recommendations made to by Washington, 81-83;
+    acts upon them, 81-83;
+    creates commission to treat with Creeks, 90;
+    increases army, 94, 99;
+    fails to solve financial problems, 106;
+    debates Hamilton's report on credit, 107, 108;
+    establishes national bank, 109;
+    establishes protective revenue duties, 113;
+    imposes an excise tax, 123;
+    prepares for retaliation on Great Britain, 176;
+    Senate ratifies Jay treaty conditionally, 184;
+    House demands papers, 207;
+    debates over its right to concur in treaty, 208-210;
+    refuses to adjourn on Washington's birthday, 247;
+    prepares for war with France, 285;
+    passes Alien and Sedition Laws, 296.
+
+  Constitution, Federal,
+    necessity of, foreseen by Washington, ii. 17-18, 23, 24;
+    the Annapolis Convention, 23-29;
+    the Federal Convention, 30-36;
+    Washington's attitude in, 31,34;
+    his influence, 36;
+    campaign for ratification, 38-41.
+
+  Contrecoeur, Captain,
+    leader of French and Indians in Virginia, i. 75.
+
+  "Conway cabal,"
+    elements of in Congress, i. 214, 215;
+    in the army, 215;
+    organized by Conway, 217;
+    discovered by Washington, 220;
+    gets control of Board of War, 221;
+    tries to make Washington resign, 222, 224;
+    fails to invade Canada or provide supplies, 222, 223;
+    harassed by Washington's letters, 223,226;
+    breaks down, 226.
+
+  Conway, Moncure D.,
+    his life of Randolph, ii. 65, note, 196;
+    his defense of Randolph in Fauchet letter affair, 196;
+    on Washington's motives, 200;
+    on his unfair treatment of Randolph, 201, 202.
+
+  Conway, Thomas,
+    demand for higher rank refused by Washington, i. 216;
+    plots against him, 217;
+    his letter discovered by Washington, 221;
+    made inspector-general, 221, 222;
+    complains to Congress of his reception at camp, 225;
+    resigns, has duel with Cadwalader, 226;
+    apologizes to Washington and leaves country, 226.
+
+  Cooke, Governor,
+    remonstrated with by Washington for raising state troops, i. 186.
+
+  Cornwallis, Lord,
+    pursues Washington in New Jersey, i. 175;
+    repulsed at Assunpink, 181;
+    outgeneraled by Washington, 182;
+    surprises Sullivan at Brandywine, 197;
+    defeats Lee at Monmouth, 236;
+    pursues Greene in vain, 302;
+    wins battle of Guilford Court House, 302;
+    retreats into Virginia, 302;
+    joins British troops in Virginia, 303;
+    his dangerous position, 304;
+    urged by Clinton to return troops to New York, 306;
+    plunders Virginia, 307;
+    defeats Lafayette and Wayne, 307;
+    wishes to retreat South, 307;
+    ordered by ministry to stay on the Chesapeake, 307;
+    abandoned by Clinton, 308;
+    establishes himself at Yorktown, 308;
+    withdraws into town, 315;
+    besieged, 316, 317;
+    surrenders, 317;
+    outgeneraled by Washington, 319, 320.
+
+  Cowpens,
+    battle of, i. 301.
+
+  Craik, Dr.,
+    attends Washington in last illness, ii. 300-302;
+    Washington's friendship with, 363.
+
+  Creeks,
+    their relations with Spaniards, ii. 89, 90;
+    quarrel with Georgia, 90;
+    agree to treaty with United States, 91;
+    stirred up by Spain, 101.
+
+  Curwen, Samuel,
+    on Washington's appearance, i. 137.
+
+  Cushing, Caleb,
+    appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 72.
+
+  Custis, Daniel Parke,
+    first husband of Martha Washington, i. 101.
+
+  Custis, G.W.P.,
+    tells mythical story of Washington and the colt, i. 45;
+    Washington's care for, ii. 369.
+
+  Custis, John,
+    Washington's tenderness toward, i. 111;
+    care for his education and marriage, 111;
+    hunts with Washington, 141;
+    death of, 322.
+
+  Custis, Nellie,
+    marriage with Washington's nephew, ii. 281, 369;
+    letter of Washington to, 377.
+
+
+  DAGWORTHY, CAPTAIN,
+    claims to outrank Washington in Virginia army, i. 91, 97.
+
+  Dallas, Alexander,
+    protests to Genet against sailing of Little Sarah, ii. 155.
+
+  Dalton, Senator,
+    entertains Washington at Newburyport, ii. 359.
+
+  Deane, Silas,
+    promises commissions to foreign military adventurers, i. 190.
+
+  De Barras,
+    jealous of De Grasse, decides not to aid him, i. 310;
+    persuaded to do so by Washington and Rochambeau, 311;
+    reaches Chesapeake, 312.
+
+  De Grasse, Comte,
+    announces intention of coming to Washington, i. 305;
+    warned by Washington not to come to New York, 305;
+    sails to Chesapeake, 306;
+    asked to meet Washington there, 308;
+    reaches Chesapeake, 312;
+    repulses British fleet, 312;
+    wishes to return to West Indies, 315;
+    persuaded to remain by Washington, 315;
+    refuses to join Washington in attack on Charleston, 322;
+    returns to West Indies, 322.
+
+  De Guichen,----,
+    commander of French fleet in West Indies, i. 280;
+    appealed to for aid by Washington, 281;
+    returns home, 282.
+
+  Delancey, Oliver,
+    escapes American attack, i. 306.
+
+  Democratic party,
+    its formation as a French party, ii. 225;
+    furnished with catch-words by Jefferson, 226;
+    with a newspaper organ, 227;
+    not ready to oppose Washington for president in 1792, 235;
+    organized against treasury measure, 236;
+    stimulated by French Revolution, 238;
+    supports Genet, 237;
+    begins to attack Washington, 238;
+    his opinion of it, 239, 240, 258, 261, 267, 268;
+    forms clubs on French model, 241;
+    Washington's opinion of, 242, 243;
+    continues to abuse him, 244, 245, 250, 252;
+    exults at his retirement, 256;
+    prints slanders, 257.
+
+  Demont, William,
+    betrays plans of Fort Washington to Howe, i. 175.
+
+  D'Estaing, Admiral,
+    reaches America, i. 242;
+    welcomed by Washington, 243;
+    fails to cut off Howe and goes to Newport, 243;
+    after battle with Howe goes to Boston, 244;
+    letter of Washington to, 246;
+    sails to West Indies, 246;
+    second letter of Washington to, 247;
+    attacks Savannah, 248;
+    withdraws, 248.
+
+  De Rochambeau, Comte,
+    arrives at Newport, i. 277;
+    ordered to await second division of army, 278;
+    refuses to attack New York, 280;
+    wishes a conference with Washington, 282;
+    meets him at Hartford, 282;
+    disapproves attacking Florida, 301;
+    joins Washington before New York, 306;
+    persuades De Barras to join De Grasse, 311;
+    accompanies Washington to Yorktown, 314.
+
+  Dickinson, John,
+    commands scouts at Monmouth, i. 326.
+
+  Digby, Admiral,
+    bitter comments of Washington on, i. 325.
+
+  Dinwiddie, Governor,
+    remonstrates against French encroachments, i. 66;
+    sends Washington on mission to French, 66;
+    quarrels with the Virginia Assembly, 71;
+    letter of Washington to, 73;
+    wishes Washington to attack French, 79;
+    tries to quiet discussions between regular and provincial troops, 80;
+    military schemes condemned by Washington, 91;
+    prevents his getting a royal commission, 93.
+
+  Diplomatic History:
+    refusal by Washington of special privileges to French minister,
+  ii. 59-61;
+    slow growth of idea of non-intervention, 132, 133;
+    difficulties owing to French Revolution, 134;
+    to English retention of frontier posts, 135;
+    attitude of Spain, 135;
+    relations with Barbary States, 136;
+    mission of Gouverneur Morris to sound English feeling, 137;
+    assertion by Washington of non-intervention policy toward Europe,
+  145, 146;
+    issue of neutrality proclamation, 147, 148;
+    its importance, 148;
+    mission of Genet, 148-162;
+    guarded attitude of Washington toward émigrés, 151;
+    excesses of Genet, 151;
+    neutrality enforced, 153, 154;
+    the Little Sarah episode, 154-157;
+    recall of Genet demanded, 158;
+    futile missions of Carmichael and Short to Spain, 165, 166;
+    successful treaty of Thomas Pinckney, 166-168;
+    question as to binding nature of French treaty of commerce, 169-171;
+    irritating relations with England, 173-176;
+    Jay's mission, 177-184;
+    the questions at issue, 180, 181;
+    terms of the treaty agreed upon, 182;
+    good and bad points, 183;
+    ratified by Senate, 184;
+    signing delayed by renewal of provision order, 185;
+    war with England prevented by signing, 205;
+    difficulties with France over Morris and Monroe, 211-214;
+    doings of Monroe, 212, 213;
+    United States compromised by him, 213, 214;
+    Monroe replaced by Pinckney, 214;
+    review of Washington's foreign policy, 216-219;
+    mission of Pinckney, Marshall, and Gerry to France, 284;
+    the X.Y.Z. affair, 285.
+
+  Donop, Count,
+    drives Griffin out of New Jersey, i. 180;
+    killed at Fort Mercer, 217.
+
+  Dorchester, Lord.
+    See Carleton.
+
+  Duane, James,
+    letters of Washington to, i. 294, 329.
+
+  Dumas, Comte,
+    describes enthusiasm of people for Washington, i. 288.
+
+  Dunbar, Colonel,
+    connection with Braddock's expedition, i. 84, 87.
+
+  Dunmore, Lord,
+    arrives in Virginia as governor, i. 122;
+    on friendly terms with Washington, 122, 123;
+    dissolves assembly, 123.
+
+  Duplaine, French consul,
+    exequatur of revoked, ii. 159.
+
+
+  EDEN, WILLIAM,
+    peace commissioner, i. 233.
+
+  Edwards, Jonathan,
+    a typical New England American, ii. 309.
+
+  Emerson, Rev. Dr.,
+    describes Washington's reforms in army before Boston, i. 140.
+
+  Emigrés,
+    Washington's treatment of, ii. 151, 253.
+
+  England,
+    honors Washington, i. 20;
+    arrogant behavior toward colonists, 80, 81, 82, 148;
+    its policy towards Boston condemned by Virginia, 119, 121, 123, 126;
+    by Washington, 124, 125,126;
+    sends incompetent officers to America, 155, 201, 202, 233;
+    stupidity of its operations, 203, 205, 206, 265;
+    sincerity of its desire for peace doubted by Washington, 324, 325;
+    arrogant conduct of toward the United States after peace, ii. 24, 25;
+    stirs up the Six Nations and Northwestern Indians, 92, 94, 101;
+    folly of her policy, 102;
+    sends Hammond as minister, 169;
+    its opportunity to win United States as ally against France, 171, 172;
+    adopts contrary policy of opposition, 172, 173;
+    adopts "provision order," 174;
+    incites Indians against United States, 175;
+    indignation of America against, 176;
+    receives Jay well, but refuses to yield points at issue, 180;
+    insists on monopoly of West India trade, 180;
+    and on impressment, 181;
+    later history of, 181;
+    renews provision order, 185;
+    danger of war with, 193;
+    avoided by Jay treaty, 205;
+    Washington said to sympathize with England, 252;
+    his real hostility toward, 254;
+    Washington's opinion of liberty in, 344.
+
+  Ewing, General James,
+    fails to help Washington at Trenton, i. 180.
+
+
+  FAIRFAX, BRYAN,
+    hunts with Washington, i. 115;
+    remonstrates with Washington against violence of patriots, 124;
+    Washington's replies to, 124, 126, 127;
+    letter of Washington to in Revolution, ii. 366.
+
+  Fairfax, George,
+    married to Miss Cary, i. 55;
+    accompanies Washington on surveying expedition, 58;
+    letter of Washington to, 133.
+
+  Fairfax, Mrs.----,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 367.
+
+  Fairfax, Thomas, Lord,
+    his career in England, i. 55;
+    comes to his Virginia estates, 55;
+    his character, 55;
+    his friendship for Washington, 56;
+    sends him to survey estates, 56;
+    plans a manor across the Blue Ridge, 59;
+    secures for Washington position as public surveyor, 60;
+    probably influential in securing his appointment as envoy to
+  French, 66;
+    hunts with Washington, 115;
+    his death remembered by Washington, ii. 366.
+
+  Fairlie, Major,
+    amuses Washington, ii. 374.
+
+  Farewell Address, ii. 248, 249.
+
+  Fauchet, M.,----,
+    letter of, incriminating Randolph, ii. 195,196, 202.
+
+  Fauntleroy, Betsy,
+    love affair of Washington with, i. 97.
+
+  Fauquier, Francis, Governor,
+    at Washington's wedding, i. 101.
+
+  Federal courts,
+    suggested by Washington, i. 150.
+
+  "Federalist,"
+    circulated by Washington, ii. 40.
+
+  Federalist party,
+    begun by Hamilton's controversy with Jefferson, ii. 230;
+    supports Washington for reëlection, 235;
+    organized in support of financial measures, 236;
+    Washington looked upon by Democrats as its head, 244, 247;
+    only its members trusted by Washington, 246, 247, 259, 260, 261;
+    becomes a British party, 255;
+    Washington considers himself a member of, 269-274;
+    the only American party until 1800, 273;
+    strengthened by X, Y, Z affair, 285;
+    dissensions in, over army appointments, 286-290;
+    its horror at French Revolution, 294, 295;
+    attempts of Washington to heal divisions in, 298.
+
+  Fenno's newspaper,
+    used by Hamilton against the "National Gazette," ii. 230.
+
+  Finances of the Revolution,
+    effect of paper money on war, i. 258, 262;
+    difficulties in paying troops, 258;
+    labors of Robert Morris, 259, 264, 312;
+    connection of Washington with, 263;
+    continued collapse, 280, 290, 312.
+
+  Financial History,
+    bad condition in 1789, ii. 105;
+    decay of credit, paper, and revenue, 106;
+    futile propositions, 106;
+    Hamilton's report on credit, 107;
+    debate over assumption of state debt, 107;
+    bargain between Hamilton and Jefferson, 108;
+    establishment of bank, 109;
+    other measures adopted, 112;
+    protection in the first Congress, 112-115;
+    the excise tax imposed, 123;
+    opposition to, 123-127;
+    "Whiskey Rebellion," 127-128.
+
+  Fishbourn, Benjamin,
+    nomination rejected by Senate, ii. 63.
+
+  Fontanes, M. de,
+    delivers funeral oration on Washington, i. 1.
+
+  Forbes, General,
+    renews attack on French in Ohio, i. 93.
+
+  Forman, Major,
+    describes impressiveness of Washington, ii. 389.
+
+  Fox, Charles James,
+    understands significance of Washington's leadership, i. 202.
+
+  France,
+    pays honors to Washington, i. I, 6;
+    war with England, see French and Indian war;
+    takes possession of Ohio, 65;
+    considers Jumonville assassinated by Washington, 74;
+    importance of alliance with foreseen by Washington, 191;
+    impressed by battle of Germantown, 200;
+    makes treaty of alliance with United States, 241;
+    sends D'Estaing, 243;
+    declines to attack Canada, 256;
+    sends army and fleet, 274, 277;
+    relations of French to Washington, 318, 319;
+    absolute necessity of their naval aid, 318, 319;
+    Revolution in, applauded by America, ii. 138, 139, 142;
+    real character understood by Washington and others, 139-142, 295;
+    debate over in America, 142;
+    question of relations with United States, 143, 144;
+    warned by Washington, 144, 145;
+    neutrality toward declared, 147;
+    tries to drive United States into alliance, 149;
+    terms of the treaty with, 169;
+    latter held to be no longer binding, 169-171;
+    abrogates it, 171;
+    demands recall of Morris, 211;
+    mission of Monroe to, 211-214;
+    makes vague promises, 212, 213;
+    Washington's fairness toward, 253;
+    tries to bully or corrupt American ministers, 284;
+    the X, Y, Z affair, 285;
+    war with not expected by Washington, 291;
+    danger of concession to, 292, 293;
+    progress of Revolution in, 294.
+
+  Franklin, Benjamin,
+    gets wagons for Braddock's expedition, i. 84;
+    remark on Howe in Philadelphia, 219;
+    national, like Washington, 252, ii. 8;
+    despairs of success of Constitutional Convention, 35;
+    his unquestioned Americanism, 309;
+    respect of Washington for, 344, 346, 364.
+
+  Frederick II., the Great,
+    his opinion of Trenton campaign, i. 183;
+    of Monmouth campaign, 239.
+
+  French and Indian war, i. 64-94;
+    inevitable conflict, 65;
+    efforts to negotiate, 66, 67;
+    hostilities begun, 72;
+    the Jumonville affair, 74;
+    defeat of Washington, 76;
+    Braddock's campaign, 82-88;
+    ravages in Virginia, 90;
+    carried to a favorable conclusion by Pitt, 93, 94.
+
+  Freneau, Philip,
+    brought to Philadelphia and given clerkship by Jefferson, ii. 227;
+    attacks Adams, Hamilton, and Washington in "National Gazette," 227;
+    makes conflicting statements as to Jefferson's share in the paper,
+  227, 228;
+    the first to attack Washington, 238.
+
+  Fry, Colonel,
+    commands a Virginia regiment against French and Indians, i. 71;
+    dies, leaving Washington in command, 75.
+
+
+  GAGE, GENERAL THOMAS,
+    conduct at Boston condemned by Washington, i. 126;
+    his treatment of prisoners protested against by Washington, 145;
+    sends an arrogant reply, 147;
+    second letter of Washington to, 147, 156.
+
+  Gallatin, Albert,
+    connection with Whiskey Rebellion, ii. 129.
+
+  Gates, Horatio,
+    visits Mt. Vernon, his character, i. 132;
+    refuses to cooperate with Washington at Trenton, 180;
+    his appointment as commander against Burgoyne urged, 208;
+    chosen by Congress, 209;
+    his part in defeating Burgoyne, 210;
+    neglects to inform Washington, 211;
+    loses his head and wishes to supplant Washington, 215;
+    forced to send troops South, 216, 217;
+    his attitude discovered by Washington, 221;
+    makes feeble efforts at opposition, 221, 223;
+    correspondence with Washington, 221, 223, 226;
+    becomes head of board of war, 221;
+    quarrels with Wilkinson, 223;
+    sent to his command, 226;
+    fears attack of British on Boston, 265;
+    sent by Congress to command in South, 268;
+    defeated at Camden, 281, 294;
+    loses support of Congress, 294.
+
+  Genet, Edmond Charles,
+    arrives as French minister, ii. 148;
+    his character, 149;
+    violates neutrality, 151;
+    his journey to Philadelphia, 151;
+    reception by Washington, 152;
+    complains of it, 153;
+    makes demands upon State Department, 153;
+    protests at seizure of privateers, 153;
+    insists on sailing of Little Sarah, 155;
+    succeeds in getting vessel away, 157;
+    his recall demanded, 158;
+    reproaches Jefferson, 158;
+    remains in America, 158;
+    threatens to appeal from Washington to Massachusetts, 159;
+    demands denial from Washington of Jay's statements, 159;
+    loses popular support, 160;
+    tries to raise a force to invade Southwest, 161;
+    prevented by state and federal authorities, 162;
+    his arrival the signal for divisions of parties, 237;
+    hurts Democratic party by his excesses, 241;
+    suggests clubs, 241.
+
+  George IV.,
+    Washington's opinion of, ii. 346.
+
+  Georgia,
+    quarrels with Creeks, asks aid of United States, ii. 90;
+    becomes dissatisfied with treaty, 91;
+    disregards treaties of the United States, 103.
+
+  Gerard, M.,
+    notifies Washington of return of D'Estaing, i. 246.
+
+  Germantown,
+    battle of, i. 199.
+
+  Gerry, Elbridge,
+    on special mission to France, ii. 284;
+    disliked by Washington, 292.
+
+  Giles, W.B.,
+    attacks Washington in Congress, ii. 251, 252.
+
+  Gist, Christopher,
+    accompanies Washington on his mission to French, i. 66;
+    wishes to shoot French Indians, 68.
+
+  Gordon,----,
+    letter of Washington to, i. 227.
+
+  Graves, Admiral,
+    sent to relieve Cornwallis, i. 312; defeated by De Grasse, 312.
+
+  Grayson, William,
+    hunts with Washington, i. 115; letter to, ii. 22.
+
+  Green Springs,
+    battle of, i. 307.
+
+  Greene, General Nathanael,
+    commands at Long Island, ill with fever, i. 164;
+    wishes forts on Hudson held, 174;
+    late in attacking at Germantown, 199;
+    conducts retreat, 200;
+    succeeds Mifflin as quartermaster-general, 232;
+    selected by Washington to command in South, 268;
+    commands army at New York in absence of Washington, 282;
+    appointed to command Southern army, 295;
+    retreats from Cornwallis, 302;
+    fights battle of Guilford Court House, 302;
+    clears Southern States of enemy, 302;
+    strong position, 304;
+    reinforced by Washington, 322;
+    letter to, 325;
+    his military capacity early recognized by Washington, ii. 334;
+    amuses Washington, 374.
+
+  Greene, Mrs.----,
+    dances three hours with Washington, ii. 380.
+
+  Grenville, Lord,
+    denies that ministry has incited Indians against United States,
+  ii. 175;
+    receives Jay, 180;
+    declines to grant United States trade with West Indies, 181.
+
+  Griffin, David,
+    commissioner to treat with Creeks, ii. 90.
+
+  Griffin,----,
+    fails to help Washington at Trenton, i. 180.
+
+  Grymes, Lucy,
+    the "Lowland Beauty," love affair of Washington with, i. 95;
+    marries Henry Lee, 96.
+
+
+  HALDIMAND, SIR FREDERICK,
+    leads Indians against colonists, i. 325.
+
+  Hale, Nathan, compared with André, i. 288.
+
+  Half-King,
+    kept to English alliance by Washington, i. 68;
+    his criticism of Washington's first campaign, 76.
+
+  Hamilton, Alexander,
+    forces Gates to send back troops to Washington, i. 216, 217;
+    remark on councils of war before Monmouth, 234;
+    informs Washington of Arnold's treason, 284;
+    sent to intercept Arnold, 285;
+    writes letters on government and finance, 298;
+    leads attack at Yorktown, i. 316;
+    requests release of Asgill, 329;
+    aids Washington in Congress, 333;
+    only man beside Washington and Franklin to realize American future,
+  ii. 7;
+    letters of Washington to on necessity of a strong government, 17, 18;
+    writes letters to Duane and Morris, 19;
+    speech in Federal Convention and departure, 35;
+    counseled by Washington, 39;
+    consulted by Washington as to etiquette, 54;
+    made secretary of treasury, 66;
+    his character, 67;
+    his report on the mint, 81;
+    on the public credit, 107;
+    upheld by Washington, 107, 108;
+    his arrangement with Jefferson, 108;
+    argument on the bank, 110;
+    his success largely due to Washington, 112;
+    his report on manufactures, 112, 114, 116;
+    advocates an excise, 122;
+    fails to realize its unpopularity, 123;
+    accompanies expedition to suppress Whiskey Rebellion, 128;
+    comprehends French Revolution, 139;
+    frames questions to cabinet on neutrality, 147;
+    urges decisive measures against Genet, 154;
+    argues against United States being bound by French treaty, 169;
+    selected for English mission, but withdraws, 177;
+    not likely to have done better than Jay, 183;
+    mobbed in defending Jay treaty, 187;
+    writes Camillus letters in favor of Jay treaty, 206;
+    intrigued against by Monroe, 212;
+    causes for his breach with Jefferson, 224;
+    his aristocratic tendencies, 225;
+    attacked by Jefferson and his friends, 228, 229;
+    disposes of the charges, 229;
+    retorts in newspapers with effect, 230;
+    ceases at Washington's request, 230, 234;
+    resigns from the cabinet, 234;
+    desires Washington's reëlection, 235;
+    selected by Washing, ton as senior general, 286;
+    appeals to Washington against Adams's reversal of rank, 286;
+    fails to soothe Knox's anger, 288;
+    report on army organization, 290;
+    letter of Washington to, condemning Adams's French mission, 293;
+    fears anarchy from Democratic success, 295;
+    approves Alien and Sedition Acts, 296;
+    his scheme of a military academy approved by Washington, 299;
+    Washington's affection for, 317, 362;
+    his ability early recognized by Washington, 334, 335;
+    aids Washington in literary points, 340;
+    takes care of Lafayette's son, 366.
+
+  Hammond, George,
+    protests against violations of neutrality, ii. 151;
+    his arrival as British minister, 169;
+    his offensive tone, 173;
+    does not disavow Lord Dorchester's speech to Indians, 176;
+    gives Fauchet letters to Wolcott, 195;
+    intrigues with American public men, 200.
+
+  Hampden, John,
+    compared with Washington, ii. 312, 313.
+
+  Hancock, John,
+    disappointed at Washington's receiving command of army, i. 135;
+    his character, ii. 74;
+    refuses to call first on Washington as President, 75;
+    apologizes and calls, 75, 76.
+
+  Hardin, Colonel,
+    twice surprised and defeated by Indians, ii. 93.
+
+  Harmar, Colonel,
+    invades Indian country, ii. 92;
+    attacks the Miamis, 93;
+    sends out unsuccessful expeditions and retreats, 93;
+    court-martialed and resigns, 93.
+
+  Harrison, Benjamin,
+    letters of Washington to, i. 259, 261; ii. 10.
+
+  Hartley, Mrs.----,
+    admired by Washington, i. 95.
+
+  Heard, Sir Isaac,
+    Garter King at Arms, makes out a pedigree for Washington, i. 30, 31.
+
+  Heath, General,
+    checks Howe at Frog's Point, i. 173;
+    left in command at New York, 311.
+
+  Henry, Patrick,
+    his resolutions supported by Washington, i. 119;
+    accompanies him to Philadelphia, 128;
+    his tribute to Washington's influence, 130;
+    ready for war, 132;
+    letters of Conway cabal to against Washington, 222;
+    letter of Washington to, 225;
+    appealed to by Washington on behalf of Constitution, ii. 38;
+    an opponent of the Constitution, 71;
+    urged by Washington to oppose Virginia resolutions, 266-268, 293;
+    a genuine American, 309;
+    offered secretaryship of state, 324;
+    friendship of Washington for, 362.
+
+  Hertburn, Sir William de,
+    ancestor of Washington family, i. 31, 33.
+
+  Hessians,
+    in Revolution, i. 194.
+
+  Hickey, Thomas,
+    hanged for plotting to murder Washington, i. 160.
+
+  Hobby,----, a sexton,
+    Washington's earliest teacher, i. 48.
+
+  Hopkinson, Francis,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 3.
+
+  Houdon, J.A., sculptor,
+    on Washington's appearance, ii. 386.
+
+  Howe, Lord,
+    arrives at New York with power to negotiate and pardon, i. 161;
+    refuses to give Washington his title, 161;
+    tries to negotiate with Congress, 167;
+    escapes D'Estaing at Delaware, 244;
+    attacks D'Estaing off Newport, 244.
+
+  Howe, Sir William,
+    has controversy with Washington over treatment of prisoners, i. 148;
+    checked at Frog's Point, 173;
+    attacks cautiously at Chatterton Hill, 173;
+    retreats and attacks forts on Hudson, 174;
+    takes Fort Washington, 175;
+    goes into winter quarters in New York, 177, 186;
+    suspected of purpose to meet Burgoyne, 194, 195;
+    baffled in advance across New Jersey by Washington, 194;
+    goes by sea, 195;
+    arrives at Head of Elk, 196;
+    defeats Washington at Brandywine, 197;
+    camps at Germantown, 199;
+    withdraws after Germantown into Philadelphia, 201;
+    folly of his failure to meet Burgoyne, 205, 206;
+    offers battle in vain to Washington, 218;
+    replaced by Clinton, 232;
+    tries to cut off Lafayette, 233.
+
+  Huddy, Captain,
+    captured by English, hanged by Tories, i. 327.
+
+  Humphreys, Colonel,
+    letters of Washington to, ii. 13, 339;
+    at opening of Congress, 78;
+    commissioner to treat with Creeks, 90;
+    anecdote of, 375.
+
+  Huntington, Lady,
+    asks Washington's aid in Christianizing Indians, ii. 4.
+
+
+  IMPRESSMENT,
+    right of, maintained by England, ii. 181.
+
+  Independence,
+    not wished, but foreseen, by Washington, i. 131, 156;
+    declared by Congress, possibly through Washington's influence, 160.
+
+  Indians,
+    wars with in Virginia, i. 37, 38;
+    in French and Indian war, 67,68;
+    desert English, 76;
+    in Braddock's defeat, 85, 86, 88;
+    restless before Revolution, 122;
+    in War of Revolution, 266, 270;
+    punished by Sullivan, 269;
+    policy toward, early suggested by Washington, 344;
+    recommendations relative to in Washington's address to Congress,
+  ii. 82;
+    the "Indian problem" under Washington's administration, 83-105;
+    erroneous popular ideas of, 84, 85;
+    real character and military ability, 85-87;
+    understood by Washington, 87, 88;
+    a real danger in 1788, 88;
+    situation in the Northwest, 89;
+    difficulties with Cherokees and Creeks, 89, 90;
+    influence of Spanish intrigue, 90;
+    successful treaty with Creeks, 90, 91;
+    wisdom of this policy, 92;
+    warfare in the Northwest, 92;
+    defeats of Harmar and Hardin, 93;
+    causes for the failure, 93, 94;
+    intrigues of England, 92, 94, 175, 178;
+    expedition and defeat of St. Clair, 95-97;
+    results, 99;
+    expedition of Wayne, 100, 102;
+    his victory, 103;
+    success of Washington's policy toward, 104, 105.
+
+  Iredell, James,
+    appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 73.
+
+
+  JACKSON, MAJOR,
+    accompanies Washington to opening of Congress, ii. 78.
+
+  Jameson, Colonel,
+    forwards Andrews letter to Arnold, i. 284;
+    receives orders from Washington, 285.
+
+  Jay, John,
+    on opposition in Congress, to Washington, i. 222;
+    consulted by Washington as to etiquette, ii. 54;
+    appointed chief justice, 72;
+    publishes card against Genet, 159;
+    appointed on special mission to England, 177;
+    his character, 177;
+    instructions from Washington, 179;
+    his reception in England, 180;
+    difficulties in negotiating, 181;
+    concludes treaty, 182;
+    burnt in effigy while absent, 186;
+    execrated after news of treaty, 187;
+    hampered by Monroe in France, 213.
+
+  Jay treaty, ii. 180-184;
+    opposition to and debate over signing, 184-201;
+    reasons of Washington for signing, 205.
+
+  Jefferson, Thomas,
+    his flight from Cornwallis, i. 307;
+    discusses with Washington needs of government, ii. 9;
+    adopts French democratic phraseology, 27;
+    contrast with Washington, 27, 28, 69;
+    criticises Washington's manners, 56;
+    made secretary of state, 68;
+    his previous relations with Washington, 68;
+    his character, 69;
+    supposed to be a friend of the Constitution, 72;
+    his objections to President's opening Congress, 79;
+    on weights and measures, 81;
+    letter of Washington to on assumption of state debts, 107;
+    makes bargain with Hamilton, 108;
+    opposes a bank, 110;
+    asked to prepare neutrality instructions, 146;
+    upholds Genet, 153;
+    argues against him publicly, supports him privately, 154;
+    notified of French privateer Little Sarah, 155;
+    allows it to sail, 155;
+    retires to country and is censured by Washington, 156;
+    assures Washington that vessel will wait his decision, 156;
+    his un-American attitude, 157;
+    wishes to make terms of note demanding Genet's recall mild, 158;
+    argues that United States is bound by French treaty, 170, 171;
+    begs Madison to answer Hamilton's "Camillus" letters, 206;
+    his attitude upon first entering cabinet, 223;
+    causes for his breach with Hamilton, 224;
+    jealousy, incompatibility of temper, 224;
+    his democratic opinions, 225;
+    skill in creating party catch-words, 225;
+    prints "Rights of Man" with note against Adams, 226;
+    attacks him further in letter to Washington, 226;
+    brings Freneau to Philadelphia and gives him an office, 227;
+    denies any connection with Freneau's newspaper, 227;
+    his real responsibility, 228;
+    his purpose to undermine Hamilton, 228;
+    causes his friends to attack him, 229;
+    writes a letter to Washington attacking Hamilton's treasury measures,
+  229;
+    fails to produce any effect, 230;
+    winces under Hamilton's counter attacks, 230;
+    reiterates charges and asserts devotion to Constitution, 231;
+    continues attacks and resigns, 234;
+    wishes reëlection of Washington, 235;
+    his charge of British sympathies resented by Washington, 252;
+    plain letter of Washington to, 259;
+    Washington's opinion of, 259;
+    suggests Logan's mission to France, 262, 265;
+    takes oath as vice-president, 276;
+    regarded as a Jacobin by Federalists, 294;
+    jealous of Washington, 306;
+    accuses him of senility, 307;
+    a genuine American, 309.
+
+  Johnson, William,
+    Tory leader in New York, i. 143.
+
+  Johnstone, Governor,
+    peace commissioner, i. 233.
+
+  Jumonville, De, French leader,
+    declared to have been assassinated by Washington, i. 74,79;
+    really a scout and spy, 75.
+
+
+  KENTUCKY RESOLUTIONS,
+    condemned by Washington, ii. 266-268.
+
+  King, Clarence,
+    his opinion that Washington was not American, ii. 308.
+
+  King, Rufus,
+    publishes card exposing Genet, ii. 159.
+
+  King's Bridge,
+    fight at, i. 170.
+
+  Kip's Landing,
+    fight at, i. 168.
+
+  Kirkland, Rev. Samuel,
+    negotiates with Six Nations, ii. 101.
+
+  Knox, Henry,
+    brings artillery to Boston from Ticonderoga, i. 152;
+    accompanies Washington to meet De Rochambeau, 283;
+    at West Point, 285;
+    sent by Washington to confer with governors of States, 295;
+    urged by Washington to establish Western posts, ii. 7;
+    letters of Washington to, 30, 39;
+    made secretary of war, 65;
+    his character, 65;
+    a Federalist, 71;
+    deals with Creeks, 91;
+    urges decisive measure against Genet, 154, 155;
+    letters of Washington to, 260;
+    selected by Washington as third major-general, 286;
+    given first place by Adams, 286;
+    angry at Hamilton's higher rank, 288;
+    refuses the office, 289;
+    his offer to serve on Washington's staff refused, 289;
+    Washington's affection for, 317, 362.
+
+
+  LAFAYETTE, Madame de,
+    aided by Washington, ii. 366;
+    letter of Washington to, 377.
+
+  Lafayette, Marquis de,
+    Washington's regard for, i. 192;
+    his opinion of Continental troops, 196;
+    sent on fruitless journey to the lakes by cabal, 222, 253;
+    encouraged by Washington, 225;
+    narrowly escapes being cut off by Clinton, 233;
+    appointed to attack British rear, 235;
+    superseded by Lee, 235;
+    urges Washington to come, 235;
+    letter of Washington to, regarding quarrel between D'Estaing and
+  Sullivan, 245;
+    regard of Washington for, 249;
+    desires to conquer Canada, 254;
+    his plan not supported in France, 256;
+    works to get a French army sent, 264;
+    brings news of French army and fleet, 274;
+    tries to get De Rochambeau to attack New York, 280;
+    accompanies Washington to meet De Rochambeau, 283;
+    told by Washington of Arnold's treachery, 285;
+    on court to try André, 287;
+    opinion of Continental soldiers, 293;
+    harasses Cornwallis, 307;
+    defeated at Green Springs, 307;
+    watches Cornwallis at Yorktown, 308;
+    reinforced by De Grasse, 312;
+    persuades him to remain, 315;
+    sends Washington French wolf-hounds, ii. 2;
+    letters of Washington to, 23, 26, 118, 144, 165, 222, 261;
+    his son not received by Washington, 253;
+    later taken care of, 277, 281, 366;
+    his worth, early seen by Washington, 334;
+    Washington's affection for, 365;
+    sends key of Bastile to Mt. Vernon, 365;
+    helped by Washington, 365,366.
+
+  Laurens, Henry,
+    letter of Conway cabal to, making attack on Washington, i. 222;
+    letters of Washington to, 254, 288;
+    sent to Paris to get loans, 299.
+
+  Lauzun, Duc de,
+    repulses Tarleton at Yorktown, i. 317.
+
+
+  Lear, Tobias,
+    Washington's secretary, ii. 263;
+    his account of Washington's last illness, 299-303, 385;
+    letters to, 361, 382.
+
+  Lee, Arthur,
+    example of Virginia gentleman educated abroad, i. 23.
+
+  Lee, Charles,
+    visits Mt. Vernon, his character, i. 132;
+    accompanies Washington to Boston, 136;
+    aids Washington in organizing army, 140;
+    disobeys orders and is captured, 175;
+    objects to attacking Clinton, 234;
+    first refuses, then claims command of van, 235;
+    disobeys orders and retreats, 236;
+    rebuked by Washington, 236, 237;
+    court martial of and dismissal from army, 237;
+    his witty remark on taking oath of allegiance, ii. 375.
+
+  Lee, Henry, marries Lucy Grymes,
+    Washington's "Lowland Beauty," i. 96.
+
+  Lee, Henry,
+    son of Lucy Grymes, Washington's "Lowland Beauty," i. 96; ii. 362;
+    captures Paulus Hook, i. 269;
+    letters of Washington to, ii. 23, 26, 149, 235, 239, 242, 252;
+    considered for command against Indians, 100;
+    commands troops to suppress Whiskey Rebellion, 127;
+    Washington's affection for, 362.
+
+  Lee, Richard Henry,
+    unfriendly to Washington, i. 214;
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 160.
+
+  Lewis, Lawrence,
+    at opening of Congress, ii. 78;
+    takes social duties at Mt. Vernon, 280.
+
+  Liancourt, Duc de,
+    refused reception by Washington, ii. 253.
+
+  Lincoln, Abraham,
+    compared with Washington, i. 349; ii. 308-313.
+
+  Lincoln, Benjamin,
+    sent by Washington against Burgoyne, i. 210;
+    fails to understand Washington's policy and tries to hold Charleston,
+  273, 274;
+    captured, 276;
+    commissioner to treat with Creeks, ii. 90.
+
+  Lippencott, Captain,
+    orders hanging of Huddy, i. 327;
+    acquitted by English court martial, 328.
+
+  Little Sarah,
+    the affair of, 155-157.
+
+  Livingston, Chancellor,
+    administers oath at Washington's inauguration, ii. 46.
+
+  Livingston, Edward,
+    moves call for papers relating to Jay treaty, ii. 207.
+
+  Logan, Dr. George,
+    goes on volunteer mission to France, ii. 262;
+    ridiculed by Federalists, publishes defense, 263;
+    calls upon Washington, 263;
+    mercilessly snubbed, 263-265.
+
+  Long Island,
+    battle of, i. 164,165.
+
+  London, Lord,
+    disappoints Washington by his inefficiency, i. 91.
+
+  Lovell, James,
+    follows the Adamses in opposing Washington, i. 214;
+    wishes to supplant him by Gates, 215;
+    writes hostile letters, 222.
+
+
+  MACKENZIE, CAPTAIN,
+    letter of Washington to, i. 130.
+
+  Madison, James,
+    begins to desire a stronger government, ii. 19, 29;
+    letters of Washington to, 30, 39, 53;
+    chosen for French mission, but does not go, 211.
+
+  Magaw, Colonel,
+    betrayed at Fort Washington, i. 175.
+
+  "Magnolia,"
+    Washington's pet colt, beaten in a race, i. 99, 113; ii. 381.
+
+  Marshall, John,
+    Chief Justice, on special commission to France, ii. 284;
+    tells anecdote of Washington's anger at cowardice, 392.
+
+  Maryland, the Washington family in, i.36.
+
+  Mason, George,
+    discusses political outlook with Washington, i. 119;
+    letter of Washington to, 263;
+    an opponent of the Constitution, ii. 71;
+    friendship of Washington for, 362;
+    debates with Washington the site of Pohick Church, 381.
+
+  Mason, S.T.,
+    communicates Jay treaty to Bache, ii. 185.
+
+  Massey, Rev. Lee,
+    rector of Pohick Church, i. 44.
+
+  Mathews, George,
+    letter of Washington to, i. 294.
+
+  Matthews, Edward,
+    makes raids in Virginia, i. 269.
+
+  Mawhood, General,
+    defeated at Princeton, i. 182.
+
+  McGillivray, Alexander,
+    chief of the Creeks, ii. 90;
+    his journey to New York and interview with Washington, 91.
+
+  McHenry, James,
+    at West Point, i. 284;
+    letters to, 325, ii. 22, 278, 287, 384;
+    becomes secretary of war, 246;
+    advised by Washington not to appoint Democrats, 260, 261.
+
+  McKean, Thomas, given letters to Dr. Logan, ii. 265.
+
+  McMaster, John B.,
+    calls Washington "an unknown man," i. 7, ii. 304;
+    calls him cold, 332, 352;
+    and avaricious in small ways, 352.
+
+  Meade, Colonel Richard,
+    Washington's opinion of, ii. 335.
+
+  Mercer, Hugh,
+    killed at Princeton, i. 182.
+
+  Merlin,----,
+    president of Directory, interview with Dr. Logan, ii. 265.
+
+  Mifflin, Thomas,
+    wishes to supplant Washington by Gates, i. 216;
+    member of board of war, 221;
+    put under Washington's orders, 226;
+    replies to Washington's surrender of commission, 349;
+    meets Washington on journey to inauguration, ii. 44;
+    notified of the Little Sarah, French privateer, 154;
+    orders its seizure, 155.
+
+  Militia,
+    abandon Continental army, i. 167;
+    cowardice of, 168;
+    despised by Washington, 169;
+    leave army again, 175;
+    assist in defeat of Burgoyne, 211.
+
+  Mischianza, i. 232.
+
+  Monmouth,
+    battle of, i. 235-239.
+
+  Monroe, James,
+    appointed minister to France, ii. 211;
+    his character, 212;
+    intrigues against Hamilton, 212;
+    effusively received in Paris, 212;
+    acts foolishly, 213;
+    tries to interfere with Jay, 213;
+    upheld, then condemned and recalled by Washington, 213, 214;
+    writes a vindication, 215;
+    Washington's opinion of him, 215, 216;
+    his selection one of Washington's few mistakes, 334.
+
+  Montgomery, General Richard,
+    sent by Washington to invade Canada, i. 143.
+
+  Morgan, Daniel,
+    sent against Burgoyne by Washington, i. 208;
+    at Saratoga, 210;
+    wins battle of Cowpens, joins Greene, 301.
+
+  Morris, Gouverneur,
+    letters of Washington to, i. 248, 263;
+    efforts towards financial reform, 264;
+    quotes speech of Washington at Federal convention in his eulogy,
+  ii. 31;
+    discussion as to his value as an authority, 32, note;
+    goes to England on unofficial mission, 137;
+    balked by English insolence, 137;
+    comprehends French Revolution, 139;
+    letters of Washington to, on the Revolution, 140,142,145;
+    recall demanded by France, 211;
+    letter of Washington to, 217,240, 254;
+    Washington's friendship for, 363.
+
+  Morris, Robert,
+    letter of Washington to, i. 187;
+    helps Washington to pay troops, 259;
+    efforts towards financial reform, 264;
+    difficulty in helping Washington in 1781, 309, 312;
+    considered for secretary of treasury, ii. 66;
+    his bank policy approved by Washington, 110;
+    Washington's friendship for, 363.
+
+  Moustier,
+    demands private access to Washington, ii. 59;
+    refused, 59, 60.
+
+  Murray, Vans, minister in Holland,
+    interview with Dr. Logan, ii. 264;
+    nominated for French mission by Adams, 292;
+    written to by Washington, 292.
+
+  Muse, Adjutant,
+    trains Washington in tactics and art of war, i. 65.
+
+
+  NAPOLEON,
+    orders public mourning for Washington's death, i. 1.
+
+  Nelson, General,
+    letter of Washington to, i. 257.
+
+  Newburgh,
+    addresses, ii. 335.
+
+  New England,
+    character of people, i. 138;
+    attitude toward Washington, 138, 139;
+    troops disliked by Washington, 152;
+    later praised by him, 152, 317, 344;
+    threatened by Burgoyne's invasion, 204;
+    its delegates in Congress demand appointment of Gates, 208;
+    and oppose Washington, 214;
+    welcomes Washington on tour as President, ii. 74;
+    more democratic than other colonies before Revolution, 315;
+    disliked by Washington for this reason, 316.
+
+  Newenham, Sir Edward,
+    letter of Washington to on American foreign policy, ii. 133.
+
+  New York,
+    Washington's first visit to, i. 99, 100;
+    defense of, in Revolution, 159-169;
+    abandoned by Washington, 169;
+    Howe establishes himself in, 177;
+    reoccupied by Clinton, 264;
+    Washington's journey to, ii. 44;
+    inauguration in, 46;
+    rioting in, against Jay treaty, 187.
+
+  Nicholas, John,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 259.
+
+  Nicola, Col.,
+    urges Washington to establish a despotism, i. 337.
+
+  Noailles, Vicomte de, French émigré,
+    referred to State Department, ii. 151, 253.
+
+
+  O'FLINN, CAPTAIN,
+    Washington's friendship with, ii. 318.
+
+  Organization of the national government,
+    absence of materials to work with, ii. 51;
+    debate over title of President, 52;
+    over his communications with Senate, 53;
+    over presidential etiquette, 53-56;
+    appointment of officials to cabinet offices established by Congress,
+  64-71;
+    appointment of supreme court judges, 72.
+
+  Orme,----,
+    letter of Washington to, i. 84.
+
+
+  PAINE, THOMAS,
+    his "Rights of Man" reprinted by Jefferson, ii. 226.
+
+  Parkinson, Richard,
+    says Washington was harsh to slaves, i. 105;
+    contradicts statement elsewhere, 106;
+    tells stories of Washington's pecuniary exactness, ii. 353, 354, 382;
+    his character, 355;
+    his high opinion of Washington, 356.
+
+  Parton, James,
+    considers Washington as good but commonplace, ii. 330, 374.
+
+  Peachey, Captain,
+    letter of Washington to, i. 92.
+
+  Pendleton, Edmund,
+    Virginia delegate to Continental Congress, i. 128.
+
+  Pennsylvania,
+    refuses to fight the French, i. 72,83;
+    fails to help Washington, 225;
+    remonstrates against his going into winter quarters, 229;
+    condemned by Washington, 229;
+    compromises with mutineers, 292.
+
+  Philipse, Mary,
+    brief love-affair of Washington with, i. 99, 100.
+
+  Phillips, General,
+    commands British troops in Virginia, i. 303;
+    death of, 303.
+
+  Pickering, Colonel, quiets Six Nations, ii. 94.
+
+  Pickering, Timothy,
+    letter of Washington to, on French Revolution, ii. 140;
+    on failure of Spanish negotiations, 166;
+    recalls Washington to Philadelphia to receive Fauchet letter, 195;
+    succeeds Randolph, 246;
+    letters of Washington to, on party government, 247;
+    appeals to Washington against Adams's reversal of Hamilton's rank,
+  286;
+    letters of Washington to, 292, 324;
+    criticises Washington as a commonplace person, 307.
+
+  Pinckney, Charles C.,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 90;
+    appointed to succeed Monroe as minister to France, 214;
+    refused reception, 284;
+    sent on special commission, 284;
+    named by Washington as general, 286;
+    accepts without complaint of Hamilton's higher rank, 290;
+    Washington's friendship with, 363.
+
+  Pinckney, Thomas,
+    sent on special mission to Spain, ii. 166;
+    unsuccessful at first, 166;
+    succeeds in making a good treaty, 167;
+    credit of his exploit, 168;
+    letter of Washington to, 325.
+
+  Pitt, William,
+    his conduct of French war, i. 93, 94.
+
+  Princeton,
+    battle of, i. 181-3.
+
+  Privateers,
+    sent out by Washington, i. 150.
+
+  "Protection"
+    favored in the first Congress, ii. 113-115;
+    arguments of Hamilton for, 114, 115;
+    of Washington, 116-122.
+
+  Provincialism,
+    of Americans, i. 193;
+    with regard to foreign officers, 193, 234, 250-252;
+    with regard to foreign politics, ii. 131, 132, 163, 237, 255.
+
+  Putnam, Israel,
+    escapes with difficulty from New York, i. 169;
+    fails to help Washington at Trenton, 180;
+    warned to defend the Hudson, 195;
+    tells Washington of Burgoyne's surrender, 211;
+    rebuked by Washington, 217;
+    amuses Washington, ii. 374.
+
+
+  RAHL, COLONEL,
+    defeated and killed at Trenton, i. 181.
+
+  Randolph, Edmund,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 30, 39;
+    relations with Washington, 64;
+    appointed attorney-general, 64;
+    his character, 64, 65;
+    a friend of the Constitution, 71;
+    opposes a bank, 110;
+    letter of Washington to, on protective bounties, 118;
+    drafts neutrality proclamation, 147;
+    vacillates with regard to Genet, 154;
+    argues that United States is bound by French alliance, 170;
+    succeeds Jefferson as secretary of state, 184;
+    directed to prepare a remonstrance against English "provision order,"
+  185;
+    opposed to Jay treaty, 188;
+    letter of Washington to, on conditional ratification, 189, 191, 192,
+  194;
+    guilty, apparently, from Fauchet letter, of corrupt practices, 196;
+    his position not a cause for Washington's signing treaty, 196-200;
+    receives Fauchet letter, resigns, 201;
+    his personal honesty, 201;
+    his discreditable carelessness, 202;
+    fairly treated by Washington, 203, 204;
+    his complaints against Washington, 203;
+    letter of Washington to, concerning Monroe, 213;
+    at first a Federalist, 246.
+
+  Randolph, John,
+    on early disappearance of Virginia colonial society, i. 15.
+
+  Rawdon, Lord,
+    commands British forces in South, too distant to help Cornwallis,
+  i. 304.
+
+  Reed, Joseph,
+    letters of Washington to, i. 151, 260.
+
+  Revolution, War of,
+    foreseen by Washington, i. 120, 122;
+    Lexington and Concord, 133;
+    Bunker Hill, 136;
+    siege of Boston, 137-154;
+    organization of army, 139-142;
+    operations in New York, 143;
+    invasion of Canada, 143, 144;
+    question as to treatment of prisoners, 145-148;
+    causes of British defeat, 154, 155;
+    campaign near New York, 161-177;
+    causes for attempted defense of Brooklyn, 163, 164;
+    battle of Long Island, 164-165;
+    escape of Americans, 166;
+    affair at Kip's Bay, 168;
+    at King's Bridge, 170;
+    at Frog's Point, 173;
+    battle of White Plains, 173;
+    at Chatterton Hill, 174;
+    capture of Forts Washington and Lee, 174, 175;
+    pursuit of Washington into New Jersey, 175-177;
+    retirement of Howe to New York, 177;
+    battle of Trenton, 180, 181;
+    campaign of Princeton, 181-183;
+    its brilliancy, 183;
+    Philadelphia campaign, 194-202;
+    British march across New Jersey prevented by Washington, 194;
+    sea voyage to Delaware, 195;
+    battle of the Brandywine, 196-198;
+    causes for defeat, 198;
+    defeat of Wayne, 198;
+    Philadelphia taken by Howe, 199;
+    battle of Germantown, 199;
+    its significance, 200, 201;
+    Burgoyne's invasion, 203-211;
+    Washington's preparations for, 204-206;
+    Howe's error in neglecting to cooperate, 205;
+    capture of Ticonderoga, 207;
+    battles of Bennington, Oriskany, Fort Schuyler, 210;
+    battle of Saratoga, 211;
+    British repulse at Fort Mercer, 217;
+    destruction of the forts, 217;
+    fruitless skirmishing before Philadelphia, 218;
+    Valley Forge, 228-232;
+    evacuation of Philadelphia, 234;
+    battle of Monmouth, 235-239;
+    its effect, 239;
+    cruise and failure of D'Estaing at Newport, 243, 244;
+    failure of D'Estaing at Savannah, 247, 248;
+    storming of Stony Point, 268, 269;
+    Tory raids near New York, 269;
+    standstill in 1780, 272;
+    siege and capture of Charleston, 273, 274, 276;
+    operations of French and Americans near Newport, 277, 278;
+    battle of Camden, 281;
+    treason of Arnold, 281-289;
+    battle of Cowpens, 301;
+    retreat of Greene before Cornwallis, 302;
+    battle of Guilford Court House, 302;
+    successful operations of Greene, 302, 303;
+    Southern campaign planned by Washington, 304-311;
+    feints against Clinton, 306;
+    operations of Cornwallis and Lafayette in Virginia, 307;
+    naval supremacy secured by Washington, 310, 311;
+    battle of De Grasse and Graves off Chesapeake, 312;
+    transport of American army to Virginia, 311-313;
+    siege and capture of Yorktown, 315-318;
+    masterly character of campaign, 318-320;
+    petty operations before New York, 326;
+    treaty of peace, 342.
+
+  Rives,
+    on Washington's doubts of constitutionality of Bank, ii. 110.
+
+  Robinson, Beverly,
+    speaker of Virginia House of Burgesses, his compliment to Washington,
+  i. 102.
+
+  Robinson, Colonel,
+    loyalist, i. 282.
+
+  Rumsey, James,
+    the inventor, asks Washington's consideration of his steamboat, ii. 4.
+
+  Rush, Benjamin,
+    describes Washington's impressiveness, ii. 389.
+
+  Rutledge, John,
+    letter of Washington to, i. 281;
+    nomination rejected by Senate, ii. 63;
+    nominated to Supreme Court, 73.
+
+
+  ST. CLAIR, Arthur,
+    removed after loss of Ticonderoga, i. 208;
+    appointed to command against Indians, ii. 94;
+    receives instructions and begins expedition, 95;
+    defeated, 96;
+    his character, 99;
+    fair treatment by Washington, 99;
+    popular execration of, 105.
+
+  St. Pierre, M. de,
+    French governor in Ohio, i. 67.
+
+  St. Simon, Count,
+    reinforces Lafayette, i. 312.
+
+  Sandwich, Lord,
+    calls all Yankees cowards, i. 155.
+
+  Saratoga,
+    anecdote concerning, i. 202.
+
+  Savage, Edward,
+    characteristics of his portrait of Washington, i. 13.
+
+  Savannah,
+    siege of, i. 247.
+
+  Scammel, Colonel,
+    amuses Washington, ii. 374.
+
+  Schuyler, Philip,
+    accompanies Washington to Boston, i. 136;
+    appointed military head in New York, 136;
+    directed by Washington how to meet Burgoyne, 204;
+    fails to carry out directions, 207;
+    removed, 208;
+    value of his preparations, 209.
+
+  Scott, Charles, commands expedition against Indians, ii. 95.
+
+  Sea-power,
+    its necessity seen by Washington, i. 283, 303, 304, 306, 310, 318, 319.
+
+  Sectional feeling,
+    deplored by Washington, ii. 222.
+
+  Sharpe, Governor,
+    offers Washington a company, i. 80;
+    Washington's reply to, 81.
+
+  Shays's Rebellion,
+    comments of Washington and Jefferson upon, ii. 26, 27.
+
+  Sherman, Roger,
+    makes sarcastic remark about Wilkinson, i. 220.
+
+  Shirley, Governor William,
+    adjusts matter of Washington's rank, i. 91, 97.
+
+  Short, William, minister to Holland,
+    on commission regarding opening of Mississippi, ii. 166.
+
+  Six Nations,
+    make satisfactory treaties, ii. 88;
+    stirred up by English, 94;
+    but pacified, 94, 101.
+
+  Slavery,
+    in Virginia, i. 20;
+    its evil effects, 104;
+    Washington's attitude toward slaves, 105;
+    his condemnation of the system, 106, 107;
+    gradual emancipation favored, 107, 108.
+
+  Smith, Colonel,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 340.
+
+  Spain,
+    instigates Indians to hostilities, ii. 89, 94, 101;
+    blocks Mississippi, 135;
+    makes treaty with Pinckney opening Mississippi, 167, 168;
+    angered at Jay treaty, 210.
+
+  Sparks, Jared,
+    his alterations of Washington's letters, ii. 337, 338.
+
+  Spotswood, Alexander,
+    asks Washington's opinion of Alien and Sedition Acts, ii. 297.
+
+  Stamp Act,
+    Washington's opinion of, i. 119, 120.
+
+  Stark, General,
+    leads attack at Trenton, i. 181.
+
+  States, in the Revolutionary war,
+    appeals of Washington to, i. 142, 186, 204, 259, 277, 295, 306, 323,
+  324, 326, 344;
+    issue paper money, 258;
+    grow tired of the war, 290;
+    alarmed by mutinies, 294;
+    try to appease soldiers, 295, 296;
+    their selfishness condemned by Washington, 333; ii. 21, 23;
+    thwart Indian policy of Congress, 88.
+
+  Stephen, Adam,
+    late in attacking at Germantown, i. 199.
+
+  Steuben, Baron,
+    Washington's appreciation of, i. 192, 249;
+    drills the army at Valley Forge, 232;
+    annoys Washington by wishing higher command, 249;
+    sent on mission to demand surrender of Western posts, 343;
+    his worth recognized by Washington, ii. 334.
+
+  Stirling, Lord,
+    defeated and captured at Long Island, i. 165.
+
+  Stockton, Mrs.,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 349.
+
+  Stone, General,
+    tells stories of Washington's closeness, ii. 353, 354.
+
+  Stuart, David,
+    letters of Washington to, ii. 107, 221, 222, 258.
+
+  Stuart, Gilbert,
+    his portrait of Washington contrasted with Savage's, i. 13.
+
+  Sullivan, John, General,
+    surprised at Long Island, i. 165;
+    attacks at Trenton, 180;
+    surprised and crushed at Brandywine, 197, 198;
+    unites with D'Estaing to attack Newport, 243;
+    angry at D'Estaing's desertion, 244;
+    soothed by Washington, 244;
+    sent against Indians, 266, 269.
+
+  Supreme Court,
+    appointed by Washington, ii. 72.
+
+
+  TAFT,----,
+    kindness of Washington toward, ii. 367.
+
+  Talleyrand,
+    eulogistic report to Napoleon on death of Washington, i. 1, note;
+    remark on Hamilton, ii. 139;
+    refused reception by Washington, 253.
+
+  Tarleton, Sir Banastre,
+    tries to escape at Yorktown, i. 317.
+
+  Thatcher, Dr.,
+    on Washington's appearance when taking command of army, i. 137.
+
+  Thomson, Charles,
+    complimented by Washington on retiring from secretary-ship of
+  Continental Congress, ii. 350.
+
+  Tories,
+    hated by Washington, i. 156;
+    his reasons, 157;
+    active in New York, 158;
+    suppressed by Washington, 159;
+    in Philadelphia, impressed by Continental army, 196;
+    make raids on frontier, 266;
+    strong in Southern States, 267;
+    raids under Tryon, 269.
+
+  Trent, Captain,
+    his incompetence in dealing with Indians and French, i. 72.
+
+  Trenton, campaign of, i. 180-183.
+
+  Trumbull, Governor,
+    letter of Washington to, refusing to stand for a third term,
+  ii. 269-271;
+    other letters, 298.
+
+  Trumbull, John,
+    on New England army before Boston, i. 139.
+
+  Trumbull, Jonathan,
+    his message on better government praised by Washington, ii. 21;
+    letters to, 42;
+    Washington's friendship for, 363.
+
+  Tryon, Governor,
+    Tory leader in New York, i. 143;
+    his intrigues stopped by Washington, 158, 159;
+    conspires to murder Washington, 160;
+    makes raids in Connecticut, 269.
+
+
+  VALLEY FORGE,
+    Continental Army at, i. 228-232.
+
+  Van Braam, Jacob,
+    friend of Lawrence Washington, trains George in fencing, i. 65;
+    accompanies him on mission to French, 66.
+
+  Vergennes,
+    requests release of Asgill, i. 329, 330;
+    letter of Washington to, 330;
+    proposes to submit disposition of a subsidy to Washington, 332.
+
+  Virginia, society in,
+    before the Revolution, i. 15-29;
+    its entire change since then, 15, 16;
+    population, distribution, and numbers, 17, 18;
+    absence of towns, 18;
+    and town life, 19;
+    trade and travel in, 19;
+    social classes, 20-24;
+    slaves and poor whites, 20;
+    clergy, 21;
+    planters and their estates, 22;
+    their life, 22;
+    education, 23;
+    habits of governing, 24;
+    luxury and extravagance, 25;
+    apparent wealth, 26;
+    agreeableness of life, 27;
+    aristocratic ideals, 28;
+    vigor of stock, 29;
+    unwilling to fight French, 71;
+    quarrels with Dinwiddie, 71;
+    thanks Washington after his French campaign, 79;
+    terrified at Braddock's defeat, 88;
+    gives Washington command, 89;
+    fails to support him, 89, 90, 93;
+    bad economic conditions in, 104,105;
+    local government in, 117;
+    condemns Stamp Act, 119;
+    adopts non-importation, 121;
+    condemns Boston Port Bill, 123;
+    asks opinion of counties, 124;
+    chooses delegates to a congress, 127;
+    prepares for war, 132;
+    British campaign in, 307, 315-318;
+    ratifies Constitution, ii. 40;
+    evil effect of free trade upon, 116, 117;
+    nullification resolutions, 266;
+    strength of its aristocracy, 315.
+
+
+  WADE, COLONEL,
+    in command at West Point after Arnold's flight, i. 285.
+
+  Walker, Benjamin,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 257.
+
+  Warren, James,
+    letters of Washington to, i. 262, ii. 118.
+
+  Washington,
+    ancestry, i. 30-40;
+    early genealogical researches concerning, 30-32;
+    pedigree finally established, 32;
+    origin of family, 33;
+    various members during middle ages, 34;
+    on royalist side in English civil war, 34, 36;
+    character of family, 35;
+    emigration to Virginia, 35, 36;
+    career of Washingtons in Maryland, 37;
+    in Virginia history, 38;
+    their estates, 39.
+
+  Washington, Augustine, father of George Washington,
+    birth, i. 35;
+    death, 39;
+    character, 39;
+    his estate, 41;
+    ridiculous part played by in Weems's anecdotes, 44, 47.
+
+  Washington, Augustine, half brother of George Washington,
+    keeps him after his father's death, i. 48.
+
+  Washington, Bushrod,
+    refused appointment as attorney by Washington, ii. 62;
+    educated by him, 370.
+
+  Washington, George,
+    honors to his memory in France, i. 1;
+    in England, 2;
+    grief in America, 3, 4;
+    general admission of his greatness, 4;
+    its significance, 5, 6;
+    tributes from England, 6;
+    from other countries, 6, 7;
+    yet an "unknown" man, 7;
+    minuteness of knowledge concerning, 8;
+    has become subject of myths, 9;
+    development of the Weems myth about, 10, 11;
+    necessity of a new treatment of, 12;
+    significant difference of real and ideal portraits of, 13;
+    his silence regarding himself, 14;
+    underlying traits, 14.
+
+  _Early Life_.
+    Ancestry, 30-41;
+    birth, 39;
+    origin of Weems's anecdotes about, 41-44;
+    their absurdity and evil results, 45-48;
+    early schooling, 48;
+    plan to send him to sea, 49, 50;
+    studies to be a surveyor, 51;
+    his rules of behavior, 52;
+    his family connections with Fairfaxes, 54, 55;
+    his friendship with Lord Fairfax, 56;
+    surveys Fairfax's estate, 57, 58, 59;
+    made public surveyor, 60;
+    his life at the time, 60, 61;
+    influenced by Fairfax's cultivation, 62;
+    goes to West Indies with his brother, 62;
+    has the small-pox, 63;
+    observations on the voyage, 63, 64;
+    returns to Virginia, 64;
+    becomes guardian of his brother's daughter, 64.
+
+  _Service against the French and Indians_.
+    Receives military training, 65;
+    a military appointment, 66;
+    goes on expedition to treat with French, 66;
+    meets Indians, 67;
+    deals with French, 67;
+    dangers of journey, 68;
+    his impersonal account, 69, 70;
+    appointed to command force against French, 71, 72;
+    his anger at neglect of Virginia Assembly, 73;
+    attacks and defeats force of Jumonville, 74;
+    called murderer by the French, 74;
+    surrounded by French at Great Meadows, 76;
+    surrenders, 76;
+    recklessness of his expedition, 77, 78;
+    effect of experience upon, 79;
+    gains a European notoriety, 79;
+    thanked by Virginia, 79;
+    protests against Dinwiddie's organization of soldiers, 80;
+    refuses to serve when ranked by British officers, 81;
+    accepts position on Braddock's staff, 82;
+    his treatment there, 82;
+    advises Braddock, 84;
+    rebuked for warning against surprise, 85;
+    his bravery in the battle, 86;
+    conducts retreat, 86, 87;
+    effect of experience on him, 87;
+    declines to solicit command of Virginia troops, 88;
+    accepts it when offered, 88;
+    his difficulties with Assembly, 89;
+    and with troops, 90;
+    settles question of rank, 91;
+    writes freely in criticism of government, 91, 92;
+    retires for rest to Mt. Vernon, 93;
+    offers services to General Forbes, 93;
+    irritated at slowness of English, 93, 94;
+    his love affairs, 95, 96;
+    journey to Boston, 97-101;
+    at festivities in New York and Philadelphia, 99;
+    meets Martha Custis, 101;
+    his wedding, 101, 102;
+    elected to House of Burgesses, 102;
+    confused at being thanked by Assembly, 102;
+    his local position, 103;
+    tries to farm his estate, 104;
+    his management of slaves, 105, 106, 108, 109;
+    cares for interests of old soldiers, 109;
+    rebukes a coward, 110;
+    cares for education of stepson, 111;
+    his furnishing of house, 112;
+    hunting habits, 113-115;
+    punishes a poacher, 116;
+    participates in colonial and local government, 117;
+    enters into society, 117, 118.
+
+  _Congressional delegate from Virginia_.
+    His influence in Assembly, 119;
+    discusses Stamp Act with Mason, 119;
+    foresees result to be independence, 119;
+    rejoices at its repeal, but notes Declaratory Act, 120;
+    ready to use force to defend colonial rights, 120;
+    presents non-importation resolutions to Burgesses, 121;
+    abstains from English products, 121;
+    notes ominous movements among Indians, 122;
+    on good terms with royal governors, 122, 123;
+    observes fast on account of Boston Port Bill, 123;
+    has controversy with Bryan Fairfax over Parliamentary policy,
+  124, 125, 126;
+    presides at Fairfax County meeting, 126;
+    declares himself ready for action, 126;
+    at convention of counties, offers to march to relief of Boston, 127;
+    elected to Continental Congress, 127;
+    his journey, 128;
+    silent in Congress, 129;
+    writes to a British officer that independence is not
+    desired, but war is certain, 130, 131;
+    returns to Virginia, 132;
+    aids in military preparations, 132;
+    his opinion after Concord, 133;
+    at second Continental Congress, wears uniform, 134;
+    made commander-in-chief, 134;
+    his modesty and courage in accepting position, 134, 135;
+    political motives for his choice, 135;
+    his popularity, 136;
+    his journey to Boston, 136, 137;
+    receives news of Bunker Hill, 136;
+    is received by Massachusetts Provincial Assembly, 137.
+
+  _Commander of the Army_.
+    Takes command at Cambridge, 137;
+    his impression upon people, 137, 138, 139;
+    begins reorganization of army, 139;
+    secures number of troops, 140;
+    enforces discipline, his difficulties, 140, 141;
+    forced to lead Congress, 142;
+    to arrange rank of officers, 142;
+    organizes privateers, 142;
+    discovers lack of powder, 143;
+    plans campaigns in Canada and elsewhere, 143, 144;
+    his plans of attack on Boston overruled by council of war, 144;
+    writes to Gage urging that captives be treated as prisoners of war,
+  145;
+    skill of his letter, 146;
+    retorts to Gage's reply, 147;
+    continues dispute with Howe, 148;
+    annoyed by insufficiency of provisions, 149;
+    and by desertions, 149;
+    stops quarrel between Virginia and Marblehead soldiers, 149;
+    suggests admiralty committees, 150;
+    annoyed by army contractors, 150;
+    and criticism, 151;
+    letter to Joseph Reed, 151;
+    occupies Dorchester Heights, 152;
+    begins to like New England men better, 152;
+    rejoices at prospect of a fight, 153;
+    departure of British due to his leadership, 154;
+    sends troops immediately to New York, 155;
+    enters Boston, 156;
+    expects a hard war, 156;
+    urges upon Congress the necessity of preparing for a long struggle,
+  156;
+    his growing hatred of Tories, 156, 157;
+    goes to New York, 157, 158;
+    difficulties of the situation, 158;
+    suppresses Tories, 159;
+    urges Congress to declare independence, 159, 160;
+    discovers and punishes a conspiracy to assassinate, 160;
+    insists on his title in correspondence with Howe, 161;
+    justice of his position, 162;
+    quiets sectional jealousies in army, 162;
+    his military inferiority to British, 163;
+    obliged by political considerations to attempt defense of New York,
+  163, 164;
+    assumes command on Long Island, 164;
+    sees defeat of his troops, 165;
+    sees plan of British fleet to cut off retreat, 166;
+    secures retreat of army, 167;
+    explains his policy of avoiding a pitched battle, 167;
+    anger at flight of militia at Kip's Bay, 168;
+    again secures safe retreat, 169;
+    secures slight advantage in a skirmish, 170;
+    continues to urge Congress to action, 170, 171;
+    success of his letters in securing a permanent army, 171;
+    surprised by advance of British fleet, 172;
+    moves to White Plains, 173;
+    blocks British advance, 174;
+    advises abandonment of American forts, 174;
+    blames himself for their capture, 175;
+    leads diminishing army through New Jersey, 175;
+    makes vain appeals for aid, 176;
+    resolves to take the offensive, 177;
+    desperateness of his situation, 178;
+    pledges his estate and private fortune to raise men, 179;
+    orders disregarded by officers, 180;
+    crosses Delaware and captures Hessians, 180, 181;
+    has difficulty in retaining soldiers, 181;
+    repulses Cornwallis at Assunpink, 181;
+    outwits Cornwallis and wins battle at Princeton, 182;
+    excellence of his strategy, 183;
+    effect of this campaign in saving Revolution, 183, 184;
+    withdraws to Morristown, 185;
+    fluctuations in size of army, 186;
+    his determination to keep the field, 186, 187;
+    criticised by Congress for not fighting, 187;
+    hampered by Congressional interference, 188;
+    issues proclamation requiring oath of allegiance, 188;
+    attacked in Congress for so doing, 189;
+    annoyed by Congressional alterations of rank, 189;
+    and by foreign military adventurers, 191;
+    value of his services in suppressing them, 192;
+    his American feelings, 191, 193;
+    warns Congress in vain that Howe means to attack Philadelphia, 193;
+    baffles Howe's advance across New Jersey, 195;
+    learning of his sailing, marches to defend Philadelphia, 195;
+    offers battle at Brandywine, 196, 197;
+    out-generaled and beaten, 197;
+    rallies army and prepares to fight again, 198;
+    prevented by storm, 199;
+    attacks British at Germantown, 199;
+    defeated, 200;
+    exposes himself in battle, 200;
+    real success of his action, 201;
+    despised by English, 202;
+    foresees danger of Burgoyne's invasion, 203;
+    sends instructions to Schuyler, 204;
+    urges use of New England and New York militia, 304;
+    dreads northern advance of Howe, 205;
+    determines to hold him at all hazards, 206, 207;
+    not cast down by loss of Ticonderoga, 207;
+    urges New England to rise, 208;
+    sends all possible troops, 208;
+    refuses to appoint a commander for Northern army, 208;
+    his probable reasons, 209;
+    continues to send suggestions, 210;
+    slighted by Gates after Burgoyne's surrender, 211;
+    rise of opposition in Congress, 212;
+    arouses ill-feeling by his frankness, 212, 213;
+    distrusted by Samuel and John Adams, 214;
+    by others, 214, 215;
+    formation of a plan to supplant him by Gates, 215;
+    opposed by Gates, Mifflin, and Conway, 215, 216;
+    angers Conway by preventing his increase in rank, 216;
+    is refused troops by Gates, 217;
+    defends and loses Delaware forts, 217;
+    refuses to attack Howe, 218;
+    propriety of his action, 219;
+    becomes aware of cabal, 220;
+    alarms them by showing extent of his knowledge, 221;
+    attacked bitterly in Congress, 222;
+    insulted by Gates, 223;
+    refuses to resign, 224;
+    refuses to notice cabal publicly, 224;
+    complains privately of slight support from Pennsylvania, 225;
+    continues to push Gates for explanations, 226;
+    regains complete control after collapse of cabal, 226, 227;
+    withdraws to Valley Forge, 227;
+    desperation of his situation, 228;
+    criticised by Pennsylvania legislature for going into winter quarters,
+  229;
+    his bitter reply, 229;
+    his unbending resolution, 230;
+    continues to urge improvements in army organization, 231;
+    manages to hold army together, 232;
+    sends Lafayette to watch Philadelphia, 233;
+    determines to fight, 234;
+    checked by Lee, 234;
+    pursues Clinton, 235;
+    orders Lee to attack British rearguard, 235;
+    discovers his force retreating, 236;
+    rebukes Lee and punishes him, 236, 237;
+    takes command and stops retreat, 237;
+    repulses British and assumes offensive, 238;
+    success due to his work at Valley Forge, 239;
+    celebrates French alliance, 241;
+    has to confront difficulty of managing allies, 241, 242;
+    welcomes D'Estaing, 243;
+    obliged to quiet recrimination after Newport failure, 244;
+    his letter to Sullivan, 244;
+    to Lafayette, 245;
+    to D'Estaing, 246;
+    tact and good effect of his letters, 246;
+    offers to cooperate in an attack on New York, 247;
+    furnishes admirable suggestions to D'Estaing, 247;
+    not dazzled by French, 248;
+    objects to giving rank to foreign officers, 248, 249;
+    opposes transfer of Steuben from inspectorship to the line, 249;
+    his thoroughly American position, 250;
+    absence of provinciality, 251, 252;
+    a national leader, 252;
+    opposes invasion of Canada, 253;
+    foresees danger of its recapture by France, 254, 255;
+    his clear understanding of French motives, 255, 256;
+    rejoices in condition of patriot cause, 257;
+    foresees ruin to army in financial troubles, 258;
+    has to appease mutinies among unpaid troops, 258;
+    appeals to Congress, 259;
+    urges election of better delegates to Congress, 259;
+    angry with speculators, 260, 261;
+    futility of his efforts, 261, 262;
+    his increasing alarm at social demoralization, 263;
+    effect of his exertions, 264;
+    conceals his doubts of the French, 264;
+    watches New York, 264;
+    keeps dreading an English campaign, 265;
+    labors with Congress to form a navy, 266;
+    plans expedition to chastise Indians, 266;
+    realizes that things are at a standstill in the North, 267;
+    sees danger to lie in the South, but determines to remain himself near
+  New York, 267;
+    not consulted by Congress in naming general for Southern army, 268;
+    plans attack on Stony Point, 268;
+    hatred of ravaging methods of British warfare, 270;
+    again has great difficulties in winter quarters, 270;
+    unable to act on offensive in the spring, 270, 272;
+    unable to help South, 272;
+    advises abandonment of Charleston, 273;
+    learns of arrival of French army, 274;
+    plans a number of enterprises with it, 275, 276;
+    refuses, even after loss of Charleston, to abandon Hudson, 276;
+    welcomes Rochambeau, 277;
+    writes to Congress against too optimistic feelings, 278, 279;
+    has extreme difficulty in holding army together, 280;
+    urges French to attack New York, 280;
+    sends Maryland troops South after Camden, 281;
+    arranges meeting with Rochambeau at Hartford, 282;
+    popular enthusiasm over him, 283;
+    goes to West Point, 284;
+    surprised at Arnold's absence, 284;
+    learns of his treachery, 284, 285;
+    his cool behavior, 285;
+    his real feelings, 286;
+    his conduct toward André, 287;
+    its justice, 287, 288;
+    his opinion of Arnold, 288, 289;
+    his responsibility in the general breakdown of the Congress and army,
+  290;
+    obliged to quell food mutinies in army, 291, 292;
+    difficulty of situation, 292;
+    his influence the salvation of army, 293;
+    his greatness best shown in this way, 293;
+    rebukes Congress, 294;
+    appoints Greene to command Southern army, 295;
+    sends Knox to confer with state governors, 296;
+    secures temporary relief for army, 296;
+    sees the real defect is in weak government, 296;
+    urges adoption of Articles of Confederation, 297;
+    works for improvements in executive, 298,299;
+    still keeps a Southern movement in mind, 301;
+    unable to do anything through lack of naval power, 303;
+    rebukes Lund Washington for entertaining British at Mt. Vernon, 303;
+    still unable to fight, 304;
+    tries to frighten Clinton into remaining in New York, 305;
+    succeeds with aid of Rochambeau, 306;
+    explains his plan to French and to Congress, 306;
+    learns of De Grasse's approach, prepares to move South, 306;
+    writes to De Grasse to meet him in Chesapeake, 308;
+    fears a premature peace, 308;
+    pecuniary difficulties, 309;
+    absolute need of command of sea, 310;
+    persuades De Barras to join De Grasse, 311;
+    starts on march for Chesapeake, 311;
+    hampered by lack of supplies, 312;
+    and by threat of Congress to reduce army, 313;
+    passes through Mt. Vernon, 314;
+    succeeds in persuading De Grasse not to abandon him, 315;
+    besieges Cornwallis, 315;
+    sees capture of redoubts, 316;
+    receives surrender of Cornwallis, 317;
+    admirable strategy and management of campaign, 318;
+    his personal influence the cause of success, 318;
+    especially his use of the fleet, 319;
+    his management of Cornwallis through Lafayette, 319;
+    his boldness in transferring army away from New York, 320;
+    does not lose his head over victory, 321;
+    urges De Grasse to repeat success against Charleston, 322;
+    returns north, 322;
+    saddened by death of Custis, 322;
+    continues to urge Congress to action, 323;
+    writes letters to the States, 323;
+    does not expect English surrender, 324;
+    urges renewed vigor, 324;
+    points out that war actually continues, 325;
+    urges not to give up army until peace is actually secured, 325;
+    failure of his appeals, 326;
+    reduced to inactivity, 326;
+    angered at murder of Huddy, 327;
+    threatens Carleton with retaliation, 328;
+    releases Asgill at request of Vergennes and order of Congress,
+  329, 330;
+    disclaims credit, 330;
+    justification of his behavior, 330;
+    his tenderness toward the soldiers, 331;
+    jealousy of Congress toward him, 332;
+    warns Congress of danger of further neglect of army, 333, 334;
+    takes control of mutinous movement, 335;
+    his address to the soldiers, 336;
+    its effect, 336;
+    movement among soldiers to make him dictator, 337;
+    replies to revolutionary proposals, 337;
+    reality of the danger, 339;
+    causes for his behaviour, 340, 341;
+    a friend of strong government, but devoid of personal ambition, 342;
+    chafes under delay to disband army, 343;
+    tries to secure Western posts, 343;
+    makes a journey through New York, 343;
+    gives Congress excellent but futile advice, 344;
+    issues circular letter to governors, 344;
+    and farewell address to army, 345;
+    enters New York after departure of British, 345;
+    his farewell to his officers, 345;
+    adjusts his accounts, 346;
+    appears before Congress, 347;
+    French account of his action, 347;
+    makes speech resigning commission, 348, 349.
+
+  _In Retirement_.
+    Returns to Mt. Vernon, ii. I;
+    tries to resume old life, 2;
+    gives up hunting, 2;
+    pursued by lion-hunters and artists, 3;
+    overwhelmed with correspondence, 3;
+    receives letters from Europe, 4;
+    from cranks, 4;
+    from officers, 4;
+    his share in Society of Cincinnati, 4;
+    manages his estate, 5;
+    visits Western lands, 5;
+    family cares, 5, 6;
+    continues to have interest in public affairs, 6;
+    advises Congress regarding peace establishment, 6;
+    urges acquisition of Western posts, 7;
+    his broad national views, 7;
+    alone in realizing future greatness of country, 7, 8;
+    appreciates importance of the West, 8;
+    urges development of inland navigation, 9;
+    asks Jefferson's aid, 9, 10;
+    lays canal scheme before Virginia legislature, 10;
+    his arguments, 10;
+    troubled by offer of stock, 11;
+    uses it to endow two schools, 12;
+    significance of his scheme, 12, 13;
+    his political purposes in binding West to East, 13;
+    willing to leave Mississippi closed for this purpose, 14, 15, 16;
+    feels need of firmer union during Revolution, 17;
+    his arguments, 18, 19;
+    his influence starts movement for reform, 20;
+    continues to urge it during retirement, 21;
+    foresees disasters of confederation, 21;
+    urges impost scheme, 22;
+    condemns action of States, 22, 23, 25;
+    favours commercial agreement between Maryland and Virginia, 23;
+    stung by contempt of foreign powers, 24;
+    his arguments for a national government, 24;
+    points out designs of England, 25;
+    works against paper money craze in States, 26;
+    his opinion of Shays's rebellion, 26;
+    his position contrasted with Jefferson's, 27;
+    influence of his letters, 28, 29;
+    shrinks from participating in Federal convention, 29;
+    elected unanimously, 30;
+    refuses to go to a feeble convention, 30, 31;
+    finally makes up his mind, 31.
+
+  _In the Federal Convention_.
+    Speech attributed to Washington by Morris on duties of delegates,
+  31, 32;
+    chosen to preside, 33;
+    takes no part in debate, 34;
+    his influence in convention, 34, 35;
+    despairs of success, 35;
+    signs the Constitution, 36;
+    words attributed to him, 36;
+    silent as to his thoughts, 36, 37;
+    sees clearly danger of failure to ratify, 37;
+    tries at first to act indifferently, 38;
+    begins to work for ratification, 38;
+    writes letters to various people, 38, 39;
+    circulates copies of "Federalist," 40;
+    saves ratification in Virginia, 40;
+    urges election of Federalists to Congress, 41;
+    receives general request to accept presidency, 41;
+    his objections, 41, 42;
+    dreads failure and responsibility, 42;
+    elected, 42;
+    his journey to New York, 42-46;
+    speech at Alexandria, 43;
+    popular reception at all points, 44, 45;
+    his feelings, 46;
+    his inauguration, 46.
+
+  _President_.
+    His speech to Congress, 48;
+    urges no specific policy, 48, 49;
+    his solemn feelings, 49;
+    his sober view of necessities of situation, 50;
+    question of his title, 52;
+    arranges to communicate with Senate by writing, 52, 53;
+    discusses social etiquette, 53;
+    takes middle ground, 54;
+    wisdom of his action, 55;
+    criticisms by Democrats, 55, 56;
+    accused of monarchical leanings, 56, 57;
+    familiarizes himself with work already accomplished under
+  Confederation, 58;
+    his business habits, 58;
+    refuses special privileges to French minister, 59, 60;
+    skill of his reply, 60, 61;
+    solicited for office, 61;
+    his views on appointment, 62;
+    favors friends of Constitution and old soldiers, 62;
+    success of his appointments, 63;
+    selects a cabinet, 64;
+    his regard for Knox 65;
+    for Morris, 66;
+    his skill in choosing, 66;
+    his appreciation of Hamilton, 67;
+    his grounds for choosing Jefferson, 68;
+    his contrast with Jefferson, 69;
+    his choice a mistake in policy, 70;
+    his partisan characteristics, 70, 71;
+    excludes anti-Federalists, 71;
+    nominates justices of Supreme Court, 72;
+    their party character, 73;
+    illness, 73;
+    visits the Eastern States, 73;
+    his reasons, 74;
+    stirs popular enthusiasm, 74;
+    snubbed by Hancock in Massachusetts, 75;
+    accepts Hancock's apology, 75;
+    importance of his action, 76;
+    success of journey, 76;
+    opens Congress, 78, 79;
+    his speech and its recommendations, 81;
+    how far carried out, 81-83;
+    national character of the speech, 83;
+    his fitness to deal with Indians, 87;
+    his policy, 88;
+    appoints commission to treat with Creeks, 90;
+    ascribes its failure to Spanish intrigue, 90;
+    succeeds by a personal interview in making treaty, 91;
+    wisdom of his policy, 92;
+    orders an expedition against Western Indians, 93;
+    angered at its failure, 94;
+    and at conduct of frontiersmen, 94;
+    prepares St. Clair's expedition, 95;
+    warns against ambush, 95;
+    hopes for decisive results, 97;
+    learns of St. Clair's defeat, 97;
+    his self-control, 97;
+    his outburst of anger against St. Clair, 97, 98;
+    masters his feelings, 98;
+    treats St. Clair kindly, 99;
+    determines on a second campaign, 100;
+    selects Wayne and other officers, 100;
+    tries to secure peace with tribes, 101;
+    efforts prevented by English influence, 101, 102;
+    and in South by conduct of Georgia, 103;
+    general results of his Indian policy, 104;
+    popular misunderstandings and criticism, 104, 105;
+    favors assumption of state debts by the government, 107, 108;
+    satisfied with bargain between Hamilton and Jefferson, 108;
+    his respectful attitude toward Constitution, 109;
+    asks opinions of cabinet on constitutionality of bank, 110;
+    signs bill creating it, 110;
+    reasons for his decision, 111;
+    supports Hamilton's financial policy, 112;
+    supports Hamilton's views on protection, 115, 116;
+    appreciates evil economic condition of Virginia, 116, 117;
+    sees necessity for self-sufficient industries in war time, 117;
+    urges protection, 118, 119, 120;
+    his purpose to build up national feeling, 121;
+    approves national excise tax, 122, 123;
+    does not realize unpopularity of method, 123;
+    ready to modify but insists on obedience, 124, 125;
+    issues proclamation against rioters, 125;
+    since Pennsylvania frontier continues rebellious, issues second
+  proclamation threatening to use force, 127;
+    calls out the militia, 127;
+    his advice to leaders and troops, 128;
+    importance of Washington's firmness, 129;
+    his good judgment and patience, 130;
+    decides success of the central authority, 130;
+    early advocacy of separation of United States from European politics,
+  133;
+    studies situation, 134, 135;
+    sees importance of binding West with Eastern States, 135;
+    sees necessity of good relations with England, 137;
+    authorizes Morris to sound England as to exchange of ministers and a
+  commercial treaty, 137;
+    not disturbed by British bad manners, 138;
+    succeeds in establishing diplomatic relations, 138;
+    early foresees danger of excess in French Revolution, 139, 140;
+    states a policy of strict neutrality, 140, 142, 143;
+    difficulties of his situation, 142;
+    objects to action of National Assembly on tobacco and oil, 144;
+    denies reported request by United States that England mediate with
+  Indians, 145;
+    announces neutrality in case of a European war, 146;
+    instructs cabinet to prepare a neutrality proclamation, 147;
+    importance of this step not understood at time, 148, 149;
+    foresees coming difficulties, 149, 150;
+    acts cautiously toward _émigrés_, 151;
+    contrast with Genet, 152;
+    greets him coldly, 152;
+    orders steps taken to prevent violations of neutrality, 153, 154;
+    retires to Mt. Vernon for rest, 154;
+    on returning finds Jefferson has allowed Little Sarah to escape, 156;
+    writes a sharp note to Jefferson, 156;
+    anger at escape, 157;
+    takes matters out of Jefferson's hands, 157;
+    determines on asking recall of Genet, 158;
+    revokes exequatur of Duplaine, French consul, 159;
+    insulted by Genet, 159, 160;
+    refuses to deny Jay's card, 160;
+    upheld by popular feeling, 160;
+    his annoyance at the episode, 160;
+    obliged to teach American people self-respect, 162, 163;
+    deals with troubles incited by Genet in the West, 162, 163;
+    sympathizes with frontiersmen, 163;
+    comprehends value of Mississippi, 164, 165;
+    sends a commission to Madrid to negotiate about free navigation, 166;
+    later sends Thomas Pinckney, 166;
+    despairs of success, 166;
+    apparent conflict between French treaties and neutrality, 169, 170;
+    value of Washington's policy to England, 171;
+    in spite of England's attitude, intends to keep peace, 177;
+    wishes to send Hamilton as envoy, 177;
+    after his refusal appoints Jay, 177;
+    fears that England intends war, 178;
+    determines to be prepared, 178;
+    urges upon Jay the absolute necessity of England's giving up Western
+  posts, 179;
+    dissatisfied with Jay treaty but willing to sign it, 184;
+    in doubt as to meaning of conditional ratification, 184;
+    protests against English "provision order" and refuses signature, 185;
+    meets uproar against treaty alone, 188;
+    determines to sign, 189;
+    answers resolutions of Boston town meeting, 190;
+    refuses to abandon his judgment to popular outcry, 190;
+    distinguishes temporary from permanent feeling, 191;
+    fears effect of excitement upon French government, 192;
+    his view of dangers of situation, 193, 194;
+    recalled to Philadelphia by cabinet, 195;
+    receives intercepted correspondence of Fauchet, 195, 196;
+    his course of action already determined, 197, 198;
+    not influenced by the Fauchet letter, 198;
+    evidence of this, 199, 200;
+    reasons for ratifying before showing letter to Randolph, 199, 200;
+    signs treaty, 201;
+    evidence that he did not sacrifice Randolph, 201, 202;
+    fairness of his action, 203;
+    refuses to reply to Randolph's attack, 204;
+    reasons for signing treaty, 205;
+    justified in course of time, 206;
+    refuses on constitutional grounds the call of representatives for
+  documents, 208;
+    insists on independence of treaty-making by executive and Senate, 209;
+    overcomes hostile majority in House, 210;
+    wishes Madison to succeed Morris at Paris, 211;
+    appoints Monroe, 216;
+    his mistake in not appointing a political supporter, 212;
+    disgusted at Monroe's behavior, 213, 214;
+    recalls Monroe and appoints C.C. Pinckney, 214;
+    angered at French policy, 214;
+    his contempt for Monroe's self-justification, 215, 216;
+    review of foreign policy, 216-219;
+    his guiding principle national independence, 216;
+    and abstention from European politics, 217;
+    desires peace and time for growth, 217, 218;
+    wishes development of the West, 218, 219;
+    wisdom of his policy, 219;
+    considers parties dangerous, 220;
+    but chooses cabinet from Federalists, 220;
+    prepared to undergo criticism, 221;
+    willingness to bear it, 221;
+    desires to learn public feeling, by travels, 221, 222;
+    feels that body of people will support national government, 222;
+    sees and deplores sectional feelings in the South, 222, 223;
+    objects to utterances of newspapers, 223;
+    attacked by "National Gazette," 227;
+    receives attacks on Hamilton from Jefferson and his friends, 228, 229;
+    sends charges to Hamilton, 229;
+    made anxious by signs of party division, 229;
+    urges both Hamilton and Jefferson to cease quarrel, 230, 231;
+    dreads an open division in cabinet, 232;
+    desirous to rule without party, 233;
+    accomplishes feat of keeping both secretaries in cabinet, 233;
+    keeps confidence in Hamilton, 234;
+    urged by all parties to accept presidency again, 235;
+    willing to be reelected, 235;
+    pleased at unanimous vote, 235;
+    his early immunity from attacks, 237;
+    later attacked by Freneau and Bache, 238;
+    regards opposition as dangerous to country, 239;
+    asserts his intention to disregard them, 240;
+    his success in Genet affair, 241;
+    disgusted at "democratic" societies, 242;
+    thinks they fomented Whiskey Rebellion, 242;
+    denounces them to Congress, 243;
+    effect of his remarks, 244;
+    accused of tyranny after Jay treaty, 244;
+    of embezzlement, 245;
+    of aristocracy, 245;
+    realizes that he must compose cabinet of sympathizers, 246;
+    reconstructs it, 246;
+    states determination to govern by party, 247;
+    slighted by House, 247;
+    refuses a third term, 248;
+    publishes Farewell Address, 248;
+    his justification for so doing, 248;
+    his wise advice, 249;
+    address Attacked by Democrats, 250, 251;
+    assailed in Congress by Giles, 251;
+    resents charge of being a British sympathizer, 252;
+    his scrupulously fair conduct toward France, 253;
+    his resentment at English policy, 254;
+    his retirement celebrated by the opposition, 255;
+    remarks of the "Aurora," 256;
+    forged letters of British circulated, 257;
+    he repudiates them, 257;
+    his view of opposition, 259.
+
+  _In Retirement_.
+    Regards Adams's administration as continuation of his own, 259;
+    understands Jefferson's attitude, 259;
+    wishes generals of provisional army to be Federalist, 260;
+    doubts fidelity of opposition as soldiers, 260;
+    dreads their poisoning mind of army, 261;
+    his condemnation of Democrats, 261, 262;
+    snubs Dr. Logan for assuming an unofficial mission to France, 263-265;
+    alarmed at Virginia and Kentucky resolutions, 266;
+    urges Henry to oppose Virginia resolutions, 267;
+    condemns the French party as unpatriotic, 267;
+    refuses request to stand again for presidency, 269;
+    comments on partisanship of Democrats, 269;
+    believes that he would be no better candidate than any other
+  Federalist, 270, 271;
+    error of statement that Washington was not a party man, 271, 272;
+    slow to relinquish non-partisan position, 272;
+    not the man to shrink from declaring his position, 273;
+    becomes a member of Federalist party, 273, 274;
+    eager for end of term of office, 275;
+    his farewell dinner, 275;
+    at Adams's inauguration, 276;
+    popular enthusiasm at Philadelphia, 276;
+    at Baltimore, 277;
+    returns to Mt. Vernon, 279;
+    describes his farm life, 278, 279;
+    burdened by necessities of hospitality, 280;
+    account of his meeting with Bernard, 281-283;
+    continued interest in politics, 284;
+    accepts command of provisional army, 285;
+    selects Hamilton, Pinckney, and Knox as major-generals, 286;
+    surprised at Adams's objection to Hamilton, 286;
+    rebukes Adams for altering order of rank of generals, 286, 287;
+    not influenced by intrigue, 287;
+    annoyed by Adams's conduct, 288;
+    tries to soothe Knox's irritation, 289;
+    fails to pacify him, 289;
+    carries out organization of army, 290;
+    does not expect actual war, 291;
+    disapproves of Gerry's conduct, 292;
+    disapproves of Adams's nomination of Vans Murray, 292;
+    his dread of French Revolution, 295;
+    distrusts Adams's attempts at peace, 296;
+    approves Alien and Sedition laws, 296;
+    his defense of them, 297;
+    distressed by dissensions among Federalists, 298;
+    predicts their defeat, 298;
+    his sudden illness, 299-302;
+    death, 303.
+
+  _Character_,
+    misunderstood, 304;
+    extravagantly praised, 304;
+    disliked on account of being called faultless, 305;
+    bitterly attacked in lifetime, 306;
+    sneered at by Jefferson, 306;
+    by Pickering, 307;
+    called an Englishman, not an American, 307, 308;
+    difference of his type from that of Lincoln, 310;
+    none the less American, 311, 312;
+    compared with Hampden, 312;
+    his manners those of the times elsewhere in America, 314;
+    aristocratic, but of a non-English type, 314-316;
+    less affected by Southern limitations than his neighbors, 316;
+    early dislike of New England changed to respect, 316, 317;
+    friendly with people of humble origin, 317, 318;
+    never an enemy of democracy, 318;
+    but opposes French excesses, 318;
+    his self-directed and American training, 319, 320;
+    early conception of a nation, 321;
+    works toward national government during Revolution, 321;
+    his interest in Western expansion, 321, 322;
+    national character of his Indian policy, 322;
+    of his desire to secure free Mississippi navigation, 322;
+    of his opposition to war as a danger to Union, 323;
+    his anger at accusation of foreign subservience, 323;
+    continually asserts necessity for independent American policy,
+  324, 325;
+    opposes foreign educational influences, 325, 326;
+    favors foundation of a national university, 326;
+    breadth and strength of his national feeling, 327;
+    absence of boastfulness about country, 328;
+    faith in it, 328;
+    charge that he was merely a figure-head, 329;
+    its injustice, 330;
+    charged with commonplaceness of intellect, 330;
+    incident of the deathbed explained, 330, 331;
+    falsity of the charge, 331;
+    inability of mere moral qualities to achieve what he did, 331;
+    charged with dullness and coldness, 332;
+    his seriousness, 333;
+    responsibility from early youth, 333;
+    his habits of keen observation, 333;
+    power of judging men, 334;
+    ability to use them for what they were worth, 335;
+    anecdote of advice to Hamilton and Meade, 335;
+    deceived only by Arnold, 336;
+    imperfect education, 337;
+    continual efforts to improve it, 337, 338;
+    modest regarding his literary ability, 339, 340;
+    interested in education, 339;
+    character of his writing, 340;
+    tastes in reading, 341;
+    modest but effective in conversation, 342;
+    his manner and interest described by Bernard, 343-347;
+    attractiveness of the picture, 347, 348;
+    his pleasure in society, 348;
+    power of paying compliments, letter to Mrs. Stockton, 349;
+    to Charles Thompson, 350;
+    to De Chastellux, 351;
+    his warmth of heart, 352;
+    extreme exactness in pecuniary matters, 352;
+    illustrative anecdotes, 353,354;
+    favorable opinion of teller of anecdotes, 356;
+    stern towards dishonesty or cowardice, 357;
+    treatment of André and Asgill, 357, 358;
+    sensitive to human suffering, 357, 358;
+    kind and courteous to poor, 359;
+    conversation with Cleaveland, 359;
+    sense of dignity in public office, 360;
+    hospitality at Mt. Vernon, 360, 361;
+    his intimate friendships, 361,362;
+    relations with Hamilton, Knox, Mason, Henry Lee, Craik, 362, 363;
+    the officers of the army, 363;
+    Trumbull, Robert and Gouverneur Morris, 363;
+    regard for and courtesy toward Franklin, 364;
+    love for Lafayette, 365;
+    care for his family, 366;
+    lasting regard for Fairfaxes, 366, 367;
+    kindness to Taft family, 367, 368;
+    destroys correspondence with his wife, 368;
+    their devoted relationship, 368;
+    care for his step-children and relatives, 369, 370;
+    charged with lack of humor, 371;
+    but never made himself ridiculous, 372;
+    not joyous in temperament, 372;
+    but had keen pleasure in sport, 373;
+    enjoyed a joke, even during Revolution, 374;
+    appreciates wit, 375;
+    writes a humorous letter, 376-378;
+    not devoid of worldly wisdom, 378, 379;
+    enjoys cards, dancing, the theatre, 380;
+    loves horses, 380;
+    thorough in small affairs as well as great, 381;
+    controversy over site of church, 381;
+    his careful domestic economy, 382;
+    love of method, 383;
+    of excellence in dress and furniture, 383, 384;
+    gives dignity to American cause, 385;
+    his personal appearance, 385;
+    statements of Houdon, 386;
+    of Ackerson, 386, 387;
+    his tremendous muscular strength, 388;
+    great personal impressiveness, 389, 390;
+    lacking in imagination, 391;
+    strong passions, 391;
+    fierce temper, 392;
+    anecdotes of outbreaks, 392;
+    his absence of self-love, 393;
+    confident in judgment of posterity, 393;
+    religious faith, 394;
+    summary and conclusion, 394, 395.
+
+  _Characteristics of_.
+    General view, ii. 304-395;
+    general admiration for, i. 1-7;
+    myths about, i. 9-12, ii. 307 ff.;
+    comparisons with Jefferson, ii. 69;
+    with Lincoln, ii. 310-312;
+    with Hampden, ii. 312, 313;
+    absence of self-seeking, i. 341;
+    affectionateness, i. 111, 285,331,345, ii. 332, 362-371;
+    agreeableness, ii. 344-347, 377;
+    Americanism, ii. 307-328;
+    aristocratic habits, ii. 314, 316;
+    business ability, i. 105, 109, ii. 5, 352, 382;
+    coldness on occasion, i. 223, 224, 263, ii. 318;
+    courage, i. 77, 78, 86, 127, 168, 292;
+    dignity, i. 81,161, ii. 52-57, 76;
+    hospitality, ii. 360;
+    impressiveness, i. 56, 83, 130, 138, 319, ii. 385;
+    indomitableness, i. 177, 181, 227;
+    judgments of men, i. 295, ii. 64, 86, 334, 335;
+    justice and sternness, i. 287, 330, ii. 203, 352-358, 389;
+    kindliness, ii. 349-356, 359;
+    lack of education, i. 62, ii. 337;
+    love of reading, i. 62, ii. 341, 342;
+    love of sport, i. 56, 98, 113-116, 118, ii. 380;
+    manners, ii. 282-283, 314;
+    military ability, i. 154, 166, 174, 183, 197, 204, 207, 239, 247,
+  265, 267, 305-320, ii. 331;
+    modesty, i. 102, 134;
+    not a figure-head, ii. 329, 330;
+    not a prig, i. 10-12, 41-47;
+    not cold and inhuman, ii. 332, 342;
+    not dull or commonplace, ii. 330, 332;
+    not superhuman and distant, i. 9, 10, 12, ii. 304, 305;
+    open-mindedness, ii. 317;
+    passionateness, i. 58, 73, 90;
+    personal appearance, i. 57, 136, 137, ii. 282, 343, 385-389;
+    religious views, i. 321, ii. 393;
+    romantic traits, i. 95-97;
+    sense of humor, ii. 371-377;
+    silence regarding self, i. 14, 69, 70, 116, 129, 285; ii. 37, 336;
+    simplicity, i. 59, 69, 348; ii. 50, 340;
+    sobriety, i. 49, 52, 134; ii. 43, 45, 333, 373;
+    tact, i. 162, 243, 244-246;
+    temper, i. 73, 92, 110, 168, 236, 237, 260; ii. 98, 392;
+    thoroughness, i. 112, 323, 341, ii. 381.
+
+  _Political Opinions_.
+    On Alien and Sedition Acts, ii. 196;
+    American nationality, i. 191, 250, 251, 255, 262, 279, ii. 7, 61,
+  133, 145, 324, 325, 327, 328;
+    Articles of Confederation, i. 297, ii. 17, 24;
+    bank, ii. 110, 111;
+    colonial rights, i. 120, 124-126, 130;
+    Constitution, i. 38-41;
+    democracy, ii. 317-319;
+    Democratic party, ii. 214, 239, 240, 258, 261, 267, 268;
+    disunion, ii. 22;
+    duties of the executive, ii. 190;
+    education, ii. 81, 326, 330;
+    Federalist party, ii. 71, 246, 247, 259, 260, 261, 269-274, 298;
+    finance, ii. 107, 108, 112, 122;
+    foreign relations, ii. 25, 134, 142, 145, 147, 179, 217-219, 323;
+    French Revolution, ii. 139, 140, 295, 318;
+    independence of colonies, i. 131, 159, 160;
+    Indian policy, ii. 82, 87, 88, 91, 92, 104, 105;
+    Jay treaty, ii. 184-205;
+    judiciary, i. 150;
+    nominations to office, ii. 62;
+    party, ii. 70, 222, 233, 249;
+    protection, ii. 116-122;
+    slavery, i. 106-108;
+    Stamp Act, i. 119;
+    strong government, i. 298, ii. 18, 24, 129, 130;
+    treaty power, ii. 190, 207-210;
+    Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, ii. 266, 267;
+    Western expansion, ii. 6, 8-16, 135, 163-165, 218, 322.
+
+  Washington, George Steptoe,
+    his sons educated by Washington, ii. 370.
+
+  Washington, John, brother of George,
+    letter of Washington, to, i. 132.
+
+  Washington, Lawrence, brother of George Washington,
+    educated in England, i. 54;
+    has military career, 54;
+    returns to Virginia and builds Mt. Vernon, 54;
+    marries into Fairfax family, 54, 55;
+    goes to West Indies for his health, 62;
+    dies, leaving George guardian of his daughter, 64;
+    chief manager of Ohio Company, 65;
+    gives George military education, 65.
+
+  Washington, Lund,
+    letter of Washington to, i. 152;
+    rebuked by Washington for entertaining British, ii. 303.
+
+  Washington, Martha, widow of Daniel P. Custis,
+    meets Washington, i. 101;
+    courtship of, and marriage, 101, 102;
+    hunts with her husband, 114;
+    joins him at Boston, 151;
+    holds levees as wife of President, ii. 54;
+    during his last illness, 300;
+    her correspondence destroyed, 368;
+    her relations with her husband, 368, 369.
+
+  Washington, Mary,
+    married to Augustine Washington, i. 39;
+    mother of George Washington, 39;
+    limited education but strong character, 40, 41;
+    wishes George to earn a living, 49;
+    opposes his going to sea, 49;
+    letters to, 88;
+    visited by her son, ii. 5.
+
+  Waters, Henry E.,
+    establishes Washington pedigree, i. 32.
+
+  Wayne, Anthony,
+    defeated after Brandywine, i. 198;
+    his opinion of Germantown, 199;
+    at Monmouth urges Washington to come, 235;
+    ready to attack Stony Point, 268;
+    his successful exploit, 269;
+    joins Lafayette in Virginia, 307;
+    appointed to command against Indians, ii. 100;
+    his character, 100;
+    organizes his force, 101;
+    his march, 102;
+    defeats the Indians, 103.
+
+  Weems, Mason L.,
+    influence of his life of Washington on popular opinion, i. 10;
+    originates idea of his priggishness, 11;
+    his character, 41, 43;
+    character of his book, 42;
+    his mythical "rectorate" of Mt. Vernon, 43, 44;
+    invents anecdotes of Washington's childhood, 44;
+    folly of cherry-tree and other stories, 46;
+    their evil influence, 47.
+
+  West, the,
+    its importance realized by Washington, ii. 7-16;
+    his influence counteracted by inertia of Congress, 8;
+    forwards inland navigation, 9;
+    desires to bind East to West, 9-11, 14;
+    formation of companies, 11-13;
+    on Mississippi navigation, 14-16, 164;
+    projects of Genet in, 162;
+    its attitude understood by Washington, 163, 164;
+    Washington wishes peace in order to develop it, 218, 219, 321.
+
+  "Whiskey Rebellion,"
+    passage of excise law, ii. 123;
+    outbreaks of violence in Pennsylvania and North Carolina, 124;
+    proclamation issued warning rioters to desist, 125;
+    renewed outbreaks in Pennsylvania, 125, 126;
+    the militia called out, 127;
+    suppression of the insurrection, 128;
+    real danger of movement, 129;
+    its suppression emphasizes national authority, 129, 130;
+    supposed by Washington to have been stirred up by Democratic clubs,
+  242.
+
+  White Plains,
+    battle at, i. 173.
+
+  Wilkinson, James,
+    brings Gates's message to Washington at Trenton, i. 180;
+    brings news of Saratoga to Congress, 220;
+    nettled at Sherman's sarcasm, discloses Conway cabal, 220;
+    quarrels with Gates, 223;
+    resigns from board of war, 223, 226;
+    leads expedition against Indians, ii. 95.
+
+  Willett, Colonel,
+    commissioner to Creeks, his success, ii. 91.
+
+  William and Mary College,
+    Washington Chancellor of, ii. 339.
+
+  Williams,
+    Washington's teacher, i. 48, 51.
+
+  Willis, Lewis,
+    story of Washington's school days, i. 95.
+
+  Wilson, James,
+    appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 72.
+
+  Wilson, James, "of England,"
+    hunts with Washington, i. 115.
+
+  Wolcott, Oliver,
+    receives Fauchet letter, ii. 195;
+    succeeds Hamilton as Secretary of Treasury, 246.
+
+  Wooster, Mrs.,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 61.
+
+
+  YORKTOWN,
+    siege of, i. 315-318.
+
+  "Young Man's Companion,"
+    used by George Washington, origin of his rules of conduct, i. 52.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's George Washington, Vol. I, by Henry Cabot Lodge
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12652 ***
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+<body>
+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12652 ***</div>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <h5>American Statesmen</h5>
+  <hr />
+
+  <h1>GEORGE WASHINGTON</h1>
+
+  <h4>In Two Volumes</h4>
+
+  <h3>VOL. I.</h3>
+
+  <h4>By</h4>
+
+  <h3>HENRY CABOT LODGE</h3>
+
+  <h4>1899</h4>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;">
+    <a href="images/illus0379.jpg"><img width="100%" src=
+    "images/illus0379.jpg" alt="GEORGE WASHINGTON" /></a><br />
+    <i>Frontispiece I</i>.<br />
+    GEORGE WASHINGTON
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;">
+    <a href="images/illus0381.jpg"><img width="100%" src=
+    "images/illus0381.jpg" alt=
+    "The Home of the Washington Family" /></a><br />
+    <i>Frontispiece II</i>.<br />
+    The Home of the Washington Family
+  </div>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+  <p>This edition has been carefully revised, and although very
+  little has been added of late years to our knowledge of the facts
+  of Washington's life, I have tried to examine all that has
+  appeared. The researches of Mr. Waters, which were published just
+  after these volumes in the first edition had passed through the
+  press, enable me to give the Washington pedigree with certainty,
+  and have turned conjecture into fact. The recent publication in
+  full of Lear's memoranda, although they tell nothing new about
+  Washington's last moments, help toward a completion of all the
+  details of the scene.</p>
+
+  <p>H.C. LODGE.</p>
+
+  <p>WASHINGTON, February 7, 1898.</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <h2>Table of Contents</h2>
+
+  <p><a href="#I">Chapter I</a> &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp;THE OLD
+  DOMINION</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#II">Chapter II</a> &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; THE
+  WASHINGTONS</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#III">Chapter III</a> &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; ON THE
+  FRONTIER</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#IV">Chapter IV</a> &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; LOVE AND
+  MARRIAGE</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#V">Chapter V</a> &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; TAKING
+  COMMAND</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#VI">Chapter VI</a> &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; SAVING THE
+  REVOLUTION</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#VII">Chapter VII</a> &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; MALICE
+  DOMESTIC, AND FOREIGN LEVY</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#VIII">Chapter VIII</a> &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; THE
+  ALLIES</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#IX">Chapter IX</a> &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; ARNOLD'S
+  TREASON, AND THE WAR IN THE SOUTH</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#X">Chapter X</a> &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; YORKTOWN</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#XI">Chapter XI</a> &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; PEACE</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <h2>List of Illustrations</h2>
+
+  <p><a href="images/illus0379.jpg">GEORGE WASHINGTON</a></p>
+
+  <p>From the painting by Gilbert Stuart in the Museum of Fine
+  Arts, Boston. This painting is owned by the Boston Athen&aelig;um
+  and is known as the Athen&aelig;um portrait.</p>
+
+  <p>Autograph is from Washington's signature to a bill of
+  exchange, from "Talks about Autographs" by George Birkbeck
+  Hill.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="images/illus0381.jpg">VIGNETTE of the RESIDENCE of
+  the WASHINGTON FAMILY</a></p>
+
+  <p>From "Homes of American Statesman," published by Alfred W.
+  Putnam, New York.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="images/illus0383.jpg">LAWRENCE WASHINGTON</a></p>
+
+  <p>From an original painting in the possession of Lawrence
+  Washington, Esq., Alexandria, Va., a
+  great-great-great-nephew.</p>
+
+  <p>Autograph from MS. in New York Public Library, Lenox
+  Building.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="images/illus0385.jpg">MISS MARY CARY</a></p>
+
+  <p>From an original painting owned by Dr. James D. Moncure of
+  Virginia, one of her descendants.</p>
+
+  <p>No autograph can be found.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="images/illus0387.jpg">MISS MARY PHILIPSE</a></p>
+
+  <p>From Irving's "Washington," published by G.P. Putnam's
+  Sons.</p>
+
+  <p>Autograph from Appleton's "Cyclop&aelig;dia of American
+  Biography."</p>
+
+  <p><a href="images/illus0389.jpg">WASHINGTON CROSSING THE
+  DELAWARE</a></p>
+
+  <p>From the original painting by Emanuel Leutze in the New York
+  Metropolitan Museum. The United States flag shown in the picture
+  is an anachronism. The stars and stripes were first adopted by
+  Congress in June, 1777; and any flag carried by Washington's army
+  in December, 1776, would have consisted of the stripes with the
+  crosses of St. George and St. Andrew in the blue field where the
+  stars now appear.</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <h2>INTRODUCTION</h2>
+
+  <p>February 9 in the year 1800 was a gala day in Paris. Napoleon
+  had decreed a triumphal procession, and on that day a splendid
+  military ceremony was performed in the Champ de Mars, and the
+  trophies of the Egyptian expedition were exultingly displayed.
+  There were, however, two features in all this pomp and show which
+  seemed strangely out of keeping with the glittering pageant and
+  the sounds of victorious rejoicing. The standards and flags of
+  the army were hung with crape, and after the grand parade the
+  dignitaries of the land proceeded solemnly to the Temple of Mars,
+  and heard the eloquent M. de Fontanes deliver an "Eloge
+  Fun&egrave;bre."<a id="footnotetag1" name=
+  "footnotetag1"></a><a href="#footnote1"><sup>1</sup></a></p>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote1" name="footnote1"></a> [<b>Footnote 1:</b>
+    <a href="#footnotetag1">(return)</a> A report recently
+    discovered shows that more even was intended than was actually
+    done.
+
+    <p>The following is a translation of the paper, the original of
+    which is Nos. 172 and 173 of volume 51 of the manuscript series
+    known as <i>Etats-Unis</i>, 1799, 1800 (years 7 and 8 of the
+    French republic):&mdash;</p>
+
+    <blockquote>
+      <p>"<i>Report of Talleyrand, Minister of Foreign Affairs, on
+      the occasion of the death of George Washington</i>.</p>
+
+      <p>"A nation which some day will he a great nation, and which
+      today is the wisest and happiest on the face of the earth,
+      weeps at the bier of a man whose courage and genius
+      contributed the most to free it from bondage, and elevate it
+      to the rank of an independent and sovereign power. The
+      regrets caused by the death of this great man, the memories
+      aroused by these regrets, and a proper veneration for all
+      that is held dear and sacred by mankind, impel us to give
+      expression to our sentiments by taking part in an event which
+      deprives the world of one of its brightest ornaments, and
+      removes to the realm of history one of the noblest lives that
+      ever honored the human race.</p>
+
+      <p>"The name of Washington is inseparably linked with a
+      memorable epoch. He adorned this epoch by his talents and the
+      nobility of his character, and with virtues that even envy
+      dared not assail. History offers few examples of such renown.
+      Great from the outset of his career, patriotic before his
+      country had become a nation, brilliant and universal despite
+      the passions and political resentments that would gladly have
+      checked his career, his fame is to-day
+      imperishable,&mdash;fortune having consecrated his claim to
+      greatness, while the prosperity of a people destined for
+      grand achievements is the best evidence of a fame ever to
+      increase.</p>
+
+      <p>"His own country now honors his memory with funeral
+      ceremonies, having lost a citizen whose public actions and
+      unassuming grandeur in private life were a living example of
+      courage, wisdom, and unselfishness; and France, which from
+      the dawn of the American Revolution hailed with hope a
+      nation, hitherto unknown, that was discarding the vices of
+      Europe, which foresaw all the glory that this nation would
+      bestow on humanity, and the enlightenment of governments that
+      would ensue from the novel character of the social
+      institutions and the new type of heroism of which Washington
+      and America were models for the world at large,&mdash;France,
+      I repeat, should depart from established usages and do honor
+      to one whose fame is beyond comparison with that of
+      others.</p>
+
+      <p>"The man who, amid the decadence of modern ages, first
+      dared believe that he could inspire degenerate nations with
+      courage to rise to the level of republican virtues, lived for
+      all nations and for all centuries; and this nation, which
+      first saw in the life and success of that illustrious man a
+      foreboding of its destiny, and therein recognized a future to
+      be realized and duties to be performed, has every right to
+      class him as a fellow-citizen. I therefore submit to the
+      First Consul the following decree:&mdash; "Bonaparte, First
+      Consul of the republic, decrees as follows:&mdash; "Article
+      1. A statue is to be erected to General Washington. "Article
+      2. This statue is to be placed in one of the squares of
+      Paris, to be chosen by the minister of the interior, and it
+      shall be his duty to execute the present decree."]</p>
+    </blockquote>
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>About the same time, if tradition may be trusted, the flags
+  upon the conquering Channel fleet of England were lowered to
+  half-mast in token of grief for the same event which had caused
+  the armies of France to wear the customary badges of
+  mourning.</p>
+
+  <p>If some "traveler from an antique land" had observed these
+  manifestations, he would have wondered much whose memory it was
+  that had called them forth from these two great nations, then
+  struggling fiercely with each other for supremacy on land and
+  sea. His wonder would not have abated had he been told that the
+  man for whom they mourned had wrested an empire from one, and at
+  the time of his death was arming his countrymen against the
+  other.</p>
+
+  <p>These signal honors were paid by England and France to a
+  simple Virginian gentleman who had never left his own country,
+  and who when he died held no other office than the titular
+  command of a provisional army. Yet although these marks of
+  respect from foreign nations were notable and striking, they were
+  slight and formal in comparison with the silence and grief which
+  fell upon the people of the United States when they heard that
+  Washington was dead. He had died in the fullness of time,
+  quietly, quickly, and in his own house, and yet his death called
+  out a display of grief which has rarely been equaled in history.
+  The trappings and suits of woe were there of course, but what
+  made this mourning memorable was that the land seemed hushed with
+  sadness, and that the sorrow dwelt among the people and was
+  neither forced nor fleeting. Men carried it home with them to
+  their firesides and to their churches, to their offices and their
+  workshops. Every preacher took the life which had closed as the
+  noblest of texts, and every orator made it the theme of his
+  loftiest eloquence. For more than a year the newspapers teemed
+  with eulogy and elegy, and both prose and poetry were severely
+  taxed to pay tribute to the memory of the great one who had gone.
+  The prose was often stilted and the verse was generally bad, but
+  yet through it all, from the polished sentences of the funeral
+  oration to the humble effusions of the obscurest poet's corner,
+  there ran a strong and genuine feeling, which the highest art
+  could not refine nor the clumsiest expression degrade.</p>
+
+  <p>From that time to this, the stream of praise has flowed on,
+  ever deepening and strengthening, both at home and abroad.
+  Washington alone in history seems to have risen so high in the
+  estimation of men that criticism has shrunk away abashed, and has
+  only been heard whispering in corners or growling hoarsely in the
+  now famous house in Cheyne Row.</p>
+
+  <p>There is a world of meaning in all this, could we but rightly
+  interpret it. It cannot be brushed aside as mere popular
+  superstition, formed of fancies and prejudices, to which
+  intelligent opposition would be useless. Nothing is in fact more
+  false than the way in which popular opinions are often belittled
+  and made light of. The opinion of the world, however reached,
+  becomes in the course of years or centuries the nearest approach
+  we can make to final judgment on human things. Don Quixote may be
+  dumb to one man, and the sonnets of Shakespeare may leave another
+  cold and weary. But the fault is in the reader. There is no doubt
+  of the greatness of Cervantes or Shakespeare, for they have stood
+  the test of time, and the voices of generations of men, from
+  which there is no appeal, have declared them to be great. The
+  lyrics that all the world loves and repeats, the poetry which is
+  often called hackneyed, is on the whole the best poetry. The
+  pictures and statues that have drawn crowds of admiring gazers
+  for centuries are the best. The things that are "caviare to the
+  general" often undoubtedly have much merit, but they lack quite
+  as often the warm, generous, and immortal vitality which appeals
+  alike to rich and poor, to the ignorant and to the learned.</p>
+
+  <p>So it is with men. When years after his death the world agrees
+  to call a man great, the verdict must be accepted. The historian
+  may whiten or blacken, the critic may weigh and dissect, the form
+  of the judgment may be altered, but the central fact remains, and
+  with the man, whom the world in its vague way has pronounced
+  great, history must reckon one way or the other, whether for good
+  or ill.</p>
+
+  <p>When we come to such a man as Washington, the case is still
+  stronger. Men seem to have agreed that here was greatness which
+  no one could question, and character which no one could fail to
+  respect. Around other leaders of men, even around the greatest of
+  them, sharp controversies have arisen, and they have their
+  partisans dead as they had them living. Washington had enemies
+  who assailed him, and friends whom he loved, but in death as in
+  life he seems to stand alone, above conflict and superior to
+  malice. In his own country there is no dispute as to his
+  greatness or his worth. Englishmen, the most unsparing censors of
+  everything American, have paid homage to Washington, from the
+  days of Fox and Byron to those of Tennyson and Gladstone. In
+  France his name has always been revered, and in distant lands
+  those who have scarcely heard of the existence of the United
+  States know the country of Washington. To the mighty cairn which
+  the nation and the states have raised to his memory, stones have
+  come from Greece, sending a fragment of the Parthenon; from
+  Brazil and Switzerland, Turkey and Japan, Siam and India beyond
+  the Ganges. On that sent by China we read: "In devising plans,
+  Washington was more decided than Ching Shing or Woo Kwang; in
+  winning a country he was braver than Tsau Tsau or Ling Pi.
+  Wielding his four-footed falchion, he extended the frontiers and
+  refused to accept the Royal Dignity. The sentiments of the Three
+  Dynasties have reappeared in him. Can any man of ancient or
+  modern times fail to pronounce Washington peerless?" These
+  comparisons so strange to our ears tell of a fame which has
+  reached farther than we can readily conceive.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington stands as a type, and has stamped himself deep upon
+  the imagination of mankind. Whether the image be true or false is
+  of no consequence: the fact endures. He rises up from the dust of
+  history as a Greek statue comes pure and serene from the earth in
+  which it has lain for centuries. We know his deeds; but what was
+  it in the man which has given him such a place in the affection,
+  the respect, and the imagination of his fellow men throughout the
+  world?</p>
+
+  <p>Perhaps this question has been fully answered already.
+  Possibly every one who has thought upon the subject has solved
+  the problem, so that even to state it is superfluous. Yet a
+  brilliant writer, the latest historian of the American people,
+  has said: "General Washington is known to us, and President
+  Washington. But George Washington is an unknown man." These are
+  pregnant words, and that they should be true seems to make any
+  attempt to fill the great gap an act of sheer and hopeless
+  audacity. Yet there can be certainly no reason for adding another
+  to the almost countless lives of Washington unless it be done
+  with the object in view which Mr. McMaster indicates. Any such
+  attempt may fail in execution, but if the purpose be right it has
+  at least an excuse for its existence.</p>
+
+  <p>To try to add to the existing knowledge of the facts in
+  Washington's career would have but little result beyond the
+  multiplication of printed pages. The antiquarian, the historian,
+  and the critic have exhausted every source, and the most minute
+  details have been and still are the subject of endless writing
+  and constant discussion. Every house he ever lived in has been
+  drawn and painted; every portrait, and statue, and medal has been
+  catalogued and engraved. His private affairs, his servants, his
+  horses, his arms, even his clothes, have all passed beneath the
+  merciless microscope of history. His biography has been written
+  and rewritten. His letters have been drawn out from every lurking
+  place, and have been given to the world in masses and in
+  detachments. His battles have been fought over and over again,
+  and his state papers have undergone an almost verbal examination.
+  Yet, despite his vast fame and all the labors of the antiquarian
+  and biographer, Washington is still not understood,&mdash;as a
+  man he is unfamiliar to the posterity that reverences his memory.
+  He has been misrepresented more or less covertly by hostile
+  critics and by candid friends, and has been disguised and hidden
+  away by the mistaken eulogy and erroneous theories of devout
+  admirers. All that any one now can do, therefore, is to endeavor
+  from this mass of material to depict the very man himself in the
+  various conjunctures of his life, and strive to see what he
+  really was and what he meant then, and what he is and what he
+  means to us and to the world to-day.</p>
+
+  <p>In the progress of time Washington has become in the popular
+  imagination largely mythical; for mythical ideas grow up in this
+  nineteenth century, notwithstanding its boasted intelligence,
+  much as they did in the infancy of the race. The old sentiment of
+  humanity, more ancient and more lasting than any records or
+  monuments, which led men in the dawn of history to worship their
+  ancestors and the founders of states, still endures. As the
+  centuries have gone by, this sentiment has lost its religious
+  flavor, and has become more and more restricted in its
+  application, but it has never been wholly extinguished. Let some
+  man arise great above the ordinary bounds of greatness, and the
+  feeling which caused our progenitors to bow down at the shrines
+  of their forefathers and chiefs leads us to invest our modern
+  hero with a mythical character, and picture him in our
+  imagination as a being to whom, a few thousand years ago, altars
+  would have been builded and libations poured out.</p>
+
+  <p>Thus we have to-day in our minds a Washington grand, solemn,
+  and impressive. In this guise he appears as a man of lofty
+  intellect, vast moral force, supremely successful and fortunate,
+  and wholly apart from and above all his fellow-men. This lonely
+  figure rises up to our imagination with all the imperial splendor
+  of the Livian Augustus, and with about as much warmth and life as
+  that unrivaled statue. In this vague but quite serious idea there
+  is a great deal of truth, but not the whole truth. It is the myth
+  of genuine love and veneration springing from the inborn
+  gratitude of man to the founders and chiefs of his race, but it
+  is not by any means the only one of its family. There is another,
+  equally diffused, of wholly different parentage. In its inception
+  this second myth is due to the itinerant parson, bookmaker, and
+  bookseller, Mason Weems. He wrote a brief biography of
+  Washington, of trifling historical value, yet with sufficient
+  literary skill to make it widely popular. It neither appealed to
+  nor was read by the cultivated and instructed few, but it reached
+  the homes of the masses of the people. It found its way to the
+  bench of the mechanic, to the house of the farmer, to the log
+  cabins of the frontiersman and pioneer. It was carried across the
+  continent on the first waves of advancing settlement. Its
+  anecdotes and its simplicity of thought commended it to children
+  both at home and at school, and, passing through edition after
+  edition, its statements were widely spread, and it colored
+  insensibly the ideas of hundreds of persons who never had heard
+  even the name of the author. To Weems we owe the anecdote of the
+  cherry-tree, and other tales of a similar nature. He wrote with
+  Dr. Beattie's life of his son before him as a model, and the
+  result is that Washington comes out in his pages a faultless
+  prig. Whether Weems intended it or not, that is the result which
+  he produced, and that is the Washington who was developed from
+  the wide sale of his book. When this idea took definite and
+  permanent shape it caused a reaction. There was a revolt against
+  it, for the hero thus engendered had qualities which the national
+  sense of humor could not endure in silence. The consequence is,
+  that the Washington of Weems has afforded an endless theme for
+  joke and burlesque. Every professional American humorist almost
+  has tried his hand at it; and with each recurring 22d of February
+  the hard-worked jesters of the daily newspapers take it up and
+  make a little fun out of it, sufficient for the day that is
+  passing over them. The opportunity is tempting, because of the
+  ease with which fun can be made when that fundamental source of
+  humor, a violent contrast, can be employed. But there is no
+  irreverence in it all, for the jest is not aimed at the real
+  Washington, but at the Washington portrayed in the Weems
+  biography. The worthy "rector of Mount Vernon," as he called
+  himself, meant no harm, and there is a good deal of truth, no
+  doubt, in his book. But the blameless and priggish boy, and the
+  equally faultless and uninteresting man, whom he originated, have
+  become in the process of development a myth. So in its further
+  development is the Washington of the humorist a myth. Both alike
+  are utterly and crudely false. They resemble their great original
+  as much as Greenough's classically nude statue, exposed to the
+  incongruities of the North American climate, resembles in dress
+  and appearance the general of our armies and the first President
+  of the United States.</p>
+
+  <p>Such are the myth-makers. They are widely different from the
+  critics who have assailed Washington in a sidelong way, and who
+  can be better dealt with in a later chapter. These last bring
+  charges which can be met; the myth-maker presents a vague
+  conception, extremely difficult to handle because it is so
+  elusive.</p>
+
+  <p>One of our well-known historical scholars and most learned
+  antiquarians, not long ago, in an essay vindicating the
+  "traditional Washington," treated with scorn the idea of a "new
+  Washington" being discovered. In one sense this is quite right,
+  in another totally wrong. There can be no new Washington
+  discovered, because there never was but one. But the real man has
+  been so overlaid with myths and traditions, and so distorted by
+  misleading criticisms, that, as has already been suggested, he
+  has been wellnigh lost. We have the religious or statuesque myth,
+  we have the Weems myth, and the ludicrous myth of the writer of
+  paragraphs. We have the stately hero of Sparks, and Everett, and
+  Marshall, and Irving, with all his great deeds as general and
+  president duly recorded and set down in polished and eloquent
+  sentences; and we know him to be very great and wise and pure,
+  and, be it said with bated breath, very dry and cold. We are also
+  familiar with the common-place man who so wonderfully illustrated
+  the power of character as set forth by various persons, either
+  from love of novelty or because the great chief seemed to get in
+  the way of their own heroes.</p>
+
+  <p>If this is all, then the career of Washington and his towering
+  fame present a problem of which the world has never seen the
+  like. But this cannot be all: there must be more behind. Every
+  one knows the famous Stuart portrait of Washington. The last
+  effort of the artist's cunning is there employed to paint his
+  great subject for posterity. How serene and beautiful it is! It
+  is a noble picture for future ages to look upon. Still it is not
+  all. There is in the dining-room of Memorial Hall at Cambridge
+  another portrait, painted by Savage. It is cold and dry, hard
+  enough to serve for the signboard of an inn, and able, one would
+  think, to withstand all weathers. Yet this picture has something
+  which Stuart left out. There is a rugged strength in the face
+  which gives us pause, there is a massiveness in the jaw, telling
+  of an iron grip and a relentless will, which has infinite
+  meaning.</p>
+
+  <div class="poem">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>"Here's John the Smith's rough-hammered head. Great
+      eye,</p>
+
+      <p>Gross jaw, and griped lips do what granite can</p>
+
+      <p>To give you the crown-grasper. What a man!"</p>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>In death as in life, there is something about Washington, call
+  it greatness, dignity, majesty, what you will, which seems to
+  hold men aloof and keep them from knowing him. In truth he was a
+  most difficult man to know. Carlyle, crying out through hundreds
+  of pages and myriads of words for the "silent man," passed by
+  with a sneer the most absolutely silent great man that history
+  can show. Washington's letters and speeches and messages fill
+  many volumes, but they are all on business. They are profoundly
+  silent as to the writer himself. From this Carlyle concluded
+  apparently that there was nothing to tell,&mdash;a very shallow
+  conclusion if it was the one he really reached. Such an idea was
+  certainly far, very far, from the truth.</p>
+
+  <p>Behind the popular myths, behind the statuesque figure of the
+  orator and the preacher, behind the general and the president of
+  the historian, there was a strong, vigorous man, in whose veins
+  ran warm, red blood, in whose heart were stormy passions and deep
+  sympathy for humanity, in whose brain were far-reaching thoughts,
+  and who was informed throughout his being with a resistless will.
+  The veil of his silence is not often lifted, and never
+  intentionally, but now and then there is a glimpse behind it; and
+  in stray sentences and in little incidents strenuously gathered
+  together; above all, in the right interpretation of the words,
+  and the deeds, and the true history known to all men,&mdash;we
+  can surely find George Washington "the noblest figure that ever
+  stood in the forefront of a nation's life."</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <h2>GEORGE WASHINGTON</h2>
+
+  <h2><a name="I" id="I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+  <h2>THE OLD DOMINION</h2>
+
+  <p>To know George Washington, we must first of all understand the
+  society in which he was born and brought up. As certain lilies
+  draw their colors from the subtle qualities of the soil hidden
+  beneath the water upon which they float, so are men profoundly
+  affected by the obscure and insensible influences which surround
+  their childhood and youth. The art of the chemist may discover
+  perhaps the secret agent which tints the white flower with blue
+  or pink, but very often the elements, which analysis detects,
+  nature alone can combine. The analogy is not strained or fanciful
+  when we apply it to a past society. We can separate, and
+  classify, and label the various elements, but to combine them in
+  such a way as to form a vivid picture is a work of surpassing
+  difficulty. This is especially true of such a land as Virginia in
+  the middle of the last century. Virginian society, as it existed
+  at that period, is utterly extinct. John Randolph said it had
+  departed before the year 1800. Since then another century, with
+  all its manifold changes, has wellnigh come and gone. Most
+  important of all, the last surviving institution of colonial
+  Virginia has been swept away in the crash of civil war, which has
+  opened a gulf between past and present wider and deeper than any
+  that time alone could make.</p>
+
+  <p>Life and society as they existed in the Virginia of the
+  eighteenth century seem, moreover, to have been sharply broken
+  and ended. We cannot trace our steps backward, as is possible in
+  most cases, over the road by which the world has traveled since
+  those days. We are compelled to take a long leap mentally in
+  order to land ourselves securely in the Virginia which honored
+  the second George, and looked up to Walpole and Pitt as the
+  arbiters of its fate.</p>
+
+  <p>We live in a period of great cities, rapid communication, vast
+  and varied business interests, enormous diversity of occupation,
+  great industries, diffused intelligence, farming by steam, and
+  with everything and everybody pervaded by an unresting,
+  high-strung activity. We transport ourselves to the Virginia of
+  Washington's boyhood, and find a people without cities or towns,
+  with no means of communication except what was afforded by rivers
+  and wood roads; having no trades, no industries, no means of
+  spreading knowledge, only one occupation, clumsily performed; and
+  living a quiet, monotonous existence, which can now hardly be
+  realized. It is "a far cry to Loch-Awe," as the Scotch proverb
+  has it; and this old Virginian society, although we should find
+  it sorry work living in it, is both pleasant and picturesque in
+  the pages of history.</p>
+
+  <p>The population of Virginia, advancing toward half a million,
+  and divided pretty equally between the free whites and the
+  enslaved blacks, was densest, to use a most inappropriate word,
+  at the water's edge and near the mouths of the rivers. Thence it
+  crept backwards, following always the lines of the watercourses,
+  and growing ever thinner and more scattered until it reached the
+  Blue Ridge. Behind the mountains was the wilderness, haunted, as
+  old John Lederer said a century earlier, by monsters, and
+  inhabited, as the eighteenth-century Virginians very well knew,
+  by savages and wild beasts, much more real and dangerous than the
+  hobgoblins of their ancestors.</p>
+
+  <p>The population, in proportion to its numbers, was very widely
+  distributed. It was not collected in groups, after the fashion
+  with which we are now familiar, for then there were no cities or
+  towns in Virginia. The only place which could pretend to either
+  name was Norfolk, the solitary seaport, which, with its six or
+  seven thousand inhabitants, formed the most glaring exception
+  that any rule solicitous of proof could possibly desire.
+  Williamsburg, the capital, was a straggling village, somewhat
+  overweighted with the public buildings and those of the college.
+  It would light up into life and vivacity during the season of
+  politics and society, and then relapse again into the country
+  stillness. Outside of Williamsburg and Norfolk there were various
+  points which passed in the catalogue and on the map for towns,
+  but which in reality were merely the shadows of a name. The most
+  populous consisted of a few houses inhabited by storekeepers and
+  traders, some tobacco warehouses, and a tavern, clustered about
+  the church or court-house. Many others had only the church, or,
+  if a county seat, the church and court-house, keeping solitary
+  state in the woods. There once a week the sound of prayer and
+  gossip, or at longer intervals the voices of lawyers and
+  politicians, and the shouts of the wrestlers on the green, broke
+  through the stillness which with the going down of the sun
+  resumed its sway in the forests.</p>
+
+  <p>There was little chance here for that friction of mind with
+  mind, or for that quick interchange of thought and sentiment and
+  knowledge which are familiar to the dwellers in cities, and which
+  have driven forward more rapidly than all else what we call
+  civilization. Rare meetings for special objects with persons as
+  solitary in their lives and as ill-informed as himself,
+  constituted to the average Virginian the world of society, and
+  there was nothing from outside to supply the deficiencies at
+  home. Once a fortnight a mail crawled down from the North, and
+  once a month another crept on to the South. George Washington was
+  four years old when the first newspaper was published in the
+  colony, and he was twenty when the first actors appeared at
+  Williamsburg. What was not brought was not sought. The Virginians
+  did not go down to the sea in ships. They were not a seafaring
+  race, and as they had neither trade nor commerce they were
+  totally destitute of the inquiring, enterprising spirit, and of
+  the knowledge brought by those pursuits which involve travel and
+  adventure. The English tobacco-ships worked their way up the
+  rivers, taking the great staple, and leaving their varied goods,
+  and their tardy news from Europe, wherever they stopped. This was
+  the sum of the information and intercourse which Virginia got
+  from across the sea, for travelers were practically unknown. Few
+  came on business, fewer still from curiosity. Stray peddlers from
+  the North, or trappers from beyond the mountains with their packs
+  of furs, chiefly constituted what would now be called the
+  traveling public. There were in truth no means of traveling
+  except on foot, on horseback, or by boat on the rivers, which
+  formed the best and most expeditious highways. Stage-coaches, or
+  other public conveyances, were unknown. Over some of the roads
+  the rich man, with his six horses and black outriders, might make
+  his way in a lumbering carriage, but most of the roads were
+  little better than woodland paths; and the rivers, innocent of
+  bridges, offered in the uncertain fords abundance of
+  inconvenience, not unmixed with peril. The taverns were
+  execrable, and only the ever-ready hospitality of the people made
+  it possible to get from place to place. The result was that the
+  Virginians stayed at home, and sought and welcomed the rare
+  stranger at their gates as if they were well aware that they were
+  entertaining angels.</p>
+
+  <p>It is not difficult to sift this home-keeping people, and find
+  out that portion which was Virginia, for the mass was but an
+  appendage of the small fraction which ruled, led, and did the
+  thinking for the whole community. Half the people were slaves,
+  and in that single wretched word their history is told. They
+  were, on the whole, well and kindly treated, but they have no
+  meaning in history except as an institution, and as an influence
+  in the lives, feelings, and character of the men who made the
+  state.</p>
+
+  <p>Above the slaves, little better than they in condition, but
+  separated from them by the wide gulf of race and color, were the
+  indented white servants, some convicts, some redemptioners. They,
+  too, have their story told when we have catalogued them. We cross
+  another gulf and come to the farmers, to the men who grew wheat
+  as well as tobacco on their own land, sometimes working alone,
+  sometimes the owners of a few slaves. Some of these men were of
+  the class well known since as the "poor whites" of the South, the
+  weaker brothers who could not resist the poison of slavery, but
+  sank under it into ignorance and poverty. They were contented
+  because their skins were white, and because they were thereby
+  part of an aristocracy to whom labor was a badge of serfdom. The
+  larger portion of this middle class, however, were thrifty and
+  industrious enough. Including as they did in their ranks the
+  hunters and pioneers, the traders and merchants, all the freemen
+  in fact who toiled and worked, they formed the mass of the white
+  population, and furnished the bone and sinew and some of the
+  intellectual power of Virginia. The only professional men were
+  the clergy, for the lawyers were few, and growing to importance
+  only as the Revolution began; while the physicians were still
+  fewer, and as a class of no importance at all. The clergy were a
+  picturesque element in the social landscape, but they were as a
+  body very poor representatives of learning, religion, and
+  morality. They ranged from hedge parsons and Fleet chaplains, who
+  had slunk away from England to find a desirable obscurity in the
+  new world, to divines of real learning and genuine piety, who
+  were the supporters of the college, and who would have been a
+  credit to any society. These last, however, were lamentably few
+  in number. The mass of the clergy were men who worked their own
+  lands, sold tobacco, were the boon companions of the planters,
+  hunted, shot, drank hard, and lived well, performing their sacred
+  duties in a perfunctory and not always in a decent manner.</p>
+
+  <p>The clergy, however, formed the stepping-stone socially
+  between the farmers, traders, and small planters, and the highest
+  and most important class in Virginian society. The great planters
+  were the men who owned, ruled, and guided Virginia. Their vast
+  estates were scattered along the rivers from the seacoast to the
+  mountains. Each plantation was in itself a small village, with
+  the owner's house in the centre, surrounded by outbuildings and
+  negro cabins, and the pastures, meadows, and fields of tobacco
+  stretching away on all sides. The rare traveler, pursuing his
+  devious way on horseback or in a boat, would catch sight of these
+  noble estates opening up from the road or the river, and then the
+  forest would close in around him for several miles, until through
+  the thinning trees he would see again the white cabins and the
+  cleared fields of the next plantation.</p>
+
+  <p>In such places dwelt the Virginian planters, surrounded by
+  their families and slaves, and in a solitude broken only by the
+  infrequent and eagerly welcomed stranger, by their duties as
+  vestrymen and magistrates, or by the annual pilgrimage to
+  Williamsburg in search of society, or to sit in the House of
+  Burgesses. They were occupied by the care of their plantations,
+  which involved a good deal of riding in the open air, but which
+  was at best an easy and indolent pursuit made light by slave
+  labor and trained overseers. As a result the planters had an
+  abundance of spare time, which they devoted to cock-fighting,
+  horse-racing, fishing, shooting, and fox-hunting,&mdash;all, save
+  the first, wholesome and manly sports, but which did not demand
+  any undue mental strain. There is, indeed, no indication that the
+  Virginians had any great love for intellectual exertion. When the
+  amiable attorney-general of Charles II. said to the Virginian
+  commissioners, pleading the cause of learning and religion, "Damn
+  your souls! grow tobacco!" he uttered a precept which the mass of
+  the planters seem to have laid to heart. For fifty years there
+  were no schools, and down to the Revolution even the apologies
+  bearing that honored name were few, and the college was small and
+  struggling. In some of the great families, the eldest sons would
+  be sent to England and to the great universities: they would make
+  the grand tour, play a part in the fashionable society of London,
+  and come back to their plantations fine gentlemen and scholars.
+  Such was Colonel Byrd, in the early part of the eighteenth
+  century, a friend of the Earl of Orrery, and the author of
+  certain amusing memoirs. Such at a later day was Arthur Lee,
+  doctor and diplomat, student and politician. But most of these
+  young gentlemen thus sent abroad to improve their minds and
+  manners led a life not materially different from that of our
+  charming friend, Harry Warrington, after his arrival in
+  England.</p>
+
+  <p>The sons who stayed at home sometimes gathered a little
+  learning from the clergyman of the parish, or received a fair
+  education at the College of William and Mary, but very many did
+  not have even so much as this. There was not in truth much use
+  for learning in managing a plantation or raising horses, and men
+  get along surprisingly well without that which they do not need,
+  especially if the acquisition demands labor. The Virginian
+  planter thought little and read less, and there were no learned
+  professions to hold out golden prizes and stimulate the love of
+  knowledge. The women fared even worse, for they could not go to
+  Europe or to William and Mary's, so that after exhausting the
+  teaching capacity of the parson they settled down to a round of
+  household duties and to the cares of a multitude of slaves,
+  working much harder and more steadily than their lords and
+  masters ever thought of doing.</p>
+
+  <p>The only general form of intellectual exertion was that of
+  governing. The planters managed local affairs through the
+  vestries, and ruled Virginia in the House of Burgesses. To this
+  work they paid strict attention, and, after the fashion of their
+  race, did it very well and very efficiently. They were an
+  extremely competent body whenever they made up their minds to do
+  anything; but they liked the life and habits of Squire Western,
+  and saw no reason for adopting any others until it was
+  necessary.</p>
+
+  <p>There were, of course, vast differences in the condition of
+  the planters. Some counted their acres by thousands and their
+  slaves by hundreds, while others scrambled along as best they
+  might with one plantation and a few score of negroes. Some dwelt
+  in very handsome houses, picturesque and beautiful, like Gunston
+  Hall or Stratford, or in vast, tasteless, and extravagant piles
+  like Rosewell. Others were contented with very modest houses,
+  consisting of one story with a gabled roof, and flanked by two
+  massive chimneys. In some houses there was a brave show of
+  handsome plate and china, fine furniture, and London-made
+  carriages, rich silks and satins, and brocaded dresses. In others
+  there were earthenware and pewter, homespun and woolen, and
+  little use for horses, except in the plough or under the
+  saddle.</p>
+
+  <p>But there were certain qualities common to all the Virginia
+  planters. The luxury was imperfect. The splendor was sometimes
+  barbaric. There were holes in the brocades, and the fresh air of
+  heaven would often blow through a broken window upon the
+  glittering silver and the costly china. It was an easy-going
+  aristocracy, unfinished, and frequently slovenly in its
+  appointments, after the fashion of the warmer climates and the
+  regions of slavery.</p>
+
+  <p>Everything was plentiful except ready money. In this rich and
+  poor were alike. They were all ahead of their income, and it
+  seems as if, from one cause or another, from extravagance or
+  improvidence, from horses or the gaming-table, every Virginian
+  family went through bankruptcy about once in a generation.</p>
+
+  <p>When Harry Warrington arrived in England, all his relations at
+  Castlewood regarded the handsome young fellow as a prince, with
+  his acres and his slaves. It was a natural and pleasing delusion,
+  born of the possession of land and serfs, to which the Virginians
+  themselves gave ready credence. They forgot that the land was so
+  plentiful that it was of little value; that slaves were the most
+  wasteful form of labor; and that a failure of the tobacco crop,
+  pledged before it was gathered, meant ruin, although they had
+  been reminded more than once of this last impressive fact. They
+  knew that they had plenty to eat and drink, and a herd of people
+  to wait upon them and cultivate their land, as well as obliging
+  London merchants always ready to furnish every luxury in return
+  for the mortgage of a crop or an estate. So they gave themselves
+  little anxiety as to the future and lived in the present, very
+  much to their own satisfaction.</p>
+
+  <p>To the communities of trade and commerce, to the mercantile
+  and industrial spirit of to-day, such an existence and such modes
+  of life appear distressingly lax and unprogressive. The sages of
+  the bank parlors and the counting-rooms would shake their heads
+  at such spendthrifts as these, refuse to discount their paper,
+  and confidently predict that by no possibility could they come to
+  good. They had their defects, no doubt, these planters and
+  farmers of Virginia. The life they led was strongly developed on
+  the animal side, and was perhaps neither stimulating nor
+  elevating. The living was the reverse of plain, and the thinking
+  was neither extremely high nor notably laborious. Yet in this
+  very particular there is something rather restful and pleasant to
+  the eye wearied by the sight of incessant movement, and to the
+  ear deafened by the continual shout that nothing is good that
+  does not change, and that all change must be good. We should
+  probably find great discomforts and many unpleasant limitations
+  in the life and habits of a hundred years ago on any part of the
+  globe, and yet at a time when it seems as if rapidity and
+  movement were the last words and the ultimate ideals of
+  civilization, it is rather agreeable to turn to such a community
+  as the eighteenth-century planters of Virginia. They lived
+  contentedly on the acres of their fathers, and except at rare and
+  stated intervals they had no other interests than those furnished
+  by their ancestral domain. At the court-house, at the vestry, or
+  in Williamsburg, they met their neighbors and talked very keenly
+  about the politics of Europe, or the affairs of the colony. They
+  were little troubled about religion, but they worshiped after the
+  fashion of their fathers, and had a serious fidelity to church
+  and king. They wrangled with their governors over appropriations,
+  but they lived on good terms with those eminent persons, and
+  attended state balls at what they called the palace, and danced
+  and made merry with much stateliness and grace. Their every-day
+  life ran on in the quiet of their plantations as calmly as one of
+  their own rivers. The English trader would come and go; the
+  infrequent stranger would be received and welcomed; Christmas
+  would be kept in hearty English fashion; young men from a
+  neighboring estate would ride over through the darkening woods to
+  court, or dance, or play the fiddle, like Patrick Henry or Thomas
+  Jefferson; and these simple events were all that made a ripple on
+  the placid stream. Much time was given to sports, rough, hearty,
+  manly sports, with a spice of danger, and these, with an
+  occasional adventurous dash into the wilderness, kept them sound
+  and strong and brave, both in body and mind. There was nothing
+  languid or effeminate about the Virginian planter. He was a
+  robust man, quite ready to fight or work when the time came, and
+  well fitted to deal with affairs when he was needed. He was a
+  free-handed, hospitable, generous being, not much given to study
+  or thought, but thoroughly public-spirited and keenly alive to
+  the interests of Virginia. Above all things he was an aristocrat,
+  set apart by the dark line of race, color, and hereditary
+  servitude, as proud as the proudest Austrian with his endless
+  quarterings, as sturdy and vigorous as an English yeoman, and as
+  jealous of his rights and privileges as any baron who stood by
+  John at Runnymede. To this aristocracy, careless and indolent,
+  given to rough pleasures and indifferent to the finer and higher
+  sides of life, the call came, as it comes to all men sooner or
+  later, and in response they gave their country soldiers,
+  statesmen, and jurists of the highest order, and fit for the
+  great work they were asked to do. We must go back to Athens to
+  find another instance of a society so small in numbers, and yet
+  capable of such an outburst of ability and force. They were of
+  sound English stock, with a slight admixture of the Huguenots,
+  the best blood of France; and although for a century and a half
+  they had seemed to stagnate in the New World, they were strong,
+  fruitful, and effective beyond the measure of ordinary races when
+  the hour of peril and trial was at hand.</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <h2><a name="II" id="II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+  <h2>THE WASHINGTONS</h2>
+
+  <p>Such was the world and such the community which counted as a
+  small fraction the Washington family. Our immediate concern is
+  with that family, for before we approach the man we must know his
+  ancestors. The greatest leader of scientific thought in this
+  century has come to the aid of the genealogist, and given to the
+  results of the latter's somewhat discredited labors a vitality
+  and meaning which it seemed impossible that dry and dusty
+  pedigrees and barren tables of descent should ever possess. We
+  have always selected our race-horses according to the doctrines
+  of evolution, and we now study the character of a great man by
+  examining first the history of his forefathers.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington made so great an impression upon the world in his
+  lifetime that genealogists at once undertook for him the
+  construction of a suitable pedigree. The excellent Sir Isaac
+  Heard, garter king-at-arms, worked out a genealogy which seemed
+  reasonable enough, and then wrote to the president in relation to
+  it. Washington in reply thanked him for his politeness, sent him
+  the Virginian genealogy of his own branch, and after expressing a
+  courteous interest said, in his simple and direct fashion, that
+  he had been a busy man and had paid but little attention to the
+  subject. His knowledge about his English forefathers was in fact
+  extremely slight. He had heard merely that the first of the name
+  in Virginia had come from one of the northern counties of
+  England, but whether from Lancashire or Yorkshire, or one still
+  more northerly, he could not tell. Sir Isaac was not thoroughly
+  satisfied with the correctness of his own work, but presently
+  Baker took it up in his history of Northamptonshire, and
+  perfected it to his own satisfaction and that of the world in
+  general. This genealogy derived Washington's descent from the
+  owners of the manor of Sulgrave, in Northamptonshire, and thence
+  carried it back to the Norman knight, Sir William de Hertburn.
+  According to this pedigree the Virginian settlers, John and
+  Lawrence, were the sons of Lawrence Washington of Sulgrave Manor,
+  and this genealogy was adopted by Sparks and Irving, as well as
+  by the public at large. Twenty years ago, however, Colonel
+  Chester, by his researches, broke the most essential link in the
+  chain forged by Heard and Baker, proving clearly that the
+  Virginian settlers could not have been the sons of Lawrence of
+  Sulgrave, as identified by the garter king-at-arms. Still more
+  recently the mythical spirit has taken violent possession of the
+  Washington ancestry, and an ingenious gentleman has traced the
+  pedigree of our first president back to Thorfinn and thence to
+  Odin, which is sufficiently remote, dignified, and lofty to
+  satisfy the most exacting Welshman that ever lived. Still the
+  breach made by Colonel Chester was not repaired, although many
+  writers, including some who should have known better, clung with
+  undiminished faith to the Heard pedigree. It was known that
+  Colonel Chester himself believed that he had found the true line,
+  coming, it is supposed, through a younger branch of the Sulgrave
+  race, but he died before he had discovered the one bit of
+  evidence necessary to prove an essential step, and he was too
+  conscientiously accurate to leave anything to conjecture. Since
+  then the researches of Mr. Henry E. Waters have established the
+  pedigree of the Virginian Washingtons, and we are now able to
+  know something of the men from whom George Washington drew his
+  descent.</p>
+
+  <p>In that interesting land where everything, according to our
+  narrow ideas, is upside down, it is customary, when an individual
+  arrives at distinction, to confer nobility upon his ancestors
+  instead of upon his children. The Washingtons offer an
+  interesting example of the application of this Chinese system in
+  the Western world, for, if they have not been actually ennobled
+  in recognition of the deeds of their great descendant, they have
+  at least become the subjects of intense and general interest.
+  Every one of the name who could be discovered anywhere has been
+  dragged forth into the light, and has had all that was known
+  about him duly recorded and set down. By scanning family trees
+  and pedigrees, and picking up stray bits of information here and
+  there, we can learn in a rude and general fashion what manner of
+  men those were who claimed descent from William of Hertburn, and
+  who bore the name of Washington in the mother-country. As Mr.
+  Galton passes a hundred faces before the same highly sensitized
+  plate, and gets a photograph which is a likeness of no one of his
+  subjects, and yet resembles them all, so we may turn the camera
+  of history upon these Washingtons, as they flash up for a moment
+  from the dim past, and hope to obtain what Professor Huxley calls
+  a "generic" picture of the race, even if the outlines be somewhat
+  blurred and indistinct.</p>
+
+  <p>In the North of England, in the region conquered first by
+  Saxons and then by Danes, lies the little village of Washington.
+  It came into the possession of Sir William de Hertburn, and
+  belonged to him at the time of the Boldon Book in 1183. Soon
+  after, he or his descendants took the name of De Wessyngton, and
+  there they remained for two centuries, knights of the palatinate,
+  holding their lands by a military tenure, fighting in all the
+  wars, and taking part in tournaments with becoming splendor. By
+  the beginning of the fifteenth century the line of feudal knights
+  of the palatinate was extinct, and the manor passed from the
+  family by the marriage of Dionisia de Wessyngton. But the main
+  stock had in the mean time thrown out many offshoots, which had
+  taken firm root in other parts and in many counties of England.
+  We hear of several who came in various ways to eminence. There
+  was the learned and vigorous prior of Durham, John de Wessyngton,
+  probably one of the original family, and the name appears in
+  various places after his time in records and on monuments,
+  indicating a flourishing and increasing race. Lawrence
+  Washington, the direct ancestor of the first President of the
+  United States, was, in the sixteenth century, the mayor of
+  Northampton, and received from King Henry VIII. the manor of
+  Sulgrave in 1538. In the next century we find traces of Robert
+  Washington of the Adwick family, a rich merchant of Leeds, and of
+  his son Joseph Washington, a learned lawyer and author, of Gray's
+  Inn. About the same time we hear of Richard Washington and Philip
+  Washington holding high places at University College, Oxford. The
+  Sulgrave branch, however, was the most numerous and prosperous.
+  From the mayor of Northampton were descended Sir William
+  Washington, who married the half-sister of George Villiers, Duke
+  of Buckingham; Sir Henry Washington, who made a desperate defense
+  of Worcester against the forces of the Parliament in 1646;
+  Lieutenant-Colonel James Washington, who fell at the siege of
+  Pontefract, fighting for King Charles; another James, of a later
+  time, who was implicated in Monmouth's rebellion, fled to Holland
+  and became the progenitor of a flourishing and successful family,
+  which has spread to Germany and there been ennobled; Sir Lawrence
+  Washington, of Garsdon, whose grand-daughter married Robert
+  Shirley, Baron Ferrers; and others of less note, but all men of
+  property and standing. They seem to have been a successful,
+  thrifty race, owning lands and estates, wise magistrates and good
+  soldiers, marrying well, and increasing their wealth and strength
+  from generation to generation. They were of Norman stock, knights
+  and gentlemen in the full sense of the word before the French
+  Revolution, and we can detect in them here and there a marked
+  strain of the old Norse blood, carrying with it across the
+  centuries the wild Berserker spirit which for centuries made the
+  adventurous Northmen the terror of Europe. They were a strong
+  race evidently, these Washingtons, whom we see now only by
+  glimpses through the mists of time, not brilliant apparently,
+  never winning the very highest fortune, having their failures and
+  reverses no doubt, but on the whole prudent, bold men, always
+  important in their several stations, ready to fight and ready to
+  work, and as a rule successful in that which they set themselves
+  to do.</p>
+
+  <p>In 1658 the two brothers, John and Lawrence, appeared in
+  Virginia. As has been proved by Mr. Waters, they were of the
+  Sulgrave family, the sons of Lawrence Washington, fifth son of
+  the elder Lawrence of Sulgrave and Brington. The father of the
+  emigrants was a fellow of Brasenose College, Oxford, and rector
+  of Purleigh, from which living he was ejected by the Puritans as
+  both "scandalous" and "malignant." That he was guilty of the
+  former charge we may well doubt; but that he was, in the language
+  of the time, "malignant," must be admitted, for all his family,
+  including his brothers, Sir William Washington of Packington, and
+  Sir John Washington of Thrapston, his nephew, Sir Henry
+  Washington, and his nephew-in-law, William Legge, ancestor of the
+  Earl of Dartmouth, were strongly on the side of the king. In a
+  marriage which seems to have been regarded as beneath the dignity
+  of the family, and in the poverty consequent upon the ejectment
+  from his living, we can find the reason for the sons of the Rev.
+  Lawrence Washington going forth into Virginia to find their
+  fortune, and flying from the world of victorious Puritanism which
+  offered just then so little hope to royalists like themselves.
+  Yet what was poverty in England was something much more agreeable
+  in the New World of America. The emigrant brothers at all events
+  seem to have had resources of a sufficient kind, and to have been
+  men of substance, for they purchased lands and established
+  themselves at Bridges Creek, in Westmoreland County. With this
+  brief statement, Lawrence disappears, leaving us nothing further
+  than the knowledge that he had numerous descendants. John, with
+  whom we are more concerned, figures at once in the colonial
+  records of Maryland. He made complaint to the Maryland
+  authorities, soon after his arrival, against Edward Prescott,
+  merchant, and captain of the ship in which he had come over, for
+  hanging a woman during the voyage for witchcraft. We have a
+  letter of his, explaining that he could not appear at the first
+  trial because he was about to baptize his son, and had bidden the
+  neighbors and gossips to the feast. A little incident this, dug
+  out of the musty records, but it shows us an active, generous
+  man, intolerant of oppression, public-spirited and hospitable,
+  social, and friendly in his new relations. He soon after was
+  called to mourn the death of his English wife and of two
+  children, but he speedily consoled himself by taking a second
+  wife, Anne Pope, by whom he had three children, Lawrence, John,
+  and Anne. According to the Virginian tradition, John Washington
+  the elder was a surveyor, and made a location of lands which was
+  set aside because they had been assigned to the Indians. It is
+  quite apparent that he was a forehanded person who acquired
+  property and impressed himself upon his neighbors. In 1667, when
+  he had been but ten years in the colony, he was chosen to the
+  House of Burgesses; and eight years later he was made a colonel
+  and sent with a thousand men to join the Marylanders in
+  destroying the "Susquehannocks," at the "Piscataway" fort, on
+  account of some murdering begun by another tribe. As a feat of
+  arms, the expedition was not a very brilliant affair. The
+  Virginians and Marylanders killed half a dozen Indian chiefs
+  during a parley, and then invested the fort. After repulsing
+  several sorties, they stupidly allowed the Indians to escape in
+  the night and carry murder and pillage through the outlying
+  settlements, lighting up first the flames of savage war and then
+  the fiercer fire of domestic insurrection. In the next year we
+  hear again of John Washington in the House of Burgesses, when Sir
+  William Berkeley assailed his troops for the murder of the
+  Indians during the parley. Popular feeling, however, was clearly
+  with the colonel, for nothing was done and the matter dropped. At
+  that point, too, in 1676, John Washington disappears from sight,
+  and we know only that as his will was proved in 1677, he must
+  have died soon after the scene with Berkeley. He was buried in
+  the family vault at Bridges Creek, and left a good estate to be
+  divided among his children. The colonel was evidently both a
+  prudent and popular man, and quite disposed to bustle about in
+  the world in which he found himself. He acquired lands, came to
+  the front at once as a leader although a new-comer in the
+  country, was evidently a fighting man as is shown by his
+  selection to command the Virginian forces, and was honored by his
+  neighbors, who gave his name to the parish in which he dwelt.
+  Then he died and his son Lawrence reigned in his stead, and
+  became by his wife, Mildred Warner, the father of John,
+  Augustine, and Mildred Washington.</p>
+
+  <p>This second son, Augustine, farmer and planter like his
+  forefathers, married first Jane Butler, by whom he had three sons
+  and a daughter, and second, Mary Ball, by whom he had four sons
+  and two daughters. The eldest child of these second nuptials was
+  named George, and was born on February 11 (O.S.), 1732, at
+  Bridges Creek. The house in which this event occurred was a
+  plain, wooden farmhouse of the primitive Virginian pattern, with
+  four rooms on the ground floor, an attic story with a long,
+  sloping roof, and a massive brick chimney. Three years after
+  George Washington's birth it is said to have been burned, and the
+  family for this or some other reason removed to another estate in
+  what is now Stafford County. The second house was like the first,
+  and stood on rising ground looking across a meadow to the
+  Rappahannock, and beyond the river to the village of
+  Fredericksburg, which was nearly opposite. Here, in 1743,
+  Augustine Washington died somewhat suddenly, at the age of
+  forty-nine, from an attack of gout brought on by exposure in the
+  rain, and was buried with his fathers in the old vault at Bridges
+  Creek. Here, too, the boyhood of Washington was passed, and
+  therefore it becomes necessary to look about us and see what we
+  can learn of this important period of his life.</p>
+
+  <p>We know nothing about his father, except that he was kindly
+  and affectionate, attached to his wife and children, and
+  apparently absorbed in the care of his estates. On his death the
+  children came wholly under the maternal influence and direction.
+  Much has been written about the "mother of Washington," but as a
+  matter of fact, although she lived to an advanced age, we know
+  scarcely more about her than we do about her husband. She was of
+  gentle birth, and possessed a vigorous character and a good deal
+  of business capacity. The advantages of education were given in
+  but slight measure to the Virginian ladies of her time, and Mrs.
+  Washington offered no exception to the general rule. Her reading
+  was confined to a small number of volumes, chiefly of a
+  devotional character, her favorite apparently being Hale's "Moral
+  and Divine Contemplations." She evidently knew no language but
+  her own, and her spelling was extremely bad even in that age of
+  uncertain orthography. Certain qualities, however, are clear to
+  us even now through all the dimness. We can see that Mary
+  Washington was gifted with strong sense, and had the power of
+  conducting business matters providently and exactly. She was an
+  imperious woman, of strong will, ruling her kingdom alone. Above
+  all she was very dignified, very silent, and very sober-minded.
+  That she was affectionate and loving cannot be doubted, for she
+  retained to the last a profound hold upon the reverential
+  devotion of her son, and yet as he rose steadily to the pinnacle
+  of human greatness, she could only say that "George had been a
+  good boy, and she was sure he would do his duty." Not a brilliant
+  woman evidently, not one suited to shine in courts, conduct
+  intrigues, or adorn literature, yet able to transmit moral
+  qualities to her oldest son, which, mingled with those of the
+  Washingtons, were of infinite value in the foundation of a great
+  Republic. She found herself a widow at an early age, with a
+  family of young children to educate and support. Her means were
+  narrow, for although Augustine Washington was able to leave what
+  was called a landed estate to each son, it was little more than
+  idle capital, and the income in ready money was by no means so
+  evident as the acres.</p>
+
+  <p>Many are the myths, and deplorably few the facts, that have
+  come down to us in regard to Washington's boyhood. For the former
+  we are indebted to the illustrious Weems, and to that personage a
+  few more words must be devoted. Weems has been held up to the
+  present age in various ways, usually, it must be confessed, of an
+  unflattering nature, and "mendacious" is the adjective most
+  commonly applied to him. There has been in reality a good deal of
+  needless confusion about Weems and his book, for he was not a
+  complex character, and neither he nor his writings are difficult
+  to value or understand. By profession a clergyman or preacher, by
+  nature an adventurer, Weems loved notoriety, money, and a
+  wandering life. So he wrote books which he correctly believed
+  would be popular, and sold them not only through the regular
+  channels, but by peddling them himself as he traveled about the
+  country. In this way he gratified all his propensities, and no
+  doubt derived from life a good deal of simple pleasure. Chance
+  brought him near Washington in the closing days, and his
+  commercial instinct told him that here was the subject of all
+  others for his pen and his market. He accordingly produced the
+  biography which had so much success. Judged solely as literature,
+  the book is beneath contempt. The style is turgid, overloaded,
+  and at times silly. The statements are loose, the mode of
+  narration confused and incoherent, and the moralizing is flat and
+  common-place to the last degree. Yet there was a certain
+  sincerity of feeling underneath all the bombast and platitudes,
+  and this saved the book. The biography did not go, and was not
+  intended to go, into the hands of the polite society of the great
+  eastern towns. It was meant for the farmers, the pioneers, and
+  the backwoodsmen of the country. It went into their homes, and
+  passed with them beyond the Alleghanies and out to the plains and
+  valleys of the great West. The very defects of the book helped it
+  to success among the simple, hard-working, hard-fighting race
+  engaged in the conquest of the American continent. To them its
+  heavy and tawdry style, its staring morals, and its real
+  patriotism all seemed eminently befitting the national hero, and
+  thus Weems created the Washington of the popular fancy. The idea
+  grew up with the country, and became so ingrained in the popular
+  thought that finally everybody was affected by it, and even the
+  most stately and solemn of the Washington biographers adopted the
+  unsupported tales of the itinerant parson and book-peddler.</p>
+
+  <p>In regard to the public life of Washington, Weems took the
+  facts known to every one, and drawn for the most part from the
+  gazettes. He then dressed them up in his own peculiar fashion and
+  gave them to the world. All this, forming of course nine tenths
+  of his book, has passed, despite its success, into oblivion. The
+  remaining tenth described Washington's boyhood until his
+  fourteenth or fifteenth year, and this, which is the work of the
+  author's imagination, has lived. Weems, having set himself up as
+  absolutely the only authority as to this period, has been
+  implicitly followed, and has thus come to demand serious
+  consideration. Until Weems is weighed and disposed of, we cannot
+  even begin an attempt to get at the real Washington.</p>
+
+  <p>Weems was not a cold-blooded liar, a mere forger of anecdotes.
+  He was simply a man destitute of historical sense, training, or
+  morals, ready to take the slenderest fact and work it up for the
+  purposes of the market until it became almost as impossible to
+  reduce it to its original dimensions as it was for the fisherman
+  to get the Afrit back into his jar. In a word, Weems was an
+  approved myth-maker. No better example can be given than the way
+  in which he described himself. It is believed that he preached
+  once, and possibly oftener, to a congregation which numbered
+  Washington among its members. Thereupon he published himself in
+  his book as the rector of Mount Vernon parish. There was, to
+  begin with, no such parish. There was Truro parish, in which was
+  a church called indifferently Pohick or Mount Vernon church. Of
+  this church Washington was a vestryman until 1785, when he joined
+  the church at Alexandria. The Rev. Lee Massey was the clergyman
+  of the Mount Vernon church, and the church at Alexandria had
+  nothing to do with Mount Vernon. There never was, moreover, such
+  a person as the rector of Mount Vernon parish, but it was the
+  Weems way of treating his appearance before the great man, and of
+  deceiving the world with the notion of an intimacy which the
+  title implied.</p>
+
+  <p>Weems, of course, had no difficulty with the public life, but
+  in describing the boyhood he was thrown on his own resources, and
+  out of them he evolved the cherry-tree, the refusal to fight or
+  permit fighting among the boys at school, and the initials in the
+  garden. This last story is to the effect that Augustine
+  Washington planted seeds in such a manner that when they sprouted
+  they formed on the earth the initials of his son's name, and the
+  boy being much delighted thereby, the father explained to him
+  that it was the work of the Creator, and thus inculcated a
+  profound belief in God. This tale is taken bodily from Dr.
+  Beattie's biographical sketch of his son, published in England in
+  1799, and may be dismissed at once. As to the other two more
+  familiar anecdotes there is not a scintilla of evidence that they
+  had any foundation, and with them may be included the colt story,
+  told by Mr. Custis, a simple variation of the cherry-tree theme,
+  which is Washington's early love of truth. Weems says that his
+  stories were told him by a lady, and "a good old gentleman," who
+  remembered the incidents, while Mr. Custis gives no authority for
+  his minute account of a trivial event over a century old when he
+  wrote. To a writer who invented the rector of Mount Vernon, the
+  further invention of a couple of Boswells would be a trifle. I
+  say Boswells advisedly, for these stories are told with the
+  utmost minuteness, and the conversations between Washington and
+  his father are given as if from a stenographic report. How Mr.
+  Custis, usually so accurate, came to be so far infected with the
+  Weems myth as to tell the colt story after the Weems manner,
+  cannot now be determined. There can be no doubt that Washington,
+  like most healthy boys, got into a good deal of mischief, and it
+  is not at all impossible that he injured fruit-trees and
+  confessed that he had done so. It may be accepted as certain that
+  he rode and mastered many unbroken thoroughbred colts, and it is
+  possible that one of them burst a blood-vessel in the process and
+  died, and that the boy promptly told his mother of the accident.
+  But this is the utmost credit which these two anecdotes can
+  claim. Even so much as this cannot be said of certain other
+  improving tales of like nature. That Washington lectured his
+  playmates on the wickedness of fighting, and in the year 1754
+  allowed himself to be knocked down in the presence of his
+  soldiers, and thereupon begged his assailant's pardon for having
+  spoken roughly to him, are stories so silly and so foolishly
+  impossible that they do not deserve an instant's
+  consideration.</p>
+
+  <p>There is nothing intrinsically impossible in either the
+  cherry-tree or the colt incident, nor would there be in a hundred
+  others which might be readily invented. The real point is that
+  these stories, as told by Weems and Mr. Custis, are on their face
+  hopelessly and ridiculously false. They are so, not merely
+  because they have no vestige of evidence to support them, but
+  because they are in every word and line the offspring of a period
+  more than fifty years later. No English-speaking people,
+  certainly no Virginians, ever thought or behaved or talked in
+  1740 like the personages in Weems's stories, whatever they may
+  have done in 1790, or at the beginning of the next century. These
+  precious anecdotes belong to the age of Miss Edgeworth and Hannah
+  More and Jane Taylor. They are engaging specimens of the "Harry
+  and Lucy" and "Purple Jar" morality, and accurately reflect the
+  pale didacticism which became fashionable in England at the close
+  of the last century. They are as untrue to nature and to fact at
+  the period to which they are assigned as would be efforts to
+  depict Augustine Washington and his wife in the dress of the
+  French revolution discussing the propriety of worshiping the
+  Goddess of Reason.</p>
+
+  <p>To enter into any serious historical criticism of these
+  stories would be to break a butterfly. So much as this even has
+  been said only because these wretched fables have gone throughout
+  the world, and it is time that they were swept away into the
+  dust-heaps of history. They represent Mr. and Mrs. Washington as
+  affected and priggish people, given to cheap moralizing, and,
+  what is far worse, they have served to place Washington himself
+  in a ridiculous light to an age which has outgrown the
+  educational foibles of seventy-five years ago. Augustine
+  Washington and his wife were a gentleman and lady of the
+  eighteenth century, living in Virginia. So far as we know without
+  guessing or conjecture, they were simple, honest, and
+  straight-forward, devoted to the care of their family and estate,
+  and doing their duty sensibly and after the fashion of their
+  time. Their son, to whom the greatest wrong has been done, not
+  only never did anything common or mean, but from the beginning to
+  the end of his life he was never for an instant ridiculous or
+  affected, and he was as utterly removed from canting or
+  priggishness as any human being could well be. Let us therefore
+  consign the Weems stories and their offspring to the limbo of
+  historical rubbish, and try to learn what the plain facts tell us
+  of the boy Washington.</p>
+
+  <p>Unfortunately these same facts are at first very few, so few
+  that they tell us hardly anything. We know when and where
+  Washington was born; and how, when he was little more than three
+  years old,<a id="footnotetag1-2" name=
+  "footnotetag1-2"></a><a href="#footnote1-2"><sup>1</sup></a> he
+  was taken from Bridges Creek to the banks of the Rappahannock.
+  There he was placed under the charge of one Hobby, the sexton of
+  the parish, to learn his alphabet and his pothooks; and when that
+  worthy man's store of learning was exhausted he was sent back to
+  Bridges Creek, soon after his father's death, to live with his
+  half-brother Augustine, and obtain the benefits of a school kept
+  by a Mr. Williams. There he received what would now be called a
+  fair common-school education, wholly destitute of any instruction
+  in languages, ancient or modern, but apparently with some
+  mathematical training.</p>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote1-2" name="footnote1-2"></a>[<b>Footnote 1:</b>
+    <a href="#footnotetag1-2">(return)</a> There is a conflict
+    about the period of this removal (see above, p. 37). Tradition
+    places it in 1735, but the Rev. Mr. McGuire (<i>Religious
+    Opinions of Washington</i>) puts it in 1739.]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>That he studied faithfully cannot be doubted, and we know,
+  too, that he matured early, and was a tall, active, and muscular
+  boy. He could outwalk and outrun and outride any of his
+  companions. As he could no doubt have thrashed any of them too,
+  he was, in virtue of these qualities, which are respected
+  everywhere by all wholesome minds, and especially by boys, a
+  leader among his school-fellows. We know further that he was
+  honest and true, and a lad of unusual promise, not because of the
+  goody-goody anecdotes of the myth-makers, but because he was
+  liked and trusted by such men as his brother Lawrence and Lord
+  Fairfax.</p>
+
+  <p>There he was, at all events, in his fourteenth year, a big,
+  strong, hearty boy, offering a serious problem to his mother, who
+  was struggling along with many acres, little money, and five
+  children. Mrs. Washington's chief desire naturally was to put
+  George in the way of earning a living, which no doubt seemed far
+  more important than getting an education, and, as he was a
+  sober-minded boy, the same idea was probably profoundly impressed
+  on his own mind also. This condition of domestic affairs led to
+  the first attempt to give Washington a start in life, which has
+  been given to us until very lately in a somewhat decorated form.
+  The fact is, that in casting about for something to do, it
+  occurred to some one, very likely to the boy himself, that it
+  would be a fine idea to go to sea. His masculine friends and
+  relatives urged the scheme upon Mrs. Washington, who consented
+  very reluctantly, if at all, not liking the notion of parting
+  with her oldest son, even in her anxiety to have him earn his
+  bread. When it came to the point, however, she finally decided
+  against his going, determined probably by a very sensible letter
+  from her brother, Joseph Ball, an English lawyer. In all the
+  ornamented versions we are informed that the boy was to enter the
+  royal navy, and that a midshipman's warrant was procured for him.
+  There does not appear to be any valid authority for the royal
+  navy, the warrant, or the midshipman. The contemporary Virginian
+  letters speak simply of "going to sea," while Mr. Ball says
+  distinctly that the plan was to enter the boy on a tobacco-ship,
+  with an excellent chance of being pressed on a man-of-war, and a
+  very faint prospect of either getting into the navy, or even
+  rising to be the captain of one of the petty trading-vessels
+  familiar to Virginian planters. Some recent writers have put Mr.
+  Ball aside as not knowing what was intended in regard to his
+  nephew, but in view of the difficulty at that time of obtaining
+  commissions in the navy without great political influence, it
+  seems probable that Mrs. Washington's brother knew very well what
+  he was talking about, and he certainly wrote a very sensible
+  letter. A bold, adventurous boy, eager to earn his living and
+  make his way in the world, would, like many others before him,
+  look longingly to the sea as the highway to fortune and success.
+  To Washington the romance of the sea was represented by the
+  tobacco-ship creeping up the river and bringing all the luxuries
+  and many of the necessaries of life from vaguely distant
+  countries. No doubt he wished to go on one of these vessels and
+  try his luck, and very possibly the royal navy was hoped for as
+  the ultimate result. The effort was certainly made to send him to
+  sea, but it failed, and he went back to school to study more
+  mathematics.</p>
+
+  <p>Apart from the fact that the exact sciences in moderate degree
+  were about all that Mr. Williams could teach, this branch of
+  learning had an immediate practical value, inasmuch as surveying
+  was almost the only immediately gainful pursuit open to a young
+  Virginia gentleman, who sorely needed a little ready money that
+  he might buy slaves and work a plantation. So Washington studied
+  on for two years more, and fitted himself to be a surveyor. There
+  are still extant some early papers belonging to this period,
+  chiefly fragments of school exercises, which show that he already
+  wrote the bold, handsome hand with which the world was to become
+  familiar, and that he made geometrical figures and notes of
+  surveys with the neatness and accuracy which clung to him in all
+  the work of his life, whether great or small. Among those papers,
+  too, were found many copies of legal forms, and a set of rules,
+  over a hundred in number, as to etiquette and behavior, carefully
+  written out. It has always been supposed that these rules were
+  copied, but it was reserved apparently for the storms of a mighty
+  civil war to lay bare what may have been, if not the source of
+  the rules themselves, the origin and suggestion of their
+  compilation. At that time a little volume was found in Virginia
+  bearing the name of George Washington in a boyish hand on the
+  fly-leaf, and the date 1742. The book was entitled, "The Young
+  Man's Companion." It was an English work, and had passed through
+  thirteen editions, which was little enough in view of its varied
+  and extensive information. It was written by W. Mather, in a
+  plain and easy style, and treated of arithmetic, surveying, forms
+  for legal documents, the measuring of land and lumber, gardening,
+  and many other useful topics, and it contained general precepts
+  which, with the aid of Hale's "Contemplations," may readily have
+  furnished the hints for the rules found in manuscript among
+  Washington's papers.<a id="footnotetag1-3" name=
+  "footnotetag1-3"></a><a href="#footnote1-3"><sup>1</sup></a>
+  These rules were in the main wise and sensible, and it is evident
+  they had occupied deeply the boy's mind.<a id="footnotetag2-4"
+  name="footnotetag2-4"></a><a href="#footnote2-4"><sup>2</sup></a>
+  They are for the most part concerned with the commonplaces of
+  etiquette and good manners, but there is something not only apt
+  but quite prophetic in the last one, "Labor to keep alive in your
+  breast that little spark of celestial fire called conscience." To
+  suppose that Washington's character was formed by these
+  sententious bits of not very profound wisdom would be absurd; but
+  that a series of rules which most lads would have regarded as
+  simply dull should have been written out and pondered by this boy
+  indicates a soberness and thoughtfulness of mind which certainly
+  are not usual at that age. The chief thought that runs through
+  all the sayings is to practice self-control, and no man ever
+  displayed that most difficult of virtues to such a degree as
+  George Washington. It was no ordinary boy who took such a lesson
+  as this to heart before he was fifteen, and carried it into his
+  daily life, never to be forgotten. It may also be said that very
+  few boys ever needed it more; but those persons who know what
+  they chiefly need, and pursue it, are by no means common.</p>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote1-3" name="footnote1-3"></a>[<b>Footnote 1:</b>
+    <a href="#footnotetag1-3">(return)</a> An account of this
+    volume was given in the <i>New York Tribune</i> in 1866, and
+    also in the <i>Historical Magazine</i> (x. 47).]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote2-4" name="footnote2-4"></a>[<b>Footnote 2:</b>
+    <a href="#footnotetag2-4">(return)</a> The most important are
+    given in Sparks' <i>Writings of Washington</i>, ii. 412, and
+    they may be found complete in the little pamphlet concerning
+    them, excellently edited by Dr. J.M. Toner, of Washington.]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <h2><a name="III" id="III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+  <h2>ON THE FRONTIER</h2>
+
+  <p>While Washington was working his way through the learning
+  purveyed by Mr. Williams, he was also receiving another
+  education, of a much broader and better sort, from the men and
+  women among whom he found himself, and with whom he made friends.
+  Chief among them was his eldest brother, Lawrence, fourteen years
+  his senior, who had been educated in England, had fought with
+  Vernon at Carthagena, and had then returned to Virginia, to be to
+  him a generous father and a loving friend. As the head of the
+  family, Lawrence Washington had received the lion's share of the
+  property, including the estate at Hunting Creek, on the Potomac,
+  which he christened Mount Vernon, after his admiral, and where he
+  settled down and built him a goodly house. To this pleasant spot
+  George Washington journeyed often in vacation time, and there he
+  came to live and further pursue his studies, after leaving school
+  in the autumn of 1747.</p>
+
+  <p>Lawrence Washington had married the daughter of William
+  Fairfax, the proprietor of Belvoir, a neighboring plantation, and
+  the agent for the vast estates held by his family in Virginia.
+  George Fairfax, Mrs. Washington's brother, had married a Miss
+  Gary, and thus two large and agreeable family connections were
+  thrown open to the young surveyor when he emerged from school.
+  The chief figure, however, in that pleasant winter of 1747-48, so
+  far as an influence upon the character of Washington is
+  concerned, was the head of the family into which Lawrence
+  Washington had married. Thomas, Lord Fairfax, then sixty years of
+  age, had come to Virginia to live upon and look after the kingdom
+  which he had inherited in the wilderness. He came of a noble and
+  distinguished race. Graduating at Oxford with credit, he served
+  in the army, dabbled in literature, had his fling in the London
+  world, and was jilted by a beauty who preferred a duke, and gave
+  her faithful but less titled lover an apparently incurable wound.
+  His life having been thus early twisted and set awry, Lord
+  Fairfax, when well past his prime, had determined finally to come
+  to Virginia, bury himself in the forests, and look after the
+  almost limitless possessions beyond the Blue Ridge, which he had
+  inherited from his maternal grandfather, Lord Culpeper, of
+  unsavory Restoration memory. It was a piece of great good-fortune
+  which threw in Washington's path this accomplished gentleman,
+  familiar with courts and camps, disappointed, but not morose,
+  disillusioned, but still kindly and generous. From him the boy
+  could gain that knowledge of men and manners which no school can
+  give, and which is as important in its way as any that a teacher
+  can impart.</p>
+
+  <p>Lord Fairfax and Washington became fast friends. They hunted
+  the fox together, and hunted him hard. They engaged in all the
+  rough sports and perilous excitements which Virginia winter life
+  could afford, and the boy's bold and skillful riding, his love of
+  sports and his fine temper, commended him to the warm and
+  affectionate interest of the old nobleman. Other qualities, too,
+  the experienced man of the world saw in his young companion: a
+  high and persistent courage, robust and calm sense, and, above
+  all, unusual force of will and character. Washington impressed
+  profoundly everybody with whom he was brought into personal
+  contact, a fact which is one of the most marked features of his
+  character and career, and one which deserves study more than
+  almost any other. Lord Fairfax was no exception to the rule. He
+  saw in Washington not simply a promising, brave, open-hearted
+  boy, diligent in practicing his profession, and whom he was
+  anxious to help, but something more; something which so impressed
+  him that he confided to this lad a task which, according to its
+  performance, would affect both his fortune and his peace. In a
+  word, he trusted Washington, and told him, as the spring of 1748
+  was opening, to go forth and survey the vast Fairfax estates
+  beyond the Ridge, define their boundaries, and save them from
+  future litigation. With this commission from Lord Fairfax,
+  Washington entered on the first period of his career. He passed
+  it on the frontier, fighting nature, the Indians, and the French.
+  He went in a schoolboy; he came out the first soldier in the
+  colonies, and one of the leading men of Virginia. Let us pause a
+  moment and look at him as he stands on the threshold of this
+  momentous period, rightly called momentous because it was the
+  formative period in the life of such a man.</p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:35%;">
+    <a href="images/illus0383.jpg"><img width="100%" src=
+    "images/illus0383.jpg" alt="LAWRENCE WASHINGTON" /></a>LAWRENCE
+    WASHINGTON
+  </div>
+
+  <p>He had just passed his sixteenth birthday. He was tall and
+  muscular, approaching the stature of more than six feet which he
+  afterwards attained. He was not yet filled out to manly
+  proportions, but was rather spare, after the fashion of youth. He
+  had a well-shaped, active figure, symmetrical except for the
+  unusual length of the arms, indicating uncommon strength. His
+  light brown hair was drawn back from a broad forehead, and
+  grayish-blue eyes looked happily, and perhaps a trifle soberly,
+  on the pleasant Virginia world about him. The face was open and
+  manly, with a square, massive jaw, and a general expression of
+  calmness and strength. "Fair and florid," big and strong, he was,
+  take him for all in all, as fine a specimen of his race as could
+  be found in the English colonies.</p>
+
+  <p>Let us look a little closer through the keen eyes of one who
+  studied many faces to good purpose. The great painter of
+  portraits, Gilbert Stuart, tells us of Washington that he never
+  saw in any man such large eye-sockets, or such a breadth of nose
+  and forehead between the eyes, and that he read there the
+  evidences of the strongest passions possible to human nature.
+  John Bernard the actor, a good observer, too, saw in Washington's
+  face, in 1797, the signs of an habitual conflict and mastery of
+  passions, witnessed by the compressed mouth and deeply indented
+  brow. The problem had been solved then; but in 1748, passion and
+  will alike slumbered, and no man could tell which would prevail,
+  or whether they would work together to great purpose or go
+  jarring on to nothingness. He rises up to us out of the past in
+  that early springtime a fine, handsome, athletic boy, beloved by
+  those about him, who found him a charming companion and did not
+  guess that he might be a terribly dangerous foe. He rises up
+  instinct with life and strength, a being capable, as we know, of
+  great things whether for good or evil, with hot blood pulsing in
+  his veins and beating in his heart, with violent passions and
+  relentless will still undeveloped; and no one in all that jolly,
+  generous Virginian society even dimly dreamed what that
+  development would be, or what it would mean to the world.</p>
+
+  <p>It was in March, 1748, that George Fairfax and Washington set
+  forth on their adventures, and passing through Ashby's Gap in the
+  Blue Ridge, entered the valley of Virginia. Thence they worked
+  their way up the valley of the Shenandoah, surveying as they
+  went, returned and swam the swollen Potomac, surveyed the lands
+  about its south branch and in the mountainous region of Frederick
+  County, and finally reached Mount Vernon again on April 12. It
+  was a rough experience for a beginner, but a wholesome one, and
+  furnished the usual vicissitudes of frontier life. They were wet,
+  cold, and hungry, or warm, dry, and well fed, by turns. They
+  slept in a tent, or the huts of the scattered settlers, and
+  oftener still beneath the stars. They met a war party of Indians,
+  and having plied them with liquor, watched one of their mad
+  dances round the camp-fire. In another place they came on a
+  straggling settlement of Germans, dull, patient, and illiterate,
+  strangely unfit for the life of the wilderness. All these things,
+  as well as the progress of their work and their various
+  resting-places, Washington noted down briefly but methodically in
+  a diary, showing in these rough notes the first evidences of that
+  keen observation of nature and men and of daily incidents which
+  he developed to such good purpose in after-life. There are no
+  rhapsodies and no reflections in these hasty jottings, but the
+  employments and the discomforts are all set down in a simple and
+  matter-of-fact way, which omitted no essential thing and excluded
+  all that was worthless. His work, too, was well done, and Lord
+  Fairfax was so much pleased by the report that he moved across
+  the Blue Ridge, built a hunting lodge preparatory to something
+  more splendid which never came to pass, and laid out a noble
+  manor, to which he gave the name of Greenway Court. He also
+  procured for Washington an appointment as a public surveyor,
+  which conferred authority on his surveys and provided him with
+  regular work. Thus started, Washington toiled at his profession
+  for three years, living and working as he did on his first
+  expedition. It was a rough life, but a manly and robust one, and
+  the men who live it, although often rude and coarse, are never
+  weak or effeminate. To Washington it was an admirable school. It
+  strengthened his muscles and hardened him to exposure and
+  fatigue. It accustomed him to risks and perils of various kinds,
+  and made him fertile in expedients and confident of himself,
+  while the nature of his work rendered him careful and
+  industrious. That his work was well done is shown by the fact
+  that his surveys were considered of the first authority, and
+  stand unquestioned to this day, like certain other work which he
+  was subsequently called to do. It was part of his character, when
+  he did anything, to do it in a lasting fashion, and it is worth
+  while to remember that the surveys he made as a boy were the best
+  that could be made.</p>
+
+  <p>He wrote to a friend at this time: "Since you received my
+  letter of October last, I have not slept above three or four
+  nights in a bed, but, after walking a good deal all the day, I
+  have lain down before the fire upon a little hay, straw, fodder,
+  or a bearskin, whichever was to be had, with man, wife, and
+  children, like dogs and cats; and happy is he who gets the berth
+  nearest the fire. Nothing would make it pass off tolerably but a
+  good reward. A doubloon is my constant gain every day that the
+  weather will permit of my going out, and sometimes six pistoles."
+  He was evidently a thrifty lad, and honestly pleased with honest
+  earnings. He was no mere adventurous wanderer, but a man working
+  for results in money, reputation, or some solid value, and while
+  he worked and earned he kept an observant eye upon the
+  wilderness, and bought up when he could the best land for himself
+  and his family, laying the foundations of the great landed estate
+  of which he died possessed.</p>
+
+  <p>There was also a lighter and pleasanter side to this
+  hard-working existence, which was quite as useful, and more
+  attractive, than toiling in the woods and mountains. The young
+  surveyor passed much of his time at Greenway Court, hunting the
+  fox and rejoicing in all field sports which held high place in
+  that kingdom, while at the same time he profited much in graver
+  fashion by his friendship with such a man as Lord Fairfax. There,
+  too, he had a chance at a library, and his diaries show that he
+  read carefully the history of England and the essays of the
+  "Spectator." Neither in early days nor at any other time was he a
+  student, for he had few opportunities, and his life from the
+  beginning was out of doors and among men. But the idea sometimes
+  put forward that Washington cared nothing for reading or for
+  books is an idle one. He read at Greenway Court and everywhere
+  else when he had an opportunity. He read well, too, and to some
+  purpose, studying men and events in books as he did in the world,
+  for though he never talked of his reading, preserving silence on
+  that as on other things concerning himself, no one ever was able
+  to record an instance in which he showed himself ignorant of
+  history or of literature. He was never a learned man, but so far
+  as his own language could carry him he was an educated one. Thus
+  while he developed the sterner qualities by hard work and a rough
+  life, he did not bring back the coarse habits of the backwoods
+  and the camp-fire, but was able to refine his manners and improve
+  his mind in the excellent society and under the hospitable roof
+  of Lord Fairfax.</p>
+
+  <p>Three years slipped by, and then a domestic change came which
+  much affected Washington's whole life. The Carthagena campaign
+  had undermined the strength of Lawrence Washington and sown the
+  seeds of consumption, which showed itself in 1749, and became
+  steadily more alarming. A voyage to England and a summer at the
+  warm springs were tried without success, and finally, as a last
+  resort, the invalid sailed for the West Indies, in September,
+  1751. Thither his brother George accompanied him, and we have the
+  fragments of a diary kept during this first and last wandering
+  outside his native country. He copied the log, noted the weather,
+  and evidently strove to get some idea of nautical matters while
+  he was at sea and leading a life strangely unfamiliar to a
+  woodsman and pioneer. When they arrived at their destination they
+  were immediately asked to breakfast and dine with Major Clarke,
+  the military magnate of the place, and our young Virginian
+  remarked, with characteristic prudence and a certain touch of
+  grim humor, "We went,&mdash;myself with some reluctance, as the
+  smallpox was in the family." He fell a victim to his good
+  manners, for two weeks later he was "strongly attacked with the
+  smallpox," and was then housed for a month, getting safely and
+  successfully through this dangerous and then almost universal
+  ordeal. Before the disease declared itself, however, he went
+  about everywhere, innocently scattering infection, and greatly
+  enjoying the pleasures of the island. It is to be regretted that
+  any part of this diary should have been lost, for it is pleasant
+  reading, and exhibits the writer in an agreeable and
+  characteristic fashion. He commented on the country and the
+  scenery, inveighed against the extravagance of the charges for
+  board and lodging, told of his dinner-parties and his friends,
+  and noted the marvelous abundance and variety of the tropical
+  fruits, which contrasted strangely with the British dishes of
+  beefsteak and tripe. He also mentioned being treated to a ticket
+  to see the play of "George Barnwell," on which he offered this
+  cautious criticism: "The character of Barnwell and several others
+  were said to be well performed. There was music adapted and
+  regularly conducted."</p>
+
+  <p>Soon after his recovery Washington returned to Virginia,
+  arriving there in February, 1752. The diary concluded with a
+  brief but perfectly effective description of Barbadoes, touching
+  on its resources and scenery, its government and condition, and
+  the manners and customs of its inhabitants. All through these
+  notes we find the keenly observant spirit, and the evidence of a
+  mind constantly alert to learn. We see also a pleasant, happy
+  temperament, enjoying with hearty zest all the pleasures that
+  youth and life could furnish. He who wrote these lines was
+  evidently a vigorous, good-humored young fellow, with a quick eye
+  for the world opening before him, and for the delights as well as
+  the instruction which it offered.</p>
+
+  <p>From the sunshine and ease of this tropical winter Washington
+  passed to a long season of trial and responsibility at home and
+  abroad. In July, 1752, his much-loved brother Lawrence died,
+  leaving George guardian of his daughter, and heir to his estates
+  in the event of that daughter's death. Thus the current of his
+  home life changed, and responsibility came into it, while outside
+  the mighty stream of public events changed too, and swept him
+  along in the swelling torrent of a world-wide war.</p>
+
+  <p>In all the vast wilderness beyond the mountains there was not
+  room for both French and English. The rival nations had been for
+  years slowly approaching each other, until in 1749 each people
+  proceeded at last to take possession of the Ohio country after
+  its own fashion. The French sent a military expedition which sank
+  and nailed up leaden plates; the English formed a great land
+  company to speculate and make money, and both set diligently to
+  work to form Indian alliances. A man of far less perception than
+  Lawrence Washington, who had become the chief manager of the Ohio
+  Company, would have seen that the conditions on the frontier
+  rendered war inevitable, and he accordingly made ready for the
+  future by preparing his brother for the career of a soldier, so
+  far as it could be done. He brought to Mount Vernon two old
+  companions-in-arms of the Carthagena time, Adjutant Muse, a
+  Virginian, and Jacob Van Braam, a Dutch soldier of fortune. The
+  former instructed Washington in the art of war, tactics, and the
+  manual of arms, the latter in fencing and the sword exercise. At
+  the same time Lawrence Washington procured for his brother, then
+  only nineteen years of age, an appointment as one of the
+  adjutants-general of Virginia, with the rank of major. To all
+  this the young surveyor took kindly enough so far as we can tell,
+  but his military avocations were interrupted by his voyage to
+  Barbadoes, by the illness and death of his brother, and by the
+  cares and responsibilities thereby thrust upon him.</p>
+
+  <p>Meantime the French aggressions had continued, and French
+  soldiers and traders were working their way up from the South and
+  down from the North, bullying and cajoling the Indians by turns,
+  taking possession of the Ohio country, and selecting places as
+  they went for that chain of forts which was to hem in and slowly
+  strangle the English settlements. Governor Dinwiddie had sent a
+  commissioner to remonstrate against these encroachments, but his
+  envoy had stopped a hundred and fifty miles short of the French
+  posts, alarmed by the troublous condition of things, and by the
+  defeat and slaughter which the Frenchmen had already inflicted
+  upon the Indians. Some more vigorous person was evidently needed
+  to go through the form of warning France not to trespass on the
+  English wilderness, and thereupon Governor Dinwiddie selected for
+  the task George Washington, recently reappointed adjutant-general
+  of the northern division, and major in the Virginian forces. He
+  was a young man for such an undertaking, not yet twenty-two, but
+  clearly of good reputation. It is plain enough that Lord Fairfax
+  and others had said to the governor, "Here is the very man for
+  you; young, daring, and adventurous, but yet sober-minded and
+  responsible, who only lacks opportunity to show the stuff that is
+  in him."</p>
+
+  <p>Thus, then, in October, 1753, Washington set forth with Van
+  Braam, and various servants and horses, accompanied by the
+  boldest of Virginian frontiersmen, Christopher Gist. He wrote a
+  report in the form of a journal, which was sent to England and
+  much read at the time as part of the news of the day, and which
+  has an equal although different interest now. It is a succinct,
+  clear, and sober narrative. The little party was formed at Will's
+  Creek, and thence through woods and over swollen rivers made its
+  way to Logstown. Here they spent some days among the Indians,
+  whose leaders Washington got within his grasp after much
+  speech-making; and here, too, he met some French deserters from
+  the South, and drew from them all the knowledge they possessed of
+  New Orleans and the military expeditions from that region. From
+  Logstown he pushed on, accompanied by his Indian chiefs, to
+  Venango, on the Ohio, the first French outpost. The French
+  officers asked him to sup with them. The wine flowed freely, the
+  tongues of the hosts were loosened, and the young Virginian,
+  temperate and hard-headed, listened to all the conversation, and
+  noted down mentally much that was interesting and valuable. The
+  next morning the Indian chiefs, prudently kept in the background,
+  appeared, and a struggle ensued between the talkative, clever
+  Frenchmen and the quiet, persistent Virginian, over the
+  possession of these important savages. Finally Washington got
+  off, carrying his chiefs with him, and made his way seventy miles
+  further to the fort on French Creek. Here he delivered the
+  governor's letter, and while M. de St. Pierre wrote a vague and
+  polite answer, he sketched the fort and informed himself in
+  regard to the military condition of the post. Then came another
+  struggle over the Indians, and finally Washington got off with
+  them once more, and worked his way back to Venango. Another
+  struggle for the savages followed, rum being always the principal
+  factor in the negotiation, and at last the chiefs determined to
+  stay behind. Nevertheless, the work had been well done, and the
+  important Half-King remained true to the English cause.</p>
+
+  <p>Leaving his horses, Washington and Gist then took to the woods
+  on foot. The French Indians lay in wait for them and tried to
+  murder them, and Gist, like a true frontiersman, was for shooting
+  the scoundrel whom they captured. But Washington stayed his hand,
+  and they gave the savage the slip and pressed on. It was the
+  middle of December, very cold and stormy. In crossing a river,
+  Washington fell from the raft into deep water, amid the floating
+  ice, but fought his way out, and he and his companion passed the
+  night on an island, with their clothes frozen upon them. So
+  through peril and privation, and various dangers, stopping in the
+  midst of it all to win another savage potentate, they reached the
+  edge of the settlements and thence went on to Williamsburg, where
+  great praise and glory were awarded to the youthful envoy, the
+  hero of the hour in the little Virginia capital.</p>
+
+  <p>It is worth while to pause over this expedition a moment and
+  to consider attentively this journal which recounts it, for there
+  are very few incidents or documents which tell us more of
+  Washington. He was not yet twenty-two when he faced this first
+  grave responsibility, and he did his work absolutely well. Cool
+  courage, of course, he showed, but also patience and wisdom in
+  handling the Indians, a clear sense that the crafty and
+  well-trained Frenchmen could not blind, and a strong faculty for
+  dealing with men, always a rare and precious gift. As in the
+  little Barbadoes diary, so also in this journal, we see, and far
+  more strongly, the penetration and perception that nothing could
+  escape, and which set down all things essential and let the
+  "huddling silver, little worth," go by. The clearness, terseness,
+  and entire sufficiency of the narrative are obvious and lie on
+  the surface; but we find also another quality of the man which is
+  one of the most marked features in his character, and one which
+  we must dwell upon again and again, as we follow the story of his
+  life. Here it is that we learn directly for the first time that
+  Washington was a profoundly silent man. The gospel of silence has
+  been preached in these latter days by Carlyle, with the fervor of
+  a seer and prophet, and the world owes him a debt for the
+  historical discredit which he has brought upon the man of mere
+  words as compared with the man of deeds. Carlyle brushed
+  Washington aside as "a bloodless Cromwell," a phrase to which we
+  must revert later on other grounds, and, as has already been
+  said, failed utterly to see that he was the most supremely silent
+  of the great men of action that the world can show. Like Cromwell
+  and Frederic, Washington wrote countless letters, made many
+  speeches, and was agreeable in conversation. But this was all in
+  the way of business, and a man may be profoundly silent and yet
+  talk a great deal. Silence in the fine and true sense is neither
+  mere holding of the tongue nor an incapacity of expression. The
+  greatly silent man is he who is not given to words for their own
+  sake, and who never talks about himself. Both Cromwell, greatest
+  of Englishmen, and the great Frederic, Carlyle's especial heroes,
+  were fond of talking of themselves. So in still larger measure
+  was Napoleon, and many others of less importance. But Washington
+  differs from them all. He had abundant power of words, and could
+  use them with much force and point when he was so minded, but he
+  never used them needlessly or to hide his meaning, and he never
+  talked about himself. Hence the inestimable difficulty of knowing
+  him. A brief sentence here and there, a rare gleam of light
+  across the page of a letter, is all that we can find. The rest is
+  silence. He did as great work as has fallen to the lot of man, he
+  wrote volumes of correspondence, he talked with innumerable men
+  and women, and of himself he said nothing. Here in this youthful
+  journal we have a narrative of wild adventure, wily diplomacy,
+  and personal peril, impossible of condensation, and yet not a
+  word of the writer's thoughts or feelings. All that was done or
+  said important to the business in hand was set down, and nothing
+  was overlooked, but that is all. The work was done, and we know
+  how it was done, but the man is silent as to all else. Here,
+  indeed, is the man of action and of real silence, a character to
+  be much admired and wondered at in these or any other days.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington's report looked like war, and its author was
+  shortly afterwards appointed lieutenant-colonel of a Virginian
+  regiment, Colonel Fry commanding. Now began that long experience
+  of human stupidity and inefficiency with which Washington was
+  destined to struggle through all the years of his military
+  career, suffering from them, and triumphing in spite of them to a
+  degree unequaled by any other great commander. Dinwiddie, the
+  Scotch governor, was eager enough to fight, and full of energy
+  and good intentions, but he was hasty and not overwise, and was
+  filled with an excessive idea of his prerogatives. The assembly,
+  on its side, was sufficiently patriotic, but its members came
+  from a community which for more than half a century had had no
+  fighting, and they knew nothing of war or its necessities.
+  Unaccustomed to the large affairs into which they were suddenly
+  plunged, they displayed a narrow and provincial spirit. Keenly
+  alive to their own rights and privileges, they were more occupied
+  in quarreling with Dinwiddie than in prosecuting the war. In the
+  weak proprietary governments of Maryland and Pennsylvania there
+  was the same condition of affairs, with every evil exaggerated
+  tenfold. The fighting spirit was dominant in Virginia, but in
+  Quaker-ridden Pennsylvania it seems to have been almost extinct.
+  These three were not very promising communities to look to for
+  support in a difficult and costly war.</p>
+
+  <p>With all this inertia and stupidity Washington was called to
+  cope, and he rebelled against it in vigorous fashion. Leaving
+  Colonel Fry to follow with the main body of troops, Washington
+  set out on April 2, 1754, with two companies from Alexandria,
+  where he had been recruiting amidst most irritating difficulties.
+  He reached Will's Creek three weeks later; and then his real
+  troubles began. Captain Trent, the timid and halting envoy, who
+  had failed to reach the French, had been sent out by the wise
+  authorities to build a fort at the junction of the Alleghany and
+  Monongahela, on the admirable site selected by the keen eye of
+  Washington. There Trent left his men and returned to Will's
+  Creek, where Washington found him, but without the pack-horses
+  that he had promised to provide. Presently news came that the
+  French in overwhelming numbers had swept down upon Trent's little
+  party, captured their fort, and sent them packing back to
+  Virginia. Washington took this to be war, and determined at once
+  to march against the enemy. Having impressed from the
+  inhabitants, who were not bubbling over with patriotism, some
+  horses and wagons, he set out on his toilsome march across the
+  mountains.</p>
+
+  <p>It was a wild and desolate region, and progress was extremely
+  slow. By May 9 he was at the Little Meadows, twenty miles from
+  his starting-place; by the 18th at the Youghiogany River, which
+  he explored and found unnavigable. He was therefore forced to
+  take up his weary march again for the Monongahela, and by the
+  27th he was at the Great Meadows, a few miles further on. The
+  extreme danger of his position does not seem to have occurred to
+  him, but he was harassed and angered by the conduct of the
+  assembly. He wrote to Governor Dinwiddie that he had no idea of
+  giving up his commission. "But," he continued, "let me serve
+  voluntarily; then I will, with the greatest pleasure in life,
+  devote my services to the expedition, without any other reward
+  than the satisfaction of serving my country; but to be slaving
+  dangerously for the shadow of pay, through woods, rocks,
+  mountains,&mdash;I would rather prefer the great toil of a daily
+  laborer, and dig for a maintenance, provided I were reduced to
+  the necessity, than serve upon such ignoble terms; for I really
+  do not see why the lives of his Majesty's subjects in Virginia
+  should be of less value than those in other parts of his American
+  dominions, especially when it is well known that we must undergo
+  double their hardship." Here we have a high-spirited,
+  high-tempered young gentleman, with a contempt for shams that it
+  is pleasant to see, and evidently endowed also with a fine taste
+  for fighting and not too much patience.</p>
+
+  <p>Indignant letters written in vigorous language were, however,
+  of little avail, and Washington prepared to shift for himself as
+  best he might. His Indian allies brought him news that the French
+  were on the march and had thrown out scouting parties. Picking
+  out a place in the Great Meadows for a fort, "a charming field
+  for an encounter," he in his turn sent out a scouting party, and
+  then on fresh intelligence from the Indians set forth himself
+  with forty men to find the enemy. After a toilsome march they
+  discovered their foes in camp. The French, surprised and
+  surrounded, sprang to arms, the Virginians fired, there was a
+  sharp exchange of shots, and all was over. Ten of the French were
+  killed and twenty-one were taken prisoners, only one of the party
+  escaping to carry back the news.</p>
+
+  <p>This little skirmish made a prodigious noise in its day, and
+  was much heralded in France. The French declared that Jumonville,
+  the leader, who fell at the first fire, was foully assassinated,
+  and that he and his party were ambassadors and sacred characters.
+  Paris rang with this fresh instance of British perfidy, and a M.
+  Thomas celebrated the luckless Jumonville in a solemn epic poem
+  in four books. French historians, relying on the account of the
+  Canadian who escaped, adopted the same tone, and at a later day
+  mourned over this black spot on Washington's character. The
+  French view was simple nonsense. Jumonville and his party, as the
+  papers found on Jumonville showed, were out on a spying and
+  scouting expedition. They were seeking to surprise the English
+  when the English surprised them, with the usual backwoods result.
+  The affair has a dramatic interest because it was the first blood
+  shed in a great struggle, and was the beginning of a series of
+  world-wide wars and social and political convulsions, which
+  terminated more than half a century later on the plains of
+  Waterloo. It gave immortality to an obscure French officer by
+  linking his name with that of his opponent, and brought
+  Washington for the moment before the eyes of the world, which
+  little dreamed that this Virginian colonel was destined to be one
+  of the principal figures in the great revolutionary drama to
+  which the war then beginning was but the prologue.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington, for his part, well satisfied with his exploit,
+  retraced his steps, and having sent his prisoners back to
+  Virginia, proceeded to consider his situation. It was not a very
+  cheerful prospect. Contrecoeur, with the main body of the French
+  and Indians, was moving down from the Monongahela a thousand
+  strong. This of course was to have been anticipated, and it does
+  not seem to have in the least damped Washington's spirits. His
+  blood was up, his fighting temper thoroughly roused, and he
+  prepared to push on. Colonel Fry had died meanwhile, leaving
+  Washington in command; but his troops came forward, and also not
+  long after a useless "independent" company from South Carolina.
+  Thus reinforced Washington advanced painfully some thirteen
+  miles, and then receiving sure intelligence of the approach of
+  the French in great force fell back with difficulty to the Great
+  Meadows, where he was obliged by the exhausted condition of his
+  men to stop. He at once resumed work on Fort Necessity, and made
+  ready for a desperate defense, for the French were on his heels,
+  and on July 3 appeared at the Meadows. Washington offered battle
+  outside the fort, and this being declined withdrew to his
+  trenches, and skirmishing went on all day. When night fell it was
+  apparent that the end had come. The men were starved and worn
+  out. Their muskets in many cases were rendered useless by the
+  rain, and their ammunition was spent. The Indians had deserted,
+  and the foe outnumbered them four to one. When the French
+  therefore offered a parley, Washington was forced reluctantly to
+  accept. The French had no stomach for the fight, apparently, and
+  allowed the English to go with their arms, exacting nothing but a
+  pledge that for a year they would not come to the Ohio.</p>
+
+  <p>So ended Washington's first campaign. His friend the
+  Half-King, the celebrated Seneca chief, Thanacarishon, who
+  prudently departed on the arrival of the French, has left us a
+  candid opinion of Washington and his opponents. "The colonel," he
+  said, "was a good-natured man, but had no experience; he took
+  upon him to command the Indians as his slaves, and would have
+  them every day upon the scout and to attack the enemy by
+  themselves, but would by no means take advice from the Indians.
+  He lay in one place from one full moon to the other, without
+  making any fortifications, except that little thing on the
+  meadow; whereas, had he taken advice, and built such
+  fortifications as I advised him, he might easily have beat off
+  the French. But the French in the engagement acted like cowards,
+  and the English like fools."<a id="footnotetag1-5" name=
+  "footnotetag1-5"></a><a href="#footnote1-5"><sup>1</sup></a></p>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote1-5" name="footnote1-5"></a>[<b>Footnote 1:</b>
+    <a href="#footnotetag1-5">(return)</a> <i>Enquiry into the
+    Causes and Alienations of the Delaware and Shawanee
+    Indians</i>, etc. London, 1759. By Charles Thomson, afterwards
+    Secretary of Congress.]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>There is a deal of truth in this opinion. The whole expedition
+  was rash in the extreme. When Washington left Will's Creek he was
+  aware that he was going to meet a force of a thousand men with
+  only a hundred and fifty raw recruits at his back. In the same
+  spirit he pushed on; and after the Jumonville affair, although he
+  knew that the wilderness about him was swarming with enemies, he
+  still struggled forward. When forced to retreat he made a stand
+  at the Meadows and offered battle in the open to his more
+  numerous and more prudent foes, for he was one of those men who
+  by nature regard courage as a substitute for everything, and who
+  have a contempt for hostile odds. He was ready to meet any number
+  of French and Indians with cheerful confidence and with real
+  pleasure. He wrote, in a letter which soon became famous, that he
+  loved to hear bullets whistle, a sage observation which he set
+  down in later years as a folly of youth. Yet this boyish
+  outburst, foolish as it was, has a meaning to us, for it was
+  essentially true. Washington had the fierce fighting temper of
+  the Northmen. He loved battle and danger, and he never ceased to
+  love them and to give way to their excitement, although he did
+  not again set down such sentiments in boastful phrase that made
+  the world laugh. Men of such temper, moreover, are naturally
+  imperious and have a fine disregard of consequences, with the
+  result that their allies, Indian or otherwise, often become
+  impatient and finally useless. The campaign was perfectly wild
+  from the outset, and if it had not been for the utter
+  indifference to danger displayed by Washington, and the
+  consequent timidity of the French, that particular body of
+  Virginians would have been permanently lost to the British
+  Empire.</p>
+
+  <p>But we learn from all this many things. It appears that
+  Washington was not merely a brave man, but one who loved fighting
+  for its own sake. The whole expedition shows an arbitrary temper
+  and the most reckless courage, valuable qualities, but here
+  unrestrained, and mixed with very little prudence. Some important
+  lessons were learned by Washington from the rough teachings of
+  inexorable and unconquerable facts. He received in this campaign
+  the first taste of that severe experience which by its training
+  developed the self-control and mastery of temper for which he
+  became so remarkable. He did not spring into life a perfect and
+  impossible man, as is so often represented. On the contrary, he
+  was educated by circumstances; but the metal came out of the
+  furnace of experience finely tempered, because it was by nature
+  of the best and with but little dross to be purged away. In
+  addition to all this he acquired for the moment what would now be
+  called a European reputation. He was known in Paris as an
+  assassin, and in England, thanks to the bullet letter, as a
+  "fanfaron" and brave braggart. With these results he wended his
+  way home much depressed in spirits, but not in the least
+  discouraged, and fonder of fighting than ever.</p>
+
+  <p>Virginia, however, took a kinder view of the campaign than did
+  her defeated soldier. She appreciated the gallantry of the offer
+  to fight in the open and the general conduct of the troops, and
+  her House of Burgesses passed a vote of thanks to Washington and
+  his officers, and gave money to his men. In August he rejoined
+  his regiment, only to renew the vain struggle against
+  incompetence and extravagance, and as if this were not enough,
+  his sense of honor was wounded and his temper much irritated by
+  the governor's playing false to the prisoners taken in the
+  Jumonville fight. While thus engaged, news came that the French
+  were off their guard at Fort Duquesne, and Dinwiddie was for
+  having the regiment of undisciplined troops march again into the
+  wilderness. Washington, however, had learned something, if not a
+  great deal, and he demonstrated the folly of such an attempt in a
+  manner too clear to be confuted.</p>
+
+  <p>Meantime the Burgesses came together, and more money being
+  voted, Dinwiddie hit on a notable plan for quieting dissensions
+  between regulars and provincials by dividing all the troops into
+  independent companies, with no officer higher than a captain.
+  Washington, the only officer who had seen fighting and led a
+  regiment, resented quite properly this senseless policy, and
+  resigning his commission withdrew to Mount Vernon to manage the
+  estate and attend to his own affairs. He was driven to this
+  course still more strongly by the original cause of Dinwiddie's
+  arrangement. The English government had issued an order that
+  officers holding the king's commission should rank provincial
+  officers, and that provincial generals and field officers should
+  have no rank when a general or field officer holding a royal
+  commission was present. The degradation of being ranked by every
+  whipper-snapper who might hold a royal commission by virtue,
+  perhaps, of being the bastard son of some nobleman's cast-off
+  mistress was more than the temper of George Washington at least
+  could bear, and when Governor Sharpe, general by the king's
+  commission, and eager to secure the services of the best fighter
+  in Virginia, offered him a company and urged his acceptance, he
+  replied in language that must have somewhat astonished his
+  excellency. "You make mention in your letter," he wrote to
+  Colonel Fitzhugh, Governor Sharpe's second in command, "of my
+  continuing in the service, and retaining my colonel's commission.
+  This idea has filled me with surprise; for, if you think me
+  capable of holding a commission that has neither rank nor
+  emolument annexed to it, you must entertain a very contemptible
+  opinion of my weakness, and believe me to be more empty than the
+  commission itself.... In short, every captain bearing the king's
+  commission, every half-pay officer, or others, appearing with
+  such a commission, would rank before me.... Yet my inclinations
+  are strongly bent to arms."</p>
+
+  <p>It was a bitter disappointment to withdraw from military life,
+  but Washington had an intense sense of personal dignity; not the
+  small vanity of a petty mind, but the quality of a proud man
+  conscious of his own strength and purpose. It was of immense
+  value to the American people at a later day, and there is
+  something very instructive in this early revolt against the
+  stupid arrogance which England has always thought it wise to
+  display toward this country. She has paid dearly for indulging
+  it, but it has seldom cost her more than when it drove Washington
+  from her service, and left in his mind a sense of indignity and
+  injustice.</p>
+
+  <p>Meantime this Virginian campaigning had started a great
+  movement. England was aroused, and it was determined to assail
+  France in Nova Scotia, from New York and on the Ohio. In
+  accordance with this plan General Braddock arrived in Virginia
+  February 20, 1755, with two picked regiments, and encamped at
+  Alexandria. Thither Washington used to ride and look longingly at
+  the pomp and glitter, and wish that he wore engaged in the
+  service. Presently this desire became known, and Braddock,
+  hearing of the young Virginian's past experience, offered him a
+  place on his staff with the rank of colonel where he would be
+  subject only to the orders of the general, and could serve as a
+  volunteer. He therefore accepted at once, and threw himself into
+  his new duties with hearty good-will. Every step now was full of
+  instruction. At Annapolis he met the governors of the other
+  colonies, and was interested and attracted by this association
+  with distinguished public men. In the army to which he was
+  attached he studied with the deepest attention the best
+  discipline of Europe, observing everything and forgetting
+  nothing, thus preparing himself unconsciously to use against his
+  teachers the knowledge he acquired.</p>
+
+  <p>He also made warm friends with the English officers, and was
+  treated with consideration by his commander. The universal
+  practice of all Englishmen at that time was to behave
+  contemptuously to the colonists, but there was something about
+  Washington which made this impossible. They all treated him with
+  the utmost courtesy, vaguely conscious that beneath the pleasant,
+  quiet manner there was a strength of character and ability such
+  as is rarely found, and that this was a man whom it was unsafe to
+  affront. There is no stronger instance of Washington's power of
+  impressing himself upon others than that he commanded now the
+  respect and affection of his general, who was the last man to be
+  easily or favorably affected by a young provincial officer.</p>
+
+  <p>Edward Braddock was a veteran soldier, a skilled
+  disciplinarian, and a rigid martinet. He was narrow-minded,
+  brutal, and brave. He had led a fast life in society, indulging
+  in coarse and violent dissipations, and was proud with the
+  intense pride of a limited intelligence and a nature incapable of
+  physical fear. It would be difficult to conceive of a man more
+  unfit to be entrusted with the task of marching through the
+  wilderness and sweeping the French from the Ohio. All the
+  conditions which confronted him were unfamiliar and beyond his
+  experience. He cordially despised the provincials who were
+  essential to his success, and lost no opportunity of showing his
+  contempt for them. The colonists on their side, especially in
+  Pennsylvania, gave him, unfortunately, only too much ground for
+  irritation and disgust. They were delighted to see this brilliant
+  force come from England to fight their battles, but they kept on
+  wrangling and holding back, refusing money and supplies, and
+  doing nothing. Braddock chafed and delayed, swore angrily, and
+  lingered still. Washington strove to help him, but defended his
+  country fearlessly against wholesale and furious attacks.</p>
+
+  <p>Finally the army began to move, but so slowly and after so
+  much delay that they did not reach Will's Creek until the middle
+  of May. Here came another exasperating pause, relieved only by
+  Franklin, who, by giving his own time, ability, and money,
+  supplied the necessary wagons. Then they pushed on again, but
+  with the utmost slowness. With supreme difficulty they made an
+  elaborate road over the mountains as they marched, and did not
+  reach the Little Meadows until June 16. Then at last Braddock
+  turned to his young aide for the counsel which had already been
+  proffered and rejected many times. Washington advised the
+  division of the army, so that the main body could hurry forward
+  in light marching order while a detachment remained behind and
+  brought up the heavy baggage. This plan was adopted, and the army
+  started forward, still too heavily burdened, as Washington
+  thought, but in somewhat better trim for the wilderness than
+  before. Their progress, quickened as it was, still seemed slow to
+  Washington, but he was taken ill with a fever, and finally was
+  compelled by Braddock to stop for rest at the ford of
+  Youghiogany. He made Braddock promise that he should be brought
+  up before the army reached Fort Duquesne, and wrote to his friend
+  Orme that he would not miss the impending battle for five hundred
+  pounds.</p>
+
+  <p>As soon as his fever abated a little he left Colonel Dunbar,
+  and, being unable to sit on a horse, was conveyed to the front in
+  a wagon, coming up with the army on July 8. He was just in time,
+  for the next day the troops forded the Monongahela and marched to
+  attack the fort. The splendid appearance of the soldiers as they
+  crossed the river roused Washington's enthusiasm; but he was not
+  without misgivings. Franklin had already warned Braddock against
+  the danger of surprise, and had been told with a sneer that while
+  these savages might be a formidable enemy to raw American
+  militia, they could make no impression on disciplined troops. Now
+  at the last moment Washington warned the general again and was
+  angrily rebuked.</p>
+
+  <p>The troops marched on in ordered ranks, glittering and
+  beautiful. Suddenly firing was heard in the front, and presently
+  the van was flung back on the main body. Yells and war-whoops
+  resounded on every side, and an unseen enemy poured in a deadly
+  fire. Washington begged Braddock to throw his men into the woods,
+  but all in vain. Fight in platoons they must, or not at all. The
+  result was that they did not fight at all. They became
+  panic-stricken, and huddled together, overcome with fear, until
+  at last when Braddock was mortally wounded they broke in wild
+  rout and fled. Of the regular troops, seven hundred, and of the
+  officers, who showed the utmost bravery, sixty-two out of
+  eighty-six, were killed or wounded. Two hundred Frenchmen and six
+  hundred Indians achieved this signal victory. The only thing that
+  could be called fighting on the English side was done by the
+  Virginians, "the raw American militia," who, spread out as
+  skirmishers, met their foes on their own ground, and were cut off
+  after a desperate resistance almost to a man.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington at the outset flung himself headlong into the
+  fight. He rode up and down the field, carrying orders and
+  striving to rally "the dastards," as he afterwards called the
+  regular troops. He endeavored to bring up the artillery, but the
+  men would not serve the guns, although to set an example he aimed
+  and discharged one himself. All through that dreadful carnage he
+  rode fiercely about, raging with the excitement of battle, and
+  utterly exposed from beginning to end. Even now it makes the
+  heart beat quicker to think of him amid the smoke and slaughter
+  as he dashed hither and thither, his face glowing and his eyes
+  shining with the fierce light of battle, leading on his own
+  Virginians, and trying to stay the tide of disaster. He had two
+  horses shot under him and four bullets through his coat. The
+  Indians thought he bore a charmed life, while his death was
+  reported in the colonies, together with his dying speech, which,
+  he dryly wrote to his brother, he had not yet composed.</p>
+
+  <p>When the troops broke it was Washington who gathered the
+  fugitives and brought off the dying general. It was he who rode
+  on to meet Dunbar, and rallying the fugitives enabled the
+  wretched remnants to take up their march for the settlements. He
+  it was who laid Braddock in the grave four days after the defeat,
+  and read over the dead the solemn words of the English service.
+  Wise, sensible, and active in the advance, splendidly reckless on
+  the day of battle, cool and collected on the retreat, Washington
+  alone emerged from that history of disaster with added glory.
+  Again he comes before us as, above all things, the fighting man,
+  hot-blooded and fierce in action, and utterly indifferent to the
+  danger which excited and delighted him. But the earlier lesson
+  had not been useless. He now showed a prudence and wisdom in
+  counsel which were not apparent in the first of his campaigns,
+  and he no longer thought that mere courage was all-sufficient, or
+  that any enemy could be despised. He was plainly one of those who
+  could learn. His first experience had borne good fruit, and now
+  he had been taught a series of fresh and valuable lessons. Before
+  his eyes had been displayed the most brilliant European
+  discipline, both in camp and on the march. He had studied and
+  absorbed it all, talking with veterans and hearing from them many
+  things that he could have acquired nowhere else. Once more had he
+  been taught, in a way not to be forgotten, that it is never well
+  to underrate one's opponent. He had looked deeper, too, and had
+  seen what the whole continent soon understood, that English
+  troops were not invincible, that they could be beaten by Indians,
+  and that they were after all much like other men. This was the
+  knowledge, fatal in after days to British supremacy, which
+  Braddock's defeat brought to Washington and to the colonists, and
+  which was never forgotten. Could he have looked into the future,
+  he would have seen also in this ill-fated expedition an epitome
+  of much future history. The expedition began with stupid contempt
+  toward America and all things American, and ended in ruin and
+  defeat. It was a bitter experience, much heeded by the colonists,
+  but disregarded by England, whose indifference was paid for at a
+  heavy cost.</p>
+
+  <p>After the hasty retreat, Colonel Dunbar, stricken with panic,
+  fled onward to Philadelphia, abandoning everything, and Virginia
+  was left naturally in a state of great alarm. The assembly came
+  together, and at last, thoroughly frightened, voted abundant
+  money, and ordered a regiment of a thousand men to be raised.
+  Washington, who had returned to Mount Vernon ill and worn-out,
+  was urged to solicit the command, but it was not his way to
+  solicit, and he declined to do so now. August 14, he wrote to his
+  mother: "If it is in my power to avoid going to the Ohio again, I
+  shall; but if the command is pressed upon me by the general voice
+  of the country, and offered upon such terms as cannot be objected
+  against, it would reflect dishonor on me to refuse it." The same
+  day he was offered the command of all the Virginian forces on his
+  own terms, and accepted. Virginia believed in Washington, and he
+  was ready to obey her call.</p>
+
+  <p>He at once assumed command and betook himself to Winchester, a
+  general without an army, but still able to check by his presence
+  the existing panic, and ready to enter upon the trying, dreary,
+  and fruitless work that lay before him. In April, 1757, he wrote:
+  "I have been posted then, for more than twenty months past, upon
+  our cold and barren frontiers, to perform, I think I may say,
+  impossibilities; that is, to protect from the cruel incursions of
+  a crafty, savage enemy a line of inhabitants, of more than three
+  hundred and fifty miles in extent, with a force inadequate to the
+  task." This terse statement covers all that can be said of the
+  next three years. It was a long struggle against a savage foe in
+  front, and narrowness, jealousy, and stupidity behind; apparently
+  without any chance of effecting anything, or gaining any glory or
+  reward. Troops were voted, but were raised with difficulty, and
+  when raised were neglected and ill-treated by the wrangling
+  governor and assembly, which caused much ill-suppressed wrath in
+  the breast of the commander-in-chief, who labored day and night
+  to bring about better discipline in camp, and who wrote long
+  letters to Williamsburg recounting existing evils and praying for
+  a new militia law.</p>
+
+  <p>The troops, in fact, were got out with vast difficulty even
+  under the most stinging necessity, and were almost worthless when
+  they came. Of one "noble captain" who refused to come, Washington
+  wrote: "With coolness and moderation this great captain answered
+  that his wife, family, and corn were all at stake; so were those
+  of his soldiers; therefore it was impossible for him to come.
+  Such is the example of the officers; such the behavior of the
+  men; and upon such circumstances depends the safety of our
+  country!" But while the soldiers were neglected, and the assembly
+  faltered, and the militia disobeyed, the French and Indians kept
+  at work on the long, exposed frontier. There panic reigned,
+  farmhouses and villages went up in smoke, and the fields were
+  reddened with slaughter at each fresh incursion. Gentlemen in
+  Williamsburg bore these misfortunes with reasonable fortitude,
+  but Washington raged against the abuses and the inaction, and
+  vowed that nothing but the imminent danger prevented his
+  resignation. "The supplicating tears of the women," he wrote,
+  "and moving petitions of the men melt me into such deadly sorrow
+  that I solemnly declare, if I know my own mind, I could offer
+  myself a willing sacrifice to the butchering enemy, provided that
+  would contribute to the people's ease." This is one of the rare
+  flashes of personal feeling which disclose the real man, warm of
+  heart and temper, full of human sympathy, and giving vent to hot
+  indignation in words which still ring clear and strong across the
+  century that has come and gone.</p>
+
+  <p>Serious troubles, moreover, were complicated by petty
+  annoyances. A Maryland captain, at the head of thirty men,
+  undertook to claim rank over the Virginian commander-in-chief
+  because he had held a king's commission; and Washington was
+  obliged to travel to Boston in order to have the miserable thing
+  set right by Governor Shirley. This affair settled, he returned
+  to take up again the old disheartening struggle, and his
+  outspoken condemnation of Dinwiddie's foolish schemes and of the
+  shortcomings of the government began to raise up backbiters and
+  malcontents at Williamsburg. "My orders," he said, "are dark,
+  doubtful, and uncertain; to-day approved, to-morrow condemned.
+  Left to act and proceed at hazard, accountable for the
+  consequences, and blamed without the benefit of defense." He
+  determined nevertheless to bear with his trials until the arrival
+  of Lord Loudon, the new commander-in-chief, from whom he expected
+  vigor and improvement. Unfortunately he was destined to have only
+  fresh disappointment from the new general, for Lord Loudon was
+  merely one more incompetent man added to the existing confusion.
+  He paid no heed to the South, matters continued to go badly in
+  the North, and Virginia was left helpless. So Washington toiled
+  on with much discouragement, and the disagreeable attacks upon
+  him increased. That it should have been so is not surprising, for
+  he wrote to the governor, who now held him in much disfavor, to
+  the speaker, and indeed to every one, with a most galling
+  plainness. He was only twenty-five, be it remembered, and his
+  high temper was by no means under perfect control. He was
+  anything but diplomatic at that period of his life, and was far
+  from patient, using language with much sincerity and force, and
+  indulging in a blunt irony of rather a ferocious kind. When he
+  was accused finally of getting up reports of imaginary dangers,
+  his temper gave way entirely. He wrote wrathfully to the governor
+  for justice, and added in a letter to his friend, Captain
+  Peachey: "As to Colonel C.'s gross and infamous reflections on my
+  conduct last spring, it will be needless, I dare say, to observe
+  further at this time than that the liberty which he has been
+  pleased to allow himself in sporting with my character is little
+  else than a comic entertainment, discovering at one view his
+  passionate fondness for your friend, his inviolable love of
+  truth, his unfathomable knowledge, and the masterly strokes of
+  his wisdom in displaying it. You are heartily welcome to make use
+  of any letter or letters which I may at any time have written to
+  you; for although I keep no copies of epistles to my friends, nor
+  can remember the contents of all of them, yet I am sensible that
+  the narrations are just, and that truth and honesty will appear
+  in my writings; of which, therefore, I shall not be ashamed,
+  though criticism may censure my style."</p>
+
+  <p>Perhaps a little more patience would have produced better
+  results, but it is pleasant to find one man, in that period of
+  stupidity and incompetency, who was ready to free his mind in
+  this refreshing way. The only wonder is that he was not driven
+  from his command. That they insisted on keeping him there shows
+  beyond everything that he had already impressed himself so
+  strongly on Virginia that the authorities, although they smarted
+  under his attacks, did not dare to meddle with him. Dinwiddie and
+  the rest could foil him in obtaining a commission in the king's
+  army, but they could not shake his hold upon the people.</p>
+
+  <p>In the winter of 1758 his health broke down completely. He was
+  so ill that he thought that his constitution was seriously
+  injured; and therefore withdrew to Mount Vernon, where he slowly
+  recovered. Meantime a great man came at last to the head of
+  affairs in England, and inspired by William Pitt, fleets and
+  armies went forth to conquer. Reviving at the prospect,
+  Washington offered his services to General Forbes, who had come
+  to undertake the task which Braddock had failed to accomplish.
+  Once more English troops appeared, and a large army was gathered.
+  Then the old story began again, and Washington, whose proffered
+  aid had been gladly received, chafed and worried all summer at
+  the fresh spectacle of delay and stupidity which was presented to
+  him. His advice was disregarded, and all the weary business of
+  building new roads through the wilderness was once more
+  undertaken. A detachment, sent forward contrary to his views, met
+  with the fate of Braddock, and as the summer passed, and autumn
+  changed to winter, it looked as if nothing would be gained in
+  return for so much toil and preparation. But Pitt had conquered
+  the Ohio in Canada, news arrived of the withdrawal of the French,
+  the army pressed on, and, with Washington in the van, marched
+  into the smoking ruins of Fort Duquesne, henceforth to be known
+  to the world as Fort Pitt.</p>
+
+  <p>So closed the first period in Washington's public career. We
+  have seen him pass through it in all its phases. It shows him as
+  an adventurous pioneer, as a reckless frontier fighter, and as a
+  soldier of great promise. He learned many things in this time,
+  and was taught much in the hard school of adversity. In the
+  effort to conquer Frenchmen and Indians he studied the art of
+  war, and at the same time he learned to bear with and to overcome
+  the dullness and inefficiency of the government he served. Thus
+  he was forced to practise self-control in order to attain his
+  ends, and to acquire skill in the management of men. There could
+  have been no better training for the work he was to do in the
+  after years, and the future showed how deeply he profited by it.
+  Let us turn now, for a moment, to the softer and pleasanter side
+  of life, and having seen what Washington was, and what he did as
+  a fighting man, let us try to know him in the equally important
+  and far more attractive domain of private and domestic life.</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <h2><a name="IV" id="IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+  <h2>LOVE AND MARRIAGE</h2>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:35%;">
+    <a href="images/illus0385.jpg"><img width="100%" src=
+    "images/illus0385.jpg" alt="Mary Cary" /></a>Mary Cary
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Lewis Willis, of Fredericksburg, who was at school with
+  Washington, used to speak of him as an unusually studious and
+  industrious boy, but recalled one occasion when he distinguished
+  himself and surprised his schoolmates by "romping with one of the
+  largest girls."<a id="footnotetag1-6" name=
+  "footnotetag1-6"></a><a href="#footnote1-6"><sup>1</sup></a> Half
+  a century later, when the days of romping were long over and
+  gone, a gentleman writing of a Mrs. Hartley, whom Washington much
+  admired, said that the general always liked a fine woman.<a id=
+  "footnotetag2-7" name="footnotetag2-7"></a><a href=
+  "#footnote2-7"><sup>2</sup></a> It is certain that from romping
+  he passed rapidly to more serious forms of expressing regard, for
+  by the time he was fourteen he had fallen deeply in love with
+  Mary Bland of Westmoreland, whom he calls his "Lowland Beauty,"
+  and to whom he wrote various copies of verses, preserved amid the
+  notes of surveys, in his diary for 1747-48. The old tradition
+  identified the "Lowland Beauty" with Miss Lucy Grymes, perhaps
+  correctly, and there are drafts of letters addressed to "Dear
+  Sally," which suggest that the mistake in identification might
+  have arisen from the fact that there were several ladies who
+  answered to that description. In the following sentence from the
+  draft of a letter to a masculine sympathizer, also preserved in
+  the tell-tale diary of 1748, there is certainly an indication
+  that the constancy of the lover was not perfect. "Dear Friend
+  Robin," he wrote: "My place of residence at present is at his
+  Lordship's, where I might, were my heart disengaged, pass my time
+  very pleasantly, as there is a very agreeable young lady in the
+  same house, Colonel George Fairfax's wife's sister. But that only
+  adds fuel to the fire, as being often and unavoidably in company
+  with her revives my former passion for your Lowland Beauty;
+  whereas were I to live more retired from young women, I might in
+  some measure alleviate my sorrow by burying that chaste and
+  troublesome passion in oblivion; I am very well assured that this
+  will be the only antidote or remedy." Our gloomy young gentleman,
+  however, did not take to solitude to cure the pangs of despised
+  love, but preceded to calm his spirits by the society of this
+  same sister-in-law of George Fairfax, Miss Mary Cary. One
+  "Lowland Beauty," Lucy Grymes, married Henry Lee, and became the
+  mother of "Legion Harry," a favorite officer and friend of
+  Washington in the Revolution, and the grandmother of Robert E.
+  Lee, the great soldier of the Southern Confederacy. The affair
+  with Miss Cary went on apparently for some years, fitfully
+  pursued in the intervals of war and Indian fighting, and
+  interrupted also by matters of a more tender nature. The first
+  diversion occurred about 1752, when we find Washington writing to
+  William Fauntleroy, at Richmond, that he proposed to come to his
+  house to see his sister, Miss Betsy, and that he hoped for a
+  revocation of her former cruel sentence.<a id="footnotetag3-8"
+  name="footnotetag3-8"></a><a href="#footnote3-8"><sup>3</sup></a>
+  Miss Betsy, however, seems to have been obdurate, and we hear no
+  more of love affairs until much later, and then in connection
+  with matters of a graver sort.</p>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote1-6" name="footnote1-6"></a>[<b>Footnote 1:</b>
+    <a href="#footnotetag1-6">(return)</a> Quoted from the Willis
+    MS. by Mr. Conway, in <i>Magazine of American History</i>,
+    March, 1887, p. 196.]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote2-7" name="footnote2-7"></a>[<b>Footnote 2:</b>
+    <a href="#footnotetag2-7">(return)</a> <i>Magazine of American
+    History</i>, i. 324.]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote3-8" name="footnote3-8"></a>[<b>Footnote 3:</b>
+    <a href="#footnotetag3-8">(return)</a> <i>Historical
+    Magazine</i>, 3d series, 1873. Letter communicated by Fitzhugh
+    Lee.]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>When Captain Dagworthy, commanding thirty men in the Maryland
+  service, undertook in virtue of a king's commission to outrank
+  the commander-in-chief of the Virginian forces, Washington made
+  up his mind that he would have this question at least finally and
+  properly settled. So, as has been said, he went to Boston, saw
+  Governor Shirley, and had the dispute determined in his own
+  favor. He made the journey on horseback, and had with him two of
+  his aides and two servants. An old letter, luckily preserved,
+  tells us how he looked, for it contains orders to his London
+  agents for various articles, sent for perhaps in anticipation of
+  this very expedition. In Braddock's campaign the young surveyor
+  and frontier soldier had been thrown among a party of dashing,
+  handsomely equipped officers fresh from London, and their
+  appearance had engaged his careful attention. Washington was a
+  thoroughly simple man in all ways, but he was also a man of taste
+  and a lover of military discipline. He had a keen sense of
+  appropriateness, a valuable faculty which stood him in good stead
+  in grave as well as trivial matters all through his career, and
+  which in his youth came out most strongly in the matter of
+  manners and personal appearance. He was a handsome man, and liked
+  to be well dressed and to have everything about himself or his
+  servants of the best. Yet he was not a mere imitator of fashions
+  or devoted to fine clothes. The American leggins and fringed
+  hunting-shirt had a strong hold on his affections, and he
+  introduced them into Forbes's army, and again into the army of
+  the Revolution, as the best uniform for the backwoods fighters.
+  But he learned with Braddock that the dress of parade has as real
+  military value as that of service, and when he traveled northward
+  to settle about Captain Dagworthy, he felt justly that he now was
+  going on parade for the first time as the representative of his
+  troops and his colony. Therefore with excellent sense he dressed
+  as befitted the occasion, and at the same time gratified his own
+  taste.</p>
+
+  <p>Thanks to these precautions, the little cavalcade that left
+  Virginia on February 4, 1756, must have looked brilliant enough
+  as they rode away through the dark woods. First came the colonel,
+  mounted of course on the finest of animals, for he loved and
+  understood horses from the time when he rode bareback in the
+  pasture to those later days when he acted as judge at a
+  horse-race and saw his own pet colt "Magnolia" beaten. In this
+  expedition he wore, of course, his uniform of buff and blue, with
+  a white and scarlet cloak over his shoulders, and a sword-knot of
+  red and gold. His "horse furniture" was of the best London make,
+  trimmed with "livery lace," and the Washington arms were engraved
+  upon the housings. Close by his side rode his two aides, likewise
+  in buff and blue, and behind came his servants, dressed in the
+  Washington colors of white and scarlet and wearing hats laced
+  with silver. Thus accoutred, they all rode on together to the
+  North.</p>
+
+  <p>The colonel's fame had gone before him, for the hero of
+  Braddock's stricken field and the commander of the Virginian
+  forces was known by reputation throughout the colonies. Every
+  door flew open to him as he passed, and every one was delighted
+  to welcome the young soldier. He was dined and wined and
+  f&ecirc;ted in Philadelphia, and again in New York, where he fell
+  in love at apparently short notice with the heiress Mary
+  Philipse, the sister-in-law of his friend Beverly Robinson.
+  Tearing himself away from these attractions he pushed on to
+  Boston, then the most important city on the continent, and the
+  head-quarters of Shirley, the commander-in-chief. The little New
+  England capital had at that time a society which, rich for those
+  days, was relieved from its Puritan sombreness by the gayety and
+  life brought in by the royal officers. Here Washington lingered
+  ten days, talking war and politics with the governor, visiting in
+  state the "great and general court," dancing every night at some
+  ball, dining with and being f&ecirc;ted by the magnates of the
+  town. His business done, he returned to New York, tarried there
+  awhile for the sake of the fair dame, but came to no conclusions,
+  and then, like the soldier in the song, he gave his bridle-rein a
+  shake and rode away again to the South, and to the harassed and
+  ravaged frontier of Virginia.</p>
+
+  <p>How much this little interlude, pushed into a corner as it has
+  been by the dignity of history,&mdash;how much it tells of the
+  real man! How the statuesque myth and the priggish myth and the
+  dull and solemn myth melt away before it! Wise and strong, a
+  bearer of heavy responsibility beyond his years, daring in fight
+  and sober in judgment, we have here the other and the more human
+  side of Washington. One loves to picture that gallant, generous,
+  youthful figure, brilliant in color and manly in form, riding
+  gayly on from one little colonial town to another, feasting,
+  dancing, courting, and making merry. For him the myrtle and ivy
+  were entwined with the laurel, and fame was sweetened by youth.
+  He was righteously ready to draw from life all the good things
+  which fate and fortune then smiling upon him could offer, and he
+  took his pleasure frankly, with an honest heart.</p>
+
+  <p>We know that he succeeded in his mission and put the captain
+  of thirty men in his proper place, but no one now can tell how
+  deeply he was affected by the charms of Miss Philipse. The only
+  certain fact is that he was able not long after to console
+  himself very effectually. Riding away from Mount Vernon once
+  more, in the spring of 1758, this time to Williamsburg with
+  dispatches, he stopped at William's Ferry to dine with his friend
+  Major Chamberlayne, and there he met Martha Dandridge, the widow
+  of Daniel Parke Custis. She was young, pretty, intelligent, and
+  an heiress, and her society seemed to attract the young soldier.
+  The afternoon wore away, the horses came to the door at the
+  appointed time, and after being walked back and forth for some
+  hours were returned to the stable. The sun went down, and still
+  the colonel lingered. The next morning he rode away with his
+  dispatches, but on his return he paused at the White House, the
+  home of Mrs. Custis, and then and there plighted his troth with
+  the charming widow. The wooing was brief and decisive, and the
+  successful lover departed for the camp, to feel more keenly than
+  ever the delays of the British officers and the shortcomings of
+  the colonial government. As soon as Fort Duquesne had fallen he
+  hurried home, resigned his commission in the last week of
+  December, and was married on January 6, 1759. It was a brilliant
+  wedding party which assembled on that winter day in the little
+  church near the White House. There were gathered Francis
+  Fauquier, the gay, free-thinking, high-living governor, gorgeous
+  in scarlet and gold; British officers, redcoated and gold-laced,
+  and all the neighboring gentry in the handsomest clothes that
+  London credit could furnish. The bride was attired in silk and
+  satin, laces and brocade, with pearls on her neck and in her
+  ears; while the bridegroom appeared in blue and silver trimmed
+  with scarlet, and with gold buckles at his knees and on his
+  shoes. After the ceremony the bride was taken home in a coach and
+  six, her husband riding beside her, mounted on a splendid horse
+  and followed by all the gentlemen of the party.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:35%;">
+    <a href="images/illus0387.jpg"><img width="100%" src=
+    "images/illus0387.jpg" alt=
+    "Mary Morris born Mary Philipse" /></a> Mary Morris born Mary
+    Philipse
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The sunshine and glitter of the wedding-day must have appeared
+  to Washington deeply appropriate, for he certainly seemed to have
+  all that heart of man could desire. Just twenty-seven, in the
+  first flush of young manhood, keen of sense and yet wise in
+  experience, life must have looked very fair and smiling. He had
+  left the army with a well-earned fame, and had come home to take
+  the wife of his choice and enjoy the good-will and respect of all
+  men. While away on his last campaign he had been elected a member
+  of the House of Burgesses, and when he took his seat on removing
+  to Williamsburg, three months after his marriage, Mr. Robinson,
+  the speaker, thanked him publicly in eloquent words for his
+  services to the country. Washington rose to reply, but he was so
+  utterly unable to talk about himself that he stood before the
+  House stammering and blushing, until the speaker said, "Sit down,
+  Mr. Washington; your modesty equals your valor, and that
+  surpasses the power of any language I possess." It is an old
+  story, and as graceful as it is old, but it was all very grateful
+  to Washington, especially as the words of the speaker bodied
+  forth the feelings of Virginia. Such an atmosphere, filled with
+  deserved respect and praise, was pleasant to begin with, and then
+  he had everything else too.</p>
+
+  <p>He not only continued to sit in the House year after year and
+  help to rule Virginia, but he served on the church vestry, and so
+  held in his hands the reins of local government. He had married a
+  charming woman, simple, straightforward, and sympathetic, free
+  from gossip or pretense, and as capable in practical matters as
+  he was himself. By right of birth a member of the Virginian
+  aristocracy, he had widened and strengthened his connections
+  through his wife. A man of handsome property by the death of
+  Lawrence Washington's daughter, he had become by his marriage one
+  of the richest men of the country. Acknowledged to be the first
+  soldier on the continent, respected and trusted in public,
+  successful and happy in private life, he had attained before he
+  was thirty to all that Virginia could give of wealth, prosperity,
+  and honor, a fact of which he was well aware, for there never
+  breathed a man more wisely contented than George Washington at
+  this period.</p>
+
+  <p>He made his home at Mount Vernon, adding many acres to the
+  estate, and giving to it his best attention. It is needless to
+  say that he was successful, for that was the ease with everything
+  he undertook. He loved country life, and he was the best and most
+  prosperous planter in Virginia, which was really a more difficult
+  achievement than the mere statement implies. Genuinely profitable
+  farming in Virginia was not common, for the general system was a
+  bad one. A single great staple, easily produced by the reckless
+  exhaustion of land, and varying widely in the annual value of
+  crops, bred improvidence and speculation. Everything was bought
+  upon long credits, given by the London merchants, and this, too,
+  contributed largely to carelessness and waste. The chronic state
+  of a planter in a business way was one of debt, and the lack of
+  capital made his conduct of affairs extravagant and loose. With
+  all his care and method Washington himself was often pinched for
+  ready money, and it was only by his thoroughness and foresight
+  that he prospered and made money while so many of his neighbors
+  struggled with debt and lived on in easy luxury, not knowing what
+  the morrow might bring forth.</p>
+
+  <p>A far more serious trouble than bad business methods was one
+  which was little heeded at the moment, but which really lay at
+  the foundation of the whole system of society and business. This
+  was the character of the labor by which the plantations were
+  worked. Slave labor is well known now to be the most expensive
+  and the worst form of labor that can be employed. In the middle
+  of the eighteenth century, however, its evils were not
+  appreciated, either from an economical or a moral point of view.
+  This is not the place to discuss the subject of African slavery
+  in America. But it is important to know Washington's opinions in
+  regard to an institution which was destined to have such a
+  powerful influence upon the country, and it seems most
+  appropriate to consider those opinions at the moment when slaves
+  became a practical factor in his life as a Virginian planter.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington accepted the system as he found it, as most men
+  accept the social arrangements to which they are born. He grew up
+  in a world where slavery had always existed, and where its
+  rightfulness had never been questioned. Being on the frontier,
+  occupied with surveying and with war, he never had occasion to
+  really consider the matter at all until he found himself at the
+  head of large estates, with his own prosperity dependent on the
+  labor of slaves. The first practical question, therefore, was how
+  to employ this labor to the best advantage. A man of his clear
+  perceptions soon discovered the defects of the system, and he
+  gave great attention to feeding and clothing his slaves, and to
+  their general management. Parkinson<a id="footnotetag1-9" name=
+  "footnotetag1-9"></a><a href="#footnote1-9"><sup>1</sup></a> says
+  in a general way that Washington treated his slaves harshly,
+  spoke to them sharply, and maintained a military discipline, to
+  which he attributed the General's rare success as a planter.
+  There can be no doubt of the success, and the military discipline
+  is probably true, but the statement as to harshness is
+  unsupported by any other authority. Indeed, Parkinson even
+  contradicts it himself, for he says elsewhere that Washington
+  never bought or sold a slave, a proof of the highest and most
+  intelligent humanity; and he adds in his final sketch of the
+  General's character, that he "was incapable of wrong-doing, but
+  did to all men as he would they should do to him. Therefore it is
+  not to be supposed that he would injure the negro." This agrees
+  with what we learn from all other sources. Humane by nature, he
+  conceived a great interest and pity for these helpless beings,
+  and treated them with kindness and forethought. In a word, he was
+  a wise and good master, as well as a successful one, and the
+  condition of his slaves was as happy, and their labor as
+  profitable, as was possible to such a system.</p>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote1-9" name="footnote1-9"></a>[<b>Footnote 1:</b>
+    <a href="#footnotetag1-9">(return)</a> <i>Tour in America</i>,
+    1798-1800.]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>So the years rolled by; the war came and then the making of
+  the government, and Washington's thoughts were turned more and
+  more, as was the case with all the men of his time in that era of
+  change and of new ideas, to the consideration of human slavery in
+  its moral, political, and social aspects. To trace the course of
+  his opinions in detail is needless. It is sufficient to summarize
+  them, for the results of his reflection and observation are more
+  important than the processes by which they were reached.
+  Washington became convinced that the whole system was thoroughly
+  bad, as well as utterly repugnant to the ideas upon which the
+  Revolution was fought and the government of the United States
+  founded. With a prescience wonderful for those days and on that
+  subject, he saw that slavery meant the up-growth in the United
+  States of two systems so radically hostile, both socially and
+  economically, that they could lead only to a struggle for
+  political supremacy, which in its course he feared would imperil
+  the Union. For this reason he deprecated the introduction of the
+  slavery question into the debates of the first Congress, because
+  he realized its character, and he did not believe that the Union
+  or the government at that early day could bear the strain which
+  in this way would be produced. At the same time he felt that a
+  right solution must be found or inconceivable evils would ensue.
+  The inherent and everlasting wrong of the system made its
+  continuance, to his mind, impossible. While it existed, he
+  believed that the laws which surrounded it should be maintained,
+  because he thought that to violate these only added one wrong to
+  another. He also doubted, as will be seen in a later chapter,
+  where his conversation with John Bernard is quoted, whether the
+  negroes could be immediately emancipated with safety either to
+  themselves or to the whites, in their actual condition of
+  ignorance, illiteracy, and helplessness. The plan which he
+  favored, and which, it would seem, was his hope and reliance, was
+  first the checking of importation, followed by a gradual
+  emancipation, with proper compensation to the owners and suitable
+  preparation and education for the slaves. He told the clergymen
+  Asbury and Coke, when they visited him for that purpose, that he
+  was in favor of emancipation, and was ready to write a letter to
+  the assembly to that effect.<a id="footnotetag1-10" name=
+  "footnotetag1-10"></a><a href="#footnote1-10"><sup>1</sup></a> He
+  wished fervently that such a spirit might take possession of the
+  people of the country, but he wrote to Lafayette that he
+  despaired of seeing it. When he died he did all that lay within
+  his power to impress his views upon his countrymen by directing
+  that all his slaves should be set free on the death of his wife.
+  His precepts and his example in this grave matter went unheeded
+  for many years by the generations which came after him. But now
+  that slavery is dead, to the joy of all men, it is well to
+  remember that on this terrible question Washington's opinions
+  were those of a humane man, impatient of wrong, and of a noble
+  and far-seeing statesman, watchful of the evils that threatened
+  his country.<a id="footnotetag2-11" name=
+  "footnotetag2-11"></a><a href=
+  "#footnote2-11"><sup>2</sup></a></p>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote1-10" name="footnote1-10"></a>[<b>Footnote
+    1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-10">(return)</a> <i>Magazine of
+    American History</i>, 1880, p. 158.]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote2-11" name="footnote2-11"></a>[<b>Footnote
+    2:</b> <a href="#footnotetag2-11">(return)</a> For some
+    expressions of Washington's opinions on slavery, see Sparks,
+    viii. 414, ix. 159-163, and x. 224.]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>After this digression let us return to the Virginian farmer,
+  whose mind was not disturbed as yet by thoughts of the destiny of
+  the United States, or considerations of the rights of man, but
+  who was much exercised by the task of making an honest income out
+  of his estates. To do this he grappled with details as firmly as
+  he did with the general system under which all plantations in
+  that day were carried on. He understood every branch of farming;
+  he was on the alert for every improvement; he rose early, worked
+  steadily, gave to everything his personal supervision, kept his
+  own accounts with wonderful exactness, and naturally enough his
+  brands of flour went unquestioned everywhere, his credit was
+  high, and he made money&mdash;so far as it was possible under
+  existing conditions. Like Shakespeare, as Bishop Blougram has it,
+  he</p>
+
+  <div class="poem">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>"Saved money, spent it, owned the worth of things."</p>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>He had no fine and senseless disregard for money or the good
+  things of this world, but on the contrary saw in them not the
+  value attached to them by vulgar minds, but their true worth. He
+  was a solid, square, evenly-balanced man in those days, believing
+  that whatever he did was worth doing well. So he farmed, as he
+  fought and governed, better than anybody else.</p>
+
+  <p>While thus looking after his own estates at home, he went
+  further afield in search of investments, keeping a shrewd eye on
+  the western lands, and buying wisely and judiciously whenever he
+  had the opportunity. He also constituted himself now, as in a
+  later time, the champion of the soldiers, for whom he had the
+  truest sympathy and affection, and a large part of the
+  correspondence of this period is devoted to their claims for the
+  lands granted them by the assembly. He distinguished carefully
+  among them, however, those who were undeserving, and to the major
+  of the regiment, who had been excluded from the public thanks on
+  account of cowardice at the Great Meadows, he wrote as follows:
+  "Your impertinent letter was delivered to me yesterday. As I am
+  not accustomed to receive such from any man, nor would have taken
+  the same language from you personally without letting you feel
+  some marks of my resentment, I would advise you to be cautious in
+  writing me a second of the same tenor. But for your stupidity and
+  sottishness you might have known, by attending to the public
+  gazette, that you had your full quantity of ten thousand acres of
+  land allowed you. But suppose you had really fallen short, do you
+  think your superlative merit entitles you to greater indulgence
+  than others?... All my concern is that I ever engaged in behalf
+  of so ungrateful a fellow as you are." The writer of this letter,
+  be it said in passing, was the man whom Mr. Weems and others tell
+  us was knocked down before his soldiers, and then apologized to
+  his assailant. It may be suspected that it was well for the
+  recipient of this letter that he did not have a personal
+  interview with its author, and it may be doubted if he ever
+  sought one subsequently. Just, generous, and magnanimous to an
+  extraordinary degree, Washington had a dangerous temper, held
+  well under control, but blazing out now and again against
+  injustice, insolence, or oppression. He was a peaceful man,
+  leading a peaceful life, but the fighting spirit only slumbered,
+  and it would break out at wrong of any sort, in a way which was
+  extremely unpleasant and threatening to those who aroused it.</p>
+
+  <p>Apart from lands and money and the management of affairs,
+  public and private, there were many other interests of varied
+  nature which all had their share of Washington's time and
+  thought. He was a devoted husband, and gave to his stepchildren
+  the most affectionate care. He watched over and protected them,
+  and when the daughter died, after a long and wasting illness, in
+  1773, he mourned for her as if she had been his own, with all the
+  tenderness of a deep and reserved affection. The boy, John
+  Custis, he made his friend and companion from the beginning, and
+  his letters to the lad and about him are wise and judicious in
+  the highest degree. He spent much time and thought on the
+  question of education, and after securing the best instructors
+  took the boy to New York and entered him at Columbia College in
+  1773. Young Custis, however, did not remain there long, for he
+  had fallen in love, and the following year was married to Eleanor
+  Calvert, not without some misgivings on the part of Washington,
+  who had observed his ward's somewhat flighty disposition, and who
+  gave a great deal of anxious thought to his future. At home as
+  abroad he was an undemonstrative man, but he had abundance of
+  that real affection which labors for those to whom it goes out
+  more unselfishly and far more effectually than that which bubbles
+  and boils upon the surface like a shallow, noisy brook.</p>
+
+  <p>From the suggestions that he made in regard to young Custis,
+  it is evident that Washington valued and respected education, and
+  that he had that regard for learning for its own sake which
+  always exists in large measure in every thoughtful man. He read
+  well, even if his active life prevented his reading much, as we
+  can see by his vigorous English, and by his occasional allusions
+  to history. From his London orders we see, too, that everything
+  about his house must have denoted that its possessor had
+  refinement and taste. His intense sense of propriety and
+  unfailing instinct for what was appropriate are everywhere
+  apparent. His dress, his furniture, his harnesses, the things for
+  the children, all show the same fondness for simplicity, and yet
+  a constant insistence that everything should be the best of its
+  kind. We can learn a good deal about any man by the ornaments of
+  his house, and by the portraits which hang on his walls; for
+  these dumb things tell us whom among the great men of earth the
+  owner admires, and indicate the tastes he best loves to gratify.
+  When Washington first settled with his wife at Mount Vernon, he
+  ordered from Europe the busts of Alexander the Great, Charles
+  XII. of Sweden, Julius C&aelig;sar, Frederick of Prussia,
+  Marlborough, and Prince Eugene, and in addition he asked for
+  statuettes of "two wild beasts." The combination of soldier and
+  statesman is the predominant admiration, then comes the reckless
+  and splendid military adventurer, and lastly wild life and the
+  chase. There is no mistaking the ideas and fancies of the man who
+  penned this order which has drifted down to us from the past.</p>
+
+  <p>But as Washington's active life was largely out of doors, so
+  too were his pleasures. He loved the fresh open-air existence of
+  the woods and fields, and there he found his one great amusement.
+  He shot and fished, but did not care much for these pursuits, for
+  his hobby was hunting, which gratified at once his passion for
+  horses and dogs and his love for the strong excitement of the
+  chase, when dashed with just enough danger to make it really
+  fascinating. He showed in his sport the same thoroughness and
+  love of perfection that he displayed in everything else. His
+  stables were filled with the best horses that Virginia could
+  furnish. There were the "blooded coach-horses" for Mrs.
+  Washington's carriage, "Magnolia," a full-blooded Arabian, used
+  by his owner for the road, the ponies for the children, and
+  finally, the high-bred hunters Chinkling and Valiant, Ajax and
+  Blueskin, and the rest, all duly set down in the register in the
+  handwriting of the master himself. His first visit in the morning
+  was to the stables; the next to the kennels to inspect and
+  criticise the hounds, also methodically registered and described,
+  so that we can read the names of Vulcan and Ringwood, Singer and
+  Truelove, Music and Sweetlips, to which the Virginian woods once
+  echoed nearly a century and a half ago. His hounds were the
+  subject of much thought, and were so constantly and critically
+  drafted as to speed, keenness, and bottom, that when in full cry
+  they ran so closely bunched that tradition says, in classic
+  phrase, they could have been covered with a blanket. The hounds
+  met three times a week in the season, usually at Mount Vernon,
+  sometimes at Belvoir. They would get off at daybreak, Washington
+  in the midst of his hounds, splendidly mounted, generally on his
+  favorite Blueskin, a powerful iron-gray horse of great speed and
+  endurance. He wore a blue coat, scarlet waistcoat, buckskin
+  breeches, and a velvet cap. Closely followed by his huntsman and
+  the neighboring gentlemen, with the ladies, headed, very likely,
+  by Mrs. Washington in a scarlet habit, he would ride to the
+  appointed covert and throw in. There was no difficulty in
+  finding, and then away they would go, usually after a gray fox,
+  sometimes after a big black fox, rarely to be caught. Most of the
+  country was wild and unfenced, rough in footing, and offering
+  hard and dangerous going for the horses, but Washington always
+  made it a rule to stay with his hounds. Cautious or timid riders,
+  if they were so minded, could gallop along the wood roads with
+  the ladies, and content themselves with glimpses of the hunt, but
+  the master rode at the front. The fields, it is to be feared,
+  were sometimes small, but Washington hunted even if he had only
+  his stepson or was quite alone.</p>
+
+  <p>His diaries abound with allusions to the sport. "Went
+  a-hunting with Jacky Custis, and catched a fox after three hours
+  chase; found it in the creek." "Mr. Bryan Fairfax, Mr. Grayson,
+  and Phil. Alexander came home by sunrise. Hunted and catched a
+  fox with these. Lord Fairfax, his brother, and Colonel Fairfax,
+  all of whom, with Mr. Fairfax and Mr. Wilson of England, dined
+  here." Again, November 26 and 29, "Hunted again with the same
+  party." "1768, Jan. 8th. Hunting again with same company. Started
+  a fox and run him 4 hours. Took the hounds off at night." "Jan.
+  15. Shooting." "16. At home all day with cards; it snowing." "23.
+  Rid to Muddy Hole and directed paths to be cut for foxhunting."
+  "Feb. 12. Catched 2 foxes." "Feb. 13. Catched 2 more foxes."
+  "Mar. 2. Catched fox with bob'd tail and cut ears after 7 hours
+  chase, in which most of the dogs were worsted." "Dec. 5.
+  Fox-hunting with Lord Fairfax and his brother and Colonel
+  Fairfax. Started a fox and lost it. Dined at Belvoir and returned
+  in the evening."<a id="footnotetag1-12" name=
+  "footnotetag1-12"></a><a href=
+  "#footnote1-12"><sup>1</sup></a></p>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote1-12" name="footnote1-12"></a>[<b>Footnote
+    1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-12">(return)</a> MS. Diaries in
+    State Department.]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>So the entries run on, for he hunted almost every day in the
+  season, usually with success, but always with persistence. Like
+  all true sportsmen Washington had a horror of illicit sport of
+  any kind, and although he shot comparatively little, he was much
+  annoyed by a vagabond who lurked in the creeks and inlets on his
+  estate, and slaughtered his canvas-back ducks. Hearing the report
+  of a gun one morning, he rode through the bushes and saw his
+  poaching friend just shoving off in a canoe. The rascal raised
+  his gun and covered his pursuer, whereupon Washington, the
+  cold-blooded and patient person so familiar in the myths, dashed
+  his horse headlong into the water, seized the gun, grasped the
+  canoe, and dragging it ashore pulled the man out of the boat and
+  beat him soundly. If the man had yielded at once he would
+  probably have got off easily enough, but when he put Washington's
+  life in imminent peril, the wild fighting spirit flared up as
+  usual.</p>
+
+  <p>The hunting season was of course that of the most lavish
+  hospitality. There was always a great deal of dining about, but
+  Mount Vernon was the chief resort, and its doors, ever open, were
+  flung far back when people came for a meet, or gathered to talk
+  over the events of a good run. Company was the rule and solitude
+  the exception. When only the family were at dinner, the fact was
+  written down in the diary with great care as an unusual event,
+  for Washington was the soul of hospitality, and although he kept
+  early hours, he loved society and a houseful of people.
+  Profoundly reserved and silent as to himself, a lover of solitude
+  so far as his own thoughts and feelings were concerned, he was
+  far from being a solitary man in the ordinary acceptation of the
+  word. He liked life and gayety and conversation, he liked music
+  and dancing or a game of cards when the weather was bad, and he
+  enjoyed heartily the presence of young people and of his own
+  friends. So Mount Vernon was always full of guests, and the
+  master noted in his diary that although he owned more than a
+  hundred cows he was obliged, nevertheless, to buy butter, which
+  suggests an experience not unknown to gentlemen farmers of any
+  period, and also that company was never lacking in that generous,
+  open house overlooking the Potomac.</p>
+
+  <p>Beyond the bounds of his own estate he had also many
+  occupations and pleasures. He was a member of the House of
+  Burgesses, diligent in his attention to the work of governing the
+  colony. He was diligent also in church affairs, and very active
+  in the vestry, which was the seat of local government in
+  Virginia. We hear of him also as the manager of lotteries, which
+  were a common form of raising money for local purposes, in
+  preference to direct taxation. In a word, he was thoroughly
+  public-spirited, and performed all the small duties which his
+  position demanded in the same spirit that he afterwards brought
+  to the command of armies and to the government of the nation. He
+  had pleasure too, as well as business, away from Mount Vernon. He
+  liked to go to his neighbors' houses and enjoy their hospitality
+  as they enjoyed his. We hear of him at the courthouse on court
+  days, where all the country-side gathered to talk and listen to
+  the lawyers and hear the news, and when he went to Williamsburg
+  his diary tells us of a round of dinners, beginning with the
+  governor, of visits to the club, and of a regular attendance at
+  the theatre whenever actors came to the little capital. Whether
+  at home or abroad, he took part in all the serious pursuits, in
+  all the interests, and in every reasonable pleasure offered by
+  the colony.</p>
+
+  <p>Take it for all in all, it was a manly, wholesome, many-sided
+  life. It kept Washington young and strong, both mentally and
+  physically. When he was forty he flung the iron bar, at some
+  village sports, to a point which no competitor could approach.
+  There was no man in all Virginia who could ride a horse with such
+  a powerful and assured seat. There was no one who could journey
+  farther on foot, and no man at Williamsburg who showed at the
+  governor's receptions such a commanding presence, or who walked
+  with such a strong and elastic step. As with the body so with the
+  mind. He never rusted. A practical carpenter and smith, he
+  brought the same quiet intelligence and firm will to the forging
+  of iron or the felling and sawing of trees that he had displayed
+  in fighting France. The life of a country gentleman did not dull
+  or stupefy him, or lead him to gross indulgences. He remained
+  well-made and athletic, strong and enduring, keen in perception
+  and in sense, and warm in his feelings and affections. Many men
+  would have become heavy and useless in these years of quiet
+  country life, but Washington simply ripened, and, like all slowly
+  maturing men, grew stronger, abler, and wiser in the happy years
+  of rest and waiting which intervened between youth and middle
+  age.</p>
+
+  <p>Meantime, while the current of daily life flowed on thus
+  gently at Mount Vernon, the great stream of public events poured
+  by outside. It ran very calmly at first, after the war, and then
+  with a quickening murmur, which increased to an ominous roar when
+  the passage of the Stamp Act became known in America. Washington
+  was always a constant attendant at the assembly, in which by
+  sheer force of character, and despite his lack of the talking and
+  debating faculty, he carried more weight than any other member.
+  He was present on May 29, 1765, when Patrick Henry introduced his
+  famous resolutions and menaced the king's government in words
+  which rang through the continent. The resolutions were adopted,
+  and Washington went home, with many anxious thoughts, to discuss
+  the political outlook with his friend and neighbor George Mason,
+  one of the keenest and ablest men in Virginia. The utter folly of
+  the policy embodied in the Stamp Act struck Washington very
+  forcibly. With that foresight for which he was so remarkable, he
+  perceived what scarcely any one else even dreamt of, that
+  persistence in this course must surely lead to a violent
+  separation from the mother-country, and it is interesting to note
+  in this, the first instance when he was called upon to consider a
+  political question of great magnitude, his clearness of vision
+  and grasp of mind. In what he wrote there is no trace of the
+  ambitious schemer, no threatening nor blustering, no undue
+  despondency nor excited hopes. But there is a calm understanding
+  of all the conditions, an entire freedom from self-deception, and
+  the power of seeing facts exactly as they were, which were all
+  characteristic of his intellectual strength, and to which we
+  shall need to recur again and again.</p>
+
+  <p>The repeal of the Stamp Act was received by Washington with
+  sober but sincere pleasure. He had anticipated "direful" results
+  and "unhappy consequences" from its enforcement, and he freely
+  said that those who were instrumental in its repeal had his
+  cordial thanks. He was no agitator, and had not come forward in
+  this affair, so he now retired again to Mount Vernon, to his
+  farming and hunting, where he remained, watching very closely the
+  progress of events. He had marked the dangerous reservation of
+  the principle in the very act of repeal; he observed at Boston
+  the gathering strength of what the wise ministers of George III.
+  called sedition; he noted the arrival of British troops in the
+  rebellious Puritan town; and he saw plainly enough, looming in
+  the background, the final appeal to arms. He wrote to Mason
+  (April 5, 1769), that "at a time when our lordly masters in Great
+  Britain will be satisfied with nothing less than the deprivation
+  of American freedom, something should be done to avert the stroke
+  and maintain the liberty which we have derived from our
+  ancestors. But the manner of doing it, to answer the purpose
+  effectually, is the point in question. That no man should scruple
+  or hesitate a moment to use arms in defense of so valuable a
+  blessing is clearly my opinion. Yet arms, I would beg leave to
+  add, should be the last resource, the <i>dernier ressort</i>." He
+  then urged the adoption of the only middle course,
+  non-importation, but he had not much hope in this expedient,
+  although an honest desire is evident that it may prove
+  effectual.</p>
+
+  <p>When the assembly met in May, they received the new governor,
+  Lord Botetourt, with much cordiality, and then fell to passing
+  spirited and sharp-spoken resolutions declaring their own rights
+  and defending Massachusetts. The result was a dissolution.
+  Thereupon the burgesses repaired to the Raleigh tavern, where
+  they adopted a set of non-importation resolutions and formed an
+  association. The resolutions were offered by Washington, and were
+  the result of his quiet country talks with Mason. When the moment
+  for action arrived, Washington came naturally to the front, and
+  then returned quietly to Mount Vernon, once more to go about his
+  business and watch the threatening political horizon. Virginia
+  did not live up to this first non-importation agreement, and
+  formed another a year later. But Washington was not in the habit
+  of presenting resolutions merely for effect, and there was
+  nothing of the actor in his composition. His resolutions meant
+  business, and he lived up to them rigidly himself. Neither tea
+  nor any of the proscribed articles were allowed in his house.
+  Most of the leaders did not realize the seriousness of the
+  situation, but Washington, looking forward with clear and sober
+  gaze, was in grim earnest, and was fully conscious that when he
+  offered his resolutions the colony was trying the last peaceful
+  remedy, and that the next step would be war.</p>
+
+  <p>Still he went calmly about his many affairs as usual, and
+  gratified the old passion for the frontier by a journey to
+  Pittsburgh for the sake of lands and soldiers' claims, and thence
+  down the Ohio and into the wilderness with his old friends the
+  trappers and pioneers. He visited the Indian villages as in the
+  days of the French mission, and noted in the savages an ominous
+  restlessness, which seemed, like the flight of birds, to express
+  the dumb instinct of an approaching storm. The clouds broke away
+  somewhat under the kindly management of Lord Botetourt, and then
+  gathered again more thickly on the accession of his successor,
+  Lord Dunmore. With both these gentlemen Washington was on the
+  most friendly terms. He visited them often, and was consulted by
+  them, as it behooved them to consult the strongest man within the
+  limits of their government. Still he waited and watched, and
+  scanned carefully the news from the North. Before long he heard
+  that tea-chests were floating in Boston harbor, and then from
+  across the water came intelligence of the passage of the Port
+  Bill and other measures destined to crush to earth the little
+  rebel town.</p>
+
+  <p>When the Virginia assembly met again, they proceeded to
+  congratulate the governor on the arrival of Lady Dunmore, and
+  then suddenly, as all was flowing smoothly along, there came a
+  letter through the corresponding committee which Washington had
+  helped to establish, telling of the measures against Boston.
+  Everything else was thrown aside at once, a vigorous protest was
+  entered on the journal of the House, and June 1, when the Port
+  Bill was to go into operation, was appointed a day of fasting,
+  humiliation, and prayer. The first result was prompt dissolution
+  of the assembly. The next was another meeting in the long room of
+  the Raleigh tavern, where the Boston bill was denounced,
+  non-importation renewed, and the committee of correspondence
+  instructed to take steps for calling a general congress. Events
+  were beginning to move at last with perilous rapidity. Washington
+  dined with Lord Dunmore on the evening of that day, rode with
+  him, and appeared at her ladyship's ball the next night, for it
+  was not his way to bite his thumb at men from whom he differed
+  politically, nor to call the motives of his opponents in
+  question. But when the 1st of June arrived, he noted in his diary
+  that he fasted all day and attended the appointed services. He
+  always meant what he said, being of a simple nature, and when he
+  fasted and prayed there was something ominously earnest about it,
+  something that his excellency the governor, who liked the society
+  of this agreeable man and wise counselor, would have done well to
+  consider and draw conclusions from, and which he probably did not
+  heed at all. He might well have reflected, as he undoubtedly
+  failed to do, that when men of the George Washington type fast
+  and pray on account of political misdoings, it is well for their
+  opponents to look to it carefully.</p>
+
+  <p>Meantime Boston had sent forth appeals to form a league among
+  the colonies, and thereupon another meeting was held in the
+  Raleigh tavern, and a letter was dispatched advising the
+  burgesses to consider this matter of a general league and take
+  the sense of their respective counties. Virginia and
+  Massachusetts had joined hands now, and they were sweeping the
+  rest of the continent irresistibly forward with them. As for
+  Washington, he returned to Mount Vernon and at once set about
+  taking the sense of his county, as he had agreed. Before doing so
+  he had some correspondence with his old friend Bryan Fairfax. The
+  Fairfaxes naturally sided with the mother-country, and Bryan was
+  much distressed by the course of Virginia, and remonstrated
+  strongly, and at length by letter, against violent measures.
+  Washington replied to him: "Does it not appear as clear as the
+  sun in its meridian brightness that there is a regular,
+  systematic plan formed to fix the right and practice of taxation
+  on us? Does not the uniform conduct of Parliament for some years
+  past confirm this? Do not all the debates, especially those just
+  brought to us in the House of Commons, on the side of government
+  expressly declare that America must be taxed in aid of the
+  British funds, and that she has no longer resources within
+  herself? Is there anything to be expected from petitioning after
+  this? Is not the attack upon the liberty and property of the
+  people of Boston, before restitution of the loss to the India
+  Company was demanded, a plain and self-evident proof of what they
+  are aiming at? Do not the subsequent bills (now I dare say acts)
+  for depriving the Massachusetts Bay of its charter, and for
+  transporting offenders into other colonies, or to Great Britain
+  for trial, where it is impossible from the nature of the thing
+  that justice can be obtained, convince us that the administration
+  is determined to stick at nothing to carry its point? Ought we
+  not, then, to put our virtue and fortitude to the severest test?"
+  He was prepared, he continued, for anything except confiscating
+  British debts, which struck him as dishonorable. These were plain
+  but pregnant questions, but what we mark in them, and in all his
+  letters of this time, is the absence of constitutional
+  discussion, of which America was then full. They are confined to
+  a direct presentation of the broad political question, which
+  underlay everything. Washington always went straight to the mark,
+  and he now saw, through all the dust of legal and constitutional
+  strife, that the only real issue was whether America was to be
+  allowed to govern herself in her own way or not. In the acts of
+  the ministry he perceived a policy which aimed at substantial
+  power, and he believed that such a policy, if insisted on, could
+  have but one result.</p>
+
+  <p>The meeting of Fairfax County was held in due course, and
+  Washington presided. The usual resolutions for self-government
+  and against the vindictive Massachusetts measures were adopted.
+  Union and non-importation were urged; and then the congress,
+  which they advocated, was recommended to address a petition and
+  remonstrance to the king, and ask him to reflect that "from our
+  sovereign there can be but one appeal." Everything was to be
+  tried, everything was to be done, but the ultimate appeal was
+  never lost sight of where Washington appeared, and the final
+  sentence of these Fairfax County resolves is very characteristic
+  of the leader in the meeting. Two days later he wrote to the
+  worthy and still remonstrating Bryan Fairfax, repeating and
+  enlarging his former questions, and adding: "Has not General
+  Gage's conduct since his arrival, in stopping the address of his
+  council, and publishing a proclamation more becoming a Turkish
+  bashaw than an English governor, declaring it treason to
+  associate in any manner by which the commerce of Great Britain is
+  to be affected,&mdash;has not this exhibited an unexampled
+  testimony of the most despotic system of tyranny that ever was
+  practiced in a free government?... Shall we after this whine and
+  cry for relief, when we have already tried it in vain? Or shall
+  we supinely sit and see one province after another fall a
+  sacrifice to despotism?" The fighting spirit of the man was
+  rising. There was no rash rushing forward, no ignorant shouting
+  for war, no blinking of the real issue, but a foresight that
+  nothing could dim, and a perception of facts which nothing could
+  confuse. On August 1 Washington was at Williamsburg, to represent
+  his county in the meeting of representatives from all Virginia.
+  The convention passed resolutions like the Fairfax resolves, and
+  chose delegates to a general congress. The silent man was now
+  warming into action. He "made the most eloquent speech that ever
+  was made," and said, "I will raise a thousand men, subsist them
+  at my own expense, and march them to the relief of Boston." He
+  was capable, it would seem, of talking to the purpose with some
+  fire and force, for all he was so quiet and so retiring. When
+  there was anything to say, he could say it so that it stirred all
+  who listened, because they felt that there was a mastering
+  strength behind the words. He faced the terrible issue solemnly
+  and firmly, but his blood was up, the fighting spirit in him was
+  aroused, and the convention chose him as one of Virginia's six
+  delegates to the Continental Congress. He lingered long enough to
+  make a few preparations at Mount Vernon. He wrote another letter
+  to Fairfax, interesting to us as showing the keenness with which
+  he read in the meagre news-reports the character of Gage and of
+  the opposing people of Massachusetts. Then he started for the
+  North to take the first step on the long and difficult path that
+  lay before him.</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <h2><a name="V" id="V"></a> CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+  <h2>TAKING COMMAND</h2>
+
+  <p>In the warm days of closing August, a party of three gentlemen
+  rode away from Mount Vernon one morning, and set out upon their
+  long journey to Philadelphia. One cannot help wondering whether a
+  tender and somewhat sad remembrance did not rise in Washington's
+  mind, as he thought of the last time he had gone northward,
+  nearly twenty years before. Then, he was a light-hearted young
+  soldier, and he and his aides, albeit they went on business, rode
+  gayly through the forests, lighting the road with the bright
+  colors they wore and with the glitter of lace and arms, while
+  they anticipated all the pleasures of youth in the new lands they
+  were to visit. Now, he was in the prime of manhood, looking into
+  the future with prophetic eyes, and sober as was his wont when
+  the shadow of coming responsibility lay dark upon his path. With
+  him went Patrick Henry, four years his junior, and Edmund
+  Pendleton, now past threescore. They were all quiet and grave
+  enough, no doubt; but Washington, we may believe, was gravest of
+  all, because, being the most truthful of men to himself as to
+  others, he saw more plainly what was coming. So they made their
+  journey to the North, and on the memorable 5th of September they
+  met with their brethren from the other colonies in Carpenters'
+  Hall in Philadelphia.</p>
+
+  <p>The Congress sat fifty-one days, occupied with debates and
+  discussion. Few abler, more honest, or more memorable bodies of
+  men have ever assembled to settle the fate of nations. Much
+  debate, great and earnest in all directions, resulted in a
+  declaration of colonial rights, in an address to the king, in
+  another to the people of Canada, and a third to the people of
+  Great Britain; masterly state papers, seldom surpassed, and
+  extorting even then the admiration of England. In these debates
+  and state papers Washington took no part that is now apparent on
+  the face of the record. He was silent in the Congress, and if he
+  was consulted, as he unquestionably was by the committees, there
+  is no record of it now. The simple fact was that his time had not
+  come. He saw men of the most acute minds, liberal in education,
+  patriotic in heart, trained in law and in history, doing the work
+  of the moment in the best possible way. If anything had been done
+  wrongly, or had been left undone, Washington would have found his
+  voice quickly enough, and uttered another of the "most eloquent
+  speeches ever made," as he did shortly before in the Virginia
+  convention. He could speak in public when need was, but now there
+  was no need and nothing to arouse him. The work of Congress
+  followed the line of policy adopted by the Virginia convention,
+  and that had proceeded along the path marked out in the Fairfax
+  resolves, so that Washington could not be other than content. He
+  occupied his own time, as we see by notes in his diary, in
+  visiting the delegates from the other colonies, and in informing
+  himself as to their ideas and purposes, and those of the people
+  whom they represented. He was quietly working for the future, the
+  present being well taken care of. Yet this silent man, going
+  hither and thither, and chatting pleasantly with this member or
+  that, was in some way or other impressing himself deeply on all
+  the delegates, for Patrick Henry said: "If you speak of solid
+  information and sound judgment, Colonel Washington is
+  unquestionably the greatest man on the floor."</p>
+
+  <p>We have a letter, written at just this time, which shows us
+  how Washington felt, and we see again how his spirit rose as he
+  saw more and more clearly that the ultimate issue was inevitable.
+  The letter is addressed to Captain Mackenzie, a British officer
+  at Boston, and an old friend. "Permit me," he began, "with the
+  freedom of a friend (for you know I always esteemed you), to
+  express my sorrow that fortune should place you in a service that
+  must fix curses to the latest posterity upon the contrivers, and,
+  if success (which, by the by, is impossible) accompanies it,
+  execrations upon all those who have been instrumental in the
+  execution." This was rather uncompromising talk and not over
+  peaceable, it must be confessed. He continued: "Give me leave to
+  add, and I think I can announce it as a fact, that it is not the
+  wish or intent of that government [Massachusetts], or any other
+  upon this continent, separately or collectively, to set up for
+  independence; but this you may at the same time rely on, that
+  none of them will ever submit to the loss of those valuable
+  rights and privileges which are essential to the happiness of
+  every free state, and without which life, liberty, and property
+  are rendered totally insecure.... Again give me leave to add as
+  my opinion that more blood will be spilled on this occasion, if
+  the ministry are determined to push matters to extremity, than
+  history has ever yet furnished instances of in the annals of
+  North America, and such a vital wound will be given to the peace
+  of this great country, as time itself cannot cure or eradicate
+  the remembrance of." Washington was not a political agitator like
+  Sam Adams, planning with unerring intelligence to bring about
+  independence. On the contrary, he rightly declared that
+  independence was not desired. But although he believed in
+  exhausting every argument and every peaceful remedy, it is
+  evident that he felt that there now could be but one result, and
+  that violent separation from the mother country was inevitable.
+  Here is where he differed from his associates and from the great
+  mass of the people, and it is to this entire veracity of mind
+  that his wisdom and foresight were so largely due, as well as his
+  success when the time came for him to put his hand to the
+  plough.</p>
+
+  <p>When Congress adjourned, Washington returned to Mount Vernon,
+  to the pursuits and pleasures that he loved, to his family and
+  farm, and to his horses and hounds, with whom he had many a good
+  run, the last that he was to enjoy for years to come. He returned
+  also to wait and watch as before, and to see war rapidly gather
+  in the east. When the Virginia convention again assembled,
+  resolutions were introduced to arm and discipline men, and Henry
+  declared in their support that an "appeal to arms and to the God
+  of Hosts" was all that was left. Washington said nothing, but he
+  served on the committee to draft a plan of defense, and then fell
+  to reviewing the independent companies which were springing up
+  everywhere. At the same time he wrote to his brother John, who
+  had raised a troop, that he would accept the command of it if
+  desired, as it was his "full intention to devote his life and
+  fortune in the cause we are engaged in, if needful." At Mount
+  Vernon his old comrades of the French war began to appear, in
+  search of courage and sympathy. Thither, too, came Charles Lee, a
+  typical military adventurer of that period, a man of English
+  birth and of varied service, brilliant, whimsical, and
+  unbalanced. There also came Horatio Gates, likewise British, and
+  disappointed with his prospects at home; less adventurous than
+  Lee, but also less brilliant, and not much more valuable.</p>
+
+  <p>Thus the winter wore away; spring opened, and toward the end
+  of April Washington started again for the North, much occupied
+  with certain tidings from Lexington and Concord which just then
+  spread over the land. He saw all that it meant plainly enough,
+  and after noting the fact that the colonists fought and fought
+  well, he wrote to George Fairfax in England: "Unhappy it is to
+  reflect that a brother's sword has been sheathed in a brother's
+  breast, and that the once happy and peaceful plains of America
+  are either to be drenched in blood or inhabited by slaves. Sad
+  alternative. But can a virtuous man hesitate in his choice?"
+  Congress, it would seem, thought there was a good deal of room
+  for hesitation, both for virtuous men and others, and after the
+  fashion of their race determined to do a little more debating and
+  arguing, before taking any decisive step. After much resistance
+  and discussion, a second "humble and dutiful petition" to the
+  king was adopted, and with strange contradiction a confederation
+  was formed at the same time, and Congress proceeded to exercise
+  the sovereign powers thus vested in them. The most pressing and
+  troublesome question before them was what to do with the army
+  surrounding Boston, and with the actual hostilities there
+  existing.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington, for his part, went quietly about as before, saying
+  nothing and observing much, working hard as chairman of the
+  military committees, planning for defense, and arranging for
+  raising an army. One act of his alone stands out for us with
+  significance at this critical time. In this second Congress he
+  appeared habitually on the floor in his blue and buff uniform of
+  a Virginia colonel. It was his way of saying that the hour for
+  action had come, and that he at least was ready for the fight
+  whenever called upon.</p>
+
+  <p>Presently he was summoned. Weary of waiting, John Adams at
+  last declared that Congress must adopt the army and make
+  Washington, who at this mention of his name stepped out of the
+  room, commander-in-chief. On June 15, formal motions were made to
+  this effect and unanimously adopted, and the next day Washington
+  appeared before Congress and accepted the trust. His words were
+  few and simple. He expressed his sense of his own insufficiency
+  for the task before him, and said that as no pecuniary
+  consideration could have induced him to undertake the work, he
+  must decline all pay or emoluments, only looking to Congress to
+  defray his expenses. In the same spirit he wrote to his soldiers
+  in Virginia, to his brother, and finally, in terms at once simple
+  and pathetic, to his wife. There was no pretense about this, but
+  the sternest reality of self-distrust, for Washington saw and
+  measured as did no one else the magnitude of the work before him.
+  He knew that he was about to face the best troops of Europe, and
+  he had learned by experience that after the first excitement was
+  over he would be obliged to rely upon a people who were brave and
+  patriotic, but also undisciplined, untrained, and unprepared for
+  war, without money, without arms, without allies or credit, and
+  torn by selfish local interests. Nobody else perceived all this
+  as he was able to with his mastery of facts, but he faced the
+  duty unflinchingly. He did not put it aside because he distrusted
+  himself, for in his truthfulness he could not but confess that no
+  other American could show one tithe of his capacity, experience,
+  or military service. He knew what was coming, knew it, no doubt,
+  when he first put on his uniform, and he accepted instantly.</p>
+
+  <p>John Adams in his autobiography speaks of the necessity of
+  choosing a Southern general, and also says there were objectors
+  to the selection of Washington even among the Virginia delegates.
+  That there were political reasons for taking a Virginian cannot
+  be doubted. But the dissent, even if it existed, never appeared
+  on the surface, excepting in the case of John Hancock, who, with
+  curious vanity, thought that he ought to have this great place.
+  When Washington's name was proposed there was no murmur of
+  opposition, for there was no man who could for one moment be
+  compared with him in fitness. The choice was inevitable, and he
+  himself felt it to be so. He saw it coming; he would fain have
+  avoided the great task, but no thought of shrinking crossed his
+  mind. He saw with his entire freedom from constitutional
+  subtleties that an absolute parliament sought to extend its power
+  to the colonies. To this he would not submit, and he knew that
+  this was a question which could be settled only by one side
+  giving way, or by the dread appeal to arms. It was a question of
+  fact, hard, unrelenting fact, now to be determined by battle, and
+  on him had fallen the burden of sustaining the cause of his
+  country. In this spirit he accepted his commission, and rode
+  forth to review the troops. He was greeted with loud acclaim
+  wherever he appeared. Mankind is impressed by externals, and
+  those who gazed upon Washington in the streets of Philadelphia
+  felt their courage rise and their hearts grow strong at the sight
+  of his virile, muscular figure as he passed before them on
+  horseback, stately, dignified, and self-contained. The people
+  looked upon him, and were confident that this was a man worthy
+  and able to dare and do all things.</p>
+
+  <p>On June 21 he set forth accompanied by Lee and Schuyler, and
+  with a brilliant escort. He had ridden but twenty miles when he
+  was met by the news of Bunker Hill. "Did the militia fight?" was
+  the immediate and characteristic question; and being told that
+  they did fight, he exclaimed, "Then the liberties of the country
+  are safe." Given the fighting spirit, Washington felt he could do
+  anything. Full of this important intelligence he pressed forward
+  to Newark, where he was received by a committee of the provincial
+  congress, sent to conduct the commander-in-chief to New York.
+  There he tarried long enough to appoint Schuyler to the charge of
+  the military affairs in that colony, having mastered on the
+  journey its complicated social and political conditions. Pushing
+  on through Connecticut he reached Watertown, where he was
+  received by the provincial congress of Massachusetts, on July 2,
+  with every expression of attachment and confidence. Lingering
+  less than an hour for this ceremony, he rode on to the
+  headquarters at Cambridge, and when he came within the lines the
+  shouts of the soldiers and the booming of cannon announced his
+  arrival to the English in Boston.</p>
+
+  <p>The next day he rode forth in the presence of a great
+  multitude, and the troops having been drawn up before him, he
+  drew his sword beneath the historical elm-tree, and took command
+  of the first American army. "His excellency," wrote Dr. Thatcher
+  in his journal, "was on horseback in company with several
+  military gentlemen. It was not difficult to distinguish him from
+  all others. He is tall and well proportioned, and his personal
+  appearance truly noble and majestic." "He is tall and of easy and
+  agreeable address," the loyalist Curwen had remarked a few weeks
+  before; while Mrs. John Adams, warm-hearted and clever, wrote to
+  her husband after the general's arrival: "Dignity, ease, and
+  complacency, the gentleman and the soldier, look agreeably
+  blended in him. Modesty marks every line and feature of his face.
+  Those lines of Dryden instantly occurred to me,&mdash;</p>
+
+  <div class="poem">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>'Mark his majestic fabric! He's a temple</p>
+
+      <p>Sacred by birth, and built by hands divine;</p>
+
+      <p>His soul's the deity that lodges there;</p>
+
+      <p>Nor is the pile unworthy of the God.'"</p>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Lady, lawyer, and surgeon, patriot and tory, all speak alike,
+  and as they wrote so New England felt. A slave-owner, an
+  aristocrat, and a churchman, Washington came to Cambridge to pass
+  over the heads of native generals to the command of a New England
+  army, among a democratic people, hard-working and simple in their
+  lives, and dissenters to the backbone, who regarded episcopacy as
+  something little short of papistry and quite equivalent to
+  toryism. Yet the shout that went up from soldiers and people on
+  Cambridge common on that pleasant July morning came from the
+  heart and had no jarring note. A few of the political chiefs
+  growled a little in later days at Washington, but the soldiers
+  and the people, high and low, rich and poor, gave him an
+  unstinted loyalty. On the fields of battle and throughout eight
+  years of political strife the men of New England stood by the
+  great Virginian with a devotion and truth in which was no shadow
+  of turning. Here again we see exhibited most conspicuously the
+  powerful personality of the man who was able thus to command
+  immediately the allegiance of this naturally cold and reserved
+  people. What was it that they saw which inspired them at once
+  with so much confidence? They looked upon a tall, handsome man,
+  dressed in plain uniform, wearing across his breast a broad blue
+  band of silk, which some may have noticed as the badge and symbol
+  of a certain solemn league and covenant once very momentous in
+  the English-speaking world. They saw his calm, high bearing, and
+  in every line of face and figure they beheld the signs of force
+  and courage. Yet there must have been something more to call
+  forth the confidence then so quickly given, and which no one ever
+  long withheld. All felt dimly, but none the less surely, that
+  here was a strong, able man, capable of rising to the emergency,
+  whatever it might be, capable of continued growth and
+  development, clear of head and warm of heart; and so the New
+  England people gave to him instinctively their sympathy and their
+  faith, and never took either back.</p>
+
+  <p>The shouts and cheers died away, and then Washington returned
+  to his temporary quarters in the Wadsworth house, to master the
+  task before him. The first great test of his courage and ability
+  had come, and he faced it quietly as the excitement caused by his
+  arrival passed by. He saw before him, to use his own words, "a
+  mixed multitude of people, under very little discipline, order,
+  or government." In the language of one of his aides:<a id=
+  "footnotetag1-13" name="footnotetag1-13"></a><a href=
+  "#footnote1-13"><sup>1</sup></a> "The entire army, if it deserved
+  the name, was but an assemblage of brave, enthusiastic,
+  undisciplined, country lads; the officers in general quite as
+  ignorant of military life as the troops, excepting a few elderly
+  men, who had seen some irregular service among the provincials
+  under Lord Amherst." With this force, ill-posted and very
+  insecurely fortified, Washington was to drive the British from
+  Boston. His first step was to count his men, and it took eight
+  days to get the necessary returns, which in an ordinary army
+  would have been furnished in an hour. When he had them, he found
+  that instead of twenty thousand, as had been represented, but
+  fourteen thousand soldiers were actually present for duty. In a
+  short time, however, Mr. Emerson, the chaplain, noted in his
+  diary that it was surprising how much had been done, that the
+  lines had been so extended, and the works so shrewdly built, that
+  it was morally impossible for the enemy to get out except in one
+  place purposely left open. A little later the same observer
+  remarked: "There is a great overturning in the camp as to order
+  and regularity; new lords, new laws. The Generals Washington and
+  Lee are upon the lines every day. The strictest government is
+  taking place, and great distinction is made between officers and
+  soldiers." Bodies of troops scattered here and there by chance
+  were replaced by well-distributed forces, posted wisely and
+  effectively in strong intrenchments. It is little wonder that the
+  worthy chaplain was impressed, and now, seeing it all from every
+  side, we too can watch order come out of chaos and mark the
+  growth of an army under the guidance of a master-mind and the
+  steady pressure of an unbending will.</p>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote1-13" name="footnote1-13"></a>[<b>Footnote
+    1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-13">(return)</a> John Trumbull,
+    <i>Reminiscences</i>, p. 18.]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>Then too there was no discipline, for the army was composed of
+  raw militia, who elected their officers and carried on war as
+  they pleased. In a passage suppressed by Mr. Sparks, Washington
+  said: "There is no such thing as getting officers of this stamp
+  to carry orders into execution&mdash;to curry favor with the men
+  (by whom they were chosen, and on whose smile they may possibly
+  think that they may again rely) seems to be one of the principal
+  objects of their attention. I have made a pretty good slam
+  amongst such kind of officers as the Massachusetts government
+  abounds in, since I came into this camp, having broke one colonel
+  and two captains for cowardly behavior in the action on Bunker
+  Hill, two captains for drawing more pay and provisions than they
+  had men in their company, and one for being absent from his post
+  when the enemy appeared there and burnt a house just by it.
+  Besides these I have at this time one colonel, one major, one
+  captain, and two subalterns under arrest for trial. In short, I
+  spare none, and yet fear it will not all do, as these people seem
+  to be too attentive to everything but their own interests." This
+  may be plain and homely in phrase, but it is not stilted, and the
+  quick energy of the words shows how the New England farmers and
+  fishermen were being rapidly brought to discipline. Bringing the
+  army into order, however, was but a small part of his duties. It
+  is necessary to run over all his difficulties, great and small,
+  at this time, and count them up, in order to gain a just idea of
+  the force and capacity of the man who overcame them.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington, in the first place, was obliged to deal not only
+  with his army, but with the general congress and the congress of
+  the province. He had to teach them, utterly ignorant as they were
+  of the needs and details of war, how to organize and supply their
+  armies. There was no commissary department, there were no
+  uniforms, no arrangements for ammunition, no small arms, no
+  cannon, no resources to draw upon for all these necessaries of
+  war. Little by little he taught Congress to provide after a
+  fashion for these things, little by little he developed what he
+  needed, and by his own ingenuity, and by seizing alertly every
+  suggestion from others, he supplied for better or worse one
+  deficiency after another. He had to deal with various governors
+  and various colonies, each with its prejudices, jealousies, and
+  shortcomings. He had to arrange for new levies from a people
+  unused to war, and to settle with infinite anxiety and much wear
+  and tear of mind and body, the conflict as to rank among officers
+  to whom he could apply no test but his own insight. He had to
+  organize and stimulate the arming of privateers, which, by
+  preying on British commerce, were destined to exercise such a
+  powerful influence on the fate of the war. It was neither showy
+  nor attractive, such work as this, but it was very vital, and it
+  was done.</p>
+
+  <p>By the end of July the army was in a better posture of
+  defense; and then at the beginning of the next month, as the
+  prospect was brightening, it was suddenly discovered that there
+  was no gunpowder. An undrilled army, imperfectly organized, was
+  facing a disciplined force and had only some nine rounds in the
+  cartridge-boxes. Yet there is no quivering in the letters from
+  headquarters. Anxiety and strain of nerve are apparent; but a
+  resolute determination rises over all, supported by a ready
+  fertility of resource. Couriers flew over the country asking for
+  powder in every town and in every village. A vessel was even
+  dispatched to the Bermudas to seize there a supply of powder, of
+  which the general, always listening, had heard. Thus the
+  immediate and grinding pressure was presently relieved, but the
+  staple of war still remained pitifully and perilously meagre all
+  through the winter.</p>
+
+  <p>Meantime, while thus overwhelmed with the cares immediately
+  about him, Washington was watching the rest of the country. He
+  had a keen eye upon Johnson and his Indians in the valley of the
+  Mohawk; he followed sharply every movement of Tryon and the
+  Tories in New York; he refused with stern good sense to detach
+  troops to Connecticut and Long Island, knowing well when to give
+  and when to say No, a difficult monosyllable for the new general
+  of freshly revolted colonies. But if he would not detach in one
+  place, he was ready enough to do so in another. He sent one
+  expedition by Lake Champlain, under Montgomery, to Montreal, and
+  gave Arnold picked troops to march through the wilds of Maine and
+  strike Quebec. The scheme was bold and brilliant, both in
+  conception and in execution, and came very near severing Canada
+  forever from the British crown. A chapter of little accidents,
+  each one of which proved as fatal as it was unavoidable, a
+  moment's delay on the Plains of Abraham, and the whole campaign
+  failed; but there was a grasp of conditions, a clearness of
+  perception, and a comprehensiveness about the plan, which stamp
+  it as the work of a great soldier, who saw besides the military
+  importance, the enormous political value held out by the chance
+  of such a victory.</p>
+
+  <p>The daring, far-reaching quality of this Canadian expedition
+  was much more congenial to Washington's temper and character than
+  the wearing work of the siege. All that man could do before
+  Boston was done, and still Congress expected the impossible, and
+  grumbled because without ships he did not secure the harbor. He
+  himself, while he inwardly resented such criticism, chafed under
+  the monotonous drudgery of the intrenchments. He was longing,
+  according to his nature, to fight, and was, it must be confessed,
+  quite ready to attempt the impossible in his own way. Early in
+  September he proposed to attack the town in boats and by the neck
+  of land at Roxbury, but the council of officers unanimously voted
+  against him. A little more than a month later he planned another
+  attack, and was again voted down by his officers. Councils of war
+  never fight, it is said, and perhaps in this case it was well
+  that such was their habit, for the schemes look rather desperate
+  now. To us they serve to show the temper of the man, and also his
+  self-control in this respect at the beginning of the war, for
+  Washington became ready enough afterwards to override councils
+  when he was wholly free from doubt himself.</p>
+
+  <p>Thus the planning of campaigns, both distant and near, went
+  on, and at the same time the current of details, difficult,
+  vital, absolute in demanding prompt and vigorous solution, went
+  on too. The existence of war made it necessary to fix our
+  relations with our enemies, and that these relations should be
+  rightly settled was of vast moment to our cause, struggling for
+  recognition. The first question was the matter of prisoners, and
+  on August 11 Washington wrote to Gage:&mdash;</p>
+
+  <blockquote>
+  <p>"I understand that the officers engaged in the cause of
+  liberty and their country, who by the fortune of war have fallen
+  into your hands, have been thrown indiscriminately into a common
+  gaol appropriated for felons; that no consideration has been had
+  for those of the most respectable rank, when languishing with
+  wounds and sickness; and that some have been even amputated in
+  this unworthy situation.</p>
+
+  <p>"Let your opinion, sir, of the principle which actuates them
+  be what it may, they suppose that they act from the noblest of
+  all principles, a love of freedom and their country. But
+  political principles, I conceive, are foreign to this point. The
+  obligations arising from the rights of humanity and claims of
+  rank are universally binding and extensive, except in case of
+  retaliation. These, I should have hoped, would have dictated a
+  more tender treatment of those individuals whom chance or war had
+  put in your power. Nor can I forbear suggesting its fatal
+  tendency to widen that unhappy breach which you, and those
+  ministers under whom you act, have repeatedly declared your wish
+  is to see forever closed.</p>
+
+  <p>"My duty now makes it necessary to apprise you, that for the
+  future I shall regulate all my conduct towards those gentlemen
+  who are or may be in our possession, exactly by the rule you
+  shall observe towards those of ours now in your custody.</p>
+
+  <p>"If severity and hardship mark the line of your conduct,
+  painful as it may be to me, your prisoners will feel its effects.
+  But if kindness and humanity are shown to ours, I shall with
+  pleasure consider those in our hands only as unfortunate, and
+  they shall receive from me that treatment to which the
+  unfortunate are ever entitled."</p>
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>This is a letter worthy of a little study. The affair does not
+  look very important now, but it went then to the roots of things;
+  for this letter would go out to the world, and America and the
+  American cause would be judged by their leader. A little bluster
+  or ferocity, any fine writing, or any absurdity, and the world
+  would have sneered, condemned, or laughed. But no man could read
+  this letter and fail to perceive that here was dignity and force,
+  justice and sense, with just a touch of pathos and eloquence to
+  recommend it to the heart. Men might differ with the writer, but
+  they could neither laugh at him nor set him aside.</p>
+
+  <p>Gage replied after his kind. He was an inconsiderable person,
+  dull and well meaning, intended for the command of a garrison
+  town, and terribly twisted and torn by the great events in which
+  he was momentarily caught. His masters were stupid and arrogant,
+  and he imitated them with perfect success, except that arrogance
+  with him dwindled to impertinence. He answered Washington's
+  letter with denials and recriminations, lectured the American
+  general on the political situation, and talked about "usurped
+  authority," "rebels," "criminals," and persons destined to the
+  "cord." Washington, being a man of his word, proceeded to put
+  some English prisoners into jail, and then wrote a second note,
+  giving Gage a little lesson in manners, with the vain hope of
+  making him see that gentlemen did not scold and vituperate
+  because they fought. He restated his case calmly and coolly, as
+  before, informed Gage that he had investigated the counter-charge
+  of cruelty and found it without any foundation, and then
+  continued: "You advise me to give free operation to truth, and to
+  punish misrepresentation and falsehood. If experience stamps
+  value upon counsel, yours must have a weight which few can claim.
+  You best can tell how far the convulsion, which has brought such
+  ruin on both countries, and shaken the mighty empire of Britain
+  to its foundation, may be traced to these malignant causes.</p>
+
+  <p>"You affect, sir, to despise all rank not derived from the
+  same source with your own. I cannot conceive one more honorable
+  than that which flows from the uncorrupted choice of a brave and
+  free people, the purest source and original fountain of all
+  power. Far from making it a plea for cruelty, a mind of true
+  magnanimity and enlarged ideas would comprehend and respect
+  it."</p>
+
+  <p>Washington had grasped instinctively the general truth that
+  Englishmen are prone to mistake civility for servility, and
+  become offensive, whereas if they are treated with indifference,
+  rebuke, or even rudeness, they are apt to be respectful and
+  polite. He was obliged to go over the same ground with Sir
+  William Howe, a little later, and still more sharply; and this
+  matter of prisoners recurred, although at longer and longer
+  intervals, throughout the war. But as the British generals saw
+  their officers go to jail, and found that their impudence and
+  assumption were met by keen reproofs, they gradually comprehended
+  that Washington was not a man to be trifled with, and that in him
+  was a pride and dignity out-topping theirs and far stronger,
+  because grounded on responsibility borne and work done, and on
+  the deep sense of a great and righteous cause.</p>
+
+  <p>It was probably a pleasure and a relief to give to Gage and
+  Sir William Howe a little instruction in military behavior and
+  general good manners, but there was nothing save infinite
+  vexation in dealing with the difficulties arising on the American
+  side of the line. As the days shortened and the leaves fell,
+  Washington saw before him a New England winter, with no clothing
+  and no money for his troops. Through long letters to Congress,
+  and strenuous personal efforts, these wants were somehow
+  supplied. Then the men began to get restless and homesick, and
+  both privates and officers would disappear to their farms, which
+  Washington, always impatient of wrongdoing, styled "base and
+  pernicious conduct," and punished accordingly. By and by the
+  terms of enlistment ran out and the regiments began to melt away
+  even before the proper date. Recruiting was carried on slowly and
+  with difficulty, new levies were tardy in coming in, and Congress
+  could not be persuaded to stop limited enlistments. Still the
+  task was done. The old army departed and a new one arose in its
+  place, the posts were strengthened and ammunition secured.</p>
+
+  <p>Among these reinforcements came some Virginia riflemen, and it
+  must have warmed Washington's heart to see once more these brave
+  and hardy fighters in the familiar hunting shirt and leggins.
+  They certainly made him warm in a very different sense by getting
+  into a rough-and-tumble fight one winter's day with some
+  Marblehead fishermen. The quarrel was at its height, when
+  suddenly into the brawl rode the commander-in-chief. He quickly
+  dismounted, seized two of the combatants, shook them, berated
+  them, if tradition may be trusted, for their local jealousies,
+  and so with strong arm quelled the disturbance. He must have
+  longed to take more than one colonial governor or magnate by the
+  throat and shake him soundly, as he did his soldiers from the
+  woods of Virginia and the rocks of Marblehead, for to his temper
+  there was nothing so satisfying as rapid and decisive action. But
+  he could not quell governors and assemblies in this way, and yet
+  he managed them and got what he wanted with a patience and tact
+  which it must have been in the last degree trying to him to
+  practice, gifted as he was with a nature at once masterful and
+  passionate.</p>
+
+  <p>Another trial was brought about by his securing and sending
+  out privateers which did good service. They brought in many
+  valuable prizes which caused infinite trouble, and forced
+  Washington not only to be a naval secretary, but also made him a
+  species of admiralty judge. He implored the slow-moving Congress
+  to relieve him from this burden, and suggested a plan which led
+  to the formation of special committees and was the origin of the
+  Federal judiciary of the United States. Besides the local
+  jealousies and the personal jealousies, and the privateers and
+  their prizes, he had to meet also the greed and selfishness as
+  well of the money-making, stock-jobbing spirit which springs up
+  rankly under the influence of army contracts and large
+  expenditures among a people accustomed to trade and unused to
+  war. Washington wrote savagely of these practices, but still,
+  despite all hindrances and annoyances, he kept moving straight on
+  to his object.</p>
+
+  <p>In the midst of his labors, harassed and tried in all ways, he
+  was assailed as usual by complaint and criticism. Some of it came
+  to him through his friend and aide, Joseph Reed, to whom he wrote
+  in reply one of the noblest letters ever penned by a great man
+  struggling with adverse circumstances and wringing victory from
+  grudging fortune. He said that he was always ready to welcome
+  criticism, hear advice, and learn the opinion of the world. "For
+  as I have but one capital object in view, I could wish to make my
+  conduct coincide with the wishes of mankind, as far as I can
+  consistently; I mean, without departing from that great line of
+  duty which, though hid under a cloud for some time, from a
+  peculiarity of circumstances, may, nevertheless, bear a
+  scrutiny." Thus he held fast to "the great line of duty," though
+  bitterly tried the while by the news from Canada, where brilliant
+  beginnings were coming to dismal endings, and cheered only by the
+  arrival of his wife, who drove up one day in her coach and four,
+  with the horses ridden by black postilions in scarlet and white
+  liveries, much to the amazement, no doubt, of the sober-minded
+  New England folk.</p>
+
+  <p>Light, however, finally began to break on the work about him.
+  Henry Knox, sent out for that purpose, returned safely with the
+  guns captured at Ticonderoga, and thus heavy ordnance and
+  gunpowder were obtained. By the middle of February the harbor was
+  frozen over, and Washington arranged to cross the ice and carry
+  Boston by storm. Again he was held back by his council, but this
+  time he could not be stopped. If he could not cross the ice he
+  would go by land. He had been slowly but surely advancing his
+  works all winter, and now he determined on a decisive stroke. On
+  the evening of Monday, March 4, under cover of a heavy
+  bombardment which distracted the enemy's attention, he marched a
+  large body of troops to Dorchester Heights and began to throw up
+  redoubts. The work went forward rapidly, and Washington rode
+  about all night encouraging the men. The New England soldiers had
+  sorely tried his temper, and there were many severe attacks and
+  bitter criticisms upon them in his letters, which were suppressed
+  or smoothed over for the most part by Mr. Sparks, but which have
+  come to light since, as is sometimes the case with facts.
+  Gradually, however, the General had come to know his soldiers
+  better, and six months later he wrote to Lund Washington,
+  praising his northern troops in the highest terms. Even now he
+  understood them as never before, and as he watched them on that
+  raw March night, working with the energy and quick intelligence
+  of their race, he probably felt that the defects were
+  superficial, but the virtues, the tenacity, and the courage were
+  lasting and strong.</p>
+
+  <p>When day dawned, and the British caught sight of the
+  formidable works which had sprung up in the night, there was a
+  great excitement and running hither and thither in the town.
+  Still the men on the heights worked on, and still Washington rode
+  back and forth among them. He was stirred and greatly rejoiced at
+  the coming of the fight, which he now believed inevitable, and as
+  always, when he was deeply moved, the hidden springs of sentiment
+  and passion were opened, and he reminded his soldiers that it was
+  the anniversary of the Boston massacre, and appealed to them by
+  the memories of that day to prepare for battle with the enemy. As
+  with the Huguenots at Ivry,&mdash;</p>
+
+  <div class="poem">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>"Remember St. Bartholomew was passed from man to man."</p>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>But the fighting never came. The British troops were made
+  ready, then a gale arose and they could not cross the bay. The
+  next day it rained in torrents, and the next day it was too late.
+  The American intrenchments frowned threateningly above the town,
+  and began to send in certain ominous messengers in the shape of
+  shot and shell. The place was now so clearly untenable that Howe
+  determined to evacuate it. An informal request to allow the
+  troops to depart unmolested was not answered, but Washington
+  suspended his fire and the British made ready to withdraw. Still
+  they hesitated and delayed, until Washington again advanced his
+  works, and on this hint they started in earnest, on March 17,
+  amid confusion, pillage, and disorder, leaving cannon and much
+  else behind them, and seeking refuge in their ships.</p>
+
+  <p>All was over, and the town was in the hands of the Americans.
+  In Washington's own words, "To maintain a post within musket-shot
+  of the enemy for six months together, without powder, and at the
+  same time to disband one army and recruit another within that
+  distance of twenty-odd British regiments, is more, probably, than
+  ever was attempted." It was, in truth, a gallant feat of arms,
+  carried through by the resolute will and strong brain of one man.
+  The troops on both sides were brave, but the British had
+  advantages far more than compensating for a disparity of numbers,
+  always slight and often more imaginary than real. They had twelve
+  thousand men, experienced, disciplined, equipped, and thoroughly
+  supplied. They had the best arms and cannon and gunpowder. They
+  commanded the sea with a strong fleet, and they were concentrated
+  on the inside line, able to strike with suddenness and
+  overwhelming force at any point of widely extended posts.
+  Washington caught them with an iron grip and tightened it
+  steadily until, in disorderly haste, they took to their boats
+  without even striking a blow. Washington's great abilities, and
+  the incapacity of the generals opposed to him, were the causes of
+  this result. If Robert Clive, for instance, had chanced to have
+  been there the end might possibly have been the same, but there
+  would have been some bloody fighting before that end was reached.
+  The explanation of the feeble abandonment of Boston lies in the
+  stupidity of the English government, which had sown the wind and
+  then proceeded to handle the customary crop with equal
+  fatuity.</p>
+
+  <p>There were plenty of great men in England, but they were not
+  conducting her government or her armies. Lord Sandwich had
+  declared in the House of Lords that all "Yankees were cowards," a
+  simple and satisfactory statement, readily accepted by the
+  governing classes, and flung in the teeth of the British soldiers
+  as they fell back twice from the bloody slopes of Bunker Hill.
+  Acting on this pleasant idea, England sent out as commanders of
+  her American army a parcel of ministerial and court favorites,
+  thoroughly second-rate men, to whom was confided the task of
+  beating one of the best soldiers and hardest fighters of the
+  century. Despite the enormous material odds in favor of Great
+  Britain, the natural result of matching the Howes and Gages and
+  Clintons against George Washington ensued, and the first lesson
+  was taught by the evacuation of Boston.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington did not linger over his victory. Even while the
+  British fleet still hung about the harbor he began to send troops
+  to New York to make ready for the next attack. He entered Boston
+  in order to see that every precaution was taken against the
+  spread of the smallpox, and then prepared to depart himself. Two
+  ideas, during his first winter of conflict, had taken possession
+  of his mind, and undoubtedly influenced profoundly his future
+  course. One was the conviction that the struggle must be fought
+  out to the bitter end, and must bring either subjugation or
+  complete independence. He wrote in February: "With respect to
+  myself, I have never entertained an idea of an accommodation,
+  since I heard of the measures which were adopted in consequence
+  of the Bunker's Hill fight;" and at an earlier date he said: "I
+  hope my countrymen (of Virginia) will rise superior to any losses
+  the whole navy of Great Britain can bring on them, and that the
+  destruction of Norfolk and threatened devastation of other places
+  will have no other effect than to unite the whole country in one
+  indissoluble band against a nation which seems to be lost to
+  every sense of virtue and those feelings which distinguish a
+  civilized people from the most barbarous savages." With such
+  thoughts he sought to make Congress appreciate the probable long
+  duration of the struggle, and he bent every energy to giving
+  permanency to his army, and decisiveness to each campaign. The
+  other idea which had grown in his mind during the weary siege was
+  that the Tories were thoroughly dangerous and deserved scant
+  mercy. In his second letter to Gage he refers to them, with the
+  frankness which characterized him when he felt strongly, as
+  "execrable parricides," and he made ready to treat them with the
+  utmost severity at New York and elsewhere. When Washington was
+  aroused there was a stern and relentless side to his character,
+  in keeping with the force and strength which were his chief
+  qualities. His attitude on this point seems harsh now when the
+  old Tories no longer look very dreadful and we can appreciate the
+  sincerity of conviction which no doubt controlled most of them.
+  But they were dangerous then, and Washington, with his honest
+  hatred of all that seemed to him to partake of meanness or
+  treason, proposed to put them down and render them harmless,
+  being well convinced, after his clear-sighted fashion, that war
+  was not peace, and that mildness to domestic foes was sadly
+  misplaced.</p>
+
+  <p>His errand to New England was now done and well done. His
+  victory was won, everything was settled at Boston; and so, having
+  sent his army forward, he started for New York, to meet the
+  harder trials that still awaited him.</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <h2><a name="VI" id="VI"></a> CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+  <h2>SAVING THE REVOLUTION</h2>
+
+  <p>After leaving Boston, Washington proceeded through Rhode
+  Island and Connecticut, pushing troops forward as he advanced,
+  and reached New York on April 13. There he found himself plunged
+  at once into the same sea of difficulties with which he had been
+  struggling at Boston, the only difference being that these were
+  fresh and entirely untouched. The army was inadequate, and the
+  town, which was the central point of the colonies, as well as the
+  great river at its side, was wholly unprotected. The troops were
+  in large measure raw and undrilled, the committee of safety was
+  hesitating, the Tories were virulent and active, corresponding
+  constantly with Tryon, who was lurking in a British man-of-war,
+  while from the north came tidings of retreat and disaster. All
+  these harassing difficulties crowded upon the commander-in-chief
+  as soon as he arrived. To appreciate him it is necessary to
+  understand these conditions and realize their weight and
+  consequence, albeit the details seem petty. When we comprehend
+  the difficulties, then we can see plainly the greatness of the
+  man who quietly and silently took them up and disposed of them.
+  Some he scotched and some he killed, but he dealt with them all
+  after a fashion sufficient to enable him to move steadily
+  forward. In his presence the provincial committee suddenly
+  stiffened and grew strong. All correspondence with Tryon was cut
+  off, the Tories were repressed, and on Long Island steps were
+  taken to root out "these abominable pests of society," as the
+  commander-in-chief called them in his plain-spoken way. Then
+  forts were built, soldiers energetically recruited and drilled,
+  arrangements made for prisoners, and despite all the present
+  cares anxious thought was given to the Canada campaign, and ideas
+  and expeditions, orders, suggestions, and encouragement were
+  freely furnished to the dispirited generals and broken forces of
+  the north.</p>
+
+  <p>One matter, however, overshadowed all others. Nearly a year
+  before, Washington had seen that there was no prospect or
+  possibility of accommodation with Great Britain. It was plain to
+  his mind that the struggle was final in its character and would
+  be decisive. Separation from the mother country, therefore, ought
+  to come at once, so that public opinion might be concentrated,
+  and above all, permanency ought to be given to the army. These
+  ideas he had been striving to impress upon Congress, for the most
+  part less clearsighted than he was as to facts, and as the months
+  slipped by his letters had grown constantly more earnest and more
+  vehement. Still Congress hesitated, and at last Washington went
+  himself to Philadelphia and held conferences with the principal
+  men. What he said is lost, but the tone of Congress certainly
+  rose after his visit. The aggressive leaders found their hands so
+  much strengthened that little more than a month later they
+  carried through a declaration of independence, which was solemnly
+  and gratefully proclaimed to the army by the general, much
+  relieved to have got through the necessary boat-burning, and to
+  have brought affairs, military and political, on to the hard
+  ground of actual fact.</p>
+
+  <p>Soon after his return from Philadelphia, he received
+  convincing proof that his views in regard to the Tories were
+  extremely sound. A conspiracy devised by Tryon, which aimed
+  apparently at the assassination of the commander-in-chief, and
+  which had corrupted his life-guards for that purpose, was
+  discovered and scattered before it had fairly hardened into
+  definite form. The mayor of the city and various other persons
+  were seized and thrown into prison, and one of the life-guards,
+  Thomas Hickey by name, who was the principal tool in the plot,
+  was hanged in the presence of a large concourse of people.
+  Washington wrote a brief and business-like account of the affair
+  to Congress, from which one would hardly suppose that his own
+  life had been aimed at. It is a curious instance of his cool
+  indifference to personal danger. The conspiracy had failed, that
+  was sufficient for him, and he had other things besides himself
+  to consider. "We expect a bloody summer in New York and Canada,"
+  he wrote to his brother, and even while the Canadian expedition
+  was coming to a disastrous close, and was bringing hostile
+  invasion instead of the hoped-for conquest, British men-of-war
+  were arriving daily in the harbor, and a large army was
+  collecting on Staten Island. The rejoicings over the Declaration
+  of Independence had hardly died away, when the vessels of the
+  enemy made their way up the Hudson without check from the embryo
+  forts, or the obstacles placed in the stream.</p>
+
+  <p>July 12 Lord Howe arrived with more troops, and also with
+  ample powers to pardon and negotiate. Almost immediately he tried
+  to open a correspondence with Washington, but Colonel Reed, in
+  behalf of the General, refused to receive the letter addressed to
+  "Mr. Washington." Then Lord Howe sent an officer to the American
+  camp with a second letter, addressed to "George Washington, Esq.,
+  etc., etc." The bearer was courteously received, but the letter
+  was declined. "The etc., etc. implies everything," said the
+  Englishman. It may also mean "anything," Washington replied, and
+  added that touching the pardoning power of Lord Howe there could
+  be no pardon where there was no guilt, and where no forgiveness
+  was asked. As a result of these interviews, Lord Howe wrote to
+  England that it would be well to give Mr. Washington his proper
+  title. A small question, apparently, this of the form of address,
+  especially to a lover of facts, and yet it was in reality of
+  genuine importance. To the world Washington represented the young
+  republic, and he was determined to extort from England the first
+  acknowledgment of independence by compelling her to recognize the
+  Americans as belligerents and not rebels. Washington cared as
+  little for vain shows as any man who ever lived, but he had the
+  highest sense of personal dignity, and of the dignity of his
+  cause and country. Neither should be allowed to suffer in his
+  hands. He appreciated the effect on mankind of forms and titles,
+  and with unerring judgment he insisted on what he knew to be of
+  real value. It is one of the earliest examples of the dignity and
+  good taste which were of such inestimable value to his
+  country.</p>
+
+  <p>He had abundant occasion also for the employment of these same
+  qualities, coupled with unwearied patience and tact, in dealing
+  with his own men. The present army was drawn from a wider range
+  than that which had taken Boston, and sectional jealousies and
+  disputes, growing every day more hateful to the
+  commander-in-chief, sprang up rankly. The men of Maryland thought
+  those of Connecticut ploughboys; the latter held the former to be
+  fops and dandies. These and a hundred other disputes buzzed and
+  whirled about Washington, stirring his strong temper, and
+  exercising his sternest self-control in the untiring effort to
+  suppress them and put them to death. "It requires," John Adams
+  truly said, "more serenity of temper, a deeper understanding, and
+  more courage than fell to the lot of Marlborough, to ride in this
+  whirlwind." Fortunately these qualities were all there, and with
+  them an honesty of purpose and an unbending directness of
+  character to which Anne's great general was a stranger.</p>
+
+  <p>Meantime, while the internal difficulties were slowly
+  diminished, the forces of the enemy rapidly increased. First it
+  became evident that attacks were not feasible. Then the question
+  changed to a mere choice of defenses. Even as to this there was
+  great and harassing doubt, for the enemy, having command of the
+  water, could concentrate and attack at any point they pleased.
+  Moreover, the British had thirty thousand of the best disciplined
+  and best equipped troops that Europe could furnish, while
+  Washington had some twenty thousand men, one fourth of whom were
+  unfit for duty, and with the remaining three fourths, raw
+  recruits for the most part, he was obliged to defend an extended
+  line of posts, without cavalry, and with no means for rapid
+  concentration. Had he been governed solely by military
+  considerations he would have removed the inhabitants, burned New
+  York, and drawing his forces together would have taken up a
+  secure post of observation. To have destroyed the town, however,
+  not only would have frightened the timid and the doubters, and
+  driven them over to the Tories, but would have dispirited the
+  patriots not yet alive to the exigencies of war, and deeply
+  injured the American cause. That Washington well understood the
+  need of such action is clear, both from the current rumors that
+  the town was to be burned, and from his expressed desire to
+  remove the women and children from New York. But political
+  considerations overruled the military necessity, and he spared
+  the town. It was bad enough to be thus hampered, but he was even
+  more fettered in other ways, for he could not even concentrate
+  his forces and withdraw to the Highlands without a battle, as he
+  was obliged to fight in order to sustain public feeling, and thus
+  he was driven on to almost sure defeat. With Brooklyn Heights in
+  the hands of the enemy New York was untenable, and yet it was
+  obvious that to hold Brooklyn when the enemy controlled the sea
+  was inviting defeat. Yet Washington under the existing conditions
+  had no choice except to fight on Long Island and to say that he
+  hoped to make a good defense.</p>
+
+  <p>Everything, too, as the day of battle drew near, seemed to
+  make against him. On August 22 the enemy began to land on Long
+  Island, where Greene had drawn a strong line of redoubts behind
+  the village of Brooklyn, to defend the heights which commanded
+  New York, and had made every arrangement to protect the three
+  roads through the wooded hills, about a mile from the
+  intrenchments. Most unfortunately, and just at the critical
+  moment, Greene was taken down with a raging fever, so that when
+  Washington came over on the 24th he found much confusion in the
+  camps, which he repressed as best he could, and then prepared for
+  the attack. Greene's illness, however, had caused some oversights
+  which were unknown to the commander-in-chief, and which, as it
+  turned out, proved fatal.</p>
+
+  <p>After indecisive skirmishing for two or three days, the
+  British started early on the morning of the 26th. They had nine
+  thousand men and were well informed as to the country. Advancing
+  through woodpaths and lanes, they came round to the left flank of
+  the Americans. One of the roads through the hills was unguarded,
+  the others feebly protected. The result is soon told. The
+  Americans, out-generaled and out-flanked, were taken by surprise
+  and surrounded, Sullivan and his division were cut off, and then
+  Lord Stirling. There was some desperate fighting, and the
+  Americans showed plenty of courage, but only a few forced their
+  way out. Most of them were killed or taken prisoners, the total
+  loss out of some five thousand men reaching as high as two
+  thousand.</p>
+
+  <p>From the redoubts, whither he had come at the sound of the
+  firing, Washington watched the slaughter and disaster in grim
+  silence. He saw the British troops, flushed with victory, press
+  on to the very edge of his works and then withdraw in obedience
+  to command. The British generals had their prey so surely, as
+  they believed, that they mercifully decided not to waste life
+  unnecessarily by storming the works in the first glow of success.
+  So they waited during that night and the two following days,
+  while Washington strengthened his intrenchments, brought over
+  reinforcements, and prepared for the worst. On the 29th it became
+  apparent that there was a movement in the fleet, and that
+  arrangements were being made to take the Americans in the rear
+  and wholly cut them off. It was an obvious and sensible plan, but
+  the British overlooked the fact that while they were lingering,
+  summing up their victory, and counting the future as assured,
+  there was a silent watchful man on the other side of the redoubts
+  who for forty-eight hours never left the lines, and who with a
+  great capacity for stubborn fighting could move, when the stress
+  came, with the celerity and stealth of a panther.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington swiftly determined to retreat. It was a desperate
+  undertaking, and a lesser man would have hesitated and been lost.
+  He had to transport nine thousand men across a strait of strong
+  tides and currents, and three quarters of a mile in width. It was
+  necessary to collect the boats from a distance, and do it all
+  within sight and hearing of the enemy. The boats were obtained, a
+  thick mist settled down on sea and land, the water was calm, and
+  as the night wore away, the entire army with all its arms and
+  baggage was carried over, Washington leaving in the last boat. At
+  daybreak the British awoke, but it was too late. They had fought
+  a successful battle, they had had the American army in their
+  grasp, and now all was over. The victory had melted away, and, as
+  a grand result, they had a few hundred prisoners, a stray boat
+  with three camp-followers, and the deserted works in which they
+  stood. To grasp so surely the happy chance of wind and weather
+  and make such a retreat as this was a feat of arms as great as
+  most victories, and in it we see, perhaps as plainly as anywhere,
+  the nerve and quickness of the man who conducted it. It is true,
+  it was the only chance of salvation, but the great man is he who
+  is entirely master of his opportunity, even if he have but
+  one.</p>
+
+  <p>The outlook, nevertheless, was, as Washington wrote, "truly
+  distressing." The troops were dispirited, and the militia began
+  to disappear, as they always did after a defeat. Congress would
+  not permit the destruction of the city, different interests
+  pulled in different directions, conflicting opinions distracted
+  the councils of war, and, with utter inability to predict the
+  enemy's movements, everything led to halfway measures and to
+  intense anxiety, while Lord Howe tried to negotiate with
+  Congress, and the Americans waited for events. Washington,
+  looking beyond the confusion of the moment, saw that he had
+  gained much by delay, and had his own plan well defined. He
+  wrote: "We have not only delayed the operations of the campaign
+  till it is too late to effect any capital incursion into the
+  country, but have drawn the enemy's forces to one point.... It
+  would be presumption to draw out our young troops into open
+  ground against their superiors both in number and discipline, and
+  I have never spared the spade and pickaxe." Every one else,
+  however, saw only past defeat and present peril.</p>
+
+  <p>The British ships gradually made their way up the river, until
+  it became apparent that they intended to surround and cut off the
+  American army. Washington made preparations to withdraw, but
+  uncertainty of information came near rendering his precautions
+  futile. September 15 the men-of-war opened fire, and troops were
+  landed near Kip's Bay. The militia in the breastworks at that
+  point had been at Brooklyn and gave way at once, communicating
+  their panic to two Connecticut regiments. Washington, galloping
+  down to the scene of battle, came upon the disordered and flying
+  troops. He dashed in among them, conjuring them to stop, but even
+  while he was trying to rally them they broke again on the
+  appearance of some sixty or seventy of the enemy, and ran in all
+  directions. In a tempest of anger Washington drew his pistols,
+  struck the fugitives with his sword, and was only forced from the
+  field by one of his officers seizing the bridle of his horse and
+  dragging him away from the British, now within a hundred yards of
+  the spot.</p>
+
+  <p>Through all his trials and anxieties Washington always showed
+  the broadest and most generous sympathy. When the militia had
+  begun to leave him a few days before, although he despised their
+  action and protested bitterly to Congress against their
+  employment, yet in his letters he displayed a keen appreciation
+  of their feelings, and saw plainly every palliation and excuse.
+  But there was one thing which he could never appreciate nor
+  realize. It was from first to last impossible for him to
+  understand how any man could refuse to fight, or could think of
+  running away. When he beheld rout and cowardly panic before his
+  very eyes, his temper broke loose and ran uncontrolled. His one
+  thought then was to fight to the last, and he would have thrown
+  himself single-handed on the enemy, with all his wisdom and
+  prudence flung to the winds. The day when the commander held his
+  place merely by virtue of personal prowess lay far back in the
+  centuries, and no one knew it better than Washington. But the old
+  fighting spirit awoke within him when the clash of arms sounded
+  in his ears, and though we may know the general in the tent and
+  in the council, we can only know the man when he breaks out from
+  all rules and customs, and shows the rage of battle, and the
+  indomitable eagerness for the fray, which lie at the bottom of
+  the tenacity and courage that carried the war for independence to
+  a triumphant close.</p>
+
+  <p>The rout and panic over, Washington quickly turned to deal
+  with the pressing danger. With coolness and quickness he issued
+  his orders, and succeeded in getting his army off, Putnam's
+  division escaping most narrowly. He then took post at King's
+  Bridge, and began to strengthen and fortify his lines. While thus
+  engaged, the enemy advanced, and on the 16th Washington suddenly
+  took the offensive and attacked the British light troops. The
+  result was a sharp skirmish, in which the British were driven
+  back with serious loss, and great bravery was shown by the
+  Connecticut and Virginia troops, the two commanding officers
+  being killed. This affair, which was the first gleam of success,
+  encouraged the troops, and was turned to the best account by the
+  general. Still a successful skirmish did not touch the essential
+  difficulties of the situation, which then as always came from
+  within, rather than without. To face and check twenty-five
+  thousand well-equipped and highly disciplined soldiers Washington
+  had now some twelve thousand men, lacking in everything which
+  goes to make an army, except mere individual courage and a high
+  average of intelligence. Even this meagre force was an inconstant
+  and diminishing quantity, shifting, uncertain, and always
+  threatening dissolution.</p>
+
+  <p>The task of facing and fighting the enemy was enough for the
+  ablest of men; but Washington was obliged also to combat and
+  overcome the inertness and dullness born of ignorance, and to
+  teach Congress how to govern a nation at war. In the hours
+  "allotted to sleep," he sat in his headquarters, writing a
+  letter, with "blots and scratches," which told Congress with the
+  utmost precision and vigor just what was needed. It was but one
+  of a long series of similar letters, written with unconquerable
+  patience and with unwearied iteration, lighted here and there by
+  flashes of deep and angry feeling, which would finally strike
+  home under the pressure of defeat, and bring the patriots of the
+  legislature to sudden action, always incomplete, but still action
+  of some sort. It must have been inexpressibly dreary work, but
+  quite as much was due to those letters as to the battles.
+  Thinking for other people, and teaching them what to do, is at
+  best an ungrateful duty, but when it is done while an enemy is at
+  your throat, it shows a grim tenacity of purpose which is well
+  worth consideration.</p>
+
+  <p>In this instance the letter of September 24, read in the light
+  of the battles of Long Island and Kip's Bay, had a considerable
+  effect. The first steps were taken to make the army national and
+  permanent, to raise the pay of officers, and to lengthen
+  enlistments. Like most of the war measures of Congress, they were
+  too late for the immediate necessity, but they helped the future.
+  Congress, moreover, then felt that all had been done that could
+  be demanded, and relapsed once more into confidence. "The British
+  force," said John Adams, chairman of the board of war, "is so
+  divided, they will do no great matter this fall." But Washington,
+  facing hard facts, wrote to Congress with his unsparing truth on
+  October 4: "Give me leave to say, sir, (I say it with due
+  deference and respect, and my knowledge of the facts, added to
+  the importance of the cause and the stake I hold in it, must
+  justify the freedom,) that your affairs are in a more unpromising
+  way than you seem to apprehend. Your army, as I mentioned in my
+  last, is on the eve of its political dissolution. True it is, you
+  have voted a larger one in lieu of it; but the season is late;
+  and there is a material difference between voting battalions and
+  raising men."</p>
+
+  <p>The campaign as seen from the board of war and from the Plains
+  of Harlem differed widely. It is needless to say now which was
+  correct; every one knows that the General was right and Congress
+  wrong, but being in the right did not help Washington, nor did he
+  take petty pleasure in being able to say, "I told you how it
+  would be." The hard facts remained unchanged. There was the
+  wholly patriotic but slumberous, and for fighting purposes quite
+  inefficient Congress still to be waked up and kept awake, and to
+  be instructed. With painful and plain-spoken repetition this work
+  was grappled with and done methodically, and like all else as
+  effectively as was possible.</p>
+
+  <p>Meanwhile the days slipped along, and Washington waited on the
+  Harlem Plains, planning descents on Long Island, and determining
+  to make a desperate stand where he was, unless the situation
+  decidedly changed. Then the situation did change, as neither he
+  nor any one else apparently had anticipated. The British warships
+  came up the Hudson past the forts, brushing aside our boasted
+  obstructions, destroying our little fleet, and getting command of
+  the river. Then General Howe landed at Frog's Point, where he was
+  checked for the moment by the good disposition of Heath, under
+  Washington's direction. These two events made it evident that the
+  situation of the American army was full of peril, and that
+  retreat was again necessary. Such certainly was the conclusion of
+  the council of war, on the 16th, acting this time in agreement
+  with their chief. Six days Howe lingered on Frog's Point,
+  bringing up stores or artillery or something; it matters little
+  now why he tarried. Suffice it that he waited, and gave six days
+  to his opponent. They were of little value to Howe, but they were
+  of inestimable worth to Washington, who employed them in getting
+  everything in readiness, in holding his council of war, and then
+  on the 17th in moving deliberately off to very strong ground at
+  White Plains. On his way he fought two or three slight, sharp,
+  and successful skirmishes with the British. Sir William followed
+  closely, but with much caution, having now a dull glimmer in his
+  mind that at the head of the raw troops in front of him was a man
+  with whom it was not safe to be entirely careless.</p>
+
+  <p>On the 28th, Howe came up to Washington's position, and found
+  the Americans quite equal in numbers, strongly intrenched, and
+  awaiting his attack with confidence. He hesitated, doubted, and
+  finally feeling that he must do something, sent four thousand men
+  to storm Chatterton Hill, an outlying post, where some fourteen
+  hundred Americans were stationed. There was a short, sharp
+  action, and then the Americans retreated in good order to the
+  main army, having lost less than half as many men as their
+  opponents. With caution now much enlarged, Howe sent for
+  reinforcements, and waited two days. The third day it rained, and
+  on the fourth Howe found that Washington had withdrawn to a
+  higher and quite impregnable line of hills, where he held all the
+  passes in the rear and awaited a second attack. Howe contemplated
+  the situation for two or three days longer, and then broke camp
+  and withdrew to Dobbs Ferry to secure Fort Washington, which
+  treachery offered him as an easy and inviting prize. Such were
+  the great results of the victory of Long Island, two wasted
+  months, and the American army still untouched.</p>
+
+  <p>Howe was resolved that his campaign should not be utterly
+  fruitless, and therefore directed his attention to the defenses
+  of the Hudson, and here he met with better success. Congress, in
+  its military wisdom, had insisted that these forts must and could
+  be held. So thought the generals, and so most especially, and
+  most unluckily, did Greene. Washington, with his usual accurate
+  and keen perception, saw, from the time the men-of-war came up
+  the Hudson, and, now that the British army was free, more clearly
+  than ever, that both forts ought to be abandoned. Sure of his
+  ground, he overruled Congress, but was so far influenced by
+  Greene that he gave to that officer discretionary orders as to
+  withdrawal. This was an act of weakness, as he afterwards
+  admitted, for which he bitterly reproached himself, never
+  confusing or glossing over his own errors, but loyal there, as
+  elsewhere, to facts. An attempt was made to hold both forts, and
+  both were lost, as he had foreseen. From Fort Lee the garrison
+  withdrew in safety. Fort Washington, with its plans all in Howe's
+  hands through the treachery of William Demont, the adjutant of
+  Colonel Magaw, was carried by storm, after a severe struggle.
+  Twenty-six hundred men and all the munitions of war fell into the
+  hands of the enemy. It was a serious and most depressing loss,
+  and was felt throughout the continent.</p>
+
+  <p>Meantime Washington had crossed info the Jerseys, and, after
+  the loss of Fort Lee, began to retreat before the British, who,
+  flushed with victory, now advanced rapidly under Lord Cornwallis.
+  The crisis of his fate and of the Revolution was upon him. His
+  army was melting away. The militia had almost all disappeared,
+  and regiments whose term of enlistment had expired were departing
+  daily. Lee, who had a division under his command, was ordered to
+  come up, but paid no attention, although the orders were repeated
+  almost every day for a month. He lingered, and loitered, and
+  excused himself, and at last was taken prisoner. This disposed of
+  him for a time very satisfactorily, but meanwhile he had
+  succeeded in keeping his troops from Washington, which was a most
+  serious misfortune.</p>
+
+  <p>On December 2 Washington was at Princeton with three thousand
+  ragged men, and the British close upon his heels. They had him
+  now surely in their grip. There could be no mistake this time,
+  and there was therefore no need of a forced march. But they had
+  not yet learned that to Washington even hours meant much, and
+  when, after duly resting, they reached the Delaware, they found
+  the Americans on the other side, and all the boats destroyed for
+  a distance of seventy miles.</p>
+
+  <p>It was winter now, the short gray days had come, and with them
+  piercing cold and storms of sleet and ice. It seemed as if the
+  elements alone would finally disperse the feeble body of men
+  still gathered about the commander-in-chief. Congress had sent
+  him blank commissions and orders to recruit, which were well
+  meant, but were not practically of much value. As Glendower could
+  call spirits from the vasty deep, so they, with like success,
+  sought to call soldiers from the earth in the midst of defeat,
+  and in the teeth of a North American winter. Washington, baffling
+  pursuit and flying from town to town, left nothing undone. North
+  and south went letters and appeals for men, money, and supplies.
+  Vain, very vain, it all was, for the most part, but still it was
+  done in a tenacious spirit. Lee would not come, the Jersey
+  militia would not turn out, thousands began to accept Howe's
+  amnesty, and signs of wavering were apparent in some of the
+  Middle States. Philadelphia was threatened, Newport was in the
+  hands of the enemy, and for ninety miles Washington had
+  retreated, evading ruin again and again only by the width of a
+  river. Congress voted not to leave Philadelphia,&mdash;a fact
+  which their General declined to publish,&mdash;and then fled.</p>
+
+  <p>No one remained to face the grim realities of the time but
+  Washington, and he met them unmoved. Not a moment passed that he
+  did not seek in some way to effect something. Not an hour went by
+  that he did not turn calmly from fresh and ever renewed
+  disappointment to work and action.</p>
+
+  <p>By the middle of December Howe felt satisfied that the
+  American army would soon dissolve, and leaving strong detachments
+  in various posts he withdrew to New York. His premises were
+  sound, and his conclusions logical, but he made his usual mistake
+  of overlooking and underestimating the American general. No
+  sooner was it known that he was on his way to New York than
+  Washington, at the head of his dissolving army, resolved to take
+  the offensive and strike an outlying post. In a letter of
+  December 14, the day after Howe began to move, we catch the first
+  glimpse of Trenton. It was a bold spirit which, in the dead of
+  winter, with a broken army, no prospect of reinforcements, and in
+  the midst of a terror-stricken people, could thus resolve with
+  some four thousand men to attack an army thoroughly appointed,
+  and numbering in all its divisions twenty-five thousand
+  soldiers.</p>
+
+  <p>It is well to pause a moment and look at that situation, and
+  at the overwhelming difficulties which hemmed it in, and then try
+  to realize what manner of man he was who rose superior to it, and
+  conquered it. Be it remembered, too, that he never deceived
+  himself, and never for one instant disguised the truth. Two years
+  later he wrote that at this supreme moment, in what were called
+  "the dark days of America," he was never despondent; and this was
+  true enough, for despair was not in his nature. But no delusions
+  lent him courage. On the 18th he wrote to his brother "that if
+  every nerve was not strained to recruit this new army the game
+  was pretty nearly up;" and added, "You can form no idea of the
+  perplexity of my situation. No man, I believe, ever had a greater
+  choice of difficulties, and less means to extricate himself from
+  them. However, under a full persuasion of the justice of our
+  cause, I cannot entertain an idea that it will finally sink,
+  though it may remain for some time under a cloud." There is no
+  complaint, no boasting, no despair in this letter. We can detect
+  a bitterness in the references to Congress and to Lee, but the
+  tone of the letter is as calm as a May morning, and it concludes
+  with sending love and good wishes to the writer's sister and her
+  family.</p>
+
+  <p>Thus in the dreary winter Washington was planning and devising
+  and sending hither and thither for men, and never ceased through
+  it all to write urgent and ever sharper letters and keep a wary
+  eye upon the future. He not only wrote strongly, but he pledged
+  his own estate and exceeded his powers in desperate efforts to
+  raise money and men. On the 20th he wrote to Congress: "It may be
+  thought that I am going a good deal out of the line of my duty to
+  adopt these measures, or to advise thus freely. A character to
+  lose, an estate to forfeit, the inestimable blessings of liberty
+  at stake, and a life devoted, must be my excuse." Even now across
+  the century these words come with a grave solemnity to our ears,
+  and we can feel as he felt when he alone saw that he stood on the
+  brink of a great crisis. It is an awful thing to know that the
+  life of a nation is at stake, and this thought throbs in his
+  words, measured and quiet as usual, but deeply fraught with much
+  meaning to him and to the world.</p>
+
+  <p>By Christmas all was ready, and when the Christian world was
+  rejoicing and feasting, and the British officers in New York and
+  in the New Jersey towns were reveling and laughing, Washington
+  prepared to strike. His whole force, broken into various
+  detachments, was less than six thousand men. To each division was
+  assigned, with provident forethought, its exact part. Nothing was
+  overlooked, nothing omitted; and then every division commander
+  failed, for good reason or bad, to do his duty. Gates was to
+  march from Bristol with two thousand men, Ewing was to cross at
+  Trenton, Putnam was to come up from Philadelphia, Griffin was to
+  make a diversion against Donop. When the moment came, Gates,
+  disapproving the scheme, was on his way to Congress, and
+  Wilkinson, with his message, found his way to headquarters by
+  following the bloody tracks of the barefooted soldiers. Griffin
+  abandoned New Jersey and fled before Donop. Putnam would not even
+  attempt to leave Philadelphia, and Ewing made no effort to cross
+  at Trenton. Cadwalader, indeed, came down from Bristol, but after
+  looking at the river and the floating ice, gave it up as
+  desperate.</p>
+
+  <p>But there was one man who did not hesitate nor give up, nor
+  halt on account of floating ice. With twenty-four hundred hardy
+  veterans, Washington crossed the Delaware. The night was bitter
+  cold and the passage difficult. When they landed, and began their
+  march of nine miles to Trenton, a fierce storm of sleet drove in
+  their faces. Sullivan; marching by the river, sent word that the
+  arms of his men were wet. "Then tell your general," said
+  Washington, "to use the bayonet, for the town must be taken." In
+  broad daylight they came to the town. Washington, at the front
+  and on the right of the line, swept down the Pennington road, and
+  as he drove in the pickets he heard the shouts of Sullivan's men,
+  as, with Stark leading the van, they charged in from the river. A
+  company of y&auml;gers and the light dragoons slipped away, there
+  was a little confused fighting in the streets, Colonel Rahl fell,
+  mortally wounded, his Hessians threw down their arms, and all was
+  over. The battle had been fought and won, and the Revolution was
+  saved.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;">
+    <a href="images/illus0389.jpg"><img width="100%" src=
+    "images/illus0389.jpg" alt=
+    "WASHINGTON CROSSING THE DELAWARE" /></a> WASHINGTON CROSSING
+    THE DELAWARE
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Taking his thousand prisoners with him, Washington recrossed
+  the Delaware to his old position. Had all done their duty, as he
+  had planned, the British hold on New Jersey would have been
+  shattered. As it was, it was only loosened. Congress, aroused at
+  last, had invested Washington with almost dictatorial powers; but
+  the time for action was short. The army was again melting away,
+  and only by urgent appeals were some veterans retained, and
+  enough new men gathered to make a force of five thousand men.
+  With this army Washington prepared to finish what he had
+  begun.</p>
+
+  <p>Trenton struck alarm and dismay into the British, and
+  Cornwallis, with seven thousand of the best troops, started from
+  New York to redeem what had been lost. Leaving three regiments at
+  Princeton, he pushed hotly after Washington, who fell back behind
+  the Assunpink River, skirmishing heavily and successfully. When
+  Cornwallis reached the river he found the American army drawn up
+  on the other side awaiting him. An attack on the bridge was
+  repulsed, and the prospect looked uninviting. Some officers urged
+  an immediate assault; but night was falling, and Cornwallis, sure
+  of the game, decided to wait till the morrow. He, too, forgot
+  that he was facing an enemy who never overlooked a mistake, and
+  never waited an hour. With quick decision Washington left his
+  camp-fires burning on the river bank, and taking roundabout
+  roads, which he had already reconnoitred, marched on to
+  Princeton. By sunrise he was in the outskirts of the town.
+  Mercer, detached with some three hundred men, fell in with
+  Mawhood's regiment, and a sharp action ensued. Mercer was
+  mortally wounded, and his men gave way just as the main army came
+  upon the field. The British charged, and as the raw Pennsylvanian
+  troops in the van wavered, Washington rode to the front, and
+  reining his horse within thirty yards of the British, ordered his
+  men to advance. The volleys of musketry left him unscathed, the
+  men stood firm, the other divisions came rapidly into action, and
+  the enemy gave way in all directions. The two other British
+  regiments were driven through the town and routed. Had there been
+  cavalry they would have been entirely cut off. As it was, they
+  were completely broken, and in this short but bloody action they
+  lost five hundred men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. It was
+  too late to strike the magazines at Brunswick, as Washington had
+  intended, and so he withdrew once more with his army to the high
+  lands to rest and recruit.</p>
+
+  <p>His work was done, however. The country, which had been
+  supine, and even hostile, rose now, and the British were
+  attacked, surprised, and cut off in all directions, until at last
+  they were shut up in the immediate vicinity of New York. The tide
+  had been turned, and Washington had won the precious
+  breathing-time which was all he required.</p>
+
+  <p>Frederick the Great is reported to have said that this was the
+  most brilliant campaign of the century. It certainly showed all
+  the characteristics of the highest strategy and most consummate
+  generalship. With a force numerically insignificant as compared
+  with that opposed to him, Washington won two decisive victories,
+  striking the enemy suddenly with superior numbers at each point
+  of attack. The Trenton campaign has all the quality of some of
+  the last battles fought by Napoleon in France before his
+  retirement to Elba. Moreover, these battles show not only
+  generalship of the first order, but great statesmanship. They
+  display that prescient knowledge which recognizes the supreme
+  moment when all must be risked to save the state. By Trenton and
+  Princeton Washington inflicted deadly blows upon the enemy, but
+  he did far more by reviving the patriotic spirit of the country
+  fainting under the bitter experience of defeat, and by sending
+  fresh life and hope and courage throughout the whole people.</p>
+
+  <p>It was the decisive moment of the war. Sooner or later the
+  American colonies were sure to part from the mother-country,
+  either peaceably or violently. But there was nothing inevitable
+  in the Revolution of 1776, nor was its end at all certain. It was
+  in the last extremities when the British overran New Jersey, and
+  if it had not been for Washington that particular revolution
+  would have most surely failed. Its fate lay in the hands of the
+  general and his army; and to the strong brain growing ever keener
+  and quicker as the pressure became more intense, to the iron will
+  gathering a more relentless force as defeat thickened, to the
+  high, unbending character, and to the passionate and fighting
+  temper of Washington, we owe the brilliant campaign which in the
+  darkest hour turned the tide and saved the cause of the
+  Revolution.</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <h2><a name="VII" id="VII"></a> CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+  <h2>"MALICE DOMESTIC, AND FOREIGN LEVY"</h2>
+
+  <p>After the "two lucky strokes at Trenton and Princeton," as he
+  himself called them, Washington took up a strong position at
+  Morristown and waited. His plan was to hold the enemy in check,
+  and to delay all operations until spring. It is easy enough now
+  to state his purpose, and it looks very simple, but it was a grim
+  task to carry it out through the bleak winter days of 1777. The
+  Jerseys farmers, spurred by the sufferings inflicted upon them by
+  the British troops, had turned out at last in deference to
+  Washington's appeals, after the victories of Trenton and
+  Princeton, had harassed and cut off outlying parties, and had
+  thus straitened the movements of the enemy. But the main army of
+  the colonies, on which all depended, was in a pitiable state. It
+  shifted its character almost from day to day. The curse of short
+  enlistments, so denounced by Washington, made itself felt now
+  with frightful effect. With the new year most of the continental
+  troops departed, while others to replace them came in very
+  slowly, and recruiting dragged most wearisomely. Washington was
+  thus obliged, with temporary reinforcements of raw militia, to
+  keep up appearances; and no commander ever struggled with a more
+  trying task. At times it looked as if the whole army would
+  actually disappear, and more than once Washington expected that
+  the week's or the month's end would find him with not more than
+  five hundred men. At the beginning of March he had about four
+  thousand men, a few weeks later only three thousand raw troops,
+  ill-fed, ill-clad, ill-shod, ill-armed, and almost unpaid. Over
+  against him was Howe, with eleven thousand men in the field, and
+  still more in the city of New York, well disciplined and
+  equipped, well-armed, well-fed, and furnished with every needful
+  supply. The contrast is absolutely grotesque, and yet the force
+  of one man's genius and will was such that this excellent British
+  army was hemmed in and kept in harmless quiet by their ragged
+  opponents.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington's plan, from the first, was to keep the field at
+  all hazards, and literally at all hazards did he do so. Right and
+  left his letters went, day after day, calling with pathetic but
+  dignified earnestness for men and supplies. In one of these
+  epistles, to Governor Cooke of Rhode Island, written in January,
+  to remonstrate against raising troops for the State only, he set
+  forth his intentions in a few words. "You must be sensible," he
+  said, "that the season is fast approaching when a new campaign
+  will open; nay, the former is not yet closed; nor do I intend it
+  shall be, unless the enemy quits the Jerseys." To keep fighting
+  all the time, and never let the fire of active resistance flicker
+  or die out, was Washington's theory of the way to maintain his
+  own side and beat the enemy. If he could not fight big battles,
+  he would fight small ones; if he could not fight little battles,
+  he would raid and skirmish and surprise; but fighting of some
+  sort he would have, while the enemy attempted to spread over a
+  State and hold possession of it. We can see the obstacles now,
+  but we can only wonder how they were sufficiently overcome to
+  allow anything to be done.</p>
+
+  <p>Moreover, besides the purely physical difficulties in the lack
+  of men, money, and supplies, there were others of a political and
+  personal kind, which were even more wearing and trying, but
+  which, nevertheless, had to be dealt with also, in some fashion.
+  In order to sustain the courage of the people Washington was
+  obliged to give out, and to allow it to be supposed, that he had
+  more men than was really the case, and so Congress and various
+  wise and well-meaning persons grumbled because he did not do more
+  and fight more battles. He never deceived Congress, but they
+  either could not or would not understand the actual situation. In
+  March he wrote to Robert Morris: "Nor is it in my power to make
+  Congress fully sensible of the real situation of our affairs, and
+  that it is with difficulty, if I may use the expression, that I
+  can by every means in my power keep the life and soul of this
+  army together. In a word, when they are at a distance, they think
+  it is but to say, <i>Presto, begone</i>, and everything is done.
+  They seem not to have any conception of the difficulty and
+  perplexity attending those who are to execute." It was so easy to
+  see what they would like to have done, and so simple to pass a
+  resolve to that effect, that Congress never could appreciate the
+  reality of the difficulty and the danger until the hand of the
+  enemy was almost at their throats. They were not even content
+  with delay and neglect, but interfered actively at times, as in
+  the matter of the exchange of prisoners, where they made unending
+  trouble for Washington, and showed themselves unable to learn or
+  to keep their hands off after any amount of instruction.</p>
+
+  <p>In January Washington issued a proclamation requiring those
+  inhabitants who had subscribed to Howe's declaration to come in
+  within thirty days and take the oath of allegiance to the United
+  States. If they failed to do so they were to be treated as
+  enemies. The measure was an eminently proper one, and the
+  proclamation was couched in the most moderate language. It was
+  impossible to permit a large class of persons to exist on the
+  theory that they were peaceful American citizens and also
+  subjects of King George. The results of such conduct were in
+  every way perilous and intolerable, and Washington was determined
+  that he would divide the sheep from the goats, and know whom he
+  was defending and whom attacking. Yet for this wise and necessary
+  action he was called in question in Congress and accused of
+  violating civil rights and the resolves of Congress itself.
+  Nothing was actually done about it, but such an incident shows
+  from a single point the infinite tact and resolution required in
+  waging war under a government whose members were unable to
+  comprehend what was meant, and who could not see that until they
+  had beaten England it was hardly worth while to worry about civil
+  rights, which in case of defeat would speedily cease to exist
+  altogether.</p>
+
+  <p>Another fertile source of trouble arose from questions of
+  rank. Members of Congress, in making promotions and appointments,
+  were more apt to consider local claims than military merit, and
+  they also allowed their own personal prejudices to affect their
+  action in this respect far too much. Thence arose endless
+  heart-burnings and jealousies, followed by resignations and the
+  loss of valuable officers. Congress, having made the
+  appointments, would go cheerfully about its business, while the
+  swarm of grievances thus let loose would come buzzing about the
+  devoted head of the commander-in-chief. He could not adjourn, but
+  was compelled to quiet rivalries, allay irritated feelings, and
+  ride the storm as best he might. It was all done, however, in one
+  way or another: by personal appeals, and by letters full of
+  dignity, patriotism, and patience, which are very impressive and
+  full of meaning for students of character, even in this day and
+  generation.</p>
+
+  <p>Then again, not content with snarling up our native
+  appointments, Congress complicated matters still more dangerously
+  by its treatment of foreigners. The members of Congress were
+  colonists, and the fact that they had shaken off the yoke of the
+  mother country did not in the least alter their colonial and
+  perfectly natural habit of regarding with enormous respect
+  Englishmen and Frenchmen, and indeed anybody who had had the good
+  fortune to be born in Europe. The result was that they
+  distributed commissions and gave inordinate rank to the many
+  volunteers who came over the ocean, actuated by various motives,
+  but all filled with a profound sense of their own merits. It is
+  only fair to Congress to say that the American agents abroad were
+  even more to blame in this respect. Silas Deane especially
+  scattered promises of commissions with a lavish hand, and
+  Congress refused to fulfill many of the promises thus made in its
+  name. Nevertheless, Congress was far too lax, and followed too
+  closely the example of its agents. Some of these foreigners were
+  disinterested men and excellent soldiers, who proved of great
+  value to the American cause. Many others were mere military
+  adventurers, capable of being turned to good account, perhaps,
+  but by no means entitled to what they claimed and in most
+  instances received.</p>
+
+  <p>The ill-considered action of Congress and of our agents abroad
+  in this respect was a source of constantly recurring troubles of
+  a very serious nature. Native officers, who had borne the burden
+  and heat of the day, justly resented being superseded by some
+  stranger, unable to speak the language, who had landed in the
+  States but a few days before. As a result, resignations were
+  threatened which, if carried out, would affect the character of
+  the army very deeply. Then again, the foreigners themselves,
+  inflated by the eagerness of our agents and by their reception at
+  the hands of Congress, would find on joining the army that they
+  could get no commands, chiefly because there were none to give.
+  They would then become dissatisfied with their rank and
+  employment, and bitter complaints and recriminations would ensue.
+  All these difficulties, of course, fell most heavily upon the
+  commander-in-chief, who was heartily disgusted with the whole
+  business. Washington believed from the beginning, and said over
+  and over again in various and ever stronger terms, that this was
+  an American war and must be fought by Americans. In no other way,
+  and by no other persons, did he consider that it could be carried
+  to any success worth having. He saw of course the importance of a
+  French alliance, and deeply desired it, for it was a leading
+  element in the solution of the political and military situation;
+  but alliance with a foreign power was one thing, and sporadic
+  military volunteers were another. Washington had no narrow
+  prejudices against foreigners, for he was a man of broad and
+  liberal mind, and no one was more universally beloved and
+  respected by the foreign officers than he; but he was intensely
+  American in his feelings, and he would not admit for an instant
+  that the American war for independence could be righteously
+  fought or honestly won by others than Americans. He was well
+  aware that foreign volunteers had a value and use of which he
+  largely and gratefully availed himself; but he was exasperated
+  and alarmed by the indiscriminate and lavish way in which
+  Congress and our agents abroad gave rank and office to them.
+  "Hungry adventurers," he called them in one letter, when driven
+  beyond endurance by the endless annoyances thus forced upon him;
+  and so he pushed their pretensions aside, and managed, on the
+  whole, to keep them in their proper place. The operation was
+  delicate, difficult, and unpleasant, for it seemed to savor of
+  ingratitude. But Washington was never shaken for an instant in
+  his policy, and while he checked the danger, he showed in many
+  instances, like Lafayette and Steuben, that he could appreciate
+  and use all that was really valuable in the foreign
+  contingent.</p>
+
+  <p>The service rendered by Washington in this matter has never
+  been justly understood or appreciated. If he had not taken this
+  position, and held it with an absolute firmness which bordered on
+  harshness, we should have found ourselves in a short time with an
+  army of American soldiers officered by foreigners, many of them
+  mere mercenaries, "hungry adventurers," from France, Poland or
+  Hungary, from Germany, Ireland or England. The result of such a
+  combination would have been disorganization and defeat. That
+  members of Congress and some of our representatives in Europe did
+  not see the danger, and that they were impressed by the foreign
+  officers who came among them, was perfectly natural. Men are the
+  creatures of the time in which they live, and take their color
+  from the conditions which surround them, as the chameleon does
+  from the grass or leaves in which it hides. The rulers and
+  lawmakers of 1776 could not cast off their provincial awe of the
+  natives of England and Europe as they cast off their political
+  allegiance to the British king. The only wonder is that there
+  should have been even one man so great in mind and character that
+  he could rise at a single bound from the level of a provincial
+  planter to the heights of a great national leader. He proved
+  himself such in all ways, but in none more surely than in his
+  ability to consider all men simply as men, and, with a judgment
+  that nothing could confuse, to ward off from his cause and
+  country the dangers inherent in colonial habits of thought and
+  action, so menacing to a people struggling for independence. We
+  can see this strong, high spirit of nationality running through
+  Washington's whole career, but it never did better service than
+  when it stood between the American army and undue favor to
+  foreign volunteers.</p>
+
+  <p>Among other disagreeable and necessary truths, Washington had
+  told Congress that Philadelphia was in danger, that Howe probably
+  meant to occupy it, and that it would be nearly impossible to
+  prevent his doing so. This warning being given and unheeded, he
+  continued to watch his antagonist, doing so with increased
+  vigilance, as signs of activity began to appear in New York.
+  Toward the end of May he broke up his cantonments, having now
+  about seven thousand men, and took a strong position within ten
+  miles of Brunswick. Here he waited, keeping an anxious eye on the
+  Hudson in case he should be mistaken in his expectations, and
+  should find that the enemy really intended to go north to meet
+  Burgoyne instead of south to capture Philadelphia.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington's doubts were soon to be resolved and his
+  expectations fulfilled. May 31, a fleet of a hundred sail left
+  New York, and couriers were at once sent southward to warn the
+  States of the possibility of a speedy invasion. About the same
+  time transports arrived with more German mercenaries, and Howe,
+  thus reinforced, entered the Jerseys. Washington determined to
+  decline battle, and if the enemy pushed on and crossed the
+  Delaware, to hang heavily on their rear, while the militia from
+  the south were drawn up to Philadelphia. He adopted this course
+  because he felt confident that Howe would never cross the
+  Delaware and leave the main army of the Americans behind him. His
+  theory proved correct. The British advanced and retreated, burned
+  houses and villages and made feints, but all in vain. Washington
+  baffled them at every point, and finally Sir William evacuated
+  the Jerseys entirely and withdrew to New York and Staten Island,
+  where active preparations for some expedition were at once begun.
+  Again came anxious watching, with the old fear that Howe meant to
+  go northward and join the now advancing Burgoyne. The fear was
+  groundless. On July 23 the British fleet set sail from New York,
+  carrying between fifteen and eighteen thousand men. Not deceived
+  by the efforts to make him think that they aimed at Boston, but
+  still fearing that the sailing might be only a ruse and the
+  Hudson the real object after all, Washington moved cautiously to
+  the Delaware, holding himself ready to strike in either
+  direction. On the 31st he heard that the enemy were at the Capes.
+  This seemed decisive; so he sent in all directions for
+  reinforcements, moved the main army rapidly to Germantown, and
+  prepared to defend Philadelphia. The next news was that the fleet
+  had put to sea again, and again messengers went north to warn
+  Putnam to prepare for the defense of the Hudson. Washington
+  himself was about to re-cross the Delaware, when tidings arrived
+  that the fleet had once more appeared at the Capes, and after a
+  few more days of doubt the ships came up the Chesapeake and
+  anchored.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington thought the "route a strange one," but he knew now
+  that he was right in his belief that Howe aimed at Philadelphia.
+  He therefore gathered his forces and marched south to meet the
+  enemy, passing through the city in order to impress the
+  disaffected and the timid with the show of force. It was a motley
+  array that followed him. There was nothing uniform about the
+  troops except their burnished arms and the sprigs of evergreen in
+  their hats. Nevertheless Lafayette, who had just come among them,
+  thought that they looked like good soldiers, and the Tories woke
+  up sharply to the fact that there was a large body of men known
+  as the American army, and that they had a certain obvious
+  fighting capacity visible in their appearance. Neither friends
+  nor enemies knew, however, as they stood on the Philadelphia
+  sidewalks and watched the troops go past, that the mere fact of
+  that army's existence was the greatest victory of skill and
+  endurance which the war could show, and that the question of
+  success lay in its continuance.</p>
+
+  <p>Leaving Philadelphia, Washington pushed on to the junction of
+  the Brandywine and Christiana Creek, and posted his men along the
+  heights. August 25, Howe landed at the Head of Elk, and
+  Washington threw out light parties to drive in cattle, carry off
+  supplies, and annoy the enemy. This was done, on the whole,
+  satisfactorily, and after some successful skirmishing on the part
+  of the Americans, the two armies on the 5th of September found
+  themselves within eight or ten miles of each other. Washington
+  now determined to risk a battle in the field, despite his
+  inferiority in every way. He accordingly issued a stirring
+  proclamation to the soldiers, and then fell back behind the
+  Brandywine, to a strong position, and prepared to contest the
+  passage of the river.</p>
+
+  <p>Early on September 11, the British advanced to Chad's Ford,
+  where Washington was posted with the main body, and after some
+  skirmishing began to cannonade at long range. Meantime
+  Cornwallis, with the main body, made a long d&eacute;tour of
+  seventeen miles, and came upon the right flank and rear of the
+  Americans. Sullivan, who was on the right, had failed to guard
+  the fords above, and through lack of information was practically
+  surprised. Washington, on rumors that the enemy were marching
+  toward his right, with the instinct of a great soldier was about
+  to cross the river in his front and crush the enemy there, but he
+  also was misled and kept back by false reports. When the truth
+  was known, it was too late. The right wing had been beaten and
+  flung back, the enemy were nearly in the rear, and were now
+  advancing in earnest in front. All that man could do was done.
+  Troops were pushed forward and a gallant stand was made at
+  various points; but the critical moment had come and gone, and
+  there was nothing for it but a hasty retreat, which came near
+  degenerating into a rout.</p>
+
+  <p>The causes of this complete defeat, for such it was, are
+  easily seen. Washington had planned his battle and chosen his
+  position well. If he had not been deceived by the first reports,
+  he even then would have fallen upon and overwhelmed the British
+  centre before they could have reached his right wing. But the
+  Americans, to begin with, were outnumbered. They had only eleven
+  thousand effective men, while the British brought fifteen of
+  their eighteen thousand into action. Then the Americans suffered,
+  as they constantly did, from misinformation, and from an absence
+  of system in learning the enemy's movements. Washington's attack
+  was fatally checked in this way, and Sullivan was surprised from
+  the same causes, as well as from his own culpable ignorance of
+  the country beyond him, which was the reason of his failure to
+  guard the upper fords. The Americans lost, also, by the
+  unsteadiness of new troops when the unexpected happens, and when
+  the panic-bearing notion that they are surprised and likely to be
+  surrounded comes upon them with a sudden shock.</p>
+
+  <p>This defeat was complete and severe, and it was followed in a
+  few days by that of Wayne, who narrowly escaped utter ruin. Yet
+  through all this disaster we can see the advance which had been
+  made since the equally unfortunate and very similar battle on
+  Long Island. Then, the troops seemed to lose heart and courage,
+  the army was held together with difficulty, and could do nothing
+  but retreat. Now, in the few days which Howe, as usual, gave his
+  opponent with such fatal effect to himself, Washington rallied
+  his army, and finding them in excellent spirits marched down the
+  Lancaster road to fight again. On the eve of battle a heavy storm
+  came on, which so injured the arms and munitions that with bitter
+  disappointment he was obliged to withdraw; but nevertheless it is
+  plain how much this forward movement meant. At the moment,
+  however, it looked badly enough, especially after the defeat of
+  Wayne, for Howe pressed forward, took possession of Philadelphia,
+  and encamped the main body of his army at Germantown.</p>
+
+  <p>Meantime Washington, who had not in the least given up his
+  idea of fighting again, recruited his army, and having a little
+  more than eight thousand men, determined to try another stroke at
+  the British, while they were weakened by detachments. On the
+  night of October 3 he started, and reached Germantown at daybreak
+  on the 4th. At first the Americans swept everything before them,
+  and flung the British back in rout and confusion. Then matters
+  began to go wrong, as is always likely to happen when, as in this
+  case, widely separated and yet accurately concerted action is
+  essential to success. Some of the British threw themselves into a
+  stone house, and instead of leaving them there under guard, the
+  whole army stopped to besiege, and a precious half hour was lost.
+  Then Greene and Stephen were late in coming up, having made a
+  circuit, and although when they arrived all seemed to go well,
+  the Americans were seized with an inexplicable panic, and fell
+  back, as Wayne truly said, in the very moment of victory. One of
+  those unlucky accidents, utterly unavoidable, but always
+  dangerous to extensive combinations, had a principal effect on
+  the result. The morning was very misty, and the fog, soon
+  thickened by the smoke, caused confusion, random firing, and,
+  worst of all, that uncertainty of feeling and action which
+  something or nothing converted into a panic. Nevertheless, the
+  Americans rallied quickly this time, and a good retreat was made,
+  under the lead of Greene, until safety was reached. The action,
+  while it lasted, had been very sharp, and the losses on both
+  sides were severe, the Americans suffering most.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington, as usual when matters went ill, exposed himself
+  recklessly, to the great alarm of his generals, but all in vain.
+  He was deeply disappointed, and expressed himself so at first,
+  for he saw that the men had unaccountably given way when they
+  were on the edge of victory. The underlying cause was of course,
+  as at Long Island and Brandywine, the unsteadiness of raw troops,
+  and Washington felt rightly, after the first sting had passed,
+  that he had really achieved a great deal. Congress applauded the
+  attempt, and when the smoke of the battle had cleared away, men
+  generally perceived that its having been fought at all was in
+  reality the important fact. It made also a profound impression
+  upon the French cabinet. Eagerly watching the course of events,
+  they saw the significance of the fact that an army raised within
+  a year could fight a battle in the open field, endure a severe
+  defeat, and then take the offensive and make a bold and
+  well-planned attack, which narrowly missed being overwhelmingly
+  successful. To the observant and trained eyes of Europe, the
+  defeat at Germantown made it evident that there was fighting
+  material among these untrained colonists, capable of becoming
+  formidable; and that there was besides a powerful will and
+  directing mind, capable on its part of bringing this same
+  material into the required shape and condition. To dispassionate
+  onlookers, England's grasp on her colonies appeared to be
+  slipping away very rapidly. Washington himself saw the meaning of
+  it all plainly enough, for it was but the development of his
+  theory of carrying on the war.</p>
+
+  <p>There is no indication, however, that England detected, in all
+  that had gone on since her army landed at the Head of Elk,
+  anything more than a couple of natural defeats for the rebels.
+  General Howe was sufficiently impressed to draw in his troops,
+  and keep very closely shut up in Philadelphia, but his country
+  was not moved at all. The fact that it had taken forty-seven days
+  to get their army from the Elk River to Philadelphia, and that in
+  that time they had fought two successful battles and yet had left
+  the American army still active and menacing, had no effect upon
+  the British mind. The English were thoroughly satisfied that the
+  colonists were cowards and were sure to be defeated, no matter
+  what the actual facts might be. They regarded Washington as an
+  upstart militia colonel, and they utterly failed to comprehend
+  that they had to do with a great soldier, who was able to
+  organize and lead an army, overcome incredible difficulties, beat
+  and outgeneral them, bear defeat, and then fight again. They were
+  unable to realize that the mere fact that such a man could be
+  produced and such an army maintained meant the inevitable loss of
+  colonies three thousand miles away. Men there were in England,
+  undoubtedly, like Burke and Fox, who felt and understood the
+  significance of these things, but the mass of the people, as well
+  as the aristocracy, the king, and the cabinet, would have none of
+  them. Rude contempt for other people is a warming and satisfying
+  feeling, no doubt, and the English have had unquestionably great
+  satisfaction from its free indulgence. No one should grudge it to
+  them, least of all Americans. It is a comfort for which they have
+  paid, so far as this country is concerned, by the loss of their
+  North American colonies, and by a few other settlements with the
+  United States at other and later times.</p>
+
+  <p>But although Washington and his army failed to impress
+  England, events had happened in the north, during this same
+  summer, which were so sharp-pointed that they not only impressed
+  the English people keenly and unpleasantly, but they actually
+  penetrated the dull comprehension of George III. and his cabinet.
+  "Why," asked an English lady of an American naval officer, in the
+  year of grace 1887&mdash;"why is your ship named the Saratoga?"
+  "Because," was the reply, "at Saratoga an English general and an
+  English army of more than five thousand men surrendered to an
+  American army and laid down their arms." Although apparently
+  neglected now in the general scheme of British education,
+  Saratoga was a memorable event in the summer of 1777, and the
+  part taken by Washington in bringing about the great result has
+  never, it would seem, been properly set forth. There is no need
+  to trace here the history of that campaign, but it is necessary
+  to show how much was done by the commander-in-chief, five hundred
+  miles away, to win the final victory.</p>
+
+  <p>In the winter of 1776-77 reports came that a general and an
+  army were to be sent to Canada to invade the colonies from the
+  north by way of Lake Champlain. The news does not seem to have
+  made a very deep impression generally, nor to have been regarded
+  as anything beyond the ordinary course of military events. But
+  there was one man, fortunately, who in an instant perceived the
+  full significance of this movement. Washington saw that the
+  English had at last found an idea, or, at least, a general
+  possessed of one. So long as the British confined themselves to
+  fighting one or two battles, and then, taking possession of a
+  single town, were content to sit down and pass their winter in
+  good quarters, leaving the colonists in undisturbed control of
+  all the rest of the country, there was nothing to be feared. The
+  result of such campaigning as this could not be doubtful for a
+  moment to any clear-sighted man. But when a plan was on foot,
+  which, if successful, meant the control of the lakes and the
+  Hudson, and of a line of communication from the north to the
+  great colonial seaport, the case was very different. Such a
+  campaign as this would cause the complete severance of New
+  England, the chief source for men and supplies, from the rest of
+  the colonies. It promised the mastery, not of a town, but of half
+  a dozen States, and this to the American cause probably would be
+  ruin.</p>
+
+  <p>So strongly and clearly did Washington feel all this that his
+  counter-plan was at once ready, and before people had fairly
+  grasped the idea that there was to be a northern invasion, he was
+  sending, early in March, urgent letters to New England to rouse
+  up the militia and have them in readiness to march at a moment's
+  notice. To Schuyler, in command of the northern department, he
+  began now to write constantly, and to unfold the methods which
+  must be pursued in order to compass the defeat of the invaders.
+  His object was to delay the army of Burgoyne by every possible
+  device, while steadily avoiding a pitched battle. Then the
+  militia and hardy farmers of New England and New York were to be
+  rallied, and were to fall upon the flank and rear of the British,
+  harass them constantly, cut off their outlying parties, and
+  finally hem them in and destroy them. If the army and people of
+  the North could only be left undisturbed, it is evident from his
+  letters that Washington felt no doubt as to the result in that
+  quarter.</p>
+
+  <p>But the North included only half the conditions essential to
+  success. The grave danger feared by Washington was that Howe
+  would understand the situation, and seeing his opportunity, would
+  throw everything else aside, and marching northward with twenty
+  thousand men, would make himself master of the Hudson, effect a
+  junction with Burgoyne at Albany, and so cut the colonies in
+  twain. From all he could learn, and from his knowledge of his
+  opponents' character, Washington felt satisfied that Howe
+  intended to capture Philadelphia, advancing, probably, through
+  the Jerseys. Yet, despite his well-reasoned judgment on this
+  point, it seemed so incredible that any soldier could fail to see
+  that decisive victory lay in the north, and in a junction with
+  Burgoyne, that Washington could not really and fully believe in
+  such fatuity until he knew that Howe was actually landing at the
+  Head of Elk. This is the reason for the anxiety displayed in the
+  correspondence of that summer, for the changing and shifting
+  movements, and for the obvious hesitation of opinion, so unusual
+  with Washington at any time. Be it remembered, moreover, that it
+  was an awful doubt which went to bed and got up and walked with
+  him through all those long nights and days. If Howe, the dull and
+  lethargic, should awake from his dream of conquering America by
+  taking now and again an isolated town, and should break for the
+  north with twenty thousand men, the fortunes of the young
+  republic would come to their severest test.</p>
+
+  <p>In that event, Washington knew well enough what he meant to
+  do. He would march his main army to the Hudson, unite with the
+  strong body of troops which he kept there constantly, contest
+  every inch of the country and the river with Howe, and keep him
+  at all hazards from getting to Albany. But he also knew well that
+  if this were done the odds would be fearfully against him, for
+  Howe would then not only outnumber him very greatly, but there
+  would be ample time for the British to act, and but a short
+  distance to be covered. We can imagine, therefore, his profound
+  sense of relief when he found that Howe and his army were really
+  south of Philadelphia, after a waste of many precious weeks. He
+  could now devote himself single-hearted to the defense of the
+  city, for distance and time were at last on his side, and all
+  that remained was to fight Howe so hard and steadily that neither
+  in victory nor defeat would he remember Burgoyne. Pitt said that
+  he would conquer Canada on the plains of Germany, and Burgoyne
+  was compelled to surrender in large measure by the campaign of
+  Washington in New Jersey and Pennsylvania.</p>
+
+  <p>If we study carefully Washington's correspondence during that
+  eventful summer, grouping together that relating to the northern
+  campaign, and comparing it with that which dealt with the affairs
+  of his own army, all that has just been said comes out with
+  entire clearness, and it is astonishing to see how exactly events
+  justified his foresight. If he could only hold Howe in the south,
+  he was quite willing to trust Burgoyne to the rising of the
+  people and to the northern wilderness. Every effort he made was
+  in this direction, beginning, as has been said, by his appeals to
+  the New England governors in March. Schuyler, on his part, was
+  thoroughly imbued with Washington's other leading idea, that the
+  one way to victory was by retarding the enemy. At the outset
+  everything went utterly and disastrously wrong. Washington
+  counted on an obstinate struggle, and a long delay at
+  Ticonderoga, for he had not been on the ground, and could not
+  imagine that our officers would fortify everything but the one
+  commanding point.</p>
+
+  <p>The loss of the forts appalled the country and disappointed
+  Washington, but did not shake his nerve for an instant. He wrote
+  to Schuyler: "This stroke is severe indeed, and has distressed us
+  much. But notwithstanding things at present have a dark and
+  gloomy aspect, I hope a spirited opposition will check the
+  progress of General Burgoyne's army, and that the confidence
+  derived from his success will hurry him into measures that will,
+  in their consequences, be favorable to us. We should never
+  despair; our situation has before been unpromising, and has
+  changed for the better; so I trust it will again. If new
+  difficulties arise we must only put forth new exertions, and
+  proportion our efforts to the exigency of the times." Even after
+  this seemingly crushing defeat he still felt sure of Burgoyne, so
+  long as he was unsupported. Suiting the action to the word, he
+  again bent every nerve to rouse New England and get out her
+  militia. When he was satisfied that Howe was landing below
+  Philadelphia, the first thing he did was to send forth the same
+  cry in the same quarter, to bring out more men against Burgoyne.
+  He showed, too, the utmost generosity toward the northern army,
+  sending thither all the troops he could possibly spare, and even
+  parting with his favorite corps of Morgan's riflemen. Despite his
+  liberality, the commanders in the north were unreasonable in
+  their demands, and when they asked too much, Washington flatly
+  declined to send more men, for he would not weaken himself
+  unduly, and he knew what they did not see, that the fate of the
+  northern invasion turned largely on his own ability to cope with
+  Howe.</p>
+
+  <p>The blame for the loss of the forts fell of course upon
+  Schuyler, who was none too popular in Congress, and who with St.
+  Clair was accordingly made a scape-goat. Congress voted that
+  Washington should appoint a new commander, and the New England
+  delegates visited him to urge the selection of Gates. This task
+  Washington refused to perform, alleging as a reason that the
+  northern department had always been considered a separate
+  command, and that he had never done more than advise. These
+  reasons do not look very weighty or very strong, and it is not
+  quite clear what the underlying motive was. Washington never
+  shrank from responsibility, and he knew very well that he could
+  pick out the best man more unerringly than Congress. But he also
+  saw that Congress favored Gates, whom he would not have chosen,
+  and he therefore probably felt that it was more important to have
+  some one whom New England believed in and approved than a better
+  soldier who would have been unwelcome to her representatives. It
+  is certain that he would not have acted thus, had he thought that
+  generalship was an important element in the problem; but he
+  relied on a popular uprising, and not on the commander, to defeat
+  Burgoyne. He may have thought, too, that it was a mistake to
+  relieve Schuyler, who was working in the directions which he had
+  pointed out, and who, if not a great soldier, was a brave,
+  high-minded, and sensible man, devoted to his chief and to the
+  country. It was Schuyler indeed who, by his persistent labor in
+  breaking down bridges, tearing up roads, and felling trees, while
+  he gathered men industriously in all directions, did more than
+  any one else at that moment to prepare the way for an ultimate
+  victory.</p>
+
+  <p>Whatever his feelings may have been in regard to the command
+  of the northern department, Washington made no change in his own
+  course after Gates had been appointed. He knew that Gates was at
+  least harmless, and not likely to block the natural course of
+  events. He therefore felt free to press his own policy without
+  cessation, and without apprehension. He took care that Lincoln
+  and Arnold should be there to look after the New England militia,
+  and he wrote to Governor Clinton, in whose energy and courage he
+  had great confidence, to rouse up the men of New York. He
+  suggested the points of attack, and at every moment advised and
+  counseled and watched, holding all the while a firm grip on Howe.
+  Slowly and surely the net, thus painfully set, tightened round
+  Burgoyne. The New Englanders whipped one division at Bennington,
+  and the New Yorkers shattered another at Oriskany and Fort
+  Schuyler. The country people turned out in defense of their
+  invaded homes and poured into the American camp. Burgoyne
+  struggled and advanced, fought and retreated. Gates, stupid,
+  lethargic, and good-natured, did nothing, but there was no need
+  of generalship; and Arnold was there, turbulent and quarrelsome,
+  but full of daring; and Morgan, too, equally ready; and they and
+  others did all the necessary fighting.</p>
+
+  <p>Poor Burgoyne, a brave gentleman, if not a great general, had
+  the misfortune to be a clever man in the service of a stupid
+  administration, and he met the fate usually meted out under such
+  circumstances to men of ideas. Howe went off to the conquest of
+  Philadelphia, Clinton made a brief burning and plundering raid up
+  the river, and the northern invasion, which really had meaning,
+  was left to its fate. It was a hard fate, but there was no
+  escape. Outnumbered, beaten, and caught, Burgoyne surrendered. If
+  there had been a fighting-man at the head of the American army,
+  the British would have surrendered as prisoners of war, and not
+  on conditions. Schuyler, we may be sure, whatever his failings,
+  would never have let them off so easily. But it was sufficient as
+  it was. The wilderness, and the militia of New York and New
+  England swarming to the defense of their homes, had done the
+  work. It all fell out just as Washington had foreseen and
+  planned, and England, despising her enemy and their commander,
+  saw one of her armies surrender, and might have known, if she had
+  had the wit, that the colonies were now lost forever. The
+  Revolution had been saved at Trenton; it was established at
+  Saratoga. In the one case it was the direct, in the other the
+  indirect, work of Washington.</p>
+
+  <p>Poor Gates, with his dull brain turning under the impression
+  that this crowning mercy had been his own doing, lost his head,
+  forgot that there was a commander-in-chief, and sending his news
+  to Congress, left Washington to find out from chance rumors, and
+  a tardy letter from Putnam, that Burgoyne had actually
+  surrendered. This gross slight, however, had deeper roots than
+  the mere exultation of victory acting on a heavy and common mind.
+  It represented a hostile feeling which had been slowly increasing
+  for some time, which had been carefully nurtured by those
+  interested in its growth, and which blossomed rapidly in the
+  heated air of military triumph. From the outset it had been
+  Washington's business to fight the enemy, manage the army, deal
+  with Congress, and consider in all its bearings the political
+  situation at home and abroad; but he was now called upon to meet
+  a trouble outside the line of duty, and to face attacks from
+  within, which, ideally speaking, ought never to have existed, but
+  which, in view of our very fallible humanity, were certain to
+  come sooner or later. Much domestic malice Washington was
+  destined to encounter in the later years of political strife, but
+  this was the only instance in his military career where enmity
+  came to overt action and open speech. The first and the last of
+  its kind, this assault upon him has much interest, for a strong
+  light is thrown upon his character by studying him, thus beset,
+  and by seeing just how he passed through this most trying and
+  disagreeable of ordeals.</p>
+
+  <p>The germ of the difficulties was to be found where we should
+  expect it, in the differences between the men of speech and the
+  man of action, between the lawmakers and the soldier. Washington
+  had been obliged to tell Congress a great many plain and
+  unpleasant truths. It was part of his duty, and he did it
+  accordingly. He was always dignified, calm, and courteous, but he
+  had an alarmingly direct way with him, especially when he was
+  annoyed. He was simple almost to bluntness, but now and then
+  would use a grave irony which must have made listening ears
+  tingle. Congress was patriotic and well-intentioned, and on the
+  whole stood bravely by its general, but it was unversed in war,
+  very impatient, and at times wildly impracticable. Here is a
+  letter which depicts the situation, and the relation between the
+  general and his rulers, with great clearness. March 14, 1777,
+  Washington wrote to the President: "Could I accomplish the
+  important objects so eagerly wished by Congress,&mdash;'confining
+  the enemy within their present quarters, preventing their getting
+  supplies from the country, and totally subduing them before they
+  are reinforced,'&mdash;I should be happy indeed. But what
+  prospect or hope can there be of my effecting so desirable a work
+  at this time?"</p>
+
+  <p>We can imagine how exasperating such requests and suggestions
+  must have been. It was very much as if Congress had said: "Good
+  General, bring in the Atlantic tides and drown the enemy; or
+  pluck the moon from the sky and give it to us, as a mark of your
+  loyalty." Such requests are not soothing to any man struggling
+  his best with great anxieties, and with a host of petty cares.
+  Washington, nevertheless, kept his temper, and replied only by
+  setting down a few hard facts which answered the demands of
+  Congress in a final manner, and with all the sting of truth. Thus
+  a little irritation had been generated in Congress against the
+  general, and there were some members who developed a good deal of
+  pronounced hostility. Sam Adams, a born agitator and a trained
+  politician, unequaled almost in our history as an organizer and
+  manager of men, able, narrow, coldly fierce, the man of the town
+  meeting and the caucus, had no possibility of intellectual
+  sympathy with the silent, patient, hard-gripping soldier, hemmed
+  with difficulties, but ever moving straight forward to his
+  object, with occasional wild gusts of reckless fighting passion.
+  John Adams, too, brilliant of speech and pen, ardent, patriotic,
+  and high-minded, was, in his way, out of touch with Washington.
+  Although he moved Washington's appointment, he began almost
+  immediately to find fault with him, an exercise to which he was
+  extremely prone. Inasmuch as he could see how things ought to be
+  done, he could not understand why they were not done in that way
+  at once, for he had a fine forgetfulness of other people's
+  difficulties, as is the case with most of us. The New England
+  representatives generally took their cue from these two,
+  especially James Lovell, who carried his ideas into action, and
+  obtained a little niche in the temple of fame by making himself
+  disagreeably conspicuous in the intrigue against the
+  commander-in-chief, when it finally developed.</p>
+
+  <p>There were others, too, outside New England who were
+  discontented, and among them Richard Henry Lee, from the
+  General's own State. He was evidently critical and somewhat
+  unfriendly at this time, although the reasons for his being so
+  are not now very distinct. Then there was Mr. Clark of New
+  Jersey, an excellent man, who thought the General was invading
+  popular rights; and to him others might be added who vaguely felt
+  that things ought to be better than they were. This party,
+  adverse to Washington, obtained the appointment of Gates to the
+  northern department, under whom the army won a great victory, and
+  they were correspondingly happy. John Adams wrote his wife that
+  one cause of thanksgiving was that the tide had not been turned
+  by the commander-in-chief and southern troops, for the adulation
+  would have been intolerable; and that a man may be wise and
+  virtuous and not a deity.</p>
+
+  <p>Here, so far as the leading and influential men were
+  concerned, the matter would have dropped, probably; but there
+  were lesser men like Lovell who were much encouraged by the
+  surrender of Burgoyne, and who thought that they now might
+  supplant Washington with Gates. Before long, too, they found in
+  the army itself some active and not over-scrupulous allies. The
+  most conspicuous figure among the military malcontents was Gates
+  himself, who, although sluggish in all things, still had a keen
+  eye for his own advancement. He showed plainly how much his head
+  had been turned by the victory at Saratoga when he failed to
+  inform Washington of the fact, and when he afterward delayed
+  sending back troops until he was driven to it by the determined
+  energy of Hamilton, who was sent to bring him to reason. Next in
+  importance to Gates was Thomas Mifflin, an ardent patriot, but a
+  rather light-headed person, who espoused the opposition to
+  Washington for causes now somewhat misty, but among which
+  personal vanity played no inconsiderable part. About these two
+  leaders gathered a certain number of inferior officers of no
+  great moment then or since.</p>
+
+  <p>The active and moving spirit in the party, however, was one
+  Conway, an Irish adventurer, who made himself so prominent that
+  the whole affair passed into history bearing his name, and the
+  "Conway cabal" has obtained an enduring notoriety which its hero
+  never acquired by any public services. Conway was one of the
+  foreign officers who had gained the favor of Congress and held
+  the rank of brigadier-general, but this by no means filled the
+  measure of his pretensions, and when De Kalb was made a
+  major-general Conway immediately started forward with claims to
+  the same rank. He received strong support from the factious
+  opposition, and there was so much stir that Washington sharply
+  interfered, for to his general objection to these lavish gifts of
+  excessive rank was added an especial distrust in this particular
+  case. In his calm way he had evidently observed Conway, and with
+  his unerring judgment of men had found him wanting. "I may add,"
+  he wrote to Lee, "and I think with truth, that it will give a
+  fatal blow to the existence of the army. Upon so interesting a
+  subject I must speak plainly. General Conway's merit then as an
+  officer, and his importance in this army, exist more in his own
+  imagination than in reality." This plain talk soon reached
+  Conway, drove him at once into furious opposition, and caused him
+  to impart to the faction a cohesion and vigor which they had
+  before lacked. Circumstances favored them. The victory at
+  Saratoga gave them something tangible to go upon, and the first
+  move was made when Gates failed to inform Washington of the
+  surrender, and then held back the troops sent for so urgently by
+  the commander-in-chief, who had sacrificed so much from his own
+  army to secure that of the north.</p>
+
+  <p>At this very moment, indeed, when Washington was calling for
+  troops, he was struggling with the utmost tenacity to hold
+  control of the Delaware. He made every arrangement possible to
+  maintain the forts, and the first assaults upon them were
+  repulsed with great slaughter, the British in the attack on Fort
+  Mercer losing Count Donop, the leader, and four hundred men. Then
+  came a breathing space, and then the attacks were renewed,
+  supported by vessels, and both forts were abandoned after the
+  works had been leveled to the ground by the enemy's fire.
+  Meanwhile Hamilton, sent to the north, had done his work; Gates
+  had been stirred, and Putnam, well-meaning but stubborn, had been
+  sharply brought to his bearings. Reinforcements had come, and
+  Washington meditated an attack on Philadelphia. There was a good
+  deal of clamor for something brilliant and decisive, for both the
+  army and the public were a little dizzy from the effects of
+  Saratoga, and with sublime blindness to different conditions,
+  could not see why the same performance should not be repeated to
+  order everywhere else. To oppose this wish was trying, doubly
+  trying to a man eager to fight, and with his full share of the
+  very human desire to be as successful as his neighbor. It
+  required great nerve to say No; but Washington did not lack that
+  quality, and as general and statesman he reconnoitred the enemy's
+  works, weighed the chances, said No decisively, and took up an
+  almost impregnable position at White Marsh. Thereupon Howe
+  announced that he would drive Washington beyond the mountains,
+  and on December 4 he approached the American lines with this
+  highly proper purpose. There was some skirmishing along the foot
+  of the hills of an unimportant character, and on the third day
+  Washington, in high spirits, thought an attack would be made, and
+  rode among the soldiers directing and encouraging them. Nothing
+  came of it, however, but more skirmishing, and the next day Howe
+  marched back to Philadelphia. He had offered battle in all ways,
+  he had invited action; but again, with the same pressure both
+  from his own spirit and from public opinion, Washington had said
+  No. On his own ground he was more than ready to fight Howe, but
+  despite the terrible temptation he would fight on no other. Not
+  the least brilliant exploit of Wellington was the retreat to the
+  shrewdly prepared lines of Torres Vedras, and one of the most
+  difficult successes of Washington was his double refusal to fight
+  as the year 1777 drew to a close.</p>
+
+  <p>Like most right and wise things, Washington's action looks
+  now, a century later, so plainly sensible that it is hard to
+  imagine how any one could have questioned it; and one cannot,
+  without a great effort, realize the awful strain upon will and
+  temper involved in thus refusing battle. If the proposed attack
+  on Philadelphia had failed, or if our army had come down from the
+  hills and been beaten in the fields below, no American army would
+  have remained. The army of the north, of which men were talking
+  so proudly, had done its work and dispersed. The fate of the
+  Revolution rested where it had been from the beginning, with
+  Washington and his soldiers. Drive them beyond the mountains and
+  there was no other army to fall back upon. On their existence
+  everything hinged, and when Howe got back to Philadelphia, there
+  they were still existent, still coherent, hovering on his flank,
+  cooping him up in his lines, and leaving him master of little
+  more than the ground his men encamped upon, and the streets his
+  sentinels patrolled. When Franklin was told in Paris that Howe
+  had taken Philadelphia, his reply was, "Philadelphia has taken
+  Howe."</p>
+
+  <p>But, with the exception of Franklin, contemporary opinion in
+  the month of December, 1777, was very different from that of
+  to-day, and the cabal had been at work ever since the
+  commander-in-chief had stepped between Conway and the exorbitant
+  rank he coveted. Washington, indeed, was perfectly aware of what
+  was going on. He was quiet and dignified, impassive and silent,
+  but he knew when men, whether great or small, were plotting
+  against him, and he watched them with the same keenness as he did
+  Howe and the British.</p>
+
+  <p>In the midst of his struggle to hold the Delaware forts, and
+  of his efforts to get back his troops from the north, a story
+  came to him that arrested his attention. Wilkinson, of Gates's
+  staff, had come to Congress with the news of the surrender. He
+  had been fifteen days on the road and three days getting his
+  papers in order, and when it was proposed to give him a sword,
+  Roger Sherman suggested that they had better "give the lad a pair
+  of spurs." This thrust and some delay seem to have nettled
+  Wilkinson, who was swelling with importance, and although he was
+  finally made a brigadier-general, he rode off to the north much
+  ruffled. In later years Wilkinson was secretive enough; but in
+  his hot youth he could not hold his tongue, and on his way back
+  to Gates he talked. What he said was marked and carried to
+  headquarters, and on November 9 Washington wrote to
+  Conway:&mdash;</p>
+
+  <blockquote>
+    <p>"A letter which I received last night contained the
+    following paragraph,&mdash;'In a letter from General Conway to
+    General Gates he says, "<i>Heaven has determined to save your
+    country, or a weak general and bad counsellors would have
+    ruined it</i>" I am, sir, your humble servant,'" etc.</p>
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>This curt note fell upon Conway with stunning effect. It is
+  said that he tried to apologize, and he certainly resigned. As
+  for Gates, he fell to writing letters filled with expressions of
+  wonder as to who had betrayed him, and writhed most pitiably
+  under the exposure. Washington's replies are models of cold
+  dignity, and the calm indifference with which he treated the
+  whole matter, while holding Gates to the point with relentless
+  grasp, is very interesting. The cabal was seriously shaken by
+  this sudden blow. It must have dawned upon them dimly that they
+  might have mistaken their man, and that the silent soldier was
+  perhaps not so easy to dispose of by an intrigue as they had
+  fancied. Nevertheless, they rallied, and taking advantage of the
+  feeling in Congress created by Burgoyne's surrender, they set to
+  work to get control of military matters. The board of war was
+  enlarged to five, with Gates at its head and Mifflin a member,
+  and, thus constituted, it proceeded to make Conway
+  inspector-general, with the rank of major-general. This, after
+  Conway's conduct, was a direct insult to Washington, and marks
+  the highest point attained by his opponents.</p>
+
+  <p>In Congress, too, they became more active, and John Jay said
+  that there was in that body a party bitterly hostile to
+  Washington. We know little of the members of that faction now,
+  for they never took the trouble to refer to the matter in after
+  years, and did everything that silence could do to have it all
+  forgotten. But the party existed none the less, and significant
+  letters have come down to us, one of them written by Lovell, and
+  two anonymous, addressed respectively to Patrick Henry and to
+  Laurens, then president, which show a bitter and vindictive
+  spirit, and breathe but one purpose. The same thought is
+  constantly reiterated, that with a good general the northern army
+  had won a great victory, and that the main army, if commanded in
+  the same way, would do likewise. The plan was simple and
+  coherent. The cabal wished to drive Washington out of power and
+  replace him with Gates. With this purpose they wrote to Henry and
+  Laurens; with this purpose they made Conway
+  inspector-general.</p>
+
+  <p>When they turned from intrigue to action, however, they began
+  to fail. One of their pet schemes was the conquest of Canada, and
+  with this object Lafayette was sent to the lakes, only to find
+  that no preparations had been made, because the originators of
+  the idea were ignorant and inefficient. The expedition promptly
+  collapsed and was abandoned, with much instruction in consequence
+  to Congress and people. Under their control the commissariat also
+  went hopelessly to pieces, and a committee of Congress proceeded
+  to Valley Forge and found that in this direction, too, the new
+  managers had grievously failed. Then the original Conway letter,
+  uncovered so unceremoniously by Washington, kept returning to
+  plague its author. Gates's correspondence went on all through the
+  winter, and with every letter Gates floundered more and more, and
+  Washington's replies grew more and more freezing and severe.
+  Gates undertook to throw the blame on Wilkinson, who became
+  loftily indignant and challenged him. The two made up their
+  quarrel very soon in a ludicrous manner, but Wilkinson in the
+  interval had an interview with Washington, which revealed an
+  amount of duplicity and perfidy on the part of the cabal, so
+  shocking to the former's sensitive nature, that he resigned his
+  secretaryship of the board of war on account, as he frankly said,
+  of the treachery and falsehood of Gates. Such a quarrel of course
+  hurt the cabal, but it was still more weakened by Gates himself,
+  whose only idea seemed to be to supersede Washington by slighting
+  him, refusing troops, and declining to propose his health at
+  dinner,&mdash;methods as unusual as they were feeble.</p>
+
+  <p>The cabal, in fact, was so weak in ability and character that
+  the moment any responsibility fell upon its members it was
+  certain to break down, but the absolutely fatal obstacle to its
+  schemes was the man it aimed to overthrow. The idea evidently was
+  that Washington could be driven to resign. They knew that they
+  could not get either Congress or public opinion to support them
+  in removing him, but they believed that a few well-placed slights
+  and insults would make him remove himself. It was just here that
+  they made their mistake. Washington, as they were aware, was
+  sensitive and high-spirited to the last degree, and he had no
+  love for office, but he was not one of those weaklings who leave
+  power and place in a pet because they are criticised and
+  assailed. He was not ambitious in the ordinary personal sense,
+  but he had a passion for success. Whether it was breaking a
+  horse, or reclaiming land, or fighting Indians, or saving a
+  state, whatever he set his hand to, that he carried through to
+  the end. With him there never was any shadow of turning back.
+  When, without any self-seeking, he was placed at the head of the
+  Revolution, he made up his mind that he would carry it through
+  everything to victory, if victory were possible. Death or a
+  prison could stop him, but neither defeat nor neglect, and still
+  less the forces of intrigue and cabal.</p>
+
+  <p>When he wrote to his brother announcing Burgoyne's surrender,
+  he had nothing to say of the slight Gates put upon him, but
+  merely added in a postscript, "I most devoutly congratulate my
+  country and every well-wisher to the cause on this signal stroke
+  of Providence." This was his tone to every one, both in private
+  and public. His complaint of not being properly notified he made
+  to Gates alone, and put it in the form of a rebuke. He knew of
+  the movement against him from the beginning, but apparently the
+  first person he confided in was Conway, when he sent him the
+  brief note of November 9. Even after the cabal was fully
+  developed, he wrote about it only once or twice, when compelled
+  to do so, and there is no evidence that he ever talked about it
+  except, perhaps, to a few most intimate friends. In a letter to
+  Patrick Henry he said that he was obliged to allow a false
+  impression as to his strength to go abroad, and that he suffered
+  in consequence; and he added, with a little touch of feeling,
+  that while the yeomanry of New York and New England poured into
+  the camp of Gates, outnumbering the enemy two to one, he could
+  get no aid of that sort from Pennsylvania, and still marvels were
+  demanded of him.</p>
+
+  <p>Thus he went on his way through the winter, silent except when
+  obliged to answer some friend, and always ready to meet his
+  enemies. When Conway complained to Congress of his reception at
+  camp, Washington wrote the president that he was not given to
+  dissimulation, and that he certainly had been cold in his manner.
+  He wrote to Lafayette that slander had been busy, and that he had
+  urged his officers to be cool and dispassionate as to Conway,
+  adding, "I have no doubt that everything happens for the best,
+  that we shall triumph over all our misfortunes, and in the end be
+  happy; when, my dear Marquis, if you will give me your company in
+  Virginia, we will laugh at our past difficulties and the folly of
+  others." But though he wrote thus lightly to his friends, he
+  followed Gates sternly enough, and kept that gentleman occupied
+  as he drove him from point to point. Among other things he
+  touched upon Conway's character with sharp irony, saying, "It is,
+  however, greatly to be lamented that this adept in military
+  science did not employ his abilities in the progress of the
+  campaign, in pointing out those wise measures which were
+  calculated to give us 'that degree of success we could reasonably
+  expect.'"</p>
+
+  <p>Poor Gates did not find these letters pleasant reading, and
+  one more curt note, on February 24, finished the controversy. By
+  that time the cabal was falling to pieces, and in a little while
+  was dispersed. Wilkinson's resignation was accepted, Mifflin was
+  put under Washington's orders, and Gates was sent to his command
+  in the north. Conway resigned one day in a pet, and found his
+  resignation accepted and his power gone with unpleasant
+  suddenness. He then got into a quarrel with General Cadwalader on
+  account of his attacks on the commander-in-chief. The quarrel
+  ended in a duel. Conway was badly wounded, and thinking himself
+  dying, wrote a contrite note of apology to Washington, then
+  recovered, left the country, and disappeared from the ken of
+  history. Thus domestic malice and the "bitter party" in Congress
+  failed and perished. They had dashed themselves in vain against
+  the strong man who held firmly both soldiers and people. "While
+  the public are satisfied with my endeavors, I mean not to shrink
+  from the cause." So Washington wrote to Gordon as the cabal was
+  coming to an end, and in that spirit he crushed silently and
+  thoroughly the faction that sought to thwart his purpose, and
+  drive him from office by sneers, slights, and intrigues.</p>
+
+  <p>These attacks upon him came at the darkest moment of his
+  military career. Defeated at Brandywine and Germantown, he had
+  been forced from the forts after a desperate struggle, had seen
+  Philadelphia and the river fall completely into the hands of the
+  enemy, and, bitterest of all, he had been obliged to hold back
+  from another assault on the British lines, and to content himself
+  with baffling Howe when that gentleman came out and offered
+  battle. Then the enemy withdrew to their comfortable quarters,
+  and he was left to face again the harsh winter and the problem of
+  existence. It was the same ever recurring effort to keep the
+  American army, and thereby the American Revolution, alive. There
+  was nothing in this task to stir the blood and rouse the heart.
+  It was merely a question of grim tenacity of purpose and of the
+  ability to comprehend its overwhelming importance. It was not a
+  work that appealed to or inspirited any one, and to carry it
+  through to a successful issue rested with the commander-in-chief
+  alone.</p>
+
+  <p>In the frost and snow he withdrew to Valley Forge, within easy
+  striking distance of Philadelphia. He had literally nothing to
+  rely upon but his own stern will and strong head. His soldiers,
+  steadily dwindling in numbers, marked their road to Valley Forge
+  by the blood from their naked feet. They were destitute and in
+  rags. When they reached their destination they had no shelter,
+  and it was only by the energy and ingenuity of the General that
+  they were led to build huts, and thus secure a measure of
+  protection against the weather. There were literally no supplies,
+  and the Board of War failed completely to remedy the evil. The
+  army was in such straits that it was obliged to seize by force
+  the commonest necessaries. This was a desperate expedient and
+  shocked public opinion, which Washington, as a statesman, watched
+  and cultivated as an essential element of success in his
+  difficult business. He disliked to take extreme measures, but
+  there was nothing else to be done when his men were starving,
+  when nearly three thousand of them were unfit for duty because
+  "barefoot and otherwise naked," and when a large part of the army
+  were obliged to sit up all night by the fires for warmth's sake,
+  having no blankets with which to cover themselves if they lay
+  down. With nothing to eat, nothing to burn, nothing wherewith to
+  clothe themselves, wasting away from exposure and disease, we can
+  only wonder at the forbearance which stayed the hand of violent
+  seizure so long. Yet, as Washington had foreseen, there was even
+  then an outcry against him. Nevertheless, his action ultimately
+  did more good than harm in the very matter of public opinion, for
+  it opened men's eyes, and led to some tardy improvements and some
+  increased effort.</p>
+
+  <p>Worse even than this criticism was the remonstrance of the
+  legislature of Pennsylvania against the going into
+  winter-quarters. They expected Washington to keep the open field,
+  and even to attack the British, with his starving, ragged army,
+  in all the severity of a northern winter. They had failed him at
+  every point and in every promise, in men, clothing, and supplies.
+  They were not content that he covered their State and kept the
+  Revolution alive among the huts of Valley Forge. They wished the
+  impossible. They asked for the moon, and then cried out because
+  it was not given to them. It was a stupid, unkind thing to do,
+  and Washington answered their complaints in a letter to the
+  president of Congress. After setting forth the shortcomings of
+  the Pennsylvanians in the very plainest of plain English, he
+  said: "But what makes this matter still more extraordinary in my
+  eye is that these very gentlemen should think a winter's
+  campaign, and the covering of these States from the invasion of
+  an enemy, so easy and practicable a business. I can answer those
+  gentlemen, that it is a much easier and less distressing thing to
+  draw remonstrances in a comfortable room, by a good fireside,
+  than to occupy a cold, bleak hill, and sleep under frost and
+  snow, without clothes or blankets. However, although they seem to
+  have little feeling for the naked and distressed soldiers, I feel
+  superabundantly for them, and from my soul I pity those miseries
+  which it is neither in my power to relieve or prevent."</p>
+
+  <p>This was not a safe man for the gentlemen of Pennsylvania to
+  cross too far, nor could they swerve him, with all his sense of
+  public opinion, one jot from what he meant to do. In the stern
+  rebuke, and in the deep pathos of these sentences, we catch a
+  glimpse of the silent and self-controlled man breaking out for a
+  moment as he thinks of his faithful and suffering men. Whatever
+  happened, he would hold them together, for in this black time we
+  detect the fear which haunted him, that the people at large might
+  give way. He was determined on independence. He felt a keen
+  hatred against England for her whole conduct toward America, and
+  this hatred was sharpened by the efforts of the English to injure
+  him personally by forged letters and other despicable
+  contrivances. He was resolved that England should never prevail,
+  and his language in regard to her has a fierceness of tone which
+  is full of meaning. He was bent, also, on success, and if under
+  the long strain the people should weaken or waver, he was
+  determined to maintain the army at all hazards.</p>
+
+  <p>So, while he struggled against cold and hunger and
+  destitution, while he contended with faction at home and
+  lukewarmness in the administration of the war, even then, in the
+  midst of these trials, he was devising a new system for the
+  organization and permanence of his forces. Congress meddled with
+  the matter of prisoners and with the promotion of officers, and
+  he argued with and checked them, and still pressed on in his
+  plans. He insisted that officers must have better provision, for
+  they had begun to resign. "You must appeal to their interest as
+  well as to their patriotism," he wrote, "and you must give them
+  half-pay and full pay in proper measure." "You must follow the
+  same policy with the men," he said; "you must have done with
+  short enlistments. In a word, gentlemen, you must give me an
+  army, a lasting, enduring, continental army, for therein lies
+  independence."<a id="footnotetag1-14" name=
+  "footnotetag1-14"></a><a href="#footnote1-14"><sup>1</sup></a> It
+  all comes out now, through the dust of details and annoyances,
+  through the misery and suffering of that wretched winter, through
+  the shrill cries of ignorance and hostility,&mdash;the great,
+  clear, strong policy which meant to substitute an army for
+  militia, and thereby secure victory and independence. It is the
+  burden of all his letters to the governors of States, and to his
+  officers everywhere. "I will hold the army together," he said,
+  "but you on all sides must help me build it up."<a id=
+  "footnotetag1-14dup" name="footnotetag1-14dup"></a><a href=
+  "#footnote1-14"><sup>1</sup></a></p>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote1-14" name="footnote1-14"></a>[<b>Footnote
+    1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-14">(return)</a> These two
+    quotations are not literal, of course, but give the substance
+    of many letters.]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>Thus with much strenuous labor and many fervent appeals he
+  held his army together in some way, and slowly improved it. His
+  system began to be put in force, his reiterated lessons were
+  coming home to Congress, and his reforms and suggestions were in
+  some measure adopted. Under the sound and trained guidance of
+  Baron Steuben a drill and discipline were introduced, which soon
+  showed marked results. Greene succeeded Mifflin as
+  quartermaster-general, and brought order out of chaos. The Conway
+  cabal went to pieces, and as spring opened Washington began to
+  see light once more. To have held on through that winter was a
+  great feat, but to have built up and improved the army at such a
+  time was much more wonderful. It shows a greatness of character
+  and a force of will rarer than military genius, and enables us to
+  understand better, perhaps, than almost any of his victories, why
+  it was that the success of the Revolution lay in such large
+  measure in the hands of one man.</p>
+
+  <p>After Howe's withdrawal from the Jerseys in the previous year,
+  a contemporary wrote that Washington was left with the remnants
+  of an army "to scuffle for liberty." The winter had passed, and
+  he was prepared to scuffle again. On May 11 Sir Henry Clinton
+  relieved Sir William Howe at Philadelphia, and the latter took
+  his departure in a blaze of mock glory and resplendent millinery,
+  known as the Mischianza, a fit close to a career of failure,
+  which he was too dull to appreciate. The new commander was more
+  active than his predecessor, but no cleverer, and no better
+  fitted to cope with Washington. It was another characteristic
+  choice on the part of the British ministry, who could never
+  muster enough intellect to understand that the Americans would
+  fight, and that they were led by a really great soldier. The
+  coming of Clinton did not alter existing conditions.</p>
+
+  <p>Expecting a movement by the enemy, Washington sent Lafayette
+  forward to watch Philadelphia. Clinton and Howe, eager for a
+  victory before departure, determined to cut him off, and by a
+  rapid movement nearly succeeded in so doing. Timely information,
+  presence of mind, and quickness alone enabled the young Frenchman
+  to escape, narrowly but completely. Meantime, a cause for delay,
+  that curse of the British throughout the war, supervened. A peace
+  commission, consisting of the Earl of Carlisle, William Eden, and
+  Governor Johnstone, arrived. They were excellent men, but they
+  came too late. Their propositions three years before would have
+  been well enough, but as it was they were worse than nothing.
+  Coolly received, they held a fruitless interview with a committee
+  of Congress, tried to bribe and intrigue, found that their own
+  army had been already ordered to evacuate Philadelphia without
+  their knowledge, and finally gave up their task in angry despair,
+  and returned to England to join in the chorus of fault-finding
+  which was beginning to sound very loud in ministerial ears.</p>
+
+  <p>Meanwhile, Washington waited and watched, puzzled by the
+  delay, and hoping only to harass Sir Henry with militia on the
+  march to New York. But as the days slipped by, the Americans grew
+  stronger, while the British had been weakened by wholesale
+  desertions. When he finally started, he had with him probably
+  sixteen to seventeen thousand men, while the Americans had
+  apparently at least thirteen thousand, nearly all continental
+  troops.<a id="footnotetag1-15" name=
+  "footnotetag1-15"></a><a href="#footnote1-15"><sup>1</sup></a>
+  Under these circumstances, Washington determined to bring on a
+  battle. He was thwarted at the outset by his officers, as was
+  wont to be the case. Lee had returned more whimsical than ever,
+  and at the moment was strongly adverse to an attack, and was full
+  of wise saws about building a bridge of gold for the flying
+  enemy. The ascendancy which, as an English officer, he still
+  retained enabled him to get a certain following, and the councils
+  of war which were held compared unfavorably, as Hamilton put it,
+  with the deliberations of midwives. Washington was harassed of
+  course by all this, but he did not stay his purpose, and as soon
+  as he knew that Clinton actually had marched, he broke camp at
+  Valley Forge and started in pursuit. There were more councils of
+  an old-womanish character, but finally Washington took the matter
+  into his own hands, and ordered forth a strong detachment to
+  attack the British rear-guard. They set out on the 25th, and as
+  Lee, to whom the command belonged, did not care to go, Lafayette
+  was put in charge. As soon as Lafayette had departed, however,
+  Lee changed his mind, and insisted that all the detachments in
+  front, amounting to five thousand men, formed a division so large
+  that it was unjust not to give him the command. Washington,
+  therefore, sent him forward next day with two additional
+  brigades, and then Lee by seniority took command on the 27th of
+  the entire advance.</p>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote1-15" name="footnote1-15"></a>[<b>Footnote
+    1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-15">(return)</a> The authorities
+    are hopelessly conflicting as to the numbers on both sides. The
+    British returns on March 26 showed over 19,000 men. They had
+    since that date been weakened by desertions, but to what extent
+    we can only conjecture. The detachments to Florida and the West
+    Indies ordered from England do not appear to have taken place.
+    The estimate of 16,000 to 17,000 seems the most reasonable.
+    Washington returned his rank and file as just over 10,000,
+    which would indicate a total force of 13,000 to 14,000,
+    possibly more. Washington clearly underestimated the enemy, and
+    the best conclusion seems to be that they were nearly matched
+    in numbers, with a slight inferiority on the American side.]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>In the evening of that day, Washington came up, reconnoitred
+  the enemy, and saw that, although their position was a strong
+  one, another day's unmolested march would make it still stronger.
+  He therefore resolved to attack the next morning, and gave Lee
+  then and there explicit orders to that effect. In the early dawn
+  he dispatched similar orders, but Lee apparently did nothing
+  except move feebly forward, saying to Lafayette, "You don't know
+  the British soldiers; we cannot stand against them." He made a
+  weak attempt to cut off a covering party, marched and
+  countermarched, ordered and countermanded, until Lafayette and
+  Wayne, eager to fight, knew not what to do, and sent hot messages
+  to Washington to come to them.</p>
+
+  <p>Thus hesitating and confused, Lee permitted Clinton to get his
+  baggage and train to the front, and to mass all his best troops
+  in the rear under Cornwallis, who then advanced against the
+  American lines. Now there were no orders at all, and the troops
+  did not know what to do, or where to go. They stood still, then
+  began to fall back, and then to retreat. A very little more and
+  there would have been a rout. As it was, Washington alone
+  prevented disaster. His early reports from the front from
+  Dickinson's outlying party, and from Lee himself, were all
+  favorable. Then he heard the firing, and putting the main army in
+  motion, he rode rapidly forward. First he encountered a
+  straggler, who talked of defeat. He could not believe it, and the
+  fellow was pushed aside and silenced. Then came another and
+  another, all with songs of death. Finally, officers and regiments
+  began to come. No one knew why they fled, or what had happened.
+  As the ill tidings grew thicker, Washington spurred sharper and
+  rode faster through the deep sand, and under the blazing
+  midsummer sun. At last he met Lee and the main body all in full
+  retreat. He rode straight at Lee, savage with anger, not pleasant
+  to look at, one may guess, and asked fiercely and with a deep
+  oath, tradition says, what it all meant. Lee was no coward, and
+  did not usually lack for words. He was, too, a hardened man of
+  the world, and, in the phrase of that day, impudent to boot. But
+  then and there he stammered and hesitated. The fierce question
+  was repeated. Lee gathered himself and tried to excuse and
+  palliate what had happened, but although the brief words that
+  followed are variously reported to us across the century, we know
+  that Washington rebuked him in such a way, and with such passion,
+  that all was over between them. Lee had committed the one
+  unpardonable sin in the eyes of his commander. He had failed to
+  fight when the enemy was upon him. He had disobeyed orders and
+  retreated. It was the end of him. He went to the rear, thence to
+  a court-martial, thence to dismissal and to a solitary life with
+  a well-founded suspicion of treason hanging about him. He was an
+  intelligent, quick-witted, unstable man, much overrated because
+  he was an English officer among a colonial people. He was ever
+  treated magnanimously by Washington after the day of battle at
+  Monmouth, but he then disappeared from the latter's life.</p>
+
+  <p>When Lee bowed before the storm and stepped aside, Washington
+  was left to deal with the danger and confusion around him. Thus
+  did he tell the story afterwards to his brother: "A retreat,
+  however, was the fact, be the causes what they may; and the
+  disorder arising from it would have proved fatal to the army, had
+  not that bountiful Providence, which has never failed us in the
+  hour of distress, enabled me to form a regiment or two (of those
+  that were retreating) in the face of the enemy, and under their
+  fire; by which means a stand was made long enough (the place
+  through which the enemy were pressing being narrow) to form the
+  troops, that were advancing, upon an advantageous piece of ground
+  in the rear." We cannot add much to these simple and modest
+  words, for they tell the whole story. Having put Lee aside,
+  Washington rallied the broken troops, brought them into position,
+  turned them back, and held the enemy in check. It was not an easy
+  feat, but it was done, and when Lee's division again fell back in
+  good order the main army was in position, and the action became
+  general. The British were repulsed, and then Washington, taking
+  the offensive, drove them back until he occupied the battlefield
+  of the morning. Night came upon him still advancing. He halted
+  his army, lay down under a tree, his soldiers lying on their arms
+  about him, and planned a fresh attack, to be made at daylight.
+  But when the dawn came it was seen that the British had crept
+  off, and were far on their road. The heat prevented a rapid
+  pursuit, and Clinton got into New York. Between there and
+  Philadelphia he had lost at least two thousand men by desertions
+  in addition to nearly five hundred who fell at Monmouth.</p>
+
+  <p>It is worth while to pause a moment and compare this battle
+  with the rout of Long Island, the surprise at the Brandywine, and
+  the fatal unsteadiness at Germantown. Here, too, a check was
+  received at the outset, owing to blundering which no one could
+  have foreseen. The troops, confused and without orders, began to
+  retreat, but without panic or disorder. The moment Washington
+  appeared they rallied, returned to the field, showed perfect
+  steadiness, and the victory was won. Monmouth has never been one
+  of the famous battles of the Revolution, and yet there is no
+  other which can compare with it as an illustration of
+  Washington's ability as a soldier. It was not so much the way in
+  which it was fought, although that was fine enough, that its
+  importance lies as in the evidence which it gives of the way in
+  which Washington, after a series of defeats, during a winter of
+  terrible suffering and privation, had yet developed his ragged
+  volunteers into a well-disciplined and effective army. The battle
+  was a victory, but the existence and the quality of the army that
+  won it were a far greater triumph.</p>
+
+  <p>The dreary winter at Valley Forge had indeed borne fruit. With
+  a slight numerical superiority Washington had fought the British
+  in the open field, and fairly defeated them. "Clinton gained no
+  advantage," said the great Frederic, "except to reach New York
+  with the wreck of his army; America is probably lost for
+  England." Another year had passed, and England had lost an army,
+  and still held what she had before, the city of New York.
+  Washington was in the field with a better army than ever, and an
+  army flushed with a victory which had been achieved after
+  difficulties and trials such as no one now can rightly picture or
+  describe. The American Revolution was advancing, held firm by the
+  master-hand of its leader. Into it, during these days of struggle
+  and of battle, a new element had come, and the next step is to
+  see how Washington dealt with the fresh conditions upon which the
+  great conflict had entered.</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <h2><a name="VIII" id="VIII"></a> CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+  <h2>THE ALLIES</h2>
+
+  <p>On May 4, 1778, Congress ratified the treaties of commerce and
+  alliance with France. On the 6th, Washington, waiting at Valley
+  Forge for the British to start from Philadelphia, caused his
+  army, drawn out on parade, to celebrate the great event with
+  cheers and with salvos of artillery and musketry. The alliance
+  deserved cheers and celebration, for it marked a long step onward
+  in the Revolution. It showed that America had demonstrated to
+  Europe that she could win independence, and it had been proved to
+  the traditional enemy of England that the time had come when it
+  would be profitable to help the revolted colonies. But the
+  alliance brought troubles as well as blessings in its train. It
+  induced a relaxation in popular energy, and carried with it new
+  and difficult problems for the commander-in-chief. The successful
+  management of allies, and of allied forces, had been one of the
+  severest tests of the statesmanship of William III., and had
+  constituted one of the principal glories of Marlborough. A
+  similar problem now confronted the American general.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington was free from the diplomatic and political portion
+  of the business, but the military and popular part fell wholly
+  into his hands, and demanded the exercise of talents entirely
+  different from those of either a general or an administrator. It
+  has been not infrequently written more or less plainly, and it is
+  constantly said, that Washington was great in character, but that
+  in brains he was not far above the common-place. It is even
+  hinted sometimes that the father of his country was a dull man, a
+  notion which we shall have occasion to examine more fully further
+  on. At this point let the criticism be remembered merely in
+  connection with the fact that to co&ouml;perate with allies in
+  military matters demands tact, quick perception, firmness, and
+  patience. In a word, it is a task which calls for the finest and
+  most highly trained intellectual powers, and of which the
+  difficulty is enhanced a thousandfold when the allies are on the
+  one side, an old, aristocratic, punctilious people, and on the
+  other, colonists utterly devoid of tradition, etiquette, or fixed
+  habits, and very much accustomed to go their own way and speak
+  their own minds with careless freedom. With this problem
+  Washington was obliged suddenly to deal, both in ill success and
+  good success, as well as in many attempts which came to nothing.
+  Let us see how he solved it at the very outset, when everything
+  went most perversely wrong.</p>
+
+  <p>On July 14 he heard that D'Estaing's fleet was off the coast,
+  and at once, without a trace of elation or excitement, he began
+  to consider the possibility of intercepting the British fleet
+  expected to arrive shortly from Cork. As soon as D'Estaing was
+  within reach he sent two of his aides on board the flagship, and
+  at once opened a correspondence with his ally. These letters of
+  welcome, and those of suggestion which followed, are models, in
+  their way, of what such letters ought always to be. They were
+  perfectly adapted to satisfy the etiquette and the love of good
+  manners of the French, and yet there was not a trace of anything
+  like servility, or of an effusive gratitude which outran the
+  favors granted. They combined stately courtesy with simple
+  dignity, and are phrased with a sober grace which shows the
+  thoroughly strong man, as capable to turn a sentence, if need be,
+  as to rally retreating soldiers in the face of the enemy.</p>
+
+  <p>In this first meeting of the allies nothing happened
+  fortunately. D'Estaing had had a long passage, and was too late
+  to cut off Lord Howe at the Delaware. Then he turned to New York,
+  and was too late there, and found further that he could not get
+  his ships over the bar. Hence more delays, so that he was late
+  again in getting to Newport, where he was to unite with Sullivan
+  in driving the British from Rhode Island, as Washington had
+  planned, in case of failure at New York, while the French were
+  still hovering on the coast. When D'Estaing finally reached
+  Newport, there was still another delay of ten days, and then,
+  just as he and Sullivan were preparing to attack, Lord Howe, with
+  his squadron reinforced, appeared off the harbor. Promising to
+  return, D'Estaing sailed out to give the enemy battle, and after
+  much manoeuvring both fleets were driven off by a severe storm,
+  and D'Estaing came back only to tell Sullivan that he must go to
+  Boston at once to refit. Then came the protest addressed to the
+  Count and signed by all the American officers; then the departure
+  of D'Estaing, and an indiscreet proclamation to the troops by
+  Sullivan, reflecting on the conduct of the allies.</p>
+
+  <p>When D'Estaing had actually gone, and the Americans were
+  obliged to retreat, there was much grumbling in all directions,
+  and it looked as if the first result of the alliance was to be a
+  very pretty quarrel. It was a bad and awkward business. Congress
+  had the good sense to suppress the protest of the officers, and
+  Washington, disappointed, but perhaps not wholly surprised, set
+  himself to work to put matters right. It was no easy task to
+  soothe the French, on the one hand, who were naturally aggrieved
+  at the utterances of the American officers and at the popular
+  feeling, and on the other to calm his own people, who were, not
+  without reason, both disappointed and provoked. To Sullivan,
+  fuming with wrath, he wrote: "Should the expedition fail through
+  the abandonment of the French fleet, the officers concerned will
+  be apt to complain loudly. But prudence dictates that we should
+  put the best face upon the matter, and to the world attribute the
+  removal to Boston to necessity. The reasons are too obvious to
+  need explaining." And again, a few days later: "First
+  impressions, you know, are generally longest remembered, and will
+  serve to fix in a great degree our national character among the
+  French. In our conduct towards them we should remember that they
+  are a people old in war, very strict in military etiquette, and
+  apt to take fire when others scarcely seem warmed. Permit me to
+  recommend, in the most particular manner, the cultivation of
+  harmony and good agreement, and your endeavor to destroy that
+  ill-humor which may have got into officers." To Lafayette he
+  wrote: "Everybody, sir, who reasons, will acknowledge the
+  advantages which we have derived from the French fleet, and the
+  zeal of the commander of it; but in a free and republican
+  government you cannot restrain the voice of the multitude. Every
+  man will speak as he thinks, or, more properly, without thinking,
+  and consequently will judge of effects without attending to the
+  causes. The censures which have been leveled at the French fleet
+  would more than probably have fallen in a much higher degree upon
+  a fleet of our own, if we had had one in the same situation. It
+  is the nature of man to be displeased with everything that
+  disappoints a favorite hope or flattering project; and it is the
+  folly of too many of them to condemn without investigating
+  circumstances." Finally he wrote to D'Estaing, deploring the
+  difference which had arisen, mentioning his own efforts and
+  wishes to restore harmony, and said: "It is in the trying
+  circumstances to which your Excellency has been exposed that the
+  virtues of a great mind are displayed in their brightest lustre,
+  and that a general's character is better known than in the moment
+  of victory. It was yours by every title that can give it; and the
+  adverse elements that robbed you of your prize can never deprive
+  you of the glory due you. Though your success has not been equal
+  to your expectations, yet you have the satisfaction of reflecting
+  that you have rendered essential services to the common cause."
+  This is not the letter of a dull man. Indeed, there is a nicety
+  about it that partakes of cleverness, a much commoner thing than
+  greatness, but something which all great men by no means possess.
+  Thus by tact and comprehension of human nature, by judicious
+  suppression and equally judicious letters, Washington, through
+  the prudent exercise of all his commanding influence, quieted his
+  own people and soothed his allies. In this way a serious disaster
+  was averted, and an abortive expedition was all that was left to
+  be regretted, instead of an ugly quarrel, which might readily
+  have neutralized the vast advantages flowing from the French
+  alliance. Having refitted, D'Estaing bore away for the West
+  Indies, and so closed the first chapter in the history of the
+  alliance with France. Nothing more was heard of the allies until
+  the spring was well advanced, when M. Gerard, the minister,
+  wrote, intimating that D'Estaing was about to return, and asking
+  what we would do. Washington replied at length, professing his
+  willingness to co&ouml;perate in any way, and offering, if the
+  French would send ships, to abandon everything, run all risks,
+  and make an attack on New York. Nothing further came of it, and
+  Washington heard that the fleet had gone to the Southern States,
+  which he learned without regret, as he was apprehensive as to the
+  condition of affairs in that region. Again, in the autumn, it was
+  reported that the fleet was once more upon the northern coast.
+  Washington at once sent officers to be on the lookout at the most
+  likely points, and he wrote elaborately to D'Estaing, setting
+  forth with wonderful perspicuity the incidents of the past, the
+  condition of the present, and the probabilities of the future. He
+  was willing to do anything, or plan anything, provided his allies
+  would join with him. The jealousy so habitual in humanity, which
+  is afraid that some one else may get the glory of a common
+  success, was unknown to Washington, and if he could but drive the
+  British from America, and establish American independence, he was
+  perfectly willing that the glory should take care of itself. But
+  all his wisdom in dealing with the allies was, for the moment,
+  vain. While he was planning for a great stroke, and calling out
+  the militia of New England, D'Estaing was making ready to relieve
+  Georgia, and a few days after Washington wrote his second letter,
+  the French and Americans assaulted the British works at Savannah,
+  and were repulsed with heavy losses. Then D'Estaing sailed away
+  again, and the second effort of France to aid England's revolted
+  colonies came to an end. Their presence had had a good moral
+  effect, and the dread of D'Estaing's return had caused Clinton to
+  withdraw from Newport and concentrate in New York. This was all
+  that was actually accomplished, and there was nothing for it but
+  to await still another trial and a more convenient season.</p>
+
+  <p>With all his courtesy and consideration, with all his
+  readiness to fall in with the wishes and schemes of the French,
+  it must not be supposed that Washington ever went an inch too far
+  in this direction. He valued the French alliance, and proposed to
+  use it to great purpose, but he was not in the least dazzled or
+  blinded by it. Even in the earliest glow of excitement and hope
+  produced by D'Estaing's arrival, Washington took occasion to draw
+  once more the distinction between a valuable alliance and
+  volunteer adventurers, and to remonstrate again with Congress
+  about their reckless profusion in dealing with foreign officers.
+  To Gouverneur Morris he wrote on July 24, 1778: "The lavish
+  manner in which rank has hitherto been bestowed on these
+  gentlemen will certainly be productive of one or the other of
+  these two evils: either to make it despicable in the eyes of
+  Europe, or become the means of pouring them in upon us like a
+  torrent and adding to our present burden. But it is neither the
+  expense nor the trouble of them that I most dread. There is an
+  evil more extensive in its nature, and fatal in its consequences,
+  to be apprehended, and that is the driving of all our own
+  officers out of the service, and throwing not only our army, but
+  our military councils, entirely into the hands of foreigners....
+  Baron Steuben, I now find, is also wanting to quit his
+  inspectorship for a command in the line. This will be productive
+  of much discontent to the brigadiers. In a word, although I think
+  the baron an excellent officer, I do most devoutly wish that we
+  had not a single foreigner among us except the Marquis de
+  Lafayette, who acts upon very different principles from those
+  which govern the rest." A few days later he said, on the same
+  theme, to the president of Congress: "I trust you think me so
+  much a citizen of the world as to believe I am not easily warped
+  or led away by attachments merely local and American; yet I
+  confess I am not entirely without them, nor does it appear to me
+  that they are unwarrantable, if confined within proper limits.
+  Fewer promotions in the foreign line would have been productive
+  of more harmony, and made our warfare more agreeable to all
+  parties." Again, he said of Steuben: "I regret that there should
+  be a necessity that his services should be lost to the army; at
+  the same time I think it my duty explicitly to observe to
+  Congress that his desire of having an actual and permanent
+  command in the line cannot be complied with without wounding the
+  feelings of a number of officers, whose rank and merits give them
+  every claim to attention; and that the doing of it would be
+  productive of much dissatisfaction and extensive ill
+  consequences."</p>
+
+  <p>Washington's resistance to the colonial deference for
+  foreigners has already been pointed out, but this second burst of
+  opposition, coming at this especial time, deserves renewed
+  attention. The splendid fleet and well-equipped troops of our
+  ally were actually at our gates, and everybody was in a paroxysm
+  of perfectly natural gratitude. To the colonial mind, steeped in
+  colonial habits of thought, the foreigner at this particular
+  juncture appeared more than ever to be a splendid and superior
+  being. But he did not in the least confuse or sway the cool
+  judgment that guided the destinies of the Revolution. Let us
+  consider well the pregnant sentences just quoted, and the letters
+  from which they are taken. They deserve it, for they throw a
+  strong light on a side of Washington's mind and character too
+  little appreciated. One hears it said not infrequently, it has
+  been argued even in print with some solemnity, that Washington
+  was, no doubt, a great man and rightly a national hero, but that
+  he was not an American. It will be necessary to recur to this
+  charge again and consider it at some length. It is sufficient at
+  this point to see how it tallies with his conduct in a single
+  matter, which was a very perfect test of the national and
+  American quality of the man. We can get at the truth by
+  contrasting him with his own contemporaries, the only fair
+  comparison, for he was a man and an American of his own time and
+  not of the present day, which is a point his critics
+  overlook.</p>
+
+  <p>Where he differed from the men of his own time was in the fact
+  that he rose to a breadth and height of Americanism and of
+  national feeling which no other man of that day touched at all.
+  Nothing is more intense than the conservatism of mental habits,
+  and although it requires now an effort to realize it, it should
+  not be forgotten that in every habit of thought the inhabitants
+  of the thirteen colonies were wholly colonial. If this is
+  properly appreciated we can understand the mental breadth and
+  vigor which enabled Washington to shake off at once all past
+  habits and become an independent leader of an independent people.
+  He felt to the very core of his being the need of national
+  self-respect and national dignity. To him, as the chief of the
+  armies and the head of the Revolution, all men, no matter what
+  tongue they spake or what country they came from, were to be
+  dealt with on a footing of simple equality, and treated according
+  to their merits. There was to him no glamour in the fact that
+  this man was a Frenchman and that an Englishman. His own personal
+  pride extended to his people, and he bowed to no national
+  superiority anywhere. Hamilton was national throughout, but he
+  was born outside the thirteen colonies, and knew his
+  fellow-citizens only as Americans. Franklin was national by the
+  force of his own commanding genius. John Adams grew to the same
+  conception, so far as our relations to other nations were
+  concerned. But beyond these three we may look far and closely
+  before we find another among all the really great men of the time
+  who freed himself wholly from the superstition of the colonist
+  about the nations of Europe.</p>
+
+  <p>When Washington drew his sword beneath the Cambridge elm he
+  stood forth as the first American, the best type of man that the
+  New World could produce, with no provincial taint upon him, and
+  no shadow of the colonial past clouding his path. It was this
+  great quality that gave the struggle which he led a character it
+  would never have attained without a leader so constituted. Had he
+  been merely a colonial Englishman, had he not risen at once to
+  the conception of an American nation, the world would have looked
+  at us with very different eyes. It was the personal dignity of
+  the man, quite as much as his fighting capacity, which impressed
+  Europe. Kings and ministers, looking on dispassionately, soon
+  realized that here was no ordinary agitator or revolutionist, but
+  a great man on a great stage with great conceptions. England,
+  indeed, talked about a militia colonel, but this chatter
+  disappeared in the smoke of Trenton, and even England came to
+  look upon him as the all-powerful spirit of the Revolution. Dull
+  men and colonial squires do not grasp a great idea and carry it
+  into action on the world's stage in a few months. To stand
+  forward at the head of raw armies and of a colonial people as a
+  national leader, calm, dignified, and far-seeing, requires not
+  only character, but intellect of the highest and strongest kind.
+  Now that we have come as a people, after more than a century's
+  struggle, to the national feeling which Washington compassed in a
+  moment, it is well to consider that single achievement and to
+  meditate on its meaning, whether in estimating him, or in gauging
+  what he was to the American people when they came into
+  existence.</p>
+
+  <p>Let us take another instance of the same quality, shown also
+  in the winter of 1778. Congress had from the beginning a longing
+  to conquer Canada, which was a wholly natural and entirely
+  laudable desire, for conquest is always more interesting than
+  defense. Washington, on the other hand, after the first complete
+  failure, which was so nearly a success in the then undefended and
+  unsuspicious country, gave up pretty thoroughly all ideas of
+  attacking Canada again, and opposed the various plans of Congress
+  in that direction. When he had a life-and-death struggle to get
+  together and subsist enough men to protect their own firesides,
+  he had ample reason to know that invasions of Canada were
+  hopeless. Indeed, not much active opposition from the
+  commander-in-chief was needed to dispose of the Canadian schemes,
+  for facts settled them as fast as they arose. When the cabal got
+  up its Canadian expedition, it consisted of Lafayette, and
+  penetrated no farther than Albany. So Washington merely kept his
+  eye watchfully on Canada, and argued against expeditions thither,
+  until this winter of 1778, when something quite new in that
+  direction came up.</p>
+
+  <p>Lafayette's imagination had been fired by the notion of
+  conquering Canada. His idea was to get succors from France for
+  this especial purpose, and with them and American aid to achieve
+  the conquest. Congress was impressed and pleased by the scheme,
+  and sent a report upon it to Franklin, to communicate to the
+  French court, but Washington, when he heard of the plan, took a
+  very different view. He sent at once a long dispatch to Congress,
+  urging every possible objection to the proposed campaign, on the
+  ground of its utter impracticability, and with this official
+  letter, which was necessarily confined to the military side of
+  the question, went another addressed to President Laurens
+  personally, which contained the deeper reasons of his opposition.
+  He said that there was an objection not touched upon in his
+  public letter, which was absolutely insurmountable. This was the
+  introduction of French troops into Canada to take possession of
+  the capital, in the midst of a people of their own race and
+  religion, and but recently severed from them.</p>
+
+  <p>He pointed out the enormous advantages which would accrue to
+  France from the possession of Canada, such as independent posts,
+  control of the Indians, and the Newfoundland trade. "France, ...
+  possessed of New Orleans on our right, Canada on our left, and
+  seconded by the numerous tribes of Indians in our rear, ...
+  would, it is much to be apprehended, have it in her power to give
+  law to these States." He went on to show that France might easily
+  find an excuse for such conduct, in seeking a surety for her
+  advances of money, and that she had but little to fear from the
+  contingency of our being driven to reunite with England. He
+  continued: "Men are very apt to run into extremes. Hatred to
+  England may carry some into an excess of confidence in France,
+  especially when motives of gratitude are thrown into the scale.
+  Men of this description would be unwilling to suppose France
+  capable of acting so ungenerous a part. I am heartily disposed to
+  entertain the most favorable sentiments of our new ally, and to
+  cherish them in others to a reasonable degree. But it is a maxim,
+  founded on the universal experience of mankind, that no nation is
+  to be trusted farther than it is bound by its own interest; and
+  no prudent statesman or politician will venture to depart from
+  it. In our circumstances we ought to be particularly cautious;
+  for we have not yet attained sufficient vigor and maturity to
+  recover from the shock of any false steps into which we may
+  unwarily fall."</p>
+
+  <p>We shall have occasion to recall these utterances at a later
+  day, but at this time they serve to show yet again how broadly
+  and clearly Washington judged nations and policies. Uppermost in
+  his mind was the destiny of his own nation, just coming into
+  being, and from that firm point he watched and reasoned. His
+  words had no effect on Congress, but as it turned out, the plan
+  failed through adverse influences in the quarter where Washington
+  least expected them. He believed that this Canadian plan had been
+  put into Lafayette's mind by the cabinet of Louis XVI., and he
+  could not imagine that a policy of such obvious wisdom could be
+  overlooked by French statesmen. In this he was completely
+  mistaken, for France failed to see what seemed so simple to the
+  American general, that the opportunity had come to revive her old
+  American policy and reestablish her colonies under the most
+  favorable conditions. The ministers of Louis XVI., moreover, did
+  not wish the colonies to conquer Canada, and the plan of
+  Lafayette and the Congress received no aid in Paris and came to
+  nothing. But the fruitless incident exhibits in the strongest
+  light the attitude of Washington as a purely American statesman,
+  and the comprehensiveness of his mind in dealing with large
+  affairs.</p>
+
+  <p>The French alliance and the coming of the French fleet were of
+  incalculable advantage to the colonies, but they had one evil
+  effect, as has already been suggested. To a people weary with
+  unequal conflict, it was a debilitating influence, and America
+  needed at that moment more than ever energy and vigor, both in
+  the council and the field. Yet the general outlook was distinctly
+  better and more encouraging. Soon after Washington had defeated
+  Clinton at Monmouth, and had taken a position whence he could
+  watch and check him, he wrote to his friend General Nelson in
+  Virginia:&mdash;</p>
+
+  <blockquote>
+    "It is not a little pleasing, nor less wonderful to
+    contemplate, that, after two years' manoeuvring and undergoing
+    the strangest vicissitudes that perhaps ever attended any one
+    contest since the creation, both armies are brought back to the
+    very point they set out from, and that the offending party at
+    the beginning is now reduced to the spade and pickaxe for
+    defense. The hand of Providence has been so conspicuous in all
+    this that he must be worse than an infidel that lacks faith,
+    and more than wicked that has not gratitude enough to
+    acknowledge his obligations. But it will be time enough for me
+    to turn preacher when my present appointment ceases."
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>He had reason to congratulate himself on the result of his two
+  years' campaigning, but as the summer wore away and winter came
+  on he found causes for fresh and deep alarm, despite the good
+  outlook in the field. The demoralizing effects of civil war were
+  beginning to show themselves in various directions. The character
+  of Congress, in point of ability, had declined alarmingly, for
+  the ablest men of the first Congress, with few exceptions, had
+  departed. Some had gone to the army, some to the diplomatic
+  service, and many had remained at home, preferring the honors and
+  offices of the States to those of the Confederation. Their
+  successors, patriotic and well-meaning though they were, lacked
+  the energy and force of those who had started the Revolution,
+  and, as a consequence, Congress had become feeble and
+  ineffective, easily swayed by influential schemers, and unable to
+  cope with the difficulties which surrounded them.</p>
+
+  <p>Outside the government the popular tone had deteriorated
+  sadly. The lavish issues of irredeemable paper by the
+  Confederation and the States had brought their finances to the
+  verge of absolute ruin. The continental currency had fallen to
+  something like forty to one in gold, and the decline was hastened
+  by the forged notes put out by the enemy. The fluctuations of
+  this paper soon bred a spirit of gambling, and hence came a class
+  of men, both inside and outside of politics, who sought, more or
+  less corruptly, to make fortunes by army contracts, and by
+  forestalling the markets. These developments filled Washington
+  with anxiety, for in the financial troubles he saw ruin to the
+  army. The unpaid troops bore the injustice done them with
+  wonderful patience, but it was something that could not last, and
+  Washington knew the danger. In vain did he remonstrate. It seemed
+  to be impossible to get anything done, and at last, in the
+  following spring, the outbreak began. Two New Jersey regiments
+  refused to march until the assembly made provision for their pay.
+  Washington took high ground with them, but they stood
+  respectfully firm, and finally had their way. Not long after came
+  another outbreak in the Connecticut line, with similar results.
+  These object lessons had some result, and by foreign loans and
+  the ability of Robert Morris the country was enabled to stumble
+  along; but it was a frightful and wearing anxiety to the
+  commander-in-chief.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington saw at once that the root of the evil lay in the
+  feebleness of Congress, and although he could not deal with the
+  finances, he was able to strive for an improvement in the
+  governing body. Not content with letters, he left the army and
+  went to Philadelphia, in the winter of 1779, and there appealed
+  to Congress in person, setting forth the perils which beset them,
+  and urging action. He wrote also to his friends everywhere,
+  pointing out the deficiencies of Congress, and begging them to
+  send better and stronger men. To Benjamin Harrison he wrote: "It
+  appears to me as clear as ever the sun did in its meridian
+  brightness, that America never stood in more eminent need of the
+  wise, patriotic, and spirited exertions of her sons than at this
+  period; ... the States separately are too much engaged in their
+  local concerns, and have too many of their ablest men withdrawn
+  from the general council, for the good of the common weal." He
+  took the same high tone in all his letters, and there can be seen
+  through it all the desperate endeavor to make the States and the
+  people understand the dangers which he realized, but which they
+  either could not or would not appreciate.</p>
+
+  <p>On the other hand, while his anxiety was sharpened to the
+  highest point by the character of Congress, his sternest wrath
+  was kindled by the gambling and money-making which had become
+  rampant. To Reed he wrote in December, 1778:</p>
+
+  <blockquote>
+    "It gives me sincere pleasure to find that there is likely to
+    be a coalition of the Whigs in your State, a few only excepted,
+    and that the assembly is so well disposed to second your
+    endeavors in bringing those murderers of our cause, the
+    monopolizers, forestallers, and engrossers, to condign
+    punishment. It is much to be lamented that each State, long ere
+    this, has not hunted them down as pests to society and the
+    greatest enemies we have to the happiness of America. I would
+    to God that some one of the most atrocious in each State was
+    hung in gibbets upon a gallows five times as high as the one
+    prepared by Haman. No punishment, in my opinion, is too great
+    for the man who can build his greatness upon his country's
+    ruin."
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>He would have hanged them too had he had the power, for he was
+  always as good as his word.</p>
+
+  <p>It is refreshing to read these righteously angry words, still
+  ringing as sharply as when they were written. They clear away all
+  the myths&mdash;the priggish, the cold, the statuesque, the dull
+  myths&mdash;as the strong gusts of the northwest wind in autumn
+  sweep off the heavy mists of lingering August. They are the hot
+  words of a warm-blooded man, a good hater, who loathed meanness
+  and treachery, and who would have hanged those who battened upon
+  the country's distress. When he went to Philadelphia, a few weeks
+  later, and saw the state of things with nearer view, he felt the
+  wretchedness and outrage of such doings more than ever. He wrote
+  to Harrison:</p>
+
+  <blockquote>
+    "If I were to be called upon to draw a picture of the times and
+    of men, from what I have seen, heard, and in part know, I
+    should in one word say, that idleness, dissipation, and
+    extravagance seem to have laid fast hold of most of them; that
+    speculation, peculation, and an insatiable thirst for riches
+    seem to have got the better of every other consideration, and
+    almost of every order of men; that party disputes and personal
+    quarrels are the great business of the day; whilst the
+    momentous concerns of an empire, a great and accumulating debt,
+    ruined finances, depreciated money, and want of credit, which,
+    in its consequences, is the want of everything, are but
+    secondary considerations, and postponed from day to day, from
+    week to week, as if our affairs wore the most promising
+    aspect."
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>Other men talked about empire, but he alone grasped the great
+  conception, and felt it in his soul. To see not only immediate
+  success imperiled, but the future paltered with by small, mean,
+  and dishonest men, cut him to the quick. He set himself doggedly
+  to fight it, as he always fought every enemy, using both speech
+  and pen in all quarters. Much, no doubt, he ultimately effected,
+  but he was contending with the usual results of civil war, which
+  are demoralizing always, and especially so among a young people
+  in a new country. At first, therefore, all seemed vain. The
+  selfishness, "peculation, and speculation" seemed to get worse,
+  and the tone of Congress and the people lower, as he struggled
+  against them. In March, 1779, he wrote to James Warren of
+  Massachusetts:</p>
+
+  <blockquote>
+    <p>"Nothing, I am convinced, but the depreciation of our
+    currency, aided by stock-jobbing and party dissensions, has fed
+    the hopes of the enemy, and kept the British arms in America to
+    this day. They do not scruple to declare this themselves, and
+    add that we shall be our own conquerors. Can not our common
+    country, America, possess virtue enough to disappoint them? Is
+    the paltry consideration of a little pelf to individuals to be
+    placed in competition with the essential rights and liberties
+    of the present generation, and of millions yet unborn? Shall a
+    few designing men, for their own aggrandizement, and to gratify
+    their own avarice, overset the goodly fabric we have been
+    rearing, at the expense of so much time, blood, and treasure?
+    And shall we at last become the victims of our own lust of
+    gain? Forbid it, Heaven! Forbid it, all and every State in the
+    Union, by enacting and enforcing efficacious laws for checking
+    the growth of these monstrous evils, and restoring matters, in
+    some degree, to the state they were in at the commencement of
+    the war."</p>
+
+    <p>"Our cause is noble. It is the cause of mankind, and the
+    danger to it is to be apprehended from ourselves. Shall we
+    slumber and sleep, then, while we should be punishing those
+    miscreants who have brought these troubles upon us, and who are
+    aiming to continue us in them; while we should be striving to
+    fill our battalions, and devising ways and means to raise the
+    value of the currency, on the credit of which everything
+    depends?"</p>
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>Again we see the prevailing idea of the future, which haunted
+  him continually. Evidently, he had some imagination, and also a
+  power of terse and eloquent expression which we have heard of
+  before, and shall note again.</p>
+
+  <p>Still the appeals seemed to sound in deaf ears. He wrote to
+  George Mason: "I have seen, without despondency, even for a
+  moment, the hours which America has styled her gloomy ones; but I
+  have beheld no day since the commencement of hostilities that I
+  have thought her liberties in such imminent danger as at
+  present.... Indeed, we are verging so fast to destruction that I
+  am filled with sensations to which I have been a stranger till
+  within these three months." To Gouverneur Morris he said: "If the
+  enemy have it in their power to press us hard this campaign, I
+  know not what may be the consequence." He had faced the enemy,
+  the bleak winters, raw soldiers, and all the difficulties of
+  impecunious government, with a cheerful courage that never
+  failed. But the spectacle of widespread popular demoralization,
+  of selfish scrambles for plunder, and of feeble administration at
+  the centre of government weighed upon him heavily. It was not the
+  general's business to build up Congress and grapple with finance,
+  but Washington addressed himself to the new task with his usual
+  persistent courage. It was slow and painful work. He seemed to
+  make no progress, and then it was that his spirits sank at the
+  prospect of ruin and defeat, not coming on the field of battle,
+  but from our own vices and our own lack of energy and wisdom. Yet
+  his work told in the end, as it always did. His vast and steadily
+  growing influence made itself felt even through the dense
+  troubles of the uneasy times. Congress turned with energy to
+  Europe for fresh loans. Lafayette worked away to get an army sent
+  over. The two Morrises, stimulated by Washington, flung
+  themselves into the financial difficulties, and feeble but
+  distinct efforts toward a more concentrated and better organized
+  administration of public affairs were made both in the States and
+  the confederation.</p>
+
+  <p>But, although Washington's spirits fell, and his anxieties
+  became wellnigh intolerable in this period of reaction which
+  followed the French alliance, he made no public show of it, but
+  carried on his own work with the army and in the field as usual,
+  contending with all the difficulties, new and old, as calmly and
+  efficiently as ever. After Clinton slipped away from Monmouth and
+  sought refuge in New York, Washington took post at convenient
+  points and watched the movements of the enemy. In this way the
+  summer passed. As always, Washington's first object was to guard
+  the Hudson, and while he held this vital point firmly, he waited,
+  ready to strike elsewhere if necessary. It looked for a time as
+  if the British intended to descend on Boston, seize the town, and
+  destroy the French fleet, which had gone there to refit. Such was
+  the opinion of Gates, then commanding in that department, and as
+  Washington inclined to the same belief, the fear of this event
+  gave him many anxious moments. He even moved his troops so as to
+  be in readiness to march eastward at short notice; but he
+  gradually became convinced that the enemy had no such plan. Much
+  of his thought, now and always, was given to efforts to divine
+  the intentions of the British generals. They had so few settled
+  ideas, and were so tardy and lingering when they had plans, that
+  it is small wonder that their opponents were sorely puzzled in
+  trying to find out what their purposes were, when they really had
+  none. The fact was that Washington saw their military
+  opportunities with the eye of a great soldier, and so much better
+  than they, that he suffered a good deal of needless anxiety in
+  devising methods to meet attacks which they had not the wit to
+  undertake. He had a profound contempt for their policy of holding
+  towns, and believing that they must see the utter futility of it,
+  after several years of trial, he constantly expected from them a
+  well-planned and extensive campaign, which in reality they were
+  incapable of devising.</p>
+
+  <p>The main army, therefore, remained quiet, and when the autumn
+  had passed went into winter-quarters in well-posted detachments
+  about New York. In December Clinton made an ineffectual raid, and
+  then all was peaceful again, and Washington was able to go to
+  Philadelphia and struggle with Congress, leaving his army more
+  comfortable and secure than they had been in any previous
+  winter.</p>
+
+  <p>In January he informed Congress as to the next campaign. He
+  showed them the impossibility of undertaking anything on a large
+  scale, and announced his intention of remaining on the defensive.
+  It was a trying policy to a man of his temper, but he could do no
+  better, and he knew, now as always, what others could not yet
+  see, that by simply holding on and keeping his army in the field
+  he was slowly but surely winning independence. He tried to get
+  Congress to do something with the navy, and he planned an
+  expedition, under the command of Sullivan, to overrun the Indian
+  country and check the barbarous raids of the Tories and savages
+  on the frontier; and with this he was fain to be content. In
+  fact, he perceived very clearly the direction in which the war
+  was tending. He kept up his struggle with Congress for a
+  permanent army, and with the old persistency pleaded that
+  something should be done for the officers, and at the same time
+  he tried to keep the States in good humor when they were
+  grumbling about the amount of protection afforded them.</p>
+
+  <p>But all this wear and tear of heart and brain and temper,
+  while given chiefly to hold the army together, was not endured
+  with any notion that he and Clinton were eventually to fight it
+  out in the neighborhood of New York. Washington felt that that
+  part of the conflict was over. He now hoped and believed that the
+  moment would come, when, by uniting his army with the French, he
+  should be able to strike the decisive blow. Until that time came,
+  however, he knew that he could do nothing on a great scale, and
+  he felt that meanwhile the British, abandoning practically the
+  eastern and middle States, would make one last desperate struggle
+  for victory, and would make it in the south. Long before any one
+  else, he appreciated this fact, and saw a peril looming large in
+  that region, where everybody was considering the British invasion
+  as little more than an exaggerated raid. He foresaw, too, that we
+  should suffer more there than we had in the extreme north,
+  because the south was full of Tories and less well organized.</p>
+
+  <p>All this, however, did not change his own plans one jot. He
+  believed that the south must work out its own salvation, as New
+  York and New England had done with Burgoyne, and he felt sure
+  that in the end it would be successful. But he would not go
+  south, nor take his army there. The instinct of a great commander
+  for the vital point in a war or a battle, is as keen as that of
+  the tiger is said to be for the jugular vein of its victim. The
+  British might overrun the north or invade the south, but he would
+  stay where he was, with his grip upon New York and the Hudson
+  River. The tide of invasion might ebb and flow in this region or
+  that, but the British were doomed if they could not divide the
+  eastern colonies from the others. When the appointed hour came,
+  he was ready to abandon everything and strike the final and fatal
+  blow; but until then he waited and stood fast with his army,
+  holding the great river in his grasp. He felt much more anxiety
+  about the south than he had felt about the north, and expected
+  Congress to consult him as to a commander, having made up his
+  mind that Greene was the man to send. But Congress still believed
+  in Gates, who had been making trouble for Washington all winter;
+  and so Gates was sent, and Congress in due time got their lesson,
+  and found once more that Washington understood men better than
+  they did.</p>
+
+  <p>In the north the winter was comparatively uneventful. The
+  spring passed, and in June Clinton came out and took possession
+  of Stony Point and Verplanck's Point, and began to fortify them.
+  It looked a little as if Clinton might intend to get control of
+  the Hudson by slow approaches, fortifying, and then advancing
+  until he reached West Point. With this in mind, Washington at
+  once determined to check the British by striking sharply at one
+  of their new posts. Having made up his mind, he sent for Wayne
+  and asked him if he would storm Stony Point. Tradition says that
+  Wayne replied, "I will storm hell, if you will plan it." A true
+  tradition, probably, in keeping with Wayne's character, and
+  pleasant to us to-day as showing with a vivid gleam of rough
+  human speech the utter confidence of the army in their leader,
+  that confidence which only a great soldier can inspire. So
+  Washington planned, and Wayne stormed, and Stony Point fell. It
+  was a gallant and brilliant feat of arms, one of the most
+  brilliant of the war. Over five hundred prisoners were taken, the
+  guns were carried off, and the works destroyed, leaving the
+  British to begin afresh with a good deal of increased caution and
+  respect. Not long after, Harry Lee stormed Paulus Hook with equal
+  success, and the British were checked and arrested, if they
+  intended any extensive movement. On the frontier, Sullivan, after
+  some delays, did his work effectively, ravaging the Indian towns
+  and reducing them to quiet, thus taking away another annoyance
+  and danger.</p>
+
+  <p>In these various ways Clinton's circle of activity was
+  steadily narrowed, but it may be doubted whether he had any
+  coherent plan. The principal occupation of the British was to
+  send out marauding expeditions and cut off outlying parties.
+  Tryon burned and pillaged in Connecticut, Matthews in Virginia,
+  and others on a smaller scale elsewhere in New Jersey and New
+  York. The blundering stupidity of this system of warfare was only
+  equaled by its utter brutality. Houses were burned, peaceful
+  villages went up in smoke, women and children were outraged, and
+  soldiers were bayoneted after they had surrendered. These details
+  of the Revolution are wellnigh forgotten now, but when the ear is
+  wearied with talk about English generosity and love of fair play,
+  it is well to turn back and study the exploits of Tryon, and it
+  is not amiss in the same connection to recall that English
+  budgets contained a special appropriation for scalping-knives, a
+  delicate attention to the Tories and Indians who were burning and
+  butchering on the frontier.</p>
+
+  <p>Such methods of warfare Washington despised intellectually,
+  and hated morally. He saw that every raid only hardened the
+  people against England, and made her cause more hopeless. The
+  misery caused by these raids angered him, but he would not
+  retaliate in kind, and Wayne bayoneted no English soldiers after
+  they laid down their arms at Stony Point. It was enough for
+  Washington to hold fast to the great objects he had in view, to
+  check Clinton and circumscribe his movements. Steadfastly he did
+  this through the summer and winter of 1779, which proved one of
+  the worst that he had yet endured. Supplies did not come, the
+  army dwindled, and the miseries of Valley Forge were renewed.
+  Again was repeated the old and pitiful story of appeals to
+  Congress and the States, and again the undaunted spirit and
+  strenuous exertions of Washington saved the army and the
+  Revolution from the internal ruin which was his worst enemy. When
+  the new year began, he saw that he was again condemned to a
+  defensive campaign, but this made little difference now, for what
+  he had foreseen in the spring of 1779 became certainty in the
+  autumn. The active war was transferred to the south, where the
+  chapter of disasters was beginning, and Clinton had practically
+  given up everything except New York. The war had taken on the new
+  phase expected by Washington. Weak as he was, he began to detach
+  troops, and prepared to deal with the last desperate effort of
+  England to conquer her revolted colonies from the south.</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <h2><a name="IX" id="IX"></a> CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+  <h2>ARNOLD'S TREASON, AND THE WAR IN THE SOUTH</h2>
+
+  <p>The spring of 1780 was the beginning of a period of inactivity
+  and disappointment, of diligent effort and frustrated plans.
+  During the months which ensued before the march to the south,
+  Washington passed through a stress of harassing anxiety, which
+  was far worse than anything he had to undergo at any other time.
+  Plans were formed, only to fail. Opportunities arose, only to
+  pass by unfulfilled. The network of hostile conditions bound him
+  hand and foot, and it seemed at times as if he could never break
+  the bonds that held him, or prevent or hold back the moral,
+  social, and political dissolution going on about him. With the
+  aid of France, he meant to strike one decisive blow, and end the
+  struggle. Every moment was of importance, and yet the days and
+  weeks and months slipped by, and he could get nothing done. He
+  could neither gain control of the sea, nor gather sufficient
+  forces of his own, although delay now meant ruin. He saw the
+  British overrun the south, and he could not leave the Hudson. He
+  was obliged to sacrifice the southern States, and yet he could
+  get neither ships nor men to attack New York. The army was
+  starving and mutinous, and he sought relief in vain. The finances
+  were ruined, Congress was helpless, the States seemed stupefied.
+  Treason of the most desperate kind suddenly reared its head, and
+  threatened the very citadel of the Revolution. These were the
+  days of the war least familiar to posterity. They are unmarked in
+  the main by action or fighting, and on this dreary monotony
+  nothing stands out except the black stain of Arnold's treason.
+  Yet it was the time of all others when Washington had most to
+  bear. It was the time of all others when his dogged persistence
+  and unwavering courage alone seemed to sustain the flickering
+  fortunes of the war.</p>
+
+  <p>In April Washington was pondering ruefully on the condition of
+  affairs at the south. He saw that the only hope of saving
+  Charleston was in the defense of the bar; and when that became
+  indefensible, he saw that the town ought to be abandoned to the
+  enemy, and the army withdrawn to the country. His military genius
+  showed itself again and again in his perfectly accurate judgment
+  on distant campaigns. He seemed to apprehend all the conditions
+  at a glance, and although his wisdom made him refuse to issue
+  orders when he was not on the ground, those generals who followed
+  his suggestions, even when a thousand miles away, were
+  successful, and those who disregarded them were not. Lincoln,
+  commanding at Charleston, was a brave and loyal man, but he had
+  neither the foresight nor the courage to withdraw to the country,
+  and then, hovering on the lines of the enemy, to confine them to
+  the town. He yielded to the entreaties of the citizens and
+  remained, only to surrender. Washington had retreated from New
+  York, and after five years of fighting the British still held it,
+  and had gone no further. He had refused to risk an assault to
+  redeem Philadelphia, at the expense of much grumbling and
+  cursing, and had then beaten the enemy when they hastily
+  retreated thence in the following spring. His cardinal doctrine
+  was that the Revolution depended upon the existence of the army,
+  and not on the possession of any particular spot of ground, and
+  his masterly adherence to this theory brought victory, slowly but
+  surely. Lincoln's very natural inability to grasp it, and to
+  withstand popular pressure, cost us for a time the southern
+  States and a great deal of bloody fighting.</p>
+
+  <p>In the midst of this anxiety about the south, and when he
+  foresaw the coming disasters, Washington was cheered and
+  encouraged by the arrival of Lafayette, whom he loved, and who
+  brought good tidings of his zealous work for the United States in
+  Paris. An army and a fleet were on their way to America, with a
+  promise of more to follow. This was great news indeed. It is
+  interesting to note how Washington took it, for we see here with
+  unusual clearness the readiness of grasp and quickness of thought
+  which have been noted before, but which are not commonly
+  attributed to him. It has been the fashion to treat Washington as
+  wise and prudent, but as distinctly slow, and when he was obliged
+  to concentrate public opinion, either military or civil, or when
+  doubt overhung his course, he moved with great deliberation. When
+  he required no concentration of opinion, and had made up his
+  mind, he could strike with a terribly swift decision, as at
+  Trenton or Monmouth. So when a new situation presented itself he
+  seized with wonderful rapidity every phase and possibility opened
+  by changed conditions.</p>
+
+  <p>The moment he learned from Lafayette that the French succors
+  were actually on the way, he began to lay out plans in a manner
+  which showed how he had taken in at the first glance every chance
+  and every contingency. He wrote that the decisive moment was at
+  hand, and that the French succors would be fatal if not used
+  successfully now. Congress must improve their methods of
+  administration, and for this purpose must appoint a small
+  committee to co&ouml;perate with him. This step he demanded, and
+  it was taken at once. Fresh from his interview with Lafayette, he
+  sent out orders to have inquiries made as to Halifax and its
+  defenses. Possibly a sudden and telling blow might be struck
+  there, and nothing should be overlooked. He also wrote to
+  Lafayette to urge upon the French commander an immediate assault
+  on New York the moment he landed. Yet despite his thought for New
+  York, he even then began to see the opportunities which were
+  destined to develop into Yorktown. He had longed to go to the
+  south before, and had held back only because he felt that the
+  main army and New York were still the key of the position, and
+  could not be safely abandoned. Now, while planning the capture of
+  New York, he asked in a letter whether the enemy was not more
+  exposed at the southward and therefore a better subject for a
+  combined attack there. Clearness and precision of plan as to the
+  central point, joined to a perfect readiness to change suddenly
+  and strike hard and decisively in a totally different quarter,
+  are sure marks of the great commander. We can find them all
+  through the correspondence, but here in May, 1780, they come out
+  with peculiar vividness. They are qualities arising from a wide
+  foresight, and from a sure and quick perception. They are not the
+  qualities of a slow or heavy mind.</p>
+
+  <p>On June 1 came the news of the surrender of Charleston and the
+  loss of the army, which was followed by the return of Clinton to
+  New York. The southern States lay open now to the enemy, and it
+  was a severe trial to Washington to be unable to go to their
+  rescue; but with the same dogged adherence to his ruling idea, he
+  concentrated his attention on the Hudson with renewed vigilance
+  on account of Clinton's return. Adversity and prosperity alike
+  were unable to divert him from the control of the great river and
+  the mastery of the middle States until he saw conclusive victory
+  elsewhere fairly within his grasp. In the same unswerving way he
+  pushed on the preparations for what he felt to be the coming of
+  the decisive campaign and the supreme moment of the war. To all
+  the governors went urgent letters, calling on the States to fill
+  their lines in the continental army, and to have their militia in
+  readiness.</p>
+
+  <p>In the midst of these anxieties and preparations, the French
+  arrived at Newport, bringing a well-equipped army of some five
+  thousand men, and a small fleet. They brought, too, something
+  quite as important, in the way of genuine good-will and full
+  intention to do all in their power for their allies. After a
+  moment's hesitation, born of unlucky memories, the people of
+  Rhode Island gave De Rochambeau a hearty welcome, and Washington
+  sent him the most cordial greeting. With the greeting went the
+  polite but earnest request for immediate action, together with
+  plans for attacking New York; and, at the same time, another
+  urgent call went out to the States for men, money, and supplies.
+  The long-looked-for hour had arrived, a fine French army was in
+  Newport, a French fleet rode in the harbor, and instead of
+  action, immediate and effective, the great event marked only the
+  beginning of a period of delays and disappointment, wearing heart
+  and nerve almost beyond endurance.</p>
+
+  <p>First it appeared that the French ships could not get into New
+  York harbor. Then there was sickness in the French army. Then the
+  British menaced Newport, and rapid preparations had to be made to
+  meet that danger. Then it came out that De Rochambeau was ordered
+  to await the arrival of the second division of the army, with
+  more ships; and after due waiting, it was discovered that the
+  aforesaid second division, with their ships, were securely
+  blockaded by the English fleet at Brest. On our side it was no
+  better; indeed, it was rather worse. There was lack of arms and
+  powder. The drafts were made with difficulty, and the new levies
+  came in slowly. Supplies failed altogether, and on every hand
+  there was nothing but delay, and ever fresh delay, and in the
+  midst of it all Washington, wrestling with sloth and incoherence
+  and inefficiency, trampled down one failure and disappointment
+  only to encounter another, equally important, equally petty, and
+  equally harassing.</p>
+
+  <p>On August 20 he wrote to Congress a long and most able letter,
+  which set forth forcibly the evil and perilous condition of
+  affairs. After reading that letter no man could say that there
+  was not need of the utmost exertion, and for the expenditure of
+  the last ounce of energy. In it Washington struck especially at
+  the two delusions with which the people and their representatives
+  were lulling themselves into security, and by which they were led
+  to relax their efforts. One was the belief that England was
+  breaking down; the other, that the arrival of the French was
+  synonymous with the victorious close of the war. Washington
+  demonstrated that England still commanded the sea, and that as
+  long as she did so there was a great advantage on her side. She
+  was stronger, on the whole, this year than the year before, and
+  her financial resources were still ample. There was no use in
+  looking for victory in the weakness of the enemy, and on the
+  other hand, to rely wholly on France was contemptible as well as
+  foolish. After stating plainly that the army was on the verge of
+  dissolution, he said: "To me it will appear miraculous if our
+  affairs can maintain themselves much longer in their present
+  train. If either the temper or the resources of the country will
+  not admit of an alteration, we may expect soon to be reduced to
+  the humiliating condition of seeing the cause of America, in
+  America, upheld by foreign arms. The generosity of our allies has
+  a claim to all our confidence and all our gratitude, but it is
+  neither for the honor of America, nor for the interest of the
+  common cause, to leave the work entirely to them."</p>
+
+  <p>It must have been bitter to Washington above all men, with his
+  high dignity and keen sense of national honor, to write such
+  words as these, or make such an argument to any of his
+  countrymen. But it was a work which the time demanded, and he did
+  it without flinching. Having thus laid bare the weak places, he
+  proceeded to rehearse once more, with a weariness we can easily
+  fancy, the old, old lesson as to organization, a permanent army,
+  and a better system of administration. This letter neither
+  scolded, nor bewailed, nor desponded, but it told the truth with
+  great force and vigor. Of course it had but slight results,
+  comparatively speaking; still it did something, and the final
+  success of the Revolution is due to the series of strong
+  truth-telling letters, of which this is an example, as much as to
+  any one thing done by Washington. There was need of some one, not
+  only to fight battles and lead armies, but to drive Congress into
+  some sort of harmony, spur the careless and indifferent to
+  action, arouse the States, and kill various fatal delusions, and
+  in Washington the robust teller of unwelcome truths was
+  found.</p>
+
+  <p>Still, even the results actually obtained by such letters came
+  but slowly, and Washington felt that he must strike at all
+  hazards. Through Lafayette he tried to get De Rochambeau to agree
+  to an immediate attack on New York. His army was on the very eve
+  of dissolution, and he began with reason to doubt his own power
+  of holding it together longer. The finances of the country were
+  going ever faster to irremediable ruin, and it seemed impossible
+  that anything could postpone open and avowed bankruptcy. So, with
+  his army crumbling, mutinous, and half starved, he turned to his
+  one unfailing resource of fighting, and tried to persuade De
+  Rochambeau to join him. Under the circumstances, Washington was
+  right to wish to risk a battle, and De Rochambeau, from his point
+  of view, was equally so in refusing to take the offensive, unless
+  the second division arrived or De Guichen came with his fleet, or
+  the English force at New York was reduced.</p>
+
+  <p>In these debates and delays, mingled with an appeal to De
+  Guichen in the West Indies, the summer was fast wearing away,
+  and, by way of addition, early in September came tidings of the
+  battle of Camden, and the utter rout of Gates's army. Despite his
+  own needs and trials, Washington's first idea was to stem the
+  current of disaster at the south, and he ordered the fresh
+  Maryland troops to turn back at once and march to the Carolinas,
+  but Gates fled so fast and far that it was some time before
+  anything was heard of him. As more news came of Camden and its
+  beaten general, Washington wrote to Rutledge that he should
+  ultimately come southward. Meantime, he could only struggle with
+  his own difficulties, and rack his brains for men and means to
+  rescue the south. It must have seemed to Washington, in those
+  lovely September days, as if fate could not have any worse trials
+  in store, and that if he could only breast the troubles now
+  surging about him, he might count on sure and speedy success. Yet
+  the bitterest trial of all was even then hanging over his head,
+  and with a sort of savage sarcasm it came upon him in one of
+  those rare moments when he had an hour of rest and sunshine.</p>
+
+  <p>The story of Arnold's treason is easily told. Its romantic
+  side has made it familiar to all Americans, and given it a
+  factitious importance. Had it succeeded it would have opened
+  opportunities of disaster to the American arms, although it would
+  not have affected the final outcome of the Revolution. As it was
+  it failed, and had no result whatever. It has passed into history
+  simply as a picturesque episode, charged with possibilities which
+  attract the imagination, but having, in itself, neither meaning
+  nor consequences beyond the two conspirators. To us it is of
+  interest, because it shows Washington in one of the sharpest and
+  bitterest experiences of his life. Let us see how he met it and
+  dealt with it.</p>
+
+  <p>From the day when the French landed, both De Rochambeau and
+  Washington had been most anxious to meet. The French general had
+  been particularly urgent, but it was difficult for Washington to
+  get away. As he wrote on August 21: "We are about ten miles from
+  the enemy. Our popular government imposes a necessity of great
+  circumspection. If any misfortune should happen in my absence, it
+  would be attended with every inconvenience. I will, however,
+  endeavor if possible, and as soon as possible, to meet you at
+  some convenient rendezvous." In accordance with this promise, a
+  few weeks later, he left Greene in command of the army, and, not
+  without misgivings, started on September 18 to meet De
+  Rochambeau. On his way he had an interview with Arnold, who came
+  to him to show a letter from the loyalist Colonel Robinson, and
+  thus disarm suspicion as to his doings. On the 20th, the day when
+  Andr&eacute; and Arnold met to arrange the terms of the sale,
+  Washington was with De Rochambeau at Hartford. News had arrived,
+  meantime, that De Guichen had sailed for Europe; the command of
+  the sea was therefore lost, and the opportunity for action had
+  gone by. There was no need for further conference, and Washington
+  accordingly set out on his return at once, two or three days
+  earlier than he had intended.</p>
+
+  <p>He was accompanied by his own staff, and by Knox and Lafayette
+  with their officers. With him, too, went the young Count Dumas,
+  who has left a description of their journey, and of the popular
+  enthusiasm displayed in the towns through which they passed. In
+  one village, which they reached after nightfall, all the people
+  turned out, the children bearing torches, and men and women
+  hailed Washington as father, and pressed about him to touch the
+  hem of his garments. Turning to Dumas he said, "We may be beaten
+  by the English; it is the chance of war; but there is the army
+  they will never conquer." Political leaders grumbled, and
+  military officers caballed, but the popular feeling went out to
+  Washington with a sure and utter confidence. The people in that
+  little village recognized the great and unselfish leader as they
+  recognized Lincoln a century later, and from the masses of the
+  people no one ever heard the cry that Washington was cold or
+  unsympathetic. They loved him, and believed in him, and such a
+  manifestation of their devotion touched him deeply. His spirits
+  rose under the spell of appreciation and affection, always so
+  strong upon human nature, and he rode away from Fishkill the next
+  morning at daybreak with a light heart.</p>
+
+  <p>The company was pleasant and lively, the morning was fair, and
+  as they approached Arnold's headquarters at the Robinson house,
+  Washington turned off to the redoubts by the river, telling the
+  young men that they were all in love with Mrs. Arnold and would
+  do well to go straight on and breakfast with her. Hamilton and
+  McHenry followed his advice, and while they were at breakfast a
+  note was brought to Arnold. It was the letter of warning from
+  Andr&eacute; announcing his capture, which Colonel Jameson, who
+  ought to have been cashiered for doing it, had forwarded. Arnold
+  at once left the table, and saying that he was going to West
+  Point, jumped into his boat and was rowed rapidly down the river
+  to the British man-of-war. Washington on his arrival was told
+  that Arnold had gone to the fort, and so after a hasty breakfast
+  he went over there himself. On reaching West Point no salute
+  broke the stillness, and no guard turned out to receive him. He
+  was astonished to learn that his arrival was unexpected, and that
+  Arnold had not been there for two days. Still unsuspecting he
+  inspected the works, and then returned.</p>
+
+  <p>Meantime, the messenger sent to Hartford with the papers taken
+  on Andr&eacute; reached the Robinson house and delivered them to
+  Hamilton, together with a letter of confession from Andr&eacute;
+  himself. Hamilton read them, and hurrying out met Washington just
+  coming up from the river. He took his chief aside, said a few
+  words to him in a low voice, and they went into the house
+  together. When they came out, Washington looked as calm as ever,
+  and calling to Lafayette and Knox gave them the papers, saying
+  simply, "Whom can we trust now?" He dispatched Hamilton at once
+  to try to intercept Arnold at Verplanck's Point, but it was too
+  late; the boat had passed, and Arnold was safe on board the
+  Vulture. This done, Washington bade his staff sit down with him
+  at dinner, as the general was absent, and Mrs. Arnold was ill in
+  her room. Dinner over, he immediately set about guarding the
+  post, which had been so near betrayal. To Colonel Wade at West
+  Point he wrote: "Arnold has gone to the enemy; you are in
+  command, be vigilant." To Jameson he sent word to guard
+  Andr&eacute; closely. To the colonels and commanders of various
+  outlying regiments he sent orders to bring up their troops.
+  Everything was done that should have been done, quickly, quietly,
+  and without comment. The most sudden and appalling treachery had
+  failed to shake his nerve, or confuse his mind.</p>
+
+  <p>Yet the strong and silent man was wrung to the quick, and when
+  everything possible had been done, and he had retired to his
+  room, the guard outside the door heard him marching back and
+  forth through all the weary night. The one thing he least
+  expected, because he least understood it, had come to pass. He
+  had been a good and true friend to the villain who had fled, for
+  Arnold's reckless bravery and dare-devil fighting had appealed to
+  the strongest passion of his nature, and he had stood by him
+  always. He had grieved over the refusal of Congress to promote
+  him in due order and had interceded with ultimate success in his
+  behalf. He had sympathized with him in his recent troubles in
+  Philadelphia, and had administered the reprimand awarded by the
+  court-martial so that rebuke seemed turned to praise. He had
+  sought to give him every opportunity that a soldier could desire,
+  and had finally conferred upon him the command of West Point. He
+  had admired his courage and palliated his misconduct, and now the
+  scoundrel had turned on him and fled. Mingled with the bitterness
+  of these memories of betrayed confidence was the torturing
+  ignorance of how far this base treachery had extended. For all he
+  knew there might be a brood of traitors about him in the very
+  citadel of America. We can never know Washington's thoughts at
+  that time, for he was ever silent, but as we listen in
+  imagination to the sound of the even footfalls which the guard
+  heard all through that September night, we can dimly guess the
+  feelings of the strong and passionate nature, wounded and
+  distressed almost beyond endurance.</p>
+
+  <p>There is but little more to tell. The conspiracy stopped with
+  Arnold. He had no accomplices, and meant to deliver the post and
+  pocket the booty alone. The British tried to spread the idea that
+  other officers had been corrupted, but the attempt failed, and
+  Washington's prompt measures of defense checked any movement
+  against the forts. Every effort was made by Clinton to save
+  Andr&eacute;, but in vain. He was tried by a court composed of
+  the highest officers in the American service, among whom was
+  Lafayette. On his own statement, but one decision was possible.
+  He was condemned as a spy, and as a spy he was sentenced to be
+  hanged. He made a manly appeal against the manner of his death,
+  and begged to be shot. Washington declined to interfere, and
+  Andr&eacute; went to the gallows.</p>
+
+  <p>The British, at the time, and some of their writers
+  afterwards, attacked Washington for insisting on this mode of
+  execution, but there never was an instance in his career when he
+  was more entirely right. Andr&eacute; was a spy and briber, who
+  sought to ruin the American cause by means of the treachery of an
+  American general. It was a dark and dangerous game, and he knew
+  that he staked his life on the result. He failed, and paid the
+  penalty. Washington could not permit, he would have been grossly
+  and feebly culpable if he had permitted, such an attempt to pass
+  without extreme punishment. He was generous and magnanimous, but
+  he was not a sentimentalist, and he punished this miserable
+  treason, so far as he could reach it, as it deserved. It is true
+  that Andr&eacute; was a man of talent, well-bred and courageous,
+  and of engaging manners. He deserved all the sympathy and sorrow
+  which he excited at the time, but nothing more. He was not only
+  technically a spy, but he had sought his ends by bribery, he had
+  prostituted a flag of truce, and he was to be richly paid for his
+  work. It was all hire and salary. No doubt Andr&eacute; was
+  patriotic and loyal. Many spies have been the same, and have
+  engaged in their dangerous exploits from the highest motives.
+  Nathan Hale, whom the British hanged without compunction, was as
+  well-born and well-bred as Andr&eacute;, and as patriotic as man
+  could be, and moreover he was a spy and nothing more.
+  Andr&eacute; was a trafficker in bribes and treachery, and
+  however we may pity his fate, his name has no proper place in the
+  great temple at Westminster, where all English-speaking people
+  bow with reverence, and only a most perverted sentimentality
+  could conceive that it was fitting to erect a monument to his
+  memory in this country.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington sent Andr&eacute; to the gallows because it was his
+  duty to do so, but he pitied him none the less, and whatever he
+  may have thought of the means Andr&eacute; employed to effect his
+  end, he made no comment upon him, except to say that "he met his
+  fate with that fortitude which was to be expected from an
+  accomplished man and gallant officer." As to Arnold, he was
+  almost equally silent. When obliged to refer to him he did so in
+  the plainest and simplest way, and only in a familiar letter to
+  Laurens do we get a glimpse of his feelings. He wrote: "I am
+  mistaken if at this time Arnold is undergoing the torment of a
+  mental hell. He wants feeling. From some traits of his character
+  which have lately come to my knowledge, he seems to have been so
+  hackneyed in villainy, and so lost to all sense of honor and
+  shame, that, while his faculties will enable him to continue his
+  sordid pursuits, there will be no time for remorse." With this
+  single expression of measureless contempt, Washington let Arnold
+  drop from his life. The first shock had touched him to the quick,
+  although it could not shake his steady mind. Reflection revealed
+  to him the extraordinary baseness of Arnold's real character, and
+  he cast the thought of him out forever, content to leave the
+  traitor to the tender mercies of history. The calmness and
+  dignity, the firmness and deep feeling which Washington
+  exhibited, are of far more interest than the abortive treason,
+  and have as real a value now as they had then, when suspicion for
+  a moment ran riot, and men wondered "whom they could trust."</p>
+
+  <p>The treason of Arnold swept like a black cloud across the sky,
+  broke, and left everything as before. That such a base peril
+  should have existed was alarming and hateful. That it should have
+  been exploded harmlessly made all men give a deep sigh of relief.
+  But neither the treason nor its discovery altered the current of
+  events one jot. The summer had come and gone. The French had
+  arrived, and no blow had been struck. There was nothing to show
+  for the campaign but inaction, disappointment, and the loss of
+  the Carolinas. With the commander-in-chief, through it all, were
+  ever present two great questions, getting more portentous and
+  more difficult of solution with each succeeding day. How he was
+  to keep his army in existence was one, and how he was to hold the
+  government together was the other. He had thirteen tired States,
+  a general government almost impotent, a bankrupt treasury, and a
+  broken credit. The American Revolution had come down to the
+  question of whether the brain, will, and nerve of one man could
+  keep the machine going long enough to find fit opportunity for a
+  final and decisive stroke. Washington had confidence in the
+  people of the country and in himself, but the difficulties in the
+  way were huge, and the means of surmounting them slight. There is
+  here and there a passionate undertone in the letters of this
+  period, which shows us the moments when the waves of trouble and
+  disaster seemed to sweep over him. But the feeling passed, or was
+  trampled under foot, for there was no break in the steady fight
+  against untoward circumstances, or in the grim refusal to accept
+  defeat.</p>
+
+  <p>It is almost impossible now to conceive the actual condition
+  at that time of every matter of detail which makes military and
+  political existence possible. No general phrases can do justice
+  to the situation of the army; and the petty miseries and
+  privations, which made life unendurable, went on from day to day
+  in ever varying forms. While Washington was hearing the first ill
+  news from the south and struggling with the problem on that side,
+  and at the same time was planning with Lafayette how to take
+  advantage of the French succors, the means of subsisting his army
+  were wholly giving out. The men actually had no food. For days,
+  as Washington wrote, there was no meat at all in camp. Goaded by
+  hunger, a Connecticut regiment mutinied. They were brought back
+  to duty, but held out steadily for their pay, which they had not
+  received for five months. Indeed, the whole army was more or less
+  mutinous, and it was only by the utmost tact that Washington kept
+  them from wholesale desertion. After the summer had passed and
+  the chance for a decisive campaign had gone with it, the
+  excitement of expected action ceased to sustain the men, and the
+  unclothed, unpaid, unfed soldiers began again to get restive. We
+  can imagine what the condition of the rank and file must have
+  been when we find that Washington himself could not procure an
+  express from the quartermaster-general, and was obliged to send a
+  letter to the Minister of France by the unsafe and slow medium of
+  the post. He was expected to carry on a war against a rich and
+  powerful enemy, and he could not even pay a courier to carry his
+  dispatches.</p>
+
+  <p>With the commander-in-chief thus straitened, the sufferings of
+  the men grew to be intolerable, and the spirit of revolt which
+  had been checked through the summer began again to appear. At
+  last, in January, 1781, it burst all the bounds. The Pennsylvania
+  line mutinied and threatened Congress. Attempts on the part of
+  the English to seduce them failed, but they remained in a state
+  of open rebellion. The officers were powerless, and it looked as
+  if the disaffection would spread, and the whole army go to pieces
+  in the very face of the enemy. Washington held firm, and intended
+  in his unshaken way to bring them back to their duty without
+  yielding in a dangerous fashion. But the government of
+  Pennsylvania, at last thoroughly frightened, rushed into the
+  field, and patched up a compromise which contained most perilous
+  concessions. The natural consequence was a fresh mutiny in the
+  New Jersey line, and this time Washington determined that he
+  would not be forestalled. He sent forward at once some regiments
+  of loyal troops, suppressed the mutiny suddenly and with a strong
+  hand, and hanged two of the ringleaders. The difficulty was
+  conquered, and discipline restored.</p>
+
+  <p>To take this course required great boldness, for these
+  mutinies were of no ordinary character. In the first place, it
+  was impossible to tell whether any troops would do their duty
+  against their fellows, and failure would have been fatal. In the
+  second place, the grievances of the soldiers were very great, and
+  their complaints were entirely righteous. Washington felt the
+  profoundest sympathy with his men, and it was no easy matter to
+  maintain order with soldiers tried almost beyond endurance,
+  against their comrades whose claims were just. Two things saved
+  the army. One was Washington's great influence with the men and
+  their utter belief in him. The other was the quality of the men
+  themselves. Lafayette said they were the most patient and
+  patriotic soldiers the world had seen, and it is easy to believe
+  him. The wonder is, not that they mutinied when they did, but
+  that the whole army had not mutinied and abandoned the struggle
+  years before. The misfortunes and mistakes of the Revolution, to
+  whomever due, were in no respect to be charged to the army, and
+  the conduct of the troops through all the dreary months of
+  starvation and cold and poverty is a proof of the intelligent
+  patriotism and patient courage of the American soldier which can
+  never be gainsaid. To fight successful battles is the test of a
+  good general, but to hold together a suffering army through years
+  of unexampled privations, to meet endless failure of details with
+  unending expedients, and then to fight battles and plan
+  campaigns, shows a leader who was far more than a good general.
+  Such multiplied trials and difficulties are overcome only by a
+  great soldier who with small means achieves large results, and by
+  a great man who by force of will and character can establish with
+  all who follow him a power which no miseries can conquer, and no
+  suffering diminish.</p>
+
+  <p>The height reached by the troubles in the army and their
+  menacing character had, however, a good as well as a bad side.
+  They penetrated the indifference and carelessness of both
+  Congress and the States. Gentlemen in the confederate and local
+  administrations and legislatures woke up to a realizing sense
+  that the dissolution of the army meant a general wreck, in which
+  their own necks would be in very considerable danger; and they
+  also had an uneasy feeling that starving and mutinous soldiers
+  were very uncertain in taking revenge. The condition of the army
+  gave a sudden and piercing reality to Washington's indignant
+  words to Mathews on October 4: "At a time when public harmony is
+  so essential, when we should aid and assist each other with all
+  our abilities, when our hearts should be open to information and
+  our hands ready to administer relief, to find distrusts and
+  jealousies taking possession of the mind and a party spirit
+  prevailing affords a most melancholy reflection, and forebodes no
+  good." The hoarse murmur of impending mutiny emphasized strongly
+  the words written on the same day to Duane: "The history of the
+  war is a history of false hopes and temporary expedients. Would
+  to God they were to end here."</p>
+
+  <p>The events in the south, too, had a sobering effect. The
+  congressional general Gates had not proved a success. His defeat
+  at Camden had been terribly complete, and his flight had been too
+  rapid to inspire confidence in his capacity for recuperation. The
+  members of Congress were thus led to believe that as managers of
+  military matters they left much to be desired; and when
+  Washington, on October 11, addressed to them one of his long and
+  admirable letters on reorganization, it was received in a very
+  chastened spirit. They had listened to many such letters before,
+  and had benefited by them always a little, but danger and defeat
+  gave this one peculiar point. They therefore accepted the
+  situation, and adopted all the suggestions of the
+  commander-in-chief. They also in the same reasonable frame of
+  mind determined that Washington should select the next general
+  for the southern army. A good deal could have been saved had this
+  decision been reached before; but even now it was not too late.
+  October 14, Washington appointed Greene to this post of
+  difficulty and danger, and Greene's assumption of the command
+  marks the turning-point in the tide of disaster, and the
+  beginning of the ultimate expulsion of the British from the only
+  portion of the colonies where they had made a tolerable
+  campaign.</p>
+
+  <p>The uses of adversity, moreover, did not stop here. They
+  extended to the States, which began to grow more vigorous in
+  action, and to show signs of appreciating the gravity of the
+  situation and the duties which rested upon them. This change and
+  improvement both in Congress and the States came none too soon.
+  Indeed, as it was, the results of their renewed efforts were too
+  slow to be felt at once by the army, and mutinies broke out even
+  after the new spirit had shown itself. Washington also sent Knox
+  to travel from State to State, to see the various governors, and
+  lay the situation of affairs before them; yet even with such a
+  text it was a difficult struggle to get the States to make quick
+  and strong exertions sufficient to prevent a partial mutiny from
+  becoming a general revolt. The lesson, however, had had its
+  effect. For the moment, at least, the cause was saved. The worst
+  defects were temporarily remedied, and something was done toward
+  supplies and subsistence. The army would be able to exist through
+  another winter, and face another summer. Then the next campaign
+  might bring the decisive moment; but still, who could tell?
+  Years, instead of months, might yet elapse before the end was
+  reached, and then no man could say what the result would be.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington saw plainly enough that the relief and improvement
+  were only temporary, and that carelessness and indifference were
+  likely to return, and be more case-hardened than ever. He was too
+  strong and sane a man to waste time in fighting shadows or in
+  nourishing himself with hopes. He dealt with the present as he
+  found it, and fought down difficulties as they sprang up in his
+  path. But he was also a man of extraordinary prescience, with a
+  foresight as penetrating as it was judicious. It was, perhaps,
+  his most remarkable gift, and while he controlled the present he
+  studied the future. Outside of the operations of armies, and the
+  plans of campaign, he saw, as the war progressed, that the really
+  fatal perils were involved in the political system. At the
+  beginning of the Revolution there was no organization outside the
+  local state governments. Congress voted and resolved in favor of
+  anything that seemed proper, and the States responded to their
+  appeal. In the first flush of revolution, and the first
+  excitement of freedom, this was all very well. But as the early
+  passion cooled, and a long and stubborn struggle, replete with
+  sufferings and defeat, developed itself, the want of system began
+  to appear.</p>
+
+  <p>One of the earliest tasks of Congress was the formation of
+  articles for a general government, but state jealousies, and the
+  delays incident to the movements of thirteen sovereignties,
+  prevented their adoption until the war was nearly over.
+  Washington, suffering from all the complicated troubles of
+  jarring States and general incoherence, longed for and urged the
+  adoption of the act of confederation. He saw sooner than any one
+  else, and with more painful intensity, the need of better union
+  and more energetic government. As the days and months of
+  difficulties and trials went by, the suggestions on this question
+  in his letters grew more frequent and more urgent, and they
+  showed the insight of the statesman and practical man of affairs.
+  How much he hoped from the final acceptance of the act of
+  confederation it is not easy to say, but he hoped for some
+  improvement certainly. When at last it went into force, he saw
+  almost at once that it would not do, and in the spring of 1780 he
+  knew it to be a miserable failure. The system which had been
+  established was really no better than that which had preceded it.
+  With alarm and disgust Washington found himself flung back on
+  what he called "the pernicious state system," and with worse
+  prospects than ever.</p>
+
+  <p>Up to the time of the Revolution he had never given attention
+  to the philosophy or science of government, but when it fell to
+  his lot to fight the war for independence he perceived almost
+  immediately the need of a strong central government, and his
+  suggestions, scattered broadcast among his correspondents,
+  manifested a knowledge of the conditions of the political problem
+  possessed by no one else at that period. When he was satisfied of
+  the failure of the confederation, his efforts to improve the
+  existing administration multiplied, and he soon had the
+  assistance of his aide-de-camp, Alexander Hamilton, who then
+  wrote, although little more than a boy, his remarkable letters on
+  government and finance, which were the first full expositions of
+  the political necessities from which sprang the Constitution of
+  the United States. Washington was vigorous in action and
+  methodical in business, while the system of thirteen
+  sovereignties was discordant, disorderly, and feeble in
+  execution. He knew that the vices inherent in the confederation
+  were ineradicable and fatal, and he also knew that it was useless
+  to expect any comprehensive reforms until the war was over. The
+  problem before him was whether the existing machine could be made
+  to work until the British were finally driven from the country.
+  The winter of 1780-81 was marked, therefore, on his part, by an
+  urgent striving for union, and by unceasing efforts to mend and
+  improve the rickety system of the confederation. It was with this
+  view that he secured the dispatch of Laurens, whom he carefully
+  instructed, to get money in Paris; for he was satisfied that it
+  was only possible to tide over the financial difficulties by
+  foreign loans from those interested in our success. In the same
+  spirit he worked to bring about the establishment of executive
+  departments, which was finally accomplished, after delays that
+  sorely tried his patience. These two cases were but the most
+  important among many of similar character, for he was always at
+  work on these perplexing questions.</p>
+
+  <p>It is an astonishing proof of the strength and power of his
+  mind that he was able to solve the daily questions of army
+  existence, to deal with the allies, to plan attacks on New York,
+  to watch and scheme for the southern department, to cope with
+  Arnold's treason, with mutiny, and with administrative
+  imbecility, and at the very same time consider the gravest
+  governmental problems, and send forth wise suggestions, which met
+  the exigencies of the moment, and laid the foundation of much
+  that afterwards appeared in the Constitution of the United
+  States. He was not a speculator on government, and after his
+  fashion he was engaged in dealing with the questions of the day
+  and hour. Yet the ideas that he put forth in this time of
+  confusion and conflict and expedients were so vitally sound and
+  wise that they deserve the most careful study in relation to
+  after events. The political trials and difficulties of this
+  period were the stern teachers from whom Washington acquired the
+  knowledge and experience which made him the principal agent in
+  bringing about the formation and adoption of the Constitution of
+  the United States. We shall have occasion to examine these
+  opinions and views more closely when they were afterwards brought
+  into actual play. At this point it is only necessary to trace the
+  history of the methods by which he solved the problem of the
+  Revolution before the political system of the confederation
+  became absolutely useless.</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <h2><a name="X" id="X"></a> CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+  <h2>YORKTOWN</h2>
+
+  <p>The failure to accomplish anything in the north caused
+  Washington, as the year drew to a close, to turn his thoughts
+  once more toward a combined movement at the south. In pursuance
+  of this idea, he devised a scheme of uniting with the Spaniards
+  in the seizure of Florida, and of advancing thence through
+  Georgia to assail the English in the rear. De Rochambeau did not
+  approve the plan, and it was abandoned; but the idea of a
+  southern movement was still kept steadily in sight. The governing
+  thought now was, not to protect this place or that, but to cast
+  aside everything else in order to strike one great blow which
+  would finish the war. Where he could do this, time alone would
+  show, but if one follows the correspondence closely, it is
+  apparent that Washington's military instinct turned more and more
+  toward the south.</p>
+
+  <p>In that department affairs changed their aspect rapidly.
+  January 17, Morgan won his brilliant victory at the Cowpens,
+  withdrew in good order with his prisoners, and united his army
+  with that of Greene. Cornwallis was terribly disappointed by this
+  unexpected reverse, but he determined to push on, defeat the
+  combined American army, and then join the British forces on the
+  Chesapeake. Greene was too weak to risk a battle, and made a
+  masterly retreat of two hundred miles before Cornwallis, escaping
+  across the Dan only twelve hours ahead of the enemy. The moment
+  the British moved away, Greene recrossed the river and hung upon
+  their rear. For a month he kept in their neighborhood, checking
+  the rising of the Tories, and declining battle. At last he
+  received reinforcements, felt strong enough to stand his ground,
+  and on March 15 the battle of Guilford Court House was fought. It
+  was a sharp and bloody fight; the British had the advantage, and
+  Greene abandoned the field, bringing off his army in good order.
+  Cornwallis, on his part, had suffered so heavily, however, that
+  his victory turned to ashes. On the 18th he was in full retreat,
+  with Greene in hot chase, and it was not until the 28th that he
+  succeeded in getting over the Deep River and escaping to
+  Wilmington. Thence he determined to push on and transfer the seat
+  of war to the Chesapeake. Greene, with the boldness and quickness
+  which showed him to be a soldier of a high order, now dropped the
+  pursuit and turned back to fight the British in detachments and
+  free the southern States. There is no need to follow him in the
+  brilliant operations which ensued, and by which he achieved this
+  result. It is sufficient to say here that he had altered the
+  whole aspect of the war, forced Cornwallis into Virginia within
+  reach of Washington, and begun the work of redeeming the
+  Carolinas.</p>
+
+  <p>The troops which Cornwallis intended to join had been sent in
+  detachments to Virginia during the winter and spring. The first
+  body had arrived early in January under the command of Arnold,
+  and a general marauding and ravaging took place. A little later
+  General Phillips arrived with reinforcements and took command. On
+  May 13, General Phillips died, and a week later Cornwallis
+  appeared at Petersburg, assumed control, and sent Arnold back to
+  New York.</p>
+
+  <p>Meantime Washington, though relieved by Morgan's and Greene's
+  admirable work, had a most trying and unhappy winter and spring.
+  He sent every man he could spare, and more than he ought to have
+  spared, to Greene, and he stripped himself still further when the
+  invasion of Virginia began. But for the most part he was obliged,
+  from lack of any naval strength, to stand helplessly by and see
+  more and more British troops sent to the south, and witness the
+  ravaging of his native State, without any ability to prevent it.
+  To these grave trials was added a small one, which stung him to
+  the quick. The British came up the Potomac, and Lund Washington,
+  in order to preserve Mount Vernon, gave them refreshments, and
+  treated them in a conciliatory manner. He meant well but acted
+  ill, and Washington wrote:&mdash;</p>
+
+  <p>"It would have been a less painful circumstance to me to have
+  heard that, in consequence of your non-compliance with their
+  request, they had burnt my house and laid the plantation in
+  ruins. You ought to have considered yourself as my
+  representative, and should have reflected on the bad example of
+  communicating with the enemy, and making a voluntary offer of
+  refreshments to them, with a view to prevent a
+  conflagration."</p>
+
+  <p>What a clear glimpse this little episode gives of the
+  earnestness of the man who wrote these lines. He could not bear
+  the thought that any favor should be shown him on any pretense.
+  He was ready to take his share of the marauding and pillaging
+  with the rest, but he was deeply indignant at the idea that any
+  one representing him should even appear to ask a favor of the
+  British.</p>
+
+  <p>Altogether, the spring of 1781 was very trying, for there was
+  nothing so galling to Washington as to be unable to fight. He
+  wanted to get to the south, but he was bound hand and foot by
+  lack of force. Yet the obstacles did not daunt or depress him. He
+  wrote in June that he felt sure of bringing the war to a happy
+  conclusion, and in the division of the British forces he saw his
+  opportunity taking shape. Greene had the southern forces well in
+  hand. Cornwallis was equally removed from Clinton on the north
+  and Rawdon on the south, and had come within reach; so that if he
+  could but have naval strength he could fall upon Cornwallis with
+  superior force and crush him. In naval matters fortune thus far
+  had dealt hardly with him, yet he could not but feel that a
+  French fleet of sufficient force must soon come. He grasped the
+  situation with a master-hand, and began to prepare the way. Still
+  he kept his counsel strictly to himself, and set to work to
+  threaten, and if possible to attack, New York, not with much hope
+  of succeeding in any such attempt, but with a view of frightening
+  Clinton and of inducing him either to withdraw troops from
+  Virginia, or at least to withhold reinforcements. As he began his
+  Virginian campaign in this distant and remote fashion at the
+  mouth of the Hudson, he was cheered by news that De Grasse, the
+  French admiral, had sent recruits to Newport, and intended to
+  come himself to the American coast. He at once wrote De Grasse
+  not to determine absolutely to come to New York, hinting that it
+  might prove more advisable to operate to the southward. It
+  required great tact to keep the French fleet where he needed it,
+  and yet not reveal his intentions, and nothing showed
+  Washington's foresight more plainly than the manner in which he
+  made the moves in this campaign, when miles of space and weeks of
+  time separated him from the final object of his plans. To trace
+  this mastery of details, and the skill with which every point was
+  remembered and covered, would require a long and minute
+  narrative. They can only be indicated here sufficiently to show
+  how exactly each movement fitted in its place, and how all
+  together brought the great result.</p>
+
+  <p>Fortified by the good news from De Grasse, Washington had an
+  interview with De Rochambeau, and effected a junction with the
+  French army. Thus strengthened, he opened his campaign against
+  Cornwallis by beginning a movement against Clinton. The troops
+  were massed above the city, and an effort was made to surprise
+  the upper posts and destroy Delancey's partisan corps. The
+  attempt, although well planned, failed of its immediate purpose,
+  giving Washington opportunity only for an effective
+  reconnoissance of the enemy's positions. But the move was
+  perfectly successful in its real and indirect object. Clinton was
+  alarmed. He began to write to Cornwallis that troops should be
+  returned to New York, and he gave up absolutely the idea of
+  sending more men to Virginia. Having thus convinced Clinton that
+  New York was menaced, Washington then set to work to familiarize
+  skillfully the minds of his allies and of Congress with the idea
+  of a southern campaign. With this end in view, he wrote on August
+  2 that, if more troops arrived from Virginia, New York would be
+  impracticable, and that the next point was the south. The only
+  contingency, as he set forth, was the all-important one of
+  obtaining naval superiority. August 15 this essential condition
+  gave promise of fulfillment, for on that day definite news
+  arrived that De Grasse with his fleet was on his way to the
+  Chesapeake. Without a moment's hesitation, Washington began to
+  move, and at the same time he sent an urgent letter to the New
+  England governors, demanding troops with an earnestness which he
+  had never surpassed.</p>
+
+  <p>In Virginia, meanwhile, during these long midsummer days,
+  while Washington was waiting and planning, Cornwallis had been
+  going up and down, harrying, burning, and plundering. His cavalry
+  had scattered the legislature, and driven Governor Jefferson in
+  headlong flight over the hills, while property to the value of
+  more than three millions had been destroyed. Lafayette, sent by
+  Washington to maintain the American cause, had been too weak to
+  act decisively, but he had been true to his general's teaching,
+  and, refusing battle, had hung upon the flanks of the British and
+  harassed and checked them. Joined by Wayne, he had fought an
+  unsuccessful engagement at Green Springs, but brought off his
+  army, and with steady pertinacity followed the enemy to the
+  coast, gathering strength as he moved. Now, when all was at last
+  ready, Washington began to draw his net about Cornwallis, whom he
+  had been keenly watching during the victorious marauding of the
+  summer. On the news of the coming of the French fleet, he wrote
+  to Lafayette to be prepared to join him when he reached Virginia,
+  to retain Wayne, who intended to join Greene, and to stop
+  Cornwallis at all hazards, if he attempted to go southward.</p>
+
+  <p>Cornwallis, however, had no intention of moving. He had seen
+  the peril of his position, and had wished to withdraw to
+  Charleston; but the ministry, highly pleased with his
+  performances, wished him to remain on the Chesapeake, and
+  decisive orders came to him to take a permanent post in that
+  region. Clinton, moreover, was jealous of Cornwallis, and,
+  impressed and deceived by Washington's movements, he not only
+  sent no reinforcements, but detained three thousand Hessians, who
+  had lately arrived. Cornwallis, therefore, had no choice, and
+  with much writing for aid, and some protesting, he obeyed his
+  orders, planted himself at Yorktown and Gloucester, and proceeded
+  to fortify, while Lafayette kept close watch upon him. Cornwallis
+  was a good soldier and a clever man, suffering, as Burgoyne did,
+  from a stupid ministry and a dull and jealous commander-in-chief.
+  Thus hampered and burdened, he was ready to fall a victim to the
+  operations of a really great general, whom his official superiors
+  in England undervalued and despised.</p>
+
+  <p>August 17, as soon as he had set his own machinery in motion,
+  Washington wrote to De Grasse to meet him in the Chesapeake. He
+  was working now more anxiously and earnestly than at any time in
+  the Revolution, not merely because he felt that success depended
+  on the blow, but because he descried a new and alarming danger.
+  He had perceived it in June, and the idea pursued him until all
+  was over, and kept recurring in his letters during this strained
+  and eager summer. To Washington's eyes, watching campaigns and
+  government at home and the politics of Europe abroad, the signs
+  of exhaustion, of mediation, and of coming peace across the
+  Atlantic were plainly visible. If peace should come as things
+  then were, America would get independence, and be shorn of many
+  of her most valuable possessions. The sprawling British campaign
+  of maraud and plunder, so bad in a military point of view, and
+  about to prove fatal to Cornwallis, would, in case of sudden
+  cessation of hostilities, be capable of the worst construction.
+  Time, therefore, had become of the last importance. The decisive
+  blow must be given at once, and before the slow political
+  movements could come to a head. On July 14, Washington had his
+  plan mapped out. He wrote in his diary:&mdash;</p>
+
+  <p>"Matters having now come to a crisis, and a decided plan to be
+  determined on, I was obliged&mdash;from the shortness of Count De
+  Grasse's promised stay on this coast, the apparent disinclination
+  of their naval officers to force the harbor of New York, and the
+  feeble compliance of the States with my requisitions for men
+  hitherto, and the little prospect of greater exertions in
+  future&mdash;to give up all ideas of attacking New York, and
+  instead thereof to remove the French troops and a detachment from
+  the American army to the Head of Elk, to be transported to
+  Virginia for the purpose of co&ouml;perating with the force from
+  the West Indies against the troops in that State."</p>
+
+  <p>Like most of Washington's plans, this one was clear-cut and
+  direct, and looks now simple enough, but at the moment it was
+  hedged with almost inconceivable difficulties at every step. The
+  ever-present and ever-growing obstacles at home were there as
+  usual. Appeals to Morris for money were met by the most
+  discouraging responses, and the States seemed more lethargic than
+  ever. Neither men nor supplies could be obtained; neither
+  transportation nor provision for the march could be promised.
+  Then, too, in addition to all this, came a wholly new set of
+  stumbling-blocks arising among the allies. Everything hinged on
+  the naval force. Washington needed it for a short time only; but
+  for that crucial moment he must have not only superiority but
+  supremacy at sea. Every French ship that could be reached must be
+  in the Chesapeake, and Washington had had too many French fleets
+  slip away from him at the last moment and bring everything to
+  naught to take any chances in this direction. To bring about his
+  naval supremacy required the utmost tact and good management, and
+  that he succeeded is one of the chief triumphs of the campaign.
+  In fact, at the very outset he was threatened in this quarter
+  with a serious defection. De Barras, with the squadron of the
+  American station, was at Boston, and it was essential that he
+  should be united with De Grasse at Yorktown. But De Barras was
+  nettled by the favoritism which had made De Grasse, his junior in
+  service, his superior in command. He determined therefore to take
+  advantage of his orders and sail away to the north to Nova Scotia
+  and Newfoundland, and leave De Grasse to fight it out alone. It
+  is a hard thing to beat an opposing army, but it is equally hard
+  to bring human jealousies and ambitions into the narrow path of
+  self-sacrifice and subordination. Alarmed beyond measure at the
+  suggested departure of the Boston squadron, Washington wrote a
+  letter, which De Rochambeau signed with him, urging De Barras to
+  turn his fleet toward the Chesapeake. It was a skillfully drawn
+  missive, an adroit mingling of appeals to honor and sympathy and
+  of vigorous demands to perform an obvious duty. The letter did
+  its work, the diplomacy of Washington was successful, and De
+  Barras suppressed his feelings of disappointment, and agreed to
+  go to the Chesapeake and serve under De Grasse.</p>
+
+  <p>This point made, Washington pushed on his preparations, or
+  rather pushed on despite his lack of preparations, and on August
+  17, as has been said, wrote to De Grasse to meet him in the
+  Chesapeake. He left the larger part of his own troops with Heath,
+  to whom in carefully drawn instructions he intrusted the grave
+  duty of guarding the Hudson and watching the British in New York.
+  This done, he gathered his forces together, and on August 21 the
+  army started on its march to the south. On the 23d and 24th it
+  crossed the Hudson, without annoyance from the British of any
+  kind. Washington had threatened New York so effectively, and
+  manoeuvred so successfully, that Clinton could not be shaken in
+  his belief that the real object of the Americans was his own
+  army; and it was not until September 6 that he fully realized
+  that his enemy was going to the south, and that Cornwallis was in
+  danger. He even then hesitated and delayed, but finally
+  dispatched Admiral Graves with the fleet to the Chesapeake. The
+  Admiral came upon the French early on September 5, the very day
+  that Washington was rejoicing in the news that De Grasse had
+  arrived in the Chesapeake and had landed St. Simon and three
+  thousand men to support Lafayette. As soon as the English fleet
+  appeared, the French, although many of their men were on shore,
+  sailed out and gave battle. An indecisive action ensued, in which
+  the British suffered so much that five days later they burned one
+  of their frigates and withdrew to New York. De Grasse returned to
+  his anchorage, to find that De Barras had come in from Newport
+  with eight ships and ten transports carrying ordnance.</p>
+
+  <p>While everything was thus moving well toward the consummation
+  of the campaign, Washington, in the midst of his delicate and
+  important work of breaking camp and beginning his rapid march to
+  the south, was harassed by the ever-recurring difficulties of the
+  feeble and bankrupt government of the confederation. He wrote
+  again and again to Morris for money, and finally got some. His
+  demands for men and supplies remained almost unheeded, but
+  somehow he got provisions enough to start. He foresaw the most
+  pressing need, and sent messages in all directions for shipping
+  to transport his army down the Chesapeake. No one responded, but
+  still he gathered the transports; at first a few, then more, and
+  finally, after many delays, enough to move his army to Yorktown.
+  The spectacle of such a struggle, so heroically made, one would
+  think, might have inspired every soul on the continent with
+  enthusiasm; but at this very moment, while Washington was
+  breaking camp and marching southward, Congress was considering
+  the reduction of the army!&mdash;which was as appropriate as it
+  would have been for the English Parliament to have reduced the
+  navy on the eve of Trafalgar, or for Lincoln to have advised the
+  restoration of the army to a peace footing while Grant was
+  fighting in the Wilderness. The fact was that the Continental
+  Congress was weakened in ability and very tired in point of nerve
+  and will-power. They saw that peace was coming, and naturally
+  thought that the sooner they could get it the better. They
+  entirely failed to see, as Washington saw, that in a too sudden
+  peace lurked the danger of the <i>uti possidetis</i>, and that
+  the mere fact of peace by no means implied necessarily complete
+  success. They did not, of course, effect their reductions, but
+  they remained inert, and so for the most part did the state
+  governments, becoming drags upon the wheels of war instead of
+  helpers to the man who was driving the Revolution forward to its
+  goal. Both state and confederate governments still meant well,
+  but they were worn out and relaxed. Yet over and through all
+  these heavy masses of misapprehension and feebleness, Washington
+  made his way. Here again all that can be said is that somehow or
+  other the thing was done. We can take account of the resisting
+  forces, but we cannot tell just how they were dealt with. We only
+  know that one strong man trampled them down and got what he
+  wanted done.</p>
+
+  <p>Pushing on after the joyful news of the arrival of De Grasse
+  had been received, Washington left the army to go by water from
+  the Head of Elk, and hurried to Mount Vernon, accompanied by De
+  Rochambeau. It was six years since he had seen his home. He had
+  left it a Virginian colonel, full of forebodings for his country,
+  with a vast and unknown problem awaiting solution at his hands.
+  He returned to it the first soldier of his day, after six years
+  of battle and trial, of victory and defeat, on the eve of the
+  last and crowning triumph. As he paused on the well-beloved spot,
+  and gazed across the broad and beautiful river at his feet,
+  thoughts and remembrances must have come thronging to his mind
+  which it is given to few men to know. He lingered there two days,
+  and then pressing on again, was in Williamsburg on the 14th, and
+  on the 17th went on board the Ville de Paris to congratulate De
+  Grasse on his victory, and to concert measures for the siege.</p>
+
+  <p>The meeting was most agreeable. All had gone well, all
+  promised well, and everything was smiling and harmonious. Yet
+  they were on the eve of the greatest peril which occurred in the
+  campaign. Washington had managed to scrape together enough
+  transports; but his almost unassisted labors had taken time, and
+  delay had followed. Then the transports were slow, and winds and
+  tides were uncertain, and there was further delay. The interval
+  permitted De Grasse to hear that the British fleet had received
+  reinforcements, and to become nervous in consequence. He wanted
+  to get out to sea; the season was advancing, and he was anxious
+  to return to the West Indies; and above all he did not wish to
+  fight in the bay. He therefore proposed firmly and vigorously to
+  leave two ships in the river, and stand out to sea with his
+  fleet. The Yorktown campaign began to look as if it had reached
+  its conclusion. Once again Washington wrote one of his masterly
+  letters of expostulation and remonstrance, and once more he
+  prevailed, aided by the reasoning and appeals of Lafayette, who
+  carried the message. De Grasse consented to stay, and Washington,
+  grateful beyond measure, wrote him that "a great mind knows how
+  to make personal sacrifice to secure an important general good."
+  Under the circumstances, and in view of the general truth of this
+  complimentary sentiment, one cannot help rejoicing that De Grasse
+  had "a great mind."</p>
+
+  <p>At all events he stayed, and thereafter everything went well.
+  The northern army landed at Williamsburg and marched for Yorktown
+  on the 28th. They reconnoitred the outlying works the next day,
+  and prepared for an immediate assault; but in the night
+  Cornwallis abandoned all his outside works and withdrew into the
+  town. Washington thereupon advanced at once, and prepared for the
+  siege. On the night of the 5th, the trenches were opened only six
+  hundred yards from the enemy's line, and in three days the first
+  parallel was completed. On the 11th the second parallel was
+  begun, and on the 14th the American batteries played on the two
+  advanced redoubts with such effect that the breaches were
+  pronounced practicable. Washington at once ordered an assault.
+  The smaller redoubt was stormed by the Americans under Hamilton
+  and taken in ten minutes. The other, larger and more strongly
+  garrisoned, was carried by the French with equal gallantry, after
+  half an hour's fighting. During the assault Washington stood in
+  an embrasure of the grand battery watching the advance of the
+  men. He was always given to exposing himself recklessly when
+  there was fighting to be done, but not when he was only an
+  observer. This night, however, he was much exposed to the enemy's
+  fire. One of his aides, anxious and disturbed for his safety,
+  told him that the place was perilous. "If you think so," was the
+  quiet answer, "you are at liberty to step back." The moment was
+  too exciting, too fraught with meaning, to think of peril. The
+  old fighting spirit of Braddock's field was unchained for the
+  last time. He would have liked to head the American assault,
+  sword in hand, and as he could not do that he stood as near his
+  troops as he could, utterly regardless of the bullets whistling
+  in the air about him. Who can wonder at his intense excitement at
+  that moment? Others saw a brilliant storming of two outworks, but
+  to Washington the whole Revolution, and all the labor and thought
+  and conflict of six years were culminating in the smoke and din
+  on those redoubts, while out of the dust and heat of the sharp
+  quick fight success was coming. He had waited long, and worked
+  hard, and his whole soul went out as he watched the troops cross
+  the abattis and scale the works. He could have no thought of
+  danger then, and when all was over he turned to Knox and said,
+  "The work is done, and well done. Bring me my horse."</p>
+
+  <p>Washington was not mistaken. The work was indeed done.
+  Tarleton early in the siege had dashed out against Lauzun on the
+  other side of the river and been repulsed. Cornwallis had been
+  forced back steadily into the town, and his redoubts, as soon as
+  taken, were included in the second parallel. A sortie to retake
+  the redoubts failed, and a wild attempt to transport the army
+  across the river was stopped by a gale of wind. On the 17th
+  Cornwallis was compelled to face much bloody and useless
+  slaughter, or to surrender. He chose the latter course, and after
+  opening negotiations and trying in vain to obtain delay, finally
+  signed the capitulation and gave up the town. The next day the
+  troops marched out and laid down their arms. Over 7000 British
+  and Hessian troops surrendered. It was a crushing defeat. The
+  victorious army consisted in round numbers of 5500 continentals,
+  3500 militia, and 7000 French, and they were backed by the French
+  fleet with entire control of the sea.</p>
+
+  <p>When Washington had once reached Yorktown with his fleet and
+  army, the campaign was really at an end, for he held Cornwallis
+  in an iron grip from which there was no escape. The masterly part
+  of the Yorktown campaign lay in the manner in which it was
+  brought about, in the management of so many elements, and in the
+  rapidity of movement which carried an army without any proper
+  supplies or means of transportation from New York to the mouth of
+  Chesapeake Bay. The control of the sea had been the great
+  advantage of the British from the beginning, and had enabled them
+  to achieve all that they ever gained. With these odds against
+  him, with no possibility of obtaining a fleet of his own,
+  Washington saw that his only chance of bringing the war to a
+  quick and successful issue was by means of the French. It is
+  difficult to manage allied troops. It is still more difficult to
+  manage allied troops and an allied fleet. Washington did both
+  with infinite address, and won. The chief factor of his success
+  in this direction lay in his profound personal influence on all
+  men with whom he came in contact. His courtesy and tact were
+  perfect, but he made no concessions, and never stooped. The
+  proudest French noble who came here shrank from disagreement with
+  the American general, and yet not one of them had anything but
+  admiration and respect to express when they wrote of Washington
+  in their memoirs, diaries, and letters. He impressed them one and
+  all with a sense of power and greatness which could not be
+  disregarded. Many times he failed to get the French fleet in
+  co&ouml;peration, but finally it came. Then he put forth all his
+  influence and all his address, and thus he got De Barras to the
+  Chesapeake, and kept De Grasse at Yorktown.</p>
+
+  <p>This was one side of the problem, the most essential because
+  everything hinged on the fleet, but by no means the most
+  harassing. The doubt about the control of the sea made it
+  impossible to work steadily for a sufficient time toward any one
+  end. It was necessary to have a plan for every contingency, and
+  be ready to adopt any one of several plans at short notice. With
+  a foresight and judgment that never failed, Washington planned an
+  attack on New York, another on Yorktown, and a third on
+  Charleston. The division of the British forces gave him his
+  opportunity of striking at one point with an overwhelming force,
+  but there was always the possibility of their suddenly reuniting.
+  In the extreme south he felt reasonably sure that Greene would
+  hold Rawdon, but he was obliged to deceive and amuse Clinton, and
+  at the same time, with a ridiculously inferior force, to keep
+  Cornwallis from marching to South Carolina. Partly by good
+  fortune, partly by skill, Cornwallis was kept in Virginia, while
+  by admirably managed feints and threats Clinton was held in New
+  York in inactivity. When the decisive moment came, and it was
+  evident that the control of the sea was to be determined in the
+  Chesapeake, Washington, overriding all sorts of obstacles, moved
+  forward, despite a bankrupt and inert government, with a rapidity
+  and daring which have been rarely equaled. It was a bold stroke
+  to leave Clinton behind at the mouth of the Hudson, and only the
+  quickness with which it was done, and the careful deception which
+  had been practiced, made it possible. Once at Yorktown, there was
+  little more to do. The combination was so perfect, and the
+  judgment had been so sure, that Cornwallis was crushed as
+  helplessly as if he had been thrown before the car of Juggernaut.
+  There was really but little fighting, for there was no
+  opportunity to fight. Washington held the British in a vice, and
+  the utter helplessness of Cornwallis, the entire inability of
+  such a good and gallant soldier even to struggle, are the most
+  convincing proofs of the military genius of his antagonist.</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <h2><a name="XI" id="XI"></a> CHAPTER XI</h2>
+
+  <h2>PEACE</h2>
+
+  <p>Fortitude in misfortune is more common than composure in the
+  hour of victory. The bitter medicine of defeat, however
+  unpalatable, is usually extremely sobering, but the strong new
+  wine of success generally sets the heads of poor humanity
+  spinning, and leads often to worse results than folly. The
+  capture of Cornwallis was enough to have turned the strongest
+  head, for the moment at least, but it had no apparent effect upon
+  the man who had brought it to pass, and who, more than any one
+  else, knew what it meant. Unshaken and undismayed in the New
+  Jersey winter, and among the complicated miseries of Valley
+  Forge, Washington turned from the spectacle of a powerful British
+  army laying down their arms as coolly as if he had merely fought
+  a successful skirmish, or repelled a dangerous raid. He had that
+  rare gift, the attribute of the strongest minds, of leaving the
+  past to take care of itself. He never fretted over what could not
+  be undone, nor dallied among pleasant memories while aught still
+  remained to do. He wrote to Congress in words of quiet
+  congratulation, through which pierced the devout and solemn sense
+  of the great deed accomplished, and then, while the salvos of
+  artillery were still booming in his ears, and the shouts of
+  victory were still rising about him, he set himself, after his
+  fashion, to care for the future and provide for the immediate
+  completion of his work.</p>
+
+  <p>He wrote to De Grasse, urging him to join in an immediate
+  movement against Charleston, such as he had already suggested,
+  and he presented in the strongest terms the opportunities now
+  offered for the sudden and complete ending of the struggle. But
+  the French admiral was by no means imbued with the tireless and
+  determined spirit of Washington. He had had his fill even of
+  victory, and was so eager to get back to the West Indies, where
+  he was to fall a victim to Rodney, that he would not even
+  transport troops to Wilmington. Thus deprived of the force which
+  alone made comprehensive and extended movements possible,
+  Washington returned, as he had done so often before, to making
+  the best of cramped circumstances and straitened means. He sent
+  all the troops he could spare to Greene, to help him in wresting
+  the southern States from the enemy, the work to which he had in
+  vain summoned De Grasse. This done, he prepared to go north. On
+  his way he was stopped at Eltham by the illness and death of his
+  wife's son, John Custis, a blow which he felt severely, and which
+  saddened the great victory he had just achieved. Still the
+  business of the State could not wait on private grief. He left
+  the house of mourning, and, pausing for an instant only at Mount
+  Vernon, hastened on to Philadelphia. At the very moment of
+  victory, and while honorable members were shaking each other's
+  hands and congratulating each other that the war was now really
+  over, the commander-in-chief had fallen again to writing them
+  letters in the old strain, and was once more urging them to keep
+  up the army, while he himself gave his personal attention to
+  securing a naval force for the ensuing year, through the medium
+  of Lafayette. Nothing was ever finished with Washington until it
+  was really complete throughout, and he had as little time for
+  rejoicing as he had for despondency or despair, while a British
+  force still remained in the country. He probably felt that this
+  was as untoward a time as he had ever met in a pretty large
+  experience of unsuitable occasions, for offering sound advice,
+  but he was not deterred thereby from doing it. This time,
+  however, he was destined to an agreeable disappointment, for on
+  his arrival at Philadelphia he found an excellent spirit
+  prevailing in Congress. That body was acting cheerfully on his
+  advice, it had filled the departments of the government, and set
+  on foot such measures as it could to keep up the army. So
+  Washington remained for some time at Philadelphia, helping and
+  counseling Congress in its work, and writing to the States
+  vigorous letters, demanding pay and clothing for the soldiers,
+  ever uppermost in his thoughts.</p>
+
+  <p>But although Congress was compliant, Washington could not
+  convince the country of the justice of his views, and of the
+  continued need of energetic exertion. The steady relaxation of
+  tone, which the strain of a long and trying war had produced, was
+  accelerated by the brilliant victory of Yorktown. Washington for
+  his own part had but little trust in the sense or the knowledge
+  of his enemy. He felt that Yorktown was decisive, but he also
+  thought that Great Britain would still struggle on, and that her
+  talk of peace was very probably a mere blind, to enable her to
+  gain time, and, by taking advantage of our relaxed and feeble
+  condition, to strike again in hope of winning back all that had
+  been lost. He therefore continued his appeals in behalf of the
+  army, and reiterated everywhere the necessity for fresh and ample
+  preparations.</p>
+
+  <p>As late as May 4 he wrote sharply to the States for men and
+  money, saying that the change of ministry was likely to be
+  adverse to peace, and that we were being lulled into a false and
+  fatal sense of security. A few days later, on receiving
+  information from Sir Guy Carleton of the address of the Commons
+  to the king for peace, Washington wrote to Congress: "For my own
+  part, I view our situation as such that, instead of relaxing, we
+  ought to improve the present moment as the most favorable to our
+  wishes. The British nation appear to me to be staggered, and
+  almost ready to sink beneath the accumulating weight of debt and
+  misfortune. If we follow the blow with vigor and energy, I think
+  the game is our own."</p>
+
+  <p>Again he wrote in July: "Sir Guy Carleton is using every art
+  to soothe and lull our people into a state of security. Admiral
+  Digby is capturing all our vessels, and suffocating as fast as
+  possible in prison-ships all our seamen who will not enlist into
+  the service of his Britannic Majesty; and Haldimand, with his
+  savage allies, is scalping and burning on the frontiers." Facts
+  always were the object of Washington's first regard, and while
+  gentlemen on all sides were talking of peace, war was going on,
+  and he could not understand the supineness which would permit our
+  seamen to be suffocated, and our borderers scalped, because some
+  people thought the war ought to be and practically was over.
+  While the other side was fighting, he wished to be fighting too.
+  A month later he wrote to Greene: "From the former infatuation,
+  duplicity, and perverse system of British policy, I confess I am
+  induced to doubt everything, to suspect everything." He could say
+  heartily with the Trojan priest, "Quicquid id est timeo Danaos et
+  dona ferentes." Yet again, a month later still, when the
+  negotiations were really going forward in Paris, he wrote to
+  McHenry: "If we are wise, let us prepare for the worst. There is
+  nothing which will so soon produce a speedy and honorable peace
+  as a state of preparation for war; and we must either do this, or
+  lay our account to patch up an inglorious peace, after all the
+  toil, blood, and treasure we have spent."</p>
+
+  <p>No man had done and given so much as Washington, and at the
+  same time no other man had his love of thoroughness, and his
+  indomitable fighting temper. He found few sympathizers, his words
+  fell upon deaf ears, and he was left to struggle on and maintain
+  his ground as best he might, without any substantial backing. As
+  it turned out, England was more severely wounded than he dared to
+  hope, and her desire for peace was real. But Washington's
+  distrust and the active policy which he urged were, in the
+  conditions of the moment, perfectly sound, both in a military and
+  a political point of view. It made no real difference, however,
+  whether he was right or wrong in his opinion. He could not get
+  what he wanted, and he was obliged to drag through another year,
+  fettered in his military movements, and oppressed with anxiety
+  for the future. He longed to drive the British from New York, and
+  was forced to content himself, as so often before, with keeping
+  his army in existence. It was a trying time, and fruitful in
+  nothing but anxious forebodings. All the fighting was confined to
+  skirmishes of outposts, and his days were consumed in vain
+  efforts to obtain help from the States, while he watched with
+  painful eagerness the current of events in Europe, down which the
+  fortunes of his country were feebly drifting.</p>
+
+  <p>Among the petty incidents of the year there was one which, in
+  its effects, gained an international importance, which has left a
+  deep stain upon the English arms, and which touched Washington
+  deeply. Captain Huddy, an American officer, was captured in a
+  skirmish and carried to New York, where he was placed in
+  confinement. Thence he was taken on April 12 by a party of Tories
+  in the British service, commanded by Captain Lippencott, and
+  hanged in the broad light of day on the heights near Middletown.
+  Testimony and affidavits to the fact, which was never questioned,
+  were duly gathered and laid before Washington. The deed was one
+  of wanton barbarity, for which it would be difficult to find a
+  parallel in the annals of modern warfare. The authors of this
+  brutal murder, to our shame be it said, were of American birth,
+  but they were fighting for the crown and wore the British
+  uniform. England, which for generations has deafened the world
+  with paeans of praise for her own love of fair play and for her
+  generous humanity, stepped in here and threw the mantle of her
+  protection over these cowardly hangmen. It has not been uncommon
+  for wild North American savages to deliver up criminals to the
+  vengeance of the law, but English ministers and officers condoned
+  the murder of Huddy, and sheltered his murderers.</p>
+
+  <p>When the case was laid before Washington it stirred him to the
+  deepest wrath. He submitted the facts to twenty-five of his
+  general officers, who unanimously advised what he was himself
+  determined upon, instant retaliation. He wrote at once to Sir Guy
+  Carleton, and informed him that unless the murderers were given
+  up he should be compelled to retaliate. Carleton replied that a
+  court-martial was ordered, and some attempt was made to
+  recriminate; but Washington pressed on in the path he had marked
+  out, and had an English officer selected by lot and held in close
+  confinement to await the action of the enemy. These sharp
+  measures brought the British, as nothing else could have done, to
+  some sense of the enormity of the crime that had been committed.
+  Sir Guy Carleton wrote in remonstrance, and Washington replied:
+  "Ever since the commencement of this unnatural war my conduct has
+  borne invariable testimony against those inhuman excesses, which,
+  in too many instances, have marked its progress. With respect to
+  a late transaction, to which I presume your excellency alludes, I
+  have already expressed my resolution, a resolution formed on the
+  most mature deliberation, and from which I shall not recede." The
+  affair dragged along, purposely protracted by the British, and
+  the court-martial on a technical point acquitted Lippencott. Sir
+  Guy Carleton, however, who really was deeply indignant at the
+  outrage, wrote, expressing his abhorrence, disavowed Lippencott,
+  and promised a further inquiry. This placed Washington in a very
+  trying position, more especially as his humanity was touched by
+  the situation of the unlucky hostage. The fatal lot had fallen
+  upon a mere boy, Captain Asgill, who was both amiable and
+  popular, and Washington was beset with appeals in his behalf, for
+  Lady Asgill moved heaven and earth to save her son. She
+  interested the French court, and Vergennes made a special request
+  that Asgill should be released. Even Washington's own officers,
+  notably Hamilton, sought to influence him, and begged him to
+  recede. In these difficult circumstances, which were enhanced by
+  the fact that contrary to his orders to select an unconditional
+  prisoner, the lot had fallen on a Yorktown prisoner protected by
+  the terms of the capitulation,<a id="footnotetag1-16" name=
+  "footnotetag1-16"></a><a href="#footnote1-16"><sup>1</sup></a> he
+  hesitated, and asked instructions from Congress. He wrote to
+  Duane in September: "While retaliation was apparently necessary,
+  however disagreeable in itself, I had no repugnance to the
+  measure. But when the end proposed by it is answered by a
+  disavowal of the act, by a dissolution of the board of refugees,
+  and by a promise (whether with or without meaning to comply with
+  it, I shall not determine) that further inquisition should be
+  made into the matter, I thought it incumbent upon me, before I
+  proceeded any farther in the matter, to have the sense of
+  Congress, who had most explicitly approved and impliedly indeed
+  ordered retaliation to take place. To this hour I am held in
+  darkness."</p>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote1-16" name="footnote1-16"></a>[<b>Footnote
+    1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-16">(return)</a> MS, letter to
+    Lincoln.]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>He did not long remain in doubt. The fact was that the public,
+  as is commonly the case, had forgotten the original crime and saw
+  only the misery of the man who was to pay the just penalty, and
+  who was, in this instance, an innocent and vicarious sufferer. It
+  was difficult to refuse Vergennes, and Congress, glad of the
+  excuse and anxious to oblige their allies, ordered the release of
+  Asgill. That Washington, touched by the unhappy condition of his
+  prisoner, did not feel relieved by the result, it would be absurd
+  to suppose. But he was by no means satisfied, for the murderous
+  wrong that had been done rankled in his breast. He wrote to
+  Vergennes: "Captain Asgill has been released, and is at perfect
+  liberty to return to the arms of an affectionate parent, whose
+  pathetic address to your Excellency could not fail of interesting
+  every feeling heart in her behalf. I have no right to assume any
+  particular merit from the lenient manner in which this
+  disagreeable affair has terminated."</p>
+
+  <p>There is a perfect honesty about this which is very wholesome.
+  He had been freely charged with cruelty, and had regarded the
+  accusation with indifference. Now, when it was easy for him to
+  have taken the glory of mercy by simply keeping silent, he took
+  pains to avow that the leniency was not due to him. He was not
+  satisfied, and no one should believe that he was, even if the
+  admission seemed to justify the charge of cruelty. If he erred at
+  all it was in not executing some British officer at the very
+  start, unless Lippencott had been given up within a limited time.
+  As it was, after delay was once permitted, it is hard to see how
+  he could have acted otherwise than he did, but Washington was not
+  in the habit of receding from a fixed purpose, and being obliged
+  to do so in this case troubled him, for he knew that he did well
+  to be angry. But the frankness of the avowal to Vergennes is a
+  good example of his entire honesty and absolute moral
+  fearlessness.</p>
+
+  <p>The matter, however, which most filled his heart and mind
+  during these weary days of waiting and doubt was the condition
+  and the future of his soldiers. To those persons who have
+  suspected or suggested that Washington was cold-blooded and
+  unmindful of others, the letters he wrote in regard to the
+  soldiers may be commended. The man whose heart was wrung by the
+  sufferings of the poor people on the Virginian frontier, in the
+  days of the old French war, never in fact changed his nature.
+  Fierce in fight, passionate and hot when his anger was stirred,
+  his love and sympathy were keen and strong toward his army. His
+  heart went out to the brave men who had followed him, loved him,
+  and never swerved in their loyalty to him and to their country.
+  Washington's affection for his men, and their devotion to him,
+  had saved the cause of American independence more often than
+  strategy or daring. Now, when the war was practically over, his
+  influence with both officers and soldiers was destined to be put
+  to its severest tests.</p>
+
+  <p>The people of the American colonies were self-governing in the
+  extremest sense, that is, they were accustomed to very little
+  government interference of any sort. They were also poor and
+  entirely unused to war. Suddenly they found themselves plunged
+  into a bitter and protracted conflict with the most powerful of
+  civilized nations. In the first flush of excitement, patriotic
+  enthusiasm supplied many defects; but as time wore on, and year
+  after year passed, and the whole social and political fabric was
+  shaken, the moral tone of the people relaxed. In such a struggle,
+  coming upon an unprepared people of the habits and in the
+  circumstances of the colonists, this relaxation was inevitable.
+  It was likewise inevitable that, as the war continued, there
+  should be in both national and state governments, and in all
+  directions, many shortcomings and many lamentable errors. But for
+  the treatment accorded the army, no such excuse can be made, and
+  no sufficient explanation can be offered. There was throughout
+  the colonies an inborn and a carefully cultivated dread of
+  standing armies and military power. But this very natural feeling
+  was turned most unreasonably against our own army, and carried in
+  that direction to the verge of insanity. This jealousy of
+  military power indeed pursued Washington from the beginning to
+  the end of the Revolution. It cropped out as soon as he was
+  appointed, and came up in one form or another whenever he was
+  obliged to take strong measures. Even at the very end, after he
+  had borne the cause through to triumph, Congress was driven
+  almost to frenzy because Vergennes proposed to commit the
+  disposition of a French subsidy to the commander-in-chief.</p>
+
+  <p>If this feeling could show itself toward Washington, it is
+  easy to imagine that it was not restrained toward his officers
+  and men, and the treatment of the soldiers by Congress and by the
+  States was not only ungrateful to the last degree, but was
+  utterly unpardonable. Again and again the menace of immediate
+  ruin and the stern demands of Washington alone extorted the most
+  grudging concessions, and saved the army from dissolution. The
+  soldiers had every reason to think that nothing but personal fear
+  could obtain the barest consideration from the civil power. In
+  this frame of mind, they saw the war which they had fought and
+  won drawing to a close with no prospect of either provision or
+  reward for them, and every indication that they would be
+  disbanded when they were no longer needed, and left in many cases
+  to beggary and want. In the inaction consequent upon the victory
+  at Yorktown, they had ample time to reflect upon these facts, and
+  their reflections were of such a nature that the situation soon
+  became dangerous. Washington, who had struggled in season and out
+  of season for justice to the soldiers, labored more zealously
+  than ever during all this period, aided vigorously by Hamilton,
+  who was now in Congress. Still nothing was done, and in October,
+  1782, he wrote to the Secretary of War in words warm with
+  indignant feeling: "While I premise that no one I have seen or
+  heard of appears opposed to the principle of reducing the army as
+  circumstances may require, yet I cannot help fearing the result
+  of the measure in contemplation, under present circumstances,
+  when I see such a number of men, goaded by a thousand stings of
+  reflection on the past and of anticipation on the future, about
+  to be turned into the world, soured by penury and what they call
+  the ingratitude of the public, involved in debts, without one
+  farthing of money to carry them home after having spent the
+  flower of their days, and many of them their patrimonies, in
+  establishing the freedom and independence of their country, and
+  suffered everything that human nature is capable of enduring on
+  this side of death.... You may rely upon it, the patriotism and
+  long-suffering of this army are almost exhausted, and that there
+  never was so great a spirit of discontent as at this instant.
+  While in the field I think it may be kept from breaking into acts
+  of outrage; but when we retire into winter-quarters, unless the
+  storm is previously dissipated, I cannot be at ease respecting
+  the consequences. It is high time for a peace."</p>
+
+  <p>These were grave words, coming from such a man as Washington,
+  but they passed unheeded. Congress and the States went blandly
+  along as if everything was all right, and as if the army had no
+  grievances. But the soldiers thought differently.
+  "Dissatisfactions rose to a great and alarming height, and
+  combinations among officers to resign at given periods in a body
+  were beginning to take place." The outlook was so threatening
+  that Washington, who had intended to go to Mount Vernon, remained
+  in camp, and by management and tact thwarted these combinations
+  and converted these dangerous movements into an address to
+  Congress from the officers, asking for half-pay, arrearages, and
+  some other equally proper concessions. Still Congress did not
+  stir. Some indefinite resolutions were passed, but nothing was
+  done as to the commutation of half-pay into a fixed sum, and
+  after such a display of indifference the dissatisfaction
+  increased rapidly, and the army became more and more restless. In
+  March a call was issued for a meeting of officers, and an
+  anonymous address, written with much skill,&mdash;the work, as
+  afterwards appeared, of Major John Armstrong,&mdash;was published
+  at the same time. The address was well calculated to inflame the
+  passions of the troops; it advised a resort to force, and was
+  scattered broadcast through the camp. The army was now in a
+  ferment, and the situation was full of peril. A weak man would
+  have held his peace; a rash one would have tried to suppress the
+  meeting. Washington did neither, but quietly took control of the
+  whole movement himself. In general orders he censured the call
+  and the address as irregular, and then appointed a time and place
+  for the meeting. Another anonymous address thereupon appeared,
+  quieter in tone, but congratulating the army on the recognition
+  accorded by the commander-in-chief.</p>
+
+  <p>When the officers assembled, Washington arose with a
+  manuscript in his hand, and as he took out his glasses said,
+  simply, "You see, gentlemen, I have grown both blind and gray in
+  your service." His address was brief, calm, and strong. The
+  clear, vigorous sentences were charged with meaning and with deep
+  feeling. He exhorted them one and all, both officers and men, to
+  remain loyal and obedient, true to their glorious past and to
+  their country. He appealed to their patriotism, and promised them
+  that which they had always had, his own earnest support in
+  obtaining justice from Congress. When he had finished he quietly
+  withdrew. The officers were deeply moved by his words, and his
+  influence prevailed. Resolutions were passed, reiterating the
+  demands of the army, but professing entire faith in the
+  government. This time Congress listened, and the measures
+  granting half-pay in commutation and certain other requests were
+  passed. Thus this very serious danger was averted, not by the
+  reluctant action of Congress, but by the wisdom and strength of
+  the general, who was loved by his soldiers after a fashion that
+  few conquerors could boast.</p>
+
+  <p>Underlying all these general discontents, there was, besides,
+  a well-defined movement, which saw a solution of all difficulties
+  and a redress of all wrongs in a radical change of the form of
+  government, and in the elevation of Washington to supreme power.
+  This party was satisfied that the existing system was a failure,
+  and that it was not and could not be made either strong, honest,
+  or respectable. The obvious relief was in some kind of monarchy,
+  with a large infusion of the one-man power; and it followed, as a
+  matter of course, that the one man could be no other than the
+  commander-in-chief. In May, 1782, when the feeling in the army
+  had risen very high, this party of reform brought their ideas
+  before Washington through an old and respected friend of his,
+  Colonel Nicola. The colonel set forth very clearly the failure
+  and shortcomings of the existing government, argued in favor of
+  the substitution of something much stronger, and wound up by
+  hinting very plainly that his correspondent was the man for the
+  crisis and the proper savior of society. The letter was forcible
+  and well written, and Colonel Nicola was a man of character and
+  standing. It could not be passed over lightly or in silence, and
+  Washington replied as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+  <p>"With a mixture of surprise and astonishment, I have read with
+  attention the sentiments you have submitted to my perusal. Be
+  assured, sir, no occurrence in the course of the war has given me
+  more painful sensations than your information of there being such
+  ideas existing in the army as you have expressed, and [which] I
+  must view with abhorrence and reprehend with severity. For the
+  present, the communication of them will rest in my own bosom,
+  unless some further agitation of the matter shall make a
+  disclosure necessary. I am much at a loss to conceive what part
+  of my conduct could have given encouragement to an address which
+  seems to me big with the greatest mischiefs that can befall my
+  country. If I am not deceived in the knowledge of myself, you
+  could not have found a person to whom your schemes are more
+  disagreeable. At the same time, in justice to my own feelings, I
+  must add that no man possesses a more sincere wish to see justice
+  done to the army than I do; and as far as my power and influence
+  in a constitutional way extend, they shall be employed to the
+  utmost of my abilities to effect it, should there be any
+  occasion. Let me conjure you, then, if you have any regard for
+  your country, concern for yourself or posterity, or respect for
+  me, to banish these thoughts from your mind, and never
+  communicate, as from yourself or any one else, a sentiment of the
+  like nature."</p>
+
+  <p>This simple but exceedingly plain letter checked the whole
+  movement at once; but the feeling of hostility to the existing
+  system of government and of confidence in Washington increased
+  steadily through the summer and winter. When the next spring had
+  come round, and the "Newburgh addresses" had been published, the
+  excitement was at fever heat. All the army needed was a leader.
+  It was as easy for Washington to have grasped supreme power then,
+  as it would have been for C&aelig;sar to have taken the crown
+  from Antony upon the Lupercal. He repelled Nicola's suggestion
+  with quiet reproof, and took the actual movement, when it reared
+  its head, into his own hands and turned it into other channels.
+  This incident has been passed over altogether too carelessly by
+  historians and biographers. It has generally been used merely to
+  show the general nobility of Washington's sentiments, and no
+  proper stress has been laid upon the facts of the time which gave
+  birth to such an idea and such a proposition. It would have been
+  a perfectly feasible thing at that particular moment to have
+  altered the frame of government and placed the successful soldier
+  in possession of supreme power. The notion of kingly government
+  was, of course, entirely familiar to everybody, and had in itself
+  nothing repulsive. The confederation was disintegrated, the
+  States were demoralized, and the whole social and political life
+  was weakened. The army was the one coherent, active, and
+  thoroughly organized body in the country. Six years of war had
+  turned them from militia into seasoned veterans, and they stood
+  armed and angry, ready to respond to the call of the great leader
+  to whom they were entirely devoted. When the English troops were
+  once withdrawn, there was nothing on the continent that could
+  have stood against them. If they had moved, they would have been
+  everywhere supported by their old comrades who had returned to
+  the ranks of civil life, by all the large class who wanted peace
+  and order in the quickest and surest way, and by the timid and
+  tired generally. There would have been in fact no serious
+  opposition, probably because there would have been no means of
+  sustaining it.</p>
+
+  <p>The absolute feebleness of the general government was shown a
+  few weeks later, when a recently recruited regiment of
+  Pennsylvania troops mutinied, and obliged Congress to leave
+  Philadelphia, unable either to defend themselves or procure
+  defense from the State. This mutiny was put down suddenly and
+  effectively by Washington, very wroth at the insubordination of
+  raw troops, who had neither fought nor suffered. Yet even such
+  mutineers as these would have succeeded in a large measure, had
+  it not been for Washington, and one can easily imagine from this
+  incident the result of disciplined and well-planned action on the
+  part of the army led by their great chief. In that hour of
+  debility and relaxation, a military seizure of the government and
+  the erection of some form of monarchy would not have been
+  difficult. Whether such a change would have lasted is another
+  question, but there is no reason to doubt that at the moment it
+  might have been effected. Washington, however, not only refused
+  to have anything to do with the scheme, but he used the personal
+  loyalty which might have raised him to supreme power to check all
+  dangerous movements and put in motion the splendid and unselfish
+  patriotism for which the army was conspicuous, and which underlay
+  all their irritations and discontents.</p>
+
+  <p>The obvious view of Washington's action in this crisis as a
+  remarkable exhibition of patriotism is at best somewhat
+  superficial. In a man in any way less great, the letter of
+  refusal to Nicola and the treatment of the opportunity presented
+  at the time of the Newburgh addresses would have been fine in a
+  high degree. In Washington they were not so extraordinary, for
+  the situation offered him no temptation. Carlyle was led to think
+  slightingly of Washington, one may believe, because he did not
+  seize the tottering government with a strong hand, and bring
+  order out of chaos on the instant. But this is a woeful
+  misunderstanding of the man. To put aside a crown for love of
+  country is noble, but to look down upon such an opportunity
+  indicates a much greater loftiness and strength of mind.
+  Washington was wholly free from the vulgar ambition of the
+  usurper, and the desire of mere personal aggrandizement found no
+  place in his nature. His ruling passion was the passion for
+  success, and for thorough and complete success. What he could not
+  bear was the least shadow of failure. To have fought such a war
+  to a victorious finish, and then turned it to his own advantage,
+  would have been to him failure of the meanest kind. He fought to
+  free the colonies from England, and make them independent, not to
+  play the part of a C&aelig;sar or a Cromwell in the wreck and
+  confusion of civil war. He flung aside the suggestion of supreme
+  power, not simply as dishonorable and unpatriotic, but because
+  such a result would have defeated the one great and noble object
+  at which he aimed. Nor did he act in this way through any
+  indolent shrinking from the great task of making what he had won
+  worth winning, by crushing the forces of anarchy and separation,
+  and bringing order and unity out of confusion. From the surrender
+  of Yorktown to the day of his retirement from the Presidency, he
+  worked unceasingly to establish union and strong government in
+  the country he had made independent. He accomplished this great
+  labor more successfully by honest and lawful methods than if he
+  had taken the path of the strong-handed savior of society, and
+  his work in this field did more for the welfare of his country
+  than all his battles. To have restored order at the head of the
+  army was much easier than to effect it in the slow and
+  law-abiding fashion which he adopted. To have refused supreme
+  rule, and then to have effected in the spirit and under the forms
+  of free government all and more than the most brilliant of
+  military chiefs could have achieved by absolute power, is a glory
+  which belongs to Washington alone.</p>
+
+  <p>Nevertheless, at that particular juncture it was, as he
+  himself had said, "high time for a peace." The danger at Newburgh
+  had been averted by his commanding influence and the patriotic
+  conduct of the army. But it had been averted only, not removed.
+  The snake was scotched, not killed. The finishing stroke was
+  still needed in the form of an end to hostilities, and it was
+  therefore fortunate for the United States that a fortnight later,
+  on March 23, news came that a general treaty of peace had been
+  signed. This final consummation of his work, in addition to the
+  passage by Congress of the half-pay commutation and the
+  settlement of the army accounts, filled Washington with deep
+  rejoicing. He felt that in a short time, a few weeks at most, he
+  would be free to withdraw to the quiet life at Mount Vernon for
+  which he longed. But public bodies move slowly, and one delay
+  after another occurred to keep him still in the harness. He
+  chafed under the postponement, but it was not possible to him to
+  remain idle even when he awaited in almost daily expectation the
+  hour of dismissal. He saw with the instinctive glance of
+  statesmanship that the dangerous point in the treaty of peace was
+  in the provisions as to the western posts on the one side, and
+  those relating to British debts on the other. A month therefore
+  had not passed before he brought to the attention of Congress the
+  importance of getting immediate possession of those posts, and a
+  little later he succeeded in having Steuben sent out as a special
+  envoy to obtain their surrender. The mission was vain, as he had
+  feared. He was not destined to extract this thorn for many years,
+  and then only after many trials and troubles. Soon afterward he
+  made a journey with Governor Clinton to Ticonderoga, and along
+  the valley of the Mohawk, "to wear away the time," as he wrote to
+  Congress. He wore away time to more purpose than most people, for
+  where he traveled he observed closely, and his observations were
+  lessons which he never forgot. On this trip he had the western
+  posts and the Indians always in mind, and familiarized himself
+  with the conditions of a part of the country where these matters
+  were of great importance.</p>
+
+  <p>On his return he went to Princeton, where Congress had been
+  sitting since their flight from the mutiny which he had recently
+  suppressed, and where a house had been provided for his use. He
+  remained there two months, aiding Congress in their work. During
+  the spring he had been engaged on the matter of a peace
+  establishment, and he now gave Congress elaborate and
+  well-matured advice on that question, and on those of public
+  lands, western settlement, and the best Indian policy. In all
+  these directions his views were clear, far-sighted, and wise. He
+  saw that in these questions was involved much of the future
+  development and wellbeing of the country, and he treated them
+  with a precision and an easy mastery which showed the thought he
+  had given to the new problems which now were coming to the front.
+  Unluckily, he was so far ahead, both in knowledge and perception,
+  of the body with which he dealt, that he could get little or
+  nothing done, and in September he wrote in plain but guarded
+  terms of the incapacity of the lawmakers. The people were not yet
+  ripe for his measures, and he was forced to bide his time, and
+  see the injuries caused by indifference and short-sightedness
+  work themselves out. Gradually, however, the absolutely necessary
+  business was brought to an end. Then Washington issued a circular
+  letter to the governors of the States, which was one of the
+  ablest he ever wrote, and full of the profoundest statesmanship,
+  and he also sent out a touching address of farewell to the army,
+  eloquent with wisdom and with patriotism.</p>
+
+  <p>From Princeton he went to West Point, where the army that
+  still remained in service was stationed. Thence he moved to
+  Harlem, and on November 25 the British army departed, and
+  Washington, with his troops, accompanied by Governor Clinton and
+  some regiments of local militia, marched in and took possession.
+  This was the outward sign that the war was over, and that
+  American independence had been won. Carleton feared that the
+  entry of the American army might be the signal for confusion and
+  violence, in which the Tory inhabitants would suffer; but
+  everything passed off with perfect tranquillity and good order,
+  and in the evening Governor Clinton gave a public dinner to the
+  commander-in-chief and the officers of the army.</p>
+
+  <p>All was now over, and Washington prepared to go to Annapolis
+  and lay down his commission. On December 4 his officers assembled
+  in Fraunces' Tavern to bid him farewell. As he looked about on
+  his faithful friends, his usual self-command deserted him, and he
+  could not control his voice. Taking a glass of wine, he lifted it
+  up, and said simply, "With a heart full of love and gratitude I
+  now take my leave of you, most devoutly wishing that your latter
+  days may be as prosperous and happy as your former ones have been
+  glorious and honorable." The toast was drunk in silence, and then
+  Washington added, "I cannot come to each of you and take my
+  leave, but shall be obliged if you will come and take me by the
+  hand." One by one they approached, and Washington grasped the
+  hand of each man and embraced him. His eyes were full of tears,
+  and he could not trust himself to speak. In silence he bade each
+  and all farewell, and then, accompanied by his officers, walked
+  to Whitehall Ferry. Entering his barge, the word was given, and
+  as the oars struck the water he stood up and lifted his hat. In
+  solemn silence his officers returned the salute, and watched the
+  noble and gracious figure of their beloved chief until the boat
+  disappeared from sight behind the point of the Battery.</p>
+
+  <p>At Philadelphia he stopped a few days and adjusted his
+  accounts, which he had in characteristic fashion kept himself in
+  the neatest and most methodical way. He had drawn no pay, and had
+  expended considerable sums from his private fortune, which he had
+  omitted to charge to the government. The gross amount of his
+  expenses was about 15,000 pounds sterling, including secret
+  service and other incidental outlays. In these days of wild
+  money-hunting, there is something worth pondering in this simple
+  business settlement between a great general and his government,
+  at the close of eight years of war. This done, he started again
+  on his journey. From Philadelphia he proceeded to Annapolis,
+  greeted with addresses and hailed with shouts at every town and
+  village on his route, and having reached his destination, he
+  addressed a letter to Congress on December 20, asking when it
+  would be agreeable to them to receive him. The 23d was appointed,
+  and on that day, at noon, he appeared before Congress.</p>
+
+  <p>The following year a French orator and "ma&icirc;tre avocat,"
+  in an oration delivered at Toulouse upon the American Revolution,
+  described this scene in these words: "On the day when Washington
+  resigned his commission in the hall of Congress, a crown decked
+  with jewels was placed upon the Book of the Constitutions.
+  Suddenly Washington seizes it, breaks it, and flings the pieces
+  to the assembled people. How small ambitious C&aelig;sar seems
+  beside the hero of America." It is worth while to recall this
+  contemporary French description, because its theatrical and
+  dramatic untruth gives such point by contrast to the plain and
+  dignified reality. The scene was the hall of Congress. The
+  members representing the sovereign power were seated and covered,
+  while all the space about was filled by the governor and state
+  officers of Maryland, by military officers, and by the ladies and
+  gentlemen of the neighborhood, who stood in respectful silence
+  with uncovered heads. Washington was introduced by the Secretary
+  of Congress, and took a chair which had been assigned to him.
+  There was a brief pause, and then the president said that "the
+  United States in Congress assembled were prepared to receive his
+  communication." Washington rose, and replied as
+  follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+  <p>"Mr. President: The great events, on which my resignation
+  depended, having at length taken place, I have now the honor of
+  offering my sincere congratulations to Congress, and of
+  presenting myself before them, to surrender into their hands the
+  trust committed to me, and to claim the indulgence of retiring
+  from the service of my country.</p>
+
+  <p>"Happy in the confirmation of our independence and
+  sovereignty, and pleased with the opportunity afforded the United
+  States of becoming a respectable nation, I resign with
+  satisfaction the appointment I accepted with diffidence; a
+  diffidence in my abilities to accomplish so arduous a task,
+  which, however, was superseded by a confidence in the rectitude
+  of our cause, the support of the supreme power of the Union, and
+  the patronage of Heaven. The successful termination of the war
+  has verified the most sanguine expectations; and my gratitude for
+  the interposition of Providence, and the assistance I have
+  received from my countrymen, increases with every review of the
+  momentous contest." Then, after a word of gratitude to the army
+  and to his staff, he concluded as follows: "I consider it an
+  indispensable duty to close this last solemn act of my official
+  life by commending the interests of our dearest country to the
+  protection of Almighty God, and those who have the
+  superintendence of them to his holy keeping.</p>
+
+  <p>"Having now finished the work assigned me, I retire from the
+  great theatre of action; and bidding an affectionate farewell to
+  this august body, under whose orders I have so long acted, I here
+  offer my commission, and take my leave of all the employments of
+  public life."</p>
+
+  <p>In singularly graceful and eloquent words his old opponent,
+  Thomas Mifflin, the president, replied, the simple ceremony
+  ended, and Washington left the room a private citizen.</p>
+
+  <p>The great master of English fiction, touching this scene with
+  skillful hand, has said: "Which was the most splendid spectacle
+  ever witnessed, the opening feast of Prince George in London, or
+  the resignation of Washington? Which is the noble character for
+  after ages to admire,&mdash;yon fribble dancing in lace and
+  spangles, or yonder hero who sheathes his sword after a life of
+  spotless honor, a purity unreproached, a courage indomitable, and
+  a consummate victory?"</p>
+
+  <p>There is no need to say more. Comment or criticism on such a
+  farewell, from such a man, at the close of a long civil war,
+  would be not only superfluous but impertinent. The contemporary
+  newspaper, in its meagre account, said that the occasion was
+  deeply solemn and affecting, and that many persons shed tears.
+  Well indeed might those then present have been thus affected, for
+  they had witnessed a scene memorable forever in the annals of all
+  that is best and noblest in human nature. They had listened to a
+  speech which was not equaled in meaning and spirit in American
+  history until, eighty years later, Abraham Lincoln stood upon the
+  slopes of Gettysburg and uttered his immortal words upon those
+  who died that the country might live.</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX for Volumes I &amp;
+  II</h2>
+
+  <div class="index">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">ACKERSON, DAVID,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">describes Washington's personal appearance, ii.
+      386-388.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Adams, Abigail,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on Washington's appearance in 1775, i. 137.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Adams, John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">moves appointment of Washington as
+      commander-in-chief, i. 134;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on political necessity for his appointment,
+      135;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">and objections to it, 135;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">statement as to Washington's difficulties,
+      163;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">over-sanguine as to American prospects,
+      171;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">finds fault with Washington, 214, 215;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">one of few national statesmen, 252;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on Washington's opinion of titles, ii. 52;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">advocates ceremony, 54;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">returns to United States, 137;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacked by Jefferson as a monarchist, 226;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">praised by Democrats as superior to Washington,
+      251;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his administration upheld by Washington,
+      259;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">advised by Washington, 260;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his inauguration, 276;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends special mission to France, 284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges Washington to take command of provisional
+      army, 285;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes to make Knox senior to Hamilton,
+      286;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">censured by Washington, gives way, 287;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">lack of sympathy with Washington, 287;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his nomination of Murray disapproved by
+      Washington, 292, 293;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, on immigration,
+      326.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Adams, J.Q.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on weights and measures, ii. 81.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Adams, Samuel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not sympathized with by Washington in working
+      for independence, i. 131;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his inability to sympathize with Washington,
+      204;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">an enemy of Constitution, ii. 71;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">a genuine American, 309.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Alcudia, Duke de,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">interviews with Pinckney, ii. 166.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Alexander, Philip,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hunts with Washington, i. 115.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Alien and Sedition Laws,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">approved by Washington and Federalists, ii.
+      290, 297.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Ames, Fisher,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">speech on behalf of administration in Jay
+      treaty affair, ii. 210.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Andr&eacute;, Major,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">meets Arnold, i. 282;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">announces capture to Arnold, 284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">confesses, 284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">condemned and executed, 287;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">justice of the sentence, 287, 288;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of, 288, ii. 357.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Armstrong, John, Major,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes Newburg address, i. 335.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Army of the Revolution,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at Boston, adopted by Congress, i. 134;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its organization and character, 136-143;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sectional jealousies in, at New York, 162;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">goes to pieces after defeat, 167, 175, 176;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">condition in winter of 1777, 186;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">difficulties between officers, 189;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">with foreign officers, 190-192;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">improvement as shown by condition after
+      Brandywine and Germantown, 200, 201;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hard winter at Valley Forge, 228;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">maintained alive only by Washington, 227, 228,
+      232;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">improved morale at Monmouth, 239;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">mutinies for lack of pay, 258;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">suffers during 1779, 270;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">bad condition in 1780, 279;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">again mutinies for pay, 291, 292, 295;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">conduct of troops, 292, 293;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">jealousy of people towards, 332;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">badly treated by States and by Congress,
+      333;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">grows mutinous, 334;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">adopts Newburg addresses, 335, 336;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ready for a military dictatorship, 338,
+      340;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">farewell of Washington to, 345.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Arnold, Benedict,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent by Washington to attack Quebec, i.
+      144;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent against Burgoyne, 210;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">plans treason, 281;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">shows loyalist letter to Washington, 282;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">meets Andr&eacute;, 282;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">receives news of Andr&eacute;'s capture,
+      284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">escapes, 284, 285;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">previous benefits from Washington, 286;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of, 288;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ravages Virginia, 303;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent back to New York, 303;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">one of the few men who deceived Washington, ii.
+      336.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Arnold, Mrs.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">entertains Washington at time of her husband's
+      treachery, i. 284, 285.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Articles of Confederation,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">their inadequacy early seen by Washington, i.
+      297, 298; ii. 17.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Asgill, Capt.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">selected for retaliation for murder of Huddy,
+      i. 328;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">efforts for his release, 329;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">release ordered by Congress, 330.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">BACHE, B.F.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">publishes Jay treaty in "Aurora," ii. 185;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">joins in attack on Washington, 238, 244;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rejoices over his retirement, 256.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Baker,&mdash;&mdash;,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">works out a pedigree for Washington, i. 31.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Ball, Joseph,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">advises against sending Washington to sea, i.
+      49, 50.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Barbadoes,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's description of, i. 64.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Beckley, John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accuses Washington of embezzling, ii. 245.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Bernard, John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his conversation with Washington referred to,
+      i. 58, 107;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">describes encounter with Washington, ii.
+      281-283;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his description of Washington's conversation,
+      343-348.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Blackwell, Rev. Dr.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">calls on Washington with Dr. Logan, ii.
+      264.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Blair, John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 73.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Bland, Mary,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">"Lowland Beauty," admired by Washington, i. 95,
+      96.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Blount, Governor,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">pacifies Cherokees, ii. 94.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Boston,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">visit of Washington to, i. 97, 99;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">political troubles in, 120;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">British measures against condemned by Virginia,
+      122, 123;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appeals to colonies, 124;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">protests against Jay treaty, ii. 186;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">answered by Washington, 190.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Botetourt, Lord, Governor of Virginia,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">quarrels with Assembly, i. 121;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">manages to calm dissension, 122;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on friendly terms with Washington, 122.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Braddock, General Edward,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">arrives in Virginia, i. 82;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">invites Washington to serve on his staff,
+      82;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">respects him, 83;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his character and unfitness for his position,
+      83;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">despises provincials, 83;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accepts Washington's advice as to dividing
+      force, 84;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rebukes Washington for warning against ambush,
+      85;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">insists on fighting by rule, 85;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeated and mortally wounded, 85;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">death and burial, 87.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Bradford, William,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">succeeds Randolph, ii. 246.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Brandywine,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of, i. 196-198.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Bunker Hill,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">question of Washington regarding battle of, i.
+      136.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Burgoyne, General John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">junction of Howe with, feared by Washington, i.
+      194, 195, 205, 206;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">significance of his defeat, 202;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">danger of his invasion foreseen by Washington,
+      203-206;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">captures Ticonderoga, 207;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">outnumbered and defeated, 210;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">surrenders, 211.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Burke, Edmund,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">understands significance of Washington's
+      leadership, i. 202;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">unsettled by French Revolution, ii. 294.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">CABOT, GEORGE,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">entertains Lafayette's son, ii. 366.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Cadwalader, General,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to cross Delaware to help Washington, i.
+      180;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">duel with Conway, 226.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Calvert, Eleanor,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">misgivings of Washington over her marriage to
+      John Custis, i. 111.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Camden, battle of, i. 281.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Canada,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">captured by Wolfe, i. 94;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">expedition of Montgomery against, 143, 144;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">project of Conway cabal against, 222; 253;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">project of Lafayette to attack, 254;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">plan considered dangerous by Washington, 254,
+      255;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not undertaken by France, 256.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Carleton, Sir Guy,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">informs Washington of address of Commons for
+      peace, i. 324;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">suspected by Washington, 325;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">remonstrates against retaliation by Washington
+      for murder of</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">Huddy, 328;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disavows Lippencott, 328;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fears plunder of New York city, 345;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges Indians to attack the United States, ii.
+      102, 175.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Carlisle, Earl of,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">peace commissioner, i. 233.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Carlyle, Thomas,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sneers at Washington, i. 4, 14;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">calls him "a bloodless Cromwell," i. 69, ii.
+      332;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to understand his reticence, i. 70;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">despises him for not seizing power, 341.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Carmichael, William,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">minister at Madrid, ii. 165;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on commission regarding the Mississippi,
+      166.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Carrington, Paul,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 208;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's friendship for, 363.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Cary, Mary,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">early love affair of Washington with, i.
+      96.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Chamberlayne, Major,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">entertains Washington at Williams' Ferry, i.
+      101.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Charleston,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">siege and capture of, i. 273, 274, 276.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Chastellux, Marquis de,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's friendship for and letter to, ii.
+      351;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on Washington's training of horses, 380.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Cherokees,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">beaten by Sevier, ii. 89;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">pacified by Blount, 94,101.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Chester, Colonel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">researches on Washington pedigree, i. 31.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Chickasaws,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">desert from St. Clair, ii. 96.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">China,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">honors Washington, i. 6.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Choctaws,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">peaceable in 1788, ii. 89.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Cincinnati, Society of the,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's connection with, ii. 4.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Clarke, Governor,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">thinks Washington is invading popular rights,
+      i. 215.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Cleaveland, Rev.&mdash;&mdash;,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">complimented by Washington, ii. 359.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Clinton, George,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appealed to by Washington to attack Burgoyne,
+      i. 210;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">journey with Washington to Ticonderoga,
+      343;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">enters New York city, 345;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 1;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">meets Washington on journey to inauguration,
+      45;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">opponent of the Constitution, 71;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">orders seizure of French privateers, 153.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Clinton, Sir Henry,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to help Burgoyne, i. 210;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">replaces Howe at Philadelphia, his character,
+      232;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to cut off Lafayette, 233;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">leaves Philadelphia, 234;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeats Lee at Monmouth, 236;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">retreats to New York, 238;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">withdraws from Newport, 248;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes a raid, 265;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fortifies Stony Point, 268;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his aimless warfare, 269, 270;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">after capturing Charleston returns to New York,
+      276;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to save Andr&eacute;, 287;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">alarmed at attacks on New York, 306;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">jealous of Cornwallis, refuses to send
+      reinforcements, 308;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">deceived by Washington, 311;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends Graves to relieve Cornwallis, 312.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Congress, Continental,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's journey to, i. 128;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its character and ability, 129;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its state papers, 129;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">adjourns, 132;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">in second session, resolves to petition the
+      king, 133;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">adopts Massachusetts army and makes Washington
+      commander, 134;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reasons for his choice, 135;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">adheres to short-term enlistments, 149;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">influenced to declare independence by
+      Washington, 160;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hampers Washington in campaign of New York,
+      167;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, 170, 179, 212, 225,
+      229, 266, 278, 295, 321, 323, 333;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">takes steps to make army permanent, 171;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its over-confidence, 171;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">insists on holding Forts Washington and Lee,
+      174;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">dissatisfied with Washington's inactivity,
+      187;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">criticises his proclamation requiring oath of
+      allegiance, 189;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes unwise appointments of officers, 189;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">especially of foreigners, 190-192; 248,
+      249;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">applauds Washington's efforts at Germantown,
+      200;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">deposes Schuyler and St. Clair, 208;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appoints Gates, 210;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">irritation against Washington, 212-215;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">falls under guidance of Conway cabal, 221,
+      222;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">discovers incompetence of cabal, 223;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">meddles with prisoners and officers, 231;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rejects English peace offers, 233;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes alliance with France, 241;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">suppresses protests of officers against
+      D'Estaing, 244;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">decline in its character, 257;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">becomes feeble, 258;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">improvement urged by Washington, 259, 266;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appoints Gates to command in South, 268;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">loses interest in war, 278;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">asks Washington to name general for the South,
+      295;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">considers reduction of army, 313;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">elated by Yorktown, 323;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its unfair treatment of army, 333, 335;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">driven from Philadelphia by Pennsylvania
+      troops, 340;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">passes half-pay act, 342;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">receives commission of Washington, 347-349;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disbands army, ii. 6;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">indifferent to Western expansion, 15;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continues to decline, 22;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">merit of its Indian policy, 88.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Congress, Federal,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">establishes departments, ii. 64;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">opened by Washington, 78, 79;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ceremonial abolished by Jefferson, 79;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">recommendations made to by Washington,
+      81-83;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">acts upon them, 81-83;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">creates commission to treat with Creeks,
+      90;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">increases army, 94, 99;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to solve financial problems, 106;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">debates Hamilton's report on credit, 107,
+      108;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">establishes national bank, 109;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">establishes protective revenue duties, 113;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">imposes an excise tax, 123;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">prepares for retaliation on Great Britain,
+      176;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Senate ratifies Jay treaty conditionally,
+      184;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">House demands papers, 207;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">debates over its right to concur in treaty,
+      208-210;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to adjourn on Washington's birthday,
+      247;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">prepares for war with France, 285;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">passes Alien and Sedition Laws, 296.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Constitution, Federal,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">necessity of, foreseen by Washington, ii.
+      17-18, 23, 24;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the Annapolis Convention, 23-29;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the Federal Convention, 30-36;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's attitude in, 31,34;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his influence, 36;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">campaign for ratification, 38-41.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Contrecoeur, Captain,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">leader of French and Indians in Virginia, i.
+      75.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">"Conway cabal,"</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">elements of in Congress, i. 214, 215;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">in the army, 215;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">organized by Conway, 217;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">discovered by Washington, 220;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">gets control of Board of War, 221;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to make Washington resign, 222, 224;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to invade Canada or provide supplies,
+      222, 223;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">harassed by Washington's letters, 223,226;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">breaks down, 226.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Conway, Moncure D.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his life of Randolph, ii. 65, note, 196;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his defense of Randolph in Fauchet letter
+      affair, 196;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on Washington's motives, 200;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on his unfair treatment of Randolph, 201,
+      202.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Conway, Thomas,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">demand for higher rank refused by Washington,
+      i. 216;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">plots against him, 217;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his letter discovered by Washington, 221;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">made inspector-general, 221, 222;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">complains to Congress of his reception at camp,
+      225;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">resigns, has duel with Cadwalader, 226;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">apologizes to Washington and leaves country,
+      226.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Cooke, Governor,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">remonstrated with by Washington for raising
+      state troops, i. 186.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Cornwallis, Lord,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">pursues Washington in New Jersey, i. 175;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">repulsed at Assunpink, 181;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">outgeneraled by Washington, 182;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">surprises Sullivan at Brandywine, 197;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeats Lee at Monmouth, 236;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">pursues Greene in vain, 302;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wins battle of Guilford Court House, 302;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">retreats into Virginia, 302;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">joins British troops in Virginia, 303;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his dangerous position, 304;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urged by Clinton to return troops to New York,
+      306;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">plunders Virginia, 307;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeats Lafayette and Wayne, 307;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes to retreat South, 307;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ordered by ministry to stay on the Chesapeake,
+      307;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">abandoned by Clinton, 308;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">establishes himself at Yorktown, 308;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">withdraws into town, 315;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">besieged, 316, 317;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">surrenders, 317;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">outgeneraled by Washington, 319, 320.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Cowpens,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of, i. 301.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Craik, Dr.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attends Washington in last illness, ii.
+      300-302;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's friendship with, 363.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Creeks,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">their relations with Spaniards, ii. 89, 90;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">quarrel with Georgia, 90;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">agree to treaty with United States, 91;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">stirred up by Spain, 101.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Curwen, Samuel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on Washington's appearance, i. 137.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Cushing, Caleb,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 72.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Custis, Daniel Parke,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">first husband of Martha Washington, i. 101.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Custis, G.W.P.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tells mythical story of Washington and the
+      colt, i. 45;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's care for, ii. 369.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Custis, John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's tenderness toward, i. 111;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">care for his education and marriage, 111;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hunts with Washington, 141;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">death of, 322.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Custis, Nellie,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">marriage with Washington's nephew, ii. 281,
+      369;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 377.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">DAGWORTHY, CAPTAIN,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">claims to outrank Washington in Virginia army,
+      i. 91, 97.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Dallas, Alexander,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">protests to Genet against sailing of Little
+      Sarah, ii. 155.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Dalton, Senator,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">entertains Washington at Newburyport, ii.
+      359.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Deane, Silas,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">promises commissions to foreign military
+      adventurers, i. 190.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">De Barras,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">jealous of De Grasse, decides not to aid him,
+      i. 310;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">persuaded to do so by Washington and
+      Rochambeau, 311;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reaches Chesapeake, 312.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">De Grasse, Comte,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">announces intention of coming to Washington, i.
+      305;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">warned by Washington not to come to New York,
+      305;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sails to Chesapeake, 306;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">asked to meet Washington there, 308;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reaches Chesapeake, 312;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">repulses British fleet, 312;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes to return to West Indies, 315;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">persuaded to remain by Washington, 315;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to join Washington in attack on
+      Charleston, 322;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">returns to West Indies, 322.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">De Guichen,&mdash;&mdash;,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">commander of French fleet in West Indies, i.
+      280;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appealed to for aid by Washington, 281;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">returns home, 282.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Delancey, Oliver,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">escapes American attack, i. 306.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Democratic party,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its formation as a French party, ii. 225;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">furnished with catch-words by Jefferson,
+      226;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">with a newspaper organ, 227;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not ready to oppose Washington for president in
+      1792, 235;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">organized against treasury measure, 236;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">stimulated by French Revolution, 238;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">supports Genet, 237;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">begins to attack Washington, 238;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his opinion of it, 239, 240, 258, 261, 267,
+      268;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">forms clubs on French model, 241;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of, 242, 243;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continues to abuse him, 244, 245, 250, 252;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">exults at his retirement, 256;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">prints slanders, 257.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Demont, William,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">betrays plans of Fort Washington to Howe, i.
+      175.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">D'Estaing, Admiral,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reaches America, i. 242;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">welcomed by Washington, 243;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to cut off Howe and goes to Newport,
+      243;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">after battle with Howe goes to Boston, 244;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 246;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sails to West Indies, 246;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">second letter of Washington to, 247;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacks Savannah, 248;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">withdraws, 248.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">De Rochambeau, Comte,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">arrives at Newport, i. 277;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ordered to await second division of army,
+      278;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to attack New York, 280;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes a conference with Washington, 282;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">meets him at Hartford, 282;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disapproves attacking Florida, 301;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">joins Washington before New York, 306;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">persuades De Barras to join De Grasse, 311;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accompanies Washington to Yorktown, 314.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Dickinson, John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">commands scouts at Monmouth, i. 326.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Digby, Admiral,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">bitter comments of Washington on, i. 325.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Dinwiddie, Governor,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">remonstrates against French encroachments, i.
+      66;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends Washington on mission to French, 66;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">quarrels with the Virginia Assembly, 71;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 73;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes Washington to attack French, 79;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to quiet discussions between regular and
+      provincial troops, 80;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">military schemes condemned by Washington,
+      91;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">prevents his getting a royal commission,
+      93.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Diplomatic History:</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refusal by Washington of special privileges to
+      French minister, ii. 59-61;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">slow growth of idea of non-intervention, 132,
+      133;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">difficulties owing to French Revolution,
+      134;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">to English retention of frontier posts,
+      135;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attitude of Spain, 135;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">relations with Barbary States, 136;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">mission of Gouverneur Morris to sound English
+      feeling, 137;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">assertion by Washington of non-intervention
+      policy toward Europe, 145, 146;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">issue of neutrality proclamation, 147, 148;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its importance, 148;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">mission of Genet, 148-162;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">guarded attitude of Washington toward
+      &eacute;migr&eacute;s, 151;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">excesses of Genet, 151;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">neutrality enforced, 153, 154;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the Little Sarah episode, 154-157;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">recall of Genet demanded, 158;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">futile missions of Carmichael and Short to
+      Spain, 165, 166;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">successful treaty of Thomas Pinckney,
+      166-168;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">question as to binding nature of French treaty
+      of commerce, 169-171;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">irritating relations with England, 173-176;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Jay's mission, 177-184;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the questions at issue, 180, 181;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">terms of the treaty agreed upon, 182;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">good and bad points, 183;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ratified by Senate, 184;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">signing delayed by renewal of provision order,
+      185;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">war with England prevented by signing, 205;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">difficulties with France over Morris and
+      Monroe, 211-214;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">doings of Monroe, 212, 213;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">United States compromised by him, 213, 214;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Monroe replaced by Pinckney, 214;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">review of Washington's foreign policy,
+      216-219;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">mission of Pinckney, Marshall, and Gerry to
+      France, 284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the X.Y.Z. affair, 285.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Donop, Count,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">drives Griffin out of New Jersey, i. 180;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">killed at Fort Mercer, 217.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Dorchester, Lord.</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">See Carleton.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Duane, James,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, i. 294, 329.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Dumas, Comte,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">describes enthusiasm of people for Washington,
+      i. 288.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Dunbar, Colonel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">connection with Braddock's expedition, i. 84,
+      87.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Dunmore, Lord,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">arrives in Virginia as governor, i. 122;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on friendly terms with Washington, 122,
+      123;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">dissolves assembly, 123.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Duplaine, French consul,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">exequatur of revoked, ii. 159.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">EDEN, WILLIAM,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">peace commissioner, i. 233.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Edwards, Jonathan,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">a typical New England American, ii. 309.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Emerson, Rev. Dr.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">describes Washington's reforms in army before
+      Boston, i. 140.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Emigr&eacute;s,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's treatment of, ii. 151, 253.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">England,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">honors Washington, i. 20;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">arrogant behavior toward colonists, 80, 81, 82,
+      148;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its policy towards Boston condemned by
+      Virginia, 119, 121, 123, 126;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">by Washington, 124, 125,126;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends incompetent officers to America, 155,
+      201, 202, 233;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">stupidity of its operations, 203, 205, 206,
+      265;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sincerity of its desire for peace doubted by
+      Washington, 324, 325;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">arrogant conduct of toward the United States
+      after peace, ii. 24, 25;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">stirs up the Six Nations and Northwestern
+      Indians, 92, 94, 101;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">folly of her policy, 102;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends Hammond as minister, 169;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its opportunity to win United States as ally
+      against France, 171, 172;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">adopts contrary policy of opposition, 172,
+      173;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">adopts "provision order," 174;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">incites Indians against United States, 175;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">indignation of America against, 176;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">receives Jay well, but refuses to yield points
+      at issue, 180;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">insists on monopoly of West India trade,
+      180;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">and on impressment, 181;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">later history of, 181;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">renews provision order, 185;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">danger of war with, 193;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">avoided by Jay treaty, 205;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington said to sympathize with England,
+      252;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his real hostility toward, 254;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of liberty in, 344.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Ewing, General James,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to help Washington at Trenton, i.
+      180.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">FAIRFAX, BRYAN,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hunts with Washington, i. 115;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">remonstrates with Washington against violence
+      of patriots, 124;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's replies to, 124, 126, 127;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to in Revolution, ii.
+      366.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Fairfax, George,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">married to Miss Cary, i. 55;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accompanies Washington on surveying expedition,
+      58;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 133.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Fairfax, Mrs.&mdash;&mdash;,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 367.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Fairfax, Thomas, Lord,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his career in England, i. 55;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">comes to his Virginia estates, 55;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his character, 55;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his friendship for Washington, 56;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends him to survey estates, 56;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">plans a manor across the Blue Ridge, 59;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">secures for Washington position as public
+      surveyor, 60;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">probably influential in securing his
+      appointment as envoy to</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">French, 66;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hunts with Washington, 115;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his death remembered by Washington, ii.
+      366.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Fairlie, Major,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">amuses Washington, ii. 374.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Farewell Address, ii. 248, 249.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Fauchet, M.,&mdash;&mdash;,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of, incriminating Randolph, ii. 195,196,
+      202.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Fauntleroy, Betsy,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">love affair of Washington with, i. 97.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Fauquier, Francis, Governor,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at Washington's wedding, i. 101.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Federal courts,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">suggested by Washington, i. 150.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">"Federalist,"</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">circulated by Washington, ii. 40.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Federalist party,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">begun by Hamilton's controversy with Jefferson,
+      ii. 230;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">supports Washington for re&euml;lection,
+      235;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">organized in support of financial measures,
+      236;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington looked upon by Democrats as its
+      head, 244, 247;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">only its members trusted by Washington, 246,
+      247, 259, 260, 261;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">becomes a British party, 255;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington considers himself a member of,
+      269-274;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the only American party until 1800, 273;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">strengthened by X, Y, Z affair, 285;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">dissensions in, over army appointments,
+      286-290;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its horror at French Revolution, 294, 295;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attempts of Washington to heal divisions in,
+      298.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Fenno's newspaper,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">used by Hamilton against the "National
+      Gazette," ii. 230.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Finances of the Revolution,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">effect of paper money on war, i. 258, 262;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">difficulties in paying troops, 258;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">labors of Robert Morris, 259, 264, 312;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">connection of Washington with, 263;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continued collapse, 280, 290, 312.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Financial History,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">bad condition in 1789, ii. 105;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">decay of credit, paper, and revenue, 106;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">futile propositions, 106;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Hamilton's report on credit, 107;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">debate over assumption of state debt, 107;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">bargain between Hamilton and Jefferson,
+      108;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">establishment of bank, 109;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">other measures adopted, 112;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">protection in the first Congress, 112-115;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the excise tax imposed, 123;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">opposition to, 123-127;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">"Whiskey Rebellion," 127-128.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Fishbourn, Benjamin,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">nomination rejected by Senate, ii. 63.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Fontanes, M. de,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">delivers funeral oration on Washington, i.
+      1.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Forbes, General,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">renews attack on French in Ohio, i. 93.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Forman, Major,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">describes impressiveness of Washington, ii.
+      389.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Fox, Charles James,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">understands significance of Washington's
+      leadership, i. 202.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">France,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">pays honors to Washington, i. I, 6;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">war with England, see French and Indian
+      war;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">takes possession of Ohio, 65;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">considers Jumonville assassinated by
+      Washington, 74;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">importance of alliance with foreseen by
+      Washington, 191;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">impressed by battle of Germantown, 200;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes treaty of alliance with United States,
+      241;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends D'Estaing, 243;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">declines to attack Canada, 256;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends army and fleet, 274, 277;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">relations of French to Washington, 318,
+      319;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">absolute necessity of their naval aid, 318,
+      319;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Revolution in, applauded by America, ii. 138,
+      139, 142;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">real character understood by Washington and
+      others, 139-142, 295;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">debate over in America, 142;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">question of relations with United States, 143,
+      144;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">warned by Washington, 144, 145;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">neutrality toward declared, 147;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to drive United States into alliance,
+      149;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">terms of the treaty with, 169;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">latter held to be no longer binding,
+      169-171;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">abrogates it, 171;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">demands recall of Morris, 211;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">mission of Monroe to, 211-214;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes vague promises, 212, 213;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's fairness toward, 253;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to bully or corrupt American ministers,
+      284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the X, Y, Z affair, 285;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">war with not expected by Washington, 291;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">danger of concession to, 292, 293;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">progress of Revolution in, 294.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Franklin, Benjamin,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">gets wagons for Braddock's expedition, i.
+      84;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">remark on Howe in Philadelphia, 219;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">national, like Washington, 252, ii. 8;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">despairs of success of Constitutional
+      Convention, 35;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his unquestioned Americanism, 309;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">respect of Washington for, 344, 346, 364.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Frederick II., the Great,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his opinion of Trenton campaign, i. 183;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">of Monmouth campaign, 239.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">French and Indian war, i. 64-94;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">inevitable conflict, 65;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">efforts to negotiate, 66, 67;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hostilities begun, 72;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the Jumonville affair, 74;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeat of Washington, 76;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Braddock's campaign, 82-88;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ravages in Virginia, 90;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">carried to a favorable conclusion by Pitt, 93,
+      94.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Freneau, Philip,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">brought to Philadelphia and given clerkship by
+      Jefferson, ii. 227;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacks Adams, Hamilton, and Washington in
+      "National Gazette," 227;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes conflicting statements as to Jefferson's
+      share in the paper, 227, 228;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the first to attack Washington, 238.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Fry, Colonel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">commands a Virginia regiment against French and
+      Indians, i. 71;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">dies, leaving Washington in command, 75.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">GAGE, GENERAL THOMAS,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">conduct at Boston condemned by Washington, i.
+      126;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his treatment of prisoners protested against by
+      Washington, 145;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends an arrogant reply, 147;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">second letter of Washington to, 147, 156.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Gallatin, Albert,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">connection with Whiskey Rebellion, ii. 129.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Gates, Horatio,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">visits Mt. Vernon, his character, i. 132;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to cooperate with Washington at
+      Trenton, 180;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his appointment as commander against Burgoyne
+      urged, 208;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">chosen by Congress, 209;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his part in defeating Burgoyne, 210;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">neglects to inform Washington, 211;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">loses his head and wishes to supplant
+      Washington, 215;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">forced to send troops South, 216, 217;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his attitude discovered by Washington, 221;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes feeble efforts at opposition, 221,
+      223;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">correspondence with Washington, 221, 223,
+      226;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">becomes head of board of war, 221;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">quarrels with Wilkinson, 223;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent to his command, 226;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fears attack of British on Boston, 265;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent by Congress to command in South, 268;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeated at Camden, 281, 294;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">loses support of Congress, 294.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Genet, Edmond Charles,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">arrives as French minister, ii. 148;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his character, 149;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">violates neutrality, 151;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his journey to Philadelphia, 151;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reception by Washington, 152;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">complains of it, 153;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes demands upon State Department, 153;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">protests at seizure of privateers, 153;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">insists on sailing of Little Sarah, 155;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">succeeds in getting vessel away, 157;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his recall demanded, 158;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reproaches Jefferson, 158;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">remains in America, 158;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">threatens to appeal from Washington to
+      Massachusetts, 159;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">demands denial from Washington of Jay's
+      statements, 159;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">loses popular support, 160;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to raise a force to invade Southwest,
+      161;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">prevented by state and federal authorities,
+      162;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his arrival the signal for divisions of
+      parties, 237;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hurts Democratic party by his excesses,
+      241;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">suggests clubs, 241.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">George IV.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of, ii. 346.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Georgia,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">quarrels with Creeks, asks aid of United
+      States, ii. 90;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">becomes dissatisfied with treaty, 91;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disregards treaties of the United States,
+      103.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Gerard, M.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">notifies Washington of return of D'Estaing, i.
+      246.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Germantown,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of, i. 199.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Gerry, Elbridge,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on special mission to France, ii. 284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disliked by Washington, 292.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Giles, W.B.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacks Washington in Congress, ii. 251,
+      252.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Gist, Christopher,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accompanies Washington on his mission to
+      French, i. 66;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes to shoot French Indians, 68.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Gordon,&mdash;&mdash;,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 227.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Graves, Admiral,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent to relieve Cornwallis, i. 312; defeated by
+      De Grasse, 312.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Grayson, William,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hunts with Washington, i. 115; letter to, ii.
+      22.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Green Springs,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of, i. 307.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Greene, General Nathanael,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">commands at Long Island, ill with fever, i.
+      164;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes forts on Hudson held, 174;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">late in attacking at Germantown, 199;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">conducts retreat, 200;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">succeeds Mifflin as quartermaster-general,
+      232;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">selected by Washington to command in South,
+      268;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">commands army at New York in absence of
+      Washington, 282;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed to command Southern army, 295;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">retreats from Cornwallis, 302;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fights battle of Guilford Court House, 302;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">clears Southern States of enemy, 302;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">strong position, 304;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reinforced by Washington, 322;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter to, 325;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his military capacity early recognized by
+      Washington, ii. 334;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">amuses Washington, 374.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Greene, Mrs.&mdash;&mdash;,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">dances three hours with Washington, ii.
+      380.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Grenville, Lord,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">denies that ministry has incited Indians
+      against United States, ii. 175;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">receives Jay, 180;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">declines to grant United States trade with West
+      Indies, 181.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Griffin, David,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">commissioner to treat with Creeks, ii. 90.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Griffin,&mdash;&mdash;,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to help Washington at Trenton, i.
+      180.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Grymes, Lucy,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the "Lowland Beauty," love affair of Washington
+      with, i. 95;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">marries Henry Lee, 96.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">HALDIMAND, SIR FREDERICK,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">leads Indians against colonists, i. 325.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Hale, Nathan, compared with Andr&eacute;, i.
+      288.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Half-King,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">kept to English alliance by Washington, i.
+      68;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his criticism of Washington's first campaign,
+      76.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Hamilton, Alexander,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">forces Gates to send back troops to Washington,
+      i. 216, 217;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">remark on councils of war before Monmouth,
+      234;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">informs Washington of Arnold's treason,
+      284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent to intercept Arnold, 285;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes letters on government and finance,
+      298;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">leads attack at Yorktown, i. 316;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">requests release of Asgill, 329;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">aids Washington in Congress, 333;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">only man beside Washington and Franklin to
+      realize American future, ii. 7;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to on necessity of a
+      strong government, 17, 18;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes letters to Duane and Morris, 19;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">speech in Federal Convention and departure,
+      35;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">counseled by Washington, 39;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">consulted by Washington as to etiquette,
+      54;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">made secretary of treasury, 66;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his character, 67;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his report on the mint, 81;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on the public credit, 107;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">upheld by Washington, 107, 108;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his arrangement with Jefferson, 108;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">argument on the bank, 110;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his success largely due to Washington, 112;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his report on manufactures, 112, 114, 116;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">advocates an excise, 122;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to realize its unpopularity, 123;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accompanies expedition to suppress Whiskey
+      Rebellion, 128;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">comprehends French Revolution, 139;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">frames questions to cabinet on neutrality,
+      147;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges decisive measures against Genet, 154;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">argues against United States being bound by
+      French treaty, 169;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">selected for English mission, but withdraws,
+      177;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not likely to have done better than Jay,
+      183;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">mobbed in defending Jay treaty, 187;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes Camillus letters in favor of Jay treaty,
+      206;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">intrigued against by Monroe, 212;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">causes for his breach with Jefferson, 224;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his aristocratic tendencies, 225;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacked by Jefferson and his friends, 228,
+      229;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disposes of the charges, 229;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">retorts in newspapers with effect, 230;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ceases at Washington's request, 230, 234;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">resigns from the cabinet, 234;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">desires Washington's re&euml;lection, 235;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">selected by Washing, ton as senior general,
+      286;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appeals to Washington against Adams's reversal
+      of rank, 286;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to soothe Knox's anger, 288;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">report on army organization, 290;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, condemning Adams's
+      French mission, 293;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fears anarchy from Democratic success, 295;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">approves Alien and Sedition Acts, 296;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his scheme of a military academy approved by
+      Washington, 299;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's affection for, 317, 362;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his ability early recognized by Washington,
+      334, 335;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">aids Washington in literary points, 340;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">takes care of Lafayette's son, 366.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Hammond, George,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">protests against violations of neutrality, ii.
+      151;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his arrival as British minister, 169;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his offensive tone, 173;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">does not disavow Lord Dorchester's speech to
+      Indians, 176;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">gives Fauchet letters to Wolcott, 195;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">intrigues with American public men, 200.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Hampden, John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">compared with Washington, ii. 312, 313.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Hancock, John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disappointed at Washington's receiving command
+      of army, i. 135;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his character, ii. 74;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to call first on Washington as
+      President, 75;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">apologizes and calls, 75, 76.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Hardin, Colonel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">twice surprised and defeated by Indians, ii.
+      93.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Harmar, Colonel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">invades Indian country, ii. 92;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacks the Miamis, 93;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends out unsuccessful expeditions and
+      retreats, 93;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">court-martialed and resigns, 93.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Harrison, Benjamin,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, i. 259, 261; ii.
+      10.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Hartley, Mrs.&mdash;&mdash;,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">admired by Washington, i. 95.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Heard, Sir Isaac,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Garter King at Arms, makes out a pedigree for
+      Washington, i. 30, 31.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Heath, General,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">checks Howe at Frog's Point, i. 173;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">left in command at New York, 311.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Henry, Patrick,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his resolutions supported by Washington, i.
+      119;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accompanies him to Philadelphia, 128;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his tribute to Washington's influence, 130;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ready for war, 132;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Conway cabal to against Washington,
+      222;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 225;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appealed to by Washington on behalf of
+      Constitution, ii. 38;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">an opponent of the Constitution, 71;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urged by Washington to oppose Virginia
+      resolutions, 266-268, 293;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">a genuine American, 309;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">offered secretaryship of state, 324;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">friendship of Washington for, 362.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Hertburn, Sir William de,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ancestor of Washington family, i. 31, 33.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Hessians,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">in Revolution, i. 194.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Hickey, Thomas,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hanged for plotting to murder Washington, i.
+      160.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Hobby,&mdash;&mdash;, a sexton,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's earliest teacher, i. 48.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Hopkinson, Francis,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 3.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Houdon, J.A., sculptor,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on Washington's appearance, ii. 386.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Howe, Lord,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">arrives at New York with power to negotiate and
+      pardon, i. 161;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to give Washington his title, 161;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to negotiate with Congress, 167;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">escapes D'Estaing at Delaware, 244;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacks D'Estaing off Newport, 244.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Howe, Sir William,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">has controversy with Washington over treatment
+      of prisoners, i. 148;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">checked at Frog's Point, 173;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacks cautiously at Chatterton Hill, 173;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">retreats and attacks forts on Hudson, 174;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">takes Fort Washington, 175;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">goes into winter quarters in New York, 177,
+      186;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">suspected of purpose to meet Burgoyne, 194,
+      195;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">baffled in advance across New Jersey by
+      Washington, 194;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">goes by sea, 195;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">arrives at Head of Elk, 196;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeats Washington at Brandywine, 197;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">camps at Germantown, 199;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">withdraws after Germantown into Philadelphia,
+      201;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">folly of his failure to meet Burgoyne, 205,
+      206;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">offers battle in vain to Washington, 218;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">replaced by Clinton, 232;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to cut off Lafayette, 233.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Huddy, Captain,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">captured by English, hanged by Tories, i.
+      327.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Humphreys, Colonel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, ii. 13, 339;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at opening of Congress, 78;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">commissioner to treat with Creeks, 90;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">anecdote of, 375.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Huntington, Lady,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">asks Washington's aid in Christianizing
+      Indians, ii. 4.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">IMPRESSMENT,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">right of, maintained by England, ii. 181.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Independence,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not wished, but foreseen, by Washington, i.
+      131, 156;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">declared by Congress, possibly through
+      Washington's influence, 160.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Indians,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wars with in Virginia, i. 37, 38;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">in French and Indian war, 67,68;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">desert English, 76;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">in Braddock's defeat, 85, 86, 88;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">restless before Revolution, 122;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">in War of Revolution, 266, 270;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">punished by Sullivan, 269;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">policy toward, early suggested by Washington,
+      344;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">recommendations relative to in Washington's
+      address to Congress, ii. 82;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the "Indian problem" under Washington's
+      administration, 83-105;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">erroneous popular ideas of, 84, 85;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">real character and military ability, 85-87;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">understood by Washington, 87, 88;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">a real danger in 1788, 88;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">situation in the Northwest, 89;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">difficulties with Cherokees and Creeks, 89,
+      90;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">influence of Spanish intrigue, 90;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">successful treaty with Creeks, 90, 91;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wisdom of this policy, 92;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">warfare in the Northwest, 92;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeats of Harmar and Hardin, 93;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">causes for the failure, 93, 94;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">intrigues of England, 92, 94, 175, 178;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">expedition and defeat of St. Clair, 95-97;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">results, 99;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">expedition of Wayne, 100, 102;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his victory, 103;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">success of Washington's policy toward, 104,
+      105.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Iredell, James,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 73.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">JACKSON, MAJOR,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accompanies Washington to opening of Congress,
+      ii. 78.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Jameson, Colonel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">forwards Andrews letter to Arnold, i. 284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">receives orders from Washington, 285.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Jay, John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on opposition in Congress, to Washington, i.
+      222;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">consulted by Washington as to etiquette, ii.
+      54;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed chief justice, 72;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">publishes card against Genet, 159;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed on special mission to England,
+      177;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his character, 177;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">instructions from Washington, 179;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his reception in England, 180;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">difficulties in negotiating, 181;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">concludes treaty, 182;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">burnt in effigy while absent, 186;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">execrated after news of treaty, 187;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hampered by Monroe in France, 213.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Jay treaty, ii. 180-184;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">opposition to and debate over signing,
+      184-201;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reasons of Washington for signing, 205.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Jefferson, Thomas,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his flight from Cornwallis, i. 307;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">discusses with Washington needs of government,
+      ii. 9;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">adopts French democratic phraseology, 27;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">contrast with Washington, 27, 28, 69;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">criticises Washington's manners, 56;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">made secretary of state, 68;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his previous relations with Washington, 68;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his character, 69;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">supposed to be a friend of the Constitution,
+      72;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his objections to President's opening Congress,
+      79;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on weights and measures, 81;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to on assumption of state
+      debts, 107;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes bargain with Hamilton, 108;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">opposes a bank, 110;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">asked to prepare neutrality instructions,
+      146;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">upholds Genet, 153;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">argues against him publicly, supports him
+      privately, 154;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">notified of French privateer Little Sarah,
+      155;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">allows it to sail, 155;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">retires to country and is censured by
+      Washington, 156;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">assures Washington that vessel will wait his
+      decision, 156;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his un-American attitude, 157;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes to make terms of note demanding Genet's
+      recall mild, 158;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">argues that United States is bound by French
+      treaty, 170, 171;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">begs Madison to answer Hamilton's "Camillus"
+      letters, 206;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his attitude upon first entering cabinet,
+      223;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">causes for his breach with Hamilton, 224;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">jealousy, incompatibility of temper, 224;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his democratic opinions, 225;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">skill in creating party catch-words, 225;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">prints "Rights of Man" with note against Adams,
+      226;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacks him further in letter to Washington,
+      226;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">brings Freneau to Philadelphia and gives him an
+      office, 227;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">denies any connection with Freneau's newspaper,
+      227;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his real responsibility, 228;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his purpose to undermine Hamilton, 228;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">causes his friends to attack him, 229;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes a letter to Washington attacking
+      Hamilton's treasury measures, 229;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to produce any effect, 230;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">winces under Hamilton's counter attacks,
+      230;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reiterates charges and asserts devotion to
+      Constitution, 231;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continues attacks and resigns, 234;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes re&euml;lection of Washington, 235;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his charge of British sympathies resented by
+      Washington, 252;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">plain letter of Washington to, 259;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of, 259;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">suggests Logan's mission to France, 262,
+      265;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">takes oath as vice-president, 276;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">regarded as a Jacobin by Federalists, 294;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">jealous of Washington, 306;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accuses him of senility, 307;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">a genuine American, 309.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Johnson, William,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Tory leader in New York, i. 143.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Johnstone, Governor,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">peace commissioner, i. 233.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Jumonville, De, French leader,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">declared to have been assassinated by
+      Washington, i. 74,79;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">really a scout and spy, 75.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">KENTUCKY RESOLUTIONS,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">condemned by Washington, ii. 266-268.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">King, Clarence,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his opinion that Washington was not American,
+      ii. 308.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">King, Rufus,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">publishes card exposing Genet, ii. 159.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">King's Bridge,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fight at, i. 170.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Kip's Landing,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fight at, i. 168.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Kirkland, Rev. Samuel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">negotiates with Six Nations, ii. 101.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Knox, Henry,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">brings artillery to Boston from Ticonderoga, i.
+      152;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accompanies Washington to meet De Rochambeau,
+      283;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at West Point, 285;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent by Washington to confer with governors of
+      States, 295;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urged by Washington to establish Western posts,
+      ii. 7;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, 30, 39;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">made secretary of war, 65;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his character, 65;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">a Federalist, 71;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">deals with Creeks, 91;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges decisive measure against Genet, 154,
+      155;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, 260;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">selected by Washington as third major-general,
+      286;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">given first place by Adams, 286;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">angry at Hamilton's higher rank, 288;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses the office, 289;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his offer to serve on Washington's staff
+      refused, 289;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's affection for, 317, 362.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">LAFAYETTE, Madame de,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">aided by Washington, ii. 366;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 377.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Lafayette, Marquis de,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's regard for, i. 192;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his opinion of Continental troops, 196;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent on fruitless journey to the lakes by
+      cabal, 222, 253;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">encouraged by Washington, 225;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">narrowly escapes being cut off by Clinton,
+      233;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed to attack British rear, 235;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">superseded by Lee, 235;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges Washington to come, 235;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, regarding quarrel
+      between D'Estaing and Sullivan, 245;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">regard of Washington for, 249;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">desires to conquer Canada, 254;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his plan not supported in France, 256;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">works to get a French army sent, 264;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">brings news of French army and fleet, 274;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to get De Rochambeau to attack New York,
+      280;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accompanies Washington to meet De Rochambeau,
+      283;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">told by Washington of Arnold's treachery,
+      285;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on court to try Andr&eacute;, 287;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">opinion of Continental soldiers, 293;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">harasses Cornwallis, 307;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeated at Green Springs, 307;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">watches Cornwallis at Yorktown, 308;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reinforced by De Grasse, 312;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">persuades him to remain, 315;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends Washington French wolf-hounds, ii. 2;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, 23, 26, 118, 144,
+      165, 222, 261;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his son not received by Washington, 253;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">later taken care of, 277, 281, 366;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his worth, early seen by Washington, 334;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's affection for, 365;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends key of Bastile to Mt. Vernon, 365;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">helped by Washington, 365,366.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Laurens, Henry,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Conway cabal to, making attack on
+      Washington, i. 222;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, 254, 288;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent to Paris to get loans, 299.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Lauzun, Duc de,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">repulses Tarleton at Yorktown, i. 317.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Lear, Tobias,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's secretary, ii. 263;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his account of Washington's last illness,
+      299-303, 385;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters to, 361, 382.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Lee, Arthur,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">example of Virginia gentleman educated abroad,
+      i. 23.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Lee, Charles,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">visits Mt. Vernon, his character, i. 132;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accompanies Washington to Boston, 136;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">aids Washington in organizing army, 140;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disobeys orders and is captured, 175;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">objects to attacking Clinton, 234;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">first refuses, then claims command of van,
+      235;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disobeys orders and retreats, 236;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rebuked by Washington, 236, 237;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">court martial of and dismissal from army,
+      237;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his witty remark on taking oath of allegiance,
+      ii. 375.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Lee, Henry, marries Lucy Grymes,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's "Lowland Beauty," i. 96.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Lee, Henry,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">son of Lucy Grymes, Washington's "Lowland
+      Beauty," i. 96; ii. 362;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">captures Paulus Hook, i. 269;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, ii. 23, 26, 149, 235,
+      239, 242, 252;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">considered for command against Indians,
+      100;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">commands troops to suppress Whiskey Rebellion,
+      127;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's affection for, 362.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Lee, Richard Henry,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">unfriendly to Washington, i. 214;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 160.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Lewis, Lawrence,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at opening of Congress, ii. 78;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">takes social duties at Mt. Vernon, 280.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Liancourt, Duc de,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refused reception by Washington, ii. 253.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Lincoln, Abraham,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">compared with Washington, i. 349; ii.
+      308-313.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Lincoln, Benjamin,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent by Washington against Burgoyne, i.
+      210;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to understand Washington's policy and
+      tries to hold Charleston, 273, 274;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">captured, 276;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">commissioner to treat with Creeks, ii. 90.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Lippencott, Captain,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">orders hanging of Huddy, i. 327;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">acquitted by English court martial, 328.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Little Sarah,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the affair of, 155-157.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Livingston, Chancellor,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">administers oath at Washington's inauguration,
+      ii. 46.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Livingston, Edward,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">moves call for papers relating to Jay treaty,
+      ii. 207.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Logan, Dr. George,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">goes on volunteer mission to France, ii.
+      262;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ridiculed by Federalists, publishes defense,
+      263;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">calls upon Washington, 263;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">mercilessly snubbed, 263-265.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Long Island,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of, i. 164,165.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">London, Lord,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disappoints Washington by his inefficiency, i.
+      91.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Lovell, James,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">follows the Adamses in opposing Washington, i.
+      214;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes to supplant him by Gates, 215;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes hostile letters, 222.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">MACKENZIE, CAPTAIN,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 130.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Madison, James,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">begins to desire a stronger government, ii. 19,
+      29;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, 30, 39, 53;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">chosen for French mission, but does not go,
+      211.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Magaw, Colonel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">betrayed at Fort Washington, i. 175.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">"Magnolia,"</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's pet colt, beaten in a race, i. 99,
+      113; ii. 381.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Marshall, John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Chief Justice, on special commission to France,
+      ii. 284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tells anecdote of Washington's anger at
+      cowardice, 392.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Maryland, the Washington family in, i.36.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Mason, George,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">discusses political outlook with Washington, i.
+      119;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 263;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">an opponent of the Constitution, ii. 71;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">friendship of Washington for, 362;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">debates with Washington the site of Pohick
+      Church, 381.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Mason, S.T.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">communicates Jay treaty to Bache, ii. 185.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Massey, Rev. Lee,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rector of Pohick Church, i. 44.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Mathews, George,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 294.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Matthews, Edward,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes raids in Virginia, i. 269.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Mawhood, General,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeated at Princeton, i. 182.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">McGillivray, Alexander,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">chief of the Creeks, ii. 90;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his journey to New York and interview with
+      Washington, 91.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">McHenry, James,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at West Point, i. 284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters to, 325, ii. 22, 278, 287, 384;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">becomes secretary of war, 246;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">advised by Washington not to appoint Democrats,
+      260, 261.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">McKean, Thomas, given letters to Dr. Logan, ii.
+      265.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">McMaster, John B.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">calls Washington "an unknown man," i. 7, ii.
+      304;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">calls him cold, 332, 352;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">and avaricious in small ways, 352.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Meade, Colonel Richard,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of, ii. 335.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Mercer, Hugh,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">killed at Princeton, i. 182.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Merlin,&mdash;&mdash;,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">president of Directory, interview with Dr.
+      Logan, ii. 265.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Mifflin, Thomas,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes to supplant Washington by Gates, i.
+      216;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">member of board of war, 221;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">put under Washington's orders, 226;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">replies to Washington's surrender of
+      commission, 349;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">meets Washington on journey to inauguration,
+      ii. 44;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">notified of the Little Sarah, French privateer,
+      154;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">orders its seizure, 155.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Militia,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">abandon Continental army, i. 167;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">cowardice of, 168;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">despised by Washington, 169;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">leave army again, 175;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">assist in defeat of Burgoyne, 211.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Mischianza, i. 232.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Monmouth,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of, i. 235-239.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Monroe, James,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed minister to France, ii. 211;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his character, 212;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">intrigues against Hamilton, 212;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">effusively received in Paris, 212;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">acts foolishly, 213;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to interfere with Jay, 213;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">upheld, then condemned and recalled by
+      Washington, 213, 214;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes a vindication, 215;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of him, 215, 216;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his selection one of Washington's few mistakes,
+      334.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Montgomery, General Richard,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent by Washington to invade Canada, i.
+      143.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Morgan, Daniel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent against Burgoyne by Washington, i.
+      208;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at Saratoga, 210;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wins battle of Cowpens, joins Greene, 301.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Morris, Gouverneur,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, i. 248, 263;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">efforts towards financial reform, 264;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">quotes speech of Washington at Federal
+      convention in his eulogy, ii. 31;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">discussion as to his value as an authority, 32,
+      note;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">goes to England on unofficial mission, 137;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">balked by English insolence, 137;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">comprehends French Revolution, 139;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, on the Revolution,
+      140,142,145;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">recall demanded by France, 211;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 217,240, 254;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's friendship for, 363.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Morris, Robert,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 187;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">helps Washington to pay troops, 259;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">efforts towards financial reform, 264;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">difficulty in helping Washington in 1781, 309,
+      312;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">considered for secretary of treasury, ii.
+      66;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his bank policy approved by Washington,
+      110;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's friendship for, 363.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Moustier,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">demands private access to Washington, ii.
+      59;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refused, 59, 60.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Murray, Vans, minister in Holland,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">interview with Dr. Logan, ii. 264;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">nominated for French mission by Adams, 292;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">written to by Washington, 292.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Muse, Adjutant,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">trains Washington in tactics and art of war, i.
+      65.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">NAPOLEON,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">orders public mourning for Washington's death,
+      i. 1.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Nelson, General,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 257.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Newburgh,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">addresses, ii. 335.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">New England,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">character of people, i. 138;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attitude toward Washington, 138, 139;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">troops disliked by Washington, 152;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">later praised by him, 152, 317, 344;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">threatened by Burgoyne's invasion, 204;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its delegates in Congress demand appointment of
+      Gates, 208;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">and oppose Washington, 214;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">welcomes Washington on tour as President, ii.
+      74;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">more democratic than other colonies before
+      Revolution, 315;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disliked by Washington for this reason,
+      316.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Newenham, Sir Edward,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to on American foreign
+      policy, ii. 133.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">New York,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's first visit to, i. 99, 100;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defense of, in Revolution, 159-169;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">abandoned by Washington, 169;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Howe establishes himself in, 177;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reoccupied by Clinton, 264;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's journey to, ii. 44;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">inauguration in, 46;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rioting in, against Jay treaty, 187.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Nicholas, John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 259.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Nicola, Col.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges Washington to establish a despotism, i.
+      337.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Noailles, Vicomte de, French
+      &eacute;migr&eacute;,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">referred to State Department, ii. 151, 253.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">O'FLINN, CAPTAIN,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's friendship with, ii. 318.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Organization of the national government,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">absence of materials to work with, ii. 51;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">debate over title of President, 52;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">over his communications with Senate, 53;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">over presidential etiquette, 53-56;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointment of officials to cabinet offices
+      established by Congress, 64-71;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointment of supreme court judges, 72.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Orme,&mdash;&mdash;,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 84.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">PAINE, THOMAS,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his "Rights of Man" reprinted by Jefferson, ii.
+      226.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Parkinson, Richard,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">says Washington was harsh to slaves, i.
+      105;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">contradicts statement elsewhere, 106;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tells stories of Washington's pecuniary
+      exactness, ii. 353, 354, 382;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his character, 355;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his high opinion of Washington, 356.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Parton, James,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">considers Washington as good but commonplace,
+      ii. 330, 374.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Peachey, Captain,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 92.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Pendleton, Edmund,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Virginia delegate to Continental Congress, i.
+      128.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Pennsylvania,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to fight the French, i. 72,83;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to help Washington, 225;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">remonstrates against his going into winter
+      quarters, 229;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">condemned by Washington, 229;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">compromises with mutineers, 292.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Philipse, Mary,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">brief love-affair of Washington with, i. 99,
+      100.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Phillips, General,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">commands British troops in Virginia, i.
+      303;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">death of, 303.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Pickering, Colonel, quiets Six Nations, ii.
+      94.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Pickering, Timothy,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, on French Revolution,
+      ii. 140;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on failure of Spanish negotiations, 166;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">recalls Washington to Philadelphia to receive
+      Fauchet letter, 195;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">succeeds Randolph, 246;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, on party government,
+      247;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appeals to Washington against Adams's reversal
+      of Hamilton's rank, 286;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, 292, 324;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">criticises Washington as a commonplace person,
+      307.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Pinckney, Charles C.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 90;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed to succeed Monroe as minister to
+      France, 214;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refused reception, 284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent on special commission, 284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">named by Washington as general, 286;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accepts without complaint of Hamilton's higher
+      rank, 290;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's friendship with, 363.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Pinckney, Thomas,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent on special mission to Spain, ii. 166;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">unsuccessful at first, 166;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">succeeds in making a good treaty, 167;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">credit of his exploit, 168;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 325.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Pitt, William,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his conduct of French war, i. 93, 94.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Princeton,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of, i. 181-3.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Privateers,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent out by Washington, i. 150.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">"Protection"</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">favored in the first Congress, ii. 113-115;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">arguments of Hamilton for, 114, 115;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">of Washington, 116-122.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Provincialism,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">of Americans, i. 193;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">with regard to foreign officers, 193, 234,
+      250-252;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">with regard to foreign politics, ii. 131, 132,
+      163, 237, 255.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Putnam, Israel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">escapes with difficulty from New York, i.
+      169;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to help Washington at Trenton, 180;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">warned to defend the Hudson, 195;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tells Washington of Burgoyne's surrender,
+      211;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rebuked by Washington, 217;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">amuses Washington, ii. 374.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">RAHL, COLONEL,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeated and killed at Trenton, i. 181.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Randolph, Edmund,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 30, 39;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">relations with Washington, 64;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed attorney-general, 64;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his character, 64, 65;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">a friend of the Constitution, 71;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">opposes a bank, 110;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, on protective
+      bounties, 118;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">drafts neutrality proclamation, 147;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">vacillates with regard to Genet, 154;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">argues that United States is bound by French
+      alliance, 170;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">succeeds Jefferson as secretary of state,
+      184;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">directed to prepare a remonstrance against
+      English "provision order," 185;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">opposed to Jay treaty, 188;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, on conditional
+      ratification, 189, 191, 192, 194;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">guilty, apparently, from Fauchet letter, of
+      corrupt practices, 196;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his position not a cause for Washington's
+      signing treaty, 196-200;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">receives Fauchet letter, resigns, 201;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his personal honesty, 201;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his discreditable carelessness, 202;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fairly treated by Washington, 203, 204;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his complaints against Washington, 203;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, concerning Monroe,
+      213;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at first a Federalist, 246.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Randolph, John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on early disappearance of Virginia colonial
+      society, i. 15.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Rawdon, Lord,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">commands British forces in South, too distant
+      to help Cornwallis, i. 304.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Reed, Joseph,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, i. 151, 260.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Revolution, War of,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">foreseen by Washington, i. 120, 122;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Lexington and Concord, 133;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Bunker Hill, 136;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">siege of Boston, 137-154;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">organization of army, 139-142;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">operations in New York, 143;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">invasion of Canada, 143, 144;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">question as to treatment of prisoners,
+      145-148;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">causes of British defeat, 154, 155;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">campaign near New York, 161-177;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">causes for attempted defense of Brooklyn, 163,
+      164;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of Long Island, 164-165;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">escape of Americans, 166;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">affair at Kip's Bay, 168;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at King's Bridge, 170;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at Frog's Point, 173;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of White Plains, 173;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at Chatterton Hill, 174;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">capture of Forts Washington and Lee, 174,
+      175;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">pursuit of Washington into New Jersey,
+      175-177;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">retirement of Howe to New York, 177;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of Trenton, 180, 181;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">campaign of Princeton, 181-183;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its brilliancy, 183;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Philadelphia campaign, 194-202;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">British march across New Jersey prevented by
+      Washington, 194;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sea voyage to Delaware, 195;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of the Brandywine, 196-198;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">causes for defeat, 198;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeat of Wayne, 198;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Philadelphia taken by Howe, 199;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of Germantown, 199;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its significance, 200, 201;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Burgoyne's invasion, 203-211;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's preparations for, 204-206;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Howe's error in neglecting to cooperate,
+      205;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">capture of Ticonderoga, 207;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battles of Bennington, Oriskany, Fort Schuyler,
+      210;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of Saratoga, 211;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">British repulse at Fort Mercer, 217;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">destruction of the forts, 217;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fruitless skirmishing before Philadelphia,
+      218;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Valley Forge, 228-232;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">evacuation of Philadelphia, 234;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of Monmouth, 235-239;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its effect, 239;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">cruise and failure of D'Estaing at Newport,
+      243, 244;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">failure of D'Estaing at Savannah, 247, 248;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">storming of Stony Point, 268, 269;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Tory raids near New York, 269;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">standstill in 1780, 272;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">siege and capture of Charleston, 273, 274,
+      276;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">operations of French and Americans near
+      Newport, 277, 278;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of Camden, 281;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">treason of Arnold, 281-289;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of Cowpens, 301;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">retreat of Greene before Cornwallis, 302;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of Guilford Court House, 302;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">successful operations of Greene, 302, 303;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Southern campaign planned by Washington,
+      304-311;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">feints against Clinton, 306;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">operations of Cornwallis and Lafayette in
+      Virginia, 307;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">naval supremacy secured by Washington, 310,
+      311;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of De Grasse and Graves off Chesapeake,
+      312;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">transport of American army to Virginia,
+      311-313;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">siege and capture of Yorktown, 315-318;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">masterly character of campaign, 318-320;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">petty operations before New York, 326;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">treaty of peace, 342.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Rives,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on Washington's doubts of constitutionality of
+      Bank, ii. 110.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Robinson, Beverly,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">speaker of Virginia House of Burgesses, his
+      compliment to Washington, i. 102.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Robinson, Colonel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">loyalist, i. 282.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Rumsey, James,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the inventor, asks Washington's consideration
+      of his steamboat, ii. 4.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Rush, Benjamin,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">describes Washington's impressiveness, ii.
+      389.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Rutledge, John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 281;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">nomination rejected by Senate, ii. 63;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">nominated to Supreme Court, 73.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">ST. CLAIR, Arthur,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">removed after loss of Ticonderoga, i. 208;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed to command against Indians, ii.
+      94;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">receives instructions and begins expedition,
+      95;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeated, 96;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his character, 99;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fair treatment by Washington, 99;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">popular execration of, 105.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">St. Pierre, M. de,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">French governor in Ohio, i. 67.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">St. Simon, Count,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reinforces Lafayette, i. 312.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Sandwich, Lord,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">calls all Yankees cowards, i. 155.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Saratoga,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">anecdote concerning, i. 202.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Savage, Edward,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">characteristics of his portrait of Washington,
+      i. 13.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Savannah,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">siege of, i. 247.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Scammel, Colonel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">amuses Washington, ii. 374.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Schuyler, Philip,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accompanies Washington to Boston, i. 136;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed military head in New York, 136;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">directed by Washington how to meet Burgoyne,
+      204;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to carry out directions, 207;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">removed, 208;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">value of his preparations, 209.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Scott, Charles, commands expedition against
+      Indians, ii. 95.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Sea-power,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its necessity seen by Washington, i. 283, 303,
+      304, 306, 310, 318, 319.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Sectional feeling,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">deplored by Washington, ii. 222.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Sharpe, Governor,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">offers Washington a company, i. 80;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's reply to, 81.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Shays's Rebellion,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">comments of Washington and Jefferson upon, ii.
+      26, 27.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Sherman, Roger,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes sarcastic remark about Wilkinson, i.
+      220.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Shirley, Governor William,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">adjusts matter of Washington's rank, i. 91,
+      97.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Short, William, minister to Holland,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on commission regarding opening of Mississippi,
+      ii. 166.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Six Nations,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">make satisfactory treaties, ii. 88;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">stirred up by English, 94;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">but pacified, 94, 101.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Slavery,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">in Virginia, i. 20;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its evil effects, 104;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's attitude toward slaves, 105;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his condemnation of the system, 106, 107;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">gradual emancipation favored, 107, 108.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Smith, Colonel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 340.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Spain,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">instigates Indians to hostilities, ii. 89, 94,
+      101;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">blocks Mississippi, 135;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes treaty with Pinckney opening Mississippi,
+      167, 168;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">angered at Jay treaty, 210.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Sparks, Jared,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his alterations of Washington's letters, ii.
+      337, 338.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Spotswood, Alexander,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">asks Washington's opinion of Alien and Sedition
+      Acts, ii. 297.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Stamp Act,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of, i. 119, 120.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Stark, General,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">leads attack at Trenton, i. 181.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">States, in the Revolutionary war,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appeals of Washington to, i. 142, 186, 204,
+      259, 277, 295, 306, 323, 324, 326, 344;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">issue paper money, 258;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">grow tired of the war, 290;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">alarmed by mutinies, 294;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">try to appease soldiers, 295, 296;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">their selfishness condemned by Washington, 333;
+      ii. 21, 23;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">thwart Indian policy of Congress, 88.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Stephen, Adam,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">late in attacking at Germantown, i. 199.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Steuben, Baron,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's appreciation of, i. 192, 249;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">drills the army at Valley Forge, 232;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">annoys Washington by wishing higher command,
+      249;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent on mission to demand surrender of Western
+      posts, 343;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his worth recognized by Washington, ii.
+      334.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Stirling, Lord,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeated and captured at Long Island, i.
+      165.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Stockton, Mrs.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 349.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Stone, General,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tells stories of Washington's closeness, ii.
+      353, 354.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Stuart, David,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, ii. 107, 221, 222,
+      258.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Stuart, Gilbert,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his portrait of Washington contrasted with
+      Savage's, i. 13.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Sullivan, John, General,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">surprised at Long Island, i. 165;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacks at Trenton, 180;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">surprised and crushed at Brandywine, 197,
+      198;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">unites with D'Estaing to attack Newport,
+      243;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">angry at D'Estaing's desertion, 244;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">soothed by Washington, 244;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent against Indians, 266, 269.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Supreme Court,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed by Washington, ii. 72.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">TAFT,&mdash;&mdash;,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">kindness of Washington toward, ii. 367.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Talleyrand,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">eulogistic report to Napoleon on death of
+      Washington, i. 1, note;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">remark on Hamilton, ii. 139;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refused reception by Washington, 253.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Tarleton, Sir Banastre,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to escape at Yorktown, i. 317.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Thatcher, Dr.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on Washington's appearance when taking command
+      of army, i. 137.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Thomson, Charles,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">complimented by Washington on retiring from
+      secretary-ship of Continental Congress, ii. 350.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Tories,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hated by Washington, i. 156;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his reasons, 157;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">active in New York, 158;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">suppressed by Washington, 159;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">in Philadelphia, impressed by Continental army,
+      196;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">make raids on frontier, 266;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">strong in Southern States, 267;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">raids under Tryon, 269.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Trent, Captain,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his incompetence in dealing with Indians and
+      French, i. 72.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Trenton, campaign of, i. 180-183.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Trumbull, Governor,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, refusing to stand for
+      a third term, ii. 269-271;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">other letters, 298.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Trumbull, John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on New England army before Boston, i. 139.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Trumbull, Jonathan,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his message on better government praised by
+      Washington, ii. 21;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters to, 42;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's friendship for, 363.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Tryon, Governor,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Tory leader in New York, i. 143;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his intrigues stopped by Washington, 158,
+      159;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">conspires to murder Washington, 160;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes raids in Connecticut, 269.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">VALLEY FORGE,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Continental Army at, i. 228-232.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Van Braam, Jacob,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">friend of Lawrence Washington, trains George in
+      fencing, i. 65;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accompanies him on mission to French, 66.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Vergennes,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">requests release of Asgill, i. 329, 330;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 330;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">proposes to submit disposition of a subsidy to
+      Washington, 332.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Virginia, society in,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">before the Revolution, i. 15-29;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its entire change since then, 15, 16;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">population, distribution, and numbers, 17,
+      18;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">absence of towns, 18;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">and town life, 19;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">trade and travel in, 19;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">social classes, 20-24;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">slaves and poor whites, 20;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">clergy, 21;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">planters and their estates, 22;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">their life, 22;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">education, 23;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">habits of governing, 24;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">luxury and extravagance, 25;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">apparent wealth, 26;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">agreeableness of life, 27;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">aristocratic ideals, 28;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">vigor of stock, 29;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">unwilling to fight French, 71;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">quarrels with Dinwiddie, 71;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">thanks Washington after his French campaign,
+      79;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">terrified at Braddock's defeat, 88;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">gives Washington command, 89;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to support him, 89, 90, 93;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">bad economic conditions in, 104,105;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">local government in, 117;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">condemns Stamp Act, 119;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">adopts non-importation, 121;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">condemns Boston Port Bill, 123;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">asks opinion of counties, 124;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">chooses delegates to a congress, 127;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">prepares for war, 132;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">British campaign in, 307, 315-318;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ratifies Constitution, ii. 40;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">evil effect of free trade upon, 116, 117;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">nullification resolutions, 266;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">strength of its aristocracy, 315.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">WADE, COLONEL,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">in command at West Point after Arnold's flight,
+      i. 285.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Walker, Benjamin,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 257.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Warren, James,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, i. 262, ii. 118.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Washington,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ancestry, i. 30-40;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">early genealogical researches concerning,
+      30-32;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">pedigree finally established, 32;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">origin of family, 33;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">various members during middle ages, 34;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on royalist side in English civil war, 34,
+      36;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">character of family, 35;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">emigration to Virginia, 35, 36;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">career of Washingtons in Maryland, 37;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">in Virginia history, 38;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">their estates, 39.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Washington, Augustine, father of George
+      Washington,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">birth, i. 35;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">death, 39;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">character, 39;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his estate, 41;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ridiculous part played by in Weems's anecdotes,
+      44, 47.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Washington, Augustine, half brother of George
+      Washington,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">keeps him after his father's death, i. 48.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Washington, Bushrod,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refused appointment as attorney by Washington,
+      ii. 62;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">educated by him, 370.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Washington, George,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">honors to his memory in France, i. 1;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">in England, 2;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">grief in America, 3, 4;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">general admission of his greatness, 4;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its significance, 5, 6;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tributes from England, 6;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">from other countries, 6, 7;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">yet an "unknown" man, 7;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">minuteness of knowledge concerning, 8;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">has become subject of myths, 9;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">development of the Weems myth about, 10,
+      11;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">necessity of a new treatment of, 12;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">significant difference of real and ideal
+      portraits of, 13;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his silence regarding himself, 14;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">underlying traits, 14.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2"><i>Early Life</i>.</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Ancestry, 30-41;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">birth, 39;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">origin of Weems's anecdotes about, 41-44;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">their absurdity and evil results, 45-48;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">early schooling, 48;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">plan to send him to sea, 49, 50;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">studies to be a surveyor, 51;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his rules of behavior, 52;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his family connections with Fairfaxes, 54,
+      55;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his friendship with Lord Fairfax, 56;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">surveys Fairfax's estate, 57, 58, 59;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">made public surveyor, 60;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his life at the time, 60, 61;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">influenced by Fairfax's cultivation, 62;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">goes to West Indies with his brother, 62;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">has the small-pox, 63;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">observations on the voyage, 63, 64;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">returns to Virginia, 64;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">becomes guardian of his brother's daughter,
+      64.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2"><i>Service against the French and
+      Indians</i>.</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Receives military training, 65;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">a military appointment, 66;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">goes on expedition to treat with French,
+      66;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">meets Indians, 67;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">deals with French, 67;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">dangers of journey, 68;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his impersonal account, 69, 70;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed to command force against French, 71,
+      72;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his anger at neglect of Virginia Assembly,
+      73;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacks and defeats force of Jumonville,
+      74;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">called murderer by the French, 74;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">surrounded by French at Great Meadows, 76;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">surrenders, 76;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">recklessness of his expedition, 77, 78;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">effect of experience upon, 79;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">gains a European notoriety, 79;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">thanked by Virginia, 79;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">protests against Dinwiddie's organization of
+      soldiers, 80;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to serve when ranked by British
+      officers, 81;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accepts position on Braddock's staff, 82;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his treatment there, 82;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">advises Braddock, 84;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rebuked for warning against surprise, 85;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his bravery in the battle, 86;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">conducts retreat, 86, 87;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">effect of experience on him, 87;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">declines to solicit command of Virginia troops,
+      88;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accepts it when offered, 88;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his difficulties with Assembly, 89;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">and with troops, 90;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">settles question of rank, 91;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes freely in criticism of government, 91,
+      92;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">retires for rest to Mt. Vernon, 93;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">offers services to General Forbes, 93;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">irritated at slowness of English, 93, 94;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his love affairs, 95, 96;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">journey to Boston, 97-101;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at festivities in New York and Philadelphia,
+      99;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">meets Martha Custis, 101;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his wedding, 101, 102;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">elected to House of Burgesses, 102;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">confused at being thanked by Assembly, 102;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his local position, 103;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to farm his estate, 104;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his management of slaves, 105, 106, 108,
+      109;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">cares for interests of old soldiers, 109;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rebukes a coward, 110;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">cares for education of stepson, 111;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his furnishing of house, 112;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hunting habits, 113-115;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">punishes a poacher, 116;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">participates in colonial and local government,
+      117;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">enters into society, 117, 118.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2"><i>Congressional delegate from
+      Virginia</i>.</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">His influence in Assembly, 119;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">discusses Stamp Act with Mason, 119;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">foresees result to be independence, 119;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rejoices at its repeal, but notes Declaratory
+      Act, 120;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ready to use force to defend colonial rights,
+      120;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">presents non-importation resolutions to
+      Burgesses, 121;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">abstains from English products, 121;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">notes ominous movements among Indians, 122;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on good terms with royal governors, 122,
+      123;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">observes fast on account of Boston Port Bill,
+      123;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">has controversy with Bryan Fairfax over
+      Parliamentary policy, 124, 125, 126;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">presides at Fairfax County meeting, 126;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">declares himself ready for action, 126;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at convention of counties, offers to march to
+      relief of Boston, 127;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">elected to Continental Congress, 127;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his journey, 128;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">silent in Congress, 129;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes to a British officer that independence
+      is not</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">desired, but war is certain, 130, 131;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">returns to Virginia, 132;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">aids in military preparations, 132;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his opinion after Concord, 133;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at second Continental Congress, wears uniform,
+      134;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">made commander-in-chief, 134;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his modesty and courage in accepting position,
+      134, 135;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">political motives for his choice, 135;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his popularity, 136;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his journey to Boston, 136, 137;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">receives news of Bunker Hill, 136;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">is received by Massachusetts Provincial
+      Assembly, 137.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2"><i>Commander of the Army</i>.</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Takes command at Cambridge, 137;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his impression upon people, 137, 138, 139;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">begins reorganization of army, 139;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">secures number of troops, 140;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">enforces discipline, his difficulties, 140,
+      141;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">forced to lead Congress, 142;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">to arrange rank of officers, 142;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">organizes privateers, 142;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">discovers lack of powder, 143;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">plans campaigns in Canada and elsewhere, 143,
+      144;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his plans of attack on Boston overruled by
+      council of war, 144;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes to Gage urging that captives be treated
+      as prisoners of war, 145;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">skill of his letter, 146;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">retorts to Gage's reply, 147;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continues dispute with Howe, 148;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">annoyed by insufficiency of provisions,
+      149;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">and by desertions, 149;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">stops quarrel between Virginia and Marblehead
+      soldiers, 149;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">suggests admiralty committees, 150;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">annoyed by army contractors, 150;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">and criticism, 151;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter to Joseph Reed, 151;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">occupies Dorchester Heights, 152;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">begins to like New England men better, 152;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rejoices at prospect of a fight, 153;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">departure of British due to his leadership,
+      154;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends troops immediately to New York, 155;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">enters Boston, 156;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">expects a hard war, 156;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges upon Congress the necessity of preparing
+      for a long struggle, 156;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his growing hatred of Tories, 156, 157;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">goes to New York, 157, 158;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">difficulties of the situation, 158;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">suppresses Tories, 159;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges Congress to declare independence, 159,
+      160;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">discovers and punishes a conspiracy to
+      assassinate, 160;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">insists on his title in correspondence with
+      Howe, 161;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">justice of his position, 162;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">quiets sectional jealousies in army, 162;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his military inferiority to British, 163;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">obliged by political considerations to attempt
+      defense of New York, 163, 164;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">assumes command on Long Island, 164;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sees defeat of his troops, 165;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sees plan of British fleet to cut off retreat,
+      166;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">secures retreat of army, 167;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">explains his policy of avoiding a pitched
+      battle, 167;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">anger at flight of militia at Kip's Bay,
+      168;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">again secures safe retreat, 169;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">secures slight advantage in a skirmish,
+      170;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continues to urge Congress to action, 170,
+      171;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">success of his letters in securing a permanent
+      army, 171;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">surprised by advance of British fleet, 172;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">moves to White Plains, 173;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">blocks British advance, 174;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">advises abandonment of American forts, 174;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">blames himself for their capture, 175;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">leads diminishing army through New Jersey,
+      175;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes vain appeals for aid, 176;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">resolves to take the offensive, 177;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">desperateness of his situation, 178;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">pledges his estate and private fortune to raise
+      men, 179;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">orders disregarded by officers, 180;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">crosses Delaware and captures Hessians, 180,
+      181;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">has difficulty in retaining soldiers, 181;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">repulses Cornwallis at Assunpink, 181;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">outwits Cornwallis and wins battle at
+      Princeton, 182;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">excellence of his strategy, 183;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">effect of this campaign in saving Revolution,
+      183, 184;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">withdraws to Morristown, 185;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fluctuations in size of army, 186;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his determination to keep the field, 186,
+      187;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">criticised by Congress for not fighting,
+      187;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hampered by Congressional interference,
+      188;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">issues proclamation requiring oath of
+      allegiance, 188;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacked in Congress for so doing, 189;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">annoyed by Congressional alterations of rank,
+      189;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">and by foreign military adventurers, 191;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">value of his services in suppressing them,
+      192;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his American feelings, 191, 193;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">warns Congress in vain that Howe means to
+      attack Philadelphia, 193;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">baffles Howe's advance across New Jersey,
+      195;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">learning of his sailing, marches to defend
+      Philadelphia, 195;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">offers battle at Brandywine, 196, 197;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">out-generaled and beaten, 197;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rallies army and prepares to fight again,
+      198;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">prevented by storm, 199;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacks British at Germantown, 199;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeated, 200;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">exposes himself in battle, 200;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">real success of his action, 201;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">despised by English, 202;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">foresees danger of Burgoyne's invasion,
+      203;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends instructions to Schuyler, 204;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges use of New England and New York militia,
+      304;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">dreads northern advance of Howe, 205;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">determines to hold him at all hazards, 206,
+      207;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not cast down by loss of Ticonderoga, 207;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges New England to rise, 208;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends all possible troops, 208;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to appoint a commander for Northern
+      army, 208;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his probable reasons, 209;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continues to send suggestions, 210;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">slighted by Gates after Burgoyne's surrender,
+      211;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rise of opposition in Congress, 212;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">arouses ill-feeling by his frankness, 212,
+      213;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">distrusted by Samuel and John Adams, 214;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">by others, 214, 215;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">formation of a plan to supplant him by Gates,
+      215;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">opposed by Gates, Mifflin, and Conway, 215,
+      216;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">angers Conway by preventing his increase in
+      rank, 216;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">is refused troops by Gates, 217;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defends and loses Delaware forts, 217;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to attack Howe, 218;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">propriety of his action, 219;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">becomes aware of cabal, 220;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">alarms them by showing extent of his knowledge,
+      221;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacked bitterly in Congress, 222;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">insulted by Gates, 223;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to resign, 224;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to notice cabal publicly, 224;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">complains privately of slight support from
+      Pennsylvania, 225;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continues to push Gates for explanations,
+      226;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">regains complete control after collapse of
+      cabal, 226, 227;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">withdraws to Valley Forge, 227;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">desperation of his situation, 228;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">criticised by Pennsylvania legislature for
+      going into winter quarters, 229;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his bitter reply, 229;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his unbending resolution, 230;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continues to urge improvements in army
+      organization, 231;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">manages to hold army together, 232;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends Lafayette to watch Philadelphia, 233;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">determines to fight, 234;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">checked by Lee, 234;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">pursues Clinton, 235;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">orders Lee to attack British rearguard,
+      235;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">discovers his force retreating, 236;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rebukes Lee and punishes him, 236, 237;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">takes command and stops retreat, 237;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">repulses British and assumes offensive,
+      238;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">success due to his work at Valley Forge,
+      239;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">celebrates French alliance, 241;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">has to confront difficulty of managing allies,
+      241, 242;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">welcomes D'Estaing, 243;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">obliged to quiet recrimination after Newport
+      failure, 244;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his letter to Sullivan, 244;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">to Lafayette, 245;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">to D'Estaing, 246;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tact and good effect of his letters, 246;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">offers to cooperate in an attack on New York,
+      247;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">furnishes admirable suggestions to D'Estaing,
+      247;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not dazzled by French, 248;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">objects to giving rank to foreign officers,
+      248, 249;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">opposes transfer of Steuben from inspectorship
+      to the line, 249;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his thoroughly American position, 250;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">absence of provinciality, 251, 252;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">a national leader, 252;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">opposes invasion of Canada, 253;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">foresees danger of its recapture by France,
+      254, 255;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his clear understanding of French motives, 255,
+      256;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rejoices in condition of patriot cause,
+      257;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">foresees ruin to army in financial troubles,
+      258;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">has to appease mutinies among unpaid troops,
+      258;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appeals to Congress, 259;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges election of better delegates to Congress,
+      259;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">angry with speculators, 260, 261;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">futility of his efforts, 261, 262;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his increasing alarm at social demoralization,
+      263;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">effect of his exertions, 264;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">conceals his doubts of the French, 264;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">watches New York, 264;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">keeps dreading an English campaign, 265;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">labors with Congress to form a navy, 266;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">plans expedition to chastise Indians, 266;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">realizes that things are at a standstill in the
+      North, 267;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sees danger to lie in the South, but determines
+      to remain himself near New York, 267;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not consulted by Congress in naming general for
+      Southern army, 268;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">plans attack on Stony Point, 268;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hatred of ravaging methods of British warfare,
+      270;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">again has great difficulties in winter
+      quarters, 270;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">unable to act on offensive in the spring, 270,
+      272;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">unable to help South, 272;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">advises abandonment of Charleston, 273;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">learns of arrival of French army, 274;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">plans a number of enterprises with it, 275,
+      276;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses, even after loss of Charleston, to
+      abandon Hudson, 276;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">welcomes Rochambeau, 277;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes to Congress against too optimistic
+      feelings, 278, 279;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">has extreme difficulty in holding army
+      together, 280;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges French to attack New York, 280;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends Maryland troops South after Camden,
+      281;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">arranges meeting with Rochambeau at Hartford,
+      282;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">popular enthusiasm over him, 283;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">goes to West Point, 284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">surprised at Arnold's absence, 284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">learns of his treachery, 284, 285;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his cool behavior, 285;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his real feelings, 286;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his conduct toward Andr&eacute;, 287;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its justice, 287, 288;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his opinion of Arnold, 288, 289;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his responsibility in the general breakdown of
+      the Congress and army, 290;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">obliged to quell food mutinies in army, 291,
+      292;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">difficulty of situation, 292;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his influence the salvation of army, 293;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his greatness best shown in this way, 293;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rebukes Congress, 294;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appoints Greene to command Southern army,
+      295;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends Knox to confer with state governors,
+      296;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">secures temporary relief for army, 296;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sees the real defect is in weak government,
+      296;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges adoption of Articles of Confederation,
+      297;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">works for improvements in executive,
+      298,299;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">still keeps a Southern movement in mind,
+      301;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">unable to do anything through lack of naval
+      power, 303;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rebukes Lund Washington for entertaining
+      British at Mt. Vernon, 303;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">still unable to fight, 304;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to frighten Clinton into remaining in New
+      York, 305;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">succeeds with aid of Rochambeau, 306;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">explains his plan to French and to Congress,
+      306;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">learns of De Grasse's approach, prepares to
+      move South, 306;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes to De Grasse to meet him in Chesapeake,
+      308;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fears a premature peace, 308;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">pecuniary difficulties, 309;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">absolute need of command of sea, 310;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">persuades De Barras to join De Grasse, 311;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">starts on march for Chesapeake, 311;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hampered by lack of supplies, 312;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">and by threat of Congress to reduce army,
+      313;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">passes through Mt. Vernon, 314;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">succeeds in persuading De Grasse not to abandon
+      him, 315;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">besieges Cornwallis, 315;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sees capture of redoubts, 316;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">receives surrender of Cornwallis, 317;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">admirable strategy and management of campaign,
+      318;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his personal influence the cause of success,
+      318;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">especially his use of the fleet, 319;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his management of Cornwallis through Lafayette,
+      319;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his boldness in transferring army away from New
+      York, 320;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">does not lose his head over victory, 321;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges De Grasse to repeat success against
+      Charleston, 322;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">returns north, 322;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">saddened by death of Custis, 322;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continues to urge Congress to action, 323;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes letters to the States, 323;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">does not expect English surrender, 324;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges renewed vigor, 324;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">points out that war actually continues,
+      325;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges not to give up army until peace is
+      actually secured, 325;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">failure of his appeals, 326;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reduced to inactivity, 326;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">angered at murder of Huddy, 327;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">threatens Carleton with retaliation, 328;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">releases Asgill at request of Vergennes and
+      order of Congress, 329, 330;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disclaims credit, 330;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">justification of his behavior, 330;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his tenderness toward the soldiers, 331;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">jealousy of Congress toward him, 332;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">warns Congress of danger of further neglect of
+      army, 333, 334;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">takes control of mutinous movement, 335;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his address to the soldiers, 336;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its effect, 336;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">movement among soldiers to make him dictator,
+      337;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">replies to revolutionary proposals, 337;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reality of the danger, 339;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">causes for his behaviour, 340, 341;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">a friend of strong government, but devoid of
+      personal ambition, 342;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">chafes under delay to disband army, 343;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to secure Western posts, 343;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes a journey through New York, 343;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">gives Congress excellent but futile advice,
+      344;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">issues circular letter to governors, 344;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">and farewell address to army, 345;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">enters New York after departure of British,
+      345;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his farewell to his officers, 345;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">adjusts his accounts, 346;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appears before Congress, 347;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">French account of his action, 347;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes speech resigning commission, 348,
+      349.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2"><i>In Retirement</i>.</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Returns to Mt. Vernon, ii. I;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to resume old life, 2;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">gives up hunting, 2;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">pursued by lion-hunters and artists, 3;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">overwhelmed with correspondence, 3;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">receives letters from Europe, 4;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">from cranks, 4;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">from officers, 4;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his share in Society of Cincinnati, 4;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">manages his estate, 5;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">visits Western lands, 5;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">family cares, 5, 6;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continues to have interest in public affairs,
+      6;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">advises Congress regarding peace establishment,
+      6;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges acquisition of Western posts, 7;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his broad national views, 7;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">alone in realizing future greatness of country,
+      7, 8;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appreciates importance of the West, 8;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges development of inland navigation, 9;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">asks Jefferson's aid, 9, 10;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">lays canal scheme before Virginia legislature,
+      10;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his arguments, 10;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">troubled by offer of stock, 11;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">uses it to endow two schools, 12;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">significance of his scheme, 12, 13;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his political purposes in binding West to East,
+      13;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">willing to leave Mississippi closed for this
+      purpose, 14, 15, 16;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">feels need of firmer union during Revolution,
+      17;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his arguments, 18, 19;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his influence starts movement for reform,
+      20;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continues to urge it during retirement, 21;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">foresees disasters of confederation, 21;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges impost scheme, 22;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">condemns action of States, 22, 23, 25;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">favours commercial agreement between Maryland
+      and Virginia, 23;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">stung by contempt of foreign powers, 24;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his arguments for a national government,
+      24;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">points out designs of England, 25;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">works against paper money craze in States,
+      26;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his opinion of Shays's rebellion, 26;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his position contrasted with Jefferson's,
+      27;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">influence of his letters, 28, 29;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">shrinks from participating in Federal
+      convention, 29;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">elected unanimously, 30;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to go to a feeble convention, 30,
+      31;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">finally makes up his mind, 31.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2"><i>In the Federal Convention</i>.</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Speech attributed to Washington by Morris on
+      duties of delegates, 31, 32;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">chosen to preside, 33;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">takes no part in debate, 34;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his influence in convention, 34, 35;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">despairs of success, 35;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">signs the Constitution, 36;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">words attributed to him, 36;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">silent as to his thoughts, 36, 37;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sees clearly danger of failure to ratify,
+      37;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries at first to act indifferently, 38;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">begins to work for ratification, 38;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes letters to various people, 38, 39;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">circulates copies of "Federalist," 40;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">saves ratification in Virginia, 40;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges election of Federalists to Congress,
+      41;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">receives general request to accept presidency,
+      41;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his objections, 41, 42;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">dreads failure and responsibility, 42;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">elected, 42;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his journey to New York, 42-46;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">speech at Alexandria, 43;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">popular reception at all points, 44, 45;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his feelings, 46;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his inauguration, 46.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2"><i>President</i>.</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">His speech to Congress, 48;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges no specific policy, 48, 49;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his solemn feelings, 49;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his sober view of necessities of situation,
+      50;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">question of his title, 52;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">arranges to communicate with Senate by writing,
+      52, 53;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">discusses social etiquette, 53;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">takes middle ground, 54;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wisdom of his action, 55;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">criticisms by Democrats, 55, 56;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accused of monarchical leanings, 56, 57;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">familiarizes himself with work already
+      accomplished under Confederation, 58;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his business habits, 58;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses special privileges to French minister,
+      59, 60;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">skill of his reply, 60, 61;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">solicited for office, 61;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his views on appointment, 62;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">favors friends of Constitution and old
+      soldiers, 62;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">success of his appointments, 63;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">selects a cabinet, 64;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his regard for Knox 65;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">for Morris, 66;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his skill in choosing, 66;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his appreciation of Hamilton, 67;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his grounds for choosing Jefferson, 68;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his contrast with Jefferson, 69;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his choice a mistake in policy, 70;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his partisan characteristics, 70, 71;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">excludes anti-Federalists, 71;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">nominates justices of Supreme Court, 72;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">their party character, 73;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">illness, 73;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">visits the Eastern States, 73;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his reasons, 74;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">stirs popular enthusiasm, 74;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">snubbed by Hancock in Massachusetts, 75;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accepts Hancock's apology, 75;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">importance of his action, 76;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">success of journey, 76;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">opens Congress, 78, 79;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his speech and its recommendations, 81;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">how far carried out, 81-83;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">national character of the speech, 83;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his fitness to deal with Indians, 87;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his policy, 88;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appoints commission to treat with Creeks,
+      90;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ascribes its failure to Spanish intrigue,
+      90;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">succeeds by a personal interview in making
+      treaty, 91;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wisdom of his policy, 92;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">orders an expedition against Western Indians,
+      93;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">angered at its failure, 94;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">and at conduct of frontiersmen, 94;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">prepares St. Clair's expedition, 95;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">warns against ambush, 95;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hopes for decisive results, 97;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">learns of St. Clair's defeat, 97;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his self-control, 97;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his outburst of anger against St. Clair, 97,
+      98;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">masters his feelings, 98;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">treats St. Clair kindly, 99;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">determines on a second campaign, 100;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">selects Wayne and other officers, 100;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to secure peace with tribes, 101;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">efforts prevented by English influence, 101,
+      102;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">and in South by conduct of Georgia, 103;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">general results of his Indian policy, 104;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">popular misunderstandings and criticism, 104,
+      105;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">favors assumption of state debts by the
+      government, 107, 108;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">satisfied with bargain between Hamilton and
+      Jefferson, 108;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his respectful attitude toward Constitution,
+      109;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">asks opinions of cabinet on constitutionality
+      of bank, 110;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">signs bill creating it, 110;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reasons for his decision, 111;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">supports Hamilton's financial policy, 112;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">supports Hamilton's views on protection, 115,
+      116;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appreciates evil economic condition of
+      Virginia, 116, 117;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sees necessity for self-sufficient industries
+      in war time, 117;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges protection, 118, 119, 120;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his purpose to build up national feeling,
+      121;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">approves national excise tax, 122, 123;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">does not realize unpopularity of method,
+      123;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ready to modify but insists on obedience, 124,
+      125;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">issues proclamation against rioters, 125;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">since Pennsylvania frontier continues
+      rebellious, issues second proclamation threatening to use
+      force, 127;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">calls out the militia, 127;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his advice to leaders and troops, 128;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">importance of Washington's firmness, 129;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his good judgment and patience, 130;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">decides success of the central authority,
+      130;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">early advocacy of separation of United States
+      from European politics, 133;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">studies situation, 134, 135;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sees importance of binding West with Eastern
+      States, 135;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sees necessity of good relations with England,
+      137;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">authorizes Morris to sound England as to
+      exchange of ministers and a commercial treaty, 137;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not disturbed by British bad manners, 138;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">succeeds in establishing diplomatic relations,
+      138;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">early foresees danger of excess in French
+      Revolution, 139, 140;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">states a policy of strict neutrality, 140, 142,
+      143;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">difficulties of his situation, 142;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">objects to action of National Assembly on
+      tobacco and oil, 144;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">denies reported request by United States that
+      England mediate with Indians, 145;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">announces neutrality in case of a European war,
+      146;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">instructs cabinet to prepare a neutrality
+      proclamation, 147;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">importance of this step not understood at time,
+      148, 149;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">foresees coming difficulties, 149, 150;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">acts cautiously toward
+      <i>&eacute;migr&eacute;s</i>, 151;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">contrast with Genet, 152;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">greets him coldly, 152;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">orders steps taken to prevent violations of
+      neutrality, 153, 154;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">retires to Mt. Vernon for rest, 154;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on returning finds Jefferson has allowed Little
+      Sarah to escape, 156;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes a sharp note to Jefferson, 156;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">anger at escape, 157;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">takes matters out of Jefferson's hands,
+      157;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">determines on asking recall of Genet, 158;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">revokes exequatur of Duplaine, French consul,
+      159;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">insulted by Genet, 159, 160;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to deny Jay's card, 160;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">upheld by popular feeling, 160;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his annoyance at the episode, 160;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">obliged to teach American people self-respect,
+      162, 163;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">deals with troubles incited by Genet in the
+      West, 162, 163;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sympathizes with frontiersmen, 163;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">comprehends value of Mississippi, 164, 165;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends a commission to Madrid to negotiate about
+      free navigation, 166;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">later sends Thomas Pinckney, 166;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">despairs of success, 166;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">apparent conflict between French treaties and
+      neutrality, 169, 170;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">value of Washington's policy to England,
+      171;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">in spite of England's attitude, intends to keep
+      peace, 177;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes to send Hamilton as envoy, 177;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">after his refusal appoints Jay, 177;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fears that England intends war, 178;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">determines to be prepared, 178;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges upon Jay the absolute necessity of
+      England's giving up Western posts, 179;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">dissatisfied with Jay treaty but willing to
+      sign it, 184;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">in doubt as to meaning of conditional
+      ratification, 184;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">protests against English "provision order" and
+      refuses signature, 185;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">meets uproar against treaty alone, 188;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">determines to sign, 189;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">answers resolutions of Boston town meeting,
+      190;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to abandon his judgment to popular
+      outcry, 190;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">distinguishes temporary from permanent feeling,
+      191;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fears effect of excitement upon French
+      government, 192;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his view of dangers of situation, 193, 194;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">recalled to Philadelphia by cabinet, 195;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">receives intercepted correspondence of Fauchet,
+      195, 196;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his course of action already determined, 197,
+      198;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not influenced by the Fauchet letter, 198;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">evidence of this, 199, 200;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reasons for ratifying before showing letter to
+      Randolph, 199, 200;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">signs treaty, 201;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">evidence that he did not sacrifice Randolph,
+      201, 202;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fairness of his action, 203;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to reply to Randolph's attack, 204;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reasons for signing treaty, 205;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">justified in course of time, 206;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses on constitutional grounds the call of
+      representatives for documents, 208;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">insists on independence of treaty-making by
+      executive and Senate, 209;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">overcomes hostile majority in House, 210;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes Madison to succeed Morris at Paris,
+      211;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appoints Monroe, 216;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his mistake in not appointing a political
+      supporter, 212;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disgusted at Monroe's behavior, 213, 214;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">recalls Monroe and appoints C.C. Pinckney,
+      214;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">angered at French policy, 214;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his contempt for Monroe's self-justification,
+      215, 216;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">review of foreign policy, 216-219;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his guiding principle national independence,
+      216;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">and abstention from European politics, 217;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">desires peace and time for growth, 217,
+      218;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes development of the West, 218, 219;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wisdom of his policy, 219;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">considers parties dangerous, 220;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">but chooses cabinet from Federalists, 220;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">prepared to undergo criticism, 221;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">willingness to bear it, 221;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">desires to learn public feeling, by travels,
+      221, 222;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">feels that body of people will support national
+      government, 222;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sees and deplores sectional feelings in the
+      South, 222, 223;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">objects to utterances of newspapers, 223;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacked by "National Gazette," 227;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">receives attacks on Hamilton from Jefferson and
+      his friends, 228, 229;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends charges to Hamilton, 229;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">made anxious by signs of party division,
+      229;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges both Hamilton and Jefferson to cease
+      quarrel, 230, 231;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">dreads an open division in cabinet, 232;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">desirous to rule without party, 233;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accomplishes feat of keeping both secretaries
+      in cabinet, 233;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">keeps confidence in Hamilton, 234;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urged by all parties to accept presidency
+      again, 235;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">willing to be reelected, 235;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">pleased at unanimous vote, 235;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his early immunity from attacks, 237;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">later attacked by Freneau and Bache, 238;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">regards opposition as dangerous to country,
+      239;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">asserts his intention to disregard them,
+      240;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his success in Genet affair, 241;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disgusted at "democratic" societies, 242;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">thinks they fomented Whiskey Rebellion,
+      242;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">denounces them to Congress, 243;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">effect of his remarks, 244;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accused of tyranny after Jay treaty, 244;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">of embezzlement, 245;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">of aristocracy, 245;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">realizes that he must compose cabinet of
+      sympathizers, 246;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reconstructs it, 246;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">states determination to govern by party,
+      247;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">slighted by House, 247;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses a third term, 248;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">publishes Farewell Address, 248;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his justification for so doing, 248;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his wise advice, 249;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">address Attacked by Democrats, 250, 251;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">assailed in Congress by Giles, 251;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">resents charge of being a British sympathizer,
+      252;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his scrupulously fair conduct toward France,
+      253;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his resentment at English policy, 254;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his retirement celebrated by the opposition,
+      255;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">remarks of the "Aurora," 256;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">forged letters of British circulated, 257;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">he repudiates them, 257;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his view of opposition, 259.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2"><i>In Retirement</i>.</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Regards Adams's administration as continuation
+      of his own, 259;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">understands Jefferson's attitude, 259;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes generals of provisional army to be
+      Federalist, 260;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">doubts fidelity of opposition as soldiers,
+      260;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">dreads their poisoning mind of army, 261;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his condemnation of Democrats, 261, 262;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">snubs Dr. Logan for assuming an unofficial
+      mission to France, 263-265;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">alarmed at Virginia and Kentucky resolutions,
+      266;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges Henry to oppose Virginia resolutions,
+      267;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">condemns the French party as unpatriotic,
+      267;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses request to stand again for presidency,
+      269;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">comments on partisanship of Democrats, 269;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">believes that he would be no better candidate
+      than any other Federalist, 270, 271;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">error of statement that Washington was not a
+      party man, 271, 272;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">slow to relinquish non-partisan position,
+      272;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not the man to shrink from declaring his
+      position, 273;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">becomes a member of Federalist party, 273,
+      274;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">eager for end of term of office, 275;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his farewell dinner, 275;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at Adams's inauguration, 276;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">popular enthusiasm at Philadelphia, 276;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at Baltimore, 277;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">returns to Mt. Vernon, 279;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">describes his farm life, 278, 279;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">burdened by necessities of hospitality,
+      280;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">account of his meeting with Bernard,
+      281-283;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continued interest in politics, 284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accepts command of provisional army, 285;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">selects Hamilton, Pinckney, and Knox as
+      major-generals, 286;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">surprised at Adams's objection to Hamilton,
+      286;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rebukes Adams for altering order of rank of
+      generals, 286, 287;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not influenced by intrigue, 287;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">annoyed by Adams's conduct, 288;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to soothe Knox's irritation, 289;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to pacify him, 289;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">carries out organization of army, 290;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">does not expect actual war, 291;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disapproves of Gerry's conduct, 292;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disapproves of Adams's nomination of Vans
+      Murray, 292;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his dread of French Revolution, 295;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">distrusts Adams's attempts at peace, 296;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">approves Alien and Sedition laws, 296;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his defense of them, 297;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">distressed by dissensions among Federalists,
+      298;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">predicts their defeat, 298;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his sudden illness, 299-302;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">death, 303.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2"><i>Character</i>.</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">misunderstood, 304;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">extravagantly praised, 304;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disliked on account of being called faultless,
+      305;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">bitterly attacked in lifetime, 306;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sneered at by Jefferson, 306;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">by Pickering, 307;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">called an Englishman, not an American, 307,
+      308;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">difference of his type from that of Lincoln,
+      310;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">none the less American, 311, 312;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">compared with Hampden, 312;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his manners those of the times elsewhere in
+      America, 314;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">aristocratic, but of a non-English type,
+      314-316;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">less affected by Southern limitations than his
+      neighbors, 316;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">early dislike of New England changed to
+      respect, 316, 317;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">friendly with people of humble origin, 317,
+      318;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">never an enemy of democracy, 318;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">but opposes French excesses, 318;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his self-directed and American training, 319,
+      320;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">early conception of a nation, 321;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">works toward national government during
+      Revolution, 321;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his interest in Western expansion, 321,
+      322;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">national character of his Indian policy,
+      322;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">of his desire to secure free Mississippi
+      navigation, 322;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">of his opposition to war as a danger to Union,
+      323;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his anger at accusation of foreign
+      subservience, 323;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continually asserts necessity for independent
+      American policy, 324, 325;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">opposes foreign educational influences, 325,
+      326;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">favors foundation of a national university,
+      326;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">breadth and strength of his national feeling,
+      327;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">absence of boastfulness about country, 328;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">faith in it, 328;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">charge that he was merely a figure-head,
+      329;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its injustice, 330;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">charged with commonplaceness of intellect,
+      330;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">incident of the deathbed explained, 330,
+      331;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">falsity of the charge, 331;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">inability of mere moral qualities to achieve
+      what he did, 331;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">charged with dullness and coldness, 332;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his seriousness, 333;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">responsibility from early youth, 333;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his habits of keen observation, 333;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">power of judging men, 334;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ability to use them for what they were worth,
+      335;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">anecdote of advice to Hamilton and Meade,
+      335;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">deceived only by Arnold, 336;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">imperfect education, 337;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continual efforts to improve it, 337, 338;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">modest regarding his literary ability, 339,
+      340;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">interested in education, 339;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">character of his writing, 340;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tastes in reading, 341;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">modest but effective in conversation, 342;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his manner and interest described by Bernard,
+      343-347;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attractiveness of the picture, 347, 348;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his pleasure in society, 348;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">power of paying compliments, letter to Mrs.
+      Stockton, 349;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">to Charles Thompson, 350;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">to De Chastellux, 351;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his warmth of heart, 352;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">extreme exactness in pecuniary matters,
+      352;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">illustrative anecdotes, 353,354;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">favorable opinion of teller of anecdotes,
+      356;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">stern towards dishonesty or cowardice, 357;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">treatment of Andr&eacute; and Asgill, 357,
+      358;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sensitive to human suffering, 357, 358;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">kind and courteous to poor, 359;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">conversation with Cleaveland, 359;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sense of dignity in public office, 360;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hospitality at Mt. Vernon, 360, 361;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his intimate friendships, 361,362;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">relations with Hamilton, Knox, Mason, Henry
+      Lee, Craik, 362, 363;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the officers of the army, 363;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Trumbull, Robert and Gouverneur Morris,
+      363;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">regard for and courtesy toward Franklin,
+      364;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">love for Lafayette, 365;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">care for his family, 366;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">lasting regard for Fairfaxes, 366, 367;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">kindness to Taft family, 367, 368;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">destroys correspondence with his wife, 368;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">their devoted relationship, 368;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">care for his step-children and relatives, 369,
+      370;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">charged with lack of humor, 371;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">but never made himself ridiculous, 372;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not joyous in temperament, 372;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">but had keen pleasure in sport, 373;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">enjoyed a joke, even during Revolution,
+      374;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appreciates wit, 375;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes a humorous letter, 376-378;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not devoid of worldly wisdom, 378, 379;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">enjoys cards, dancing, the theatre, 380;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">loves horses, 380;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">thorough in small affairs as well as great,
+      381;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">controversy over site of church, 381;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his careful domestic economy, 382;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">love of method, 383;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">of excellence in dress and furniture, 383,
+      384;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">gives dignity to American cause, 385;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his personal appearance, 385;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">statements of Houdon, 386;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">of Ackerson, 386, 387;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his tremendous muscular strength, 388;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">great personal impressiveness, 389, 390;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">lacking in imagination, 391;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">strong passions, 391;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fierce temper, 392;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">anecdotes of outbreaks, 392;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his absence of self-love, 393;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">confident in judgment of posterity, 393;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">religious faith, 394;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">summary and conclusion, 394, 395.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2"><i>Characteristics of</i>.</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">General view, ii. 304-395;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">general admiration for, i. 1-7;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">myths about, i. 9-12, ii. 307 ff.;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">comparisons with Jefferson, ii. 69;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">with Lincoln, ii. 310-312;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">with Hampden, ii. 312, 313;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">absence of self-seeking, i. 341;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">affectionateness, i. 111, 285,331,345, ii. 332,
+      362-371;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">agreeableness, ii. 344-347, 377;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Americanism, ii. 307-328;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">aristocratic habits, ii. 314, 316;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">business ability, i. 105, 109, ii. 5, 352,
+      382;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">coldness on occasion, i. 223, 224, 263, ii.
+      318;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">courage, i. 77, 78, 86, 127, 168, 292;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">dignity, i. 81,161, ii. 52-57, 76;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hospitality, ii. 360;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">impressiveness, i. 56, 83, 130, 138, 319, ii.
+      385;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">indomitableness, i. 177, 181, 227;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">judgments of men, i. 295, ii. 64, 86, 334,
+      335;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">justice and sternness, i. 287, 330, ii. 203,
+      352-358, 389;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">kindliness, ii. 349-356, 359;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">lack of education, i. 62, ii. 337;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">love of reading, i. 62, ii. 341, 342;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">love of sport, i. 56, 98, 113-116, 118, ii.
+      380;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">manners, ii. 282-283, 314;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">military ability, i. 154, 166, 174, 183, 197,
+      204, 207, 239, 247, 265, 267, 305-320, ii. 331;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">modesty, i. 102, 134;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not a figure-head, ii. 329, 330;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not a prig, i. 10-12, 41-47;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not cold and inhuman, ii. 332, 342;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not dull or commonplace, ii. 330, 332;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not superhuman and distant, i. 9, 10, 12, ii.
+      304, 305;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">open-mindedness, ii. 317;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">passionateness, i. 58, 73, 90;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">personal appearance, i. 57, 136, 137, ii. 282,
+      343, 385-389;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">religious views, i. 321, ii. 393;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">romantic traits, i. 95-97;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sense of humor, ii. 371-377;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">silence regarding self, i. 14, 69, 70, 116,
+      129, 285; ii. 37, 336;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">simplicity, i. 59, 69, 348; ii. 50, 340;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sobriety, i. 49, 52, 134; ii. 43, 45, 333,
+      373;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tact, i. 162, 243, 244-246;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">temper, i. 73, 92, 110, 168, 236, 237, 260; ii.
+      98, 392;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">thoroughness, i. 112, 323, 341, ii. 381.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2"><i>Political Opinions</i>.</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">On Alien and Sedition Acts, ii. 196;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">American nationality, i. 191, 250, 251, 255,
+      262, 279, ii. 7, 61, 133, 145, 324, 325, 327, 328;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Articles of Confederation, i. 297, ii. 17,
+      24;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">bank, ii. 110, 111;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">colonial rights, i. 120, 124-126, 130;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Constitution, i. 38-41;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">democracy, ii. 317-319;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Democratic party, ii. 214, 239, 240, 258, 261,
+      267, 268;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disunion, ii. 22;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">duties of the executive, ii. 190;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">education, ii. 81, 326, 330;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Federalist party, ii. 71, 246, 247, 259, 260,
+      261, 269-274, 298;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">finance, ii. 107, 108, 112, 122;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">foreign relations, ii. 25, 134, 142, 145, 147,
+      179, 217-219, 323;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">French Revolution, ii. 139, 140, 295, 318;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">independence of colonies, i. 131, 159, 160;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Indian policy, ii. 82, 87, 88, 91, 92, 104,
+      105;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Jay treaty, ii. 184-205;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">judiciary, i. 150;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">nominations to office, ii. 62;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">party, ii. 70, 222, 233, 249;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">protection, ii. 116-122;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">slavery, i. 106-108;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Stamp Act, i. 119;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">strong government, i. 298, ii. 18, 24, 129,
+      130;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">treaty power, ii. 190, 207-210;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, ii. 266,
+      267;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Western expansion, ii. 6, 8-16, 135, 163-165,
+      218, 322.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Washington, George Steptoe,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his sons educated by Washington, ii. 370.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Washington, John, brother of George,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington, to, i. 132.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Washington, Lawrence, brother of George
+      Washington,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">educated in England, i. 54;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">has military career, 54;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">returns to Virginia and builds Mt. Vernon,
+      54;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">marries into Fairfax family, 54, 55;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">goes to West Indies for his health, 62;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">dies, leaving George guardian of his daughter,
+      64;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">chief manager of Ohio Company, 65;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">gives George military education, 65.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Washington, Lund,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 152;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rebuked by Washington for entertaining British,
+      ii. 303.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Washington, Martha, widow of Daniel P.
+      Custis,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">meets Washington, i. 101;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">courtship of, and marriage, 101, 102;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hunts with her husband, 114;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">joins him at Boston, 151;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">holds levees as wife of President, ii. 54;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">during his last illness, 300;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">her correspondence destroyed, 368;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">her relations with her husband, 368, 369.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Washington, Mary,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">married to Augustine Washington, i. 39;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">mother of George Washington, 39;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">limited education but strong character, 40,
+      41;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes George to earn a living, 49;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">opposes his going to sea, 49;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters to, 88;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">visited by her son, ii. 5.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Waters, Henry E.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">establishes Washington pedigree, i. 32.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Wayne, Anthony,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeated after Brandywine, i. 198;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his opinion of Germantown, 199;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at Monmouth urges Washington to come, 235;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ready to attack Stony Point, 268;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his successful exploit, 269;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">joins Lafayette in Virginia, 307;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed to command against Indians, ii.
+      100;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his character, 100;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">organizes his force, 101;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his march, 102;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeats the Indians, 103.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Weems, Mason L.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">influence of his life of Washington on popular
+      opinion, i. 10;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">originates idea of his priggishness, 11;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his character, 41, 43;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">character of his book, 42;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his mythical "rectorate" of Mt. Vernon, 43,
+      44;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">invents anecdotes of Washington's childhood,
+      44;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">folly of cherry-tree and other stories, 46;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">their evil influence, 47.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">West, the,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its importance realized by Washington, ii.
+      7-16;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his influence counteracted by inertia of
+      Congress, 8;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">forwards inland navigation, 9;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">desires to bind East to West, 9-11, 14;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">formation of companies, 11-13;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on Mississippi navigation, 14-16, 164;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">projects of Genet in, 162;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its attitude understood by Washington, 163,
+      164;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington wishes peace in order to develop it,
+      218, 219, 321.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">"Whiskey Rebellion,"</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">passage of excise law, ii. 123;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">outbreaks of violence in Pennsylvania and North
+      Carolina, 124;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">proclamation issued warning rioters to desist,
+      125;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">renewed outbreaks in Pennsylvania, 125,
+      126;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the militia called out, 127;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">suppression of the insurrection, 128;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">real danger of movement, 129;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its suppression emphasizes national authority,
+      129, 130;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">supposed by Washington to have been stirred up
+      by Democratic clubs, 242.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">White Plains,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle at, i. 173.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Wilkinson, James,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">brings Gates's message to Washington at
+      Trenton, i. 180;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">brings news of Saratoga to Congress, 220;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">nettled at Sherman's sarcasm, discloses Conway
+      cabal, 220;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">quarrels with Gates, 223;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">resigns from board of war, 223, 226;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">leads expedition against Indians, ii. 95.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Willett, Colonel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">commissioner to Creeks, his success, ii.
+      91.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">William and Mary College,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington Chancellor of, ii. 339.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Williams,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's teacher, i. 48, 51.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Willis, Lewis,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">story of Washington's school days, i. 95.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Wilson, James,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 72.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Wilson, James, "of England,"</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hunts with Washington, i. 115.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Wolcott, Oliver,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">receives Fauchet letter, ii. 195;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">succeeds Hamilton as Secretary of Treasury,
+      246.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Wooster, Mrs.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 61.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">YORKTOWN,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">siege of, i. 315-318.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">"Young Man's Companion,"</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">used by George Washington, origin of his rules
+      of conduct, i. 52.</p>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12652 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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+This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements,
+metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be
+in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES.
+
+Procedures for determining public domain status are described in
+the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org.
+
+No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in
+jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize
+this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright
+status under the laws that apply to them.
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #12652 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/12652)
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+Project Gutenberg's George Washington, Vol. I, by Henry Cabot Lodge
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: George Washington, Vol. I
+
+Author: Henry Cabot Lodge
+
+Release Date: June 19, 2004 [EBook #12652]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GEORGE WASHINGTON, VOL. I ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Tim Koeller and PG Distributed
+Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Frontispiece]
+
+American Statesmen
+
+STANDARD LIBRARY EDITION
+
+
+[Illustration: _The Home of the Washington Family_]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+GEORGE WASHINGTON
+
+      BY
+
+HENRY CABOT LODGE
+
+  IN TWO VOLUMES
+     VOL. I.
+
+      1889
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+This edition has been carefully revised, and although very little has
+been added of late years to our knowledge of the facts of Washington's
+life, I have tried to examine all that has appeared. The researches of
+Mr. Waters, which were published just after these volumes in the first
+edition had passed through the press, enable me to give the Washington
+pedigree with certainty, and have turned conjecture into fact. The
+recent publication in full of Lear's memoranda, although they tell
+nothing new about Washington's last moments, help toward a completion
+of all the details of the scene.
+
+H.C. LODGE.
+
+WASHINGTON, February 7, 1898.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+CHAPTER.
+
+        INTRODUCTION
+     I. THE OLD DOMINION
+    II. THE WASHINGTONS
+   III. ON THE FRONTIER
+    IV. LOVE AND MARRIAGE
+     V. TAKING COMMAND
+    VI. SAVING THE REVOLUTION
+   VII. "MALICE DOMESTIC, AND FOREIGN LEVY"
+  VIII. THE ALLIES
+    IX. ARNOLD'S TREASON, AND THE WAR IN THE SOUTH
+     X. YORKTOWN
+    XI. PEACE
+
+        INDEX
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+GEORGE WASHINGTON
+
+From the painting by Gilbert Stuart in the Museum of Fine Arts,
+Boston. This painting is owned by the Boston Athenæum and is known as
+the Athenæum portrait.
+
+Autograph is from Washington's signature to a bill of exchange, from
+"Talks about Autographs" by George Birkbeck Hill.
+
+The vignette of the residence of the Washington family is from "Homes
+of American Statesman," published by Alfred W. Putnam, New York.
+
+
+LAWRENCE WASHINGTON
+
+From an original painting in the possession of Lawrence Washington,
+Esq., Alexandria, Va., a great-great-great-nephew.
+
+Autograph from MS. in New York Public Library, Lenox Building.
+
+
+MISS MARY CARY
+
+From an original painting owned by Dr. James D. Moncure of Virginia,
+one of her descendants.
+
+No autograph can be found.
+
+
+MISS MARY PHILIPSE
+
+From Irving's "Washington," published by G.P. Putnam's Sons.
+
+Autograph from Appleton's "Cyclopædia of American Biography."
+
+
+WASHINGTON CROSSING THE DELAWARE
+
+From the original painting by Emanuel Leutze in the New York
+Metropolitan Museum. The United States flag shown in the picture is an
+anachronism. The stars and stripes were first adopted by Congress in
+June, 1777; and any flag carried by Washington's army in December,
+1776, would have consisted of the stripes with the crosses of St.
+George and St. Andrew in the blue field where the stars now appear.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+February 9 in the year 1800 was a gala day in Paris. Napoleon had
+decreed a triumphal procession, and on that day a splendid military
+ceremony was performed in the Champ de Mars, and the trophies of the
+Egyptian expedition were exultingly displayed. There were, however,
+two features in all this pomp and show which seemed strangely out
+of keeping with the glittering pageant and the sounds of victorious
+rejoicing. The standards and flags of the army were hung with crape,
+and after the grand parade the dignitaries of the land proceeded
+solemnly to the Temple of Mars, and heard the eloquent M. de Fontanes
+deliver an "Eloge Funèbre."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: A report recently discovered shows that more even was
+intended than was actually done.
+
+The following is a translation of the paper, the original of which
+is Nos. 172 and 173 of volume 51 of the manuscript series known as
+_Etats-Unis_, 1799, 1800 (years 7 and 8 of the French republic):--
+
+    "_Report of Talleyrand, Minister of Foreign Affairs, on the
+    occasion of the death of George Washington_.
+
+    "A nation which some day will he a great nation, and which today
+    is the wisest and happiest on the face of the earth, weeps at the
+    bier of a man whose courage and genius contributed the most to
+    free it from bondage, and elevate it to the rank of an independent
+    and sovereign power. The regrets caused by the death of this
+    great man, the memories aroused by these regrets, and a proper
+    veneration for all that is held dear and sacred by mankind, impel
+    us to give expression to our sentiments by taking part in an event
+    which deprives the world of one of its brightest ornaments, and
+    removes to the realm of history one of the noblest lives that ever
+    honored the human race.
+
+    "The name of Washington is inseparably linked with a memorable
+    epoch. He adorned this epoch by his talents and the nobility of
+    his character, and with virtues that even envy dared not assail.
+    History offers few examples of such renown. Great from the outset
+    of his career, patriotic before his country had become a nation,
+    brilliant and universal despite the passions and political
+    resentments that would gladly have checked his career, his fame
+    is to-day imperishable,--fortune having consecrated his claim to
+    greatness, while the prosperity of a people destined for grand
+    achievements is the best evidence of a fame ever to increase.
+
+    "His own country now honors his memory with funeral ceremonies,
+    having lost a citizen whose public actions and unassuming grandeur
+    in private life were a living example of courage, wisdom, and
+    unselfishness; and France, which from the dawn of the American
+    Revolution hailed with hope a nation, hitherto unknown, that was
+    discarding the vices of Europe, which foresaw all the glory that
+    this nation would bestow on humanity, and the enlightenment of
+    governments that would ensue from the novel character of the
+    social institutions and the new type of heroism of which
+    Washington and America were models for the world at
+    large,--France, I repeat, should depart from established usages
+    and do honor to one whose fame is beyond comparison with that of
+    others.
+
+    "The man who, amid the decadence of modern ages, first dared
+    believe that he could inspire degenerate nations with courage to
+    rise to the level of republican virtues, lived for all nations and
+    for all centuries; and this nation, which first saw in the life
+    and success of that illustrious man a foreboding of its destiny,
+    and therein recognized a future to be realized and duties to be
+    performed, has every right to class him as a fellow-citizen. I
+    therefore submit to the First Consul the following decree:--
+      "Bonaparte, First Consul of the republic, decrees as follows:--
+      "Article 1. A statue is to be erected to General Washington.
+      "Article 2. This statue is to be placed in one of the squares of
+    Paris, to be chosen by the minister of the interior, and it shall
+    be his duty to execute the present decree."]
+
+About the same time, if tradition may be trusted, the flags upon the
+conquering Channel fleet of England were lowered to half-mast in token
+of grief for the same event which had caused the armies of France to
+wear the customary badges of mourning.
+
+If some "traveler from an antique land" had observed these
+manifestations, he would have wondered much whose memory it was that
+had called them forth from these two great nations, then struggling
+fiercely with each other for supremacy on land and sea. His wonder
+would not have abated had he been told that the man for whom they
+mourned had wrested an empire from one, and at the time of his death
+was arming his countrymen against the other.
+
+These signal honors were paid by England and France to a simple
+Virginian gentleman who had never left his own country, and who when
+he died held no other office than the titular command of a provisional
+army. Yet although these marks of respect from foreign nations were
+notable and striking, they were slight and formal in comparison with
+the silence and grief which fell upon the people of the United States
+when they heard that Washington was dead. He had died in the fullness
+of time, quietly, quickly, and in his own house, and yet his death
+called out a display of grief which has rarely been equaled in
+history. The trappings and suits of woe were there of course, but what
+made this mourning memorable was that the land seemed hushed with
+sadness, and that the sorrow dwelt among the people and was neither
+forced nor fleeting. Men carried it home with them to their firesides
+and to their churches, to their offices and their workshops. Every
+preacher took the life which had closed as the noblest of texts, and
+every orator made it the theme of his loftiest eloquence. For more
+than a year the newspapers teemed with eulogy and elegy, and both
+prose and poetry were severely taxed to pay tribute to the memory of
+the great one who had gone. The prose was often stilted and the verse
+was generally bad, but yet through it all, from the polished sentences
+of the funeral oration to the humble effusions of the obscurest poet's
+corner, there ran a strong and genuine feeling, which the highest art
+could not refine nor the clumsiest expression degrade.
+
+From that time to this, the stream of praise has flowed on, ever
+deepening and strengthening, both at home and abroad. Washington alone
+in history seems to have risen so high in the estimation of men that
+criticism has shrunk away abashed, and has only been heard whispering
+in corners or growling hoarsely in the now famous house in Cheyne Row.
+
+There is a world of meaning in all this, could we but rightly
+interpret it. It cannot be brushed aside as mere popular superstition,
+formed of fancies and prejudices, to which intelligent opposition
+would be useless. Nothing is in fact more false than the way in which
+popular opinions are often belittled and made light of. The opinion
+of the world, however reached, becomes in the course of years or
+centuries the nearest approach we can make to final judgment on
+human things. Don Quixote may be dumb to one man, and the sonnets of
+Shakespeare may leave another cold and weary. But the fault is in
+the reader. There is no doubt of the greatness of Cervantes or
+Shakespeare, for they have stood the test of time, and the voices of
+generations of men, from which there is no appeal, have declared them
+to be great. The lyrics that all the world loves and repeats, the
+poetry which is often called hackneyed, is on the whole the best
+poetry. The pictures and statues that have drawn crowds of admiring
+gazers for centuries are the best. The things that are "caviare to the
+general" often undoubtedly have much merit, but they lack quite as
+often the warm, generous, and immortal vitality which appeals alike to
+rich and poor, to the ignorant and to the learned.
+
+So it is with men. When years after his death the world agrees to call
+a man great, the verdict must be accepted. The historian may whiten or
+blacken, the critic may weigh and dissect, the form of the judgment
+may be altered, but the central fact remains, and with the man, whom
+the world in its vague way has pronounced great, history must reckon
+one way or the other, whether for good or ill.
+
+When we come to such a man as Washington, the case is still stronger.
+Men seem to have agreed that here was greatness which no one could
+question, and character which no one could fail to respect. Around
+other leaders of men, even around the greatest of them, sharp
+controversies have arisen, and they have their partisans dead as they
+had them living. Washington had enemies who assailed him, and friends
+whom he loved, but in death as in life he seems to stand alone, above
+conflict and superior to malice. In his own country there is no
+dispute as to his greatness or his worth. Englishmen, the most
+unsparing censors of everything American, have paid homage to
+Washington, from the days of Fox and Byron to those of Tennyson and
+Gladstone. In France his name has always been revered, and in distant
+lands those who have scarcely heard of the existence of the United
+States know the country of Washington. To the mighty cairn which the
+nation and the states have raised to his memory, stones have come
+from Greece, sending a fragment of the Parthenon; from Brazil and
+Switzerland, Turkey and Japan, Siam and India beyond the Ganges. On
+that sent by China we read: "In devising plans, Washington was more
+decided than Ching Shing or Woo Kwang; in winning a country he was
+braver than Tsau Tsau or Ling Pi. Wielding his four-footed falchion,
+he extended the frontiers and refused to accept the Royal Dignity. The
+sentiments of the Three Dynasties have reappeared in him. Can any man
+of ancient or modern times fail to pronounce Washington peerless?"
+These comparisons so strange to our ears tell of a fame which has
+reached farther than we can readily conceive.
+
+Washington stands as a type, and has stamped himself deep upon the
+imagination of mankind. Whether the image be true or false is of no
+consequence: the fact endures. He rises up from the dust of history as
+a Greek statue comes pure and serene from the earth in which it has
+lain for centuries. We know his deeds; but what was it in the man
+which has given him such a place in the affection, the respect, and
+the imagination of his fellow men throughout the world?
+
+Perhaps this question has been fully answered already. Possibly every
+one who has thought upon the subject has solved the problem, so that
+even to state it is superfluous. Yet a brilliant writer, the latest
+historian of the American people, has said: "General Washington is
+known to us, and President Washington. But George Washington is an
+unknown man." These are pregnant words, and that they should be true
+seems to make any attempt to fill the great gap an act of sheer and
+hopeless audacity. Yet there can be certainly no reason for adding
+another to the almost countless lives of Washington unless it be done
+with the object in view which Mr. McMaster indicates. Any such attempt
+may fail in execution, but if the purpose be right it has at least an
+excuse for its existence.
+
+To try to add to the existing knowledge of the facts in Washington's
+career would have but little result beyond the multiplication of
+printed pages. The antiquarian, the historian, and the critic have
+exhausted every source, and the most minute details have been and
+still are the subject of endless writing and constant discussion.
+Every house he ever lived in has been drawn and painted; every
+portrait, and statue, and medal has been catalogued and engraved. His
+private affairs, his servants, his horses, his arms, even his clothes,
+have all passed beneath the merciless microscope of history. His
+biography has been written and rewritten. His letters have been drawn
+out from every lurking place, and have been given to the world in
+masses and in detachments. His battles have been fought over and
+over again, and his state papers have undergone an almost verbal
+examination. Yet, despite his vast fame and all the labors of the
+antiquarian and biographer, Washington is still not understood,--as a
+man he is unfamiliar to the posterity that reverences his memory. He
+has been misrepresented more or less covertly by hostile critics and
+by candid friends, and has been disguised and hidden away by the
+mistaken eulogy and erroneous theories of devout admirers. All that
+any one now can do, therefore, is to endeavor from this mass of
+material to depict the very man himself in the various conjunctures of
+his life, and strive to see what he really was and what he meant then,
+and what he is and what he means to us and to the world to-day.
+
+In the progress of time Washington has become in the popular
+imagination largely mythical; for mythical ideas grow up in this
+nineteenth century, notwithstanding its boasted intelligence, much as
+they did in the infancy of the race. The old sentiment of humanity,
+more ancient and more lasting than any records or monuments, which led
+men in the dawn of history to worship their ancestors and the founders
+of states, still endures. As the centuries have gone by, this
+sentiment has lost its religious flavor, and has become more and
+more restricted in its application, but it has never been wholly
+extinguished. Let some man arise great above the ordinary bounds of
+greatness, and the feeling which caused our progenitors to bow down
+at the shrines of their forefathers and chiefs leads us to invest
+our modern hero with a mythical character, and picture him in our
+imagination as a being to whom, a few thousand years ago, altars would
+have been builded and libations poured out.
+
+Thus we have to-day in our minds a Washington grand, solemn, and
+impressive. In this guise he appears as a man of lofty intellect, vast
+moral force, supremely successful and fortunate, and wholly apart
+from and above all his fellow-men. This lonely figure rises up to our
+imagination with all the imperial splendor of the Livian Augustus, and
+with about as much warmth and life as that unrivaled statue. In this
+vague but quite serious idea there is a great deal of truth, but
+not the whole truth. It is the myth of genuine love and veneration
+springing from the inborn gratitude of man to the founders and chiefs
+of his race, but it is not by any means the only one of its family.
+There is another, equally diffused, of wholly different parentage.
+In its inception this second myth is due to the itinerant parson,
+bookmaker, and bookseller, Mason Weems. He wrote a brief biography of
+Washington, of trifling historical value, yet with sufficient literary
+skill to make it widely popular. It neither appealed to nor was read
+by the cultivated and instructed few, but it reached the homes of the
+masses of the people. It found its way to the bench of the mechanic,
+to the house of the farmer, to the log cabins of the frontiersman and
+pioneer. It was carried across the continent on the first waves of
+advancing settlement. Its anecdotes and its simplicity of thought
+commended it to children both at home and at school, and, passing
+through edition after edition, its statements were widely spread, and
+it colored insensibly the ideas of hundreds of persons who never had
+heard even the name of the author. To Weems we owe the anecdote of the
+cherry-tree, and other tales of a similar nature. He wrote with Dr.
+Beattie's life of his son before him as a model, and the result is
+that Washington comes out in his pages a faultless prig. Whether Weems
+intended it or not, that is the result which he produced, and that is
+the Washington who was developed from the wide sale of his book. When
+this idea took definite and permanent shape it caused a reaction.
+There was a revolt against it, for the hero thus engendered had
+qualities which the national sense of humor could not endure in
+silence. The consequence is, that the Washington of Weems has afforded
+an endless theme for joke and burlesque. Every professional American
+humorist almost has tried his hand at it; and with each recurring 22d
+of February the hard-worked jesters of the daily newspapers take it
+up and make a little fun out of it, sufficient for the day that is
+passing over them. The opportunity is tempting, because of the ease
+with which fun can be made when that fundamental source of humor, a
+violent contrast, can be employed. But there is no irreverence in it
+all, for the jest is not aimed at the real Washington, but at the
+Washington portrayed in the Weems biography. The worthy "rector of
+Mount Vernon," as he called himself, meant no harm, and there is a
+good deal of truth, no doubt, in his book. But the blameless and
+priggish boy, and the equally faultless and uninteresting man, whom he
+originated, have become in the process of development a myth. So in
+its further development is the Washington of the humorist a myth.
+Both alike are utterly and crudely false. They resemble their great
+original as much as Greenough's classically nude statue, exposed to
+the incongruities of the North American climate, resembles in dress
+and appearance the general of our armies and the first President of
+the United States.
+
+Such are the myth-makers. They are widely different from the critics
+who have assailed Washington in a sidelong way, and who can be better
+dealt with in a later chapter. These last bring charges which can be
+met; the myth-maker presents a vague conception, extremely difficult
+to handle because it is so elusive.
+
+One of our well-known historical scholars and most learned
+antiquarians, not long ago, in an essay vindicating the "traditional
+Washington," treated with scorn the idea of a "new Washington" being
+discovered. In one sense this is quite right, in another totally
+wrong. There can be no new Washington discovered, because there never
+was but one. But the real man has been so overlaid with myths and
+traditions, and so distorted by misleading criticisms, that, as
+has already been suggested, he has been wellnigh lost. We have
+the religious or statuesque myth, we have the Weems myth, and the
+ludicrous myth of the writer of paragraphs. We have the stately hero
+of Sparks, and Everett, and Marshall, and Irving, with all his great
+deeds as general and president duly recorded and set down in polished
+and eloquent sentences; and we know him to be very great and wise and
+pure, and, be it said with bated breath, very dry and cold. We are
+also familiar with the common-place man who so wonderfully illustrated
+the power of character as set forth by various persons, either from
+love of novelty or because the great chief seemed to get in the way of
+their own heroes.
+
+If this is all, then the career of Washington and his towering fame
+present a problem of which the world has never seen the like. But this
+cannot be all: there must be more behind. Every one knows the famous
+Stuart portrait of Washington. The last effort of the artist's cunning
+is there employed to paint his great subject for posterity. How serene
+and beautiful it is! It is a noble picture for future ages to look
+upon. Still it is not all. There is in the dining-room of Memorial
+Hall at Cambridge another portrait, painted by Savage. It is cold and
+dry, hard enough to serve for the signboard of an inn, and able, one
+would think, to withstand all weathers. Yet this picture has something
+which Stuart left out. There is a rugged strength in the face which
+gives us pause, there is a massiveness in the jaw, telling of an iron
+grip and a relentless will, which has infinite meaning.
+
+  "Here's John the Smith's rough-hammered head. Great eye,
+  Gross jaw, and griped lips do what granite can
+  To give you the crown-grasper. What a man!"
+
+In death as in life, there is something about Washington, call it
+greatness, dignity, majesty, what you will, which seems to hold men
+aloof and keep them from knowing him. In truth he was a most difficult
+man to know. Carlyle, crying out through hundreds of pages and myriads
+of words for the "silent man," passed by with a sneer the most
+absolutely silent great man that history can show. Washington's
+letters and speeches and messages fill many volumes, but they are all
+on business. They are profoundly silent as to the writer himself. From
+this Carlyle concluded apparently that there was nothing to tell,--a
+very shallow conclusion if it was the one he really reached. Such an
+idea was certainly far, very far, from the truth.
+
+Behind the popular myths, behind the statuesque figure of the orator
+and the preacher, behind the general and the president of the
+historian, there was a strong, vigorous man, in whose veins ran warm,
+red blood, in whose heart were stormy passions and deep sympathy for
+humanity, in whose brain were far-reaching thoughts, and who was
+informed throughout his being with a resistless will. The veil of his
+silence is not often lifted, and never intentionally, but now and then
+there is a glimpse behind it; and in stray sentences and in little
+incidents strenuously gathered together; above all, in the right
+interpretation of the words, and the deeds, and the true history known
+to all men,--we can surely find George Washington "the noblest figure
+that ever stood in the forefront of a nation's life."
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+GEORGE WASHINGTON
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE OLD DOMINION
+
+
+To know George Washington, we must first of all understand the society
+in which he was born and brought up. As certain lilies draw their
+colors from the subtle qualities of the soil hidden beneath the water
+upon which they float, so are men profoundly affected by the obscure
+and insensible influences which surround their childhood and youth.
+The art of the chemist may discover perhaps the secret agent which
+tints the white flower with blue or pink, but very often the elements,
+which analysis detects, nature alone can combine. The analogy is
+not strained or fanciful when we apply it to a past society. We can
+separate, and classify, and label the various elements, but to combine
+them in such a way as to form a vivid picture is a work of surpassing
+difficulty. This is especially true of such a land as Virginia in the
+middle of the last century. Virginian society, as it existed at that
+period, is utterly extinct. John Randolph said it had departed before
+the year 1800. Since then another century, with all its manifold
+changes, has wellnigh come and gone. Most important of all, the last
+surviving institution of colonial Virginia has been swept away in the
+crash of civil war, which has opened a gulf between past and present
+wider and deeper than any that time alone could make.
+
+Life and society as they existed in the Virginia of the eighteenth
+century seem, moreover, to have been sharply broken and ended. We
+cannot trace our steps backward, as is possible in most cases, over
+the road by which the world has traveled since those days. We are
+compelled to take a long leap mentally in order to land ourselves
+securely in the Virginia which honored the second George, and looked
+up to Walpole and Pitt as the arbiters of its fate.
+
+We live in a period of great cities, rapid communication, vast and
+varied business interests, enormous diversity of occupation, great
+industries, diffused intelligence, farming by steam, and with
+everything and everybody pervaded by an unresting, high-strung
+activity. We transport ourselves to the Virginia of Washington's
+boyhood, and find a people without cities or towns, with no means
+of communication except what was afforded by rivers and wood roads;
+having no trades, no industries, no means of spreading knowledge, only
+one occupation, clumsily performed; and living a quiet, monotonous
+existence, which can now hardly be realized. It is "a far cry to
+Loch-Awe," as the Scotch proverb has it; and this old Virginian
+society, although we should find it sorry work living in it, is both
+pleasant and picturesque in the pages of history.
+
+The population of Virginia, advancing toward half a million, and
+divided pretty equally between the free whites and the enslaved
+blacks, was densest, to use a most inappropriate word, at the water's
+edge and near the mouths of the rivers. Thence it crept backwards,
+following always the lines of the watercourses, and growing ever
+thinner and more scattered until it reached the Blue Ridge. Behind
+the mountains was the wilderness, haunted, as old John Lederer said a
+century earlier, by monsters, and inhabited, as the eighteenth-century
+Virginians very well knew, by savages and wild beasts, much more real
+and dangerous than the hobgoblins of their ancestors.
+
+The population, in proportion to its numbers, was very widely
+distributed. It was not collected in groups, after the fashion with
+which we are now familiar, for then there were no cities or towns
+in Virginia. The only place which could pretend to either name was
+Norfolk, the solitary seaport, which, with its six or seven thousand
+inhabitants, formed the most glaring exception that any rule
+solicitous of proof could possibly desire. Williamsburg, the capital,
+was a straggling village, somewhat overweighted with the public
+buildings and those of the college. It would light up into life and
+vivacity during the season of politics and society, and then relapse
+again into the country stillness. Outside of Williamsburg and Norfolk
+there were various points which passed in the catalogue and on the map
+for towns, but which in reality were merely the shadows of a name. The
+most populous consisted of a few houses inhabited by storekeepers and
+traders, some tobacco warehouses, and a tavern, clustered about the
+church or court-house. Many others had only the church, or, if a
+county seat, the church and court-house, keeping solitary state in the
+woods. There once a week the sound of prayer and gossip, or at longer
+intervals the voices of lawyers and politicians, and the shouts of the
+wrestlers on the green, broke through the stillness which with the
+going down of the sun resumed its sway in the forests.
+
+There was little chance here for that friction of mind with mind, or
+for that quick interchange of thought and sentiment and knowledge
+which are familiar to the dwellers in cities, and which have driven
+forward more rapidly than all else what we call civilization. Rare
+meetings for special objects with persons as solitary in their lives
+and as ill-informed as himself, constituted to the average Virginian
+the world of society, and there was nothing from outside to supply the
+deficiencies at home. Once a fortnight a mail crawled down from
+the North, and once a month another crept on to the South. George
+Washington was four years old when the first newspaper was published
+in the colony, and he was twenty when the first actors appeared at
+Williamsburg. What was not brought was not sought. The Virginians did
+not go down to the sea in ships. They were not a seafaring race, and
+as they had neither trade nor commerce they were totally destitute of
+the inquiring, enterprising spirit, and of the knowledge brought
+by those pursuits which involve travel and adventure. The English
+tobacco-ships worked their way up the rivers, taking the great staple,
+and leaving their varied goods, and their tardy news from Europe,
+wherever they stopped. This was the sum of the information and
+intercourse which Virginia got from across the sea, for travelers were
+practically unknown. Few came on business, fewer still from curiosity.
+Stray peddlers from the North, or trappers from beyond the mountains
+with their packs of furs, chiefly constituted what would now be called
+the traveling public. There were in truth no means of traveling except
+on foot, on horseback, or by boat on the rivers, which formed the
+best and most expeditious highways. Stage-coaches, or other public
+conveyances, were unknown. Over some of the roads the rich man, with
+his six horses and black outriders, might make his way in a lumbering
+carriage, but most of the roads were little better than woodland
+paths; and the rivers, innocent of bridges, offered in the uncertain
+fords abundance of inconvenience, not unmixed with peril. The taverns
+were execrable, and only the ever-ready hospitality of the people
+made it possible to get from place to place. The result was that the
+Virginians stayed at home, and sought and welcomed the rare stranger
+at their gates as if they were well aware that they were entertaining
+angels.
+
+It is not difficult to sift this home-keeping people, and find out
+that portion which was Virginia, for the mass was but an appendage
+of the small fraction which ruled, led, and did the thinking for the
+whole community. Half the people were slaves, and in that single
+wretched word their history is told. They were, on the whole, well
+and kindly treated, but they have no meaning in history except as an
+institution, and as an influence in the lives, feelings, and character
+of the men who made the state.
+
+Above the slaves, little better than they in condition, but separated
+from them by the wide gulf of race and color, were the indented white
+servants, some convicts, some redemptioners. They, too, have their
+story told when we have catalogued them. We cross another gulf and
+come to the farmers, to the men who grew wheat as well as tobacco on
+their own land, sometimes working alone, sometimes the owners of a few
+slaves. Some of these men were of the class well known since as the
+"poor whites" of the South, the weaker brothers who could not resist
+the poison of slavery, but sank under it into ignorance and poverty.
+They were contented because their skins were white, and because they
+were thereby part of an aristocracy to whom labor was a badge of
+serfdom. The larger portion of this middle class, however, were
+thrifty and industrious enough. Including as they did in their ranks
+the hunters and pioneers, the traders and merchants, all the freemen
+in fact who toiled and worked, they formed the mass of the white
+population, and furnished the bone and sinew and some of the
+intellectual power of Virginia. The only professional men were the
+clergy, for the lawyers were few, and growing to importance only as
+the Revolution began; while the physicians were still fewer, and as a
+class of no importance at all. The clergy were a picturesque
+element in the social landscape, but they were as a body very poor
+representatives of learning, religion, and morality. They ranged from
+hedge parsons and Fleet chaplains, who had slunk away from England
+to find a desirable obscurity in the new world, to divines of real
+learning and genuine piety, who were the supporters of the college,
+and who would have been a credit to any society. These last, however,
+were lamentably few in number. The mass of the clergy were men who
+worked their own lands, sold tobacco, were the boon companions of the
+planters, hunted, shot, drank hard, and lived well, performing their
+sacred duties in a perfunctory and not always in a decent manner.
+
+The clergy, however, formed the stepping-stone socially between
+the farmers, traders, and small planters, and the highest and most
+important class in Virginian society. The great planters were the
+men who owned, ruled, and guided Virginia. Their vast estates were
+scattered along the rivers from the seacoast to the mountains. Each
+plantation was in itself a small village, with the owner's house in
+the centre, surrounded by outbuildings and negro cabins, and the
+pastures, meadows, and fields of tobacco stretching away on all sides.
+The rare traveler, pursuing his devious way on horseback or in a boat,
+would catch sight of these noble estates opening up from the road or
+the river, and then the forest would close in around him for several
+miles, until through the thinning trees he would see again the white
+cabins and the cleared fields of the next plantation.
+
+In such places dwelt the Virginian planters, surrounded by their
+families and slaves, and in a solitude broken only by the infrequent
+and eagerly welcomed stranger, by their duties as vestrymen and
+magistrates, or by the annual pilgrimage to Williamsburg in search of
+society, or to sit in the House of Burgesses. They were occupied by
+the care of their plantations, which involved a good deal of riding in
+the open air, but which was at best an easy and indolent pursuit made
+light by slave labor and trained overseers. As a result the planters
+had an abundance of spare time, which they devoted to cock-fighting,
+horse-racing, fishing, shooting, and fox-hunting,--all, save the
+first, wholesome and manly sports, but which did not demand any undue
+mental strain. There is, indeed, no indication that the Virginians
+had any great love for intellectual exertion. When the amiable
+attorney-general of Charles II. said to the Virginian commissioners,
+pleading the cause of learning and religion, "Damn your souls! grow
+tobacco!" he uttered a precept which the mass of the planters seem to
+have laid to heart. For fifty years there were no schools, and down to
+the Revolution even the apologies bearing that honored name were
+few, and the college was small and struggling. In some of the great
+families, the eldest sons would be sent to England and to the great
+universities: they would make the grand tour, play a part in the
+fashionable society of London, and come back to their plantations fine
+gentlemen and scholars. Such was Colonel Byrd, in the early part of
+the eighteenth century, a friend of the Earl of Orrery, and the author
+of certain amusing memoirs. Such at a later day was Arthur Lee,
+doctor and diplomat, student and politician. But most of these young
+gentlemen thus sent abroad to improve their minds and manners led a
+life not materially different from that of our charming friend, Harry
+Warrington, after his arrival in England.
+
+The sons who stayed at home sometimes gathered a little learning from
+the clergyman of the parish, or received a fair education at the
+College of William and Mary, but very many did not have even so much
+as this. There was not in truth much use for learning in managing a
+plantation or raising horses, and men get along surprisingly well
+without that which they do not need, especially if the acquisition
+demands labor. The Virginian planter thought little and read less,
+and there were no learned professions to hold out golden prizes and
+stimulate the love of knowledge. The women fared even worse, for
+they could not go to Europe or to William and Mary's, so that after
+exhausting the teaching capacity of the parson they settled down to a
+round of household duties and to the cares of a multitude of slaves,
+working much harder and more steadily than their lords and masters
+ever thought of doing.
+
+The only general form of intellectual exertion was that of governing.
+The planters managed local affairs through the vestries, and ruled
+Virginia in the House of Burgesses. To this work they paid strict
+attention, and, after the fashion of their race, did it very well and
+very efficiently. They were an extremely competent body whenever they
+made up their minds to do anything; but they liked the life and habits
+of Squire Western, and saw no reason for adopting any others until it
+was necessary.
+
+There were, of course, vast differences in the condition of the
+planters. Some counted their acres by thousands and their slaves by
+hundreds, while others scrambled along as best they might with one
+plantation and a few score of negroes. Some dwelt in very handsome
+houses, picturesque and beautiful, like Gunston Hall or Stratford, or
+in vast, tasteless, and extravagant piles like Rosewell. Others were
+contented with very modest houses, consisting of one story with a
+gabled roof, and flanked by two massive chimneys. In some houses there
+was a brave show of handsome plate and china, fine furniture, and
+London-made carriages, rich silks and satins, and brocaded dresses.
+In others there were earthenware and pewter, homespun and woolen, and
+little use for horses, except in the plough or under the saddle.
+
+But there were certain qualities common to all the Virginia planters.
+The luxury was imperfect. The splendor was sometimes barbaric. There
+were holes in the brocades, and the fresh air of heaven would often
+blow through a broken window upon the glittering silver and the costly
+china. It was an easy-going aristocracy, unfinished, and frequently
+slovenly in its appointments, after the fashion of the warmer climates
+and the regions of slavery.
+
+Everything was plentiful except ready money. In this rich and poor
+were alike. They were all ahead of their income, and it seems as if,
+from one cause or another, from extravagance or improvidence, from
+horses or the gaming-table, every Virginian family went through
+bankruptcy about once in a generation.
+
+When Harry Warrington arrived in England, all his relations at
+Castlewood regarded the handsome young fellow as a prince, with his
+acres and his slaves. It was a natural and pleasing delusion, born of
+the possession of land and serfs, to which the Virginians themselves
+gave ready credence. They forgot that the land was so plentiful that
+it was of little value; that slaves were the most wasteful form of
+labor; and that a failure of the tobacco crop, pledged before it was
+gathered, meant ruin, although they had been reminded more than once
+of this last impressive fact. They knew that they had plenty to eat
+and drink, and a herd of people to wait upon them and cultivate their
+land, as well as obliging London merchants always ready to furnish
+every luxury in return for the mortgage of a crop or an estate. So
+they gave themselves little anxiety as to the future and lived in the
+present, very much to their own satisfaction.
+
+To the communities of trade and commerce, to the mercantile and
+industrial spirit of to-day, such an existence and such modes of life
+appear distressingly lax and unprogressive. The sages of the bank
+parlors and the counting-rooms would shake their heads at such
+spendthrifts as these, refuse to discount their paper, and confidently
+predict that by no possibility could they come to good. They had their
+defects, no doubt, these planters and farmers of Virginia. The life
+they led was strongly developed on the animal side, and was perhaps
+neither stimulating nor elevating. The living was the reverse of
+plain, and the thinking was neither extremely high nor notably
+laborious. Yet in this very particular there is something rather
+restful and pleasant to the eye wearied by the sight of incessant
+movement, and to the ear deafened by the continual shout that nothing
+is good that does not change, and that all change must be good. We
+should probably find great discomforts and many unpleasant limitations
+in the life and habits of a hundred years ago on any part of the
+globe, and yet at a time when it seems as if rapidity and movement
+were the last words and the ultimate ideals of civilization, it is
+rather agreeable to turn to such a community as the eighteenth-century
+planters of Virginia. They lived contentedly on the acres of their
+fathers, and except at rare and stated intervals they had no other
+interests than those furnished by their ancestral domain. At the
+court-house, at the vestry, or in Williamsburg, they met their
+neighbors and talked very keenly about the politics of Europe, or the
+affairs of the colony. They were little troubled about religion, but
+they worshiped after the fashion of their fathers, and had a serious
+fidelity to church and king. They wrangled with their governors over
+appropriations, but they lived on good terms with those eminent
+persons, and attended state balls at what they called the palace, and
+danced and made merry with much stateliness and grace. Their every-day
+life ran on in the quiet of their plantations as calmly as one of
+their own rivers. The English trader would come and go; the infrequent
+stranger would be received and welcomed; Christmas would be kept in
+hearty English fashion; young men from a neighboring estate would
+ride over through the darkening woods to court, or dance, or play
+the fiddle, like Patrick Henry or Thomas Jefferson; and these simple
+events were all that made a ripple on the placid stream. Much time was
+given to sports, rough, hearty, manly sports, with a spice of danger,
+and these, with an occasional adventurous dash into the wilderness,
+kept them sound and strong and brave, both in body and mind. There was
+nothing languid or effeminate about the Virginian planter. He was a
+robust man, quite ready to fight or work when the time came, and well
+fitted to deal with affairs when he was needed. He was a free-handed,
+hospitable, generous being, not much given to study or thought, but
+thoroughly public-spirited and keenly alive to the interests of
+Virginia. Above all things he was an aristocrat, set apart by the
+dark line of race, color, and hereditary servitude, as proud as the
+proudest Austrian with his endless quarterings, as sturdy and vigorous
+as an English yeoman, and as jealous of his rights and privileges
+as any baron who stood by John at Runnymede. To this aristocracy,
+careless and indolent, given to rough pleasures and indifferent to the
+finer and higher sides of life, the call came, as it comes to all men
+sooner or later, and in response they gave their country soldiers,
+statesmen, and jurists of the highest order, and fit for the great
+work they were asked to do. We must go back to Athens to find another
+instance of a society so small in numbers, and yet capable of such an
+outburst of ability and force. They were of sound English stock, with
+a slight admixture of the Huguenots, the best blood of France; and
+although for a century and a half they had seemed to stagnate in
+the New World, they were strong, fruitful, and effective beyond the
+measure of ordinary races when the hour of peril and trial was at
+hand.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE WASHINGTONS
+
+
+Such was the world and such the community which counted as a small
+fraction the Washington family. Our immediate concern is with that
+family, for before we approach the man we must know his ancestors. The
+greatest leader of scientific thought in this century has come to
+the aid of the genealogist, and given to the results of the latter's
+somewhat discredited labors a vitality and meaning which it seemed
+impossible that dry and dusty pedigrees and barren tables of descent
+should ever possess. We have always selected our race-horses according
+to the doctrines of evolution, and we now study the character of a
+great man by examining first the history of his forefathers.
+
+Washington made so great an impression upon the world in his lifetime
+that genealogists at once undertook for him the construction of a
+suitable pedigree. The excellent Sir Isaac Heard, garter king-at-arms,
+worked out a genealogy which seemed reasonable enough, and then wrote
+to the president in relation to it. Washington in reply thanked him
+for his politeness, sent him the Virginian genealogy of his own
+branch, and after expressing a courteous interest said, in his simple
+and direct fashion, that he had been a busy man and had paid but
+little attention to the subject. His knowledge about his English
+forefathers was in fact extremely slight. He had heard merely that
+the first of the name in Virginia had come from one of the northern
+counties of England, but whether from Lancashire or Yorkshire, or one
+still more northerly, he could not tell. Sir Isaac was not thoroughly
+satisfied with the correctness of his own work, but presently Baker
+took it up in his history of Northamptonshire, and perfected it to
+his own satisfaction and that of the world in general. This genealogy
+derived Washington's descent from the owners of the manor of Sulgrave,
+in Northamptonshire, and thence carried it back to the Norman knight,
+Sir William de Hertburn. According to this pedigree the Virginian
+settlers, John and Lawrence, were the sons of Lawrence Washington of
+Sulgrave Manor, and this genealogy was adopted by Sparks and Irving,
+as well as by the public at large. Twenty years ago, however, Colonel
+Chester, by his researches, broke the most essential link in the chain
+forged by Heard and Baker, proving clearly that the Virginian settlers
+could not have been the sons of Lawrence of Sulgrave, as identified by
+the garter king-at-arms. Still more recently the mythical spirit has
+taken violent possession of the Washington ancestry, and an ingenious
+gentleman has traced the pedigree of our first president back to
+Thorfinn and thence to Odin, which is sufficiently remote, dignified,
+and lofty to satisfy the most exacting Welshman that ever lived. Still
+the breach made by Colonel Chester was not repaired, although many
+writers, including some who should have known better, clung with
+undiminished faith to the Heard pedigree. It was known that Colonel
+Chester himself believed that he had found the true line, coming, it
+is supposed, through a younger branch of the Sulgrave race, but he
+died before he had discovered the one bit of evidence necessary to
+prove an essential step, and he was too conscientiously accurate to
+leave anything to conjecture. Since then the researches of Mr. Henry
+E. Waters have established the pedigree of the Virginian Washingtons,
+and we are now able to know something of the men from whom George
+Washington drew his descent.
+
+In that interesting land where everything, according to our narrow
+ideas, is upside down, it is customary, when an individual arrives at
+distinction, to confer nobility upon his ancestors instead of upon
+his children. The Washingtons offer an interesting example of the
+application of this Chinese system in the Western world, for, if they
+have not been actually ennobled in recognition of the deeds of their
+great descendant, they have at least become the subjects of intense
+and general interest. Every one of the name who could be discovered
+anywhere has been dragged forth into the light, and has had all that
+was known about him duly recorded and set down. By scanning family
+trees and pedigrees, and picking up stray bits of information here and
+there, we can learn in a rude and general fashion what manner of men
+those were who claimed descent from William of Hertburn, and who bore
+the name of Washington in the mother-country. As Mr. Galton passes
+a hundred faces before the same highly sensitized plate, and gets a
+photograph which is a likeness of no one of his subjects, and yet
+resembles them all, so we may turn the camera of history upon these
+Washingtons, as they flash up for a moment from the dim past, and hope
+to obtain what Professor Huxley calls a "generic" picture of the race,
+even if the outlines be somewhat blurred and indistinct.
+
+In the North of England, in the region conquered first by Saxons and
+then by Danes, lies the little village of Washington. It came into the
+possession of Sir William de Hertburn, and belonged to him at the time
+of the Boldon Book in 1183. Soon after, he or his descendants took
+the name of De Wessyngton, and there they remained for two centuries,
+knights of the palatinate, holding their lands by a military tenure,
+fighting in all the wars, and taking part in tournaments with becoming
+splendor. By the beginning of the fifteenth century the line of feudal
+knights of the palatinate was extinct, and the manor passed from the
+family by the marriage of Dionisia de Wessyngton. But the main stock
+had in the mean time thrown out many offshoots, which had taken firm
+root in other parts and in many counties of England. We hear of
+several who came in various ways to eminence. There was the learned
+and vigorous prior of Durham, John de Wessyngton, probably one of the
+original family, and the name appears in various places after his time
+in records and on monuments, indicating a flourishing and increasing
+race. Lawrence Washington, the direct ancestor of the first President
+of the United States, was, in the sixteenth century, the mayor of
+Northampton, and received from King Henry VIII. the manor of Sulgrave
+in 1538. In the next century we find traces of Robert Washington of
+the Adwick family, a rich merchant of Leeds, and of his son Joseph
+Washington, a learned lawyer and author, of Gray's Inn. About the same
+time we hear of Richard Washington and Philip Washington holding high
+places at University College, Oxford. The Sulgrave branch, however,
+was the most numerous and prosperous. From the mayor of Northampton
+were descended Sir William Washington, who married the half-sister of
+George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham; Sir Henry Washington, who made a
+desperate defense of Worcester against the forces of the Parliament in
+1646; Lieutenant-Colonel James Washington, who fell at the siege of
+Pontefract, fighting for King Charles; another James, of a later time,
+who was implicated in Monmouth's rebellion, fled to Holland and became
+the progenitor of a flourishing and successful family, which has
+spread to Germany and there been ennobled; Sir Lawrence Washington, of
+Garsdon, whose grand-daughter married Robert Shirley, Baron Ferrers;
+and others of less note, but all men of property and standing. They
+seem to have been a successful, thrifty race, owning lands and
+estates, wise magistrates and good soldiers, marrying well, and
+increasing their wealth and strength from generation to generation.
+They were of Norman stock, knights and gentlemen in the full sense of
+the word before the French Revolution, and we can detect in them here
+and there a marked strain of the old Norse blood, carrying with it
+across the centuries the wild Berserker spirit which for centuries
+made the adventurous Northmen the terror of Europe. They were a strong
+race evidently, these Washingtons, whom we see now only by glimpses
+through the mists of time, not brilliant apparently, never winning the
+very highest fortune, having their failures and reverses no doubt,
+but on the whole prudent, bold men, always important in their several
+stations, ready to fight and ready to work, and as a rule successful
+in that which they set themselves to do.
+
+In 1658 the two brothers, John and Lawrence, appeared in Virginia. As
+has been proved by Mr. Waters, they were of the Sulgrave family,
+the sons of Lawrence Washington, fifth son of the elder Lawrence of
+Sulgrave and Brington. The father of the emigrants was a fellow of
+Brasenose College, Oxford, and rector of Purleigh, from which living
+he was ejected by the Puritans as both "scandalous" and "malignant."
+That he was guilty of the former charge we may well doubt; but that he
+was, in the language of the time, "malignant," must be admitted, for
+all his family, including his brothers, Sir William Washington of
+Packington, and Sir John Washington of Thrapston, his nephew, Sir
+Henry Washington, and his nephew-in-law, William Legge, ancestor of
+the Earl of Dartmouth, were strongly on the side of the king. In a
+marriage which seems to have been regarded as beneath the dignity of
+the family, and in the poverty consequent upon the ejectment from
+his living, we can find the reason for the sons of the Rev. Lawrence
+Washington going forth into Virginia to find their fortune, and flying
+from the world of victorious Puritanism which offered just then so
+little hope to royalists like themselves. Yet what was poverty in
+England was something much more agreeable in the New World of America.
+The emigrant brothers at all events seem to have had resources of a
+sufficient kind, and to have been men of substance, for they purchased
+lands and established themselves at Bridges Creek, in Westmoreland
+County. With this brief statement, Lawrence disappears, leaving us
+nothing further than the knowledge that he had numerous descendants.
+John, with whom we are more concerned, figures at once in the colonial
+records of Maryland. He made complaint to the Maryland authorities,
+soon after his arrival, against Edward Prescott, merchant, and captain
+of the ship in which he had come over, for hanging a woman during the
+voyage for witchcraft. We have a letter of his, explaining that he
+could not appear at the first trial because he was about to baptize
+his son, and had bidden the neighbors and gossips to the feast. A
+little incident this, dug out of the musty records, but it shows us an
+active, generous man, intolerant of oppression, public-spirited and
+hospitable, social, and friendly in his new relations. He soon after
+was called to mourn the death of his English wife and of two children,
+but he speedily consoled himself by taking a second wife, Anne Pope,
+by whom he had three children, Lawrence, John, and Anne. According to
+the Virginian tradition, John Washington the elder was a surveyor, and
+made a location of lands which was set aside because they had been
+assigned to the Indians. It is quite apparent that he was a forehanded
+person who acquired property and impressed himself upon his neighbors.
+In 1667, when he had been but ten years in the colony, he was chosen
+to the House of Burgesses; and eight years later he was made a colonel
+and sent with a thousand men to join the Marylanders in destroying
+the "Susquehannocks," at the "Piscataway" fort, on account of some
+murdering begun by another tribe. As a feat of arms, the expedition
+was not a very brilliant affair. The Virginians and Marylanders killed
+half a dozen Indian chiefs during a parley, and then invested the
+fort. After repulsing several sorties, they stupidly allowed the
+Indians to escape in the night and carry murder and pillage through
+the outlying settlements, lighting up first the flames of savage war
+and then the fiercer fire of domestic insurrection. In the next year
+we hear again of John Washington in the House of Burgesses, when Sir
+William Berkeley assailed his troops for the murder of the Indians
+during the parley. Popular feeling, however, was clearly with the
+colonel, for nothing was done and the matter dropped. At that point,
+too, in 1676, John Washington disappears from sight, and we know only
+that as his will was proved in 1677, he must have died soon after the
+scene with Berkeley. He was buried in the family vault at Bridges
+Creek, and left a good estate to be divided among his children. The
+colonel was evidently both a prudent and popular man, and quite
+disposed to bustle about in the world in which he found himself. He
+acquired lands, came to the front at once as a leader although a
+new-comer in the country, was evidently a fighting man as is shown by
+his selection to command the Virginian forces, and was honored by his
+neighbors, who gave his name to the parish in which he dwelt. Then
+he died and his son Lawrence reigned in his stead, and became by his
+wife, Mildred Warner, the father of John, Augustine, and Mildred
+Washington.
+
+This second son, Augustine, farmer and planter like his forefathers,
+married first Jane Butler, by whom he had three sons and a daughter,
+and second, Mary Ball, by whom he had four sons and two daughters. The
+eldest child of these second nuptials was named George, and was born
+on February 11 (O.S.), 1732, at Bridges Creek. The house in which
+this event occurred was a plain, wooden farmhouse of the primitive
+Virginian pattern, with four rooms on the ground floor, an attic story
+with a long, sloping roof, and a massive brick chimney. Three years
+after George Washington's birth it is said to have been burned, and
+the family for this or some other reason removed to another estate in
+what is now Stafford County. The second house was like the first, and
+stood on rising ground looking across a meadow to the Rappahannock,
+and beyond the river to the village of Fredericksburg, which was
+nearly opposite. Here, in 1743, Augustine Washington died somewhat
+suddenly, at the age of forty-nine, from an attack of gout brought on
+by exposure in the rain, and was buried with his fathers in the old
+vault at Bridges Creek. Here, too, the boyhood of Washington was
+passed, and therefore it becomes necessary to look about us and see
+what we can learn of this important period of his life.
+
+We know nothing about his father, except that he was kindly and
+affectionate, attached to his wife and children, and apparently
+absorbed in the care of his estates. On his death the children came
+wholly under the maternal influence and direction. Much has been
+written about the "mother of Washington," but as a matter of fact,
+although she lived to an advanced age, we know scarcely more about her
+than we do about her husband. She was of gentle birth, and possessed
+a vigorous character and a good deal of business capacity. The
+advantages of education were given in but slight measure to the
+Virginian ladies of her time, and Mrs. Washington offered no exception
+to the general rule. Her reading was confined to a small number of
+volumes, chiefly of a devotional character, her favorite apparently
+being Hale's "Moral and Divine Contemplations." She evidently knew no
+language but her own, and her spelling was extremely bad even in that
+age of uncertain orthography. Certain qualities, however, are clear to
+us even now through all the dimness. We can see that Mary Washington
+was gifted with strong sense, and had the power of conducting business
+matters providently and exactly. She was an imperious woman, of strong
+will, ruling her kingdom alone. Above all she was very dignified, very
+silent, and very sober-minded. That she was affectionate and loving
+cannot be doubted, for she retained to the last a profound hold upon
+the reverential devotion of her son, and yet as he rose steadily to
+the pinnacle of human greatness, she could only say that "George
+had been a good boy, and she was sure he would do his duty." Not a
+brilliant woman evidently, not one suited to shine in courts, conduct
+intrigues, or adorn literature, yet able to transmit moral qualities
+to her oldest son, which, mingled with those of the Washingtons, were
+of infinite value in the foundation of a great Republic. She found
+herself a widow at an early age, with a family of young children to
+educate and support. Her means were narrow, for although Augustine
+Washington was able to leave what was called a landed estate to each
+son, it was little more than idle capital, and the income in ready
+money was by no means so evident as the acres.
+
+Many are the myths, and deplorably few the facts, that have come
+down to us in regard to Washington's boyhood. For the former we are
+indebted to the illustrious Weems, and to that personage a few more
+words must be devoted. Weems has been held up to the present age
+in various ways, usually, it must be confessed, of an unflattering
+nature, and "mendacious" is the adjective most commonly applied to
+him. There has been in reality a good deal of needless confusion about
+Weems and his book, for he was not a complex character, and neither he
+nor his writings are difficult to value or understand. By profession a
+clergyman or preacher, by nature an adventurer, Weems loved notoriety,
+money, and a wandering life. So he wrote books which he correctly
+believed would be popular, and sold them not only through the regular
+channels, but by peddling them himself as he traveled about the
+country. In this way he gratified all his propensities, and no doubt
+derived from life a good deal of simple pleasure. Chance brought him
+near Washington in the closing days, and his commercial instinct
+told him that here was the subject of all others for his pen and
+his market. He accordingly produced the biography which had so much
+success. Judged solely as literature, the book is beneath contempt.
+The style is turgid, overloaded, and at times silly. The statements
+are loose, the mode of narration confused and incoherent, and the
+moralizing is flat and common-place to the last degree. Yet there
+was a certain sincerity of feeling underneath all the bombast and
+platitudes, and this saved the book. The biography did not go, and was
+not intended to go, into the hands of the polite society of the great
+eastern towns. It was meant for the farmers, the pioneers, and the
+backwoodsmen of the country. It went into their homes, and passed with
+them beyond the Alleghanies and out to the plains and valleys of the
+great West. The very defects of the book helped it to success among
+the simple, hard-working, hard-fighting race engaged in the conquest
+of the American continent. To them its heavy and tawdry style, its
+staring morals, and its real patriotism all seemed eminently befitting
+the national hero, and thus Weems created the Washington of the
+popular fancy. The idea grew up with the country, and became so
+ingrained in the popular thought that finally everybody was affected
+by it, and even the most stately and solemn of the Washington
+biographers adopted the unsupported tales of the itinerant parson and
+book-peddler.
+
+In regard to the public life of Washington, Weems took the facts known
+to every one, and drawn for the most part from the gazettes. He then
+dressed them up in his own peculiar fashion and gave them to the
+world. All this, forming of course nine tenths of his book, has
+passed, despite its success, into oblivion. The remaining tenth
+described Washington's boyhood until his fourteenth or fifteenth year,
+and this, which is the work of the author's imagination, has lived.
+Weems, having set himself up as absolutely the only authority as to
+this period, has been implicitly followed, and has thus come to demand
+serious consideration. Until Weems is weighed and disposed of, we
+cannot even begin an attempt to get at the real Washington.
+
+Weems was not a cold-blooded liar, a mere forger of anecdotes. He was
+simply a man destitute of historical sense, training, or morals, ready
+to take the slenderest fact and work it up for the purposes of the
+market until it became almost as impossible to reduce it to its
+original dimensions as it was for the fisherman to get the Afrit back
+into his jar. In a word, Weems was an approved myth-maker. No better
+example can be given than the way in which he described himself. It
+is believed that he preached once, and possibly oftener, to a
+congregation which numbered Washington among its members. Thereupon he
+published himself in his book as the rector of Mount Vernon parish.
+There was, to begin with, no such parish. There was Truro parish, in
+which was a church called indifferently Pohick or Mount Vernon church.
+Of this church Washington was a vestryman until 1785, when he joined
+the church at Alexandria. The Rev. Lee Massey was the clergyman of the
+Mount Vernon church, and the church at Alexandria had nothing to do
+with Mount Vernon. There never was, moreover, such a person as the
+rector of Mount Vernon parish, but it was the Weems way of treating
+his appearance before the great man, and of deceiving the world with
+the notion of an intimacy which the title implied.
+
+Weems, of course, had no difficulty with the public life, but in
+describing the boyhood he was thrown on his own resources, and out
+of them he evolved the cherry-tree, the refusal to fight or permit
+fighting among the boys at school, and the initials in the garden.
+This last story is to the effect that Augustine Washington planted
+seeds in such a manner that when they sprouted they formed on the
+earth the initials of his son's name, and the boy being much delighted
+thereby, the father explained to him that it was the work of the
+Creator, and thus inculcated a profound belief in God. This tale
+is taken bodily from Dr. Beattie's biographical sketch of his son,
+published in England in 1799, and may be dismissed at once. As to the
+other two more familiar anecdotes there is not a scintilla of evidence
+that they had any foundation, and with them may be included the colt
+story, told by Mr. Custis, a simple variation of the cherry-tree
+theme, which is Washington's early love of truth. Weems says that
+his stories were told him by a lady, and "a good old gentleman," who
+remembered the incidents, while Mr. Custis gives no authority for his
+minute account of a trivial event over a century old when he wrote.
+To a writer who invented the rector of Mount Vernon, the further
+invention of a couple of Boswells would be a trifle. I say Boswells
+advisedly, for these stories are told with the utmost minuteness, and
+the conversations between Washington and his father are given as if
+from a stenographic report. How Mr. Custis, usually so accurate, came
+to be so far infected with the Weems myth as to tell the colt story
+after the Weems manner, cannot now be determined. There can be no
+doubt that Washington, like most healthy boys, got into a good deal of
+mischief, and it is not at all impossible that he injured fruit-trees
+and confessed that he had done so. It may be accepted as certain that
+he rode and mastered many unbroken thoroughbred colts, and it is
+possible that one of them burst a blood-vessel in the process and
+died, and that the boy promptly told his mother of the accident. But
+this is the utmost credit which these two anecdotes can claim. Even so
+much as this cannot be said of certain other improving tales of like
+nature. That Washington lectured his playmates on the wickedness of
+fighting, and in the year 1754 allowed himself to be knocked down in
+the presence of his soldiers, and thereupon begged his assailant's
+pardon for having spoken roughly to him, are stories so silly and
+so foolishly impossible that they do not deserve an instant's
+consideration.
+
+There is nothing intrinsically impossible in either the cherry-tree or
+the colt incident, nor would there be in a hundred others which might
+be readily invented. The real point is that these stories, as told by
+Weems and Mr. Custis, are on their face hopelessly and ridiculously
+false. They are so, not merely because they have no vestige of
+evidence to support them, but because they are in every word and
+line the offspring of a period more than fifty years later. No
+English-speaking people, certainly no Virginians, ever thought or
+behaved or talked in 1740 like the personages in Weems's stories,
+whatever they may have done in 1790, or at the beginning of the next
+century. These precious anecdotes belong to the age of Miss Edgeworth
+and Hannah More and Jane Taylor. They are engaging specimens of the
+"Harry and Lucy" and "Purple Jar" morality, and accurately reflect the
+pale didacticism which became fashionable in England at the close of
+the last century. They are as untrue to nature and to fact at the
+period to which they are assigned as would be efforts to depict
+Augustine Washington and his wife in the dress of the French
+revolution discussing the propriety of worshiping the Goddess of
+Reason.
+
+To enter into any serious historical criticism of these stories would
+be to break a butterfly. So much as this even has been said only
+because these wretched fables have gone throughout the world, and it
+is time that they were swept away into the dust-heaps of history. They
+represent Mr. and Mrs. Washington as affected and priggish people,
+given to cheap moralizing, and, what is far worse, they have served
+to place Washington himself in a ridiculous light to an age which has
+outgrown the educational foibles of seventy-five years ago. Augustine
+Washington and his wife were a gentleman and lady of the eighteenth
+century, living in Virginia. So far as we know without guessing or
+conjecture, they were simple, honest, and straight-forward, devoted to
+the care of their family and estate, and doing their duty sensibly and
+after the fashion of their time. Their son, to whom the greatest wrong
+has been done, not only never did anything common or mean, but from
+the beginning to the end of his life he was never for an instant
+ridiculous or affected, and he was as utterly removed from canting
+or priggishness as any human being could well be. Let us therefore
+consign the Weems stories and their offspring to the limbo of
+historical rubbish, and try to learn what the plain facts tell us of
+the boy Washington.
+
+Unfortunately these same facts are at first very few, so few that they
+tell us hardly anything. We know when and where Washington was born;
+and how, when he was little more than three years old,[1] he was taken
+from Bridges Creek to the banks of the Rappahannock. There he was
+placed under the charge of one Hobby, the sexton of the parish, to
+learn his alphabet and his pothooks; and when that worthy man's store
+of learning was exhausted he was sent back to Bridges Creek, soon
+after his father's death, to live with his half-brother Augustine,
+and obtain the benefits of a school kept by a Mr. Williams. There he
+received what would now be called a fair common-school education,
+wholly destitute of any instruction in languages, ancient or modern,
+but apparently with some mathematical training.
+
+[Footnote 1: There is a conflict about the period of this removal (see
+above, p. 37). Tradition places it in 1735, but the Rev. Mr. McGuire
+(_Religious Opinions of Washington_) puts it in 1739.]
+
+That he studied faithfully cannot be doubted, and we know, too, that
+he matured early, and was a tall, active, and muscular boy. He could
+outwalk and outrun and outride any of his companions. As he could
+no doubt have thrashed any of them too, he was, in virtue of these
+qualities, which are respected everywhere by all wholesome minds, and
+especially by boys, a leader among his school-fellows. We know further
+that he was honest and true, and a lad of unusual promise, not because
+of the goody-goody anecdotes of the myth-makers, but because he
+was liked and trusted by such men as his brother Lawrence and Lord
+Fairfax.
+
+There he was, at all events, in his fourteenth year, a big, strong,
+hearty boy, offering a serious problem to his mother, who was
+struggling along with many acres, little money, and five children.
+Mrs. Washington's chief desire naturally was to put George in the way
+of earning a living, which no doubt seemed far more important than
+getting an education, and, as he was a sober-minded boy, the same idea
+was probably profoundly impressed on his own mind also. This condition
+of domestic affairs led to the first attempt to give Washington a
+start in life, which has been given to us until very lately in a
+somewhat decorated form. The fact is, that in casting about for
+something to do, it occurred to some one, very likely to the boy
+himself, that it would be a fine idea to go to sea. His masculine
+friends and relatives urged the scheme upon Mrs. Washington, who
+consented very reluctantly, if at all, not liking the notion of
+parting with her oldest son, even in her anxiety to have him earn his
+bread. When it came to the point, however, she finally decided against
+his going, determined probably by a very sensible letter from her
+brother, Joseph Ball, an English lawyer. In all the ornamented
+versions we are informed that the boy was to enter the royal navy,
+and that a midshipman's warrant was procured for him. There does not
+appear to be any valid authority for the royal navy, the warrant, or
+the midshipman. The contemporary Virginian letters speak simply of
+"going to sea," while Mr. Ball says distinctly that the plan was to
+enter the boy on a tobacco-ship, with an excellent chance of being
+pressed on a man-of-war, and a very faint prospect of either getting
+into the navy, or even rising to be the captain of one of the petty
+trading-vessels familiar to Virginian planters. Some recent writers
+have put Mr. Ball aside as not knowing what was intended in regard to
+his nephew, but in view of the difficulty at that time of obtaining
+commissions in the navy without great political influence, it seems
+probable that Mrs. Washington's brother knew very well what he was
+talking about, and he certainly wrote a very sensible letter. A bold,
+adventurous boy, eager to earn his living and make his way in the
+world, would, like many others before him, look longingly to the sea
+as the highway to fortune and success. To Washington the romance of
+the sea was represented by the tobacco-ship creeping up the river and
+bringing all the luxuries and many of the necessaries of life from
+vaguely distant countries. No doubt he wished to go on one of these
+vessels and try his luck, and very possibly the royal navy was hoped
+for as the ultimate result. The effort was certainly made to send
+him to sea, but it failed, and he went back to school to study more
+mathematics.
+
+Apart from the fact that the exact sciences in moderate degree were
+about all that Mr. Williams could teach, this branch of learning had
+an immediate practical value, inasmuch as surveying was almost the
+only immediately gainful pursuit open to a young Virginia gentleman,
+who sorely needed a little ready money that he might buy slaves and
+work a plantation. So Washington studied on for two years more, and
+fitted himself to be a surveyor. There are still extant some early
+papers belonging to this period, chiefly fragments of school
+exercises, which show that he already wrote the bold, handsome
+hand with which the world was to become familiar, and that he made
+geometrical figures and notes of surveys with the neatness and
+accuracy which clung to him in all the work of his life, whether great
+or small. Among those papers, too, were found many copies of legal
+forms, and a set of rules, over a hundred in number, as to etiquette
+and behavior, carefully written out. It has always been supposed that
+these rules were copied, but it was reserved apparently for the storms
+of a mighty civil war to lay bare what may have been, if not the
+source of the rules themselves, the origin and suggestion of their
+compilation. At that time a little volume was found in Virginia
+bearing the name of George Washington in a boyish hand on the
+fly-leaf, and the date 1742. The book was entitled, "The Young Man's
+Companion." It was an English work, and had passed through thirteen
+editions, which was little enough in view of its varied and extensive
+information. It was written by W. Mather, in a plain and easy style,
+and treated of arithmetic, surveying, forms for legal documents, the
+measuring of land and lumber, gardening, and many other useful topics,
+and it contained general precepts which, with the aid of Hale's
+"Contemplations," may readily have furnished the hints for the rules
+found in manuscript among Washington's papers.[1] These rules were in
+the main wise and sensible, and it is evident they had occupied deeply
+the boy's mind.[2] They are for the most part concerned with the
+commonplaces of etiquette and good manners, but there is something not
+only apt but quite prophetic in the last one, "Labor to keep alive in
+your breast that little spark of celestial fire called conscience." To
+suppose that Washington's character was formed by these sententious
+bits of not very profound wisdom would be absurd; but that a series of
+rules which most lads would have regarded as simply dull should have
+been written out and pondered by this boy indicates a soberness and
+thoughtfulness of mind which certainly are not usual at that age.
+The chief thought that runs through all the sayings is to practice
+self-control, and no man ever displayed that most difficult of virtues
+to such a degree as George Washington. It was no ordinary boy who took
+such a lesson as this to heart before he was fifteen, and carried it
+into his daily life, never to be forgotten. It may also be said that
+very few boys ever needed it more; but those persons who know what
+they chiefly need, and pursue it, are by no means common.
+
+[Footnote 1: An account of this volume was given in the _New York
+Tribune_ in 1866, and also in the _Historical Magazine_ (x. 47).]
+
+[Footnote 2: The most important are given in Sparks' _Writings of
+Washington_, ii. 412, and they may be found complete in the little
+pamphlet concerning them, excellently edited by Dr. J.M. Toner, of
+Washington.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+ON THE FRONTIER
+
+
+While Washington was working his way through the learning purveyed
+by Mr. Williams, he was also receiving another education, of a much
+broader and better sort, from the men and women among whom he found
+himself, and with whom he made friends. Chief among them was his
+eldest brother, Lawrence, fourteen years his senior, who had been
+educated in England, had fought with Vernon at Carthagena, and had
+then returned to Virginia, to be to him a generous father and a loving
+friend. As the head of the family, Lawrence Washington had received
+the lion's share of the property, including the estate at Hunting
+Creek, on the Potomac, which he christened Mount Vernon, after his
+admiral, and where he settled down and built him a goodly house. To
+this pleasant spot George Washington journeyed often in vacation
+time, and there he came to live and further pursue his studies, after
+leaving school in the autumn of 1747.
+
+Lawrence Washington had married the daughter of William Fairfax, the
+proprietor of Belvoir, a neighboring plantation, and the agent for
+the vast estates held by his family in Virginia. George Fairfax, Mrs.
+Washington's brother, had married a Miss Gary, and thus two large and
+agreeable family connections were thrown open to the young surveyor
+when he emerged from school. The chief figure, however, in that
+pleasant winter of 1747-48, so far as an influence upon the character
+of Washington is concerned, was the head of the family into which
+Lawrence Washington had married. Thomas, Lord Fairfax, then sixty
+years of age, had come to Virginia to live upon and look after the
+kingdom which he had inherited in the wilderness. He came of a noble
+and distinguished race. Graduating at Oxford with credit, he served in
+the army, dabbled in literature, had his fling in the London world,
+and was jilted by a beauty who preferred a duke, and gave her faithful
+but less titled lover an apparently incurable wound. His life having
+been thus early twisted and set awry, Lord Fairfax, when well past his
+prime, had determined finally to come to Virginia, bury himself in the
+forests, and look after the almost limitless possessions beyond the
+Blue Ridge, which he had inherited from his maternal grandfather, Lord
+Culpeper, of unsavory Restoration memory. It was a piece of great
+good-fortune which threw in Washington's path this accomplished
+gentleman, familiar with courts and camps, disappointed, but not
+morose, disillusioned, but still kindly and generous. From him the boy
+could gain that knowledge of men and manners which no school can give,
+and which is as important in its way as any that a teacher can impart.
+
+Lord Fairfax and Washington became fast friends. They hunted the fox
+together, and hunted him hard. They engaged in all the rough sports
+and perilous excitements which Virginia winter life could afford, and
+the boy's bold and skillful riding, his love of sports and his fine
+temper, commended him to the warm and affectionate interest of the old
+nobleman. Other qualities, too, the experienced man of the world saw
+in his young companion: a high and persistent courage, robust and calm
+sense, and, above all, unusual force of will and character. Washington
+impressed profoundly everybody with whom he was brought into personal
+contact, a fact which is one of the most marked features of his
+character and career, and one which deserves study more than almost
+any other. Lord Fairfax was no exception to the rule. He saw in
+Washington not simply a promising, brave, open-hearted boy, diligent
+in practicing his profession, and whom he was anxious to help, but
+something more; something which so impressed him that he confided to
+this lad a task which, according to its performance, would affect both
+his fortune and his peace. In a word, he trusted Washington, and told
+him, as the spring of 1748 was opening, to go forth and survey the
+vast Fairfax estates beyond the Ridge, define their boundaries, and
+save them from future litigation. With this commission from Lord
+Fairfax, Washington entered on the first period of his career. He
+passed it on the frontier, fighting nature, the Indians, and the
+French. He went in a schoolboy; he came out the first soldier in the
+colonies, and one of the leading men of Virginia. Let us pause a
+moment and look at him as he stands on the threshold of this momentous
+period, rightly called momentous because it was the formative period
+in the life of such a man.
+
+[Illustration: LAWRENCE WASHINGTON]
+
+He had just passed his sixteenth birthday. He was tall and muscular,
+approaching the stature of more than six feet which he afterwards
+attained. He was not yet filled out to manly proportions, but was
+rather spare, after the fashion of youth. He had a well-shaped,
+active figure, symmetrical except for the unusual length of the arms,
+indicating uncommon strength. His light brown hair was drawn back from
+a broad forehead, and grayish-blue eyes looked happily, and perhaps a
+trifle soberly, on the pleasant Virginia world about him. The face was
+open and manly, with a square, massive jaw, and a general expression
+of calmness and strength. "Fair and florid," big and strong, he was,
+take him for all in all, as fine a specimen of his race as could be
+found in the English colonies.
+
+Let us look a little closer through the keen eyes of one who studied
+many faces to good purpose. The great painter of portraits, Gilbert
+Stuart, tells us of Washington that he never saw in any man such large
+eye-sockets, or such a breadth of nose and forehead between the
+eyes, and that he read there the evidences of the strongest passions
+possible to human nature. John Bernard the actor, a good observer,
+too, saw in Washington's face, in 1797, the signs of an habitual
+conflict and mastery of passions, witnessed by the compressed mouth
+and deeply indented brow. The problem had been solved then; but in
+1748, passion and will alike slumbered, and no man could tell which
+would prevail, or whether they would work together to great purpose
+or go jarring on to nothingness. He rises up to us out of the past in
+that early springtime a fine, handsome, athletic boy, beloved by those
+about him, who found him a charming companion and did not guess that
+he might be a terribly dangerous foe. He rises up instinct with life
+and strength, a being capable, as we know, of great things whether for
+good or evil, with hot blood pulsing in his veins and beating in his
+heart, with violent passions and relentless will still undeveloped;
+and no one in all that jolly, generous Virginian society even dimly
+dreamed what that development would be, or what it would mean to the
+world.
+
+It was in March, 1748, that George Fairfax and Washington set forth on
+their adventures, and passing through Ashby's Gap in the Blue Ridge,
+entered the valley of Virginia. Thence they worked their way up the
+valley of the Shenandoah, surveying as they went, returned and swam
+the swollen Potomac, surveyed the lands about its south branch and in
+the mountainous region of Frederick County, and finally reached Mount
+Vernon again on April 12. It was a rough experience for a beginner,
+but a wholesome one, and furnished the usual vicissitudes of frontier
+life. They were wet, cold, and hungry, or warm, dry, and well fed, by
+turns. They slept in a tent, or the huts of the scattered settlers,
+and oftener still beneath the stars. They met a war party of Indians,
+and having plied them with liquor, watched one of their mad dances
+round the camp-fire. In another place they came on a straggling
+settlement of Germans, dull, patient, and illiterate, strangely unfit
+for the life of the wilderness. All these things, as well as the
+progress of their work and their various resting-places, Washington
+noted down briefly but methodically in a diary, showing in these rough
+notes the first evidences of that keen observation of nature and men
+and of daily incidents which he developed to such good purpose in
+after-life. There are no rhapsodies and no reflections in these hasty
+jottings, but the employments and the discomforts are all set down in
+a simple and matter-of-fact way, which omitted no essential thing and
+excluded all that was worthless. His work, too, was well done, and
+Lord Fairfax was so much pleased by the report that he moved across
+the Blue Ridge, built a hunting lodge preparatory to something more
+splendid which never came to pass, and laid out a noble manor, to
+which he gave the name of Greenway Court. He also procured for
+Washington an appointment as a public surveyor, which conferred
+authority on his surveys and provided him with regular work. Thus
+started, Washington toiled at his profession for three years, living
+and working as he did on his first expedition. It was a rough life,
+but a manly and robust one, and the men who live it, although often
+rude and coarse, are never weak or effeminate. To Washington it was
+an admirable school. It strengthened his muscles and hardened him to
+exposure and fatigue. It accustomed him to risks and perils of various
+kinds, and made him fertile in expedients and confident of himself,
+while the nature of his work rendered him careful and industrious.
+That his work was well done is shown by the fact that his surveys were
+considered of the first authority, and stand unquestioned to this day,
+like certain other work which he was subsequently called to do. It was
+part of his character, when he did anything, to do it in a lasting
+fashion, and it is worth while to remember that the surveys he made as
+a boy were the best that could be made.
+
+He wrote to a friend at this time: "Since you received my letter of
+October last, I have not slept above three or four nights in a bed,
+but, after walking a good deal all the day, I have lain down before
+the fire upon a little hay, straw, fodder, or a bearskin, whichever
+was to be had, with man, wife, and children, like dogs and cats; and
+happy is he who gets the berth nearest the fire. Nothing would make it
+pass off tolerably but a good reward. A doubloon is my constant gain
+every day that the weather will permit of my going out, and sometimes
+six pistoles." He was evidently a thrifty lad, and honestly pleased
+with honest earnings. He was no mere adventurous wanderer, but a man
+working for results in money, reputation, or some solid value,
+and while he worked and earned he kept an observant eye upon the
+wilderness, and bought up when he could the best land for himself and
+his family, laying the foundations of the great landed estate of which
+he died possessed.
+
+There was also a lighter and pleasanter side to this hard-working
+existence, which was quite as useful, and more attractive, than
+toiling in the woods and mountains. The young surveyor passed much of
+his time at Greenway Court, hunting the fox and rejoicing in all field
+sports which held high place in that kingdom, while at the same time
+he profited much in graver fashion by his friendship with such a man
+as Lord Fairfax. There, too, he had a chance at a library, and his
+diaries show that he read carefully the history of England and the
+essays of the "Spectator." Neither in early days nor at any other time
+was he a student, for he had few opportunities, and his life from the
+beginning was out of doors and among men. But the idea sometimes put
+forward that Washington cared nothing for reading or for books is an
+idle one. He read at Greenway Court and everywhere else when he had an
+opportunity. He read well, too, and to some purpose, studying men and
+events in books as he did in the world, for though he never talked of
+his reading, preserving silence on that as on other things concerning
+himself, no one ever was able to record an instance in which he showed
+himself ignorant of history or of literature. He was never a learned
+man, but so far as his own language could carry him he was an educated
+one. Thus while he developed the sterner qualities by hard work and a
+rough life, he did not bring back the coarse habits of the backwoods
+and the camp-fire, but was able to refine his manners and improve his
+mind in the excellent society and under the hospitable roof of Lord
+Fairfax.
+
+Three years slipped by, and then a domestic change came which much
+affected Washington's whole life. The Carthagena campaign had
+undermined the strength of Lawrence Washington and sown the seeds of
+consumption, which showed itself in 1749, and became steadily more
+alarming. A voyage to England and a summer at the warm springs were
+tried without success, and finally, as a last resort, the invalid
+sailed for the West Indies, in September, 1751. Thither his brother
+George accompanied him, and we have the fragments of a diary kept
+during this first and last wandering outside his native country. He
+copied the log, noted the weather, and evidently strove to get some
+idea of nautical matters while he was at sea and leading a life
+strangely unfamiliar to a woodsman and pioneer. When they arrived at
+their destination they were immediately asked to breakfast and dine
+with Major Clarke, the military magnate of the place, and our young
+Virginian remarked, with characteristic prudence and a certain touch
+of grim humor, "We went,--myself with some reluctance, as the smallpox
+was in the family." He fell a victim to his good manners, for two
+weeks later he was "strongly attacked with the smallpox," and was
+then housed for a month, getting safely and successfully through
+this dangerous and then almost universal ordeal. Before the disease
+declared itself, however, he went about everywhere, innocently
+scattering infection, and greatly enjoying the pleasures of the
+island. It is to be regretted that any part of this diary should have
+been lost, for it is pleasant reading, and exhibits the writer in an
+agreeable and characteristic fashion. He commented on the country and
+the scenery, inveighed against the extravagance of the charges for
+board and lodging, told of his dinner-parties and his friends, and
+noted the marvelous abundance and variety of the tropical fruits,
+which contrasted strangely with the British dishes of beefsteak and
+tripe. He also mentioned being treated to a ticket to see the play of
+"George Barnwell," on which he offered this cautious criticism:
+"The character of Barnwell and several others were said to be well
+performed. There was music adapted and regularly conducted."
+
+Soon after his recovery Washington returned to Virginia, arriving
+there in February, 1752. The diary concluded with a brief but
+perfectly effective description of Barbadoes, touching on its
+resources and scenery, its government and condition, and the manners
+and customs of its inhabitants. All through these notes we find the
+keenly observant spirit, and the evidence of a mind constantly alert
+to learn. We see also a pleasant, happy temperament, enjoying with
+hearty zest all the pleasures that youth and life could furnish. He
+who wrote these lines was evidently a vigorous, good-humored young
+fellow, with a quick eye for the world opening before him, and for the
+delights as well as the instruction which it offered.
+
+From the sunshine and ease of this tropical winter Washington passed
+to a long season of trial and responsibility at home and abroad. In
+July, 1752, his much-loved brother Lawrence died, leaving George
+guardian of his daughter, and heir to his estates in the event of
+that daughter's death. Thus the current of his home life changed, and
+responsibility came into it, while outside the mighty stream of public
+events changed too, and swept him along in the swelling torrent of a
+world-wide war.
+
+In all the vast wilderness beyond the mountains there was not room for
+both French and English. The rival nations had been for years slowly
+approaching each other, until in 1749 each people proceeded at last to
+take possession of the Ohio country after its own fashion. The French
+sent a military expedition which sank and nailed up leaden plates; the
+English formed a great land company to speculate and make money, and
+both set diligently to work to form Indian alliances. A man of far
+less perception than Lawrence Washington, who had become the chief
+manager of the Ohio Company, would have seen that the conditions on
+the frontier rendered war inevitable, and he accordingly made ready
+for the future by preparing his brother for the career of a soldier,
+so far as it could be done. He brought to Mount Vernon two old
+companions-in-arms of the Carthagena time, Adjutant Muse, a Virginian,
+and Jacob Van Braam, a Dutch soldier of fortune. The former instructed
+Washington in the art of war, tactics, and the manual of arms, the
+latter in fencing and the sword exercise. At the same time Lawrence
+Washington procured for his brother, then only nineteen years of age,
+an appointment as one of the adjutants-general of Virginia, with the
+rank of major. To all this the young surveyor took kindly enough so
+far as we can tell, but his military avocations were interrupted by
+his voyage to Barbadoes, by the illness and death of his brother, and
+by the cares and responsibilities thereby thrust upon him.
+
+Meantime the French aggressions had continued, and French soldiers and
+traders were working their way up from the South and down from the
+North, bullying and cajoling the Indians by turns, taking possession
+of the Ohio country, and selecting places as they went for that
+chain of forts which was to hem in and slowly strangle the English
+settlements. Governor Dinwiddie had sent a commissioner to remonstrate
+against these encroachments, but his envoy had stopped a hundred
+and fifty miles short of the French posts, alarmed by the troublous
+condition of things, and by the defeat and slaughter which the
+Frenchmen had already inflicted upon the Indians. Some more vigorous
+person was evidently needed to go through the form of warning France
+not to trespass on the English wilderness, and thereupon Governor
+Dinwiddie selected for the task George Washington, recently
+reappointed adjutant-general of the northern division, and major in
+the Virginian forces. He was a young man for such an undertaking, not
+yet twenty-two, but clearly of good reputation. It is plain enough
+that Lord Fairfax and others had said to the governor, "Here is the
+very man for you; young, daring, and adventurous, but yet sober-minded
+and responsible, who only lacks opportunity to show the stuff that is
+in him."
+
+Thus, then, in October, 1753, Washington set forth with Van Braam, and
+various servants and horses, accompanied by the boldest of Virginian
+frontiersmen, Christopher Gist. He wrote a report in the form of a
+journal, which was sent to England and much read at the time as part
+of the news of the day, and which has an equal although different
+interest now. It is a succinct, clear, and sober narrative. The little
+party was formed at Will's Creek, and thence through woods and over
+swollen rivers made its way to Logstown. Here they spent some days
+among the Indians, whose leaders Washington got within his grasp after
+much speech-making; and here, too, he met some French deserters from
+the South, and drew from them all the knowledge they possessed of New
+Orleans and the military expeditions from that region. From Logstown
+he pushed on, accompanied by his Indian chiefs, to Venango, on the
+Ohio, the first French outpost. The French officers asked him to sup
+with them. The wine flowed freely, the tongues of the hosts were
+loosened, and the young Virginian, temperate and hard-headed, listened
+to all the conversation, and noted down mentally much that was
+interesting and valuable. The next morning the Indian chiefs,
+prudently kept in the background, appeared, and a struggle ensued
+between the talkative, clever Frenchmen and the quiet, persistent
+Virginian, over the possession of these important savages. Finally
+Washington got off, carrying his chiefs with him, and made his way
+seventy miles further to the fort on French Creek. Here he delivered
+the governor's letter, and while M. de St. Pierre wrote a vague and
+polite answer, he sketched the fort and informed himself in regard to
+the military condition of the post. Then came another struggle over
+the Indians, and finally Washington got off with them once more, and
+worked his way back to Venango. Another struggle for the savages
+followed, rum being always the principal factor in the negotiation,
+and at last the chiefs determined to stay behind. Nevertheless, the
+work had been well done, and the important Half-King remained true to
+the English cause.
+
+Leaving his horses, Washington and Gist then took to the woods on
+foot. The French Indians lay in wait for them and tried to murder
+them, and Gist, like a true frontiersman, was for shooting the
+scoundrel whom they captured. But Washington stayed his hand, and
+they gave the savage the slip and pressed on. It was the middle of
+December, very cold and stormy. In crossing a river, Washington fell
+from the raft into deep water, amid the floating ice, but fought his
+way out, and he and his companion passed the night on an island, with
+their clothes frozen upon them. So through peril and privation, and
+various dangers, stopping in the midst of it all to win another savage
+potentate, they reached the edge of the settlements and thence went
+on to Williamsburg, where great praise and glory were awarded to the
+youthful envoy, the hero of the hour in the little Virginia capital.
+
+It is worth while to pause over this expedition a moment and to
+consider attentively this journal which recounts it, for there are
+very few incidents or documents which tell us more of Washington. He
+was not yet twenty-two when he faced this first grave responsibility,
+and he did his work absolutely well. Cool courage, of course, he
+showed, but also patience and wisdom in handling the Indians, a clear
+sense that the crafty and well-trained Frenchmen could not blind, and
+a strong faculty for dealing with men, always a rare and precious
+gift. As in the little Barbadoes diary, so also in this journal,
+we see, and far more strongly, the penetration and perception that
+nothing could escape, and which set down all things essential and let
+the "huddling silver, little worth," go by. The clearness, terseness,
+and entire sufficiency of the narrative are obvious and lie on the
+surface; but we find also another quality of the man which is one of
+the most marked features in his character, and one which we must dwell
+upon again and again, as we follow the story of his life. Here it
+is that we learn directly for the first time that Washington was a
+profoundly silent man. The gospel of silence has been preached in
+these latter days by Carlyle, with the fervor of a seer and prophet,
+and the world owes him a debt for the historical discredit which he
+has brought upon the man of mere words as compared with the man of
+deeds. Carlyle brushed Washington aside as "a bloodless Cromwell," a
+phrase to which we must revert later on other grounds, and, as
+has already been said, failed utterly to see that he was the most
+supremely silent of the great men of action that the world can show.
+Like Cromwell and Frederic, Washington wrote countless letters, made
+many speeches, and was agreeable in conversation. But this was all in
+the way of business, and a man may be profoundly silent and yet talk a
+great deal. Silence in the fine and true sense is neither mere holding
+of the tongue nor an incapacity of expression. The greatly silent man
+is he who is not given to words for their own sake, and who never
+talks about himself. Both Cromwell, greatest of Englishmen, and the
+great Frederic, Carlyle's especial heroes, were fond of talking of
+themselves. So in still larger measure was Napoleon, and many others
+of less importance. But Washington differs from them all. He had
+abundant power of words, and could use them with much force and point
+when he was so minded, but he never used them needlessly or to hide
+his meaning, and he never talked about himself. Hence the inestimable
+difficulty of knowing him. A brief sentence here and there, a rare
+gleam of light across the page of a letter, is all that we can find.
+The rest is silence. He did as great work as has fallen to the lot of
+man, he wrote volumes of correspondence, he talked with innumerable
+men and women, and of himself he said nothing. Here in this youthful
+journal we have a narrative of wild adventure, wily diplomacy, and
+personal peril, impossible of condensation, and yet not a word of the
+writer's thoughts or feelings. All that was done or said important to
+the business in hand was set down, and nothing was overlooked, but
+that is all. The work was done, and we know how it was done, but the
+man is silent as to all else. Here, indeed, is the man of action and
+of real silence, a character to be much admired and wondered at in
+these or any other days.
+
+Washington's report looked like war, and its author was shortly
+afterwards appointed lieutenant-colonel of a Virginian regiment,
+Colonel Fry commanding. Now began that long experience of human
+stupidity and inefficiency with which Washington was destined to
+struggle through all the years of his military career, suffering from
+them, and triumphing in spite of them to a degree unequaled by any
+other great commander. Dinwiddie, the Scotch governor, was eager
+enough to fight, and full of energy and good intentions, but he was
+hasty and not overwise, and was filled with an excessive idea of his
+prerogatives. The assembly, on its side, was sufficiently patriotic,
+but its members came from a community which for more than half a
+century had had no fighting, and they knew nothing of war or its
+necessities. Unaccustomed to the large affairs into which they were
+suddenly plunged, they displayed a narrow and provincial spirit.
+Keenly alive to their own rights and privileges, they were more
+occupied in quarreling with Dinwiddie than in prosecuting the war. In
+the weak proprietary governments of Maryland and Pennsylvania there
+was the same condition of affairs, with every evil exaggerated
+tenfold. The fighting spirit was dominant in Virginia, but in
+Quaker-ridden Pennsylvania it seems to have been almost extinct. These
+three were not very promising communities to look to for support in a
+difficult and costly war.
+
+With all this inertia and stupidity Washington was called to cope, and
+he rebelled against it in vigorous fashion. Leaving Colonel Fry to
+follow with the main body of troops, Washington set out on April 2,
+1754, with two companies from Alexandria, where he had been recruiting
+amidst most irritating difficulties. He reached Will's Creek three
+weeks later; and then his real troubles began. Captain Trent, the
+timid and halting envoy, who had failed to reach the French, had been
+sent out by the wise authorities to build a fort at the junction of
+the Alleghany and Monongahela, on the admirable site selected by the
+keen eye of Washington. There Trent left his men and returned to
+Will's Creek, where Washington found him, but without the pack-horses
+that he had promised to provide. Presently news came that the French
+in overwhelming numbers had swept down upon Trent's little party,
+captured their fort, and sent them packing back to Virginia.
+Washington took this to be war, and determined at once to march
+against the enemy. Having impressed from the inhabitants, who were not
+bubbling over with patriotism, some horses and wagons, he set out on
+his toilsome march across the mountains.
+
+It was a wild and desolate region, and progress was extremely slow.
+By May 9 he was at the Little Meadows, twenty miles from his
+starting-place; by the 18th at the Youghiogany River, which he
+explored and found unnavigable. He was therefore forced to take up his
+weary march again for the Monongahela, and by the 27th he was at the
+Great Meadows, a few miles further on. The extreme danger of his
+position does not seem to have occurred to him, but he was harassed
+and angered by the conduct of the assembly. He wrote to Governor
+Dinwiddie that he had no idea of giving up his commission. "But," he
+continued, "let me serve voluntarily; then I will, with the greatest
+pleasure in life, devote my services to the expedition, without any
+other reward than the satisfaction of serving my country; but to be
+slaving dangerously for the shadow of pay, through woods, rocks,
+mountains,--I would rather prefer the great toil of a daily laborer,
+and dig for a maintenance, provided I were reduced to the necessity,
+than serve upon such ignoble terms; for I really do not see why the
+lives of his Majesty's subjects in Virginia should be of less value
+than those in other parts of his American dominions, especially when
+it is well known that we must undergo double their hardship." Here we
+have a high-spirited, high-tempered young gentleman, with a contempt
+for shams that it is pleasant to see, and evidently endowed also with
+a fine taste for fighting and not too much patience.
+
+Indignant letters written in vigorous language were, however, of
+little avail, and Washington prepared to shift for himself as best he
+might. His Indian allies brought him news that the French were on the
+march and had thrown out scouting parties. Picking out a place in the
+Great Meadows for a fort, "a charming field for an encounter," he in
+his turn sent out a scouting party, and then on fresh intelligence
+from the Indians set forth himself with forty men to find the enemy.
+After a toilsome march they discovered their foes in camp. The French,
+surprised and surrounded, sprang to arms, the Virginians fired, there
+was a sharp exchange of shots, and all was over. Ten of the French
+were killed and twenty-one were taken prisoners, only one of the party
+escaping to carry back the news.
+
+This little skirmish made a prodigious noise in its day, and was much
+heralded in France. The French declared that Jumonville, the leader,
+who fell at the first fire, was foully assassinated, and that he and
+his party were ambassadors and sacred characters. Paris rang with this
+fresh instance of British perfidy, and a M. Thomas celebrated the
+luckless Jumonville in a solemn epic poem in four books. French
+historians, relying on the account of the Canadian who escaped,
+adopted the same tone, and at a later day mourned over this black
+spot on Washington's character. The French view was simple nonsense.
+Jumonville and his party, as the papers found on Jumonville showed,
+were out on a spying and scouting expedition. They were seeking to
+surprise the English when the English surprised them, with the usual
+backwoods result. The affair has a dramatic interest because it was
+the first blood shed in a great struggle, and was the beginning of a
+series of world-wide wars and social and political convulsions, which
+terminated more than half a century later on the plains of Waterloo.
+It gave immortality to an obscure French officer by linking his name
+with that of his opponent, and brought Washington for the moment
+before the eyes of the world, which little dreamed that this Virginian
+colonel was destined to be one of the principal figures in the great
+revolutionary drama to which the war then beginning was but the
+prologue.
+
+Washington, for his part, well satisfied with his exploit, retraced
+his steps, and having sent his prisoners back to Virginia, proceeded
+to consider his situation. It was not a very cheerful prospect.
+Contrecoeur, with the main body of the French and Indians, was moving
+down from the Monongahela a thousand strong. This of course was to
+have been anticipated, and it does not seem to have in the least
+damped Washington's spirits. His blood was up, his fighting temper
+thoroughly roused, and he prepared to push on. Colonel Fry had died
+meanwhile, leaving Washington in command; but his troops came forward,
+and also not long after a useless "independent" company from South
+Carolina. Thus reinforced Washington advanced painfully some thirteen
+miles, and then receiving sure intelligence of the approach of the
+French in great force fell back with difficulty to the Great Meadows,
+where he was obliged by the exhausted condition of his men to stop. He
+at once resumed work on Fort Necessity, and made ready for a desperate
+defense, for the French were on his heels, and on July 3 appeared at
+the Meadows. Washington offered battle outside the fort, and this
+being declined withdrew to his trenches, and skirmishing went on all
+day. When night fell it was apparent that the end had come. The men
+were starved and worn out. Their muskets in many cases were rendered
+useless by the rain, and their ammunition was spent. The Indians had
+deserted, and the foe outnumbered them four to one. When the French
+therefore offered a parley, Washington was forced reluctantly to
+accept. The French had no stomach for the fight, apparently, and
+allowed the English to go with their arms, exacting nothing but a
+pledge that for a year they would not come to the Ohio.
+
+So ended Washington's first campaign. His friend the Half-King, the
+celebrated Seneca chief, Thanacarishon, who prudently departed on the
+arrival of the French, has left us a candid opinion of Washington and
+his opponents. "The colonel," he said, "was a good-natured man, but
+had no experience; he took upon him to command the Indians as his
+slaves, and would have them every day upon the scout and to attack
+the enemy by themselves, but would by no means take advice from the
+Indians. He lay in one place from one full moon to the other, without
+making any fortifications, except that little thing on the meadow;
+whereas, had he taken advice, and built such fortifications as I
+advised him, he might easily have beat off the French. But the French
+in the engagement acted like cowards, and the English like fools."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Enquiry into the Causes and Alienations of the Delaware
+and Shawanee Indians_, etc. London, 1759. By Charles Thomson,
+afterwards Secretary of Congress.]
+
+There is a deal of truth in this opinion. The whole expedition was
+rash in the extreme. When Washington left Will's Creek he was aware
+that he was going to meet a force of a thousand men with only a
+hundred and fifty raw recruits at his back. In the same spirit he
+pushed on; and after the Jumonville affair, although he knew that the
+wilderness about him was swarming with enemies, he still struggled
+forward. When forced to retreat he made a stand at the Meadows and
+offered battle in the open to his more numerous and more prudent
+foes, for he was one of those men who by nature regard courage as a
+substitute for everything, and who have a contempt for hostile odds.
+He was ready to meet any number of French and Indians with cheerful
+confidence and with real pleasure. He wrote, in a letter which
+soon became famous, that he loved to hear bullets whistle, a sage
+observation which he set down in later years as a folly of youth. Yet
+this boyish outburst, foolish as it was, has a meaning to us, for it
+was essentially true. Washington had the fierce fighting temper of the
+Northmen. He loved battle and danger, and he never ceased to love them
+and to give way to their excitement, although he did not again set
+down such sentiments in boastful phrase that made the world laugh.
+Men of such temper, moreover, are naturally imperious and have a fine
+disregard of consequences, with the result that their allies, Indian
+or otherwise, often become impatient and finally useless. The campaign
+was perfectly wild from the outset, and if it had not been for
+the utter indifference to danger displayed by Washington, and the
+consequent timidity of the French, that particular body of Virginians
+would have been permanently lost to the British Empire.
+
+But we learn from all this many things. It appears that Washington was
+not merely a brave man, but one who loved fighting for its own sake.
+The whole expedition shows an arbitrary temper and the most reckless
+courage, valuable qualities, but here unrestrained, and mixed
+with very little prudence. Some important lessons were learned by
+Washington from the rough teachings of inexorable and unconquerable
+facts. He received in this campaign the first taste of that severe
+experience which by its training developed the self-control and
+mastery of temper for which he became so remarkable. He did not spring
+into life a perfect and impossible man, as is so often represented. On
+the contrary, he was educated by circumstances; but the metal came out
+of the furnace of experience finely tempered, because it was by nature
+of the best and with but little dross to be purged away. In addition
+to all this he acquired for the moment what would now be called a
+European reputation. He was known in Paris as an assassin, and in
+England, thanks to the bullet letter, as a "fanfaron" and brave
+braggart. With these results he wended his way home much depressed in
+spirits, but not in the least discouraged, and fonder of fighting than
+ever.
+
+Virginia, however, took a kinder view of the campaign than did her
+defeated soldier. She appreciated the gallantry of the offer to fight
+in the open and the general conduct of the troops, and her House of
+Burgesses passed a vote of thanks to Washington and his officers, and
+gave money to his men. In August he rejoined his regiment, only to
+renew the vain struggle against incompetence and extravagance, and as
+if this were not enough, his sense of honor was wounded and his temper
+much irritated by the governor's playing false to the prisoners taken
+in the Jumonville fight. While thus engaged, news came that the French
+were off their guard at Fort Duquesne, and Dinwiddie was for having
+the regiment of undisciplined troops march again into the wilderness.
+Washington, however, had learned something, if not a great deal, and
+he demonstrated the folly of such an attempt in a manner too clear to
+be confuted.
+
+Meantime the Burgesses came together, and more money being voted,
+Dinwiddie hit on a notable plan for quieting dissensions between
+regulars and provincials by dividing all the troops into independent
+companies, with no officer higher than a captain. Washington, the
+only officer who had seen fighting and led a regiment, resented quite
+properly this senseless policy, and resigning his commission withdrew
+to Mount Vernon to manage the estate and attend to his own affairs. He
+was driven to this course still more strongly by the original cause of
+Dinwiddie's arrangement. The English government had issued an order
+that officers holding the king's commission should rank provincial
+officers, and that provincial generals and field officers should have
+no rank when a general or field officer holding a royal commission was
+present. The degradation of being ranked by every whipper-snapper who
+might hold a royal commission by virtue, perhaps, of being the bastard
+son of some nobleman's cast-off mistress was more than the temper
+of George Washington at least could bear, and when Governor Sharpe,
+general by the king's commission, and eager to secure the services
+of the best fighter in Virginia, offered him a company and urged his
+acceptance, he replied in language that must have somewhat astonished
+his excellency. "You make mention in your letter," he wrote to Colonel
+Fitzhugh, Governor Sharpe's second in command, "of my continuing in
+the service, and retaining my colonel's commission. This idea has
+filled me with surprise; for, if you think me capable of holding a
+commission that has neither rank nor emolument annexed to it, you must
+entertain a very contemptible opinion of my weakness, and believe
+me to be more empty than the commission itself.... In short, every
+captain bearing the king's commission, every half-pay officer, or
+others, appearing with such a commission, would rank before me.... Yet
+my inclinations are strongly bent to arms."
+
+It was a bitter disappointment to withdraw from military life, but
+Washington had an intense sense of personal dignity; not the small
+vanity of a petty mind, but the quality of a proud man conscious of
+his own strength and purpose. It was of immense value to the American
+people at a later day, and there is something very instructive in this
+early revolt against the stupid arrogance which England has always
+thought it wise to display toward this country. She has paid dearly
+for indulging it, but it has seldom cost her more than when it drove
+Washington from her service, and left in his mind a sense of indignity
+and injustice.
+
+Meantime this Virginian campaigning had started a great movement.
+England was aroused, and it was determined to assail France in Nova
+Scotia, from New York and on the Ohio. In accordance with this plan
+General Braddock arrived in Virginia February 20, 1755, with two
+picked regiments, and encamped at Alexandria. Thither Washington used
+to ride and look longingly at the pomp and glitter, and wish that he
+wore engaged in the service. Presently this desire became known, and
+Braddock, hearing of the young Virginian's past experience, offered
+him a place on his staff with the rank of colonel where he would
+be subject only to the orders of the general, and could serve as a
+volunteer. He therefore accepted at once, and threw himself into
+his new duties with hearty good-will. Every step now was full of
+instruction. At Annapolis he met the governors of the other
+colonies, and was interested and attracted by this association with
+distinguished public men. In the army to which he was attached he
+studied with the deepest attention the best discipline of Europe,
+observing everything and forgetting nothing, thus preparing himself
+unconsciously to use against his teachers the knowledge he acquired.
+
+He also made warm friends with the English officers, and was treated
+with consideration by his commander. The universal practice of all
+Englishmen at that time was to behave contemptuously to the colonists,
+but there was something about Washington which made this impossible.
+They all treated him with the utmost courtesy, vaguely conscious that
+beneath the pleasant, quiet manner there was a strength of character
+and ability such as is rarely found, and that this was a man whom it
+was unsafe to affront. There is no stronger instance of Washington's
+power of impressing himself upon others than that he commanded now
+the respect and affection of his general, who was the last man to be
+easily or favorably affected by a young provincial officer.
+
+Edward Braddock was a veteran soldier, a skilled disciplinarian, and a
+rigid martinet. He was narrow-minded, brutal, and brave. He had led a
+fast life in society, indulging in coarse and violent dissipations,
+and was proud with the intense pride of a limited intelligence and a
+nature incapable of physical fear. It would be difficult to conceive
+of a man more unfit to be entrusted with the task of marching through
+the wilderness and sweeping the French from the Ohio. All the
+conditions which confronted him were unfamiliar and beyond his
+experience. He cordially despised the provincials who were essential
+to his success, and lost no opportunity of showing his contempt for
+them. The colonists on their side, especially in Pennsylvania, gave
+him, unfortunately, only too much ground for irritation and disgust.
+They were delighted to see this brilliant force come from England to
+fight their battles, but they kept on wrangling and holding back,
+refusing money and supplies, and doing nothing. Braddock chafed and
+delayed, swore angrily, and lingered still. Washington strove to help
+him, but defended his country fearlessly against wholesale and furious
+attacks.
+
+Finally the army began to move, but so slowly and after so much delay
+that they did not reach Will's Creek until the middle of May. Here
+came another exasperating pause, relieved only by Franklin, who,
+by giving his own time, ability, and money, supplied the necessary
+wagons. Then they pushed on again, but with the utmost slowness. With
+supreme difficulty they made an elaborate road over the mountains as
+they marched, and did not reach the Little Meadows until June 16. Then
+at last Braddock turned to his young aide for the counsel which had
+already been proffered and rejected many times. Washington advised the
+division of the army, so that the main body could hurry forward in
+light marching order while a detachment remained behind and brought
+up the heavy baggage. This plan was adopted, and the army started
+forward, still too heavily burdened, as Washington thought, but in
+somewhat better trim for the wilderness than before. Their progress,
+quickened as it was, still seemed slow to Washington, but he was taken
+ill with a fever, and finally was compelled by Braddock to stop for
+rest at the ford of Youghiogany. He made Braddock promise that he
+should be brought up before the army reached Fort Duquesne, and wrote
+to his friend Orme that he would not miss the impending battle for
+five hundred pounds.
+
+As soon as his fever abated a little he left Colonel Dunbar, and,
+being unable to sit on a horse, was conveyed to the front in a wagon,
+coming up with the army on July 8. He was just in time, for the next
+day the troops forded the Monongahela and marched to attack the fort.
+The splendid appearance of the soldiers as they crossed the river
+roused Washington's enthusiasm; but he was not without misgivings.
+Franklin had already warned Braddock against the danger of surprise,
+and had been told with a sneer that while these savages might be
+a formidable enemy to raw American militia, they could make no
+impression on disciplined troops. Now at the last moment Washington
+warned the general again and was angrily rebuked.
+
+The troops marched on in ordered ranks, glittering and beautiful.
+Suddenly firing was heard in the front, and presently the van was
+flung back on the main body. Yells and war-whoops resounded on every
+side, and an unseen enemy poured in a deadly fire. Washington begged
+Braddock to throw his men into the woods, but all in vain. Fight in
+platoons they must, or not at all. The result was that they did not
+fight at all. They became panic-stricken, and huddled together,
+overcome with fear, until at last when Braddock was mortally wounded
+they broke in wild rout and fled. Of the regular troops, seven
+hundred, and of the officers, who showed the utmost bravery, sixty-two
+out of eighty-six, were killed or wounded. Two hundred Frenchmen and
+six hundred Indians achieved this signal victory. The only thing
+that could be called fighting on the English side was done by
+the Virginians, "the raw American militia," who, spread out as
+skirmishers, met their foes on their own ground, and were cut off
+after a desperate resistance almost to a man.
+
+Washington at the outset flung himself headlong into the fight. He
+rode up and down the field, carrying orders and striving to rally "the
+dastards," as he afterwards called the regular troops. He endeavored
+to bring up the artillery, but the men would not serve the guns,
+although to set an example he aimed and discharged one himself. All
+through that dreadful carnage he rode fiercely about, raging with the
+excitement of battle, and utterly exposed from beginning to end. Even
+now it makes the heart beat quicker to think of him amid the smoke and
+slaughter as he dashed hither and thither, his face glowing and his
+eyes shining with the fierce light of battle, leading on his own
+Virginians, and trying to stay the tide of disaster. He had two horses
+shot under him and four bullets through his coat. The Indians thought
+he bore a charmed life, while his death was reported in the colonies,
+together with his dying speech, which, he dryly wrote to his brother,
+he had not yet composed.
+
+When the troops broke it was Washington who gathered the fugitives and
+brought off the dying general. It was he who rode on to meet Dunbar,
+and rallying the fugitives enabled the wretched remnants to take up
+their march for the settlements. He it was who laid Braddock in the
+grave four days after the defeat, and read over the dead the solemn
+words of the English service. Wise, sensible, and active in the
+advance, splendidly reckless on the day of battle, cool and collected
+on the retreat, Washington alone emerged from that history of disaster
+with added glory. Again he comes before us as, above all things,
+the fighting man, hot-blooded and fierce in action, and utterly
+indifferent to the danger which excited and delighted him. But the
+earlier lesson had not been useless. He now showed a prudence and
+wisdom in counsel which were not apparent in the first of his
+campaigns, and he no longer thought that mere courage was
+all-sufficient, or that any enemy could be despised. He was plainly
+one of those who could learn. His first experience had borne good
+fruit, and now he had been taught a series of fresh and valuable
+lessons. Before his eyes had been displayed the most brilliant
+European discipline, both in camp and on the march. He had studied
+and absorbed it all, talking with veterans and hearing from them many
+things that he could have acquired nowhere else. Once more had he
+been taught, in a way not to be forgotten, that it is never well to
+underrate one's opponent. He had looked deeper, too, and had seen what
+the whole continent soon understood, that English troops were not
+invincible, that they could be beaten by Indians, and that they were
+after all much like other men. This was the knowledge, fatal in
+after days to British supremacy, which Braddock's defeat brought to
+Washington and to the colonists, and which was never forgotten. Could
+he have looked into the future, he would have seen also in this
+ill-fated expedition an epitome of much future history. The expedition
+began with stupid contempt toward America and all things American, and
+ended in ruin and defeat. It was a bitter experience, much heeded by
+the colonists, but disregarded by England, whose indifference was paid
+for at a heavy cost.
+
+After the hasty retreat, Colonel Dunbar, stricken with panic, fled
+onward to Philadelphia, abandoning everything, and Virginia was left
+naturally in a state of great alarm. The assembly came together, and
+at last, thoroughly frightened, voted abundant money, and ordered a
+regiment of a thousand men to be raised. Washington, who had returned
+to Mount Vernon ill and worn-out, was urged to solicit the command,
+but it was not his way to solicit, and he declined to do so now.
+August 14, he wrote to his mother: "If it is in my power to avoid
+going to the Ohio again, I shall; but if the command is pressed upon
+me by the general voice of the country, and offered upon such terms as
+cannot be objected against, it would reflect dishonor on me to refuse
+it." The same day he was offered the command of all the Virginian
+forces on his own terms, and accepted. Virginia believed in
+Washington, and he was ready to obey her call.
+
+He at once assumed command and betook himself to Winchester, a general
+without an army, but still able to check by his presence the existing
+panic, and ready to enter upon the trying, dreary, and fruitless work
+that lay before him. In April, 1757, he wrote: "I have been posted
+then, for more than twenty months past, upon our cold and barren
+frontiers, to perform, I think I may say, impossibilities; that is, to
+protect from the cruel incursions of a crafty, savage enemy a line of
+inhabitants, of more than three hundred and fifty miles in extent,
+with a force inadequate to the task." This terse statement covers
+all that can be said of the next three years. It was a long struggle
+against a savage foe in front, and narrowness, jealousy, and stupidity
+behind; apparently without any chance of effecting anything, or
+gaining any glory or reward. Troops were voted, but were raised with
+difficulty, and when raised were neglected and ill-treated by the
+wrangling governor and assembly, which caused much ill-suppressed
+wrath in the breast of the commander-in-chief, who labored day and
+night to bring about better discipline in camp, and who wrote long
+letters to Williamsburg recounting existing evils and praying for a
+new militia law.
+
+The troops, in fact, were got out with vast difficulty even under the
+most stinging necessity, and were almost worthless when they came.
+Of one "noble captain" who refused to come, Washington wrote: "With
+coolness and moderation this great captain answered that his wife,
+family, and corn were all at stake; so were those of his soldiers;
+therefore it was impossible for him to come. Such is the example
+of the officers; such the behavior of the men; and upon such
+circumstances depends the safety of our country!" But while the
+soldiers were neglected, and the assembly faltered, and the militia
+disobeyed, the French and Indians kept at work on the long, exposed
+frontier. There panic reigned, farmhouses and villages went up in
+smoke, and the fields were reddened with slaughter at each fresh
+incursion. Gentlemen in Williamsburg bore these misfortunes with
+reasonable fortitude, but Washington raged against the abuses and the
+inaction, and vowed that nothing but the imminent danger prevented his
+resignation. "The supplicating tears of the women," he wrote, "and
+moving petitions of the men melt me into such deadly sorrow that
+I solemnly declare, if I know my own mind, I could offer myself
+a willing sacrifice to the butchering enemy, provided that would
+contribute to the people's ease." This is one of the rare flashes
+of personal feeling which disclose the real man, warm of heart and
+temper, full of human sympathy, and giving vent to hot indignation in
+words which still ring clear and strong across the century that has
+come and gone.
+
+Serious troubles, moreover, were complicated by petty annoyances. A
+Maryland captain, at the head of thirty men, undertook to claim rank
+over the Virginian commander-in-chief because he had held a king's
+commission; and Washington was obliged to travel to Boston in order to
+have the miserable thing set right by Governor Shirley. This affair
+settled, he returned to take up again the old disheartening struggle,
+and his outspoken condemnation of Dinwiddie's foolish schemes and of
+the shortcomings of the government began to raise up backbiters
+and malcontents at Williamsburg. "My orders," he said, "are dark,
+doubtful, and uncertain; to-day approved, to-morrow condemned. Left
+to act and proceed at hazard, accountable for the consequences, and
+blamed without the benefit of defense." He determined nevertheless
+to bear with his trials until the arrival of Lord Loudon, the new
+commander-in-chief, from whom he expected vigor and improvement.
+Unfortunately he was destined to have only fresh disappointment from
+the new general, for Lord Loudon was merely one more incompetent man
+added to the existing confusion. He paid no heed to the South, matters
+continued to go badly in the North, and Virginia was left helpless. So
+Washington toiled on with much discouragement, and the disagreeable
+attacks upon him increased. That it should have been so is not
+surprising, for he wrote to the governor, who now held him in much
+disfavor, to the speaker, and indeed to every one, with a most galling
+plainness. He was only twenty-five, be it remembered, and his high
+temper was by no means under perfect control. He was anything but
+diplomatic at that period of his life, and was far from patient, using
+language with much sincerity and force, and indulging in a blunt irony
+of rather a ferocious kind. When he was accused finally of getting up
+reports of imaginary dangers, his temper gave way entirely. He wrote
+wrathfully to the governor for justice, and added in a letter to
+his friend, Captain Peachey: "As to Colonel C.'s gross and infamous
+reflections on my conduct last spring, it will be needless, I dare
+say, to observe further at this time than that the liberty which he
+has been pleased to allow himself in sporting with my character is
+little else than a comic entertainment, discovering at one view his
+passionate fondness for your friend, his inviolable love of truth,
+his unfathomable knowledge, and the masterly strokes of his wisdom in
+displaying it. You are heartily welcome to make use of any letter or
+letters which I may at any time have written to you; for although
+I keep no copies of epistles to my friends, nor can remember the
+contents of all of them, yet I am sensible that the narrations are
+just, and that truth and honesty will appear in my writings; of which,
+therefore, I shall not be ashamed, though criticism may censure my
+style."
+
+Perhaps a little more patience would have produced better results,
+but it is pleasant to find one man, in that period of stupidity and
+incompetency, who was ready to free his mind in this refreshing way.
+The only wonder is that he was not driven from his command. That they
+insisted on keeping him there shows beyond everything that he
+had already impressed himself so strongly on Virginia that the
+authorities, although they smarted under his attacks, did not dare to
+meddle with him. Dinwiddie and the rest could foil him in obtaining a
+commission in the king's army, but they could not shake his hold upon
+the people.
+
+In the winter of 1758 his health broke down completely. He was so
+ill that he thought that his constitution was seriously injured;
+and therefore withdrew to Mount Vernon, where he slowly recovered.
+Meantime a great man came at last to the head of affairs in England,
+and inspired by William Pitt, fleets and armies went forth to conquer.
+Reviving at the prospect, Washington offered his services to General
+Forbes, who had come to undertake the task which Braddock had failed
+to accomplish. Once more English troops appeared, and a large army
+was gathered. Then the old story began again, and Washington, whose
+proffered aid had been gladly received, chafed and worried all summer
+at the fresh spectacle of delay and stupidity which was presented
+to him. His advice was disregarded, and all the weary business of
+building new roads through the wilderness was once more undertaken. A
+detachment, sent forward contrary to his views, met with the fate of
+Braddock, and as the summer passed, and autumn changed to winter, it
+looked as if nothing would be gained in return for so much toil and
+preparation. But Pitt had conquered the Ohio in Canada, news arrived
+of the withdrawal of the French, the army pressed on, and, with
+Washington in the van, marched into the smoking ruins of Fort
+Duquesne, henceforth to be known to the world as Fort Pitt.
+
+So closed the first period in Washington's public career. We have seen
+him pass through it in all its phases. It shows him as an adventurous
+pioneer, as a reckless frontier fighter, and as a soldier of great
+promise. He learned many things in this time, and was taught much in
+the hard school of adversity. In the effort to conquer Frenchmen and
+Indians he studied the art of war, and at the same time he learned
+to bear with and to overcome the dullness and inefficiency of the
+government he served. Thus he was forced to practise self-control in
+order to attain his ends, and to acquire skill in the management of
+men. There could have been no better training for the work he was to
+do in the after years, and the future showed how deeply he profited by
+it. Let us turn now, for a moment, to the softer and pleasanter side
+of life, and having seen what Washington was, and what he did as a
+fighting man, let us try to know him in the equally important and far
+more attractive domain of private and domestic life.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+LOVE AND MARRIAGE
+
+
+Lewis Willis, of Fredericksburg, who was at school with Washington,
+used to speak of him as an unusually studious and industrious boy, but
+recalled one occasion when he distinguished himself and surprised his
+schoolmates by "romping with one of the largest girls."[1] Half a
+century later, when the days of romping were long over and gone, a
+gentleman writing of a Mrs. Hartley, whom Washington much admired,
+said that the general always liked a fine woman.[2] It is certain that
+from romping he passed rapidly to more serious forms of expressing
+regard, for by the time he was fourteen he had fallen deeply in love
+with Mary Bland of Westmoreland, whom he calls his "Lowland Beauty,"
+and to whom he wrote various copies of verses, preserved amid the
+notes of surveys, in his diary for 1747-48. The old tradition
+identified the "Lowland Beauty" with Miss Lucy Grymes, perhaps
+correctly, and there are drafts of letters addressed to "Dear Sally,"
+which suggest that the mistake in identification might have arisen
+from the fact that there were several ladies who answered to that
+description. In the following sentence from the draft of a letter to a
+masculine sympathizer, also preserved in the tell-tale diary of 1748,
+there is certainly an indication that the constancy of the lover was
+not perfect. "Dear Friend Robin," he wrote: "My place of residence at
+present is at his Lordship's, where I might, were my heart disengaged,
+pass my time very pleasantly, as there is a very agreeable young lady
+in the same house, Colonel George Fairfax's wife's sister. But that
+only adds fuel to the fire, as being often and unavoidably in company
+with her revives my former passion for your Lowland Beauty; whereas
+were I to live more retired from young women, I might in some measure
+alleviate my sorrow by burying that chaste and troublesome passion in
+oblivion; I am very well assured that this will be the only antidote
+or remedy." Our gloomy young gentleman, however, did not take to
+solitude to cure the pangs of despised love, but preceded to calm his
+spirits by the society of this same sister-in-law of George Fairfax,
+Miss Mary Cary. One "Lowland Beauty," Lucy Grymes, married Henry Lee,
+and became the mother of "Legion Harry," a favorite officer and friend
+of Washington in the Revolution, and the grandmother of Robert E. Lee,
+the great soldier of the Southern Confederacy. The affair with Miss
+Cary went on apparently for some years, fitfully pursued in the
+intervals of war and Indian fighting, and interrupted also by matters
+of a more tender nature. The first diversion occurred about 1752, when
+we find Washington writing to William Fauntleroy, at Richmond, that he
+proposed to come to his house to see his sister, Miss Betsy, and that
+he hoped for a revocation of her former cruel sentence.[3] Miss Betsy,
+however, seems to have been obdurate, and we hear no more of love
+affairs until much later, and then in connection with matters of a
+graver sort.
+
+[Footnote 1: Quoted from the Willis MS. by Mr. Conway, in _Magazine of
+American History_, March, 1887, p. 196.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Magazine of American History_, i. 324.]
+
+[Footnote 3: _Historical Magazine_, 3d series, 1873. Letter
+communicated by Fitzhugh Lee.]
+
+[Illustration: Mary Cary]
+
+When Captain Dagworthy, commanding thirty men in the Maryland
+service, undertook in virtue of a king's commission to outrank the
+commander-in-chief of the Virginian forces, Washington made up his
+mind that he would have this question at least finally and properly
+settled. So, as has been said, he went to Boston, saw Governor
+Shirley, and had the dispute determined in his own favor. He made
+the journey on horseback, and had with him two of his aides and two
+servants. An old letter, luckily preserved, tells us how he looked,
+for it contains orders to his London agents for various articles, sent
+for perhaps in anticipation of this very expedition. In Braddock's
+campaign the young surveyor and frontier soldier had been thrown among
+a party of dashing, handsomely equipped officers fresh from London,
+and their appearance had engaged his careful attention. Washington was
+a thoroughly simple man in all ways, but he was also a man of
+taste and a lover of military discipline. He had a keen sense of
+appropriateness, a valuable faculty which stood him in good stead in
+grave as well as trivial matters all through his career, and which in
+his youth came out most strongly in the matter of manners and personal
+appearance. He was a handsome man, and liked to be well dressed and to
+have everything about himself or his servants of the best. Yet he
+was not a mere imitator of fashions or devoted to fine clothes. The
+American leggins and fringed hunting-shirt had a strong hold on his
+affections, and he introduced them into Forbes's army, and again into
+the army of the Revolution, as the best uniform for the backwoods
+fighters. But he learned with Braddock that the dress of parade has as
+real military value as that of service, and when he traveled northward
+to settle about Captain Dagworthy, he felt justly that he now was
+going on parade for the first time as the representative of his troops
+and his colony. Therefore with excellent sense he dressed as befitted
+the occasion, and at the same time gratified his own taste.
+
+Thanks to these precautions, the little cavalcade that left Virginia
+on February 4, 1756, must have looked brilliant enough as they rode
+away through the dark woods. First came the colonel, mounted of course
+on the finest of animals, for he loved and understood horses from the
+time when he rode bareback in the pasture to those later days when he
+acted as judge at a horse-race and saw his own pet colt "Magnolia"
+beaten. In this expedition he wore, of course, his uniform of buff
+and blue, with a white and scarlet cloak over his shoulders, and a
+sword-knot of red and gold. His "horse furniture" was of the best
+London make, trimmed with "livery lace," and the Washington arms were
+engraved upon the housings. Close by his side rode his two aides,
+likewise in buff and blue, and behind came his servants, dressed in
+the Washington colors of white and scarlet and wearing hats laced with
+silver. Thus accoutred, they all rode on together to the North.
+
+The colonel's fame had gone before him, for the hero of Braddock's
+stricken field and the commander of the Virginian forces was known by
+reputation throughout the colonies. Every door flew open to him as he
+passed, and every one was delighted to welcome the young soldier. He
+was dined and wined and fêted in Philadelphia, and again in New York,
+where he fell in love at apparently short notice with the heiress Mary
+Philipse, the sister-in-law of his friend Beverly Robinson. Tearing
+himself away from these attractions he pushed on to Boston, then
+the most important city on the continent, and the head-quarters of
+Shirley, the commander-in-chief. The little New England capital had at
+that time a society which, rich for those days, was relieved from its
+Puritan sombreness by the gayety and life brought in by the royal
+officers. Here Washington lingered ten days, talking war and politics
+with the governor, visiting in state the "great and general court,"
+dancing every night at some ball, dining with and being fêted by the
+magnates of the town. His business done, he returned to New York,
+tarried there awhile for the sake of the fair dame, but came to no
+conclusions, and then, like the soldier in the song, he gave his
+bridle-rein a shake and rode away again to the South, and to the
+harassed and ravaged frontier of Virginia.
+
+How much this little interlude, pushed into a corner as it has been by
+the dignity of history,--how much it tells of the real man! How the
+statuesque myth and the priggish myth and the dull and solemn myth
+melt away before it! Wise and strong, a bearer of heavy responsibility
+beyond his years, daring in fight and sober in judgment, we have here
+the other and the more human side of Washington. One loves to picture
+that gallant, generous, youthful figure, brilliant in color and manly
+in form, riding gayly on from one little colonial town to another,
+feasting, dancing, courting, and making merry. For him the myrtle and
+ivy were entwined with the laurel, and fame was sweetened by youth. He
+was righteously ready to draw from life all the good things which
+fate and fortune then smiling upon him could offer, and he took his
+pleasure frankly, with an honest heart.
+
+We know that he succeeded in his mission and put the captain of thirty
+men in his proper place, but no one now can tell how deeply he was
+affected by the charms of Miss Philipse. The only certain fact is that
+he was able not long after to console himself very effectually. Riding
+away from Mount Vernon once more, in the spring of 1758, this time to
+Williamsburg with dispatches, he stopped at William's Ferry to dine
+with his friend Major Chamberlayne, and there he met Martha Dandridge,
+the widow of Daniel Parke Custis. She was young, pretty, intelligent,
+and an heiress, and her society seemed to attract the young soldier.
+The afternoon wore away, the horses came to the door at the appointed
+time, and after being walked back and forth for some hours were
+returned to the stable. The sun went down, and still the colonel
+lingered. The next morning he rode away with his dispatches, but on
+his return he paused at the White House, the home of Mrs. Custis, and
+then and there plighted his troth with the charming widow. The wooing
+was brief and decisive, and the successful lover departed for the
+camp, to feel more keenly than ever the delays of the British officers
+and the shortcomings of the colonial government. As soon as Fort
+Duquesne had fallen he hurried home, resigned his commission in the
+last week of December, and was married on January 6, 1759. It was a
+brilliant wedding party which assembled on that winter day in the
+little church near the White House. There were gathered Francis
+Fauquier, the gay, free-thinking, high-living governor, gorgeous in
+scarlet and gold; British officers, redcoated and gold-laced, and all
+the neighboring gentry in the handsomest clothes that London credit
+could furnish. The bride was attired in silk and satin, laces and
+brocade, with pearls on her neck and in her ears; while the bridegroom
+appeared in blue and silver trimmed with scarlet, and with gold
+buckles at his knees and on his shoes. After the ceremony the bride
+was taken home in a coach and six, her husband riding beside her,
+mounted on a splendid horse and followed by all the gentlemen of the
+party.
+
+[Illustration: Mary Morris born Mary Philipse]
+
+The sunshine and glitter of the wedding-day must have appeared to
+Washington deeply appropriate, for he certainly seemed to have all
+that heart of man could desire. Just twenty-seven, in the first flush
+of young manhood, keen of sense and yet wise in experience, life
+must have looked very fair and smiling. He had left the army with a
+well-earned fame, and had come home to take the wife of his choice and
+enjoy the good-will and respect of all men. While away on his last
+campaign he had been elected a member of the House of Burgesses, and
+when he took his seat on removing to Williamsburg, three months after
+his marriage, Mr. Robinson, the speaker, thanked him publicly in
+eloquent words for his services to the country. Washington rose to
+reply, but he was so utterly unable to talk about himself that he
+stood before the House stammering and blushing, until the speaker
+said, "Sit down, Mr. Washington; your modesty equals your valor, and
+that surpasses the power of any language I possess." It is an old
+story, and as graceful as it is old, but it was all very grateful to
+Washington, especially as the words of the speaker bodied forth the
+feelings of Virginia. Such an atmosphere, filled with deserved respect
+and praise, was pleasant to begin with, and then he had everything
+else too.
+
+He not only continued to sit in the House year after year and help to
+rule Virginia, but he served on the church vestry, and so held in his
+hands the reins of local government. He had married a charming
+woman, simple, straightforward, and sympathetic, free from gossip or
+pretense, and as capable in practical matters as he was himself. By
+right of birth a member of the Virginian aristocracy, he had widened
+and strengthened his connections through his wife. A man of handsome
+property by the death of Lawrence Washington's daughter, he had become
+by his marriage one of the richest men of the country. Acknowledged
+to be the first soldier on the continent, respected and trusted in
+public, successful and happy in private life, he had attained before
+he was thirty to all that Virginia could give of wealth, prosperity,
+and honor, a fact of which he was well aware, for there never breathed
+a man more wisely contented than George Washington at this period.
+
+He made his home at Mount Vernon, adding many acres to the estate, and
+giving to it his best attention. It is needless to say that he was
+successful, for that was the ease with everything he undertook. He
+loved country life, and he was the best and most prosperous planter in
+Virginia, which was really a more difficult achievement than the mere
+statement implies. Genuinely profitable farming in Virginia was not
+common, for the general system was a bad one. A single great staple,
+easily produced by the reckless exhaustion of land, and varying widely
+in the annual value of crops, bred improvidence and speculation.
+Everything was bought upon long credits, given by the London
+merchants, and this, too, contributed largely to carelessness and
+waste. The chronic state of a planter in a business way was one of
+debt, and the lack of capital made his conduct of affairs extravagant
+and loose. With all his care and method Washington himself was often
+pinched for ready money, and it was only by his thoroughness and
+foresight that he prospered and made money while so many of his
+neighbors struggled with debt and lived on in easy luxury, not knowing
+what the morrow might bring forth.
+
+A far more serious trouble than bad business methods was one which was
+little heeded at the moment, but which really lay at the foundation of
+the whole system of society and business. This was the character of
+the labor by which the plantations were worked. Slave labor is well
+known now to be the most expensive and the worst form of labor that
+can be employed. In the middle of the eighteenth century, however, its
+evils were not appreciated, either from an economical or a moral point
+of view. This is not the place to discuss the subject of African
+slavery in America. But it is important to know Washington's opinions
+in regard to an institution which was destined to have such a powerful
+influence upon the country, and it seems most appropriate to consider
+those opinions at the moment when slaves became a practical factor in
+his life as a Virginian planter.
+
+Washington accepted the system as he found it, as most men accept the
+social arrangements to which they are born. He grew up in a world
+where slavery had always existed, and where its rightfulness had never
+been questioned. Being on the frontier, occupied with surveying and
+with war, he never had occasion to really consider the matter at all
+until he found himself at the head of large estates, with his own
+prosperity dependent on the labor of slaves. The first practical
+question, therefore, was how to employ this labor to the best
+advantage. A man of his clear perceptions soon discovered the defects
+of the system, and he gave great attention to feeding and clothing
+his slaves, and to their general management. Parkinson[1] says in a
+general way that Washington treated his slaves harshly, spoke to them
+sharply, and maintained a military discipline, to which he attributed
+the General's rare success as a planter. There can be no doubt of
+the success, and the military discipline is probably true, but the
+statement as to harshness is unsupported by any other authority.
+Indeed, Parkinson even contradicts it himself, for he says elsewhere
+that Washington never bought or sold a slave, a proof of the highest
+and most intelligent humanity; and he adds in his final sketch of the
+General's character, that he "was incapable of wrong-doing, but did to
+all men as he would they should do to him. Therefore it is not to be
+supposed that he would injure the negro." This agrees with what we
+learn from all other sources. Humane by nature, he conceived a great
+interest and pity for these helpless beings, and treated them with
+kindness and forethought. In a word, he was a wise and good master,
+as well as a successful one, and the condition of his slaves was
+as happy, and their labor as profitable, as was possible to such a
+system.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Tour in America_, 1798-1800.]
+
+So the years rolled by; the war came and then the making of the
+government, and Washington's thoughts were turned more and more, as
+was the case with all the men of his time in that era of change and
+of new ideas, to the consideration of human slavery in its moral,
+political, and social aspects. To trace the course of his opinions
+in detail is needless. It is sufficient to summarize them, for the
+results of his reflection and observation are more important than the
+processes by which they were reached. Washington became convinced that
+the whole system was thoroughly bad, as well as utterly repugnant to
+the ideas upon which the Revolution was fought and the government of
+the United States founded. With a prescience wonderful for those days
+and on that subject, he saw that slavery meant the up-growth in the
+United States of two systems so radically hostile, both socially and
+economically, that they could lead only to a struggle for political
+supremacy, which in its course he feared would imperil the Union. For
+this reason he deprecated the introduction of the slavery question
+into the debates of the first Congress, because he realized its
+character, and he did not believe that the Union or the government
+at that early day could bear the strain which in this way would be
+produced. At the same time he felt that a right solution must be found
+or inconceivable evils would ensue. The inherent and everlasting wrong
+of the system made its continuance, to his mind, impossible. While
+it existed, he believed that the laws which surrounded it should be
+maintained, because he thought that to violate these only added one
+wrong to another. He also doubted, as will be seen in a later chapter,
+where his conversation with John Bernard is quoted, whether the
+negroes could be immediately emancipated with safety either to
+themselves or to the whites, in their actual condition of ignorance,
+illiteracy, and helplessness. The plan which he favored, and which,
+it would seem, was his hope and reliance, was first the checking
+of importation, followed by a gradual emancipation, with proper
+compensation to the owners and suitable preparation and education for
+the slaves. He told the clergymen Asbury and Coke, when they visited
+him for that purpose, that he was in favor of emancipation, and was
+ready to write a letter to the assembly to that effect.[1] He wished
+fervently that such a spirit might take possession of the people of
+the country, but he wrote to Lafayette that he despaired of seeing it.
+When he died he did all that lay within his power to impress his views
+upon his countrymen by directing that all his slaves should be set
+free on the death of his wife. His precepts and his example in this
+grave matter went unheeded for many years by the generations which
+came after him. But now that slavery is dead, to the joy of all men,
+it is well to remember that on this terrible question Washington's
+opinions were those of a humane man, impatient of wrong, and of a
+noble and far-seeing statesman, watchful of the evils that threatened
+his country.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Magazine of American History_, 1880, p. 158.]
+
+[Footnote 2: For some expressions of Washington's opinions on slavery,
+see Sparks, viii. 414, ix. 159-163, and x. 224.]
+
+After this digression let us return to the Virginian farmer, whose
+mind was not disturbed as yet by thoughts of the destiny of the United
+States, or considerations of the rights of man, but who was much
+exercised by the task of making an honest income out of his estates.
+To do this he grappled with details as firmly as he did with the
+general system under which all plantations in that day were carried
+on. He understood every branch of farming; he was on the alert for
+every improvement; he rose early, worked steadily, gave to everything
+his personal supervision, kept his own accounts with wonderful
+exactness, and naturally enough his brands of flour went unquestioned
+everywhere, his credit was high, and he made money--so far as it
+was possible under existing conditions. Like Shakespeare, as Bishop
+Blougram has it, he
+
+  "Saved money, spent it, owned the worth of things."
+
+He had no fine and senseless disregard for money or the good things of
+this world, but on the contrary saw in them not the value attached to
+them by vulgar minds, but their true worth. He was a solid, square,
+evenly-balanced man in those days, believing that whatever he did was
+worth doing well. So he farmed, as he fought and governed, better than
+anybody else.
+
+While thus looking after his own estates at home, he went further
+afield in search of investments, keeping a shrewd eye on the western
+lands, and buying wisely and judiciously whenever he had the
+opportunity. He also constituted himself now, as in a later time, the
+champion of the soldiers, for whom he had the truest sympathy and
+affection, and a large part of the correspondence of this period is
+devoted to their claims for the lands granted them by the assembly.
+He distinguished carefully among them, however, those who were
+undeserving, and to the major of the regiment, who had been excluded
+from the public thanks on account of cowardice at the Great Meadows,
+he wrote as follows: "Your impertinent letter was delivered to me
+yesterday. As I am not accustomed to receive such from any man, nor
+would have taken the same language from you personally without letting
+you feel some marks of my resentment, I would advise you to be
+cautious in writing me a second of the same tenor. But for your
+stupidity and sottishness you might have known, by attending to the
+public gazette, that you had your full quantity of ten thousand acres
+of land allowed you. But suppose you had really fallen short, do you
+think your superlative merit entitles you to greater indulgence than
+others?... All my concern is that I ever engaged in behalf of so
+ungrateful a fellow as you are." The writer of this letter, be it said
+in passing, was the man whom Mr. Weems and others tell us was knocked
+down before his soldiers, and then apologized to his assailant. It may
+be suspected that it was well for the recipient of this letter that
+he did not have a personal interview with its author, and it may
+be doubted if he ever sought one subsequently. Just, generous, and
+magnanimous to an extraordinary degree, Washington had a dangerous
+temper, held well under control, but blazing out now and again against
+injustice, insolence, or oppression. He was a peaceful man, leading a
+peaceful life, but the fighting spirit only slumbered, and it
+would break out at wrong of any sort, in a way which was extremely
+unpleasant and threatening to those who aroused it.
+
+Apart from lands and money and the management of affairs, public and
+private, there were many other interests of varied nature which all
+had their share of Washington's time and thought. He was a devoted
+husband, and gave to his stepchildren the most affectionate care. He
+watched over and protected them, and when the daughter died, after a
+long and wasting illness, in 1773, he mourned for her as if she
+had been his own, with all the tenderness of a deep and reserved
+affection. The boy, John Custis, he made his friend and companion from
+the beginning, and his letters to the lad and about him are wise and
+judicious in the highest degree. He spent much time and thought on the
+question of education, and after securing the best instructors took
+the boy to New York and entered him at Columbia College in 1773. Young
+Custis, however, did not remain there long, for he had fallen in love,
+and the following year was married to Eleanor Calvert, not without
+some misgivings on the part of Washington, who had observed his ward's
+somewhat flighty disposition, and who gave a great deal of anxious
+thought to his future. At home as abroad he was an undemonstrative
+man, but he had abundance of that real affection which labors for
+those to whom it goes out more unselfishly and far more effectually
+than that which bubbles and boils upon the surface like a shallow,
+noisy brook.
+
+From the suggestions that he made in regard to young Custis, it is
+evident that Washington valued and respected education, and that he
+had that regard for learning for its own sake which always exists
+in large measure in every thoughtful man. He read well, even if his
+active life prevented his reading much, as we can see by his vigorous
+English, and by his occasional allusions to history. From his London
+orders we see, too, that everything about his house must have denoted
+that its possessor had refinement and taste. His intense sense
+of propriety and unfailing instinct for what was appropriate are
+everywhere apparent. His dress, his furniture, his harnesses, the
+things for the children, all show the same fondness for simplicity,
+and yet a constant insistence that everything should be the best of
+its kind. We can learn a good deal about any man by the ornaments of
+his house, and by the portraits which hang on his walls; for these
+dumb things tell us whom among the great men of earth the owner
+admires, and indicate the tastes he best loves to gratify. When
+Washington first settled with his wife at Mount Vernon, he ordered
+from Europe the busts of Alexander the Great, Charles XII. of Sweden,
+Julius Cæsar, Frederick of Prussia, Marlborough, and Prince Eugene,
+and in addition he asked for statuettes of "two wild beasts." The
+combination of soldier and statesman is the predominant admiration,
+then comes the reckless and splendid military adventurer, and lastly
+wild life and the chase. There is no mistaking the ideas and fancies
+of the man who penned this order which has drifted down to us from the
+past.
+
+But as Washington's active life was largely out of doors, so too were
+his pleasures. He loved the fresh open-air existence of the woods
+and fields, and there he found his one great amusement. He shot and
+fished, but did not care much for these pursuits, for his hobby was
+hunting, which gratified at once his passion for horses and dogs and
+his love for the strong excitement of the chase, when dashed with just
+enough danger to make it really fascinating. He showed in his sport
+the same thoroughness and love of perfection that he displayed in
+everything else. His stables were filled with the best horses that
+Virginia could furnish. There were the "blooded coach-horses" for Mrs.
+Washington's carriage, "Magnolia," a full-blooded Arabian, used by
+his owner for the road, the ponies for the children, and finally, the
+high-bred hunters Chinkling and Valiant, Ajax and Blueskin, and the
+rest, all duly set down in the register in the handwriting of the
+master himself. His first visit in the morning was to the stables;
+the next to the kennels to inspect and criticise the hounds, also
+methodically registered and described, so that we can read the names
+of Vulcan and Ringwood, Singer and Truelove, Music and Sweetlips, to
+which the Virginian woods once echoed nearly a century and a half ago.
+His hounds were the subject of much thought, and were so constantly
+and critically drafted as to speed, keenness, and bottom, that when in
+full cry they ran so closely bunched that tradition says, in classic
+phrase, they could have been covered with a blanket. The hounds met
+three times a week in the season, usually at Mount Vernon, sometimes
+at Belvoir. They would get off at daybreak, Washington in the midst of
+his hounds, splendidly mounted, generally on his favorite Blueskin, a
+powerful iron-gray horse of great speed and endurance. He wore a blue
+coat, scarlet waistcoat, buckskin breeches, and a velvet cap. Closely
+followed by his huntsman and the neighboring gentlemen, with the
+ladies, headed, very likely, by Mrs. Washington in a scarlet habit,
+he would ride to the appointed covert and throw in. There was no
+difficulty in finding, and then away they would go, usually after a
+gray fox, sometimes after a big black fox, rarely to be caught. Most
+of the country was wild and unfenced, rough in footing, and offering
+hard and dangerous going for the horses, but Washington always made it
+a rule to stay with his hounds. Cautious or timid riders, if they were
+so minded, could gallop along the wood roads with the ladies, and
+content themselves with glimpses of the hunt, but the master rode at
+the front. The fields, it is to be feared, were sometimes small, but
+Washington hunted even if he had only his stepson or was quite alone.
+
+His diaries abound with allusions to the sport. "Went a-hunting with
+Jacky Custis, and catched a fox after three hours chase; found it in
+the creek." "Mr. Bryan Fairfax, Mr. Grayson, and Phil. Alexander came
+home by sunrise. Hunted and catched a fox with these. Lord Fairfax,
+his brother, and Colonel Fairfax, all of whom, with Mr. Fairfax and
+Mr. Wilson of England, dined here." Again, November 26 and 29, "Hunted
+again with the same party." "1768, Jan. 8th. Hunting again with same
+company. Started a fox and run him 4 hours. Took the hounds off at
+night." "Jan. 15. Shooting." "16. At home all day with cards; it
+snowing." "23. Rid to Muddy Hole and directed paths to be cut for
+foxhunting." "Feb. 12. Catched 2 foxes." "Feb. 13. Catched 2 more
+foxes." "Mar. 2. Catched fox with bob'd tail and cut ears after
+7 hours chase, in which most of the dogs were worsted." "Dec. 5.
+Fox-hunting with Lord Fairfax and his brother and Colonel Fairfax.
+Started a fox and lost it. Dined at Belvoir and returned in the
+evening."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: MS. Diaries in State Department.]
+
+So the entries run on, for he hunted almost every day in the season,
+usually with success, but always with persistence. Like all true
+sportsmen Washington had a horror of illicit sport of any kind, and
+although he shot comparatively little, he was much annoyed by a
+vagabond who lurked in the creeks and inlets on his estate, and
+slaughtered his canvas-back ducks. Hearing the report of a gun one
+morning, he rode through the bushes and saw his poaching friend just
+shoving off in a canoe. The rascal raised his gun and covered his
+pursuer, whereupon Washington, the cold-blooded and patient person
+so familiar in the myths, dashed his horse headlong into the water,
+seized the gun, grasped the canoe, and dragging it ashore pulled the
+man out of the boat and beat him soundly. If the man had yielded at
+once he would probably have got off easily enough, but when he put
+Washington's life in imminent peril, the wild fighting spirit flared
+up as usual.
+
+The hunting season was of course that of the most lavish hospitality.
+There was always a great deal of dining about, but Mount Vernon was
+the chief resort, and its doors, ever open, were flung far back when
+people came for a meet, or gathered to talk over the events of a good
+run. Company was the rule and solitude the exception. When only the
+family were at dinner, the fact was written down in the diary with
+great care as an unusual event, for Washington was the soul of
+hospitality, and although he kept early hours, he loved society and a
+houseful of people. Profoundly reserved and silent as to himself,
+a lover of solitude so far as his own thoughts and feelings were
+concerned, he was far from being a solitary man in the ordinary
+acceptation of the word. He liked life and gayety and conversation, he
+liked music and dancing or a game of cards when the weather was bad,
+and he enjoyed heartily the presence of young people and of his own
+friends. So Mount Vernon was always full of guests, and the master
+noted in his diary that although he owned more than a hundred cows he
+was obliged, nevertheless, to buy butter, which suggests an experience
+not unknown to gentlemen farmers of any period, and also that company
+was never lacking in that generous, open house overlooking the
+Potomac.
+
+Beyond the bounds of his own estate he had also many occupations and
+pleasures. He was a member of the House of Burgesses, diligent in his
+attention to the work of governing the colony. He was diligent also in
+church affairs, and very active in the vestry, which was the seat of
+local government in Virginia. We hear of him also as the manager
+of lotteries, which were a common form of raising money for local
+purposes, in preference to direct taxation. In a word, he was
+thoroughly public-spirited, and performed all the small duties which
+his position demanded in the same spirit that he afterwards brought
+to the command of armies and to the government of the nation. He had
+pleasure too, as well as business, away from Mount Vernon. He liked
+to go to his neighbors' houses and enjoy their hospitality as they
+enjoyed his. We hear of him at the courthouse on court days, where all
+the country-side gathered to talk and listen to the lawyers and hear
+the news, and when he went to Williamsburg his diary tells us of a
+round of dinners, beginning with the governor, of visits to the club,
+and of a regular attendance at the theatre whenever actors came to the
+little capital. Whether at home or abroad, he took part in all the
+serious pursuits, in all the interests, and in every reasonable
+pleasure offered by the colony.
+
+Take it for all in all, it was a manly, wholesome, many-sided life. It
+kept Washington young and strong, both mentally and physically. When
+he was forty he flung the iron bar, at some village sports, to a point
+which no competitor could approach. There was no man in all Virginia
+who could ride a horse with such a powerful and assured seat.
+There was no one who could journey farther on foot, and no man at
+Williamsburg who showed at the governor's receptions such a commanding
+presence, or who walked with such a strong and elastic step. As with
+the body so with the mind. He never rusted. A practical carpenter and
+smith, he brought the same quiet intelligence and firm will to the
+forging of iron or the felling and sawing of trees that he had
+displayed in fighting France. The life of a country gentleman did not
+dull or stupefy him, or lead him to gross indulgences. He remained
+well-made and athletic, strong and enduring, keen in perception and in
+sense, and warm in his feelings and affections. Many men would have
+become heavy and useless in these years of quiet country life, but
+Washington simply ripened, and, like all slowly maturing men, grew
+stronger, abler, and wiser in the happy years of rest and waiting
+which intervened between youth and middle age.
+
+Meantime, while the current of daily life flowed on thus gently at
+Mount Vernon, the great stream of public events poured by outside. It
+ran very calmly at first, after the war, and then with a quickening
+murmur, which increased to an ominous roar when the passage of the
+Stamp Act became known in America. Washington was always a constant
+attendant at the assembly, in which by sheer force of character, and
+despite his lack of the talking and debating faculty, he carried more
+weight than any other member. He was present on May 29, 1765, when
+Patrick Henry introduced his famous resolutions and menaced the king's
+government in words which rang through the continent. The resolutions
+were adopted, and Washington went home, with many anxious thoughts,
+to discuss the political outlook with his friend and neighbor George
+Mason, one of the keenest and ablest men in Virginia. The utter
+folly of the policy embodied in the Stamp Act struck Washington very
+forcibly. With that foresight for which he was so remarkable, he
+perceived what scarcely any one else even dreamt of, that persistence
+in this course must surely lead to a violent separation from the
+mother-country, and it is interesting to note in this, the first
+instance when he was called upon to consider a political question of
+great magnitude, his clearness of vision and grasp of mind. In what he
+wrote there is no trace of the ambitious schemer, no threatening nor
+blustering, no undue despondency nor excited hopes. But there is a
+calm understanding of all the conditions, an entire freedom from
+self-deception, and the power of seeing facts exactly as they were,
+which were all characteristic of his intellectual strength, and to
+which we shall need to recur again and again.
+
+The repeal of the Stamp Act was received by Washington with sober but
+sincere pleasure. He had anticipated "direful" results and "unhappy
+consequences" from its enforcement, and he freely said that those who
+were instrumental in its repeal had his cordial thanks. He was no
+agitator, and had not come forward in this affair, so he now retired
+again to Mount Vernon, to his farming and hunting, where he remained,
+watching very closely the progress of events. He had marked the
+dangerous reservation of the principle in the very act of repeal; he
+observed at Boston the gathering strength of what the wise ministers
+of George III. called sedition; he noted the arrival of British troops
+in the rebellious Puritan town; and he saw plainly enough, looming in
+the background, the final appeal to arms. He wrote to Mason (April 5,
+1769), that "at a time when our lordly masters in Great Britain will
+be satisfied with nothing less than the deprivation of American
+freedom, something should be done to avert the stroke and maintain the
+liberty which we have derived from our ancestors. But the manner of
+doing it, to answer the purpose effectually, is the point in question.
+That no man should scruple or hesitate a moment to use arms in defense
+of so valuable a blessing is clearly my opinion. Yet arms, I would beg
+leave to add, should be the last resource, the _dernier ressort_." He
+then urged the adoption of the only middle course, non-importation,
+but he had not much hope in this expedient, although an honest desire
+is evident that it may prove effectual.
+
+When the assembly met in May, they received the new governor, Lord
+Botetourt, with much cordiality, and then fell to passing spirited
+and sharp-spoken resolutions declaring their own rights and defending
+Massachusetts. The result was a dissolution. Thereupon the burgesses
+repaired to the Raleigh tavern, where they adopted a set of
+non-importation resolutions and formed an association. The resolutions
+were offered by Washington, and were the result of his quiet country
+talks with Mason. When the moment for action arrived, Washington came
+naturally to the front, and then returned quietly to Mount Vernon,
+once more to go about his business and watch the threatening political
+horizon. Virginia did not live up to this first non-importation
+agreement, and formed another a year later. But Washington was not in
+the habit of presenting resolutions merely for effect, and there
+was nothing of the actor in his composition. His resolutions meant
+business, and he lived up to them rigidly himself. Neither tea nor
+any of the proscribed articles were allowed in his house. Most of
+the leaders did not realize the seriousness of the situation, but
+Washington, looking forward with clear and sober gaze, was in grim
+earnest, and was fully conscious that when he offered his resolutions
+the colony was trying the last peaceful remedy, and that the next step
+would be war.
+
+Still he went calmly about his many affairs as usual, and gratified
+the old passion for the frontier by a journey to Pittsburgh for the
+sake of lands and soldiers' claims, and thence down the Ohio and into
+the wilderness with his old friends the trappers and pioneers. He
+visited the Indian villages as in the days of the French mission, and
+noted in the savages an ominous restlessness, which seemed, like the
+flight of birds, to express the dumb instinct of an approaching storm.
+The clouds broke away somewhat under the kindly management of Lord
+Botetourt, and then gathered again more thickly on the accession of
+his successor, Lord Dunmore. With both these gentlemen Washington was
+on the most friendly terms. He visited them often, and was consulted
+by them, as it behooved them to consult the strongest man within the
+limits of their government. Still he waited and watched, and scanned
+carefully the news from the North. Before long he heard that
+tea-chests were floating in Boston harbor, and then from across the
+water came intelligence of the passage of the Port Bill and other
+measures destined to crush to earth the little rebel town.
+
+When the Virginia assembly met again, they proceeded to congratulate
+the governor on the arrival of Lady Dunmore, and then suddenly, as
+all was flowing smoothly along, there came a letter through the
+corresponding committee which Washington had helped to establish,
+telling of the measures against Boston. Everything else was thrown
+aside at once, a vigorous protest was entered on the journal of the
+House, and June 1, when the Port Bill was to go into operation, was
+appointed a day of fasting, humiliation, and prayer. The first result
+was prompt dissolution of the assembly. The next was another meeting
+in the long room of the Raleigh tavern, where the Boston bill
+was denounced, non-importation renewed, and the committee of
+correspondence instructed to take steps for calling a general
+congress. Events were beginning to move at last with perilous
+rapidity. Washington dined with Lord Dunmore on the evening of that
+day, rode with him, and appeared at her ladyship's ball the next
+night, for it was not his way to bite his thumb at men from whom he
+differed politically, nor to call the motives of his opponents in
+question. But when the 1st of June arrived, he noted in his diary that
+he fasted all day and attended the appointed services. He always meant
+what he said, being of a simple nature, and when he fasted and prayed
+there was something ominously earnest about it, something that his
+excellency the governor, who liked the society of this agreeable
+man and wise counselor, would have done well to consider and draw
+conclusions from, and which he probably did not heed at all. He might
+well have reflected, as he undoubtedly failed to do, that when men
+of the George Washington type fast and pray on account of political
+misdoings, it is well for their opponents to look to it carefully.
+
+Meantime Boston had sent forth appeals to form a league among the
+colonies, and thereupon another meeting was held in the Raleigh
+tavern, and a letter was dispatched advising the burgesses to consider
+this matter of a general league and take the sense of their respective
+counties. Virginia and Massachusetts had joined hands now, and they
+were sweeping the rest of the continent irresistibly forward with
+them. As for Washington, he returned to Mount Vernon and at once set
+about taking the sense of his county, as he had agreed. Before doing
+so he had some correspondence with his old friend Bryan Fairfax. The
+Fairfaxes naturally sided with the mother-country, and Bryan was much
+distressed by the course of Virginia, and remonstrated strongly, and
+at length by letter, against violent measures. Washington replied
+to him: "Does it not appear as clear as the sun in its meridian
+brightness that there is a regular, systematic plan formed to fix the
+right and practice of taxation on us? Does not the uniform conduct of
+Parliament for some years past confirm this? Do not all the debates,
+especially those just brought to us in the House of Commons, on the
+side of government expressly declare that America must be taxed in
+aid of the British funds, and that she has no longer resources within
+herself? Is there anything to be expected from petitioning after this?
+Is not the attack upon the liberty and property of the people of
+Boston, before restitution of the loss to the India Company was
+demanded, a plain and self-evident proof of what they are aiming at?
+Do not the subsequent bills (now I dare say acts) for depriving the
+Massachusetts Bay of its charter, and for transporting offenders into
+other colonies, or to Great Britain for trial, where it is impossible
+from the nature of the thing that justice can be obtained, convince us
+that the administration is determined to stick at nothing to carry
+its point? Ought we not, then, to put our virtue and fortitude to the
+severest test?" He was prepared, he continued, for anything except
+confiscating British debts, which struck him as dishonorable. These
+were plain but pregnant questions, but what we mark in them, and
+in all his letters of this time, is the absence of constitutional
+discussion, of which America was then full. They are confined to a
+direct presentation of the broad political question, which underlay
+everything. Washington always went straight to the mark, and he now
+saw, through all the dust of legal and constitutional strife, that
+the only real issue was whether America was to be allowed to govern
+herself in her own way or not. In the acts of the ministry he
+perceived a policy which aimed at substantial power, and he believed
+that such a policy, if insisted on, could have but one result.
+
+The meeting of Fairfax County was held in due course, and Washington
+presided. The usual resolutions for self-government and against
+the vindictive Massachusetts measures were adopted. Union and
+non-importation were urged; and then the congress, which they
+advocated, was recommended to address a petition and remonstrance to
+the king, and ask him to reflect that "from our sovereign there can
+be but one appeal." Everything was to be tried, everything was to be
+done, but the ultimate appeal was never lost sight of where Washington
+appeared, and the final sentence of these Fairfax County resolves is
+very characteristic of the leader in the meeting. Two days later he
+wrote to the worthy and still remonstrating Bryan Fairfax, repeating
+and enlarging his former questions, and adding: "Has not General
+Gage's conduct since his arrival, in stopping the address of his
+council, and publishing a proclamation more becoming a Turkish bashaw
+than an English governor, declaring it treason to associate in any
+manner by which the commerce of Great Britain is to be affected,--has
+not this exhibited an unexampled testimony of the most despotic system
+of tyranny that ever was practiced in a free government?... Shall we
+after this whine and cry for relief, when we have already tried it in
+vain? Or shall we supinely sit and see one province after another fall
+a sacrifice to despotism?" The fighting spirit of the man was rising.
+There was no rash rushing forward, no ignorant shouting for war, no
+blinking of the real issue, but a foresight that nothing could dim,
+and a perception of facts which nothing could confuse. On August 1
+Washington was at Williamsburg, to represent his county in the
+meeting of representatives from all Virginia. The convention passed
+resolutions like the Fairfax resolves, and chose delegates to a
+general congress. The silent man was now warming into action. He "made
+the most eloquent speech that ever was made," and said, "I will raise
+a thousand men, subsist them at my own expense, and march them to the
+relief of Boston." He was capable, it would seem, of talking to the
+purpose with some fire and force, for all he was so quiet and so
+retiring. When there was anything to say, he could say it so that it
+stirred all who listened, because they felt that there was a mastering
+strength behind the words. He faced the terrible issue solemnly and
+firmly, but his blood was up, the fighting spirit in him was aroused,
+and the convention chose him as one of Virginia's six delegates to
+the Continental Congress. He lingered long enough to make a few
+preparations at Mount Vernon. He wrote another letter to Fairfax,
+interesting to us as showing the keenness with which he read in the
+meagre news-reports the character of Gage and of the opposing people
+of Massachusetts. Then he started for the North to take the first step
+on the long and difficult path that lay before him.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+TAKING COMMAND
+
+
+In the warm days of closing August, a party of three gentlemen rode
+away from Mount Vernon one morning, and set out upon their long
+journey to Philadelphia. One cannot help wondering whether a tender
+and somewhat sad remembrance did not rise in Washington's mind, as he
+thought of the last time he had gone northward, nearly twenty years
+before. Then, he was a light-hearted young soldier, and he and his
+aides, albeit they went on business, rode gayly through the forests,
+lighting the road with the bright colors they wore and with the
+glitter of lace and arms, while they anticipated all the pleasures of
+youth in the new lands they were to visit. Now, he was in the prime of
+manhood, looking into the future with prophetic eyes, and sober as was
+his wont when the shadow of coming responsibility lay dark upon his
+path. With him went Patrick Henry, four years his junior, and Edmund
+Pendleton, now past threescore. They were all quiet and grave enough,
+no doubt; but Washington, we may believe, was gravest of all, because,
+being the most truthful of men to himself as to others, he saw more
+plainly what was coming. So they made their journey to the North, and
+on the memorable 5th of September they met with their brethren from
+the other colonies in Carpenters' Hall in Philadelphia.
+
+The Congress sat fifty-one days, occupied with debates and discussion.
+Few abler, more honest, or more memorable bodies of men have ever
+assembled to settle the fate of nations. Much debate, great and
+earnest in all directions, resulted in a declaration of colonial
+rights, in an address to the king, in another to the people of Canada,
+and a third to the people of Great Britain; masterly state papers,
+seldom surpassed, and extorting even then the admiration of England.
+In these debates and state papers Washington took no part that is now
+apparent on the face of the record. He was silent in the Congress, and
+if he was consulted, as he unquestionably was by the committees, there
+is no record of it now. The simple fact was that his time had not
+come. He saw men of the most acute minds, liberal in education,
+patriotic in heart, trained in law and in history, doing the work
+of the moment in the best possible way. If anything had been done
+wrongly, or had been left undone, Washington would have found his
+voice quickly enough, and uttered another of the "most eloquent
+speeches ever made," as he did shortly before in the Virginia
+convention. He could speak in public when need was, but now there was
+no need and nothing to arouse him. The work of Congress followed
+the line of policy adopted by the Virginia convention, and that had
+proceeded along the path marked out in the Fairfax resolves, so that
+Washington could not be other than content. He occupied his own time,
+as we see by notes in his diary, in visiting the delegates from
+the other colonies, and in informing himself as to their ideas and
+purposes, and those of the people whom they represented. He was
+quietly working for the future, the present being well taken care of.
+Yet this silent man, going hither and thither, and chatting pleasantly
+with this member or that, was in some way or other impressing himself
+deeply on all the delegates, for Patrick Henry said: "If you speak
+of solid information and sound judgment, Colonel Washington is
+unquestionably the greatest man on the floor."
+
+We have a letter, written at just this time, which shows us how
+Washington felt, and we see again how his spirit rose as he saw more
+and more clearly that the ultimate issue was inevitable. The letter is
+addressed to Captain Mackenzie, a British officer at Boston, and an
+old friend. "Permit me," he began, "with the freedom of a friend (for
+you know I always esteemed you), to express my sorrow that fortune
+should place you in a service that must fix curses to the latest
+posterity upon the contrivers, and, if success (which, by the by, is
+impossible) accompanies it, execrations upon all those who have been
+instrumental in the execution." This was rather uncompromising talk
+and not over peaceable, it must be confessed. He continued: "Give me
+leave to add, and I think I can announce it as a fact, that it is not
+the wish or intent of that government [Massachusetts], or any other
+upon this continent, separately or collectively, to set up for
+independence; but this you may at the same time rely on, that none
+of them will ever submit to the loss of those valuable rights and
+privileges which are essential to the happiness of every free state,
+and without which life, liberty, and property are rendered totally
+insecure.... Again give me leave to add as my opinion that more blood
+will be spilled on this occasion, if the ministry are determined
+to push matters to extremity, than history has ever yet furnished
+instances of in the annals of North America, and such a vital wound
+will be given to the peace of this great country, as time itself
+cannot cure or eradicate the remembrance of." Washington was not a
+political agitator like Sam Adams, planning with unerring intelligence
+to bring about independence. On the contrary, he rightly declared that
+independence was not desired. But although he believed in exhausting
+every argument and every peaceful remedy, it is evident that he felt
+that there now could be but one result, and that violent separation
+from the mother country was inevitable. Here is where he differed from
+his associates and from the great mass of the people, and it is to
+this entire veracity of mind that his wisdom and foresight were so
+largely due, as well as his success when the time came for him to put
+his hand to the plough.
+
+When Congress adjourned, Washington returned to Mount Vernon, to the
+pursuits and pleasures that he loved, to his family and farm, and to
+his horses and hounds, with whom he had many a good run, the last that
+he was to enjoy for years to come. He returned also to wait and
+watch as before, and to see war rapidly gather in the east. When the
+Virginia convention again assembled, resolutions were introduced to
+arm and discipline men, and Henry declared in their support that
+an "appeal to arms and to the God of Hosts" was all that was left.
+Washington said nothing, but he served on the committee to draft a
+plan of defense, and then fell to reviewing the independent companies
+which were springing up everywhere. At the same time he wrote to his
+brother John, who had raised a troop, that he would accept the command
+of it if desired, as it was his "full intention to devote his life and
+fortune in the cause we are engaged in, if needful." At Mount Vernon
+his old comrades of the French war began to appear, in search of
+courage and sympathy. Thither, too, came Charles Lee, a typical
+military adventurer of that period, a man of English birth and of
+varied service, brilliant, whimsical, and unbalanced. There also came
+Horatio Gates, likewise British, and disappointed with his prospects
+at home; less adventurous than Lee, but also less brilliant, and not
+much more valuable.
+
+Thus the winter wore away; spring opened, and toward the end of April
+Washington started again for the North, much occupied with certain
+tidings from Lexington and Concord which just then spread over the
+land. He saw all that it meant plainly enough, and after noting the
+fact that the colonists fought and fought well, he wrote to George
+Fairfax in England: "Unhappy it is to reflect that a brother's sword
+has been sheathed in a brother's breast, and that the once happy and
+peaceful plains of America are either to be drenched in blood or
+inhabited by slaves. Sad alternative. But can a virtuous man hesitate
+in his choice?" Congress, it would seem, thought there was a good deal
+of room for hesitation, both for virtuous men and others, and after
+the fashion of their race determined to do a little more debating and
+arguing, before taking any decisive step. After much resistance and
+discussion, a second "humble and dutiful petition" to the king was
+adopted, and with strange contradiction a confederation was formed at
+the same time, and Congress proceeded to exercise the sovereign powers
+thus vested in them. The most pressing and troublesome question before
+them was what to do with the army surrounding Boston, and with the
+actual hostilities there existing.
+
+Washington, for his part, went quietly about as before, saying
+nothing and observing much, working hard as chairman of the military
+committees, planning for defense, and arranging for raising an army.
+One act of his alone stands out for us with significance at this
+critical time. In this second Congress he appeared habitually on the
+floor in his blue and buff uniform of a Virginia colonel. It was his
+way of saying that the hour for action had come, and that he at least
+was ready for the fight whenever called upon.
+
+Presently he was summoned. Weary of waiting, John Adams at last
+declared that Congress must adopt the army and make Washington, who at
+this mention of his name stepped out of the room, commander-in-chief.
+On June 15, formal motions were made to this effect and unanimously
+adopted, and the next day Washington appeared before Congress and
+accepted the trust. His words were few and simple. He expressed his
+sense of his own insufficiency for the task before him, and said that
+as no pecuniary consideration could have induced him to undertake the
+work, he must decline all pay or emoluments, only looking to Congress
+to defray his expenses. In the same spirit he wrote to his soldiers
+in Virginia, to his brother, and finally, in terms at once simple
+and pathetic, to his wife. There was no pretense about this, but the
+sternest reality of self-distrust, for Washington saw and measured as
+did no one else the magnitude of the work before him. He knew that he
+was about to face the best troops of Europe, and he had learned by
+experience that after the first excitement was over he would be
+obliged to rely upon a people who were brave and patriotic, but also
+undisciplined, untrained, and unprepared for war, without money,
+without arms, without allies or credit, and torn by selfish local
+interests. Nobody else perceived all this as he was able to with his
+mastery of facts, but he faced the duty unflinchingly. He did not put
+it aside because he distrusted himself, for in his truthfulness he
+could not but confess that no other American could show one tithe
+of his capacity, experience, or military service. He knew what was
+coming, knew it, no doubt, when he first put on his uniform, and he
+accepted instantly.
+
+John Adams in his autobiography speaks of the necessity of choosing a
+Southern general, and also says there were objectors to the selection
+of Washington even among the Virginia delegates. That there were
+political reasons for taking a Virginian cannot be doubted. But the
+dissent, even if it existed, never appeared on the surface, excepting
+in the case of John Hancock, who, with curious vanity, thought that he
+ought to have this great place. When Washington's name was proposed
+there was no murmur of opposition, for there was no man who could for
+one moment be compared with him in fitness. The choice was inevitable,
+and he himself felt it to be so. He saw it coming; he would fain have
+avoided the great task, but no thought of shrinking crossed his mind.
+He saw with his entire freedom from constitutional subtleties that an
+absolute parliament sought to extend its power to the colonies. To
+this he would not submit, and he knew that this was a question which
+could be settled only by one side giving way, or by the dread appeal
+to arms. It was a question of fact, hard, unrelenting fact, now to be
+determined by battle, and on him had fallen the burden of sustaining
+the cause of his country. In this spirit he accepted his commission,
+and rode forth to review the troops. He was greeted with loud acclaim
+wherever he appeared. Mankind is impressed by externals, and those
+who gazed upon Washington in the streets of Philadelphia felt their
+courage rise and their hearts grow strong at the sight of his virile,
+muscular figure as he passed before them on horseback, stately,
+dignified, and self-contained. The people looked upon him, and were
+confident that this was a man worthy and able to dare and do all
+things.
+
+On June 21 he set forth accompanied by Lee and Schuyler, and with a
+brilliant escort. He had ridden but twenty miles when he was met by
+the news of Bunker Hill. "Did the militia fight?" was the immediate
+and characteristic question; and being told that they did fight, he
+exclaimed, "Then the liberties of the country are safe." Given the
+fighting spirit, Washington felt he could do anything. Full of this
+important intelligence he pressed forward to Newark, where he was
+received by a committee of the provincial congress, sent to conduct
+the commander-in-chief to New York. There he tarried long enough to
+appoint Schuyler to the charge of the military affairs in that colony,
+having mastered on the journey its complicated social and political
+conditions. Pushing on through Connecticut he reached Watertown, where
+he was received by the provincial congress of Massachusetts, on July
+2, with every expression of attachment and confidence. Lingering less
+than an hour for this ceremony, he rode on to the headquarters at
+Cambridge, and when he came within the lines the shouts of the
+soldiers and the booming of cannon announced his arrival to the
+English in Boston.
+
+The next day he rode forth in the presence of a great multitude, and
+the troops having been drawn up before him, he drew his sword beneath
+the historical elm-tree, and took command of the first American army.
+"His excellency," wrote Dr. Thatcher in his journal, "was on horseback
+in company with several military gentlemen. It was not difficult to
+distinguish him from all others. He is tall and well proportioned, and
+his personal appearance truly noble and majestic." "He is tall and of
+easy and agreeable address," the loyalist Curwen had remarked a few
+weeks before; while Mrs. John Adams, warm-hearted and clever, wrote
+to her husband after the general's arrival: "Dignity, ease, and
+complacency, the gentleman and the soldier, look agreeably blended in
+him. Modesty marks every line and feature of his face. Those lines of
+Dryden instantly occurred to me,--
+
+  'Mark his majestic fabric! He's a temple
+  Sacred by birth, and built by hands divine;
+  His soul's the deity that lodges there;
+  Nor is the pile unworthy of the God.'"
+
+Lady, lawyer, and surgeon, patriot and tory, all speak alike, and as
+they wrote so New England felt. A slave-owner, an aristocrat, and a
+churchman, Washington came to Cambridge to pass over the heads
+of native generals to the command of a New England army, among a
+democratic people, hard-working and simple in their lives, and
+dissenters to the backbone, who regarded episcopacy as something
+little short of papistry and quite equivalent to toryism. Yet the
+shout that went up from soldiers and people on Cambridge common on
+that pleasant July morning came from the heart and had no jarring
+note. A few of the political chiefs growled a little in later days at
+Washington, but the soldiers and the people, high and low, rich and
+poor, gave him an unstinted loyalty. On the fields of battle and
+throughout eight years of political strife the men of New England
+stood by the great Virginian with a devotion and truth in which was no
+shadow of turning. Here again we see exhibited most conspicuously
+the powerful personality of the man who was able thus to command
+immediately the allegiance of this naturally cold and reserved people.
+What was it that they saw which inspired them at once with so much
+confidence? They looked upon a tall, handsome man, dressed in plain
+uniform, wearing across his breast a broad blue band of silk, which
+some may have noticed as the badge and symbol of a certain solemn
+league and covenant once very momentous in the English-speaking world.
+They saw his calm, high bearing, and in every line of face and figure
+they beheld the signs of force and courage. Yet there must have been
+something more to call forth the confidence then so quickly given, and
+which no one ever long withheld. All felt dimly, but none the less
+surely, that here was a strong, able man, capable of rising to the
+emergency, whatever it might be, capable of continued growth and
+development, clear of head and warm of heart; and so the New England
+people gave to him instinctively their sympathy and their faith, and
+never took either back.
+
+The shouts and cheers died away, and then Washington returned to his
+temporary quarters in the Wadsworth house, to master the task before
+him. The first great test of his courage and ability had come, and he
+faced it quietly as the excitement caused by his arrival passed by. He
+saw before him, to use his own words, "a mixed multitude of people,
+under very little discipline, order, or government." In the language
+of one of his aides:[1] "The entire army, if it deserved the name, was
+but an assemblage of brave, enthusiastic, undisciplined, country lads;
+the officers in general quite as ignorant of military life as the
+troops, excepting a few elderly men, who had seen some irregular
+service among the provincials under Lord Amherst." With this force,
+ill-posted and very insecurely fortified, Washington was to drive the
+British from Boston. His first step was to count his men, and it took
+eight days to get the necessary returns, which in an ordinary army
+would have been furnished in an hour. When he had them, he found that
+instead of twenty thousand, as had been represented, but fourteen
+thousand soldiers were actually present for duty. In a short time,
+however, Mr. Emerson, the chaplain, noted in his diary that it
+was surprising how much had been done, that the lines had been so
+extended, and the works so shrewdly built, that it was morally
+impossible for the enemy to get out except in one place purposely left
+open. A little later the same observer remarked: "There is a great
+overturning in the camp as to order and regularity; new lords, new
+laws. The Generals Washington and Lee are upon the lines every day.
+The strictest government is taking place, and great distinction is
+made between officers and soldiers." Bodies of troops scattered here
+and there by chance were replaced by well-distributed forces, posted
+wisely and effectively in strong intrenchments. It is little wonder
+that the worthy chaplain was impressed, and now, seeing it all from
+every side, we too can watch order come out of chaos and mark the
+growth of an army under the guidance of a master-mind and the steady
+pressure of an unbending will.
+
+[Footnote 1: John Trumbull, _Reminiscences_, p. 18.]
+
+Then too there was no discipline, for the army was composed of raw
+militia, who elected their officers and carried on war as they
+pleased. In a passage suppressed by Mr. Sparks, Washington said:
+"There is no such thing as getting officers of this stamp to carry
+orders into execution--to curry favor with the men (by whom they were
+chosen, and on whose smile they may possibly think that they may again
+rely) seems to be one of the principal objects of their attention.
+I have made a pretty good slam amongst such kind of officers as the
+Massachusetts government abounds in, since I came into this camp,
+having broke one colonel and two captains for cowardly behavior in
+the action on Bunker Hill, two captains for drawing more pay and
+provisions than they had men in their company, and one for being
+absent from his post when the enemy appeared there and burnt a house
+just by it. Besides these I have at this time one colonel, one major,
+one captain, and two subalterns under arrest for trial. In short, I
+spare none, and yet fear it will not all do, as these people seem to
+be too attentive to everything but their own interests." This may
+be plain and homely in phrase, but it is not stilted, and the quick
+energy of the words shows how the New England farmers and fishermen
+were being rapidly brought to discipline. Bringing the army into
+order, however, was but a small part of his duties. It is necessary
+to run over all his difficulties, great and small, at this time, and
+count them up, in order to gain a just idea of the force and capacity
+of the man who overcame them.
+
+Washington, in the first place, was obliged to deal not only with his
+army, but with the general congress and the congress of the province.
+He had to teach them, utterly ignorant as they were of the needs and
+details of war, how to organize and supply their armies. There was no
+commissary department, there were no uniforms, no arrangements for
+ammunition, no small arms, no cannon, no resources to draw upon for
+all these necessaries of war. Little by little he taught Congress
+to provide after a fashion for these things, little by little he
+developed what he needed, and by his own ingenuity, and by seizing
+alertly every suggestion from others, he supplied for better or worse
+one deficiency after another. He had to deal with various governors
+and various colonies, each with its prejudices, jealousies, and
+shortcomings. He had to arrange for new levies from a people unused
+to war, and to settle with infinite anxiety and much wear and tear of
+mind and body, the conflict as to rank among officers to whom he could
+apply no test but his own insight. He had to organize and stimulate
+the arming of privateers, which, by preying on British commerce, were
+destined to exercise such a powerful influence on the fate of the war.
+It was neither showy nor attractive, such work as this, but it was
+very vital, and it was done.
+
+By the end of July the army was in a better posture of defense;
+and then at the beginning of the next month, as the prospect was
+brightening, it was suddenly discovered that there was no gunpowder.
+An undrilled army, imperfectly organized, was facing a disciplined
+force and had only some nine rounds in the cartridge-boxes. Yet there
+is no quivering in the letters from headquarters. Anxiety and strain
+of nerve are apparent; but a resolute determination rises over all,
+supported by a ready fertility of resource. Couriers flew over the
+country asking for powder in every town and in every village. A vessel
+was even dispatched to the Bermudas to seize there a supply of powder,
+of which the general, always listening, had heard. Thus the immediate
+and grinding pressure was presently relieved, but the staple of war
+still remained pitifully and perilously meagre all through the winter.
+
+Meantime, while thus overwhelmed with the cares immediately about him,
+Washington was watching the rest of the country. He had a keen eye
+upon Johnson and his Indians in the valley of the Mohawk; he followed
+sharply every movement of Tryon and the Tories in New York; he refused
+with stern good sense to detach troops to Connecticut and Long Island,
+knowing well when to give and when to say No, a difficult monosyllable
+for the new general of freshly revolted colonies. But if he would not
+detach in one place, he was ready enough to do so in another. He sent
+one expedition by Lake Champlain, under Montgomery, to Montreal, and
+gave Arnold picked troops to march through the wilds of Maine and
+strike Quebec. The scheme was bold and brilliant, both in conception
+and in execution, and came very near severing Canada forever from the
+British crown. A chapter of little accidents, each one of which proved
+as fatal as it was unavoidable, a moment's delay on the Plains of
+Abraham, and the whole campaign failed; but there was a grasp of
+conditions, a clearness of perception, and a comprehensiveness about
+the plan, which stamp it as the work of a great soldier, who saw
+besides the military importance, the enormous political value held out
+by the chance of such a victory.
+
+The daring, far-reaching quality of this Canadian expedition was much
+more congenial to Washington's temper and character than the wearing
+work of the siege. All that man could do before Boston was done, and
+still Congress expected the impossible, and grumbled because without
+ships he did not secure the harbor. He himself, while he inwardly
+resented such criticism, chafed under the monotonous drudgery of the
+intrenchments. He was longing, according to his nature, to fight, and
+was, it must be confessed, quite ready to attempt the impossible in
+his own way. Early in September he proposed to attack the town in
+boats and by the neck of land at Roxbury, but the council of officers
+unanimously voted against him. A little more than a month later he
+planned another attack, and was again voted down by his officers.
+Councils of war never fight, it is said, and perhaps in this case
+it was well that such was their habit, for the schemes look rather
+desperate now. To us they serve to show the temper of the man, and
+also his self-control in this respect at the beginning of the war, for
+Washington became ready enough afterwards to override councils when he
+was wholly free from doubt himself.
+
+Thus the planning of campaigns, both distant and near, went on, and at
+the same time the current of details, difficult, vital, absolute in
+demanding prompt and vigorous solution, went on too. The existence of
+war made it necessary to fix our relations with our enemies, and that
+these relations should be rightly settled was of vast moment to our
+cause, struggling for recognition. The first question was the matter
+of prisoners, and on August 11 Washington wrote to Gage:--
+
+"I understand that the officers engaged in the cause of liberty and
+their country, who by the fortune of war have fallen into your hands,
+have been thrown indiscriminately into a common gaol appropriated
+for felons; that no consideration has been had for those of the most
+respectable rank, when languishing with wounds and sickness; and that
+some have been even amputated in this unworthy situation.
+
+"Let your opinion, sir, of the principle which actuates them be what
+it may, they suppose that they act from the noblest of all principles,
+a love of freedom and their country. But political principles, I
+conceive, are foreign to this point. The obligations arising from the
+rights of humanity and claims of rank are universally binding and
+extensive, except in case of retaliation. These, I should have hoped,
+would have dictated a more tender treatment of those individuals whom
+chance or war had put in your power. Nor can I forbear suggesting
+its fatal tendency to widen that unhappy breach which you, and those
+ministers under whom you act, have repeatedly declared your wish is to
+see forever closed.
+
+"My duty now makes it necessary to apprise you, that for the future I
+shall regulate all my conduct towards those gentlemen who are or may
+be in our possession, exactly by the rule you shall observe towards
+those of ours now in your custody.
+
+"If severity and hardship mark the line of your conduct, painful as it
+may be to me, your prisoners will feel its effects. But if kindness
+and humanity are shown to ours, I shall with pleasure consider those
+in our hands only as unfortunate, and they shall receive from me that
+treatment to which the unfortunate are ever entitled."
+
+This is a letter worthy of a little study. The affair does not look
+very important now, but it went then to the roots of things; for this
+letter would go out to the world, and America and the American cause
+would be judged by their leader. A little bluster or ferocity, any
+fine writing, or any absurdity, and the world would have sneered,
+condemned, or laughed. But no man could read this letter and fail to
+perceive that here was dignity and force, justice and sense, with just
+a touch of pathos and eloquence to recommend it to the heart. Men
+might differ with the writer, but they could neither laugh at him nor
+set him aside.
+
+Gage replied after his kind. He was an inconsiderable person, dull
+and well meaning, intended for the command of a garrison town,
+and terribly twisted and torn by the great events in which he was
+momentarily caught. His masters were stupid and arrogant, and he
+imitated them with perfect success, except that arrogance with him
+dwindled to impertinence. He answered Washington's letter with denials
+and recriminations, lectured the American general on the political
+situation, and talked about "usurped authority," "rebels,"
+"criminals," and persons destined to the "cord." Washington, being a
+man of his word, proceeded to put some English prisoners into jail,
+and then wrote a second note, giving Gage a little lesson in manners,
+with the vain hope of making him see that gentlemen did not scold
+and vituperate because they fought. He restated his case calmly
+and coolly, as before, informed Gage that he had investigated the
+counter-charge of cruelty and found it without any foundation, and
+then continued: "You advise me to give free operation to truth, and
+to punish misrepresentation and falsehood. If experience stamps value
+upon counsel, yours must have a weight which few can claim. You best
+can tell how far the convulsion, which has brought such ruin on both
+countries, and shaken the mighty empire of Britain to its foundation,
+may be traced to these malignant causes.
+
+"You affect, sir, to despise all rank not derived from the same source
+with your own. I cannot conceive one more honorable than that which
+flows from the uncorrupted choice of a brave and free people, the
+purest source and original fountain of all power. Far from making it a
+plea for cruelty, a mind of true magnanimity and enlarged ideas would
+comprehend and respect it."
+
+Washington had grasped instinctively the general truth that Englishmen
+are prone to mistake civility for servility, and become offensive,
+whereas if they are treated with indifference, rebuke, or even
+rudeness, they are apt to be respectful and polite. He was obliged to
+go over the same ground with Sir William Howe, a little later, and
+still more sharply; and this matter of prisoners recurred, although at
+longer and longer intervals, throughout the war. But as the British
+generals saw their officers go to jail, and found that their impudence
+and assumption were met by keen reproofs, they gradually comprehended
+that Washington was not a man to be trifled with, and that in him
+was a pride and dignity out-topping theirs and far stronger, because
+grounded on responsibility borne and work done, and on the deep sense
+of a great and righteous cause.
+
+It was probably a pleasure and a relief to give to Gage and Sir
+William Howe a little instruction in military behavior and general
+good manners, but there was nothing save infinite vexation in dealing
+with the difficulties arising on the American side of the line. As the
+days shortened and the leaves fell, Washington saw before him a New
+England winter, with no clothing and no money for his troops. Through
+long letters to Congress, and strenuous personal efforts, these
+wants were somehow supplied. Then the men began to get restless and
+homesick, and both privates and officers would disappear to their
+farms, which Washington, always impatient of wrongdoing, styled "base
+and pernicious conduct," and punished accordingly. By and by the terms
+of enlistment ran out and the regiments began to melt away even before
+the proper date. Recruiting was carried on slowly and with difficulty,
+new levies were tardy in coming in, and Congress could not be
+persuaded to stop limited enlistments. Still the task was done. The
+old army departed and a new one arose in its place, the posts were
+strengthened and ammunition secured.
+
+Among these reinforcements came some Virginia riflemen, and it must
+have warmed Washington's heart to see once more these brave and hardy
+fighters in the familiar hunting shirt and leggins. They certainly
+made him warm in a very different sense by getting into a
+rough-and-tumble fight one winter's day with some Marblehead
+fishermen. The quarrel was at its height, when suddenly into the brawl
+rode the commander-in-chief. He quickly dismounted, seized two of the
+combatants, shook them, berated them, if tradition may be trusted,
+for their local jealousies, and so with strong arm quelled the
+disturbance. He must have longed to take more than one colonial
+governor or magnate by the throat and shake him soundly, as he did his
+soldiers from the woods of Virginia and the rocks of Marblehead, for
+to his temper there was nothing so satisfying as rapid and decisive
+action. But he could not quell governors and assemblies in this way,
+and yet he managed them and got what he wanted with a patience and
+tact which it must have been in the last degree trying to him to
+practice, gifted as he was with a nature at once masterful and
+passionate.
+
+Another trial was brought about by his securing and sending out
+privateers which did good service. They brought in many valuable
+prizes which caused infinite trouble, and forced Washington not only
+to be a naval secretary, but also made him a species of admiralty
+judge. He implored the slow-moving Congress to relieve him from this
+burden, and suggested a plan which led to the formation of special
+committees and was the origin of the Federal judiciary of the United
+States. Besides the local jealousies and the personal jealousies, and
+the privateers and their prizes, he had to meet also the greed and
+selfishness as well of the money-making, stock-jobbing spirit which
+springs up rankly under the influence of army contracts and large
+expenditures among a people accustomed to trade and unused to war.
+Washington wrote savagely of these practices, but still, despite all
+hindrances and annoyances, he kept moving straight on to his object.
+
+In the midst of his labors, harassed and tried in all ways, he was
+assailed as usual by complaint and criticism. Some of it came to him
+through his friend and aide, Joseph Reed, to whom he wrote in reply
+one of the noblest letters ever penned by a great man struggling with
+adverse circumstances and wringing victory from grudging fortune. He
+said that he was always ready to welcome criticism, hear advice, and
+learn the opinion of the world. "For as I have but one capital object
+in view, I could wish to make my conduct coincide with the wishes of
+mankind, as far as I can consistently; I mean, without departing from
+that great line of duty which, though hid under a cloud for some
+time, from a peculiarity of circumstances, may, nevertheless, bear
+a scrutiny." Thus he held fast to "the great line of duty," though
+bitterly tried the while by the news from Canada, where brilliant
+beginnings were coming to dismal endings, and cheered only by the
+arrival of his wife, who drove up one day in her coach and four, with
+the horses ridden by black postilions in scarlet and white liveries,
+much to the amazement, no doubt, of the sober-minded New England folk.
+
+Light, however, finally began to break on the work about him. Henry
+Knox, sent out for that purpose, returned safely with the guns
+captured at Ticonderoga, and thus heavy ordnance and gunpowder were
+obtained. By the middle of February the harbor was frozen over, and
+Washington arranged to cross the ice and carry Boston by storm.
+Again he was held back by his council, but this time he could not be
+stopped. If he could not cross the ice he would go by land. He had
+been slowly but surely advancing his works all winter, and now he
+determined on a decisive stroke. On the evening of Monday, March
+4, under cover of a heavy bombardment which distracted the enemy's
+attention, he marched a large body of troops to Dorchester Heights
+and began to throw up redoubts. The work went forward rapidly, and
+Washington rode about all night encouraging the men. The New England
+soldiers had sorely tried his temper, and there were many severe
+attacks and bitter criticisms upon them in his letters, which were
+suppressed or smoothed over for the most part by Mr. Sparks, but
+which have come to light since, as is sometimes the case with facts.
+Gradually, however, the General had come to know his soldiers better,
+and six months later he wrote to Lund Washington, praising his
+northern troops in the highest terms. Even now he understood them as
+never before, and as he watched them on that raw March night, working
+with the energy and quick intelligence of their race, he probably felt
+that the defects were superficial, but the virtues, the tenacity, and
+the courage were lasting and strong.
+
+When day dawned, and the British caught sight of the formidable works
+which had sprung up in the night, there was a great excitement and
+running hither and thither in the town. Still the men on the heights
+worked on, and still Washington rode back and forth among them. He was
+stirred and greatly rejoiced at the coming of the fight, which he now
+believed inevitable, and as always, when he was deeply moved, the
+hidden springs of sentiment and passion were opened, and he reminded
+his soldiers that it was the anniversary of the Boston massacre, and
+appealed to them by the memories of that day to prepare for battle
+with the enemy. As with the Huguenots at Ivry,--
+
+  "Remember St. Bartholomew was passed from man to man."
+
+But the fighting never came. The British troops were made ready, then
+a gale arose and they could not cross the bay. The next day it
+rained in torrents, and the next day it was too late. The American
+intrenchments frowned threateningly above the town, and began to send
+in certain ominous messengers in the shape of shot and shell. The
+place was now so clearly untenable that Howe determined to evacuate
+it. An informal request to allow the troops to depart unmolested was
+not answered, but Washington suspended his fire and the British made
+ready to withdraw. Still they hesitated and delayed, until Washington
+again advanced his works, and on this hint they started in earnest, on
+March 17, amid confusion, pillage, and disorder, leaving cannon and
+much else behind them, and seeking refuge in their ships.
+
+All was over, and the town was in the hands of the Americans. In
+Washington's own words, "To maintain a post within musket-shot of the
+enemy for six months together, without powder, and at the same time
+to disband one army and recruit another within that distance of
+twenty-odd British regiments, is more, probably, than ever was
+attempted." It was, in truth, a gallant feat of arms, carried through
+by the resolute will and strong brain of one man. The troops on
+both sides were brave, but the British had advantages far more than
+compensating for a disparity of numbers, always slight and often
+more imaginary than real. They had twelve thousand men, experienced,
+disciplined, equipped, and thoroughly supplied. They had the best arms
+and cannon and gunpowder. They commanded the sea with a strong fleet,
+and they were concentrated on the inside line, able to strike with
+suddenness and overwhelming force at any point of widely extended
+posts. Washington caught them with an iron grip and tightened it
+steadily until, in disorderly haste, they took to their boats without
+even striking a blow. Washington's great abilities, and the incapacity
+of the generals opposed to him, were the causes of this result. If
+Robert Clive, for instance, had chanced to have been there the end
+might possibly have been the same, but there would have been some
+bloody fighting before that end was reached. The explanation of the
+feeble abandonment of Boston lies in the stupidity of the English
+government, which had sown the wind and then proceeded to handle the
+customary crop with equal fatuity.
+
+There were plenty of great men in England, but they were not
+conducting her government or her armies. Lord Sandwich had declared
+in the House of Lords that all "Yankees were cowards," a simple and
+satisfactory statement, readily accepted by the governing classes, and
+flung in the teeth of the British soldiers as they fell back twice
+from the bloody slopes of Bunker Hill. Acting on this pleasant idea,
+England sent out as commanders of her American army a parcel of
+ministerial and court favorites, thoroughly second-rate men, to whom
+was confided the task of beating one of the best soldiers and hardest
+fighters of the century. Despite the enormous material odds in favor
+of Great Britain, the natural result of matching the Howes and Gages
+and Clintons against George Washington ensued, and the first lesson
+was taught by the evacuation of Boston.
+
+Washington did not linger over his victory. Even while the British
+fleet still hung about the harbor he began to send troops to New York
+to make ready for the next attack. He entered Boston in order to see
+that every precaution was taken against the spread of the smallpox,
+and then prepared to depart himself. Two ideas, during his first
+winter of conflict, had taken possession of his mind, and undoubtedly
+influenced profoundly his future course. One was the conviction that
+the struggle must be fought out to the bitter end, and must bring
+either subjugation or complete independence. He wrote in February:
+"With respect to myself, I have never entertained an idea of an
+accommodation, since I heard of the measures which were adopted in
+consequence of the Bunker's Hill fight;" and at an earlier date he
+said: "I hope my countrymen (of Virginia) will rise superior to any
+losses the whole navy of Great Britain can bring on them, and that the
+destruction of Norfolk and threatened devastation of other places
+will have no other effect than to unite the whole country in one
+indissoluble band against a nation which seems to be lost to every
+sense of virtue and those feelings which distinguish a civilized
+people from the most barbarous savages." With such thoughts he
+sought to make Congress appreciate the probable long duration of the
+struggle, and he bent every energy to giving permanency to his army,
+and decisiveness to each campaign. The other idea which had grown in
+his mind during the weary siege was that the Tories were thoroughly
+dangerous and deserved scant mercy. In his second letter to Gage he
+refers to them, with the frankness which characterized him when he
+felt strongly, as "execrable parricides," and he made ready to
+treat them with the utmost severity at New York and elsewhere. When
+Washington was aroused there was a stern and relentless side to his
+character, in keeping with the force and strength which were his chief
+qualities. His attitude on this point seems harsh now when the
+old Tories no longer look very dreadful and we can appreciate the
+sincerity of conviction which no doubt controlled most of them. But
+they were dangerous then, and Washington, with his honest hatred of
+all that seemed to him to partake of meanness or treason, proposed to
+put them down and render them harmless, being well convinced, after
+his clear-sighted fashion, that war was not peace, and that mildness
+to domestic foes was sadly misplaced.
+
+His errand to New England was now done and well done. His victory was
+won, everything was settled at Boston; and so, having sent his army
+forward, he started for New York, to meet the harder trials that still
+awaited him.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+SAVING THE REVOLUTION
+
+
+After leaving Boston, Washington proceeded through Rhode Island and
+Connecticut, pushing troops forward as he advanced, and reached New
+York on April 13. There he found himself plunged at once into the same
+sea of difficulties with which he had been struggling at Boston, the
+only difference being that these were fresh and entirely untouched.
+The army was inadequate, and the town, which was the central point
+of the colonies, as well as the great river at its side, was wholly
+unprotected. The troops were in large measure raw and undrilled, the
+committee of safety was hesitating, the Tories were virulent and
+active, corresponding constantly with Tryon, who was lurking in a
+British man-of-war, while from the north came tidings of retreat
+and disaster. All these harassing difficulties crowded upon the
+commander-in-chief as soon as he arrived. To appreciate him it is
+necessary to understand these conditions and realize their weight and
+consequence, albeit the details seem petty. When we comprehend the
+difficulties, then we can see plainly the greatness of the man who
+quietly and silently took them up and disposed of them. Some he
+scotched and some he killed, but he dealt with them all after a
+fashion sufficient to enable him to move steadily forward. In his
+presence the provincial committee suddenly stiffened and grew strong.
+All correspondence with Tryon was cut off, the Tories were repressed,
+and on Long Island steps were taken to root out "these abominable
+pests of society," as the commander-in-chief called them in his
+plain-spoken way. Then forts were built, soldiers energetically
+recruited and drilled, arrangements made for prisoners, and despite
+all the present cares anxious thought was given to the Canada
+campaign, and ideas and expeditions, orders, suggestions, and
+encouragement were freely furnished to the dispirited generals and
+broken forces of the north.
+
+One matter, however, overshadowed all others. Nearly a year before,
+Washington had seen that there was no prospect or possibility of
+accommodation with Great Britain. It was plain to his mind that the
+struggle was final in its character and would be decisive. Separation
+from the mother country, therefore, ought to come at once, so that
+public opinion might be concentrated, and above all, permanency ought
+to be given to the army. These ideas he had been striving to impress
+upon Congress, for the most part less clearsighted than he was as to
+facts, and as the months slipped by his letters had grown constantly
+more earnest and more vehement. Still Congress hesitated, and at last
+Washington went himself to Philadelphia and held conferences with
+the principal men. What he said is lost, but the tone of Congress
+certainly rose after his visit. The aggressive leaders found their
+hands so much strengthened that little more than a month later they
+carried through a declaration of independence, which was solemnly and
+gratefully proclaimed to the army by the general, much relieved to
+have got through the necessary boat-burning, and to have brought
+affairs, military and political, on to the hard ground of actual fact.
+
+Soon after his return from Philadelphia, he received convincing
+proof that his views in regard to the Tories were extremely sound.
+A conspiracy devised by Tryon, which aimed apparently at the
+assassination of the commander-in-chief, and which had corrupted his
+life-guards for that purpose, was discovered and scattered before it
+had fairly hardened into definite form. The mayor of the city and
+various other persons were seized and thrown into prison, and one of
+the life-guards, Thomas Hickey by name, who was the principal tool in
+the plot, was hanged in the presence of a large concourse of people.
+Washington wrote a brief and business-like account of the affair to
+Congress, from which one would hardly suppose that his own life had
+been aimed at. It is a curious instance of his cool indifference to
+personal danger. The conspiracy had failed, that was sufficient for
+him, and he had other things besides himself to consider. "We expect
+a bloody summer in New York and Canada," he wrote to his brother, and
+even while the Canadian expedition was coming to a disastrous close,
+and was bringing hostile invasion instead of the hoped-for conquest,
+British men-of-war were arriving daily in the harbor, and a large army
+was collecting on Staten Island. The rejoicings over the Declaration
+of Independence had hardly died away, when the vessels of the enemy
+made their way up the Hudson without check from the embryo forts, or
+the obstacles placed in the stream.
+
+July 12 Lord Howe arrived with more troops, and also with ample
+powers to pardon and negotiate. Almost immediately he tried to open
+a correspondence with Washington, but Colonel Reed, in behalf of the
+General, refused to receive the letter addressed to "Mr. Washington."
+Then Lord Howe sent an officer to the American camp with a second
+letter, addressed to "George Washington, Esq., etc., etc." The bearer
+was courteously received, but the letter was declined. "The etc., etc.
+implies everything," said the Englishman. It may also mean "anything,"
+Washington replied, and added that touching the pardoning power of
+Lord Howe there could be no pardon where there was no guilt, and where
+no forgiveness was asked. As a result of these interviews, Lord Howe
+wrote to England that it would be well to give Mr. Washington his
+proper title. A small question, apparently, this of the form of
+address, especially to a lover of facts, and yet it was in reality
+of genuine importance. To the world Washington represented the young
+republic, and he was determined to extort from England the first
+acknowledgment of independence by compelling her to recognize the
+Americans as belligerents and not rebels. Washington cared as little
+for vain shows as any man who ever lived, but he had the highest sense
+of personal dignity, and of the dignity of his cause and country.
+Neither should be allowed to suffer in his hands. He appreciated the
+effect on mankind of forms and titles, and with unerring judgment
+he insisted on what he knew to be of real value. It is one of the
+earliest examples of the dignity and good taste which were of such
+inestimable value to his country.
+
+He had abundant occasion also for the employment of these same
+qualities, coupled with unwearied patience and tact, in dealing with
+his own men. The present army was drawn from a wider range than that
+which had taken Boston, and sectional jealousies and disputes, growing
+every day more hateful to the commander-in-chief, sprang up rankly.
+The men of Maryland thought those of Connecticut ploughboys; the
+latter held the former to be fops and dandies. These and a hundred
+other disputes buzzed and whirled about Washington, stirring his
+strong temper, and exercising his sternest self-control in the
+untiring effort to suppress them and put them to death. "It
+requires," John Adams truly said, "more serenity of temper, a deeper
+understanding, and more courage than fell to the lot of Marlborough,
+to ride in this whirlwind." Fortunately these qualities were all
+there, and with them an honesty of purpose and an unbending directness
+of character to which Anne's great general was a stranger.
+
+Meantime, while the internal difficulties were slowly diminished, the
+forces of the enemy rapidly increased. First it became evident that
+attacks were not feasible. Then the question changed to a mere choice
+of defenses. Even as to this there was great and harassing doubt, for
+the enemy, having command of the water, could concentrate and attack
+at any point they pleased. Moreover, the British had thirty thousand
+of the best disciplined and best equipped troops that Europe could
+furnish, while Washington had some twenty thousand men, one fourth of
+whom were unfit for duty, and with the remaining three fourths, raw
+recruits for the most part, he was obliged to defend an extended line
+of posts, without cavalry, and with no means for rapid concentration.
+Had he been governed solely by military considerations he would have
+removed the inhabitants, burned New York, and drawing his forces
+together would have taken up a secure post of observation. To have
+destroyed the town, however, not only would have frightened the timid
+and the doubters, and driven them over to the Tories, but would have
+dispirited the patriots not yet alive to the exigencies of war, and
+deeply injured the American cause. That Washington well understood the
+need of such action is clear, both from the current rumors that the
+town was to be burned, and from his expressed desire to remove the
+women and children from New York. But political considerations
+overruled the military necessity, and he spared the town. It was bad
+enough to be thus hampered, but he was even more fettered in other
+ways, for he could not even concentrate his forces and withdraw to the
+Highlands without a battle, as he was obliged to fight in order to
+sustain public feeling, and thus he was driven on to almost sure
+defeat. With Brooklyn Heights in the hands of the enemy New York was
+untenable, and yet it was obvious that to hold Brooklyn when the enemy
+controlled the sea was inviting defeat. Yet Washington under the
+existing conditions had no choice except to fight on Long Island and
+to say that he hoped to make a good defense.
+
+Everything, too, as the day of battle drew near, seemed to make
+against him. On August 22 the enemy began to land on Long Island,
+where Greene had drawn a strong line of redoubts behind the village of
+Brooklyn, to defend the heights which commanded New York, and had made
+every arrangement to protect the three roads through the wooded hills,
+about a mile from the intrenchments. Most unfortunately, and just at
+the critical moment, Greene was taken down with a raging fever, so
+that when Washington came over on the 24th he found much confusion in
+the camps, which he repressed as best he could, and then prepared for
+the attack. Greene's illness, however, had caused some oversights
+which were unknown to the commander-in-chief, and which, as it turned
+out, proved fatal.
+
+After indecisive skirmishing for two or three days, the British
+started early on the morning of the 26th. They had nine thousand men
+and were well informed as to the country. Advancing through woodpaths
+and lanes, they came round to the left flank of the Americans. One
+of the roads through the hills was unguarded, the others feebly
+protected. The result is soon told. The Americans, out-generaled and
+out-flanked, were taken by surprise and surrounded, Sullivan and
+his division were cut off, and then Lord Stirling. There was some
+desperate fighting, and the Americans showed plenty of courage, but
+only a few forced their way out. Most of them were killed or taken
+prisoners, the total loss out of some five thousand men reaching as
+high as two thousand.
+
+From the redoubts, whither he had come at the sound of the firing,
+Washington watched the slaughter and disaster in grim silence. He saw
+the British troops, flushed with victory, press on to the very edge
+of his works and then withdraw in obedience to command. The British
+generals had their prey so surely, as they believed, that they
+mercifully decided not to waste life unnecessarily by storming the
+works in the first glow of success. So they waited during that
+night and the two following days, while Washington strengthened his
+intrenchments, brought over reinforcements, and prepared for the
+worst. On the 29th it became apparent that there was a movement in the
+fleet, and that arrangements were being made to take the Americans in
+the rear and wholly cut them off. It was an obvious and sensible plan,
+but the British overlooked the fact that while they were lingering,
+summing up their victory, and counting the future as assured, there
+was a silent watchful man on the other side of the redoubts who for
+forty-eight hours never left the lines, and who with a great capacity
+for stubborn fighting could move, when the stress came, with the
+celerity and stealth of a panther.
+
+Washington swiftly determined to retreat. It was a desperate
+undertaking, and a lesser man would have hesitated and been lost. He
+had to transport nine thousand men across a strait of strong tides and
+currents, and three quarters of a mile in width. It was necessary to
+collect the boats from a distance, and do it all within sight and
+hearing of the enemy. The boats were obtained, a thick mist settled
+down on sea and land, the water was calm, and as the night wore away,
+the entire army with all its arms and baggage was carried over,
+Washington leaving in the last boat. At daybreak the British awoke,
+but it was too late. They had fought a successful battle, they had had
+the American army in their grasp, and now all was over. The victory
+had melted away, and, as a grand result, they had a few hundred
+prisoners, a stray boat with three camp-followers, and the deserted
+works in which they stood. To grasp so surely the happy chance of wind
+and weather and make such a retreat as this was a feat of arms as
+great as most victories, and in it we see, perhaps as plainly as
+anywhere, the nerve and quickness of the man who conducted it. It is
+true, it was the only chance of salvation, but the great man is he who
+is entirely master of his opportunity, even if he have but one.
+
+The outlook, nevertheless, was, as Washington wrote, "truly
+distressing." The troops were dispirited, and the militia began to
+disappear, as they always did after a defeat. Congress would not
+permit the destruction of the city, different interests pulled in
+different directions, conflicting opinions distracted the councils
+of war, and, with utter inability to predict the enemy's movements,
+everything led to halfway measures and to intense anxiety, while Lord
+Howe tried to negotiate with Congress, and the Americans waited for
+events. Washington, looking beyond the confusion of the moment, saw
+that he had gained much by delay, and had his own plan well defined.
+He wrote: "We have not only delayed the operations of the campaign
+till it is too late to effect any capital incursion into the country,
+but have drawn the enemy's forces to one point.... It would be
+presumption to draw out our young troops into open ground against
+their superiors both in number and discipline, and I have never spared
+the spade and pickaxe." Every one else, however, saw only past defeat
+and present peril.
+
+The British ships gradually made their way up the river, until it
+became apparent that they intended to surround and cut off the
+American army. Washington made preparations to withdraw, but
+uncertainty of information came near rendering his precautions futile.
+September 15 the men-of-war opened fire, and troops were landed near
+Kip's Bay. The militia in the breastworks at that point had been
+at Brooklyn and gave way at once, communicating their panic to two
+Connecticut regiments. Washington, galloping down to the scene of
+battle, came upon the disordered and flying troops. He dashed in among
+them, conjuring them to stop, but even while he was trying to rally
+them they broke again on the appearance of some sixty or seventy of
+the enemy, and ran in all directions. In a tempest of anger Washington
+drew his pistols, struck the fugitives with his sword, and was only
+forced from the field by one of his officers seizing the bridle of his
+horse and dragging him away from the British, now within a hundred
+yards of the spot.
+
+Through all his trials and anxieties Washington always showed the
+broadest and most generous sympathy. When the militia had begun to
+leave him a few days before, although he despised their action and
+protested bitterly to Congress against their employment, yet in his
+letters he displayed a keen appreciation of their feelings, and saw
+plainly every palliation and excuse. But there was one thing which
+he could never appreciate nor realize. It was from first to last
+impossible for him to understand how any man could refuse to fight, or
+could think of running away. When he beheld rout and cowardly panic
+before his very eyes, his temper broke loose and ran uncontrolled. His
+one thought then was to fight to the last, and he would have thrown
+himself single-handed on the enemy, with all his wisdom and prudence
+flung to the winds. The day when the commander held his place merely
+by virtue of personal prowess lay far back in the centuries, and no
+one knew it better than Washington. But the old fighting spirit awoke
+within him when the clash of arms sounded in his ears, and though we
+may know the general in the tent and in the council, we can only know
+the man when he breaks out from all rules and customs, and shows the
+rage of battle, and the indomitable eagerness for the fray, which lie
+at the bottom of the tenacity and courage that carried the war for
+independence to a triumphant close.
+
+The rout and panic over, Washington quickly turned to deal with the
+pressing danger. With coolness and quickness he issued his orders, and
+succeeded in getting his army off, Putnam's division escaping most
+narrowly. He then took post at King's Bridge, and began to strengthen
+and fortify his lines. While thus engaged, the enemy advanced, and
+on the 16th Washington suddenly took the offensive and attacked the
+British light troops. The result was a sharp skirmish, in which the
+British were driven back with serious loss, and great bravery was
+shown by the Connecticut and Virginia troops, the two commanding
+officers being killed. This affair, which was the first gleam of
+success, encouraged the troops, and was turned to the best account by
+the general. Still a successful skirmish did not touch the essential
+difficulties of the situation, which then as always came from
+within, rather than without. To face and check twenty-five thousand
+well-equipped and highly disciplined soldiers Washington had now some
+twelve thousand men, lacking in everything which goes to make an army,
+except mere individual courage and a high average of intelligence.
+Even this meagre force was an inconstant and diminishing quantity,
+shifting, uncertain, and always threatening dissolution.
+
+The task of facing and fighting the enemy was enough for the ablest
+of men; but Washington was obliged also to combat and overcome the
+inertness and dullness born of ignorance, and to teach Congress how to
+govern a nation at war. In the hours "allotted to sleep," he sat in
+his headquarters, writing a letter, with "blots and scratches," which
+told Congress with the utmost precision and vigor just what was
+needed. It was but one of a long series of similar letters, written
+with unconquerable patience and with unwearied iteration, lighted here
+and there by flashes of deep and angry feeling, which would finally
+strike home under the pressure of defeat, and bring the patriots of
+the legislature to sudden action, always incomplete, but still action
+of some sort. It must have been inexpressibly dreary work, but quite
+as much was due to those letters as to the battles. Thinking for other
+people, and teaching them what to do, is at best an ungrateful duty,
+but when it is done while an enemy is at your throat, it shows a grim
+tenacity of purpose which is well worth consideration.
+
+In this instance the letter of September 24, read in the light of the
+battles of Long Island and Kip's Bay, had a considerable effect. The
+first steps were taken to make the army national and permanent, to
+raise the pay of officers, and to lengthen enlistments. Like most of
+the war measures of Congress, they were too late for the immediate
+necessity, but they helped the future. Congress, moreover, then felt
+that all had been done that could be demanded, and relapsed once more
+into confidence. "The British force," said John Adams, chairman of the
+board of war, "is so divided, they will do no great matter this
+fall." But Washington, facing hard facts, wrote to Congress with his
+unsparing truth on October 4: "Give me leave to say, sir, (I say it
+with due deference and respect, and my knowledge of the facts, added
+to the importance of the cause and the stake I hold in it, must
+justify the freedom,) that your affairs are in a more unpromising way
+than you seem to apprehend. Your army, as I mentioned in my last, is
+on the eve of its political dissolution. True it is, you have voted
+a larger one in lieu of it; but the season is late; and there is a
+material difference between voting battalions and raising men."
+
+The campaign as seen from the board of war and from the Plains of
+Harlem differed widely. It is needless to say now which was correct;
+every one knows that the General was right and Congress wrong, but
+being in the right did not help Washington, nor did he take petty
+pleasure in being able to say, "I told you how it would be." The
+hard facts remained unchanged. There was the wholly patriotic but
+slumberous, and for fighting purposes quite inefficient Congress still
+to be waked up and kept awake, and to be instructed. With painful
+and plain-spoken repetition this work was grappled with and done
+methodically, and like all else as effectively as was possible.
+
+Meanwhile the days slipped along, and Washington waited on the Harlem
+Plains, planning descents on Long Island, and determining to make a
+desperate stand where he was, unless the situation decidedly changed.
+Then the situation did change, as neither he nor any one else
+apparently had anticipated. The British warships came up the Hudson
+past the forts, brushing aside our boasted obstructions, destroying
+our little fleet, and getting command of the river. Then General Howe
+landed at Frog's Point, where he was checked for the moment by the
+good disposition of Heath, under Washington's direction. These two
+events made it evident that the situation of the American army was
+full of peril, and that retreat was again necessary. Such certainly
+was the conclusion of the council of war, on the 16th, acting this
+time in agreement with their chief. Six days Howe lingered on Frog's
+Point, bringing up stores or artillery or something; it matters little
+now why he tarried. Suffice it that he waited, and gave six days to
+his opponent. They were of little value to Howe, but they were
+of inestimable worth to Washington, who employed them in getting
+everything in readiness, in holding his council of war, and then on
+the 17th in moving deliberately off to very strong ground at White
+Plains. On his way he fought two or three slight, sharp, and
+successful skirmishes with the British. Sir William followed closely,
+but with much caution, having now a dull glimmer in his mind that at
+the head of the raw troops in front of him was a man with whom it was
+not safe to be entirely careless.
+
+On the 28th, Howe came up to Washington's position, and found the
+Americans quite equal in numbers, strongly intrenched, and awaiting
+his attack with confidence. He hesitated, doubted, and finally feeling
+that he must do something, sent four thousand men to storm Chatterton
+Hill, an outlying post, where some fourteen hundred Americans were
+stationed. There was a short, sharp action, and then the Americans
+retreated in good order to the main army, having lost less than half
+as many men as their opponents. With caution now much enlarged, Howe
+sent for reinforcements, and waited two days. The third day it rained,
+and on the fourth Howe found that Washington had withdrawn to a higher
+and quite impregnable line of hills, where he held all the passes in
+the rear and awaited a second attack. Howe contemplated the situation
+for two or three days longer, and then broke camp and withdrew to
+Dobbs Ferry to secure Fort Washington, which treachery offered him as
+an easy and inviting prize. Such were the great results of the victory
+of Long Island, two wasted months, and the American army still
+untouched.
+
+Howe was resolved that his campaign should not be utterly fruitless,
+and therefore directed his attention to the defenses of the Hudson,
+and here he met with better success. Congress, in its military wisdom,
+had insisted that these forts must and could be held. So thought the
+generals, and so most especially, and most unluckily, did Greene.
+Washington, with his usual accurate and keen perception, saw, from the
+time the men-of-war came up the Hudson, and, now that the British
+army was free, more clearly than ever, that both forts ought to be
+abandoned. Sure of his ground, he overruled Congress, but was so far
+influenced by Greene that he gave to that officer discretionary orders
+as to withdrawal. This was an act of weakness, as he afterwards
+admitted, for which he bitterly reproached himself, never confusing or
+glossing over his own errors, but loyal there, as elsewhere, to facts.
+An attempt was made to hold both forts, and both were lost, as he
+had foreseen. From Fort Lee the garrison withdrew in safety. Fort
+Washington, with its plans all in Howe's hands through the treachery
+of William Demont, the adjutant of Colonel Magaw, was carried by
+storm, after a severe struggle. Twenty-six hundred men and all the
+munitions of war fell into the hands of the enemy. It was a serious
+and most depressing loss, and was felt throughout the continent.
+
+Meantime Washington had crossed info the Jerseys, and, after the loss
+of Fort Lee, began to retreat before the British, who, flushed with
+victory, now advanced rapidly under Lord Cornwallis. The crisis of his
+fate and of the Revolution was upon him. His army was melting away.
+The militia had almost all disappeared, and regiments whose term of
+enlistment had expired were departing daily. Lee, who had a division
+under his command, was ordered to come up, but paid no attention,
+although the orders were repeated almost every day for a month. He
+lingered, and loitered, and excused himself, and at last was taken
+prisoner. This disposed of him for a time very satisfactorily, but
+meanwhile he had succeeded in keeping his troops from Washington,
+which was a most serious misfortune.
+
+On December 2 Washington was at Princeton with three thousand ragged
+men, and the British close upon his heels. They had him now surely
+in their grip. There could be no mistake this time, and there was
+therefore no need of a forced march. But they had not yet learned that
+to Washington even hours meant much, and when, after duly resting,
+they reached the Delaware, they found the Americans on the other side,
+and all the boats destroyed for a distance of seventy miles.
+
+It was winter now, the short gray days had come, and with them
+piercing cold and storms of sleet and ice. It seemed as if the
+elements alone would finally disperse the feeble body of men still
+gathered about the commander-in-chief. Congress had sent him blank
+commissions and orders to recruit, which were well meant, but were not
+practically of much value. As Glendower could call spirits from the
+vasty deep, so they, with like success, sought to call soldiers from
+the earth in the midst of defeat, and in the teeth of a North American
+winter. Washington, baffling pursuit and flying from town to town,
+left nothing undone. North and south went letters and appeals for men,
+money, and supplies. Vain, very vain, it all was, for the most part,
+but still it was done in a tenacious spirit. Lee would not come, the
+Jersey militia would not turn out, thousands began to accept Howe's
+amnesty, and signs of wavering were apparent in some of the Middle
+States. Philadelphia was threatened, Newport was in the hands of the
+enemy, and for ninety miles Washington had retreated, evading ruin
+again and again only by the width of a river. Congress voted not
+to leave Philadelphia,--a fact which their General declined to
+publish,--and then fled.
+
+No one remained to face the grim realities of the time but Washington,
+and he met them unmoved. Not a moment passed that he did not seek in
+some way to effect something. Not an hour went by that he did not turn
+calmly from fresh and ever renewed disappointment to work and action.
+
+By the middle of December Howe felt satisfied that the American army
+would soon dissolve, and leaving strong detachments in various posts
+he withdrew to New York. His premises were sound, and his conclusions
+logical, but he made his usual mistake of overlooking and
+underestimating the American general. No sooner was it known that
+he was on his way to New York than Washington, at the head of his
+dissolving army, resolved to take the offensive and strike an outlying
+post. In a letter of December 14, the day after Howe began to move, we
+catch the first glimpse of Trenton. It was a bold spirit which, in the
+dead of winter, with a broken army, no prospect of reinforcements, and
+in the midst of a terror-stricken people, could thus resolve with
+some four thousand men to attack an army thoroughly appointed, and
+numbering in all its divisions twenty-five thousand soldiers.
+
+It is well to pause a moment and look at that situation, and at the
+overwhelming difficulties which hemmed it in, and then try to realize
+what manner of man he was who rose superior to it, and conquered it.
+Be it remembered, too, that he never deceived himself, and never for
+one instant disguised the truth. Two years later he wrote that at this
+supreme moment, in what were called "the dark days of America," he was
+never despondent; and this was true enough, for despair was not in his
+nature. But no delusions lent him courage. On the 18th he wrote to his
+brother "that if every nerve was not strained to recruit this new army
+the game was pretty nearly up;" and added, "You can form no idea of
+the perplexity of my situation. No man, I believe, ever had a greater
+choice of difficulties, and less means to extricate himself from them.
+However, under a full persuasion of the justice of our cause, I cannot
+entertain an idea that it will finally sink, though it may remain
+for some time under a cloud." There is no complaint, no boasting, no
+despair in this letter. We can detect a bitterness in the references
+to Congress and to Lee, but the tone of the letter is as calm as a May
+morning, and it concludes with sending love and good wishes to the
+writer's sister and her family.
+
+Thus in the dreary winter Washington was planning and devising and
+sending hither and thither for men, and never ceased through it all
+to write urgent and ever sharper letters and keep a wary eye upon the
+future. He not only wrote strongly, but he pledged his own estate and
+exceeded his powers in desperate efforts to raise money and men. On
+the 20th he wrote to Congress: "It may be thought that I am going a
+good deal out of the line of my duty to adopt these measures, or to
+advise thus freely. A character to lose, an estate to forfeit, the
+inestimable blessings of liberty at stake, and a life devoted, must be
+my excuse." Even now across the century these words come with a grave
+solemnity to our ears, and we can feel as he felt when he alone saw
+that he stood on the brink of a great crisis. It is an awful thing to
+know that the life of a nation is at stake, and this thought throbs in
+his words, measured and quiet as usual, but deeply fraught with much
+meaning to him and to the world.
+
+By Christmas all was ready, and when the Christian world was rejoicing
+and feasting, and the British officers in New York and in the New
+Jersey towns were reveling and laughing, Washington prepared to
+strike. His whole force, broken into various detachments, was less
+than six thousand men. To each division was assigned, with provident
+forethought, its exact part. Nothing was overlooked, nothing omitted;
+and then every division commander failed, for good reason or bad, to
+do his duty. Gates was to march from Bristol with two thousand
+men, Ewing was to cross at Trenton, Putnam was to come up from
+Philadelphia, Griffin was to make a diversion against Donop. When
+the moment came, Gates, disapproving the scheme, was on his way
+to Congress, and Wilkinson, with his message, found his way to
+headquarters by following the bloody tracks of the barefooted
+soldiers. Griffin abandoned New Jersey and fled before Donop. Putnam
+would not even attempt to leave Philadelphia, and Ewing made no effort
+to cross at Trenton. Cadwalader, indeed, came down from Bristol,
+but after looking at the river and the floating ice, gave it up as
+desperate.
+
+But there was one man who did not hesitate nor give up, nor halt on
+account of floating ice. With twenty-four hundred hardy veterans,
+Washington crossed the Delaware. The night was bitter cold and the
+passage difficult. When they landed, and began their march of nine
+miles to Trenton, a fierce storm of sleet drove in their faces.
+Sullivan; marching by the river, sent word that the arms of his men
+were wet. "Then tell your general," said Washington, "to use the
+bayonet, for the town must be taken." In broad daylight they came to
+the town. Washington, at the front and on the right of the line, swept
+down the Pennington road, and as he drove in the pickets he heard the
+shouts of Sullivan's men, as, with Stark leading the van, they charged
+in from the river. A company of yägers and the light dragoons slipped
+away, there was a little confused fighting in the streets, Colonel
+Rahl fell, mortally wounded, his Hessians threw down their arms, and
+all was over. The battle had been fought and won, and the Revolution
+was saved.
+
+[Illustration: WASHINGTON CROSSING THE DELAWARE]
+
+Taking his thousand prisoners with him, Washington recrossed the
+Delaware to his old position. Had all done their duty, as he had
+planned, the British hold on New Jersey would have been shattered. As
+it was, it was only loosened. Congress, aroused at last, had invested
+Washington with almost dictatorial powers; but the time for action was
+short. The army was again melting away, and only by urgent appeals
+were some veterans retained, and enough new men gathered to make a
+force of five thousand men. With this army Washington prepared to
+finish what he had begun.
+
+Trenton struck alarm and dismay into the British, and Cornwallis, with
+seven thousand of the best troops, started from New York to redeem
+what had been lost. Leaving three regiments at Princeton, he pushed
+hotly after Washington, who fell back behind the Assunpink River,
+skirmishing heavily and successfully. When Cornwallis reached the
+river he found the American army drawn up on the other side awaiting
+him. An attack on the bridge was repulsed, and the prospect looked
+uninviting. Some officers urged an immediate assault; but night was
+falling, and Cornwallis, sure of the game, decided to wait till
+the morrow. He, too, forgot that he was facing an enemy who never
+overlooked a mistake, and never waited an hour. With quick decision
+Washington left his camp-fires burning on the river bank, and taking
+roundabout roads, which he had already reconnoitred, marched on to
+Princeton. By sunrise he was in the outskirts of the town. Mercer,
+detached with some three hundred men, fell in with Mawhood's regiment,
+and a sharp action ensued. Mercer was mortally wounded, and his men
+gave way just as the main army came upon the field. The British
+charged, and as the raw Pennsylvanian troops in the van wavered,
+Washington rode to the front, and reining his horse within thirty
+yards of the British, ordered his men to advance. The volleys of
+musketry left him unscathed, the men stood firm, the other divisions
+came rapidly into action, and the enemy gave way in all directions.
+The two other British regiments were driven through the town and
+routed. Had there been cavalry they would have been entirely cut off.
+As it was, they were completely broken, and in this short but bloody
+action they lost five hundred men in killed, wounded, and prisoners.
+It was too late to strike the magazines at Brunswick, as Washington
+had intended, and so he withdrew once more with his army to the high
+lands to rest and recruit.
+
+His work was done, however. The country, which had been supine, and
+even hostile, rose now, and the British were attacked, surprised, and
+cut off in all directions, until at last they were shut up in the
+immediate vicinity of New York. The tide had been turned, and
+Washington had won the precious breathing-time which was all he
+required.
+
+Frederick the Great is reported to have said that this was the most
+brilliant campaign of the century. It certainly showed all the
+characteristics of the highest strategy and most consummate
+generalship. With a force numerically insignificant as compared with
+that opposed to him, Washington won two decisive victories, striking
+the enemy suddenly with superior numbers at each point of attack.
+The Trenton campaign has all the quality of some of the last battles
+fought by Napoleon in France before his retirement to Elba. Moreover,
+these battles show not only generalship of the first order, but great
+statesmanship. They display that prescient knowledge which recognizes
+the supreme moment when all must be risked to save the state. By
+Trenton and Princeton Washington inflicted deadly blows upon the
+enemy, but he did far more by reviving the patriotic spirit of the
+country fainting under the bitter experience of defeat, and by sending
+fresh life and hope and courage throughout the whole people.
+
+It was the decisive moment of the war. Sooner or later the American
+colonies were sure to part from the mother-country, either peaceably
+or violently. But there was nothing inevitable in the Revolution of
+1776, nor was its end at all certain. It was in the last extremities
+when the British overran New Jersey, and if it had not been for
+Washington that particular revolution would have most surely failed.
+Its fate lay in the hands of the general and his army; and to the
+strong brain growing ever keener and quicker as the pressure became
+more intense, to the iron will gathering a more relentless force
+as defeat thickened, to the high, unbending character, and to the
+passionate and fighting temper of Washington, we owe the brilliant
+campaign which in the darkest hour turned the tide and saved the cause
+of the Revolution.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+"MALICE DOMESTIC, AND FOREIGN LEVY"
+
+
+After the "two lucky strokes at Trenton and Princeton," as he himself
+called them, Washington took up a strong position at Morristown and
+waited. His plan was to hold the enemy in check, and to delay all
+operations until spring. It is easy enough now to state his purpose,
+and it looks very simple, but it was a grim task to carry it out
+through the bleak winter days of 1777. The Jerseys farmers, spurred by
+the sufferings inflicted upon them by the British troops, had turned
+out at last in deference to Washington's appeals, after the victories
+of Trenton and Princeton, had harassed and cut off outlying parties,
+and had thus straitened the movements of the enemy. But the main army
+of the colonies, on which all depended, was in a pitiable state. It
+shifted its character almost from day to day. The curse of short
+enlistments, so denounced by Washington, made itself felt now with
+frightful effect. With the new year most of the continental troops
+departed, while others to replace them came in very slowly, and
+recruiting dragged most wearisomely. Washington was thus obliged, with
+temporary reinforcements of raw militia, to keep up appearances; and
+no commander ever struggled with a more trying task. At times it
+looked as if the whole army would actually disappear, and more than
+once Washington expected that the week's or the month's end would find
+him with not more than five hundred men. At the beginning of March he
+had about four thousand men, a few weeks later only three thousand raw
+troops, ill-fed, ill-clad, ill-shod, ill-armed, and almost unpaid.
+Over against him was Howe, with eleven thousand men in the field, and
+still more in the city of New York, well disciplined and equipped,
+well-armed, well-fed, and furnished with every needful supply. The
+contrast is absolutely grotesque, and yet the force of one man's
+genius and will was such that this excellent British army was hemmed
+in and kept in harmless quiet by their ragged opponents.
+
+Washington's plan, from the first, was to keep the field at all
+hazards, and literally at all hazards did he do so. Right and left
+his letters went, day after day, calling with pathetic but dignified
+earnestness for men and supplies. In one of these epistles, to
+Governor Cooke of Rhode Island, written in January, to remonstrate
+against raising troops for the State only, he set forth his intentions
+in a few words. "You must be sensible," he said, "that the season is
+fast approaching when a new campaign will open; nay, the former is not
+yet closed; nor do I intend it shall be, unless the enemy quits the
+Jerseys." To keep fighting all the time, and never let the fire of
+active resistance flicker or die out, was Washington's theory of the
+way to maintain his own side and beat the enemy. If he could not fight
+big battles, he would fight small ones; if he could not fight little
+battles, he would raid and skirmish and surprise; but fighting of some
+sort he would have, while the enemy attempted to spread over a State
+and hold possession of it. We can see the obstacles now, but we can
+only wonder how they were sufficiently overcome to allow anything to
+be done.
+
+Moreover, besides the purely physical difficulties in the lack of men,
+money, and supplies, there were others of a political and personal
+kind, which were even more wearing and trying, but which,
+nevertheless, had to be dealt with also, in some fashion. In order to
+sustain the courage of the people Washington was obliged to give out,
+and to allow it to be supposed, that he had more men than was really
+the case, and so Congress and various wise and well-meaning persons
+grumbled because he did not do more and fight more battles. He never
+deceived Congress, but they either could not or would not understand
+the actual situation. In March he wrote to Robert Morris: "Nor is it
+in my power to make Congress fully sensible of the real situation
+of our affairs, and that it is with difficulty, if I may use the
+expression, that I can by every means in my power keep the life and
+soul of this army together. In a word, when they are at a distance,
+they think it is but to say, _Presto, begone_, and everything is done.
+They seem not to have any conception of the difficulty and perplexity
+attending those who are to execute." It was so easy to see what they
+would like to have done, and so simple to pass a resolve to that
+effect, that Congress never could appreciate the reality of the
+difficulty and the danger until the hand of the enemy was almost at
+their throats. They were not even content with delay and neglect, but
+interfered actively at times, as in the matter of the exchange of
+prisoners, where they made unending trouble for Washington, and showed
+themselves unable to learn or to keep their hands off after any amount
+of instruction.
+
+In January Washington issued a proclamation requiring those
+inhabitants who had subscribed to Howe's declaration to come in within
+thirty days and take the oath of allegiance to the United States. If
+they failed to do so they were to be treated as enemies. The measure
+was an eminently proper one, and the proclamation was couched in the
+most moderate language. It was impossible to permit a large class
+of persons to exist on the theory that they were peaceful American
+citizens and also subjects of King George. The results of such conduct
+were in every way perilous and intolerable, and Washington was
+determined that he would divide the sheep from the goats, and know
+whom he was defending and whom attacking. Yet for this wise and
+necessary action he was called in question in Congress and accused of
+violating civil rights and the resolves of Congress itself. Nothing
+was actually done about it, but such an incident shows from a single
+point the infinite tact and resolution required in waging war under a
+government whose members were unable to comprehend what was meant, and
+who could not see that until they had beaten England it was hardly
+worth while to worry about civil rights, which in case of defeat would
+speedily cease to exist altogether.
+
+Another fertile source of trouble arose from questions of rank.
+Members of Congress, in making promotions and appointments, were
+more apt to consider local claims than military merit, and they also
+allowed their own personal prejudices to affect their action in
+this respect far too much. Thence arose endless heart-burnings
+and jealousies, followed by resignations and the loss of valuable
+officers. Congress, having made the appointments, would go cheerfully
+about its business, while the swarm of grievances thus let loose would
+come buzzing about the devoted head of the commander-in-chief. He
+could not adjourn, but was compelled to quiet rivalries, allay
+irritated feelings, and ride the storm as best he might. It was all
+done, however, in one way or another: by personal appeals, and by
+letters full of dignity, patriotism, and patience, which are very
+impressive and full of meaning for students of character, even in this
+day and generation.
+
+Then again, not content with snarling up our native appointments,
+Congress complicated matters still more dangerously by its treatment
+of foreigners. The members of Congress were colonists, and the fact
+that they had shaken off the yoke of the mother country did not in the
+least alter their colonial and perfectly natural habit of regarding
+with enormous respect Englishmen and Frenchmen, and indeed anybody who
+had had the good fortune to be born in Europe. The result was that
+they distributed commissions and gave inordinate rank to the many
+volunteers who came over the ocean, actuated by various motives, but
+all filled with a profound sense of their own merits. It is only fair
+to Congress to say that the American agents abroad were even more to
+blame in this respect. Silas Deane especially scattered promises of
+commissions with a lavish hand, and Congress refused to fulfill many
+of the promises thus made in its name. Nevertheless, Congress was far
+too lax, and followed too closely the example of its agents. Some of
+these foreigners were disinterested men and excellent soldiers, who
+proved of great value to the American cause. Many others were mere
+military adventurers, capable of being turned to good account,
+perhaps, but by no means entitled to what they claimed and in most
+instances received.
+
+The ill-considered action of Congress and of our agents abroad in
+this respect was a source of constantly recurring troubles of a very
+serious nature. Native officers, who had borne the burden and heat of
+the day, justly resented being superseded by some stranger, unable
+to speak the language, who had landed in the States but a few days
+before. As a result, resignations were threatened which, if carried
+out, would affect the character of the army very deeply. Then again,
+the foreigners themselves, inflated by the eagerness of our agents and
+by their reception at the hands of Congress, would find on joining the
+army that they could get no commands, chiefly because there were none
+to give. They would then become dissatisfied with their rank and
+employment, and bitter complaints and recriminations would ensue.
+All these difficulties, of course, fell most heavily upon the
+commander-in-chief, who was heartily disgusted with the whole
+business. Washington believed from the beginning, and said over and
+over again in various and ever stronger terms, that this was an
+American war and must be fought by Americans. In no other way, and
+by no other persons, did he consider that it could be carried to any
+success worth having. He saw of course the importance of a French
+alliance, and deeply desired it, for it was a leading element in the
+solution of the political and military situation; but alliance with
+a foreign power was one thing, and sporadic military volunteers were
+another. Washington had no narrow prejudices against foreigners,
+for he was a man of broad and liberal mind, and no one was more
+universally beloved and respected by the foreign officers than he; but
+he was intensely American in his feelings, and he would not admit for
+an instant that the American war for independence could be righteously
+fought or honestly won by others than Americans. He was well aware
+that foreign volunteers had a value and use of which he largely and
+gratefully availed himself; but he was exasperated and alarmed by the
+indiscriminate and lavish way in which Congress and our agents abroad
+gave rank and office to them. "Hungry adventurers," he called them in
+one letter, when driven beyond endurance by the endless annoyances
+thus forced upon him; and so he pushed their pretensions aside,
+and managed, on the whole, to keep them in their proper place. The
+operation was delicate, difficult, and unpleasant, for it seemed to
+savor of ingratitude. But Washington was never shaken for an instant
+in his policy, and while he checked the danger, he showed in many
+instances, like Lafayette and Steuben, that he could appreciate and
+use all that was really valuable in the foreign contingent.
+
+The service rendered by Washington in this matter has never been
+justly understood or appreciated. If he had not taken this position,
+and held it with an absolute firmness which bordered on harshness, we
+should have found ourselves in a short time with an army of American
+soldiers officered by foreigners, many of them mere mercenaries,
+"hungry adventurers," from France, Poland or Hungary, from Germany,
+Ireland or England. The result of such a combination would have been
+disorganization and defeat. That members of Congress and some of our
+representatives in Europe did not see the danger, and that they were
+impressed by the foreign officers who came among them, was perfectly
+natural. Men are the creatures of the time in which they live, and
+take their color from the conditions which surround them, as the
+chameleon does from the grass or leaves in which it hides. The rulers
+and lawmakers of 1776 could not cast off their provincial awe of
+the natives of England and Europe as they cast off their political
+allegiance to the British king. The only wonder is that there should
+have been even one man so great in mind and character that he could
+rise at a single bound from the level of a provincial planter to the
+heights of a great national leader. He proved himself such in all
+ways, but in none more surely than in his ability to consider all men
+simply as men, and, with a judgment that nothing could confuse, to
+ward off from his cause and country the dangers inherent in colonial
+habits of thought and action, so menacing to a people struggling for
+independence. We can see this strong, high spirit of nationality
+running through Washington's whole career, but it never did better
+service than when it stood between the American army and undue favor
+to foreign volunteers.
+
+Among other disagreeable and necessary truths, Washington had told
+Congress that Philadelphia was in danger, that Howe probably meant to
+occupy it, and that it would be nearly impossible to prevent his doing
+so. This warning being given and unheeded, he continued to watch his
+antagonist, doing so with increased vigilance, as signs of activity
+began to appear in New York. Toward the end of May he broke up his
+cantonments, having now about seven thousand men, and took a strong
+position within ten miles of Brunswick. Here he waited, keeping
+an anxious eye on the Hudson in case he should be mistaken in his
+expectations, and should find that the enemy really intended to go
+north to meet Burgoyne instead of south to capture Philadelphia.
+
+Washington's doubts were soon to be resolved and his expectations
+fulfilled. May 31, a fleet of a hundred sail left New York, and
+couriers were at once sent southward to warn the States of the
+possibility of a speedy invasion. About the same time transports
+arrived with more German mercenaries, and Howe, thus reinforced,
+entered the Jerseys. Washington determined to decline battle, and if
+the enemy pushed on and crossed the Delaware, to hang heavily on their
+rear, while the militia from the south were drawn up to Philadelphia.
+He adopted this course because he felt confident that Howe would never
+cross the Delaware and leave the main army of the Americans behind
+him. His theory proved correct. The British advanced and retreated,
+burned houses and villages and made feints, but all in vain.
+Washington baffled them at every point, and finally Sir William
+evacuated the Jerseys entirely and withdrew to New York and Staten
+Island, where active preparations for some expedition were at once
+begun. Again came anxious watching, with the old fear that Howe meant
+to go northward and join the now advancing Burgoyne. The fear was
+groundless. On July 23 the British fleet set sail from New York,
+carrying between fifteen and eighteen thousand men. Not deceived by
+the efforts to make him think that they aimed at Boston, but still
+fearing that the sailing might be only a ruse and the Hudson the real
+object after all, Washington moved cautiously to the Delaware, holding
+himself ready to strike in either direction. On the 31st he heard that
+the enemy were at the Capes. This seemed decisive; so he sent in
+all directions for reinforcements, moved the main army rapidly to
+Germantown, and prepared to defend Philadelphia. The next news was
+that the fleet had put to sea again, and again messengers went north
+to warn Putnam to prepare for the defense of the Hudson. Washington
+himself was about to re-cross the Delaware, when tidings arrived that
+the fleet had once more appeared at the Capes, and after a few more
+days of doubt the ships came up the Chesapeake and anchored.
+
+Washington thought the "route a strange one," but he knew now that he
+was right in his belief that Howe aimed at Philadelphia. He therefore
+gathered his forces and marched south to meet the enemy, passing
+through the city in order to impress the disaffected and the timid
+with the show of force. It was a motley array that followed him. There
+was nothing uniform about the troops except their burnished arms and
+the sprigs of evergreen in their hats. Nevertheless Lafayette, who had
+just come among them, thought that they looked like good soldiers, and
+the Tories woke up sharply to the fact that there was a large body of
+men known as the American army, and that they had a certain obvious
+fighting capacity visible in their appearance. Neither friends nor
+enemies knew, however, as they stood on the Philadelphia sidewalks
+and watched the troops go past, that the mere fact of that army's
+existence was the greatest victory of skill and endurance which
+the war could show, and that the question of success lay in its
+continuance.
+
+Leaving Philadelphia, Washington pushed on to the junction of the
+Brandywine and Christiana Creek, and posted his men along the heights.
+August 25, Howe landed at the Head of Elk, and Washington threw out
+light parties to drive in cattle, carry off supplies, and annoy the
+enemy. This was done, on the whole, satisfactorily, and after some
+successful skirmishing on the part of the Americans, the two armies
+on the 5th of September found themselves within eight or ten miles of
+each other. Washington now determined to risk a battle in the field,
+despite his inferiority in every way. He accordingly issued a
+stirring proclamation to the soldiers, and then fell back behind the
+Brandywine, to a strong position, and prepared to contest the passage
+of the river.
+
+Early on September 11, the British advanced to Chad's Ford, where
+Washington was posted with the main body, and after some skirmishing
+began to cannonade at long range. Meantime Cornwallis, with the main
+body, made a long détour of seventeen miles, and came upon the right
+flank and rear of the Americans. Sullivan, who was on the right, had
+failed to guard the fords above, and through lack of information was
+practically surprised. Washington, on rumors that the enemy were
+marching toward his right, with the instinct of a great soldier was
+about to cross the river in his front and crush the enemy there, but
+he also was misled and kept back by false reports. When the truth was
+known, it was too late. The right wing had been beaten and flung back,
+the enemy were nearly in the rear, and were now advancing in earnest
+in front. All that man could do was done. Troops were pushed forward
+and a gallant stand was made at various points; but the critical
+moment had come and gone, and there was nothing for it but a hasty
+retreat, which came near degenerating into a rout.
+
+The causes of this complete defeat, for such it was, are easily seen.
+Washington had planned his battle and chosen his position well. If he
+had not been deceived by the first reports, he even then would have
+fallen upon and overwhelmed the British centre before they could
+have reached his right wing. But the Americans, to begin with, were
+outnumbered. They had only eleven thousand effective men, while the
+British brought fifteen of their eighteen thousand into action. Then
+the Americans suffered, as they constantly did, from misinformation,
+and from an absence of system in learning the enemy's movements.
+Washington's attack was fatally checked in this way, and Sullivan
+was surprised from the same causes, as well as from his own culpable
+ignorance of the country beyond him, which was the reason of his
+failure to guard the upper fords. The Americans lost, also, by the
+unsteadiness of new troops when the unexpected happens, and when
+the panic-bearing notion that they are surprised and likely to be
+surrounded comes upon them with a sudden shock.
+
+This defeat was complete and severe, and it was followed in a few days
+by that of Wayne, who narrowly escaped utter ruin. Yet through all
+this disaster we can see the advance which had been made since the
+equally unfortunate and very similar battle on Long Island. Then, the
+troops seemed to lose heart and courage, the army was held together
+with difficulty, and could do nothing but retreat. Now, in the few
+days which Howe, as usual, gave his opponent with such fatal effect to
+himself, Washington rallied his army, and finding them in excellent
+spirits marched down the Lancaster road to fight again. On the eve of
+battle a heavy storm came on, which so injured the arms and munitions
+that with bitter disappointment he was obliged to withdraw; but
+nevertheless it is plain how much this forward movement meant. At the
+moment, however, it looked badly enough, especially after the defeat
+of Wayne, for Howe pressed forward, took possession of Philadelphia,
+and encamped the main body of his army at Germantown.
+
+Meantime Washington, who had not in the least given up his idea of
+fighting again, recruited his army, and having a little more than
+eight thousand men, determined to try another stroke at the British,
+while they were weakened by detachments. On the night of October 3 he
+started, and reached Germantown at daybreak on the 4th. At first the
+Americans swept everything before them, and flung the British back
+in rout and confusion. Then matters began to go wrong, as is always
+likely to happen when, as in this case, widely separated and yet
+accurately concerted action is essential to success. Some of the
+British threw themselves into a stone house, and instead of leaving
+them there under guard, the whole army stopped to besiege, and a
+precious half hour was lost. Then Greene and Stephen were late in
+coming up, having made a circuit, and although when they arrived all
+seemed to go well, the Americans were seized with an inexplicable
+panic, and fell back, as Wayne truly said, in the very moment of
+victory. One of those unlucky accidents, utterly unavoidable, but
+always dangerous to extensive combinations, had a principal effect on
+the result. The morning was very misty, and the fog, soon thickened by
+the smoke, caused confusion, random firing, and, worst of all, that
+uncertainty of feeling and action which something or nothing converted
+into a panic. Nevertheless, the Americans rallied quickly this time,
+and a good retreat was made, under the lead of Greene, until safety
+was reached. The action, while it lasted, had been very sharp, and the
+losses on both sides were severe, the Americans suffering most.
+
+Washington, as usual when matters went ill, exposed himself
+recklessly, to the great alarm of his generals, but all in vain. He
+was deeply disappointed, and expressed himself so at first, for he saw
+that the men had unaccountably given way when they were on the edge
+of victory. The underlying cause was of course, as at Long Island
+and Brandywine, the unsteadiness of raw troops, and Washington felt
+rightly, after the first sting had passed, that he had really achieved
+a great deal. Congress applauded the attempt, and when the smoke of
+the battle had cleared away, men generally perceived that its having
+been fought at all was in reality the important fact. It made also
+a profound impression upon the French cabinet. Eagerly watching the
+course of events, they saw the significance of the fact that an army
+raised within a year could fight a battle in the open field, endure
+a severe defeat, and then take the offensive and make a bold and
+well-planned attack, which narrowly missed being overwhelmingly
+successful. To the observant and trained eyes of Europe, the defeat
+at Germantown made it evident that there was fighting material among
+these untrained colonists, capable of becoming formidable; and that
+there was besides a powerful will and directing mind, capable on
+its part of bringing this same material into the required shape and
+condition. To dispassionate onlookers, England's grasp on her colonies
+appeared to be slipping away very rapidly. Washington himself saw the
+meaning of it all plainly enough, for it was but the development of
+his theory of carrying on the war.
+
+There is no indication, however, that England detected, in all that
+had gone on since her army landed at the Head of Elk, anything more
+than a couple of natural defeats for the rebels. General Howe was
+sufficiently impressed to draw in his troops, and keep very closely
+shut up in Philadelphia, but his country was not moved at all. The
+fact that it had taken forty-seven days to get their army from the
+Elk River to Philadelphia, and that in that time they had fought two
+successful battles and yet had left the American army still active
+and menacing, had no effect upon the British mind. The English were
+thoroughly satisfied that the colonists were cowards and were sure to
+be defeated, no matter what the actual facts might be. They regarded
+Washington as an upstart militia colonel, and they utterly failed to
+comprehend that they had to do with a great soldier, who was able to
+organize and lead an army, overcome incredible difficulties, beat and
+outgeneral them, bear defeat, and then fight again. They were unable
+to realize that the mere fact that such a man could be produced and
+such an army maintained meant the inevitable loss of colonies three
+thousand miles away. Men there were in England, undoubtedly, like
+Burke and Fox, who felt and understood the significance of these
+things, but the mass of the people, as well as the aristocracy, the
+king, and the cabinet, would have none of them. Rude contempt for
+other people is a warming and satisfying feeling, no doubt, and the
+English have had unquestionably great satisfaction from its free
+indulgence. No one should grudge it to them, least of all Americans.
+It is a comfort for which they have paid, so far as this country is
+concerned, by the loss of their North American colonies, and by a few
+other settlements with the United States at other and later times.
+
+But although Washington and his army failed to impress England, events
+had happened in the north, during this same summer, which were so
+sharp-pointed that they not only impressed the English people keenly
+and unpleasantly, but they actually penetrated the dull comprehension
+of George III. and his cabinet. "Why," asked an English lady of an
+American naval officer, in the year of grace 1887--"why is your ship
+named the Saratoga?" "Because," was the reply, "at Saratoga an English
+general and an English army of more than five thousand men surrendered
+to an American army and laid down their arms." Although apparently
+neglected now in the general scheme of British education, Saratoga
+was a memorable event in the summer of 1777, and the part taken by
+Washington in bringing about the great result has never, it would
+seem, been properly set forth. There is no need to trace here the
+history of that campaign, but it is necessary to show how much was
+done by the commander-in-chief, five hundred miles away, to win the
+final victory.
+
+In the winter of 1776-77 reports came that a general and an army were
+to be sent to Canada to invade the colonies from the north by way
+of Lake Champlain. The news does not seem to have made a very deep
+impression generally, nor to have been regarded as anything beyond
+the ordinary course of military events. But there was one man,
+fortunately, who in an instant perceived the full significance of this
+movement. Washington saw that the English had at last found an idea,
+or, at least, a general possessed of one. So long as the British
+confined themselves to fighting one or two battles, and then, taking
+possession of a single town, were content to sit down and pass their
+winter in good quarters, leaving the colonists in undisturbed control
+of all the rest of the country, there was nothing to be feared. The
+result of such campaigning as this could not be doubtful for a moment
+to any clear-sighted man. But when a plan was on foot, which, if
+successful, meant the control of the lakes and the Hudson, and of a
+line of communication from the north to the great colonial seaport,
+the case was very different. Such a campaign as this would cause
+the complete severance of New England, the chief source for men and
+supplies, from the rest of the colonies. It promised the mastery, not
+of a town, but of half a dozen States, and this to the American cause
+probably would be ruin.
+
+So strongly and clearly did Washington feel all this that his
+counter-plan was at once ready, and before people had fairly grasped
+the idea that there was to be a northern invasion, he was sending,
+early in March, urgent letters to New England to rouse up the militia
+and have them in readiness to march at a moment's notice. To Schuyler,
+in command of the northern department, he began now to write
+constantly, and to unfold the methods which must be pursued in order
+to compass the defeat of the invaders. His object was to delay the
+army of Burgoyne by every possible device, while steadily avoiding a
+pitched battle. Then the militia and hardy farmers of New England and
+New York were to be rallied, and were to fall upon the flank and
+rear of the British, harass them constantly, cut off their outlying
+parties, and finally hem them in and destroy them. If the army and
+people of the North could only be left undisturbed, it is evident from
+his letters that Washington felt no doubt as to the result in that
+quarter.
+
+But the North included only half the conditions essential to success.
+The grave danger feared by Washington was that Howe would understand
+the situation, and seeing his opportunity, would throw everything else
+aside, and marching northward with twenty thousand men, would make
+himself master of the Hudson, effect a junction with Burgoyne at
+Albany, and so cut the colonies in twain. From all he could learn,
+and from his knowledge of his opponents' character, Washington felt
+satisfied that Howe intended to capture Philadelphia, advancing,
+probably, through the Jerseys. Yet, despite his well-reasoned judgment
+on this point, it seemed so incredible that any soldier could fail to
+see that decisive victory lay in the north, and in a junction with
+Burgoyne, that Washington could not really and fully believe in such
+fatuity until he knew that Howe was actually landing at the Head
+of Elk. This is the reason for the anxiety displayed in the
+correspondence of that summer, for the changing and shifting
+movements, and for the obvious hesitation of opinion, so unusual with
+Washington at any time. Be it remembered, moreover, that it was an
+awful doubt which went to bed and got up and walked with him through
+all those long nights and days. If Howe, the dull and lethargic,
+should awake from his dream of conquering America by taking now and
+again an isolated town, and should break for the north with twenty
+thousand men, the fortunes of the young republic would come to their
+severest test.
+
+In that event, Washington knew well enough what he meant to do. He
+would march his main army to the Hudson, unite with the strong body
+of troops which he kept there constantly, contest every inch of the
+country and the river with Howe, and keep him at all hazards from
+getting to Albany. But he also knew well that if this were done the
+odds would be fearfully against him, for Howe would then not only
+outnumber him very greatly, but there would be ample time for the
+British to act, and but a short distance to be covered. We can
+imagine, therefore, his profound sense of relief when he found that
+Howe and his army were really south of Philadelphia, after a waste of
+many precious weeks. He could now devote himself single-hearted to the
+defense of the city, for distance and time were at last on his side,
+and all that remained was to fight Howe so hard and steadily that
+neither in victory nor defeat would he remember Burgoyne. Pitt said
+that he would conquer Canada on the plains of Germany, and Burgoyne
+was compelled to surrender in large measure by the campaign of
+Washington in New Jersey and Pennsylvania.
+
+If we study carefully Washington's correspondence during that eventful
+summer, grouping together that relating to the northern campaign, and
+comparing it with that which dealt with the affairs of his own army,
+all that has just been said comes out with entire clearness, and it is
+astonishing to see how exactly events justified his foresight. If
+he could only hold Howe in the south, he was quite willing to trust
+Burgoyne to the rising of the people and to the northern wilderness.
+Every effort he made was in this direction, beginning, as has been
+said, by his appeals to the New England governors in March. Schuyler,
+on his part, was thoroughly imbued with Washington's other leading
+idea, that the one way to victory was by retarding the enemy. At the
+outset everything went utterly and disastrously wrong. Washington
+counted on an obstinate struggle, and a long delay at Ticonderoga, for
+he had not been on the ground, and could not imagine that our officers
+would fortify everything but the one commanding point.
+
+The loss of the forts appalled the country and disappointed
+Washington, but did not shake his nerve for an instant. He wrote to
+Schuyler: "This stroke is severe indeed, and has distressed us much.
+But notwithstanding things at present have a dark and gloomy aspect,
+I hope a spirited opposition will check the progress of General
+Burgoyne's army, and that the confidence derived from his success will
+hurry him into measures that will, in their consequences, be favorable
+to us. We should never despair; our situation has before been
+unpromising, and has changed for the better; so I trust it will again.
+If new difficulties arise we must only put forth new exertions, and
+proportion our efforts to the exigency of the times." Even after this
+seemingly crushing defeat he still felt sure of Burgoyne, so long as
+he was unsupported. Suiting the action to the word, he again bent
+every nerve to rouse New England and get out her militia. When he was
+satisfied that Howe was landing below Philadelphia, the first thing he
+did was to send forth the same cry in the same quarter, to bring out
+more men against Burgoyne. He showed, too, the utmost generosity
+toward the northern army, sending thither all the troops he could
+possibly spare, and even parting with his favorite corps of Morgan's
+riflemen. Despite his liberality, the commanders in the north
+were unreasonable in their demands, and when they asked too much,
+Washington flatly declined to send more men, for he would not weaken
+himself unduly, and he knew what they did not see, that the fate of
+the northern invasion turned largely on his own ability to cope with
+Howe.
+
+The blame for the loss of the forts fell of course upon Schuyler,
+who was none too popular in Congress, and who with St. Clair was
+accordingly made a scape-goat. Congress voted that Washington should
+appoint a new commander, and the New England delegates visited him to
+urge the selection of Gates. This task Washington refused to perform,
+alleging as a reason that the northern department had always been
+considered a separate command, and that he had never done more than
+advise. These reasons do not look very weighty or very strong, and it
+is not quite clear what the underlying motive was. Washington never
+shrank from responsibility, and he knew very well that he could pick
+out the best man more unerringly than Congress. But he also saw
+that Congress favored Gates, whom he would not have chosen, and he
+therefore probably felt that it was more important to have some one
+whom New England believed in and approved than a better soldier who
+would have been unwelcome to her representatives. It is certain that
+he would not have acted thus, had he thought that generalship was an
+important element in the problem; but he relied on a popular uprising,
+and not on the commander, to defeat Burgoyne. He may have thought,
+too, that it was a mistake to relieve Schuyler, who was working in the
+directions which he had pointed out, and who, if not a great soldier,
+was a brave, high-minded, and sensible man, devoted to his chief and
+to the country. It was Schuyler indeed who, by his persistent labor in
+breaking down bridges, tearing up roads, and felling trees, while he
+gathered men industriously in all directions, did more than any one
+else at that moment to prepare the way for an ultimate victory.
+
+Whatever his feelings may have been in regard to the command of the
+northern department, Washington made no change in his own course after
+Gates had been appointed. He knew that Gates was at least harmless,
+and not likely to block the natural course of events. He therefore
+felt free to press his own policy without cessation, and without
+apprehension. He took care that Lincoln and Arnold should be there to
+look after the New England militia, and he wrote to Governor Clinton,
+in whose energy and courage he had great confidence, to rouse up the
+men of New York. He suggested the points of attack, and at every
+moment advised and counseled and watched, holding all the while a firm
+grip on Howe. Slowly and surely the net, thus painfully set, tightened
+round Burgoyne. The New Englanders whipped one division at Bennington,
+and the New Yorkers shattered another at Oriskany and Fort Schuyler.
+The country people turned out in defense of their invaded homes and
+poured into the American camp. Burgoyne struggled and advanced,
+fought and retreated. Gates, stupid, lethargic, and good-natured, did
+nothing, but there was no need of generalship; and Arnold was there,
+turbulent and quarrelsome, but full of daring; and Morgan, too,
+equally ready; and they and others did all the necessary fighting.
+
+Poor Burgoyne, a brave gentleman, if not a great general, had
+the misfortune to be a clever man in the service of a stupid
+administration, and he met the fate usually meted out under such
+circumstances to men of ideas. Howe went off to the conquest of
+Philadelphia, Clinton made a brief burning and plundering raid up the
+river, and the northern invasion, which really had meaning, was left
+to its fate. It was a hard fate, but there was no escape. Outnumbered,
+beaten, and caught, Burgoyne surrendered. If there had been a
+fighting-man at the head of the American army, the British would have
+surrendered as prisoners of war, and not on conditions. Schuyler, we
+may be sure, whatever his failings, would never have let them off
+so easily. But it was sufficient as it was. The wilderness, and the
+militia of New York and New England swarming to the defense of their
+homes, had done the work. It all fell out just as Washington had
+foreseen and planned, and England, despising her enemy and their
+commander, saw one of her armies surrender, and might have known, if
+she had had the wit, that the colonies were now lost forever. The
+Revolution had been saved at Trenton; it was established at Saratoga.
+In the one case it was the direct, in the other the indirect, work of
+Washington.
+
+Poor Gates, with his dull brain turning under the impression that this
+crowning mercy had been his own doing, lost his head, forgot that
+there was a commander-in-chief, and sending his news to Congress, left
+Washington to find out from chance rumors, and a tardy letter from
+Putnam, that Burgoyne had actually surrendered. This gross slight,
+however, had deeper roots than the mere exultation of victory acting
+on a heavy and common mind. It represented a hostile feeling which
+had been slowly increasing for some time, which had been carefully
+nurtured by those interested in its growth, and which blossomed
+rapidly in the heated air of military triumph. From the outset it had
+been Washington's business to fight the enemy, manage the army,
+deal with Congress, and consider in all its bearings the political
+situation at home and abroad; but he was now called upon to meet a
+trouble outside the line of duty, and to face attacks from within,
+which, ideally speaking, ought never to have existed, but which, in
+view of our very fallible humanity, were certain to come sooner or
+later. Much domestic malice Washington was destined to encounter in
+the later years of political strife, but this was the only instance in
+his military career where enmity came to overt action and open speech.
+The first and the last of its kind, this assault upon him has much
+interest, for a strong light is thrown upon his character by studying
+him, thus beset, and by seeing just how he passed through this most
+trying and disagreeable of ordeals.
+
+The germ of the difficulties was to be found where we should expect
+it, in the differences between the men of speech and the man of
+action, between the lawmakers and the soldier. Washington had been
+obliged to tell Congress a great many plain and unpleasant truths.
+It was part of his duty, and he did it accordingly. He was always
+dignified, calm, and courteous, but he had an alarmingly direct way
+with him, especially when he was annoyed. He was simple almost to
+bluntness, but now and then would use a grave irony which must
+have made listening ears tingle. Congress was patriotic and
+well-intentioned, and on the whole stood bravely by its general,
+but it was unversed in war, very impatient, and at times wildly
+impracticable. Here is a letter which depicts the situation, and the
+relation between the general and his rulers, with great clearness.
+March 14, 1777, Washington wrote to the President: "Could I accomplish
+the important objects so eagerly wished by Congress,--'confining the
+enemy within their present quarters, preventing their getting
+supplies from the country, and totally subduing them before they are
+reinforced,'--I should be happy indeed. But what prospect or hope can
+there be of my effecting so desirable a work at this time?"
+
+We can imagine how exasperating such requests and suggestions must
+have been. It was very much as if Congress had said: "Good General,
+bring in the Atlantic tides and drown the enemy; or pluck the moon
+from the sky and give it to us, as a mark of your loyalty." Such
+requests are not soothing to any man struggling his best with great
+anxieties, and with a host of petty cares. Washington, nevertheless,
+kept his temper, and replied only by setting down a few hard facts
+which answered the demands of Congress in a final manner, and with all
+the sting of truth. Thus a little irritation had been generated
+in Congress against the general, and there were some members who
+developed a good deal of pronounced hostility. Sam Adams, a born
+agitator and a trained politician, unequaled almost in our history as
+an organizer and manager of men, able, narrow, coldly fierce, the man
+of the town meeting and the caucus, had no possibility of intellectual
+sympathy with the silent, patient, hard-gripping soldier, hemmed with
+difficulties, but ever moving straight forward to his object, with
+occasional wild gusts of reckless fighting passion. John Adams, too,
+brilliant of speech and pen, ardent, patriotic, and high-minded,
+was, in his way, out of touch with Washington. Although he moved
+Washington's appointment, he began almost immediately to find fault
+with him, an exercise to which he was extremely prone. Inasmuch as he
+could see how things ought to be done, he could not understand
+why they were not done in that way at once, for he had a fine
+forgetfulness of other people's difficulties, as is the case with most
+of us. The New England representatives generally took their cue from
+these two, especially James Lovell, who carried his ideas into action,
+and obtained a little niche in the temple of fame by making
+himself disagreeably conspicuous in the intrigue against the
+commander-in-chief, when it finally developed.
+
+There were others, too, outside New England who were discontented, and
+among them Richard Henry Lee, from the General's own State. He was
+evidently critical and somewhat unfriendly at this time, although the
+reasons for his being so are not now very distinct. Then there was Mr.
+Clark of New Jersey, an excellent man, who thought the General was
+invading popular rights; and to him others might be added who vaguely
+felt that things ought to be better than they were. This party,
+adverse to Washington, obtained the appointment of Gates to the
+northern department, under whom the army won a great victory, and they
+were correspondingly happy. John Adams wrote his wife that one
+cause of thanksgiving was that the tide had not been turned by the
+commander-in-chief and southern troops, for the adulation would have
+been intolerable; and that a man may be wise and virtuous and not a
+deity.
+
+Here, so far as the leading and influential men were concerned, the
+matter would have dropped, probably; but there were lesser men like
+Lovell who were much encouraged by the surrender of Burgoyne, and who
+thought that they now might supplant Washington with Gates. Before
+long, too, they found in the army itself some active and not
+over-scrupulous allies. The most conspicuous figure among the military
+malcontents was Gates himself, who, although sluggish in all things,
+still had a keen eye for his own advancement. He showed plainly how
+much his head had been turned by the victory at Saratoga when he
+failed to inform Washington of the fact, and when he afterward delayed
+sending back troops until he was driven to it by the determined energy
+of Hamilton, who was sent to bring him to reason. Next in importance
+to Gates was Thomas Mifflin, an ardent patriot, but a rather
+light-headed person, who espoused the opposition to Washington for
+causes now somewhat misty, but among which personal vanity played no
+inconsiderable part. About these two leaders gathered a certain number
+of inferior officers of no great moment then or since.
+
+The active and moving spirit in the party, however, was one Conway, an
+Irish adventurer, who made himself so prominent that the whole affair
+passed into history bearing his name, and the "Conway cabal" has
+obtained an enduring notoriety which its hero never acquired by any
+public services. Conway was one of the foreign officers who had gained
+the favor of Congress and held the rank of brigadier-general, but this
+by no means filled the measure of his pretensions, and when De Kalb
+was made a major-general Conway immediately started forward with
+claims to the same rank. He received strong support from the factious
+opposition, and there was so much stir that Washington sharply
+interfered, for to his general objection to these lavish gifts of
+excessive rank was added an especial distrust in this particular
+case. In his calm way he had evidently observed Conway, and with his
+unerring judgment of men had found him wanting. "I may add," he wrote
+to Lee, "and I think with truth, that it will give a fatal blow to
+the existence of the army. Upon so interesting a subject I must speak
+plainly. General Conway's merit then as an officer, and his importance
+in this army, exist more in his own imagination than in reality."
+This plain talk soon reached Conway, drove him at once into furious
+opposition, and caused him to impart to the faction a cohesion and
+vigor which they had before lacked. Circumstances favored them. The
+victory at Saratoga gave them something tangible to go upon, and the
+first move was made when Gates failed to inform Washington of the
+surrender, and then held back the troops sent for so urgently by the
+commander-in-chief, who had sacrificed so much from his own army to
+secure that of the north.
+
+At this very moment, indeed, when Washington was calling for troops,
+he was struggling with the utmost tenacity to hold control of the
+Delaware. He made every arrangement possible to maintain the forts,
+and the first assaults upon them were repulsed with great slaughter,
+the British in the attack on Fort Mercer losing Count Donop, the
+leader, and four hundred men. Then came a breathing space, and then
+the attacks were renewed, supported by vessels, and both forts were
+abandoned after the works had been leveled to the ground by the
+enemy's fire. Meanwhile Hamilton, sent to the north, had done his
+work; Gates had been stirred, and Putnam, well-meaning but stubborn,
+had been sharply brought to his bearings. Reinforcements had come, and
+Washington meditated an attack on Philadelphia. There was a good deal
+of clamor for something brilliant and decisive, for both the army and
+the public were a little dizzy from the effects of Saratoga, and with
+sublime blindness to different conditions, could not see why the same
+performance should not be repeated to order everywhere else. To oppose
+this wish was trying, doubly trying to a man eager to fight, and with
+his full share of the very human desire to be as successful as his
+neighbor. It required great nerve to say No; but Washington did not
+lack that quality, and as general and statesman he reconnoitred the
+enemy's works, weighed the chances, said No decisively, and took up an
+almost impregnable position at White Marsh. Thereupon Howe announced
+that he would drive Washington beyond the mountains, and on December
+4 he approached the American lines with this highly proper purpose.
+There was some skirmishing along the foot of the hills of an
+unimportant character, and on the third day Washington, in high
+spirits, thought an attack would be made, and rode among the soldiers
+directing and encouraging them. Nothing came of it, however, but more
+skirmishing, and the next day Howe marched back to Philadelphia. He
+had offered battle in all ways, he had invited action; but again, with
+the same pressure both from his own spirit and from public opinion,
+Washington had said No. On his own ground he was more than ready to
+fight Howe, but despite the terrible temptation he would fight on no
+other. Not the least brilliant exploit of Wellington was the retreat
+to the shrewdly prepared lines of Torres Vedras, and one of the most
+difficult successes of Washington was his double refusal to fight as
+the year 1777 drew to a close.
+
+Like most right and wise things, Washington's action looks now, a
+century later, so plainly sensible that it is hard to imagine how any
+one could have questioned it; and one cannot, without a great effort,
+realize the awful strain upon will and temper involved in thus
+refusing battle. If the proposed attack on Philadelphia had failed, or
+if our army had come down from the hills and been beaten in the fields
+below, no American army would have remained. The army of the north, of
+which men were talking so proudly, had done its work and dispersed.
+The fate of the Revolution rested where it had been from the
+beginning, with Washington and his soldiers. Drive them beyond the
+mountains and there was no other army to fall back upon. On their
+existence everything hinged, and when Howe got back to Philadelphia,
+there they were still existent, still coherent, hovering on his flank,
+cooping him up in his lines, and leaving him master of little more
+than the ground his men encamped upon, and the streets his sentinels
+patrolled. When Franklin was told in Paris that Howe had taken
+Philadelphia, his reply was, "Philadelphia has taken Howe."
+
+But, with the exception of Franklin, contemporary opinion in the month
+of December, 1777, was very different from that of to-day, and the
+cabal had been at work ever since the commander-in-chief had stepped
+between Conway and the exorbitant rank he coveted. Washington, indeed,
+was perfectly aware of what was going on. He was quiet and dignified,
+impassive and silent, but he knew when men, whether great or small,
+were plotting against him, and he watched them with the same keenness
+as he did Howe and the British.
+
+In the midst of his struggle to hold the Delaware forts, and of his
+efforts to get back his troops from the north, a story came to him
+that arrested his attention. Wilkinson, of Gates's staff, had come to
+Congress with the news of the surrender. He had been fifteen days on
+the road and three days getting his papers in order, and when it was
+proposed to give him a sword, Roger Sherman suggested that they had
+better "give the lad a pair of spurs." This thrust and some delay
+seem to have nettled Wilkinson, who was swelling with importance, and
+although he was finally made a brigadier-general, he rode off to the
+north much ruffled. In later years Wilkinson was secretive enough; but
+in his hot youth he could not hold his tongue, and on his way back to
+Gates he talked. What he said was marked and carried to headquarters,
+and on November 9 Washington wrote to Conway:--
+
+    "A letter which I received last night contained the following
+    paragraph,--'In a letter from General Conway to General Gates he
+    says, "_Heaven has determined to save your country, or a weak
+    general and bad counsellors would have ruined it_" I am, sir, your
+    humble servant,'" etc.
+
+This curt note fell upon Conway with stunning effect. It is said that
+he tried to apologize, and he certainly resigned. As for Gates, he
+fell to writing letters filled with expressions of wonder as to who
+had betrayed him, and writhed most pitiably under the exposure.
+Washington's replies are models of cold dignity, and the calm
+indifference with which he treated the whole matter, while holding
+Gates to the point with relentless grasp, is very interesting. The
+cabal was seriously shaken by this sudden blow. It must have dawned
+upon them dimly that they might have mistaken their man, and that the
+silent soldier was perhaps not so easy to dispose of by an intrigue as
+they had fancied. Nevertheless, they rallied, and taking advantage of
+the feeling in Congress created by Burgoyne's surrender, they set to
+work to get control of military matters. The board of war was enlarged
+to five, with Gates at its head and Mifflin a member, and, thus
+constituted, it proceeded to make Conway inspector-general, with the
+rank of major-general. This, after Conway's conduct, was a direct
+insult to Washington, and marks the highest point attained by his
+opponents.
+
+In Congress, too, they became more active, and John Jay said that
+there was in that body a party bitterly hostile to Washington. We know
+little of the members of that faction now, for they never took the
+trouble to refer to the matter in after years, and did everything that
+silence could do to have it all forgotten. But the party existed none
+the less, and significant letters have come down to us, one of them
+written by Lovell, and two anonymous, addressed respectively to
+Patrick Henry and to Laurens, then president, which show a bitter and
+vindictive spirit, and breathe but one purpose. The same thought is
+constantly reiterated, that with a good general the northern army had
+won a great victory, and that the main army, if commanded in the same
+way, would do likewise. The plan was simple and coherent. The cabal
+wished to drive Washington out of power and replace him with Gates.
+With this purpose they wrote to Henry and Laurens; with this purpose
+they made Conway inspector-general.
+
+When they turned from intrigue to action, however, they began to fail.
+One of their pet schemes was the conquest of Canada, and with
+this object Lafayette was sent to the lakes, only to find that no
+preparations had been made, because the originators of the idea were
+ignorant and inefficient. The expedition promptly collapsed and was
+abandoned, with much instruction in consequence to Congress and
+people. Under their control the commissariat also went hopelessly to
+pieces, and a committee of Congress proceeded to Valley Forge and
+found that in this direction, too, the new managers had grievously
+failed. Then the original Conway letter, uncovered so unceremoniously
+by Washington, kept returning to plague its author. Gates's
+correspondence went on all through the winter, and with every letter
+Gates floundered more and more, and Washington's replies grew more
+and more freezing and severe. Gates undertook to throw the blame on
+Wilkinson, who became loftily indignant and challenged him. The two
+made up their quarrel very soon in a ludicrous manner, but Wilkinson
+in the interval had an interview with Washington, which revealed an
+amount of duplicity and perfidy on the part of the cabal, so shocking
+to the former's sensitive nature, that he resigned his secretaryship
+of the board of war on account, as he frankly said, of the treachery
+and falsehood of Gates. Such a quarrel of course hurt the cabal, but
+it was still more weakened by Gates himself, whose only idea seemed
+to be to supersede Washington by slighting him, refusing troops, and
+declining to propose his health at dinner,--methods as unusual as they
+were feeble.
+
+The cabal, in fact, was so weak in ability and character that the
+moment any responsibility fell upon its members it was certain to
+break down, but the absolutely fatal obstacle to its schemes was the
+man it aimed to overthrow. The idea evidently was that Washington
+could be driven to resign. They knew that they could not get either
+Congress or public opinion to support them in removing him, but they
+believed that a few well-placed slights and insults would make him
+remove himself. It was just here that they made their mistake.
+Washington, as they were aware, was sensitive and high-spirited to
+the last degree, and he had no love for office, but he was not one of
+those weaklings who leave power and place in a pet because they are
+criticised and assailed. He was not ambitious in the ordinary personal
+sense, but he had a passion for success. Whether it was breaking a
+horse, or reclaiming land, or fighting Indians, or saving a state,
+whatever he set his hand to, that he carried through to the end. With
+him there never was any shadow of turning back. When, without any
+self-seeking, he was placed at the head of the Revolution, he made
+up his mind that he would carry it through everything to victory, if
+victory were possible. Death or a prison could stop him, but neither
+defeat nor neglect, and still less the forces of intrigue and cabal.
+
+When he wrote to his brother announcing Burgoyne's surrender, he had
+nothing to say of the slight Gates put upon him, but merely added in
+a postscript, "I most devoutly congratulate my country and every
+well-wisher to the cause on this signal stroke of Providence." This
+was his tone to every one, both in private and public. His complaint
+of not being properly notified he made to Gates alone, and put it in
+the form of a rebuke. He knew of the movement against him from the
+beginning, but apparently the first person he confided in was Conway,
+when he sent him the brief note of November 9. Even after the cabal
+was fully developed, he wrote about it only once or twice, when
+compelled to do so, and there is no evidence that he ever talked about
+it except, perhaps, to a few most intimate friends. In a letter to
+Patrick Henry he said that he was obliged to allow a false impression
+as to his strength to go abroad, and that he suffered in consequence;
+and he added, with a little touch of feeling, that while the
+yeomanry of New York and New England poured into the camp of Gates,
+outnumbering the enemy two to one, he could get no aid of that sort
+from Pennsylvania, and still marvels were demanded of him.
+
+Thus he went on his way through the winter, silent except when obliged
+to answer some friend, and always ready to meet his enemies. When
+Conway complained to Congress of his reception at camp, Washington
+wrote the president that he was not given to dissimulation, and that
+he certainly had been cold in his manner. He wrote to Lafayette that
+slander had been busy, and that he had urged his officers to be
+cool and dispassionate as to Conway, adding, "I have no doubt that
+everything happens for the best, that we shall triumph over all our
+misfortunes, and in the end be happy; when, my dear Marquis, if you
+will give me your company in Virginia, we will laugh at our past
+difficulties and the folly of others." But though he wrote thus
+lightly to his friends, he followed Gates sternly enough, and kept
+that gentleman occupied as he drove him from point to point. Among
+other things he touched upon Conway's character with sharp irony,
+saying, "It is, however, greatly to be lamented that this adept in
+military science did not employ his abilities in the progress of the
+campaign, in pointing out those wise measures which were calculated to
+give us 'that degree of success we could reasonably expect.'"
+
+Poor Gates did not find these letters pleasant reading, and one more
+curt note, on February 24, finished the controversy. By that time the
+cabal was falling to pieces, and in a little while was dispersed.
+Wilkinson's resignation was accepted, Mifflin was put under
+Washington's orders, and Gates was sent to his command in the north.
+Conway resigned one day in a pet, and found his resignation accepted
+and his power gone with unpleasant suddenness. He then got into a
+quarrel with General Cadwalader on account of his attacks on the
+commander-in-chief. The quarrel ended in a duel. Conway was badly
+wounded, and thinking himself dying, wrote a contrite note of apology
+to Washington, then recovered, left the country, and disappeared from
+the ken of history. Thus domestic malice and the "bitter party" in
+Congress failed and perished. They had dashed themselves in vain
+against the strong man who held firmly both soldiers and people.
+"While the public are satisfied with my endeavors, I mean not to
+shrink from the cause." So Washington wrote to Gordon as the cabal
+was coming to an end, and in that spirit he crushed silently and
+thoroughly the faction that sought to thwart his purpose, and drive
+him from office by sneers, slights, and intrigues.
+
+These attacks upon him came at the darkest moment of his military
+career. Defeated at Brandywine and Germantown, he had been forced from
+the forts after a desperate struggle, had seen Philadelphia and the
+river fall completely into the hands of the enemy, and, bitterest of
+all, he had been obliged to hold back from another assault on the
+British lines, and to content himself with baffling Howe when that
+gentleman came out and offered battle. Then the enemy withdrew to
+their comfortable quarters, and he was left to face again the harsh
+winter and the problem of existence. It was the same ever recurring
+effort to keep the American army, and thereby the American Revolution,
+alive. There was nothing in this task to stir the blood and rouse the
+heart. It was merely a question of grim tenacity of purpose and of the
+ability to comprehend its overwhelming importance. It was not a work
+that appealed to or inspirited any one, and to carry it through to a
+successful issue rested with the commander-in-chief alone.
+
+In the frost and snow he withdrew to Valley Forge, within easy
+striking distance of Philadelphia. He had literally nothing to rely
+upon but his own stern will and strong head. His soldiers, steadily
+dwindling in numbers, marked their road to Valley Forge by the blood
+from their naked feet. They were destitute and in rags. When they
+reached their destination they had no shelter, and it was only by the
+energy and ingenuity of the General that they were led to build huts,
+and thus secure a measure of protection against the weather. There
+were literally no supplies, and the Board of War failed completely to
+remedy the evil. The army was in such straits that it was obliged
+to seize by force the commonest necessaries. This was a desperate
+expedient and shocked public opinion, which Washington, as a
+statesman, watched and cultivated as an essential element of success
+in his difficult business. He disliked to take extreme measures, but
+there was nothing else to be done when his men were starving, when
+nearly three thousand of them were unfit for duty because "barefoot
+and otherwise naked," and when a large part of the army were obliged
+to sit up all night by the fires for warmth's sake, having no blankets
+with which to cover themselves if they lay down. With nothing to eat,
+nothing to burn, nothing wherewith to clothe themselves, wasting away
+from exposure and disease, we can only wonder at the forbearance which
+stayed the hand of violent seizure so long. Yet, as Washington had
+foreseen, there was even then an outcry against him. Nevertheless, his
+action ultimately did more good than harm in the very matter of public
+opinion, for it opened men's eyes, and led to some tardy improvements
+and some increased effort.
+
+Worse even than this criticism was the remonstrance of the legislature
+of Pennsylvania against the going into winter-quarters. They expected
+Washington to keep the open field, and even to attack the British,
+with his starving, ragged army, in all the severity of a northern
+winter. They had failed him at every point and in every promise, in
+men, clothing, and supplies. They were not content that he covered
+their State and kept the Revolution alive among the huts of Valley
+Forge. They wished the impossible. They asked for the moon, and then
+cried out because it was not given to them. It was a stupid, unkind
+thing to do, and Washington answered their complaints in a letter to
+the president of Congress. After setting forth the shortcomings of the
+Pennsylvanians in the very plainest of plain English, he said: "But
+what makes this matter still more extraordinary in my eye is that
+these very gentlemen should think a winter's campaign, and the
+covering of these States from the invasion of an enemy, so easy and
+practicable a business. I can answer those gentlemen, that it is a
+much easier and less distressing thing to draw remonstrances in a
+comfortable room, by a good fireside, than to occupy a cold, bleak
+hill, and sleep under frost and snow, without clothes or blankets.
+However, although they seem to have little feeling for the naked and
+distressed soldiers, I feel superabundantly for them, and from my soul
+I pity those miseries which it is neither in my power to relieve or
+prevent."
+
+This was not a safe man for the gentlemen of Pennsylvania to cross too
+far, nor could they swerve him, with all his sense of public opinion,
+one jot from what he meant to do. In the stern rebuke, and in the
+deep pathos of these sentences, we catch a glimpse of the silent and
+self-controlled man breaking out for a moment as he thinks of his
+faithful and suffering men. Whatever happened, he would hold them
+together, for in this black time we detect the fear which haunted
+him, that the people at large might give way. He was determined on
+independence. He felt a keen hatred against England for her whole
+conduct toward America, and this hatred was sharpened by the efforts
+of the English to injure him personally by forged letters and other
+despicable contrivances. He was resolved that England should never
+prevail, and his language in regard to her has a fierceness of tone
+which is full of meaning. He was bent, also, on success, and if under
+the long strain the people should weaken or waver, he was determined
+to maintain the army at all hazards.
+
+So, while he struggled against cold and hunger and destitution,
+while he contended with faction at home and lukewarmness in the
+administration of the war, even then, in the midst of these trials, he
+was devising a new system for the organization and permanence of his
+forces. Congress meddled with the matter of prisoners and with the
+promotion of officers, and he argued with and checked them, and still
+pressed on in his plans. He insisted that officers must have better
+provision, for they had begun to resign. "You must appeal to their
+interest as well as to their patriotism," he wrote, "and you must give
+them half-pay and full pay in proper measure." "You must follow the
+same policy with the men," he said; "you must have done with short
+enlistments. In a word, gentlemen, you must give me an army,
+a lasting, enduring, continental army, for therein lies
+independence."[1] It all comes out now, through the dust of details
+and annoyances, through the misery and suffering of that wretched
+winter, through the shrill cries of ignorance and hostility,--the
+great, clear, strong policy which meant to substitute an army for
+militia, and thereby secure victory and independence. It is the burden
+of all his letters to the governors of States, and to his officers
+everywhere. "I will hold the army together," he said, "but you on all
+sides must help me build it up."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: These two quotations are not literal, of course, but give
+the substance of many letters.]
+
+Thus with much strenuous labor and many fervent appeals he held his
+army together in some way, and slowly improved it. His system began to
+be put in force, his reiterated lessons were coming home to Congress,
+and his reforms and suggestions were in some measure adopted. Under
+the sound and trained guidance of Baron Steuben a drill and discipline
+were introduced, which soon showed marked results. Greene succeeded
+Mifflin as quartermaster-general, and brought order out of chaos. The
+Conway cabal went to pieces, and as spring opened Washington began to
+see light once more. To have held on through that winter was a great
+feat, but to have built up and improved the army at such a time was
+much more wonderful. It shows a greatness of character and a force of
+will rarer than military genius, and enables us to understand better,
+perhaps, than almost any of his victories, why it was that the success
+of the Revolution lay in such large measure in the hands of one man.
+
+After Howe's withdrawal from the Jerseys in the previous year, a
+contemporary wrote that Washington was left with the remnants of an
+army "to scuffle for liberty." The winter had passed, and he was
+prepared to scuffle again. On May 11 Sir Henry Clinton relieved Sir
+William Howe at Philadelphia, and the latter took his departure in
+a blaze of mock glory and resplendent millinery, known as the
+Mischianza, a fit close to a career of failure, which he was too dull
+to appreciate. The new commander was more active than his predecessor,
+but no cleverer, and no better fitted to cope with Washington. It was
+another characteristic choice on the part of the British ministry, who
+could never muster enough intellect to understand that the Americans
+would fight, and that they were led by a really great soldier. The
+coming of Clinton did not alter existing conditions.
+
+Expecting a movement by the enemy, Washington sent Lafayette forward
+to watch Philadelphia. Clinton and Howe, eager for a victory before
+departure, determined to cut him off, and by a rapid movement nearly
+succeeded in so doing. Timely information, presence of mind, and
+quickness alone enabled the young Frenchman to escape, narrowly but
+completely. Meantime, a cause for delay, that curse of the British
+throughout the war, supervened. A peace commission, consisting of the
+Earl of Carlisle, William Eden, and Governor Johnstone, arrived. They
+were excellent men, but they came too late. Their propositions three
+years before would have been well enough, but as it was they were
+worse than nothing. Coolly received, they held a fruitless interview
+with a committee of Congress, tried to bribe and intrigue, found that
+their own army had been already ordered to evacuate Philadelphia
+without their knowledge, and finally gave up their task in
+angry despair, and returned to England to join in the chorus of
+fault-finding which was beginning to sound very loud in ministerial
+ears.
+
+Meanwhile, Washington waited and watched, puzzled by the delay, and
+hoping only to harass Sir Henry with militia on the march to New York.
+But as the days slipped by, the Americans grew stronger, while the
+British had been weakened by wholesale desertions. When he finally
+started, he had with him probably sixteen to seventeen thousand men,
+while the Americans had apparently at least thirteen thousand, nearly
+all continental troops.[1] Under these circumstances, Washington
+determined to bring on a battle. He was thwarted at the outset by his
+officers, as was wont to be the case. Lee had returned more whimsical
+than ever, and at the moment was strongly adverse to an attack, and
+was full of wise saws about building a bridge of gold for the flying
+enemy. The ascendancy which, as an English officer, he still retained
+enabled him to get a certain following, and the councils of war
+which were held compared unfavorably, as Hamilton put it, with the
+deliberations of midwives. Washington was harassed of course by all
+this, but he did not stay his purpose, and as soon as he knew that
+Clinton actually had marched, he broke camp at Valley Forge and
+started in pursuit. There were more councils of an old-womanish
+character, but finally Washington took the matter into his own
+hands, and ordered forth a strong detachment to attack the British
+rear-guard. They set out on the 25th, and as Lee, to whom the command
+belonged, did not care to go, Lafayette was put in charge. As soon as
+Lafayette had departed, however, Lee changed his mind, and insisted
+that all the detachments in front, amounting to five thousand men,
+formed a division so large that it was unjust not to give him the
+command. Washington, therefore, sent him forward next day with two
+additional brigades, and then Lee by seniority took command on the
+27th of the entire advance.
+
+[Footnote 1: The authorities are hopelessly conflicting as to the
+numbers on both sides. The British returns on March 26 showed over
+19,000 men. They had since that date been weakened by desertions, but
+to what extent we can only conjecture. The detachments to Florida
+and the West Indies ordered from England do not appear to have taken
+place. The estimate of 16,000 to 17,000 seems the most reasonable.
+Washington returned his rank and file as just over 10,000, which would
+indicate a total force of 13,000 to 14,000, possibly more. Washington
+clearly underestimated the enemy, and the best conclusion seems to be
+that they were nearly matched in numbers, with a slight inferiority on
+the American side.]
+
+In the evening of that day, Washington came up, reconnoitred the
+enemy, and saw that, although their position was a strong one, another
+day's unmolested march would make it still stronger. He therefore
+resolved to attack the next morning, and gave Lee then and there
+explicit orders to that effect. In the early dawn he dispatched
+similar orders, but Lee apparently did nothing except move feebly
+forward, saying to Lafayette, "You don't know the British soldiers;
+we cannot stand against them." He made a weak attempt to cut off a
+covering party, marched and countermarched, ordered and countermanded,
+until Lafayette and Wayne, eager to fight, knew not what to do, and
+sent hot messages to Washington to come to them.
+
+Thus hesitating and confused, Lee permitted Clinton to get his baggage
+and train to the front, and to mass all his best troops in the rear
+under Cornwallis, who then advanced against the American lines. Now
+there were no orders at all, and the troops did not know what to do,
+or where to go. They stood still, then began to fall back, and then to
+retreat. A very little more and there would have been a rout. As it
+was, Washington alone prevented disaster. His early reports from the
+front from Dickinson's outlying party, and from Lee himself, were all
+favorable. Then he heard the firing, and putting the main army in
+motion, he rode rapidly forward. First he encountered a straggler, who
+talked of defeat. He could not believe it, and the fellow was pushed
+aside and silenced. Then came another and another, all with songs of
+death. Finally, officers and regiments began to come. No one knew why
+they fled, or what had happened. As the ill tidings grew thicker,
+Washington spurred sharper and rode faster through the deep sand, and
+under the blazing midsummer sun. At last he met Lee and the main body
+all in full retreat. He rode straight at Lee, savage with anger, not
+pleasant to look at, one may guess, and asked fiercely and with a deep
+oath, tradition says, what it all meant. Lee was no coward, and did
+not usually lack for words. He was, too, a hardened man of the world,
+and, in the phrase of that day, impudent to boot. But then and there
+he stammered and hesitated. The fierce question was repeated. Lee
+gathered himself and tried to excuse and palliate what had happened,
+but although the brief words that followed are variously reported to
+us across the century, we know that Washington rebuked him in such a
+way, and with such passion, that all was over between them. Lee had
+committed the one unpardonable sin in the eyes of his commander. He
+had failed to fight when the enemy was upon him. He had disobeyed
+orders and retreated. It was the end of him. He went to the rear,
+thence to a court-martial, thence to dismissal and to a solitary life
+with a well-founded suspicion of treason hanging about him. He was an
+intelligent, quick-witted, unstable man, much overrated because he
+was an English officer among a colonial people. He was ever treated
+magnanimously by Washington after the day of battle at Monmouth, but
+he then disappeared from the latter's life.
+
+When Lee bowed before the storm and stepped aside, Washington was left
+to deal with the danger and confusion around him. Thus did he tell the
+story afterwards to his brother: "A retreat, however, was the fact, be
+the causes what they may; and the disorder arising from it would have
+proved fatal to the army, had not that bountiful Providence, which has
+never failed us in the hour of distress, enabled me to form a regiment
+or two (of those that were retreating) in the face of the enemy, and
+under their fire; by which means a stand was made long enough (the
+place through which the enemy were pressing being narrow) to form the
+troops, that were advancing, upon an advantageous piece of ground in
+the rear." We cannot add much to these simple and modest words, for
+they tell the whole story. Having put Lee aside, Washington rallied
+the broken troops, brought them into position, turned them back, and
+held the enemy in check. It was not an easy feat, but it was done, and
+when Lee's division again fell back in good order the main army was in
+position, and the action became general. The British were repulsed,
+and then Washington, taking the offensive, drove them back until he
+occupied the battlefield of the morning. Night came upon him still
+advancing. He halted his army, lay down under a tree, his soldiers
+lying on their arms about him, and planned a fresh attack, to be made
+at daylight. But when the dawn came it was seen that the British had
+crept off, and were far on their road. The heat prevented a rapid
+pursuit, and Clinton got into New York. Between there and Philadelphia
+he had lost at least two thousand men by desertions in addition to
+nearly five hundred who fell at Monmouth.
+
+It is worth while to pause a moment and compare this battle with the
+rout of Long Island, the surprise at the Brandywine, and the fatal
+unsteadiness at Germantown. Here, too, a check was received at the
+outset, owing to blundering which no one could have foreseen. The
+troops, confused and without orders, began to retreat, but without
+panic or disorder. The moment Washington appeared they rallied,
+returned to the field, showed perfect steadiness, and the victory
+was won. Monmouth has never been one of the famous battles of the
+Revolution, and yet there is no other which can compare with it as an
+illustration of Washington's ability as a soldier. It was not so much
+the way in which it was fought, although that was fine enough, that
+its importance lies as in the evidence which it gives of the way
+in which Washington, after a series of defeats, during a winter
+of terrible suffering and privation, had yet developed his ragged
+volunteers into a well-disciplined and effective army. The battle was
+a victory, but the existence and the quality of the army that won it
+were a far greater triumph.
+
+The dreary winter at Valley Forge had indeed borne fruit. With a
+slight numerical superiority Washington had fought the British in the
+open field, and fairly defeated them. "Clinton gained no advantage,"
+said the great Frederic, "except to reach New York with the wreck of
+his army; America is probably lost for England." Another year had
+passed, and England had lost an army, and still held what she had
+before, the city of New York. Washington was in the field with a
+better army than ever, and an army flushed with a victory which had
+been achieved after difficulties and trials such as no one now can
+rightly picture or describe. The American Revolution was advancing,
+held firm by the master-hand of its leader. Into it, during these days
+of struggle and of battle, a new element had come, and the next step
+is to see how Washington dealt with the fresh conditions upon which
+the great conflict had entered.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE ALLIES
+
+
+On May 4, 1778, Congress ratified the treaties of commerce and
+alliance with France. On the 6th, Washington, waiting at Valley Forge
+for the British to start from Philadelphia, caused his army, drawn out
+on parade, to celebrate the great event with cheers and with salvos of
+artillery and musketry. The alliance deserved cheers and celebration,
+for it marked a long step onward in the Revolution. It showed that
+America had demonstrated to Europe that she could win independence,
+and it had been proved to the traditional enemy of England that
+the time had come when it would be profitable to help the revolted
+colonies. But the alliance brought troubles as well as blessings in
+its train. It induced a relaxation in popular energy, and carried
+with it new and difficult problems for the commander-in-chief. The
+successful management of allies, and of allied forces, had been one
+of the severest tests of the statesmanship of William III., and had
+constituted one of the principal glories of Marlborough. A similar
+problem now confronted the American general.
+
+Washington was free from the diplomatic and political portion of the
+business, but the military and popular part fell wholly into his
+hands, and demanded the exercise of talents entirely different from
+those of either a general or an administrator. It has been not
+infrequently written more or less plainly, and it is constantly said,
+that Washington was great in character, but that in brains he was
+not far above the common-place. It is even hinted sometimes that the
+father of his country was a dull man, a notion which we shall have
+occasion to examine more fully further on. At this point let the
+criticism be remembered merely in connection with the fact that
+to coöperate with allies in military matters demands tact, quick
+perception, firmness, and patience. In a word, it is a task which
+calls for the finest and most highly trained intellectual powers, and
+of which the difficulty is enhanced a thousandfold when the allies are
+on the one side, an old, aristocratic, punctilious people, and on the
+other, colonists utterly devoid of tradition, etiquette, or fixed
+habits, and very much accustomed to go their own way and speak their
+own minds with careless freedom. With this problem Washington was
+obliged suddenly to deal, both in ill success and good success, as
+well as in many attempts which came to nothing. Let us see how he
+solved it at the very outset, when everything went most perversely
+wrong.
+
+On July 14 he heard that D'Estaing's fleet was off the coast, and at
+once, without a trace of elation or excitement, he began to consider
+the possibility of intercepting the British fleet expected to arrive
+shortly from Cork. As soon as D'Estaing was within reach he sent
+two of his aides on board the flagship, and at once opened a
+correspondence with his ally. These letters of welcome, and those of
+suggestion which followed, are models, in their way, of what such
+letters ought always to be. They were perfectly adapted to satisfy the
+etiquette and the love of good manners of the French, and yet there
+was not a trace of anything like servility, or of an effusive
+gratitude which outran the favors granted. They combined stately
+courtesy with simple dignity, and are phrased with a sober grace which
+shows the thoroughly strong man, as capable to turn a sentence, if
+need be, as to rally retreating soldiers in the face of the enemy.
+
+In this first meeting of the allies nothing happened fortunately.
+D'Estaing had had a long passage, and was too late to cut off Lord
+Howe at the Delaware. Then he turned to New York, and was too late
+there, and found further that he could not get his ships over the bar.
+Hence more delays, so that he was late again in getting to Newport,
+where he was to unite with Sullivan in driving the British from Rhode
+Island, as Washington had planned, in case of failure at New York,
+while the French were still hovering on the coast. When D'Estaing
+finally reached Newport, there was still another delay of ten days,
+and then, just as he and Sullivan were preparing to attack, Lord Howe,
+with his squadron reinforced, appeared off the harbor. Promising to
+return, D'Estaing sailed out to give the enemy battle, and after
+much manoeuvring both fleets were driven off by a severe storm, and
+D'Estaing came back only to tell Sullivan that he must go to Boston at
+once to refit. Then came the protest addressed to the Count and signed
+by all the American officers; then the departure of D'Estaing, and an
+indiscreet proclamation to the troops by Sullivan, reflecting on the
+conduct of the allies.
+
+When D'Estaing had actually gone, and the Americans were obliged to
+retreat, there was much grumbling in all directions, and it looked as
+if the first result of the alliance was to be a very pretty quarrel.
+It was a bad and awkward business. Congress had the good sense to
+suppress the protest of the officers, and Washington, disappointed,
+but perhaps not wholly surprised, set himself to work to put matters
+right. It was no easy task to soothe the French, on the one hand, who
+were naturally aggrieved at the utterances of the American officers
+and at the popular feeling, and on the other to calm his own people,
+who were, not without reason, both disappointed and provoked. To
+Sullivan, fuming with wrath, he wrote: "Should the expedition fail
+through the abandonment of the French fleet, the officers concerned
+will be apt to complain loudly. But prudence dictates that we should
+put the best face upon the matter, and to the world attribute the
+removal to Boston to necessity. The reasons are too obvious to need
+explaining." And again, a few days later: "First impressions, you
+know, are generally longest remembered, and will serve to fix in a
+great degree our national character among the French. In our conduct
+towards them we should remember that they are a people old in war,
+very strict in military etiquette, and apt to take fire when others
+scarcely seem warmed. Permit me to recommend, in the most particular
+manner, the cultivation of harmony and good agreement, and your
+endeavor to destroy that ill-humor which may have got into officers."
+To Lafayette he wrote: "Everybody, sir, who reasons, will acknowledge
+the advantages which we have derived from the French fleet, and the
+zeal of the commander of it; but in a free and republican government
+you cannot restrain the voice of the multitude. Every man will speak
+as he thinks, or, more properly, without thinking, and consequently
+will judge of effects without attending to the causes. The censures
+which have been leveled at the French fleet would more than probably
+have fallen in a much higher degree upon a fleet of our own, if we
+had had one in the same situation. It is the nature of man to be
+displeased with everything that disappoints a favorite hope or
+flattering project; and it is the folly of too many of them to condemn
+without investigating circumstances." Finally he wrote to D'Estaing,
+deploring the difference which had arisen, mentioning his own efforts
+and wishes to restore harmony, and said: "It is in the trying
+circumstances to which your Excellency has been exposed that the
+virtues of a great mind are displayed in their brightest lustre, and
+that a general's character is better known than in the moment of
+victory. It was yours by every title that can give it; and the adverse
+elements that robbed you of your prize can never deprive you of
+the glory due you. Though your success has not been equal to your
+expectations, yet you have the satisfaction of reflecting that you
+have rendered essential services to the common cause." This is not the
+letter of a dull man. Indeed, there is a nicety about it that partakes
+of cleverness, a much commoner thing than greatness, but something
+which all great men by no means possess. Thus by tact and
+comprehension of human nature, by judicious suppression and equally
+judicious letters, Washington, through the prudent exercise of all his
+commanding influence, quieted his own people and soothed his allies.
+In this way a serious disaster was averted, and an abortive expedition
+was all that was left to be regretted, instead of an ugly quarrel,
+which might readily have neutralized the vast advantages flowing from
+the French alliance. Having refitted, D'Estaing bore away for the West
+Indies, and so closed the first chapter in the history of the alliance
+with France. Nothing more was heard of the allies until the spring was
+well advanced, when M. Gerard, the minister, wrote, intimating that
+D'Estaing was about to return, and asking what we would do. Washington
+replied at length, professing his willingness to coöperate in any way,
+and offering, if the French would send ships, to abandon everything,
+run all risks, and make an attack on New York. Nothing further came
+of it, and Washington heard that the fleet had gone to the Southern
+States, which he learned without regret, as he was apprehensive as to
+the condition of affairs in that region. Again, in the autumn, it
+was reported that the fleet was once more upon the northern coast.
+Washington at once sent officers to be on the lookout at the most
+likely points, and he wrote elaborately to D'Estaing, setting forth
+with wonderful perspicuity the incidents of the past, the condition of
+the present, and the probabilities of the future. He was willing to do
+anything, or plan anything, provided his allies would join with him.
+The jealousy so habitual in humanity, which is afraid that some one
+else may get the glory of a common success, was unknown to Washington,
+and if he could but drive the British from America, and establish
+American independence, he was perfectly willing that the glory should
+take care of itself. But all his wisdom in dealing with the allies
+was, for the moment, vain. While he was planning for a great stroke,
+and calling out the militia of New England, D'Estaing was making ready
+to relieve Georgia, and a few days after Washington wrote his second
+letter, the French and Americans assaulted the British works at
+Savannah, and were repulsed with heavy losses. Then D'Estaing sailed
+away again, and the second effort of France to aid England's revolted
+colonies came to an end. Their presence had had a good moral effect,
+and the dread of D'Estaing's return had caused Clinton to withdraw
+from Newport and concentrate in New York. This was all that was
+actually accomplished, and there was nothing for it but to await still
+another trial and a more convenient season.
+
+With all his courtesy and consideration, with all his readiness to
+fall in with the wishes and schemes of the French, it must not be
+supposed that Washington ever went an inch too far in this direction.
+He valued the French alliance, and proposed to use it to great
+purpose, but he was not in the least dazzled or blinded by it. Even
+in the earliest glow of excitement and hope produced by D'Estaing's
+arrival, Washington took occasion to draw once more the distinction
+between a valuable alliance and volunteer adventurers, and to
+remonstrate again with Congress about their reckless profusion in
+dealing with foreign officers. To Gouverneur Morris he wrote on July
+24, 1778: "The lavish manner in which rank has hitherto been bestowed
+on these gentlemen will certainly be productive of one or the other of
+these two evils: either to make it despicable in the eyes of Europe,
+or become the means of pouring them in upon us like a torrent and
+adding to our present burden. But it is neither the expense nor the
+trouble of them that I most dread. There is an evil more extensive in
+its nature, and fatal in its consequences, to be apprehended, and
+that is the driving of all our own officers out of the service, and
+throwing not only our army, but our military councils, entirely into
+the hands of foreigners.... Baron Steuben, I now find, is also wanting
+to quit his inspectorship for a command in the line. This will be
+productive of much discontent to the brigadiers. In a word, although I
+think the baron an excellent officer, I do most devoutly wish that we
+had not a single foreigner among us except the Marquis de Lafayette,
+who acts upon very different principles from those which govern the
+rest." A few days later he said, on the same theme, to the president
+of Congress: "I trust you think me so much a citizen of the world as
+to believe I am not easily warped or led away by attachments merely
+local and American; yet I confess I am not entirely without them, nor
+does it appear to me that they are unwarrantable, if confined within
+proper limits. Fewer promotions in the foreign line would have been
+productive of more harmony, and made our warfare more agreeable to all
+parties." Again, he said of Steuben: "I regret that there should be a
+necessity that his services should be lost to the army; at the same
+time I think it my duty explicitly to observe to Congress that his
+desire of having an actual and permanent command in the line cannot be
+complied with without wounding the feelings of a number of officers,
+whose rank and merits give them every claim to attention; and that the
+doing of it would be productive of much dissatisfaction and extensive
+ill consequences."
+
+Washington's resistance to the colonial deference for foreigners has
+already been pointed out, but this second burst of opposition, coming
+at this especial time, deserves renewed attention. The splendid fleet
+and well-equipped troops of our ally were actually at our gates, and
+everybody was in a paroxysm of perfectly natural gratitude. To the
+colonial mind, steeped in colonial habits of thought, the foreigner at
+this particular juncture appeared more than ever to be a splendid and
+superior being. But he did not in the least confuse or sway the cool
+judgment that guided the destinies of the Revolution. Let us consider
+well the pregnant sentences just quoted, and the letters from which
+they are taken. They deserve it, for they throw a strong light on a
+side of Washington's mind and character too little appreciated. One
+hears it said not infrequently, it has been argued even in print with
+some solemnity, that Washington was, no doubt, a great man and rightly
+a national hero, but that he was not an American. It will be necessary
+to recur to this charge again and consider it at some length. It is
+sufficient at this point to see how it tallies with his conduct in
+a single matter, which was a very perfect test of the national and
+American quality of the man. We can get at the truth by contrasting
+him with his own contemporaries, the only fair comparison, for he was
+a man and an American of his own time and not of the present day,
+which is a point his critics overlook.
+
+Where he differed from the men of his own time was in the fact that he
+rose to a breadth and height of Americanism and of national feeling
+which no other man of that day touched at all. Nothing is more intense
+than the conservatism of mental habits, and although it requires now
+an effort to realize it, it should not be forgotten that in every
+habit of thought the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies were wholly
+colonial. If this is properly appreciated we can understand the mental
+breadth and vigor which enabled Washington to shake off at once all
+past habits and become an independent leader of an independent
+people. He felt to the very core of his being the need of national
+self-respect and national dignity. To him, as the chief of the armies
+and the head of the Revolution, all men, no matter what tongue they
+spake or what country they came from, were to be dealt with on a
+footing of simple equality, and treated according to their merits.
+There was to him no glamour in the fact that this man was a Frenchman
+and that an Englishman. His own personal pride extended to his people,
+and he bowed to no national superiority anywhere. Hamilton was
+national throughout, but he was born outside the thirteen colonies,
+and knew his fellow-citizens only as Americans. Franklin was national
+by the force of his own commanding genius. John Adams grew to the same
+conception, so far as our relations to other nations were concerned.
+But beyond these three we may look far and closely before we find
+another among all the really great men of the time who freed himself
+wholly from the superstition of the colonist about the nations of
+Europe.
+
+When Washington drew his sword beneath the Cambridge elm he stood
+forth as the first American, the best type of man that the New World
+could produce, with no provincial taint upon him, and no shadow of the
+colonial past clouding his path. It was this great quality that gave
+the struggle which he led a character it would never have attained
+without a leader so constituted. Had he been merely a colonial
+Englishman, had he not risen at once to the conception of an American
+nation, the world would have looked at us with very different eyes.
+It was the personal dignity of the man, quite as much as his fighting
+capacity, which impressed Europe. Kings and ministers, looking on
+dispassionately, soon realized that here was no ordinary agitator
+or revolutionist, but a great man on a great stage with great
+conceptions. England, indeed, talked about a militia colonel, but this
+chatter disappeared in the smoke of Trenton, and even England came to
+look upon him as the all-powerful spirit of the Revolution. Dull men
+and colonial squires do not grasp a great idea and carry it into
+action on the world's stage in a few months. To stand forward at the
+head of raw armies and of a colonial people as a national leader,
+calm, dignified, and far-seeing, requires not only character, but
+intellect of the highest and strongest kind. Now that we have come
+as a people, after more than a century's struggle, to the national
+feeling which Washington compassed in a moment, it is well to consider
+that single achievement and to meditate on its meaning, whether in
+estimating him, or in gauging what he was to the American people when
+they came into existence.
+
+Let us take another instance of the same quality, shown also in the
+winter of 1778. Congress had from the beginning a longing to conquer
+Canada, which was a wholly natural and entirely laudable desire, for
+conquest is always more interesting than defense. Washington, on the
+other hand, after the first complete failure, which was so nearly
+a success in the then undefended and unsuspicious country, gave up
+pretty thoroughly all ideas of attacking Canada again, and opposed
+the various plans of Congress in that direction. When he had a
+life-and-death struggle to get together and subsist enough men
+to protect their own firesides, he had ample reason to know that
+invasions of Canada were hopeless. Indeed, not much active opposition
+from the commander-in-chief was needed to dispose of the Canadian
+schemes, for facts settled them as fast as they arose. When the
+cabal got up its Canadian expedition, it consisted of Lafayette, and
+penetrated no farther than Albany. So Washington merely kept his eye
+watchfully on Canada, and argued against expeditions thither, until
+this winter of 1778, when something quite new in that direction came
+up.
+
+Lafayette's imagination had been fired by the notion of conquering
+Canada. His idea was to get succors from France for this especial
+purpose, and with them and American aid to achieve the conquest.
+Congress was impressed and pleased by the scheme, and sent a report
+upon it to Franklin, to communicate to the French court, but
+Washington, when he heard of the plan, took a very different view.
+He sent at once a long dispatch to Congress, urging every possible
+objection to the proposed campaign, on the ground of its utter
+impracticability, and with this official letter, which was necessarily
+confined to the military side of the question, went another addressed
+to President Laurens personally, which contained the deeper reasons of
+his opposition. He said that there was an objection not touched upon
+in his public letter, which was absolutely insurmountable. This was
+the introduction of French troops into Canada to take possession of
+the capital, in the midst of a people of their own race and religion,
+and but recently severed from them.
+
+He pointed out the enormous advantages which would accrue to France
+from the possession of Canada, such as independent posts, control of
+the Indians, and the Newfoundland trade. "France, ... possessed of New
+Orleans on our right, Canada on our left, and seconded by the
+numerous tribes of Indians in our rear, ... would, it is much to be
+apprehended, have it in her power to give law to these States." He
+went on to show that France might easily find an excuse for such
+conduct, in seeking a surety for her advances of money, and that she
+had but little to fear from the contingency of our being driven to
+reunite with England. He continued: "Men are very apt to run into
+extremes. Hatred to England may carry some into an excess of
+confidence in France, especially when motives of gratitude are thrown
+into the scale. Men of this description would be unwilling to suppose
+France capable of acting so ungenerous a part. I am heartily disposed
+to entertain the most favorable sentiments of our new ally, and to
+cherish them in others to a reasonable degree. But it is a maxim,
+founded on the universal experience of mankind, that no nation is
+to be trusted farther than it is bound by its own interest; and no
+prudent statesman or politician will venture to depart from it. In our
+circumstances we ought to be particularly cautious; for we have not
+yet attained sufficient vigor and maturity to recover from the shock
+of any false steps into which we may unwarily fall."
+
+We shall have occasion to recall these utterances at a later day, but
+at this time they serve to show yet again how broadly and clearly
+Washington judged nations and policies. Uppermost in his mind was the
+destiny of his own nation, just coming into being, and from that firm
+point he watched and reasoned. His words had no effect on Congress,
+but as it turned out, the plan failed through adverse influences in
+the quarter where Washington least expected them. He believed that
+this Canadian plan had been put into Lafayette's mind by the cabinet
+of Louis XVI., and he could not imagine that a policy of such obvious
+wisdom could be overlooked by French statesmen. In this he was
+completely mistaken, for France failed to see what seemed so simple to
+the American general, that the opportunity had come to revive her old
+American policy and reestablish her colonies under the most favorable
+conditions. The ministers of Louis XVI., moreover, did not wish the
+colonies to conquer Canada, and the plan of Lafayette and the Congress
+received no aid in Paris and came to nothing. But the fruitless
+incident exhibits in the strongest light the attitude of Washington as
+a purely American statesman, and the comprehensiveness of his mind in
+dealing with large affairs.
+
+The French alliance and the coming of the French fleet were of
+incalculable advantage to the colonies, but they had one evil effect,
+as has already been suggested. To a people weary with unequal
+conflict, it was a debilitating influence, and America needed at that
+moment more than ever energy and vigor, both in the council and
+the field. Yet the general outlook was distinctly better and more
+encouraging. Soon after Washington had defeated Clinton at Monmouth,
+and had taken a position whence he could watch and check him, he wrote
+to his friend General Nelson in Virginia:--
+
+"It is not a little pleasing, nor less wonderful to contemplate, that,
+after two years' manoeuvring and undergoing the strangest vicissitudes
+that perhaps ever attended any one contest since the creation, both
+armies are brought back to the very point they set out from, and that
+the offending party at the beginning is now reduced to the spade and
+pickaxe for defense. The hand of Providence has been so conspicuous in
+all this that he must be worse than an infidel that lacks faith, and
+more than wicked that has not gratitude enough to acknowledge his
+obligations. But it will be time enough for me to turn preacher when
+my present appointment ceases."
+
+He had reason to congratulate himself on the result of his two years'
+campaigning, but as the summer wore away and winter came on he found
+causes for fresh and deep alarm, despite the good outlook in the
+field. The demoralizing effects of civil war were beginning to show
+themselves in various directions. The character of Congress, in point
+of ability, had declined alarmingly, for the ablest men of the first
+Congress, with few exceptions, had departed. Some had gone to the
+army, some to the diplomatic service, and many had remained at home,
+preferring the honors and offices of the States to those of the
+Confederation. Their successors, patriotic and well-meaning though
+they were, lacked the energy and force of those who had started the
+Revolution, and, as a consequence, Congress had become feeble and
+ineffective, easily swayed by influential schemers, and unable to cope
+with the difficulties which surrounded them.
+
+Outside the government the popular tone had deteriorated sadly. The
+lavish issues of irredeemable paper by the Confederation and the
+States had brought their finances to the verge of absolute ruin. The
+continental currency had fallen to something like forty to one in
+gold, and the decline was hastened by the forged notes put out by the
+enemy. The fluctuations of this paper soon bred a spirit of gambling,
+and hence came a class of men, both inside and outside of politics,
+who sought, more or less corruptly, to make fortunes by army
+contracts, and by forestalling the markets. These developments filled
+Washington with anxiety, for in the financial troubles he saw ruin
+to the army. The unpaid troops bore the injustice done them with
+wonderful patience, but it was something that could not last, and
+Washington knew the danger. In vain did he remonstrate. It seemed to
+be impossible to get anything done, and at last, in the following
+spring, the outbreak began. Two New Jersey regiments refused to march
+until the assembly made provision for their pay. Washington took high
+ground with them, but they stood respectfully firm, and finally had
+their way. Not long after came another outbreak in the Connecticut
+line, with similar results. These object lessons had some result, and
+by foreign loans and the ability of Robert Morris the country was
+enabled to stumble along; but it was a frightful and wearing anxiety
+to the commander-in-chief.
+
+Washington saw at once that the root of the evil lay in the feebleness
+of Congress, and although he could not deal with the finances, he was
+able to strive for an improvement in the governing body. Not content
+with letters, he left the army and went to Philadelphia, in the winter
+of 1779, and there appealed to Congress in person, setting forth the
+perils which beset them, and urging action. He wrote also to his
+friends everywhere, pointing out the deficiencies of Congress, and
+begging them to send better and stronger men. To Benjamin Harrison he
+wrote: "It appears to me as clear as ever the sun did in its meridian
+brightness, that America never stood in more eminent need of the wise,
+patriotic, and spirited exertions of her sons than at this period; ...
+the States separately are too much engaged in their local concerns,
+and have too many of their ablest men withdrawn from the general
+council, for the good of the common weal." He took the same high tone
+in all his letters, and there can be seen through it all the desperate
+endeavor to make the States and the people understand the dangers
+which he realized, but which they either could not or would not
+appreciate.
+
+On the other hand, while his anxiety was sharpened to the highest
+point by the character of Congress, his sternest wrath was kindled by
+the gambling and money-making which had become rampant. To Reed he
+wrote in December, 1778: "It gives me sincere pleasure to find that
+there is likely to be a coalition of the Whigs in your State, a few
+only excepted, and that the assembly is so well disposed to second
+your endeavors in bringing those murderers of our cause, the
+monopolizers, forestallers, and engrossers, to condign punishment. It
+is much to be lamented that each State, long ere this, has not hunted
+them down as pests to society and the greatest enemies we have to
+the happiness of America. I would to God that some one of the most
+atrocious in each State was hung in gibbets upon a gallows five times
+as high as the one prepared by Haman. No punishment, in my opinion, is
+too great for the man who can build his greatness upon his country's
+ruin." He would have hanged them too had he had the power, for he was
+always as good as his word.
+
+It is refreshing to read these righteously angry words, still ringing
+as sharply as when they were written. They clear away all the
+myths--the priggish, the cold, the statuesque, the dull myths--as the
+strong gusts of the northwest wind in autumn sweep off the heavy mists
+of lingering August. They are the hot words of a warm-blooded man, a
+good hater, who loathed meanness and treachery, and who would have
+hanged those who battened upon the country's distress. When he went
+to Philadelphia, a few weeks later, and saw the state of things with
+nearer view, he felt the wretchedness and outrage of such doings more
+than ever. He wrote to Harrison: "If I were to be called upon to draw
+a picture of the times and of men, from what I have seen, heard, and
+in part know, I should in one word say, that idleness, dissipation,
+and extravagance seem to have laid fast hold of most of them; that
+speculation, peculation, and an insatiable thirst for riches seem to
+have got the better of every other consideration, and almost of every
+order of men; that party disputes and personal quarrels are the great
+business of the day; whilst the momentous concerns of an empire, a
+great and accumulating debt, ruined finances, depreciated money, and
+want of credit, which, in its consequences, is the want of everything,
+are but secondary considerations, and postponed from day to day, from
+week to week, as if our affairs wore the most promising aspect."
+
+Other men talked about empire, but he alone grasped the great
+conception, and felt it in his soul. To see not only immediate success
+imperiled, but the future paltered with by small, mean, and dishonest
+men, cut him to the quick. He set himself doggedly to fight it, as he
+always fought every enemy, using both speech and pen in all quarters.
+Much, no doubt, he ultimately effected, but he was contending with
+the usual results of civil war, which are demoralizing always, and
+especially so among a young people in a new country. At first,
+therefore, all seemed vain. The selfishness, "peculation, and
+speculation" seemed to get worse, and the tone of Congress and the
+people lower, as he struggled against them. In March, 1779, he wrote
+to James Warren of Massachusetts: "Nothing, I am convinced, but
+the depreciation of our currency, aided by stock-jobbing and party
+dissensions, has fed the hopes of the enemy, and kept the British
+arms in America to this day. They do not scruple to declare this
+themselves, and add that we shall be our own conquerors. Can not our
+common country, America, possess virtue enough to disappoint them? Is
+the paltry consideration of a little pelf to individuals to be placed
+in competition with the essential rights and liberties of the present
+generation, and of millions yet unborn? Shall a few designing men, for
+their own aggrandizement, and to gratify their own avarice, overset
+the goodly fabric we have been rearing, at the expense of so much
+time, blood, and treasure? And shall we at last become the victims
+of our own lust of gain? Forbid it, Heaven! Forbid it, all and every
+State in the Union, by enacting and enforcing efficacious laws for
+checking the growth of these monstrous evils, and restoring matters,
+in some degree, to the state they were in at the commencement of the
+war."
+
+"Our cause is noble. It is the cause of mankind, and the danger to it
+is to be apprehended from ourselves. Shall we slumber and sleep, then,
+while we should be punishing those miscreants who have brought these
+troubles upon us, and who are aiming to continue us in them; while we
+should be striving to fill our battalions, and devising ways and means
+to raise the value of the currency, on the credit of which everything
+depends?" Again we see the prevailing idea of the future, which
+haunted him continually. Evidently, he had some imagination, and
+also a power of terse and eloquent expression which we have heard of
+before, and shall note again.
+
+Still the appeals seemed to sound in deaf ears. He wrote to George
+Mason: "I have seen, without despondency, even for a moment, the hours
+which America has styled her gloomy ones; but I have beheld no
+day since the commencement of hostilities that I have thought her
+liberties in such imminent danger as at present.... Indeed, we are
+verging so fast to destruction that I am filled with sensations to
+which I have been a stranger till within these three months." To
+Gouverneur Morris he said: "If the enemy have it in their power to
+press us hard this campaign, I know not what may be the consequence."
+He had faced the enemy, the bleak winters, raw soldiers, and all the
+difficulties of impecunious government, with a cheerful courage that
+never failed. But the spectacle of widespread popular demoralization,
+of selfish scrambles for plunder, and of feeble administration at
+the centre of government weighed upon him heavily. It was not the
+general's business to build up Congress and grapple with finance, but
+Washington addressed himself to the new task with his usual persistent
+courage. It was slow and painful work. He seemed to make no progress,
+and then it was that his spirits sank at the prospect of ruin and
+defeat, not coming on the field of battle, but from our own vices and
+our own lack of energy and wisdom. Yet his work told in the end, as it
+always did. His vast and steadily growing influence made itself felt
+even through the dense troubles of the uneasy times. Congress turned
+with energy to Europe for fresh loans. Lafayette worked away to get
+an army sent over. The two Morrises, stimulated by Washington, flung
+themselves into the financial difficulties, and feeble but distinct
+efforts toward a more concentrated and better organized administration
+of public affairs were made both in the States and the confederation.
+
+But, although Washington's spirits fell, and his anxieties became
+wellnigh intolerable in this period of reaction which followed the
+French alliance, he made no public show of it, but carried on his own
+work with the army and in the field as usual, contending with all the
+difficulties, new and old, as calmly and efficiently as ever. After
+Clinton slipped away from Monmouth and sought refuge in New York,
+Washington took post at convenient points and watched the movements
+of the enemy. In this way the summer passed. As always, Washington's
+first object was to guard the Hudson, and while he held this vital
+point firmly, he waited, ready to strike elsewhere if necessary. It
+looked for a time as if the British intended to descend on Boston,
+seize the town, and destroy the French fleet, which had gone there
+to refit. Such was the opinion of Gates, then commanding in that
+department, and as Washington inclined to the same belief, the fear of
+this event gave him many anxious moments. He even moved his troops
+so as to be in readiness to march eastward at short notice; but he
+gradually became convinced that the enemy had no such plan. Much
+of his thought, now and always, was given to efforts to divine the
+intentions of the British generals. They had so few settled ideas,
+and were so tardy and lingering when they had plans, that it is small
+wonder that their opponents were sorely puzzled in trying to find out
+what their purposes were, when they really had none. The fact was that
+Washington saw their military opportunities with the eye of a great
+soldier, and so much better than they, that he suffered a good deal of
+needless anxiety in devising methods to meet attacks which they had
+not the wit to undertake. He had a profound contempt for their policy
+of holding towns, and believing that they must see the utter futility
+of it, after several years of trial, he constantly expected from them
+a well-planned and extensive campaign, which in reality they were
+incapable of devising.
+
+The main army, therefore, remained quiet, and when the autumn had
+passed went into winter-quarters in well-posted detachments about New
+York. In December Clinton made an ineffectual raid, and then all was
+peaceful again, and Washington was able to go to Philadelphia and
+struggle with Congress, leaving his army more comfortable and secure
+than they had been in any previous winter.
+
+In January he informed Congress as to the next campaign. He showed
+them the impossibility of undertaking anything on a large scale, and
+announced his intention of remaining on the defensive. It was a trying
+policy to a man of his temper, but he could do no better, and he knew,
+now as always, what others could not yet see, that by simply holding
+on and keeping his army in the field he was slowly but surely winning
+independence. He tried to get Congress to do something with the navy,
+and he planned an expedition, under the command of Sullivan, to
+overrun the Indian country and check the barbarous raids of the Tories
+and savages on the frontier; and with this he was fain to be content.
+In fact, he perceived very clearly the direction in which the war was
+tending. He kept up his struggle with Congress for a permanent army,
+and with the old persistency pleaded that something should be done for
+the officers, and at the same time he tried to keep the States in good
+humor when they were grumbling about the amount of protection afforded
+them.
+
+But all this wear and tear of heart and brain and temper, while given
+chiefly to hold the army together, was not endured with any
+notion that he and Clinton were eventually to fight it out in the
+neighborhood of New York. Washington felt that that part of the
+conflict was over. He now hoped and believed that the moment would
+come, when, by uniting his army with the French, he should be able to
+strike the decisive blow. Until that time came, however, he knew that
+he could do nothing on a great scale, and he felt that meanwhile the
+British, abandoning practically the eastern and middle States, would
+make one last desperate struggle for victory, and would make it in the
+south. Long before any one else, he appreciated this fact, and saw a
+peril looming large in that region, where everybody was considering
+the British invasion as little more than an exaggerated raid. He
+foresaw, too, that we should suffer more there than we had in the
+extreme north, because the south was full of Tories and less well
+organized.
+
+All this, however, did not change his own plans one jot. He believed
+that the south must work out its own salvation, as New York and New
+England had done with Burgoyne, and he felt sure that in the end it
+would be successful. But he would not go south, nor take his army
+there. The instinct of a great commander for the vital point in a war
+or a battle, is as keen as that of the tiger is said to be for the
+jugular vein of its victim. The British might overrun the north or
+invade the south, but he would stay where he was, with his grip upon
+New York and the Hudson River. The tide of invasion might ebb and flow
+in this region or that, but the British were doomed if they could not
+divide the eastern colonies from the others. When the appointed hour
+came, he was ready to abandon everything and strike the final and
+fatal blow; but until then he waited and stood fast with his army,
+holding the great river in his grasp. He felt much more anxiety about
+the south than he had felt about the north, and expected Congress to
+consult him as to a commander, having made up his mind that Greene was
+the man to send. But Congress still believed in Gates, who had been
+making trouble for Washington all winter; and so Gates was sent,
+and Congress in due time got their lesson, and found once more that
+Washington understood men better than they did.
+
+In the north the winter was comparatively uneventful. The spring
+passed, and in June Clinton came out and took possession of Stony
+Point and Verplanck's Point, and began to fortify them. It looked a
+little as if Clinton might intend to get control of the Hudson by
+slow approaches, fortifying, and then advancing until he reached West
+Point. With this in mind, Washington at once determined to check the
+British by striking sharply at one of their new posts. Having made
+up his mind, he sent for Wayne and asked him if he would storm Stony
+Point. Tradition says that Wayne replied, "I will storm hell, if you
+will plan it." A true tradition, probably, in keeping with Wayne's
+character, and pleasant to us to-day as showing with a vivid gleam of
+rough human speech the utter confidence of the army in their leader,
+that confidence which only a great soldier can inspire. So Washington
+planned, and Wayne stormed, and Stony Point fell. It was a gallant and
+brilliant feat of arms, one of the most brilliant of the war. Over
+five hundred prisoners were taken, the guns were carried off, and the
+works destroyed, leaving the British to begin afresh with a good deal
+of increased caution and respect. Not long after, Harry Lee stormed
+Paulus Hook with equal success, and the British were checked and
+arrested, if they intended any extensive movement. On the frontier,
+Sullivan, after some delays, did his work effectively, ravaging the
+Indian towns and reducing them to quiet, thus taking away another
+annoyance and danger.
+
+In these various ways Clinton's circle of activity was steadily
+narrowed, but it may be doubted whether he had any coherent plan.
+The principal occupation of the British was to send out marauding
+expeditions and cut off outlying parties. Tryon burned and pillaged
+in Connecticut, Matthews in Virginia, and others on a smaller scale
+elsewhere in New Jersey and New York. The blundering stupidity of this
+system of warfare was only equaled by its utter brutality. Houses were
+burned, peaceful villages went up in smoke, women and children were
+outraged, and soldiers were bayoneted after they had surrendered.
+These details of the Revolution are wellnigh forgotten now, but when
+the ear is wearied with talk about English generosity and love of fair
+play, it is well to turn back and study the exploits of Tryon, and it
+is not amiss in the same connection to recall that English budgets
+contained a special appropriation for scalping-knives, a delicate
+attention to the Tories and Indians who were burning and butchering on
+the frontier.
+
+Such methods of warfare Washington despised intellectually, and hated
+morally. He saw that every raid only hardened the people against
+England, and made her cause more hopeless. The misery caused by these
+raids angered him, but he would not retaliate in kind, and Wayne
+bayoneted no English soldiers after they laid down their arms at Stony
+Point. It was enough for Washington to hold fast to the great objects
+he had in view, to check Clinton and circumscribe his movements.
+Steadfastly he did this through the summer and winter of 1779, which
+proved one of the worst that he had yet endured. Supplies did not
+come, the army dwindled, and the miseries of Valley Forge were
+renewed. Again was repeated the old and pitiful story of appeals to
+Congress and the States, and again the undaunted spirit and strenuous
+exertions of Washington saved the army and the Revolution from the
+internal ruin which was his worst enemy. When the new year began, he
+saw that he was again condemned to a defensive campaign, but this made
+little difference now, for what he had foreseen in the spring of 1779
+became certainty in the autumn. The active war was transferred to the
+south, where the chapter of disasters was beginning, and Clinton had
+practically given up everything except New York. The war had taken
+on the new phase expected by Washington. Weak as he was, he began to
+detach troops, and prepared to deal with the last desperate effort of
+England to conquer her revolted colonies from the south.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+ARNOLD'S TREASON, AND THE WAR IN THE SOUTH
+
+
+The spring of 1780 was the beginning of a period of inactivity and
+disappointment, of diligent effort and frustrated plans. During the
+months which ensued before the march to the south, Washington passed
+through a stress of harassing anxiety, which was far worse than
+anything he had to undergo at any other time. Plans were formed, only
+to fail. Opportunities arose, only to pass by unfulfilled. The network
+of hostile conditions bound him hand and foot, and it seemed at times
+as if he could never break the bonds that held him, or prevent or hold
+back the moral, social, and political dissolution going on about him.
+With the aid of France, he meant to strike one decisive blow, and end
+the struggle. Every moment was of importance, and yet the days and
+weeks and months slipped by, and he could get nothing done. He could
+neither gain control of the sea, nor gather sufficient forces of his
+own, although delay now meant ruin. He saw the British overrun the
+south, and he could not leave the Hudson. He was obliged to sacrifice
+the southern States, and yet he could get neither ships nor men to
+attack New York. The army was starving and mutinous, and he sought
+relief in vain. The finances were ruined, Congress was helpless, the
+States seemed stupefied. Treason of the most desperate kind suddenly
+reared its head, and threatened the very citadel of the Revolution.
+These were the days of the war least familiar to posterity. They
+are unmarked in the main by action or fighting, and on this dreary
+monotony nothing stands out except the black stain of Arnold's
+treason. Yet it was the time of all others when Washington had most to
+bear. It was the time of all others when his dogged persistence and
+unwavering courage alone seemed to sustain the flickering fortunes of
+the war.
+
+In April Washington was pondering ruefully on the condition of affairs
+at the south. He saw that the only hope of saving Charleston was in
+the defense of the bar; and when that became indefensible, he saw that
+the town ought to be abandoned to the enemy, and the army withdrawn to
+the country. His military genius showed itself again and again in
+his perfectly accurate judgment on distant campaigns. He seemed to
+apprehend all the conditions at a glance, and although his wisdom
+made him refuse to issue orders when he was not on the ground, those
+generals who followed his suggestions, even when a thousand miles
+away, were successful, and those who disregarded them were not.
+Lincoln, commanding at Charleston, was a brave and loyal man, but he
+had neither the foresight nor the courage to withdraw to the country,
+and then, hovering on the lines of the enemy, to confine them to the
+town. He yielded to the entreaties of the citizens and remained, only
+to surrender. Washington had retreated from New York, and after five
+years of fighting the British still held it, and had gone no further.
+He had refused to risk an assault to redeem Philadelphia, at the
+expense of much grumbling and cursing, and had then beaten the enemy
+when they hastily retreated thence in the following spring. His
+cardinal doctrine was that the Revolution depended upon the existence
+of the army, and not on the possession of any particular spot of
+ground, and his masterly adherence to this theory brought victory,
+slowly but surely. Lincoln's very natural inability to grasp it, and
+to withstand popular pressure, cost us for a time the southern States
+and a great deal of bloody fighting.
+
+In the midst of this anxiety about the south, and when he foresaw the
+coming disasters, Washington was cheered and encouraged by the arrival
+of Lafayette, whom he loved, and who brought good tidings of his
+zealous work for the United States in Paris. An army and a fleet were
+on their way to America, with a promise of more to follow. This was
+great news indeed. It is interesting to note how Washington took it,
+for we see here with unusual clearness the readiness of grasp and
+quickness of thought which have been noted before, but which are
+not commonly attributed to him. It has been the fashion to treat
+Washington as wise and prudent, but as distinctly slow, and when he
+was obliged to concentrate public opinion, either military or civil,
+or when doubt overhung his course, he moved with great deliberation.
+When he required no concentration of opinion, and had made up his
+mind, he could strike with a terribly swift decision, as at Trenton
+or Monmouth. So when a new situation presented itself he seized with
+wonderful rapidity every phase and possibility opened by changed
+conditions.
+
+The moment he learned from Lafayette that the French succors were
+actually on the way, he began to lay out plans in a manner which
+showed how he had taken in at the first glance every chance and every
+contingency. He wrote that the decisive moment was at hand, and that
+the French succors would be fatal if not used successfully now.
+Congress must improve their methods of administration, and for this
+purpose must appoint a small committee to coöperate with him. This
+step he demanded, and it was taken at once. Fresh from his interview
+with Lafayette, he sent out orders to have inquiries made as to
+Halifax and its defenses. Possibly a sudden and telling blow might
+be struck there, and nothing should be overlooked. He also wrote to
+Lafayette to urge upon the French commander an immediate assault on
+New York the moment he landed. Yet despite his thought for New York,
+he even then began to see the opportunities which were destined to
+develop into Yorktown. He had longed to go to the south before, and
+had held back only because he felt that the main army and New York
+were still the key of the position, and could not be safely abandoned.
+Now, while planning the capture of New York, he asked in a letter
+whether the enemy was not more exposed at the southward and therefore
+a better subject for a combined attack there. Clearness and precision
+of plan as to the central point, joined to a perfect readiness to
+change suddenly and strike hard and decisively in a totally different
+quarter, are sure marks of the great commander. We can find them all
+through the correspondence, but here in May, 1780, they come out with
+peculiar vividness. They are qualities arising from a wide foresight,
+and from a sure and quick perception. They are not the qualities of a
+slow or heavy mind.
+
+On June 1 came the news of the surrender of Charleston and the loss of
+the army, which was followed by the return of Clinton to New York. The
+southern States lay open now to the enemy, and it was a severe trial
+to Washington to be unable to go to their rescue; but with the same
+dogged adherence to his ruling idea, he concentrated his attention
+on the Hudson with renewed vigilance on account of Clinton's return.
+Adversity and prosperity alike were unable to divert him from the
+control of the great river and the mastery of the middle States until
+he saw conclusive victory elsewhere fairly within his grasp. In the
+same unswerving way he pushed on the preparations for what he felt to
+be the coming of the decisive campaign and the supreme moment of the
+war. To all the governors went urgent letters, calling on the States
+to fill their lines in the continental army, and to have their militia
+in readiness.
+
+In the midst of these anxieties and preparations, the French arrived
+at Newport, bringing a well-equipped army of some five thousand men,
+and a small fleet. They brought, too, something quite as important,
+in the way of genuine good-will and full intention to do all in their
+power for their allies. After a moment's hesitation, born of unlucky
+memories, the people of Rhode Island gave De Rochambeau a hearty
+welcome, and Washington sent him the most cordial greeting. With the
+greeting went the polite but earnest request for immediate action,
+together with plans for attacking New York; and, at the same time,
+another urgent call went out to the States for men, money, and
+supplies. The long-looked-for hour had arrived, a fine French army was
+in Newport, a French fleet rode in the harbor, and instead of action,
+immediate and effective, the great event marked only the beginning of
+a period of delays and disappointment, wearing heart and nerve almost
+beyond endurance.
+
+First it appeared that the French ships could not get into New York
+harbor. Then there was sickness in the French army. Then the British
+menaced Newport, and rapid preparations had to be made to meet that
+danger. Then it came out that De Rochambeau was ordered to await the
+arrival of the second division of the army, with more ships; and after
+due waiting, it was discovered that the aforesaid second division,
+with their ships, were securely blockaded by the English fleet at
+Brest. On our side it was no better; indeed, it was rather worse.
+There was lack of arms and powder. The drafts were made with
+difficulty, and the new levies came in slowly. Supplies failed
+altogether, and on every hand there was nothing but delay, and ever
+fresh delay, and in the midst of it all Washington, wrestling with
+sloth and incoherence and inefficiency, trampled down one failure and
+disappointment only to encounter another, equally important, equally
+petty, and equally harassing.
+
+On August 20 he wrote to Congress a long and most able letter, which
+set forth forcibly the evil and perilous condition of affairs. After
+reading that letter no man could say that there was not need of the
+utmost exertion, and for the expenditure of the last ounce of energy.
+In it Washington struck especially at the two delusions with which
+the people and their representatives were lulling themselves into
+security, and by which they were led to relax their efforts. One was
+the belief that England was breaking down; the other, that the arrival
+of the French was synonymous with the victorious close of the war.
+Washington demonstrated that England still commanded the sea, and that
+as long as she did so there was a great advantage on her side. She
+was stronger, on the whole, this year than the year before, and her
+financial resources were still ample. There was no use in looking for
+victory in the weakness of the enemy, and on the other hand, to rely
+wholly on France was contemptible as well as foolish. After stating
+plainly that the army was on the verge of dissolution, he said: "To me
+it will appear miraculous if our affairs can maintain themselves much
+longer in their present train. If either the temper or the resources
+of the country will not admit of an alteration, we may expect soon
+to be reduced to the humiliating condition of seeing the cause of
+America, in America, upheld by foreign arms. The generosity of our
+allies has a claim to all our confidence and all our gratitude, but
+it is neither for the honor of America, nor for the interest of the
+common cause, to leave the work entirely to them."
+
+It must have been bitter to Washington above all men, with his high
+dignity and keen sense of national honor, to write such words as
+these, or make such an argument to any of his countrymen. But it was a
+work which the time demanded, and he did it without flinching. Having
+thus laid bare the weak places, he proceeded to rehearse once more,
+with a weariness we can easily fancy, the old, old lesson as to
+organization, a permanent army, and a better system of administration.
+This letter neither scolded, nor bewailed, nor desponded, but it told
+the truth with great force and vigor. Of course it had but slight
+results, comparatively speaking; still it did something, and the final
+success of the Revolution is due to the series of strong truth-telling
+letters, of which this is an example, as much as to any one thing done
+by Washington. There was need of some one, not only to fight battles
+and lead armies, but to drive Congress into some sort of harmony, spur
+the careless and indifferent to action, arouse the States, and kill
+various fatal delusions, and in Washington the robust teller of
+unwelcome truths was found.
+
+Still, even the results actually obtained by such letters came but
+slowly, and Washington felt that he must strike at all hazards.
+Through Lafayette he tried to get De Rochambeau to agree to an
+immediate attack on New York. His army was on the very eve of
+dissolution, and he began with reason to doubt his own power of
+holding it together longer. The finances of the country were going
+ever faster to irremediable ruin, and it seemed impossible that
+anything could postpone open and avowed bankruptcy. So, with his army
+crumbling, mutinous, and half starved, he turned to his one unfailing
+resource of fighting, and tried to persuade De Rochambeau to join
+him. Under the circumstances, Washington was right to wish to risk a
+battle, and De Rochambeau, from his point of view, was equally so in
+refusing to take the offensive, unless the second division arrived or
+De Guichen came with his fleet, or the English force at New York was
+reduced.
+
+In these debates and delays, mingled with an appeal to De Guichen in
+the West Indies, the summer was fast wearing away, and, by way of
+addition, early in September came tidings of the battle of Camden,
+and the utter rout of Gates's army. Despite his own needs and trials,
+Washington's first idea was to stem the current of disaster at the
+south, and he ordered the fresh Maryland troops to turn back at once
+and march to the Carolinas, but Gates fled so fast and far that it
+was some time before anything was heard of him. As more news came of
+Camden and its beaten general, Washington wrote to Rutledge that he
+should ultimately come southward. Meantime, he could only struggle
+with his own difficulties, and rack his brains for men and means to
+rescue the south. It must have seemed to Washington, in those lovely
+September days, as if fate could not have any worse trials in store,
+and that if he could only breast the troubles now surging about him,
+he might count on sure and speedy success. Yet the bitterest trial of
+all was even then hanging over his head, and with a sort of savage
+sarcasm it came upon him in one of those rare moments when he had an
+hour of rest and sunshine.
+
+The story of Arnold's treason is easily told. Its romantic side
+has made it familiar to all Americans, and given it a factitious
+importance. Had it succeeded it would have opened opportunities of
+disaster to the American arms, although it would not have affected
+the final outcome of the Revolution. As it was it failed, and had no
+result whatever. It has passed into history simply as a picturesque
+episode, charged with possibilities which attract the imagination, but
+having, in itself, neither meaning nor consequences beyond the two
+conspirators. To us it is of interest, because it shows Washington in
+one of the sharpest and bitterest experiences of his life. Let us see
+how he met it and dealt with it.
+
+From the day when the French landed, both De Rochambeau and
+Washington had been most anxious to meet. The French general had been
+particularly urgent, but it was difficult for Washington to get away.
+As he wrote on August 21: "We are about ten miles from the enemy. Our
+popular government imposes a necessity of great circumspection. If
+any misfortune should happen in my absence, it would be attended with
+every inconvenience. I will, however, endeavor if possible, and as
+soon as possible, to meet you at some convenient rendezvous." In
+accordance with this promise, a few weeks later, he left Greene in
+command of the army, and, not without misgivings, started on September
+18 to meet De Rochambeau. On his way he had an interview with Arnold,
+who came to him to show a letter from the loyalist Colonel Robinson,
+and thus disarm suspicion as to his doings. On the 20th, the day when
+André and Arnold met to arrange the terms of the sale, Washington was
+with De Rochambeau at Hartford. News had arrived, meantime, that De
+Guichen had sailed for Europe; the command of the sea was therefore
+lost, and the opportunity for action had gone by. There was no need
+for further conference, and Washington accordingly set out on his
+return at once, two or three days earlier than he had intended.
+
+He was accompanied by his own staff, and by Knox and Lafayette with
+their officers. With him, too, went the young Count Dumas, who has
+left a description of their journey, and of the popular enthusiasm
+displayed in the towns through which they passed. In one village,
+which they reached after nightfall, all the people turned out, the
+children bearing torches, and men and women hailed Washington as
+father, and pressed about him to touch the hem of his garments.
+Turning to Dumas he said, "We may be beaten by the English; it is
+the chance of war; but there is the army they will never conquer."
+Political leaders grumbled, and military officers caballed, but
+the popular feeling went out to Washington with a sure and utter
+confidence. The people in that little village recognized the great and
+unselfish leader as they recognized Lincoln a century later, and from
+the masses of the people no one ever heard the cry that Washington was
+cold or unsympathetic. They loved him, and believed in him, and such a
+manifestation of their devotion touched him deeply. His spirits rose
+under the spell of appreciation and affection, always so strong upon
+human nature, and he rode away from Fishkill the next morning at
+daybreak with a light heart.
+
+The company was pleasant and lively, the morning was fair, and as they
+approached Arnold's headquarters at the Robinson house, Washington
+turned off to the redoubts by the river, telling the young men that
+they were all in love with Mrs. Arnold and would do well to go
+straight on and breakfast with her. Hamilton and McHenry followed his
+advice, and while they were at breakfast a note was brought to Arnold.
+It was the letter of warning from André announcing his capture, which
+Colonel Jameson, who ought to have been cashiered for doing it, had
+forwarded. Arnold at once left the table, and saying that he was going
+to West Point, jumped into his boat and was rowed rapidly down the
+river to the British man-of-war. Washington on his arrival was told
+that Arnold had gone to the fort, and so after a hasty breakfast he
+went over there himself. On reaching West Point no salute broke the
+stillness, and no guard turned out to receive him. He was astonished
+to learn that his arrival was unexpected, and that Arnold had not been
+there for two days. Still unsuspecting he inspected the works, and
+then returned.
+
+Meantime, the messenger sent to Hartford with the papers taken on
+André reached the Robinson house and delivered them to Hamilton,
+together with a letter of confession from André himself. Hamilton read
+them, and hurrying out met Washington just coming up from the river.
+He took his chief aside, said a few words to him in a low voice, and
+they went into the house together. When they came out, Washington
+looked as calm as ever, and calling to Lafayette and Knox gave them
+the papers, saying simply, "Whom can we trust now?" He dispatched
+Hamilton at once to try to intercept Arnold at Verplanck's Point, but
+it was too late; the boat had passed, and Arnold was safe on board the
+Vulture. This done, Washington bade his staff sit down with him at
+dinner, as the general was absent, and Mrs. Arnold was ill in her
+room. Dinner over, he immediately set about guarding the post, which
+had been so near betrayal. To Colonel Wade at West Point he wrote:
+"Arnold has gone to the enemy; you are in command, be vigilant." To
+Jameson he sent word to guard André closely. To the colonels and
+commanders of various outlying regiments he sent orders to bring up
+their troops. Everything was done that should have been done, quickly,
+quietly, and without comment. The most sudden and appalling treachery
+had failed to shake his nerve, or confuse his mind.
+
+Yet the strong and silent man was wrung to the quick, and when
+everything possible had been done, and he had retired to his room, the
+guard outside the door heard him marching back and forth through all
+the weary night. The one thing he least expected, because he least
+understood it, had come to pass. He had been a good and true friend to
+the villain who had fled, for Arnold's reckless bravery and dare-devil
+fighting had appealed to the strongest passion of his nature, and he
+had stood by him always. He had grieved over the refusal of Congress
+to promote him in due order and had interceded with ultimate success
+in his behalf. He had sympathized with him in his recent troubles
+in Philadelphia, and had administered the reprimand awarded by the
+court-martial so that rebuke seemed turned to praise. He had sought
+to give him every opportunity that a soldier could desire, and had
+finally conferred upon him the command of West Point. He had admired
+his courage and palliated his misconduct, and now the scoundrel had
+turned on him and fled. Mingled with the bitterness of these memories
+of betrayed confidence was the torturing ignorance of how far this
+base treachery had extended. For all he knew there might be a brood of
+traitors about him in the very citadel of America. We can never know
+Washington's thoughts at that time, for he was ever silent, but as we
+listen in imagination to the sound of the even footfalls which the
+guard heard all through that September night, we can dimly guess the
+feelings of the strong and passionate nature, wounded and distressed
+almost beyond endurance.
+
+There is but little more to tell. The conspiracy stopped with Arnold.
+He had no accomplices, and meant to deliver the post and pocket the
+booty alone. The British tried to spread the idea that other officers
+had been corrupted, but the attempt failed, and Washington's prompt
+measures of defense checked any movement against the forts. Every
+effort was made by Clinton to save André, but in vain. He was tried
+by a court composed of the highest officers in the American service,
+among whom was Lafayette. On his own statement, but one decision was
+possible. He was condemned as a spy, and as a spy he was sentenced to
+be hanged. He made a manly appeal against the manner of his death, and
+begged to be shot. Washington declined to interfere, and André went to
+the gallows.
+
+The British, at the time, and some of their writers afterwards,
+attacked Washington for insisting on this mode of execution, but there
+never was an instance in his career when he was more entirely right.
+André was a spy and briber, who sought to ruin the American cause
+by means of the treachery of an American general. It was a dark and
+dangerous game, and he knew that he staked his life on the result. He
+failed, and paid the penalty. Washington could not permit, he would
+have been grossly and feebly culpable if he had permitted, such an
+attempt to pass without extreme punishment. He was generous and
+magnanimous, but he was not a sentimentalist, and he punished this
+miserable treason, so far as he could reach it, as it deserved. It is
+true that André was a man of talent, well-bred and courageous, and of
+engaging manners. He deserved all the sympathy and sorrow which he
+excited at the time, but nothing more. He was not only technically a
+spy, but he had sought his ends by bribery, he had prostituted a flag
+of truce, and he was to be richly paid for his work. It was all hire
+and salary. No doubt André was patriotic and loyal. Many spies have
+been the same, and have engaged in their dangerous exploits from
+the highest motives. Nathan Hale, whom the British hanged without
+compunction, was as well-born and well-bred as André, and as patriotic
+as man could be, and moreover he was a spy and nothing more. André
+was a trafficker in bribes and treachery, and however we may pity his
+fate, his name has no proper place in the great temple at Westminster,
+where all English-speaking people bow with reverence, and only a most
+perverted sentimentality could conceive that it was fitting to erect a
+monument to his memory in this country.
+
+Washington sent André to the gallows because it was his duty to do so,
+but he pitied him none the less, and whatever he may have thought of
+the means André employed to effect his end, he made no comment upon
+him, except to say that "he met his fate with that fortitude which was
+to be expected from an accomplished man and gallant officer." As to
+Arnold, he was almost equally silent. When obliged to refer to him he
+did so in the plainest and simplest way, and only in a familiar letter
+to Laurens do we get a glimpse of his feelings. He wrote: "I am
+mistaken if at this time Arnold is undergoing the torment of a mental
+hell. He wants feeling. From some traits of his character which have
+lately come to my knowledge, he seems to have been so hackneyed in
+villainy, and so lost to all sense of honor and shame, that, while his
+faculties will enable him to continue his sordid pursuits, there will
+be no time for remorse." With this single expression of measureless
+contempt, Washington let Arnold drop from his life. The first shock
+had touched him to the quick, although it could not shake his steady
+mind. Reflection revealed to him the extraordinary baseness of
+Arnold's real character, and he cast the thought of him out forever,
+content to leave the traitor to the tender mercies of history. The
+calmness and dignity, the firmness and deep feeling which Washington
+exhibited, are of far more interest than the abortive treason, and
+have as real a value now as they had then, when suspicion for a moment
+ran riot, and men wondered "whom they could trust."
+
+The treason of Arnold swept like a black cloud across the sky, broke,
+and left everything as before. That such a base peril should have
+existed was alarming and hateful. That it should have been exploded
+harmlessly made all men give a deep sigh of relief. But neither the
+treason nor its discovery altered the current of events one jot. The
+summer had come and gone. The French had arrived, and no blow had
+been struck. There was nothing to show for the campaign but
+inaction, disappointment, and the loss of the Carolinas. With the
+commander-in-chief, through it all, were ever present two great
+questions, getting more portentous and more difficult of solution with
+each succeeding day. How he was to keep his army in existence was one,
+and how he was to hold the government together was the other. He
+had thirteen tired States, a general government almost impotent, a
+bankrupt treasury, and a broken credit. The American Revolution had
+come down to the question of whether the brain, will, and nerve of one
+man could keep the machine going long enough to find fit opportunity
+for a final and decisive stroke. Washington had confidence in the
+people of the country and in himself, but the difficulties in the way
+were huge, and the means of surmounting them slight. There is here
+and there a passionate undertone in the letters of this period, which
+shows us the moments when the waves of trouble and disaster seemed to
+sweep over him. But the feeling passed, or was trampled under
+foot, for there was no break in the steady fight against untoward
+circumstances, or in the grim refusal to accept defeat.
+
+It is almost impossible now to conceive the actual condition at that
+time of every matter of detail which makes military and political
+existence possible. No general phrases can do justice to the situation
+of the army; and the petty miseries and privations, which made life
+unendurable, went on from day to day in ever varying forms. While
+Washington was hearing the first ill news from the south and
+struggling with the problem on that side, and at the same time was
+planning with Lafayette how to take advantage of the French succors,
+the means of subsisting his army were wholly giving out. The men
+actually had no food. For days, as Washington wrote, there was no meat
+at all in camp. Goaded by hunger, a Connecticut regiment mutinied.
+They were brought back to duty, but held out steadily for their pay,
+which they had not received for five months. Indeed, the whole army
+was more or less mutinous, and it was only by the utmost tact that
+Washington kept them from wholesale desertion. After the summer had
+passed and the chance for a decisive campaign had gone with it, the
+excitement of expected action ceased to sustain the men, and the
+unclothed, unpaid, unfed soldiers began again to get restive. We can
+imagine what the condition of the rank and file must have been when
+we find that Washington himself could not procure an express from
+the quartermaster-general, and was obliged to send a letter to the
+Minister of France by the unsafe and slow medium of the post. He was
+expected to carry on a war against a rich and powerful enemy, and he
+could not even pay a courier to carry his dispatches.
+
+With the commander-in-chief thus straitened, the sufferings of the
+men grew to be intolerable, and the spirit of revolt which had been
+checked through the summer began again to appear. At last, in January,
+1781, it burst all the bounds. The Pennsylvania line mutinied and
+threatened Congress. Attempts on the part of the English to seduce
+them failed, but they remained in a state of open rebellion. The
+officers were powerless, and it looked as if the disaffection would
+spread, and the whole army go to pieces in the very face of the enemy.
+Washington held firm, and intended in his unshaken way to bring them
+back to their duty without yielding in a dangerous fashion. But the
+government of Pennsylvania, at last thoroughly frightened, rushed into
+the field, and patched up a compromise which contained most perilous
+concessions. The natural consequence was a fresh mutiny in the New
+Jersey line, and this time Washington determined that he would not be
+forestalled. He sent forward at once some regiments of loyal troops,
+suppressed the mutiny suddenly and with a strong hand, and hanged
+two of the ringleaders. The difficulty was conquered, and discipline
+restored.
+
+To take this course required great boldness, for these mutinies were
+of no ordinary character. In the first place, it was impossible to
+tell whether any troops would do their duty against their fellows, and
+failure would have been fatal. In the second place, the grievances
+of the soldiers were very great, and their complaints were entirely
+righteous. Washington felt the profoundest sympathy with his men, and
+it was no easy matter to maintain order with soldiers tried almost
+beyond endurance, against their comrades whose claims were just. Two
+things saved the army. One was Washington's great influence with the
+men and their utter belief in him. The other was the quality of
+the men themselves. Lafayette said they were the most patient and
+patriotic soldiers the world had seen, and it is easy to believe him.
+The wonder is, not that they mutinied when they did, but that the
+whole army had not mutinied and abandoned the struggle years before.
+The misfortunes and mistakes of the Revolution, to whomever due, were
+in no respect to be charged to the army, and the conduct of the troops
+through all the dreary months of starvation and cold and poverty is
+a proof of the intelligent patriotism and patient courage of the
+American soldier which can never be gainsaid. To fight successful
+battles is the test of a good general, but to hold together a
+suffering army through years of unexampled privations, to meet endless
+failure of details with unending expedients, and then to fight battles
+and plan campaigns, shows a leader who was far more than a good
+general. Such multiplied trials and difficulties are overcome only by
+a great soldier who with small means achieves large results, and by a
+great man who by force of will and character can establish with all
+who follow him a power which no miseries can conquer, and no suffering
+diminish.
+
+The height reached by the troubles in the army and their menacing
+character had, however, a good as well as a bad side. They penetrated
+the indifference and carelessness of both Congress and the States.
+Gentlemen in the confederate and local administrations and
+legislatures woke up to a realizing sense that the dissolution of the
+army meant a general wreck, in which their own necks would be in very
+considerable danger; and they also had an uneasy feeling that starving
+and mutinous soldiers were very uncertain in taking revenge.
+The condition of the army gave a sudden and piercing reality to
+Washington's indignant words to Mathews on October 4: "At a time when
+public harmony is so essential, when we should aid and assist each
+other with all our abilities, when our hearts should be open to
+information and our hands ready to administer relief, to find
+distrusts and jealousies taking possession of the mind and a party
+spirit prevailing affords a most melancholy reflection, and forebodes
+no good." The hoarse murmur of impending mutiny emphasized strongly
+the words written on the same day to Duane: "The history of the war is
+a history of false hopes and temporary expedients. Would to God they
+were to end here."
+
+The events in the south, too, had a sobering effect. The congressional
+general Gates had not proved a success. His defeat at Camden had
+been terribly complete, and his flight had been too rapid to inspire
+confidence in his capacity for recuperation. The members of Congress
+were thus led to believe that as managers of military matters they
+left much to be desired; and when Washington, on October 11, addressed
+to them one of his long and admirable letters on reorganization, it
+was received in a very chastened spirit. They had listened to many
+such letters before, and had benefited by them always a little,
+but danger and defeat gave this one peculiar point. They therefore
+accepted the situation, and adopted all the suggestions of the
+commander-in-chief. They also in the same reasonable frame of mind
+determined that Washington should select the next general for the
+southern army. A good deal could have been saved had this decision
+been reached before; but even now it was not too late. October 14,
+Washington appointed Greene to this post of difficulty and danger, and
+Greene's assumption of the command marks the turning-point in the
+tide of disaster, and the beginning of the ultimate expulsion of the
+British from the only portion of the colonies where they had made a
+tolerable campaign.
+
+The uses of adversity, moreover, did not stop here. They extended to
+the States, which began to grow more vigorous in action, and to show
+signs of appreciating the gravity of the situation and the duties
+which rested upon them. This change and improvement both in Congress
+and the States came none too soon. Indeed, as it was, the results of
+their renewed efforts were too slow to be felt at once by the army,
+and mutinies broke out even after the new spirit had shown itself.
+Washington also sent Knox to travel from State to State, to see the
+various governors, and lay the situation of affairs before them; yet
+even with such a text it was a difficult struggle to get the States to
+make quick and strong exertions sufficient to prevent a partial mutiny
+from becoming a general revolt. The lesson, however, had had its
+effect. For the moment, at least, the cause was saved. The worst
+defects were temporarily remedied, and something was done toward
+supplies and subsistence. The army would be able to exist through
+another winter, and face another summer. Then the next campaign might
+bring the decisive moment; but still, who could tell? Years, instead
+of months, might yet elapse before the end was reached, and then no
+man could say what the result would be.
+
+Washington saw plainly enough that the relief and improvement were
+only temporary, and that carelessness and indifference were likely to
+return, and be more case-hardened than ever. He was too strong and
+sane a man to waste time in fighting shadows or in nourishing himself
+with hopes. He dealt with the present as he found it, and fought down
+difficulties as they sprang up in his path. But he was also a man of
+extraordinary prescience, with a foresight as penetrating as it was
+judicious. It was, perhaps, his most remarkable gift, and while
+he controlled the present he studied the future. Outside of the
+operations of armies, and the plans of campaign, he saw, as the
+war progressed, that the really fatal perils were involved in the
+political system. At the beginning of the Revolution there was no
+organization outside the local state governments. Congress voted and
+resolved in favor of anything that seemed proper, and the States
+responded to their appeal. In the first flush of revolution, and the
+first excitement of freedom, this was all very well. But as the
+early passion cooled, and a long and stubborn struggle, replete with
+sufferings and defeat, developed itself, the want of system began to
+appear.
+
+One of the earliest tasks of Congress was the formation of articles
+for a general government, but state jealousies, and the delays
+incident to the movements of thirteen sovereignties, prevented their
+adoption until the war was nearly over. Washington, suffering from all
+the complicated troubles of jarring States and general incoherence,
+longed for and urged the adoption of the act of confederation. He saw
+sooner than any one else, and with more painful intensity, the need of
+better union and more energetic government. As the days and months of
+difficulties and trials went by, the suggestions on this question in
+his letters grew more frequent and more urgent, and they showed the
+insight of the statesman and practical man of affairs. How much he
+hoped from the final acceptance of the act of confederation it is not
+easy to say, but he hoped for some improvement certainly. When at last
+it went into force, he saw almost at once that it would not do, and in
+the spring of 1780 he knew it to be a miserable failure. The system
+which had been established was really no better than that which had
+preceded it. With alarm and disgust Washington found himself flung
+back on what he called "the pernicious state system," and with worse
+prospects than ever.
+
+Up to the time of the Revolution he had never given attention to the
+philosophy or science of government, but when it fell to his lot to
+fight the war for independence he perceived almost immediately the
+need of a strong central government, and his suggestions, scattered
+broadcast among his correspondents, manifested a knowledge of the
+conditions of the political problem possessed by no one else at that
+period. When he was satisfied of the failure of the confederation, his
+efforts to improve the existing administration multiplied, and he soon
+had the assistance of his aide-de-camp, Alexander Hamilton, who then
+wrote, although little more than a boy, his remarkable letters on
+government and finance, which were the first full expositions of the
+political necessities from which sprang the Constitution of the United
+States. Washington was vigorous in action and methodical in business,
+while the system of thirteen sovereignties was discordant, disorderly,
+and feeble in execution. He knew that the vices inherent in the
+confederation were ineradicable and fatal, and he also knew that it
+was useless to expect any comprehensive reforms until the war was
+over. The problem before him was whether the existing machine could be
+made to work until the British were finally driven from the country.
+The winter of 1780-81 was marked, therefore, on his part, by an urgent
+striving for union, and by unceasing efforts to mend and improve the
+rickety system of the confederation. It was with this view that he
+secured the dispatch of Laurens, whom he carefully instructed, to get
+money in Paris; for he was satisfied that it was only possible to tide
+over the financial difficulties by foreign loans from those interested
+in our success. In the same spirit he worked to bring about
+the establishment of executive departments, which was finally
+accomplished, after delays that sorely tried his patience. These two
+cases were but the most important among many of similar character, for
+he was always at work on these perplexing questions.
+
+It is an astonishing proof of the strength and power of his mind that
+he was able to solve the daily questions of army existence, to deal
+with the allies, to plan attacks on New York, to watch and scheme for
+the southern department, to cope with Arnold's treason, with mutiny,
+and with administrative imbecility, and at the very same time consider
+the gravest governmental problems, and send forth wise suggestions,
+which met the exigencies of the moment, and laid the foundation of
+much that afterwards appeared in the Constitution of the United
+States. He was not a speculator on government, and after his fashion
+he was engaged in dealing with the questions of the day and hour. Yet
+the ideas that he put forth in this time of confusion and conflict and
+expedients were so vitally sound and wise that they deserve the most
+careful study in relation to after events. The political trials
+and difficulties of this period were the stern teachers from whom
+Washington acquired the knowledge and experience which made him the
+principal agent in bringing about the formation and adoption of the
+Constitution of the United States. We shall have occasion to examine
+these opinions and views more closely when they were afterwards
+brought into actual play. At this point it is only necessary to trace
+the history of the methods by which he solved the problem of the
+Revolution before the political system of the confederation became
+absolutely useless.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+YORKTOWN
+
+
+The failure to accomplish anything in the north caused Washington,
+as the year drew to a close, to turn his thoughts once more toward a
+combined movement at the south. In pursuance of this idea, he devised
+a scheme of uniting with the Spaniards in the seizure of Florida, and
+of advancing thence through Georgia to assail the English in the rear.
+De Rochambeau did not approve the plan, and it was abandoned; but the
+idea of a southern movement was still kept steadily in sight. The
+governing thought now was, not to protect this place or that, but to
+cast aside everything else in order to strike one great blow which
+would finish the war. Where he could do this, time alone would show,
+but if one follows the correspondence closely, it is apparent that
+Washington's military instinct turned more and more toward the south.
+
+In that department affairs changed their aspect rapidly. January 17,
+Morgan won his brilliant victory at the Cowpens, withdrew in good
+order with his prisoners, and united his army with that of Greene.
+Cornwallis was terribly disappointed by this unexpected reverse, but
+he determined to push on, defeat the combined American army, and then
+join the British forces on the Chesapeake. Greene was too weak to risk
+a battle, and made a masterly retreat of two hundred miles before
+Cornwallis, escaping across the Dan only twelve hours ahead of the
+enemy. The moment the British moved away, Greene recrossed the river
+and hung upon their rear. For a month he kept in their neighborhood,
+checking the rising of the Tories, and declining battle. At last he
+received reinforcements, felt strong enough to stand his ground, and
+on March 15 the battle of Guilford Court House was fought. It was a
+sharp and bloody fight; the British had the advantage, and Greene
+abandoned the field, bringing off his army in good order. Cornwallis,
+on his part, had suffered so heavily, however, that his victory turned
+to ashes. On the 18th he was in full retreat, with Greene in hot
+chase, and it was not until the 28th that he succeeded in getting over
+the Deep River and escaping to Wilmington. Thence he determined to
+push on and transfer the seat of war to the Chesapeake. Greene, with
+the boldness and quickness which showed him to be a soldier of a high
+order, now dropped the pursuit and turned back to fight the British in
+detachments and free the southern States. There is no need to follow
+him in the brilliant operations which ensued, and by which he achieved
+this result. It is sufficient to say here that he had altered the
+whole aspect of the war, forced Cornwallis into Virginia within reach
+of Washington, and begun the work of redeeming the Carolinas.
+
+The troops which Cornwallis intended to join had been sent in
+detachments to Virginia during the winter and spring. The first body
+had arrived early in January under the command of Arnold, and a
+general marauding and ravaging took place. A little later General
+Phillips arrived with reinforcements and took command. On May 13,
+General Phillips died, and a week later Cornwallis appeared at
+Petersburg, assumed control, and sent Arnold back to New York.
+
+Meantime Washington, though relieved by Morgan's and Greene's
+admirable work, had a most trying and unhappy winter and spring. He
+sent every man he could spare, and more than he ought to have spared,
+to Greene, and he stripped himself still further when the invasion of
+Virginia began. But for the most part he was obliged, from lack of any
+naval strength, to stand helplessly by and see more and more British
+troops sent to the south, and witness the ravaging of his native
+State, without any ability to prevent it. To these grave trials was
+added a small one, which stung him to the quick. The British came up
+the Potomac, and Lund Washington, in order to preserve Mount Vernon,
+gave them refreshments, and treated them in a conciliatory manner. He
+meant well but acted ill, and Washington wrote:--
+
+"It would have been a less painful circumstance to me to have heard
+that, in consequence of your non-compliance with their request, they
+had burnt my house and laid the plantation in ruins. You ought to have
+considered yourself as my representative, and should have reflected
+on the bad example of communicating with the enemy, and making a
+voluntary offer of refreshments to them, with a view to prevent a
+conflagration."
+
+What a clear glimpse this little episode gives of the earnestness of
+the man who wrote these lines. He could not bear the thought that any
+favor should be shown him on any pretense. He was ready to take his
+share of the marauding and pillaging with the rest, but he was deeply
+indignant at the idea that any one representing him should even appear
+to ask a favor of the British.
+
+Altogether, the spring of 1781 was very trying, for there was nothing
+so galling to Washington as to be unable to fight. He wanted to get to
+the south, but he was bound hand and foot by lack of force. Yet the
+obstacles did not daunt or depress him. He wrote in June that he felt
+sure of bringing the war to a happy conclusion, and in the division of
+the British forces he saw his opportunity taking shape. Greene had
+the southern forces well in hand. Cornwallis was equally removed from
+Clinton on the north and Rawdon on the south, and had come within
+reach; so that if he could but have naval strength he could fall upon
+Cornwallis with superior force and crush him. In naval matters fortune
+thus far had dealt hardly with him, yet he could not but feel that
+a French fleet of sufficient force must soon come. He grasped the
+situation with a master-hand, and began to prepare the way. Still he
+kept his counsel strictly to himself, and set to work to threaten, and
+if possible to attack, New York, not with much hope of succeeding
+in any such attempt, but with a view of frightening Clinton and of
+inducing him either to withdraw troops from Virginia, or at least to
+withhold reinforcements. As he began his Virginian campaign in this
+distant and remote fashion at the mouth of the Hudson, he was cheered
+by news that De Grasse, the French admiral, had sent recruits to
+Newport, and intended to come himself to the American coast. He at
+once wrote De Grasse not to determine absolutely to come to New
+York, hinting that it might prove more advisable to operate to the
+southward. It required great tact to keep the French fleet where he
+needed it, and yet not reveal his intentions, and nothing showed
+Washington's foresight more plainly than the manner in which he made
+the moves in this campaign, when miles of space and weeks of time
+separated him from the final object of his plans. To trace this
+mastery of details, and the skill with which every point was
+remembered and covered, would require a long and minute narrative.
+They can only be indicated here sufficiently to show how exactly each
+movement fitted in its place, and how all together brought the great
+result.
+
+Fortified by the good news from De Grasse, Washington had an interview
+with De Rochambeau, and effected a junction with the French army. Thus
+strengthened, he opened his campaign against Cornwallis by beginning a
+movement against Clinton. The troops were massed above the city, and
+an effort was made to surprise the upper posts and destroy Delancey's
+partisan corps. The attempt, although well planned, failed of its
+immediate purpose, giving Washington opportunity only for an effective
+reconnoissance of the enemy's positions. But the move was perfectly
+successful in its real and indirect object. Clinton was alarmed. He
+began to write to Cornwallis that troops should be returned to New
+York, and he gave up absolutely the idea of sending more men to
+Virginia. Having thus convinced Clinton that New York was menaced,
+Washington then set to work to familiarize skillfully the minds of his
+allies and of Congress with the idea of a southern campaign. With this
+end in view, he wrote on August 2 that, if more troops arrived from
+Virginia, New York would be impracticable, and that the next point
+was the south. The only contingency, as he set forth, was the
+all-important one of obtaining naval superiority. August 15 this
+essential condition gave promise of fulfillment, for on that day
+definite news arrived that De Grasse with his fleet was on his way to
+the Chesapeake. Without a moment's hesitation, Washington began to
+move, and at the same time he sent an urgent letter to the New England
+governors, demanding troops with an earnestness which he had never
+surpassed.
+
+In Virginia, meanwhile, during these long midsummer days, while
+Washington was waiting and planning, Cornwallis had been going up and
+down, harrying, burning, and plundering. His cavalry had scattered the
+legislature, and driven Governor Jefferson in headlong flight over the
+hills, while property to the value of more than three millions had
+been destroyed. Lafayette, sent by Washington to maintain the American
+cause, had been too weak to act decisively, but he had been true to
+his general's teaching, and, refusing battle, had hung upon the flanks
+of the British and harassed and checked them. Joined by Wayne, he had
+fought an unsuccessful engagement at Green Springs, but brought off
+his army, and with steady pertinacity followed the enemy to the coast,
+gathering strength as he moved. Now, when all was at last ready,
+Washington began to draw his net about Cornwallis, whom he had been
+keenly watching during the victorious marauding of the summer. On the
+news of the coming of the French fleet, he wrote to Lafayette to be
+prepared to join him when he reached Virginia, to retain Wayne, who
+intended to join Greene, and to stop Cornwallis at all hazards, if he
+attempted to go southward.
+
+Cornwallis, however, had no intention of moving. He had seen the peril
+of his position, and had wished to withdraw to Charleston; but the
+ministry, highly pleased with his performances, wished him to remain
+on the Chesapeake, and decisive orders came to him to take a permanent
+post in that region. Clinton, moreover, was jealous of Cornwallis,
+and, impressed and deceived by Washington's movements, he not only
+sent no reinforcements, but detained three thousand Hessians, who had
+lately arrived. Cornwallis, therefore, had no choice, and with much
+writing for aid, and some protesting, he obeyed his orders, planted
+himself at Yorktown and Gloucester, and proceeded to fortify, while
+Lafayette kept close watch upon him. Cornwallis was a good soldier and
+a clever man, suffering, as Burgoyne did, from a stupid ministry and
+a dull and jealous commander-in-chief. Thus hampered and burdened,
+he was ready to fall a victim to the operations of a really great
+general, whom his official superiors in England undervalued and
+despised.
+
+August 17, as soon as he had set his own machinery in motion,
+Washington wrote to De Grasse to meet him in the Chesapeake. He was
+working now more anxiously and earnestly than at any time in the
+Revolution, not merely because he felt that success depended on the
+blow, but because he descried a new and alarming danger. He had
+perceived it in June, and the idea pursued him until all was over, and
+kept recurring in his letters during this strained and eager summer.
+To Washington's eyes, watching campaigns and government at home and
+the politics of Europe abroad, the signs of exhaustion, of mediation,
+and of coming peace across the Atlantic were plainly visible. If peace
+should come as things then were, America would get independence, and
+be shorn of many of her most valuable possessions. The sprawling
+British campaign of maraud and plunder, so bad in a military point of
+view, and about to prove fatal to Cornwallis, would, in case of sudden
+cessation of hostilities, be capable of the worst construction. Time,
+therefore, had become of the last importance. The decisive blow must
+be given at once, and before the slow political movements could come
+to a head. On July 14, Washington had his plan mapped out. He wrote in
+his diary:--
+
+"Matters having now come to a crisis, and a decided plan to be
+determined on, I was obliged--from the shortness of Count De Grasse's
+promised stay on this coast, the apparent disinclination of their
+naval officers to force the harbor of New York, and the feeble
+compliance of the States with my requisitions for men hitherto, and
+the little prospect of greater exertions in future--to give up all
+ideas of attacking New York, and instead thereof to remove the French
+troops and a detachment from the American army to the Head of Elk, to
+be transported to Virginia for the purpose of coöperating with the
+force from the West Indies against the troops in that State."
+
+Like most of Washington's plans, this one was clear-cut and direct,
+and looks now simple enough, but at the moment it was hedged with
+almost inconceivable difficulties at every step. The ever-present and
+ever-growing obstacles at home were there as usual. Appeals to Morris
+for money were met by the most discouraging responses, and the States
+seemed more lethargic than ever. Neither men nor supplies could be
+obtained; neither transportation nor provision for the march could be
+promised. Then, too, in addition to all this, came a wholly new set of
+stumbling-blocks arising among the allies. Everything hinged on the
+naval force. Washington needed it for a short time only; but for that
+crucial moment he must have not only superiority but supremacy at sea.
+Every French ship that could be reached must be in the Chesapeake, and
+Washington had had too many French fleets slip away from him at the
+last moment and bring everything to naught to take any chances in this
+direction. To bring about his naval supremacy required the utmost
+tact and good management, and that he succeeded is one of the
+chief triumphs of the campaign. In fact, at the very outset he was
+threatened in this quarter with a serious defection. De Barras, with
+the squadron of the American station, was at Boston, and it was
+essential that he should be united with De Grasse at Yorktown. But De
+Barras was nettled by the favoritism which had made De Grasse, his
+junior in service, his superior in command. He determined therefore to
+take advantage of his orders and sail away to the north to Nova Scotia
+and Newfoundland, and leave De Grasse to fight it out alone. It is a
+hard thing to beat an opposing army, but it is equally hard to bring
+human jealousies and ambitions into the narrow path of self-sacrifice
+and subordination. Alarmed beyond measure at the suggested departure
+of the Boston squadron, Washington wrote a letter, which De Rochambeau
+signed with him, urging De Barras to turn his fleet toward the
+Chesapeake. It was a skillfully drawn missive, an adroit mingling of
+appeals to honor and sympathy and of vigorous demands to perform an
+obvious duty. The letter did its work, the diplomacy of Washington was
+successful, and De Barras suppressed his feelings of disappointment,
+and agreed to go to the Chesapeake and serve under De Grasse.
+
+This point made, Washington pushed on his preparations, or rather
+pushed on despite his lack of preparations, and on August 17, as has
+been said, wrote to De Grasse to meet him in the Chesapeake. He left
+the larger part of his own troops with Heath, to whom in carefully
+drawn instructions he intrusted the grave duty of guarding the Hudson
+and watching the British in New York. This done, he gathered his
+forces together, and on August 21 the army started on its march to the
+south. On the 23d and 24th it crossed the Hudson, without annoyance
+from the British of any kind. Washington had threatened New York so
+effectively, and manoeuvred so successfully, that Clinton could not be
+shaken in his belief that the real object of the Americans was his own
+army; and it was not until September 6 that he fully realized that his
+enemy was going to the south, and that Cornwallis was in danger. He
+even then hesitated and delayed, but finally dispatched Admiral Graves
+with the fleet to the Chesapeake. The Admiral came upon the French
+early on September 5, the very day that Washington was rejoicing in
+the news that De Grasse had arrived in the Chesapeake and had landed
+St. Simon and three thousand men to support Lafayette. As soon as the
+English fleet appeared, the French, although many of their men were
+on shore, sailed out and gave battle. An indecisive action ensued, in
+which the British suffered so much that five days later they burned
+one of their frigates and withdrew to New York. De Grasse returned to
+his anchorage, to find that De Barras had come in from Newport with
+eight ships and ten transports carrying ordnance.
+
+While everything was thus moving well toward the consummation of the
+campaign, Washington, in the midst of his delicate and important work
+of breaking camp and beginning his rapid march to the south, was
+harassed by the ever-recurring difficulties of the feeble and bankrupt
+government of the confederation. He wrote again and again to Morris
+for money, and finally got some. His demands for men and supplies
+remained almost unheeded, but somehow he got provisions enough to
+start. He foresaw the most pressing need, and sent messages in all
+directions for shipping to transport his army down the Chesapeake. No
+one responded, but still he gathered the transports; at first a few,
+then more, and finally, after many delays, enough to move his army to
+Yorktown. The spectacle of such a struggle, so heroically made, one
+would think, might have inspired every soul on the continent with
+enthusiasm; but at this very moment, while Washington was breaking
+camp and marching southward, Congress was considering the reduction
+of the army!--which was as appropriate as it would have been for the
+English Parliament to have reduced the navy on the eve of Trafalgar,
+or for Lincoln to have advised the restoration of the army to a peace
+footing while Grant was fighting in the Wilderness. The fact was that
+the Continental Congress was weakened in ability and very tired in
+point of nerve and will-power. They saw that peace was coming, and
+naturally thought that the sooner they could get it the better. They
+entirely failed to see, as Washington saw, that in a too sudden peace
+lurked the danger of the _uti possidetis_, and that the mere fact of
+peace by no means implied necessarily complete success. They did not,
+of course, effect their reductions, but they remained inert, and so
+for the most part did the state governments, becoming drags upon
+the wheels of war instead of helpers to the man who was driving the
+Revolution forward to its goal. Both state and confederate governments
+still meant well, but they were worn out and relaxed. Yet over and
+through all these heavy masses of misapprehension and feebleness,
+Washington made his way. Here again all that can be said is that
+somehow or other the thing was done. We can take account of the
+resisting forces, but we cannot tell just how they were dealt with.
+We only know that one strong man trampled them down and got what he
+wanted done.
+
+Pushing on after the joyful news of the arrival of De Grasse had been
+received, Washington left the army to go by water from the Head of
+Elk, and hurried to Mount Vernon, accompanied by De Rochambeau. It
+was six years since he had seen his home. He had left it a Virginian
+colonel, full of forebodings for his country, with a vast and unknown
+problem awaiting solution at his hands. He returned to it the first
+soldier of his day, after six years of battle and trial, of victory
+and defeat, on the eve of the last and crowning triumph. As he paused
+on the well-beloved spot, and gazed across the broad and beautiful
+river at his feet, thoughts and remembrances must have come thronging
+to his mind which it is given to few men to know. He lingered there
+two days, and then pressing on again, was in Williamsburg on the 14th,
+and on the 17th went on board the Ville de Paris to congratulate De
+Grasse on his victory, and to concert measures for the siege.
+
+The meeting was most agreeable. All had gone well, all promised well,
+and everything was smiling and harmonious. Yet they were on the eve
+of the greatest peril which occurred in the campaign. Washington
+had managed to scrape together enough transports; but his almost
+unassisted labors had taken time, and delay had followed. Then the
+transports were slow, and winds and tides were uncertain, and there
+was further delay. The interval permitted De Grasse to hear that the
+British fleet had received reinforcements, and to become nervous in
+consequence. He wanted to get out to sea; the season was advancing,
+and he was anxious to return to the West Indies; and above all he
+did not wish to fight in the bay. He therefore proposed firmly and
+vigorously to leave two ships in the river, and stand out to sea with
+his fleet. The Yorktown campaign began to look as if it had reached
+its conclusion. Once again Washington wrote one of his masterly
+letters of expostulation and remonstrance, and once more he prevailed,
+aided by the reasoning and appeals of Lafayette, who carried the
+message. De Grasse consented to stay, and Washington, grateful beyond
+measure, wrote him that "a great mind knows how to make personal
+sacrifice to secure an important general good." Under the
+circumstances, and in view of the general truth of this complimentary
+sentiment, one cannot help rejoicing that De Grasse had "a great
+mind."
+
+At all events he stayed, and thereafter everything went well. The
+northern army landed at Williamsburg and marched for Yorktown on the
+28th. They reconnoitred the outlying works the next day, and prepared
+for an immediate assault; but in the night Cornwallis abandoned all
+his outside works and withdrew into the town. Washington thereupon
+advanced at once, and prepared for the siege. On the night of the 5th,
+the trenches were opened only six hundred yards from the enemy's line,
+and in three days the first parallel was completed. On the 11th the
+second parallel was begun, and on the 14th the American batteries
+played on the two advanced redoubts with such effect that the breaches
+were pronounced practicable. Washington at once ordered an assault.
+The smaller redoubt was stormed by the Americans under Hamilton and
+taken in ten minutes. The other, larger and more strongly garrisoned,
+was carried by the French with equal gallantry, after half an hour's
+fighting. During the assault Washington stood in an embrasure of the
+grand battery watching the advance of the men. He was always given to
+exposing himself recklessly when there was fighting to be done, but
+not when he was only an observer. This night, however, he was much
+exposed to the enemy's fire. One of his aides, anxious and disturbed
+for his safety, told him that the place was perilous. "If you think
+so," was the quiet answer, "you are at liberty to step back." The
+moment was too exciting, too fraught with meaning, to think of peril.
+The old fighting spirit of Braddock's field was unchained for the last
+time. He would have liked to head the American assault, sword in hand,
+and as he could not do that he stood as near his troops as he could,
+utterly regardless of the bullets whistling in the air about him. Who
+can wonder at his intense excitement at that moment? Others saw a
+brilliant storming of two outworks, but to Washington the whole
+Revolution, and all the labor and thought and conflict of six years
+were culminating in the smoke and din on those redoubts, while out of
+the dust and heat of the sharp quick fight success was coming. He
+had waited long, and worked hard, and his whole soul went out as he
+watched the troops cross the abattis and scale the works. He could
+have no thought of danger then, and when all was over he turned to
+Knox and said, "The work is done, and well done. Bring me my horse."
+
+Washington was not mistaken. The work was indeed done. Tarleton early
+in the siege had dashed out against Lauzun on the other side of the
+river and been repulsed. Cornwallis had been forced back steadily into
+the town, and his redoubts, as soon as taken, were included in the
+second parallel. A sortie to retake the redoubts failed, and a wild
+attempt to transport the army across the river was stopped by a gale
+of wind. On the 17th Cornwallis was compelled to face much bloody and
+useless slaughter, or to surrender. He chose the latter course, and
+after opening negotiations and trying in vain to obtain delay, finally
+signed the capitulation and gave up the town. The next day the troops
+marched out and laid down their arms. Over 7000 British and Hessian
+troops surrendered. It was a crushing defeat. The victorious army
+consisted in round numbers of 5500 continentals, 3500 militia, and
+7000 French, and they were backed by the French fleet with entire
+control of the sea.
+
+When Washington had once reached Yorktown with his fleet and army, the
+campaign was really at an end, for he held Cornwallis in an iron grip
+from which there was no escape. The masterly part of the Yorktown
+campaign lay in the manner in which it was brought about, in the
+management of so many elements, and in the rapidity of movement which
+carried an army without any proper supplies or means of transportation
+from New York to the mouth of Chesapeake Bay. The control of the sea
+had been the great advantage of the British from the beginning, and
+had enabled them to achieve all that they ever gained. With these odds
+against him, with no possibility of obtaining a fleet of his own,
+Washington saw that his only chance of bringing the war to a quick and
+successful issue was by means of the French. It is difficult to manage
+allied troops. It is still more difficult to manage allied troops and
+an allied fleet. Washington did both with infinite address, and won.
+The chief factor of his success in this direction lay in his profound
+personal influence on all men with whom he came in contact. His
+courtesy and tact were perfect, but he made no concessions, and
+never stooped. The proudest French noble who came here shrank from
+disagreement with the American general, and yet not one of them had
+anything but admiration and respect to express when they wrote of
+Washington in their memoirs, diaries, and letters. He impressed them
+one and all with a sense of power and greatness which could not
+be disregarded. Many times he failed to get the French fleet in
+coöperation, but finally it came. Then he put forth all his influence
+and all his address, and thus he got De Barras to the Chesapeake, and
+kept De Grasse at Yorktown.
+
+This was one side of the problem, the most essential because
+everything hinged on the fleet, but by no means the most harassing.
+The doubt about the control of the sea made it impossible to work
+steadily for a sufficient time toward any one end. It was necessary to
+have a plan for every contingency, and be ready to adopt any one of
+several plans at short notice. With a foresight and judgment that
+never failed, Washington planned an attack on New York, another on
+Yorktown, and a third on Charleston. The division of the British
+forces gave him his opportunity of striking at one point with an
+overwhelming force, but there was always the possibility of their
+suddenly reuniting. In the extreme south he felt reasonably sure that
+Greene would hold Rawdon, but he was obliged to deceive and amuse
+Clinton, and at the same time, with a ridiculously inferior force,
+to keep Cornwallis from marching to South Carolina. Partly by good
+fortune, partly by skill, Cornwallis was kept in Virginia, while by
+admirably managed feints and threats Clinton was held in New York in
+inactivity. When the decisive moment came, and it was evident that the
+control of the sea was to be determined in the Chesapeake, Washington,
+overriding all sorts of obstacles, moved forward, despite a bankrupt
+and inert government, with a rapidity and daring which have been
+rarely equaled. It was a bold stroke to leave Clinton behind at the
+mouth of the Hudson, and only the quickness with which it was done,
+and the careful deception which had been practiced, made it possible.
+Once at Yorktown, there was little more to do. The combination was
+so perfect, and the judgment had been so sure, that Cornwallis was
+crushed as helplessly as if he had been thrown before the car of
+Juggernaut. There was really but little fighting, for there was no
+opportunity to fight. Washington held the British in a vice, and the
+utter helplessness of Cornwallis, the entire inability of such a good
+and gallant soldier even to struggle, are the most convincing proofs
+of the military genius of his antagonist.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+PEACE
+
+
+Fortitude in misfortune is more common than composure in the hour
+of victory. The bitter medicine of defeat, however unpalatable,
+is usually extremely sobering, but the strong new wine of success
+generally sets the heads of poor humanity spinning, and leads often to
+worse results than folly. The capture of Cornwallis was enough to have
+turned the strongest head, for the moment at least, but it had no
+apparent effect upon the man who had brought it to pass, and who, more
+than any one else, knew what it meant. Unshaken and undismayed in the
+New Jersey winter, and among the complicated miseries of Valley Forge,
+Washington turned from the spectacle of a powerful British army laying
+down their arms as coolly as if he had merely fought a successful
+skirmish, or repelled a dangerous raid. He had that rare gift, the
+attribute of the strongest minds, of leaving the past to take care of
+itself. He never fretted over what could not be undone, nor dallied
+among pleasant memories while aught still remained to do. He wrote to
+Congress in words of quiet congratulation, through which pierced the
+devout and solemn sense of the great deed accomplished, and then,
+while the salvos of artillery were still booming in his ears, and the
+shouts of victory were still rising about him, he set himself, after
+his fashion, to care for the future and provide for the immediate
+completion of his work.
+
+He wrote to De Grasse, urging him to join in an immediate movement
+against Charleston, such as he had already suggested, and he presented
+in the strongest terms the opportunities now offered for the sudden
+and complete ending of the struggle. But the French admiral was by no
+means imbued with the tireless and determined spirit of Washington. He
+had had his fill even of victory, and was so eager to get back to the
+West Indies, where he was to fall a victim to Rodney, that he would
+not even transport troops to Wilmington. Thus deprived of the force
+which alone made comprehensive and extended movements possible,
+Washington returned, as he had done so often before, to making the
+best of cramped circumstances and straitened means. He sent all the
+troops he could spare to Greene, to help him in wresting the southern
+States from the enemy, the work to which he had in vain summoned De
+Grasse. This done, he prepared to go north. On his way he was stopped
+at Eltham by the illness and death of his wife's son, John Custis, a
+blow which he felt severely, and which saddened the great victory he
+had just achieved. Still the business of the State could not wait on
+private grief. He left the house of mourning, and, pausing for an
+instant only at Mount Vernon, hastened on to Philadelphia. At the
+very moment of victory, and while honorable members were shaking each
+other's hands and congratulating each other that the war was now
+really over, the commander-in-chief had fallen again to writing them
+letters in the old strain, and was once more urging them to keep up
+the army, while he himself gave his personal attention to securing a
+naval force for the ensuing year, through the medium of Lafayette.
+Nothing was ever finished with Washington until it was really complete
+throughout, and he had as little time for rejoicing as he had for
+despondency or despair, while a British force still remained in the
+country. He probably felt that this was as untoward a time as he had
+ever met in a pretty large experience of unsuitable occasions, for
+offering sound advice, but he was not deterred thereby from doing it.
+This time, however, he was destined to an agreeable disappointment,
+for on his arrival at Philadelphia he found an excellent spirit
+prevailing in Congress. That body was acting cheerfully on his advice,
+it had filled the departments of the government, and set on foot such
+measures as it could to keep up the army. So Washington remained for
+some time at Philadelphia, helping and counseling Congress in its
+work, and writing to the States vigorous letters, demanding pay and
+clothing for the soldiers, ever uppermost in his thoughts.
+
+But although Congress was compliant, Washington could not convince
+the country of the justice of his views, and of the continued need of
+energetic exertion. The steady relaxation of tone, which the strain of
+a long and trying war had produced, was accelerated by the brilliant
+victory of Yorktown. Washington for his own part had but little trust
+in the sense or the knowledge of his enemy. He felt that Yorktown was
+decisive, but he also thought that Great Britain would still struggle
+on, and that her talk of peace was very probably a mere blind, to
+enable her to gain time, and, by taking advantage of our relaxed and
+feeble condition, to strike again in hope of winning back all that had
+been lost. He therefore continued his appeals in behalf of the
+army, and reiterated everywhere the necessity for fresh and ample
+preparations.
+
+As late as May 4 he wrote sharply to the States for men and money,
+saying that the change of ministry was likely to be adverse to
+peace, and that we were being lulled into a false and fatal sense of
+security. A few days later, on receiving information from Sir Guy
+Carleton of the address of the Commons to the king for peace,
+Washington wrote to Congress: "For my own part, I view our situation
+as such that, instead of relaxing, we ought to improve the present
+moment as the most favorable to our wishes. The British nation
+appear to me to be staggered, and almost ready to sink beneath the
+accumulating weight of debt and misfortune. If we follow the blow with
+vigor and energy, I think the game is our own."
+
+Again he wrote in July: "Sir Guy Carleton is using every art to
+soothe and lull our people into a state of security. Admiral Digby
+is capturing all our vessels, and suffocating as fast as possible in
+prison-ships all our seamen who will not enlist into the service of
+his Britannic Majesty; and Haldimand, with his savage allies, is
+scalping and burning on the frontiers." Facts always were the object
+of Washington's first regard, and while gentlemen on all sides were
+talking of peace, war was going on, and he could not understand the
+supineness which would permit our seamen to be suffocated, and our
+borderers scalped, because some people thought the war ought to be and
+practically was over. While the other side was fighting, he wished to
+be fighting too. A month later he wrote to Greene: "From the former
+infatuation, duplicity, and perverse system of British policy, I
+confess I am induced to doubt everything, to suspect everything." He
+could say heartily with the Trojan priest, "Quicquid id est timeo
+Danaos et dona ferentes." Yet again, a month later still, when the
+negotiations were really going forward in Paris, he wrote to McHenry:
+"If we are wise, let us prepare for the worst. There is nothing which
+will so soon produce a speedy and honorable peace as a state of
+preparation for war; and we must either do this, or lay our account to
+patch up an inglorious peace, after all the toil, blood, and treasure
+we have spent."
+
+No man had done and given so much as Washington, and at the same
+time no other man had his love of thoroughness, and his indomitable
+fighting temper. He found few sympathizers, his words fell upon deaf
+ears, and he was left to struggle on and maintain his ground as best
+he might, without any substantial backing. As it turned out, England
+was more severely wounded than he dared to hope, and her desire for
+peace was real. But Washington's distrust and the active policy which
+he urged were, in the conditions of the moment, perfectly sound,
+both in a military and a political point of view. It made no real
+difference, however, whether he was right or wrong in his opinion.
+He could not get what he wanted, and he was obliged to drag through
+another year, fettered in his military movements, and oppressed with
+anxiety for the future. He longed to drive the British from New York,
+and was forced to content himself, as so often before, with keeping
+his army in existence. It was a trying time, and fruitful in nothing
+but anxious forebodings. All the fighting was confined to skirmishes
+of outposts, and his days were consumed in vain efforts to obtain help
+from the States, while he watched with painful eagerness the current
+of events in Europe, down which the fortunes of his country were
+feebly drifting.
+
+Among the petty incidents of the year there was one which, in its
+effects, gained an international importance, which has left a deep
+stain upon the English arms, and which touched Washington deeply.
+Captain Huddy, an American officer, was captured in a skirmish and
+carried to New York, where he was placed in confinement. Thence he
+was taken on April 12 by a party of Tories in the British service,
+commanded by Captain Lippencott, and hanged in the broad light of day
+on the heights near Middletown. Testimony and affidavits to the
+fact, which was never questioned, were duly gathered and laid before
+Washington. The deed was one of wanton barbarity, for which it would
+be difficult to find a parallel in the annals of modern warfare.
+The authors of this brutal murder, to our shame be it said, were of
+American birth, but they were fighting for the crown and wore the
+British uniform. England, which for generations has deafened the
+world with paeans of praise for her own love of fair play and for
+her generous humanity, stepped in here and threw the mantle of her
+protection over these cowardly hangmen. It has not been uncommon for
+wild North American savages to deliver up criminals to the vengeance
+of the law, but English ministers and officers condoned the murder of
+Huddy, and sheltered his murderers.
+
+When the case was laid before Washington it stirred him to the deepest
+wrath. He submitted the facts to twenty-five of his general officers,
+who unanimously advised what he was himself determined upon, instant
+retaliation. He wrote at once to Sir Guy Carleton, and informed him
+that unless the murderers were given up he should be compelled to
+retaliate. Carleton replied that a court-martial was ordered, and some
+attempt was made to recriminate; but Washington pressed on in the path
+he had marked out, and had an English officer selected by lot and held
+in close confinement to await the action of the enemy. These sharp
+measures brought the British, as nothing else could have done, to some
+sense of the enormity of the crime that had been committed. Sir Guy
+Carleton wrote in remonstrance, and Washington replied: "Ever since
+the commencement of this unnatural war my conduct has borne invariable
+testimony against those inhuman excesses, which, in too many
+instances, have marked its progress. With respect to a late
+transaction, to which I presume your excellency alludes, I have
+already expressed my resolution, a resolution formed on the most
+mature deliberation, and from which I shall not recede." The
+affair dragged along, purposely protracted by the British, and the
+court-martial on a technical point acquitted Lippencott. Sir Guy
+Carleton, however, who really was deeply indignant at the outrage,
+wrote, expressing his abhorrence, disavowed Lippencott, and promised
+a further inquiry. This placed Washington in a very trying position,
+more especially as his humanity was touched by the situation of the
+unlucky hostage. The fatal lot had fallen upon a mere boy, Captain
+Asgill, who was both amiable and popular, and Washington was beset
+with appeals in his behalf, for Lady Asgill moved heaven and earth to
+save her son. She interested the French court, and Vergennes made a
+special request that Asgill should be released. Even Washington's own
+officers, notably Hamilton, sought to influence him, and begged him to
+recede. In these difficult circumstances, which were enhanced by the
+fact that contrary to his orders to select an unconditional prisoner,
+the lot had fallen on a Yorktown prisoner protected by the terms
+of the capitulation,[1] he hesitated, and asked instructions from
+Congress. He wrote to Duane in September: "While retaliation was
+apparently necessary, however disagreeable in itself, I had no
+repugnance to the measure. But when the end proposed by it is answered
+by a disavowal of the act, by a dissolution of the board of refugees,
+and by a promise (whether with or without meaning to comply with it, I
+shall not determine) that further inquisition should be made into the
+matter, I thought it incumbent upon me, before I proceeded any farther
+in the matter, to have the sense of Congress, who had most explicitly
+approved and impliedly indeed ordered retaliation to take place. To
+this hour I am held in darkness."
+
+[Footnote 1: MS, letter to Lincoln.]
+
+He did not long remain in doubt. The fact was that the public, as is
+commonly the case, had forgotten the original crime and saw only the
+misery of the man who was to pay the just penalty, and who was, in
+this instance, an innocent and vicarious sufferer. It was difficult
+to refuse Vergennes, and Congress, glad of the excuse and anxious to
+oblige their allies, ordered the release of Asgill. That Washington,
+touched by the unhappy condition of his prisoner, did not feel
+relieved by the result, it would be absurd to suppose. But he was by
+no means satisfied, for the murderous wrong that had been done rankled
+in his breast. He wrote to Vergennes: "Captain Asgill has been
+released, and is at perfect liberty to return to the arms of an
+affectionate parent, whose pathetic address to your Excellency could
+not fail of interesting every feeling heart in her behalf. I have no
+right to assume any particular merit from the lenient manner in which
+this disagreeable affair has terminated."
+
+There is a perfect honesty about this which is very wholesome. He had
+been freely charged with cruelty, and had regarded the accusation with
+indifference. Now, when it was easy for him to have taken the glory
+of mercy by simply keeping silent, he took pains to avow that the
+leniency was not due to him. He was not satisfied, and no one should
+believe that he was, even if the admission seemed to justify the
+charge of cruelty. If he erred at all it was in not executing some
+British officer at the very start, unless Lippencott had been given up
+within a limited time. As it was, after delay was once permitted, it
+is hard to see how he could have acted otherwise than he did, but
+Washington was not in the habit of receding from a fixed purpose, and
+being obliged to do so in this case troubled him, for he knew that he
+did well to be angry. But the frankness of the avowal to Vergennes is
+a good example of his entire honesty and absolute moral fearlessness.
+
+The matter, however, which most filled his heart and mind during these
+weary days of waiting and doubt was the condition and the future of
+his soldiers. To those persons who have suspected or suggested that
+Washington was cold-blooded and unmindful of others, the letters he
+wrote in regard to the soldiers may be commended. The man whose heart
+was wrung by the sufferings of the poor people on the Virginian
+frontier, in the days of the old French war, never in fact changed
+his nature. Fierce in fight, passionate and hot when his anger was
+stirred, his love and sympathy were keen and strong toward his army.
+His heart went out to the brave men who had followed him, loved him,
+and never swerved in their loyalty to him and to their country.
+Washington's affection for his men, and their devotion to him, had
+saved the cause of American independence more often than strategy or
+daring. Now, when the war was practically over, his influence with
+both officers and soldiers was destined to be put to its severest
+tests.
+
+The people of the American colonies were self-governing in the
+extremest sense, that is, they were accustomed to very little
+government interference of any sort. They were also poor and entirely
+unused to war. Suddenly they found themselves plunged into a bitter
+and protracted conflict with the most powerful of civilized nations.
+In the first flush of excitement, patriotic enthusiasm supplied many
+defects; but as time wore on, and year after year passed, and the
+whole social and political fabric was shaken, the moral tone of the
+people relaxed. In such a struggle, coming upon an unprepared people
+of the habits and in the circumstances of the colonists, this
+relaxation was inevitable. It was likewise inevitable that, as the war
+continued, there should be in both national and state governments, and
+in all directions, many shortcomings and many lamentable errors. But
+for the treatment accorded the army, no such excuse can be made, and
+no sufficient explanation can be offered. There was throughout the
+colonies an inborn and a carefully cultivated dread of standing armies
+and military power. But this very natural feeling was turned most
+unreasonably against our own army, and carried in that direction to
+the verge of insanity. This jealousy of military power indeed pursued
+Washington from the beginning to the end of the Revolution. It cropped
+out as soon as he was appointed, and came up in one form or another
+whenever he was obliged to take strong measures. Even at the very end,
+after he had borne the cause through to triumph, Congress was driven
+almost to frenzy because Vergennes proposed to commit the disposition
+of a French subsidy to the commander-in-chief.
+
+If this feeling could show itself toward Washington, it is easy to
+imagine that it was not restrained toward his officers and men, and
+the treatment of the soldiers by Congress and by the States was not
+only ungrateful to the last degree, but was utterly unpardonable.
+Again and again the menace of immediate ruin and the stern demands of
+Washington alone extorted the most grudging concessions, and saved the
+army from dissolution. The soldiers had every reason to think that
+nothing but personal fear could obtain the barest consideration from
+the civil power. In this frame of mind, they saw the war which they
+had fought and won drawing to a close with no prospect of either
+provision or reward for them, and every indication that they would be
+disbanded when they were no longer needed, and left in many cases
+to beggary and want. In the inaction consequent upon the victory at
+Yorktown, they had ample time to reflect upon these facts, and their
+reflections were of such a nature that the situation soon became
+dangerous. Washington, who had struggled in season and out of season
+for justice to the soldiers, labored more zealously than ever during
+all this period, aided vigorously by Hamilton, who was now in
+Congress. Still nothing was done, and in October, 1782, he wrote to
+the Secretary of War in words warm with indignant feeling: "While I
+premise that no one I have seen or heard of appears opposed to the
+principle of reducing the army as circumstances may require, yet I
+cannot help fearing the result of the measure in contemplation, under
+present circumstances, when I see such a number of men, goaded by a
+thousand stings of reflection on the past and of anticipation on the
+future, about to be turned into the world, soured by penury and what
+they call the ingratitude of the public, involved in debts, without
+one farthing of money to carry them home after having spent the flower
+of their days, and many of them their patrimonies, in establishing the
+freedom and independence of their country, and suffered everything
+that human nature is capable of enduring on this side of death.... You
+may rely upon it, the patriotism and long-suffering of this army
+are almost exhausted, and that there never was so great a spirit of
+discontent as at this instant. While in the field I think it may be
+kept from breaking into acts of outrage; but when we retire into
+winter-quarters, unless the storm is previously dissipated, I cannot
+be at ease respecting the consequences. It is high time for a peace."
+
+These were grave words, coming from such a man as Washington, but they
+passed unheeded. Congress and the States went blandly along as if
+everything was all right, and as if the army had no grievances. But
+the soldiers thought differently. "Dissatisfactions rose to a great
+and alarming height, and combinations among officers to resign at
+given periods in a body were beginning to take place." The outlook
+was so threatening that Washington, who had intended to go to Mount
+Vernon, remained in camp, and by management and tact thwarted these
+combinations and converted these dangerous movements into an address
+to Congress from the officers, asking for half-pay, arrearages, and
+some other equally proper concessions. Still Congress did not stir.
+Some indefinite resolutions were passed, but nothing was done as to
+the commutation of half-pay into a fixed sum, and after such a display
+of indifference the dissatisfaction increased rapidly, and the army
+became more and more restless. In March a call was issued for a
+meeting of officers, and an anonymous address, written with
+much skill,--the work, as afterwards appeared, of Major John
+Armstrong,--was published at the same time. The address was well
+calculated to inflame the passions of the troops; it advised a resort
+to force, and was scattered broadcast through the camp. The army was
+now in a ferment, and the situation was full of peril. A weak man
+would have held his peace; a rash one would have tried to suppress the
+meeting. Washington did neither, but quietly took control of the whole
+movement himself. In general orders he censured the call and the
+address as irregular, and then appointed a time and place for the
+meeting. Another anonymous address thereupon appeared, quieter in
+tone, but congratulating the army on the recognition accorded by the
+commander-in-chief.
+
+When the officers assembled, Washington arose with a manuscript in
+his hand, and as he took out his glasses said, simply, "You see,
+gentlemen, I have grown both blind and gray in your service." His
+address was brief, calm, and strong. The clear, vigorous sentences
+were charged with meaning and with deep feeling. He exhorted them one
+and all, both officers and men, to remain loyal and obedient, true
+to their glorious past and to their country. He appealed to their
+patriotism, and promised them that which they had always had, his
+own earnest support in obtaining justice from Congress. When he had
+finished he quietly withdrew. The officers were deeply moved by
+his words, and his influence prevailed. Resolutions were passed,
+reiterating the demands of the army, but professing entire faith in
+the government. This time Congress listened, and the measures granting
+half-pay in commutation and certain other requests were passed. Thus
+this very serious danger was averted, not by the reluctant action of
+Congress, but by the wisdom and strength of the general, who was loved
+by his soldiers after a fashion that few conquerors could boast.
+
+Underlying all these general discontents, there was, besides, a
+well-defined movement, which saw a solution of all difficulties and a
+redress of all wrongs in a radical change of the form of government,
+and in the elevation of Washington to supreme power. This party was
+satisfied that the existing system was a failure, and that it was
+not and could not be made either strong, honest, or respectable. The
+obvious relief was in some kind of monarchy, with a large infusion of
+the one-man power; and it followed, as a matter of course, that the
+one man could be no other than the commander-in-chief. In May, 1782,
+when the feeling in the army had risen very high, this party of reform
+brought their ideas before Washington through an old and respected
+friend of his, Colonel Nicola. The colonel set forth very clearly the
+failure and shortcomings of the existing government, argued in favor
+of the substitution of something much stronger, and wound up by
+hinting very plainly that his correspondent was the man for the crisis
+and the proper savior of society. The letter was forcible and well
+written, and Colonel Nicola was a man of character and standing. It
+could not be passed over lightly or in silence, and Washington replied
+as follows:--
+
+"With a mixture of surprise and astonishment, I have read with
+attention the sentiments you have submitted to my perusal. Be assured,
+sir, no occurrence in the course of the war has given me more painful
+sensations than your information of there being such ideas existing
+in the army as you have expressed, and [which] I must view with
+abhorrence and reprehend with severity. For the present, the
+communication of them will rest in my own bosom, unless some further
+agitation of the matter shall make a disclosure necessary. I am
+much at a loss to conceive what part of my conduct could have given
+encouragement to an address which seems to me big with the greatest
+mischiefs that can befall my country. If I am not deceived in the
+knowledge of myself, you could not have found a person to whom your
+schemes are more disagreeable. At the same time, in justice to my own
+feelings, I must add that no man possesses a more sincere wish to
+see justice done to the army than I do; and as far as my power and
+influence in a constitutional way extend, they shall be employed to
+the utmost of my abilities to effect it, should there be any occasion.
+Let me conjure you, then, if you have any regard for your country,
+concern for yourself or posterity, or respect for me, to banish these
+thoughts from your mind, and never communicate, as from yourself or
+any one else, a sentiment of the like nature."
+
+This simple but exceedingly plain letter checked the whole movement
+at once; but the feeling of hostility to the existing system of
+government and of confidence in Washington increased steadily through
+the summer and winter. When the next spring had come round, and the
+"Newburgh addresses" had been published, the excitement was at fever
+heat. All the army needed was a leader. It was as easy for Washington
+to have grasped supreme power then, as it would have been for Cæsar
+to have taken the crown from Antony upon the Lupercal. He repelled
+Nicola's suggestion with quiet reproof, and took the actual movement,
+when it reared its head, into his own hands and turned it into other
+channels. This incident has been passed over altogether too carelessly
+by historians and biographers. It has generally been used merely to
+show the general nobility of Washington's sentiments, and no proper
+stress has been laid upon the facts of the time which gave birth to
+such an idea and such a proposition. It would have been a perfectly
+feasible thing at that particular moment to have altered the frame of
+government and placed the successful soldier in possession of supreme
+power. The notion of kingly government was, of course, entirely
+familiar to everybody, and had in itself nothing repulsive. The
+confederation was disintegrated, the States were demoralized, and the
+whole social and political life was weakened. The army was the one
+coherent, active, and thoroughly organized body in the country. Six
+years of war had turned them from militia into seasoned veterans, and
+they stood armed and angry, ready to respond to the call of the great
+leader to whom they were entirely devoted. When the English troops
+were once withdrawn, there was nothing on the continent that could
+have stood against them. If they had moved, they would have been
+everywhere supported by their old comrades who had returned to the
+ranks of civil life, by all the large class who wanted peace and order
+in the quickest and surest way, and by the timid and tired generally.
+There would have been in fact no serious opposition, probably because
+there would have been no means of sustaining it.
+
+The absolute feebleness of the general government was shown a few
+weeks later, when a recently recruited regiment of Pennsylvania troops
+mutinied, and obliged Congress to leave Philadelphia, unable either to
+defend themselves or procure defense from the State. This mutiny was
+put down suddenly and effectively by Washington, very wroth at the
+insubordination of raw troops, who had neither fought nor suffered.
+Yet even such mutineers as these would have succeeded in a large
+measure, had it not been for Washington, and one can easily imagine
+from this incident the result of disciplined and well-planned action
+on the part of the army led by their great chief. In that hour of
+debility and relaxation, a military seizure of the government and
+the erection of some form of monarchy would not have been difficult.
+Whether such a change would have lasted is another question, but there
+is no reason to doubt that at the moment it might have been effected.
+Washington, however, not only refused to have anything to do with the
+scheme, but he used the personal loyalty which might have raised him
+to supreme power to check all dangerous movements and put in motion
+the splendid and unselfish patriotism for which the army was
+conspicuous, and which underlay all their irritations and discontents.
+
+The obvious view of Washington's action in this crisis as a remarkable
+exhibition of patriotism is at best somewhat superficial. In a man in
+any way less great, the letter of refusal to Nicola and the treatment
+of the opportunity presented at the time of the Newburgh addresses
+would have been fine in a high degree. In Washington they were not so
+extraordinary, for the situation offered him no temptation. Carlyle
+was led to think slightingly of Washington, one may believe, because
+he did not seize the tottering government with a strong hand, and
+bring order out of chaos on the instant. But this is a woeful
+misunderstanding of the man. To put aside a crown for love of country
+is noble, but to look down upon such an opportunity indicates a much
+greater loftiness and strength of mind. Washington was wholly free
+from the vulgar ambition of the usurper, and the desire of mere
+personal aggrandizement found no place in his nature. His ruling
+passion was the passion for success, and for thorough and complete
+success. What he could not bear was the least shadow of failure. To
+have fought such a war to a victorious finish, and then turned it to
+his own advantage, would have been to him failure of the meanest
+kind. He fought to free the colonies from England, and make them
+independent, not to play the part of a Cæsar or a Cromwell in the
+wreck and confusion of civil war. He flung aside the suggestion of
+supreme power, not simply as dishonorable and unpatriotic, but because
+such a result would have defeated the one great and noble object
+at which he aimed. Nor did he act in this way through any indolent
+shrinking from the great task of making what he had won worth winning,
+by crushing the forces of anarchy and separation, and bringing order
+and unity out of confusion. From the surrender of Yorktown to the
+day of his retirement from the Presidency, he worked unceasingly to
+establish union and strong government in the country he had made
+independent. He accomplished this great labor more successfully
+by honest and lawful methods than if he had taken the path of the
+strong-handed savior of society, and his work in this field did more
+for the welfare of his country than all his battles. To have restored
+order at the head of the army was much easier than to effect it in the
+slow and law-abiding fashion which he adopted. To have refused supreme
+rule, and then to have effected in the spirit and under the forms
+of free government all and more than the most brilliant of military
+chiefs could have achieved by absolute power, is a glory which belongs
+to Washington alone.
+
+Nevertheless, at that particular juncture it was, as he himself had
+said, "high time for a peace." The danger at Newburgh had been averted
+by his commanding influence and the patriotic conduct of the army. But
+it had been averted only, not removed. The snake was scotched, not
+killed. The finishing stroke was still needed in the form of an end to
+hostilities, and it was therefore fortunate for the United States that
+a fortnight later, on March 23, news came that a general treaty
+of peace had been signed. This final consummation of his work, in
+addition to the passage by Congress of the half-pay commutation and
+the settlement of the army accounts, filled Washington with deep
+rejoicing. He felt that in a short time, a few weeks at most, he would
+be free to withdraw to the quiet life at Mount Vernon for which he
+longed. But public bodies move slowly, and one delay after another
+occurred to keep him still in the harness. He chafed under the
+postponement, but it was not possible to him to remain idle even when
+he awaited in almost daily expectation the hour of dismissal. He saw
+with the instinctive glance of statesmanship that the dangerous point
+in the treaty of peace was in the provisions as to the western posts
+on the one side, and those relating to British debts on the other. A
+month therefore had not passed before he brought to the attention
+of Congress the importance of getting immediate possession of those
+posts, and a little later he succeeded in having Steuben sent out as a
+special envoy to obtain their surrender. The mission was vain, as he
+had feared. He was not destined to extract this thorn for many years,
+and then only after many trials and troubles. Soon afterward he made a
+journey with Governor Clinton to Ticonderoga, and along the valley of
+the Mohawk, "to wear away the time," as he wrote to Congress. He wore
+away time to more purpose than most people, for where he traveled he
+observed closely, and his observations were lessons which he never
+forgot. On this trip he had the western posts and the Indians always
+in mind, and familiarized himself with the conditions of a part of the
+country where these matters were of great importance.
+
+On his return he went to Princeton, where Congress had been sitting
+since their flight from the mutiny which he had recently suppressed,
+and where a house had been provided for his use. He remained there two
+months, aiding Congress in their work. During the spring he had been
+engaged on the matter of a peace establishment, and he now gave
+Congress elaborate and well-matured advice on that question, and on
+those of public lands, western settlement, and the best Indian policy.
+In all these directions his views were clear, far-sighted, and wise.
+He saw that in these questions was involved much of the future
+development and wellbeing of the country, and he treated them with a
+precision and an easy mastery which showed the thought he had given to
+the new problems which now were coming to the front. Unluckily, he was
+so far ahead, both in knowledge and perception, of the body with which
+he dealt, that he could get little or nothing done, and in September
+he wrote in plain but guarded terms of the incapacity of the
+lawmakers. The people were not yet ripe for his measures, and he was
+forced to bide his time, and see the injuries caused by indifference
+and short-sightedness work themselves out. Gradually, however, the
+absolutely necessary business was brought to an end. Then Washington
+issued a circular letter to the governors of the States, which was
+one of the ablest he ever wrote, and full of the profoundest
+statesmanship, and he also sent out a touching address of farewell to
+the army, eloquent with wisdom and with patriotism.
+
+From Princeton he went to West Point, where the army that still
+remained in service was stationed. Thence he moved to Harlem, and
+on November 25 the British army departed, and Washington, with his
+troops, accompanied by Governor Clinton and some regiments of local
+militia, marched in and took possession. This was the outward sign
+that the war was over, and that American independence had been won.
+Carleton feared that the entry of the American army might be the
+signal for confusion and violence, in which the Tory inhabitants would
+suffer; but everything passed off with perfect tranquillity and good
+order, and in the evening Governor Clinton gave a public dinner to the
+commander-in-chief and the officers of the army.
+
+All was now over, and Washington prepared to go to Annapolis and lay
+down his commission. On December 4 his officers assembled in Fraunces'
+Tavern to bid him farewell. As he looked about on his faithful
+friends, his usual self-command deserted him, and he could not control
+his voice. Taking a glass of wine, he lifted it up, and said simply,
+"With a heart full of love and gratitude I now take my leave of you,
+most devoutly wishing that your latter days may be as prosperous and
+happy as your former ones have been glorious and honorable." The toast
+was drunk in silence, and then Washington added, "I cannot come to
+each of you and take my leave, but shall be obliged if you will come
+and take me by the hand." One by one they approached, and Washington
+grasped the hand of each man and embraced him. His eyes were full of
+tears, and he could not trust himself to speak. In silence he bade
+each and all farewell, and then, accompanied by his officers, walked
+to Whitehall Ferry. Entering his barge, the word was given, and as
+the oars struck the water he stood up and lifted his hat. In solemn
+silence his officers returned the salute, and watched the noble and
+gracious figure of their beloved chief until the boat disappeared from
+sight behind the point of the Battery.
+
+At Philadelphia he stopped a few days and adjusted his accounts, which
+he had in characteristic fashion kept himself in the neatest and most
+methodical way. He had drawn no pay, and had expended considerable
+sums from his private fortune, which he had omitted to charge to the
+government. The gross amount of his expenses was about 15,000 pounds
+sterling, including secret service and other incidental outlays. In
+these days of wild money-hunting, there is something worth pondering
+in this simple business settlement between a great general and his
+government, at the close of eight years of war. This done, he started
+again on his journey. From Philadelphia he proceeded to Annapolis,
+greeted with addresses and hailed with shouts at every town and
+village on his route, and having reached his destination, he addressed
+a letter to Congress on December 20, asking when it would be agreeable
+to them to receive him. The 23d was appointed, and on that day, at
+noon, he appeared before Congress.
+
+The following year a French orator and "maître avocat," in an oration
+delivered at Toulouse upon the American Revolution, described this
+scene in these words: "On the day when Washington resigned his
+commission in the hall of Congress, a crown decked with jewels was
+placed upon the Book of the Constitutions. Suddenly Washington seizes
+it, breaks it, and flings the pieces to the assembled people. How
+small ambitious Cæsar seems beside the hero of America." It is worth
+while to recall this contemporary French description, because its
+theatrical and dramatic untruth gives such point by contrast to the
+plain and dignified reality. The scene was the hall of Congress. The
+members representing the sovereign power were seated and covered,
+while all the space about was filled by the governor and state
+officers of Maryland, by military officers, and by the ladies and
+gentlemen of the neighborhood, who stood in respectful silence with
+uncovered heads. Washington was introduced by the Secretary of
+Congress, and took a chair which had been assigned to him. There was
+a brief pause, and then the president said that "the United States
+in Congress assembled were prepared to receive his communication."
+Washington rose, and replied as follows:--
+
+"Mr. President: The great events, on which my resignation depended,
+having at length taken place, I have now the honor of offering my
+sincere congratulations to Congress, and of presenting myself before
+them, to surrender into their hands the trust committed to me, and to
+claim the indulgence of retiring from the service of my country.
+
+"Happy in the confirmation of our independence and sovereignty, and
+pleased with the opportunity afforded the United States of becoming
+a respectable nation, I resign with satisfaction the appointment I
+accepted with diffidence; a diffidence in my abilities to accomplish
+so arduous a task, which, however, was superseded by a confidence in
+the rectitude of our cause, the support of the supreme power of the
+Union, and the patronage of Heaven. The successful termination of the
+war has verified the most sanguine expectations; and my gratitude for
+the interposition of Providence, and the assistance I have received
+from my countrymen, increases with every review of the momentous
+contest." Then, after a word of gratitude to the army and to his
+staff, he concluded as follows: "I consider it an indispensable duty
+to close this last solemn act of my official life by commending the
+interests of our dearest country to the protection of Almighty God,
+and those who have the superintendence of them to his holy keeping.
+
+"Having now finished the work assigned me, I retire from the great
+theatre of action; and bidding an affectionate farewell to this
+august body, under whose orders I have so long acted, I here offer my
+commission, and take my leave of all the employments of public life."
+
+In singularly graceful and eloquent words his old opponent, Thomas
+Mifflin, the president, replied, the simple ceremony ended, and
+Washington left the room a private citizen.
+
+The great master of English fiction, touching this scene with skillful
+hand, has said: "Which was the most splendid spectacle ever witnessed,
+the opening feast of Prince George in London, or the resignation
+of Washington? Which is the noble character for after ages to
+admire,--yon fribble dancing in lace and spangles, or yonder hero
+who sheathes his sword after a life of spotless honor, a purity
+unreproached, a courage indomitable, and a consummate victory?"
+
+There is no need to say more. Comment or criticism on such a farewell,
+from such a man, at the close of a long civil war, would be not only
+superfluous but impertinent. The contemporary newspaper, in its meagre
+account, said that the occasion was deeply solemn and affecting, and
+that many persons shed tears. Well indeed might those then present
+have been thus affected, for they had witnessed a scene memorable
+forever in the annals of all that is best and noblest in human nature.
+They had listened to a speech which was not equaled in meaning and
+spirit in American history until, eighty years later, Abraham Lincoln
+stood upon the slopes of Gettysburg and uttered his immortal words
+upon those who died that the country might live.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX for Volumes I & II
+
+
+  ACKERSON, DAVID,
+    describes Washington's personal appearance, ii. 386-388.
+
+  Adams, Abigail,
+    on Washington's appearance in 1775, i. 137.
+
+  Adams, John,
+    moves appointment of Washington as commander-in-chief, i. 134;
+    on political necessity for his appointment, 135;
+    and objections to it, 135;
+    statement as to Washington's difficulties, 163;
+    over-sanguine as to American prospects, 171;
+    finds fault with Washington, 214, 215;
+    one of few national statesmen, 252;
+    on Washington's opinion of titles, ii. 52;
+    advocates ceremony, 54;
+    returns to United States, 137;
+    attacked by Jefferson as a monarchist, 226;
+    praised by Democrats as superior to Washington, 251;
+    his administration upheld by Washington, 259;
+    advised by Washington, 260;
+    his inauguration, 276;
+    sends special mission to France, 284;
+    urges Washington to take command of provisional army, 285;
+    wishes to make Knox senior to Hamilton, 286;
+    censured by Washington, gives way, 287;
+    lack of sympathy with Washington, 287;
+    his nomination of Murray disapproved by Washington, 292, 293;
+    letter of Washington to, on immigration, 326.
+
+  Adams, J.Q.,
+    on weights and measures, ii. 81.
+
+  Adams, Samuel,
+    not sympathized with by Washington in working for independence, i. 131;
+    his inability to sympathize with Washington, 204;
+    an enemy of Constitution, ii. 71;
+    a genuine American, 309.
+
+  Alcudia, Duke de,
+    interviews with Pinckney, ii. 166.
+
+  Alexander, Philip,
+    hunts with Washington, i. 115.
+
+  Alien and Sedition Laws,
+    approved by Washington and Federalists, ii. 290, 297.
+
+  Ames, Fisher,
+    speech on behalf of administration in Jay treaty affair, ii. 210.
+
+  André, Major,
+    meets Arnold, i. 282;
+    announces capture to Arnold, 284;
+    confesses, 284;
+    condemned and executed, 287;
+    justice of the sentence, 287, 288;
+    Washington's opinion of, 288, ii. 357.
+
+  Armstrong, John, Major,
+    writes Newburg address, i. 335.
+
+  Army of the Revolution,
+    at Boston, adopted by Congress, i. 134;
+    its organization and character, 136-143;
+    sectional jealousies in, at New York, 162;
+    goes to pieces after defeat, 167, 175, 176;
+    condition in winter of 1777, 186;
+    difficulties between officers, 189;
+    with foreign officers, 190-192;
+    improvement as shown by condition after Brandywine and Germantown,
+  200, 201;
+    hard winter at Valley Forge, 228;
+    maintained alive only by Washington, 227, 228, 232;
+    improved morale at Monmouth, 239;
+    mutinies for lack of pay, 258;
+    suffers during 1779, 270;
+    bad condition in 1780, 279;
+    again mutinies for pay, 291, 292, 295;
+    conduct of troops, 292, 293;
+    jealousy of people towards, 332;
+    badly treated by States and by Congress, 333;
+    grows mutinous, 334;
+    adopts Newburg addresses, 335, 336;
+    ready for a military dictatorship, 338, 340;
+    farewell of Washington to, 345.
+
+  Arnold, Benedict,
+    sent by Washington to attack Quebec, i. 144;
+    sent against Burgoyne, 210;
+    plans treason, 281;
+    shows loyalist letter to Washington, 282;
+    meets André, 282;
+    receives news of André's capture, 284;
+    escapes, 284, 285;
+    previous benefits from Washington, 286;
+    Washington's opinion of, 288;
+    ravages Virginia, 303;
+    sent back to New York, 303;
+    one of the few men who deceived Washington, ii. 336.
+
+  Arnold, Mrs.,
+    entertains Washington at time of her husband's treachery, i. 284, 285.
+
+  Articles of Confederation,
+    their inadequacy early seen by Washington, i. 297, 298; ii. 17.
+
+  Asgill, Capt.,
+    selected for retaliation for murder of Huddy, i. 328;
+    efforts for his release, 329;
+    release ordered by Congress, 330.
+
+
+  BACHE, B.F.,
+    publishes Jay treaty in "Aurora," ii. 185;
+    joins in attack on Washington, 238, 244;
+    rejoices over his retirement, 256.
+
+  Baker,----,
+    works out a pedigree for Washington, i. 31.
+
+  Ball, Joseph,
+    advises against sending Washington to sea, i. 49, 50.
+
+  Barbadoes,
+    Washington's description of, i. 64.
+
+  Beckley, John,
+    accuses Washington of embezzling, ii. 245.
+
+  Bernard, John,
+    his conversation with Washington referred to, i. 58, 107;
+    describes encounter with Washington, ii. 281-283;
+    his description of Washington's conversation, 343-348.
+
+  Blackwell, Rev. Dr.,
+    calls on Washington with Dr. Logan, ii. 264.
+
+  Blair, John,
+    appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 73.
+
+  Bland, Mary,
+    "Lowland Beauty," admired by Washington, i. 95, 96.
+
+  Blount, Governor,
+    pacifies Cherokees, ii. 94.
+
+  Boston,
+    visit of Washington to, i. 97, 99;
+    political troubles in, 120;
+    British measures against condemned by Virginia, 122, 123;
+    appeals to colonies, 124;
+    protests against Jay treaty, ii. 186;
+    answered by Washington, 190.
+
+  Botetourt, Lord, Governor of Virginia,
+    quarrels with Assembly, i. 121;
+    manages to calm dissension, 122;
+    on friendly terms with Washington, 122.
+
+  Braddock, General Edward,
+    arrives in Virginia, i. 82;
+    invites Washington to serve on his staff, 82;
+    respects him, 83;
+    his character and unfitness for his position, 83;
+    despises provincials, 83;
+    accepts Washington's advice as to dividing force, 84;
+    rebukes Washington for warning against ambush, 85;
+    insists on fighting by rule, 85;
+    defeated and mortally wounded, 85;
+    death and burial, 87.
+
+  Bradford, William,
+    succeeds Randolph, ii. 246.
+
+  Brandywine,
+    battle of, i. 196-198.
+
+  Bunker Hill,
+    question of Washington regarding battle of, i. 136.
+
+  Burgoyne, General John,
+    junction of Howe with, feared by Washington, i. 194, 195, 205, 206;
+    significance of his defeat, 202;
+    danger of his invasion foreseen by Washington, 203-206;
+    captures Ticonderoga, 207;
+    outnumbered and defeated, 210;
+    surrenders, 211.
+
+  Burke, Edmund,
+    understands significance of Washington's leadership, i. 202;
+    unsettled by French Revolution, ii. 294.
+
+
+  CABOT, GEORGE,
+    entertains Lafayette's son, ii. 366.
+
+  Cadwalader, General,
+    fails to cross Delaware to help Washington, i. 180;
+    duel with Conway, 226.
+
+  Calvert, Eleanor,
+    misgivings of Washington over her marriage to John Custis, i. 111.
+
+  Camden, battle of, i. 281.
+
+  Canada,
+    captured by Wolfe, i. 94;
+    expedition of Montgomery against, 143, 144;
+    project of Conway cabal against, 222; 253;
+    project of Lafayette to attack, 254;
+    plan considered dangerous by Washington, 254, 255;
+    not undertaken by France, 256.
+
+  Carleton, Sir Guy,
+    informs Washington of address of Commons for peace, i. 324;
+    suspected by Washington, 325;
+    remonstrates against retaliation by Washington for murder of
+  Huddy, 328;
+    disavows Lippencott, 328;
+    fears plunder of New York city, 345;
+    urges Indians to attack the United States, ii. 102, 175.
+
+  Carlisle, Earl of,
+    peace commissioner, i. 233.
+
+  Carlyle, Thomas,
+    sneers at Washington, i. 4, 14;
+    calls him "a bloodless Cromwell," i. 69, ii. 332;
+    fails to understand his reticence, i. 70;
+    despises him for not seizing power, 341.
+
+  Carmichael, William,
+    minister at Madrid, ii. 165;
+    on commission regarding the Mississippi, 166.
+
+  Carrington, Paul,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 208;
+    Washington's friendship for, 363.
+
+  Cary, Mary,
+    early love affair of Washington with, i. 96.
+
+  Chamberlayne, Major,
+    entertains Washington at Williams' Ferry, i. 101.
+
+  Charleston,
+    siege and capture of, i. 273, 274, 276.
+
+  Chastellux, Marquis de,
+    Washington's friendship for and letter to, ii. 351;
+    on Washington's training of horses, 380.
+
+  Cherokees,
+    beaten by Sevier, ii. 89;
+    pacified by Blount, 94,101.
+
+  Chester, Colonel,
+    researches on Washington pedigree, i. 31.
+
+  Chickasaws,
+    desert from St. Clair, ii. 96.
+
+  China,
+    honors Washington, i. 6.
+
+  Choctaws,
+    peaceable in 1788, ii. 89.
+
+  Cincinnati, Society of the,
+    Washington's connection with, ii. 4.
+
+  Clarke, Governor,
+    thinks Washington is invading popular rights, i. 215.
+
+  Cleaveland, Rev.----,
+    complimented by Washington, ii. 359.
+
+  Clinton, George,
+    appealed to by Washington to attack Burgoyne, i. 210;
+    journey with Washington to Ticonderoga, 343;
+    enters New York city, 345;
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 1;
+    meets Washington on journey to inauguration, 45;
+    opponent of the Constitution, 71;
+    orders seizure of French privateers, 153.
+
+  Clinton, Sir Henry,
+    fails to help Burgoyne, i. 210;
+    replaces Howe at Philadelphia, his character, 232;
+    tries to cut off Lafayette, 233;
+    leaves Philadelphia, 234;
+    defeats Lee at Monmouth, 236;
+    retreats to New York, 238;
+    withdraws from Newport, 248;
+    makes a raid, 265;
+    fortifies Stony Point, 268;
+    his aimless warfare, 269, 270;
+    after capturing Charleston returns to New York, 276;
+    tries to save André, 287;
+    alarmed at attacks on New York, 306;
+    jealous of Cornwallis, refuses to send reinforcements, 308;
+    deceived by Washington, 311;
+    sends Graves to relieve Cornwallis, 312.
+
+  Congress, Continental,
+    Washington's journey to, i. 128;
+    its character and ability, 129;
+    its state papers, 129;
+    adjourns, 132;
+    in second session, resolves to petition the king, 133;
+    adopts Massachusetts army and makes Washington commander, 134;
+    reasons for his choice, 135;
+    adheres to short-term enlistments, 149;
+    influenced to declare independence by Washington, 160;
+    hampers Washington in campaign of New York, 167;
+    letters of Washington to, 170, 179, 212, 225, 229, 266, 278, 295,
+  321, 323, 333;
+    takes steps to make army permanent, 171;
+    its over-confidence, 171;
+    insists on holding Forts Washington and Lee, 174;
+    dissatisfied with Washington's inactivity, 187;
+    criticises his proclamation requiring oath of allegiance, 189;
+    makes unwise appointments of officers, 189;
+    especially of foreigners, 190-192; 248, 249;
+    applauds Washington's efforts at Germantown, 200;
+    deposes Schuyler and St. Clair, 208;
+    appoints Gates, 210;
+    irritation against Washington, 212-215;
+    falls under guidance of Conway cabal, 221, 222;
+    discovers incompetence of cabal, 223;
+    meddles with prisoners and officers, 231;
+    rejects English peace offers, 233;
+    makes alliance with France, 241;
+    suppresses protests of officers against D'Estaing, 244;
+    decline in its character, 257;
+    becomes feeble, 258;
+    improvement urged by Washington, 259, 266;
+    appoints Gates to command in South, 268;
+    loses interest in war, 278;
+    asks Washington to name general for the South, 295;
+    considers reduction of army, 313;
+    elated by Yorktown, 323;
+    its unfair treatment of army, 333, 335;
+    driven from Philadelphia by Pennsylvania troops, 340;
+    passes half-pay act, 342;
+    receives commission of Washington, 347-349;
+    disbands army, ii. 6;
+    indifferent to Western expansion, 15;
+    continues to decline, 22;
+    merit of its Indian policy, 88.
+
+  Congress, Federal,
+    establishes departments, ii. 64;
+    opened by Washington, 78, 79;
+    ceremonial abolished by Jefferson, 79;
+    recommendations made to by Washington, 81-83;
+    acts upon them, 81-83;
+    creates commission to treat with Creeks, 90;
+    increases army, 94, 99;
+    fails to solve financial problems, 106;
+    debates Hamilton's report on credit, 107, 108;
+    establishes national bank, 109;
+    establishes protective revenue duties, 113;
+    imposes an excise tax, 123;
+    prepares for retaliation on Great Britain, 176;
+    Senate ratifies Jay treaty conditionally, 184;
+    House demands papers, 207;
+    debates over its right to concur in treaty, 208-210;
+    refuses to adjourn on Washington's birthday, 247;
+    prepares for war with France, 285;
+    passes Alien and Sedition Laws, 296.
+
+  Constitution, Federal,
+    necessity of, foreseen by Washington, ii. 17-18, 23, 24;
+    the Annapolis Convention, 23-29;
+    the Federal Convention, 30-36;
+    Washington's attitude in, 31,34;
+    his influence, 36;
+    campaign for ratification, 38-41.
+
+  Contrecoeur, Captain,
+    leader of French and Indians in Virginia, i. 75.
+
+  "Conway cabal,"
+    elements of in Congress, i. 214, 215;
+    in the army, 215;
+    organized by Conway, 217;
+    discovered by Washington, 220;
+    gets control of Board of War, 221;
+    tries to make Washington resign, 222, 224;
+    fails to invade Canada or provide supplies, 222, 223;
+    harassed by Washington's letters, 223,226;
+    breaks down, 226.
+
+  Conway, Moncure D.,
+    his life of Randolph, ii. 65, note, 196;
+    his defense of Randolph in Fauchet letter affair, 196;
+    on Washington's motives, 200;
+    on his unfair treatment of Randolph, 201, 202.
+
+  Conway, Thomas,
+    demand for higher rank refused by Washington, i. 216;
+    plots against him, 217;
+    his letter discovered by Washington, 221;
+    made inspector-general, 221, 222;
+    complains to Congress of his reception at camp, 225;
+    resigns, has duel with Cadwalader, 226;
+    apologizes to Washington and leaves country, 226.
+
+  Cooke, Governor,
+    remonstrated with by Washington for raising state troops, i. 186.
+
+  Cornwallis, Lord,
+    pursues Washington in New Jersey, i. 175;
+    repulsed at Assunpink, 181;
+    outgeneraled by Washington, 182;
+    surprises Sullivan at Brandywine, 197;
+    defeats Lee at Monmouth, 236;
+    pursues Greene in vain, 302;
+    wins battle of Guilford Court House, 302;
+    retreats into Virginia, 302;
+    joins British troops in Virginia, 303;
+    his dangerous position, 304;
+    urged by Clinton to return troops to New York, 306;
+    plunders Virginia, 307;
+    defeats Lafayette and Wayne, 307;
+    wishes to retreat South, 307;
+    ordered by ministry to stay on the Chesapeake, 307;
+    abandoned by Clinton, 308;
+    establishes himself at Yorktown, 308;
+    withdraws into town, 315;
+    besieged, 316, 317;
+    surrenders, 317;
+    outgeneraled by Washington, 319, 320.
+
+  Cowpens,
+    battle of, i. 301.
+
+  Craik, Dr.,
+    attends Washington in last illness, ii. 300-302;
+    Washington's friendship with, 363.
+
+  Creeks,
+    their relations with Spaniards, ii. 89, 90;
+    quarrel with Georgia, 90;
+    agree to treaty with United States, 91;
+    stirred up by Spain, 101.
+
+  Curwen, Samuel,
+    on Washington's appearance, i. 137.
+
+  Cushing, Caleb,
+    appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 72.
+
+  Custis, Daniel Parke,
+    first husband of Martha Washington, i. 101.
+
+  Custis, G.W.P.,
+    tells mythical story of Washington and the colt, i. 45;
+    Washington's care for, ii. 369.
+
+  Custis, John,
+    Washington's tenderness toward, i. 111;
+    care for his education and marriage, 111;
+    hunts with Washington, 141;
+    death of, 322.
+
+  Custis, Nellie,
+    marriage with Washington's nephew, ii. 281, 369;
+    letter of Washington to, 377.
+
+
+  DAGWORTHY, CAPTAIN,
+    claims to outrank Washington in Virginia army, i. 91, 97.
+
+  Dallas, Alexander,
+    protests to Genet against sailing of Little Sarah, ii. 155.
+
+  Dalton, Senator,
+    entertains Washington at Newburyport, ii. 359.
+
+  Deane, Silas,
+    promises commissions to foreign military adventurers, i. 190.
+
+  De Barras,
+    jealous of De Grasse, decides not to aid him, i. 310;
+    persuaded to do so by Washington and Rochambeau, 311;
+    reaches Chesapeake, 312.
+
+  De Grasse, Comte,
+    announces intention of coming to Washington, i. 305;
+    warned by Washington not to come to New York, 305;
+    sails to Chesapeake, 306;
+    asked to meet Washington there, 308;
+    reaches Chesapeake, 312;
+    repulses British fleet, 312;
+    wishes to return to West Indies, 315;
+    persuaded to remain by Washington, 315;
+    refuses to join Washington in attack on Charleston, 322;
+    returns to West Indies, 322.
+
+  De Guichen,----,
+    commander of French fleet in West Indies, i. 280;
+    appealed to for aid by Washington, 281;
+    returns home, 282.
+
+  Delancey, Oliver,
+    escapes American attack, i. 306.
+
+  Democratic party,
+    its formation as a French party, ii. 225;
+    furnished with catch-words by Jefferson, 226;
+    with a newspaper organ, 227;
+    not ready to oppose Washington for president in 1792, 235;
+    organized against treasury measure, 236;
+    stimulated by French Revolution, 238;
+    supports Genet, 237;
+    begins to attack Washington, 238;
+    his opinion of it, 239, 240, 258, 261, 267, 268;
+    forms clubs on French model, 241;
+    Washington's opinion of, 242, 243;
+    continues to abuse him, 244, 245, 250, 252;
+    exults at his retirement, 256;
+    prints slanders, 257.
+
+  Demont, William,
+    betrays plans of Fort Washington to Howe, i. 175.
+
+  D'Estaing, Admiral,
+    reaches America, i. 242;
+    welcomed by Washington, 243;
+    fails to cut off Howe and goes to Newport, 243;
+    after battle with Howe goes to Boston, 244;
+    letter of Washington to, 246;
+    sails to West Indies, 246;
+    second letter of Washington to, 247;
+    attacks Savannah, 248;
+    withdraws, 248.
+
+  De Rochambeau, Comte,
+    arrives at Newport, i. 277;
+    ordered to await second division of army, 278;
+    refuses to attack New York, 280;
+    wishes a conference with Washington, 282;
+    meets him at Hartford, 282;
+    disapproves attacking Florida, 301;
+    joins Washington before New York, 306;
+    persuades De Barras to join De Grasse, 311;
+    accompanies Washington to Yorktown, 314.
+
+  Dickinson, John,
+    commands scouts at Monmouth, i. 326.
+
+  Digby, Admiral,
+    bitter comments of Washington on, i. 325.
+
+  Dinwiddie, Governor,
+    remonstrates against French encroachments, i. 66;
+    sends Washington on mission to French, 66;
+    quarrels with the Virginia Assembly, 71;
+    letter of Washington to, 73;
+    wishes Washington to attack French, 79;
+    tries to quiet discussions between regular and provincial troops, 80;
+    military schemes condemned by Washington, 91;
+    prevents his getting a royal commission, 93.
+
+  Diplomatic History:
+    refusal by Washington of special privileges to French minister,
+  ii. 59-61;
+    slow growth of idea of non-intervention, 132, 133;
+    difficulties owing to French Revolution, 134;
+    to English retention of frontier posts, 135;
+    attitude of Spain, 135;
+    relations with Barbary States, 136;
+    mission of Gouverneur Morris to sound English feeling, 137;
+    assertion by Washington of non-intervention policy toward Europe,
+  145, 146;
+    issue of neutrality proclamation, 147, 148;
+    its importance, 148;
+    mission of Genet, 148-162;
+    guarded attitude of Washington toward émigrés, 151;
+    excesses of Genet, 151;
+    neutrality enforced, 153, 154;
+    the Little Sarah episode, 154-157;
+    recall of Genet demanded, 158;
+    futile missions of Carmichael and Short to Spain, 165, 166;
+    successful treaty of Thomas Pinckney, 166-168;
+    question as to binding nature of French treaty of commerce, 169-171;
+    irritating relations with England, 173-176;
+    Jay's mission, 177-184;
+    the questions at issue, 180, 181;
+    terms of the treaty agreed upon, 182;
+    good and bad points, 183;
+    ratified by Senate, 184;
+    signing delayed by renewal of provision order, 185;
+    war with England prevented by signing, 205;
+    difficulties with France over Morris and Monroe, 211-214;
+    doings of Monroe, 212, 213;
+    United States compromised by him, 213, 214;
+    Monroe replaced by Pinckney, 214;
+    review of Washington's foreign policy, 216-219;
+    mission of Pinckney, Marshall, and Gerry to France, 284;
+    the X.Y.Z. affair, 285.
+
+  Donop, Count,
+    drives Griffin out of New Jersey, i. 180;
+    killed at Fort Mercer, 217.
+
+  Dorchester, Lord.
+    See Carleton.
+
+  Duane, James,
+    letters of Washington to, i. 294, 329.
+
+  Dumas, Comte,
+    describes enthusiasm of people for Washington, i. 288.
+
+  Dunbar, Colonel,
+    connection with Braddock's expedition, i. 84, 87.
+
+  Dunmore, Lord,
+    arrives in Virginia as governor, i. 122;
+    on friendly terms with Washington, 122, 123;
+    dissolves assembly, 123.
+
+  Duplaine, French consul,
+    exequatur of revoked, ii. 159.
+
+
+  EDEN, WILLIAM,
+    peace commissioner, i. 233.
+
+  Edwards, Jonathan,
+    a typical New England American, ii. 309.
+
+  Emerson, Rev. Dr.,
+    describes Washington's reforms in army before Boston, i. 140.
+
+  Emigrés,
+    Washington's treatment of, ii. 151, 253.
+
+  England,
+    honors Washington, i. 20;
+    arrogant behavior toward colonists, 80, 81, 82, 148;
+    its policy towards Boston condemned by Virginia, 119, 121, 123, 126;
+    by Washington, 124, 125,126;
+    sends incompetent officers to America, 155, 201, 202, 233;
+    stupidity of its operations, 203, 205, 206, 265;
+    sincerity of its desire for peace doubted by Washington, 324, 325;
+    arrogant conduct of toward the United States after peace, ii. 24, 25;
+    stirs up the Six Nations and Northwestern Indians, 92, 94, 101;
+    folly of her policy, 102;
+    sends Hammond as minister, 169;
+    its opportunity to win United States as ally against France, 171, 172;
+    adopts contrary policy of opposition, 172, 173;
+    adopts "provision order," 174;
+    incites Indians against United States, 175;
+    indignation of America against, 176;
+    receives Jay well, but refuses to yield points at issue, 180;
+    insists on monopoly of West India trade, 180;
+    and on impressment, 181;
+    later history of, 181;
+    renews provision order, 185;
+    danger of war with, 193;
+    avoided by Jay treaty, 205;
+    Washington said to sympathize with England, 252;
+    his real hostility toward, 254;
+    Washington's opinion of liberty in, 344.
+
+  Ewing, General James,
+    fails to help Washington at Trenton, i. 180.
+
+
+  FAIRFAX, BRYAN,
+    hunts with Washington, i. 115;
+    remonstrates with Washington against violence of patriots, 124;
+    Washington's replies to, 124, 126, 127;
+    letter of Washington to in Revolution, ii. 366.
+
+  Fairfax, George,
+    married to Miss Cary, i. 55;
+    accompanies Washington on surveying expedition, 58;
+    letter of Washington to, 133.
+
+  Fairfax, Mrs.----,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 367.
+
+  Fairfax, Thomas, Lord,
+    his career in England, i. 55;
+    comes to his Virginia estates, 55;
+    his character, 55;
+    his friendship for Washington, 56;
+    sends him to survey estates, 56;
+    plans a manor across the Blue Ridge, 59;
+    secures for Washington position as public surveyor, 60;
+    probably influential in securing his appointment as envoy to
+  French, 66;
+    hunts with Washington, 115;
+    his death remembered by Washington, ii. 366.
+
+  Fairlie, Major,
+    amuses Washington, ii. 374.
+
+  Farewell Address, ii. 248, 249.
+
+  Fauchet, M.,----,
+    letter of, incriminating Randolph, ii. 195,196, 202.
+
+  Fauntleroy, Betsy,
+    love affair of Washington with, i. 97.
+
+  Fauquier, Francis, Governor,
+    at Washington's wedding, i. 101.
+
+  Federal courts,
+    suggested by Washington, i. 150.
+
+  "Federalist,"
+    circulated by Washington, ii. 40.
+
+  Federalist party,
+    begun by Hamilton's controversy with Jefferson, ii. 230;
+    supports Washington for reëlection, 235;
+    organized in support of financial measures, 236;
+    Washington looked upon by Democrats as its head, 244, 247;
+    only its members trusted by Washington, 246, 247, 259, 260, 261;
+    becomes a British party, 255;
+    Washington considers himself a member of, 269-274;
+    the only American party until 1800, 273;
+    strengthened by X, Y, Z affair, 285;
+    dissensions in, over army appointments, 286-290;
+    its horror at French Revolution, 294, 295;
+    attempts of Washington to heal divisions in, 298.
+
+  Fenno's newspaper,
+    used by Hamilton against the "National Gazette," ii. 230.
+
+  Finances of the Revolution,
+    effect of paper money on war, i. 258, 262;
+    difficulties in paying troops, 258;
+    labors of Robert Morris, 259, 264, 312;
+    connection of Washington with, 263;
+    continued collapse, 280, 290, 312.
+
+  Financial History,
+    bad condition in 1789, ii. 105;
+    decay of credit, paper, and revenue, 106;
+    futile propositions, 106;
+    Hamilton's report on credit, 107;
+    debate over assumption of state debt, 107;
+    bargain between Hamilton and Jefferson, 108;
+    establishment of bank, 109;
+    other measures adopted, 112;
+    protection in the first Congress, 112-115;
+    the excise tax imposed, 123;
+    opposition to, 123-127;
+    "Whiskey Rebellion," 127-128.
+
+  Fishbourn, Benjamin,
+    nomination rejected by Senate, ii. 63.
+
+  Fontanes, M. de,
+    delivers funeral oration on Washington, i. 1.
+
+  Forbes, General,
+    renews attack on French in Ohio, i. 93.
+
+  Forman, Major,
+    describes impressiveness of Washington, ii. 389.
+
+  Fox, Charles James,
+    understands significance of Washington's leadership, i. 202.
+
+  France,
+    pays honors to Washington, i. I, 6;
+    war with England, see French and Indian war;
+    takes possession of Ohio, 65;
+    considers Jumonville assassinated by Washington, 74;
+    importance of alliance with foreseen by Washington, 191;
+    impressed by battle of Germantown, 200;
+    makes treaty of alliance with United States, 241;
+    sends D'Estaing, 243;
+    declines to attack Canada, 256;
+    sends army and fleet, 274, 277;
+    relations of French to Washington, 318, 319;
+    absolute necessity of their naval aid, 318, 319;
+    Revolution in, applauded by America, ii. 138, 139, 142;
+    real character understood by Washington and others, 139-142, 295;
+    debate over in America, 142;
+    question of relations with United States, 143, 144;
+    warned by Washington, 144, 145;
+    neutrality toward declared, 147;
+    tries to drive United States into alliance, 149;
+    terms of the treaty with, 169;
+    latter held to be no longer binding, 169-171;
+    abrogates it, 171;
+    demands recall of Morris, 211;
+    mission of Monroe to, 211-214;
+    makes vague promises, 212, 213;
+    Washington's fairness toward, 253;
+    tries to bully or corrupt American ministers, 284;
+    the X, Y, Z affair, 285;
+    war with not expected by Washington, 291;
+    danger of concession to, 292, 293;
+    progress of Revolution in, 294.
+
+  Franklin, Benjamin,
+    gets wagons for Braddock's expedition, i. 84;
+    remark on Howe in Philadelphia, 219;
+    national, like Washington, 252, ii. 8;
+    despairs of success of Constitutional Convention, 35;
+    his unquestioned Americanism, 309;
+    respect of Washington for, 344, 346, 364.
+
+  Frederick II., the Great,
+    his opinion of Trenton campaign, i. 183;
+    of Monmouth campaign, 239.
+
+  French and Indian war, i. 64-94;
+    inevitable conflict, 65;
+    efforts to negotiate, 66, 67;
+    hostilities begun, 72;
+    the Jumonville affair, 74;
+    defeat of Washington, 76;
+    Braddock's campaign, 82-88;
+    ravages in Virginia, 90;
+    carried to a favorable conclusion by Pitt, 93, 94.
+
+  Freneau, Philip,
+    brought to Philadelphia and given clerkship by Jefferson, ii. 227;
+    attacks Adams, Hamilton, and Washington in "National Gazette," 227;
+    makes conflicting statements as to Jefferson's share in the paper,
+  227, 228;
+    the first to attack Washington, 238.
+
+  Fry, Colonel,
+    commands a Virginia regiment against French and Indians, i. 71;
+    dies, leaving Washington in command, 75.
+
+
+  GAGE, GENERAL THOMAS,
+    conduct at Boston condemned by Washington, i. 126;
+    his treatment of prisoners protested against by Washington, 145;
+    sends an arrogant reply, 147;
+    second letter of Washington to, 147, 156.
+
+  Gallatin, Albert,
+    connection with Whiskey Rebellion, ii. 129.
+
+  Gates, Horatio,
+    visits Mt. Vernon, his character, i. 132;
+    refuses to cooperate with Washington at Trenton, 180;
+    his appointment as commander against Burgoyne urged, 208;
+    chosen by Congress, 209;
+    his part in defeating Burgoyne, 210;
+    neglects to inform Washington, 211;
+    loses his head and wishes to supplant Washington, 215;
+    forced to send troops South, 216, 217;
+    his attitude discovered by Washington, 221;
+    makes feeble efforts at opposition, 221, 223;
+    correspondence with Washington, 221, 223, 226;
+    becomes head of board of war, 221;
+    quarrels with Wilkinson, 223;
+    sent to his command, 226;
+    fears attack of British on Boston, 265;
+    sent by Congress to command in South, 268;
+    defeated at Camden, 281, 294;
+    loses support of Congress, 294.
+
+  Genet, Edmond Charles,
+    arrives as French minister, ii. 148;
+    his character, 149;
+    violates neutrality, 151;
+    his journey to Philadelphia, 151;
+    reception by Washington, 152;
+    complains of it, 153;
+    makes demands upon State Department, 153;
+    protests at seizure of privateers, 153;
+    insists on sailing of Little Sarah, 155;
+    succeeds in getting vessel away, 157;
+    his recall demanded, 158;
+    reproaches Jefferson, 158;
+    remains in America, 158;
+    threatens to appeal from Washington to Massachusetts, 159;
+    demands denial from Washington of Jay's statements, 159;
+    loses popular support, 160;
+    tries to raise a force to invade Southwest, 161;
+    prevented by state and federal authorities, 162;
+    his arrival the signal for divisions of parties, 237;
+    hurts Democratic party by his excesses, 241;
+    suggests clubs, 241.
+
+  George IV.,
+    Washington's opinion of, ii. 346.
+
+  Georgia,
+    quarrels with Creeks, asks aid of United States, ii. 90;
+    becomes dissatisfied with treaty, 91;
+    disregards treaties of the United States, 103.
+
+  Gerard, M.,
+    notifies Washington of return of D'Estaing, i. 246.
+
+  Germantown,
+    battle of, i. 199.
+
+  Gerry, Elbridge,
+    on special mission to France, ii. 284;
+    disliked by Washington, 292.
+
+  Giles, W.B.,
+    attacks Washington in Congress, ii. 251, 252.
+
+  Gist, Christopher,
+    accompanies Washington on his mission to French, i. 66;
+    wishes to shoot French Indians, 68.
+
+  Gordon,----,
+    letter of Washington to, i. 227.
+
+  Graves, Admiral,
+    sent to relieve Cornwallis, i. 312; defeated by De Grasse, 312.
+
+  Grayson, William,
+    hunts with Washington, i. 115; letter to, ii. 22.
+
+  Green Springs,
+    battle of, i. 307.
+
+  Greene, General Nathanael,
+    commands at Long Island, ill with fever, i. 164;
+    wishes forts on Hudson held, 174;
+    late in attacking at Germantown, 199;
+    conducts retreat, 200;
+    succeeds Mifflin as quartermaster-general, 232;
+    selected by Washington to command in South, 268;
+    commands army at New York in absence of Washington, 282;
+    appointed to command Southern army, 295;
+    retreats from Cornwallis, 302;
+    fights battle of Guilford Court House, 302;
+    clears Southern States of enemy, 302;
+    strong position, 304;
+    reinforced by Washington, 322;
+    letter to, 325;
+    his military capacity early recognized by Washington, ii. 334;
+    amuses Washington, 374.
+
+  Greene, Mrs.----,
+    dances three hours with Washington, ii. 380.
+
+  Grenville, Lord,
+    denies that ministry has incited Indians against United States,
+  ii. 175;
+    receives Jay, 180;
+    declines to grant United States trade with West Indies, 181.
+
+  Griffin, David,
+    commissioner to treat with Creeks, ii. 90.
+
+  Griffin,----,
+    fails to help Washington at Trenton, i. 180.
+
+  Grymes, Lucy,
+    the "Lowland Beauty," love affair of Washington with, i. 95;
+    marries Henry Lee, 96.
+
+
+  HALDIMAND, SIR FREDERICK,
+    leads Indians against colonists, i. 325.
+
+  Hale, Nathan, compared with André, i. 288.
+
+  Half-King,
+    kept to English alliance by Washington, i. 68;
+    his criticism of Washington's first campaign, 76.
+
+  Hamilton, Alexander,
+    forces Gates to send back troops to Washington, i. 216, 217;
+    remark on councils of war before Monmouth, 234;
+    informs Washington of Arnold's treason, 284;
+    sent to intercept Arnold, 285;
+    writes letters on government and finance, 298;
+    leads attack at Yorktown, i. 316;
+    requests release of Asgill, 329;
+    aids Washington in Congress, 333;
+    only man beside Washington and Franklin to realize American future,
+  ii. 7;
+    letters of Washington to on necessity of a strong government, 17, 18;
+    writes letters to Duane and Morris, 19;
+    speech in Federal Convention and departure, 35;
+    counseled by Washington, 39;
+    consulted by Washington as to etiquette, 54;
+    made secretary of treasury, 66;
+    his character, 67;
+    his report on the mint, 81;
+    on the public credit, 107;
+    upheld by Washington, 107, 108;
+    his arrangement with Jefferson, 108;
+    argument on the bank, 110;
+    his success largely due to Washington, 112;
+    his report on manufactures, 112, 114, 116;
+    advocates an excise, 122;
+    fails to realize its unpopularity, 123;
+    accompanies expedition to suppress Whiskey Rebellion, 128;
+    comprehends French Revolution, 139;
+    frames questions to cabinet on neutrality, 147;
+    urges decisive measures against Genet, 154;
+    argues against United States being bound by French treaty, 169;
+    selected for English mission, but withdraws, 177;
+    not likely to have done better than Jay, 183;
+    mobbed in defending Jay treaty, 187;
+    writes Camillus letters in favor of Jay treaty, 206;
+    intrigued against by Monroe, 212;
+    causes for his breach with Jefferson, 224;
+    his aristocratic tendencies, 225;
+    attacked by Jefferson and his friends, 228, 229;
+    disposes of the charges, 229;
+    retorts in newspapers with effect, 230;
+    ceases at Washington's request, 230, 234;
+    resigns from the cabinet, 234;
+    desires Washington's reëlection, 235;
+    selected by Washing, ton as senior general, 286;
+    appeals to Washington against Adams's reversal of rank, 286;
+    fails to soothe Knox's anger, 288;
+    report on army organization, 290;
+    letter of Washington to, condemning Adams's French mission, 293;
+    fears anarchy from Democratic success, 295;
+    approves Alien and Sedition Acts, 296;
+    his scheme of a military academy approved by Washington, 299;
+    Washington's affection for, 317, 362;
+    his ability early recognized by Washington, 334, 335;
+    aids Washington in literary points, 340;
+    takes care of Lafayette's son, 366.
+
+  Hammond, George,
+    protests against violations of neutrality, ii. 151;
+    his arrival as British minister, 169;
+    his offensive tone, 173;
+    does not disavow Lord Dorchester's speech to Indians, 176;
+    gives Fauchet letters to Wolcott, 195;
+    intrigues with American public men, 200.
+
+  Hampden, John,
+    compared with Washington, ii. 312, 313.
+
+  Hancock, John,
+    disappointed at Washington's receiving command of army, i. 135;
+    his character, ii. 74;
+    refuses to call first on Washington as President, 75;
+    apologizes and calls, 75, 76.
+
+  Hardin, Colonel,
+    twice surprised and defeated by Indians, ii. 93.
+
+  Harmar, Colonel,
+    invades Indian country, ii. 92;
+    attacks the Miamis, 93;
+    sends out unsuccessful expeditions and retreats, 93;
+    court-martialed and resigns, 93.
+
+  Harrison, Benjamin,
+    letters of Washington to, i. 259, 261; ii. 10.
+
+  Hartley, Mrs.----,
+    admired by Washington, i. 95.
+
+  Heard, Sir Isaac,
+    Garter King at Arms, makes out a pedigree for Washington, i. 30, 31.
+
+  Heath, General,
+    checks Howe at Frog's Point, i. 173;
+    left in command at New York, 311.
+
+  Henry, Patrick,
+    his resolutions supported by Washington, i. 119;
+    accompanies him to Philadelphia, 128;
+    his tribute to Washington's influence, 130;
+    ready for war, 132;
+    letters of Conway cabal to against Washington, 222;
+    letter of Washington to, 225;
+    appealed to by Washington on behalf of Constitution, ii. 38;
+    an opponent of the Constitution, 71;
+    urged by Washington to oppose Virginia resolutions, 266-268, 293;
+    a genuine American, 309;
+    offered secretaryship of state, 324;
+    friendship of Washington for, 362.
+
+  Hertburn, Sir William de,
+    ancestor of Washington family, i. 31, 33.
+
+  Hessians,
+    in Revolution, i. 194.
+
+  Hickey, Thomas,
+    hanged for plotting to murder Washington, i. 160.
+
+  Hobby,----, a sexton,
+    Washington's earliest teacher, i. 48.
+
+  Hopkinson, Francis,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 3.
+
+  Houdon, J.A., sculptor,
+    on Washington's appearance, ii. 386.
+
+  Howe, Lord,
+    arrives at New York with power to negotiate and pardon, i. 161;
+    refuses to give Washington his title, 161;
+    tries to negotiate with Congress, 167;
+    escapes D'Estaing at Delaware, 244;
+    attacks D'Estaing off Newport, 244.
+
+  Howe, Sir William,
+    has controversy with Washington over treatment of prisoners, i. 148;
+    checked at Frog's Point, 173;
+    attacks cautiously at Chatterton Hill, 173;
+    retreats and attacks forts on Hudson, 174;
+    takes Fort Washington, 175;
+    goes into winter quarters in New York, 177, 186;
+    suspected of purpose to meet Burgoyne, 194, 195;
+    baffled in advance across New Jersey by Washington, 194;
+    goes by sea, 195;
+    arrives at Head of Elk, 196;
+    defeats Washington at Brandywine, 197;
+    camps at Germantown, 199;
+    withdraws after Germantown into Philadelphia, 201;
+    folly of his failure to meet Burgoyne, 205, 206;
+    offers battle in vain to Washington, 218;
+    replaced by Clinton, 232;
+    tries to cut off Lafayette, 233.
+
+  Huddy, Captain,
+    captured by English, hanged by Tories, i. 327.
+
+  Humphreys, Colonel,
+    letters of Washington to, ii. 13, 339;
+    at opening of Congress, 78;
+    commissioner to treat with Creeks, 90;
+    anecdote of, 375.
+
+  Huntington, Lady,
+    asks Washington's aid in Christianizing Indians, ii. 4.
+
+
+  IMPRESSMENT,
+    right of, maintained by England, ii. 181.
+
+  Independence,
+    not wished, but foreseen, by Washington, i. 131, 156;
+    declared by Congress, possibly through Washington's influence, 160.
+
+  Indians,
+    wars with in Virginia, i. 37, 38;
+    in French and Indian war, 67,68;
+    desert English, 76;
+    in Braddock's defeat, 85, 86, 88;
+    restless before Revolution, 122;
+    in War of Revolution, 266, 270;
+    punished by Sullivan, 269;
+    policy toward, early suggested by Washington, 344;
+    recommendations relative to in Washington's address to Congress,
+  ii. 82;
+    the "Indian problem" under Washington's administration, 83-105;
+    erroneous popular ideas of, 84, 85;
+    real character and military ability, 85-87;
+    understood by Washington, 87, 88;
+    a real danger in 1788, 88;
+    situation in the Northwest, 89;
+    difficulties with Cherokees and Creeks, 89, 90;
+    influence of Spanish intrigue, 90;
+    successful treaty with Creeks, 90, 91;
+    wisdom of this policy, 92;
+    warfare in the Northwest, 92;
+    defeats of Harmar and Hardin, 93;
+    causes for the failure, 93, 94;
+    intrigues of England, 92, 94, 175, 178;
+    expedition and defeat of St. Clair, 95-97;
+    results, 99;
+    expedition of Wayne, 100, 102;
+    his victory, 103;
+    success of Washington's policy toward, 104, 105.
+
+  Iredell, James,
+    appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 73.
+
+
+  JACKSON, MAJOR,
+    accompanies Washington to opening of Congress, ii. 78.
+
+  Jameson, Colonel,
+    forwards Andrews letter to Arnold, i. 284;
+    receives orders from Washington, 285.
+
+  Jay, John,
+    on opposition in Congress, to Washington, i. 222;
+    consulted by Washington as to etiquette, ii. 54;
+    appointed chief justice, 72;
+    publishes card against Genet, 159;
+    appointed on special mission to England, 177;
+    his character, 177;
+    instructions from Washington, 179;
+    his reception in England, 180;
+    difficulties in negotiating, 181;
+    concludes treaty, 182;
+    burnt in effigy while absent, 186;
+    execrated after news of treaty, 187;
+    hampered by Monroe in France, 213.
+
+  Jay treaty, ii. 180-184;
+    opposition to and debate over signing, 184-201;
+    reasons of Washington for signing, 205.
+
+  Jefferson, Thomas,
+    his flight from Cornwallis, i. 307;
+    discusses with Washington needs of government, ii. 9;
+    adopts French democratic phraseology, 27;
+    contrast with Washington, 27, 28, 69;
+    criticises Washington's manners, 56;
+    made secretary of state, 68;
+    his previous relations with Washington, 68;
+    his character, 69;
+    supposed to be a friend of the Constitution, 72;
+    his objections to President's opening Congress, 79;
+    on weights and measures, 81;
+    letter of Washington to on assumption of state debts, 107;
+    makes bargain with Hamilton, 108;
+    opposes a bank, 110;
+    asked to prepare neutrality instructions, 146;
+    upholds Genet, 153;
+    argues against him publicly, supports him privately, 154;
+    notified of French privateer Little Sarah, 155;
+    allows it to sail, 155;
+    retires to country and is censured by Washington, 156;
+    assures Washington that vessel will wait his decision, 156;
+    his un-American attitude, 157;
+    wishes to make terms of note demanding Genet's recall mild, 158;
+    argues that United States is bound by French treaty, 170, 171;
+    begs Madison to answer Hamilton's "Camillus" letters, 206;
+    his attitude upon first entering cabinet, 223;
+    causes for his breach with Hamilton, 224;
+    jealousy, incompatibility of temper, 224;
+    his democratic opinions, 225;
+    skill in creating party catch-words, 225;
+    prints "Rights of Man" with note against Adams, 226;
+    attacks him further in letter to Washington, 226;
+    brings Freneau to Philadelphia and gives him an office, 227;
+    denies any connection with Freneau's newspaper, 227;
+    his real responsibility, 228;
+    his purpose to undermine Hamilton, 228;
+    causes his friends to attack him, 229;
+    writes a letter to Washington attacking Hamilton's treasury measures,
+  229;
+    fails to produce any effect, 230;
+    winces under Hamilton's counter attacks, 230;
+    reiterates charges and asserts devotion to Constitution, 231;
+    continues attacks and resigns, 234;
+    wishes reëlection of Washington, 235;
+    his charge of British sympathies resented by Washington, 252;
+    plain letter of Washington to, 259;
+    Washington's opinion of, 259;
+    suggests Logan's mission to France, 262, 265;
+    takes oath as vice-president, 276;
+    regarded as a Jacobin by Federalists, 294;
+    jealous of Washington, 306;
+    accuses him of senility, 307;
+    a genuine American, 309.
+
+  Johnson, William,
+    Tory leader in New York, i. 143.
+
+  Johnstone, Governor,
+    peace commissioner, i. 233.
+
+  Jumonville, De, French leader,
+    declared to have been assassinated by Washington, i. 74,79;
+    really a scout and spy, 75.
+
+
+  KENTUCKY RESOLUTIONS,
+    condemned by Washington, ii. 266-268.
+
+  King, Clarence,
+    his opinion that Washington was not American, ii. 308.
+
+  King, Rufus,
+    publishes card exposing Genet, ii. 159.
+
+  King's Bridge,
+    fight at, i. 170.
+
+  Kip's Landing,
+    fight at, i. 168.
+
+  Kirkland, Rev. Samuel,
+    negotiates with Six Nations, ii. 101.
+
+  Knox, Henry,
+    brings artillery to Boston from Ticonderoga, i. 152;
+    accompanies Washington to meet De Rochambeau, 283;
+    at West Point, 285;
+    sent by Washington to confer with governors of States, 295;
+    urged by Washington to establish Western posts, ii. 7;
+    letters of Washington to, 30, 39;
+    made secretary of war, 65;
+    his character, 65;
+    a Federalist, 71;
+    deals with Creeks, 91;
+    urges decisive measure against Genet, 154, 155;
+    letters of Washington to, 260;
+    selected by Washington as third major-general, 286;
+    given first place by Adams, 286;
+    angry at Hamilton's higher rank, 288;
+    refuses the office, 289;
+    his offer to serve on Washington's staff refused, 289;
+    Washington's affection for, 317, 362.
+
+
+  LAFAYETTE, Madame de,
+    aided by Washington, ii. 366;
+    letter of Washington to, 377.
+
+  Lafayette, Marquis de,
+    Washington's regard for, i. 192;
+    his opinion of Continental troops, 196;
+    sent on fruitless journey to the lakes by cabal, 222, 253;
+    encouraged by Washington, 225;
+    narrowly escapes being cut off by Clinton, 233;
+    appointed to attack British rear, 235;
+    superseded by Lee, 235;
+    urges Washington to come, 235;
+    letter of Washington to, regarding quarrel between D'Estaing and
+  Sullivan, 245;
+    regard of Washington for, 249;
+    desires to conquer Canada, 254;
+    his plan not supported in France, 256;
+    works to get a French army sent, 264;
+    brings news of French army and fleet, 274;
+    tries to get De Rochambeau to attack New York, 280;
+    accompanies Washington to meet De Rochambeau, 283;
+    told by Washington of Arnold's treachery, 285;
+    on court to try André, 287;
+    opinion of Continental soldiers, 293;
+    harasses Cornwallis, 307;
+    defeated at Green Springs, 307;
+    watches Cornwallis at Yorktown, 308;
+    reinforced by De Grasse, 312;
+    persuades him to remain, 315;
+    sends Washington French wolf-hounds, ii. 2;
+    letters of Washington to, 23, 26, 118, 144, 165, 222, 261;
+    his son not received by Washington, 253;
+    later taken care of, 277, 281, 366;
+    his worth, early seen by Washington, 334;
+    Washington's affection for, 365;
+    sends key of Bastile to Mt. Vernon, 365;
+    helped by Washington, 365,366.
+
+  Laurens, Henry,
+    letter of Conway cabal to, making attack on Washington, i. 222;
+    letters of Washington to, 254, 288;
+    sent to Paris to get loans, 299.
+
+  Lauzun, Duc de,
+    repulses Tarleton at Yorktown, i. 317.
+
+
+  Lear, Tobias,
+    Washington's secretary, ii. 263;
+    his account of Washington's last illness, 299-303, 385;
+    letters to, 361, 382.
+
+  Lee, Arthur,
+    example of Virginia gentleman educated abroad, i. 23.
+
+  Lee, Charles,
+    visits Mt. Vernon, his character, i. 132;
+    accompanies Washington to Boston, 136;
+    aids Washington in organizing army, 140;
+    disobeys orders and is captured, 175;
+    objects to attacking Clinton, 234;
+    first refuses, then claims command of van, 235;
+    disobeys orders and retreats, 236;
+    rebuked by Washington, 236, 237;
+    court martial of and dismissal from army, 237;
+    his witty remark on taking oath of allegiance, ii. 375.
+
+  Lee, Henry, marries Lucy Grymes,
+    Washington's "Lowland Beauty," i. 96.
+
+  Lee, Henry,
+    son of Lucy Grymes, Washington's "Lowland Beauty," i. 96; ii. 362;
+    captures Paulus Hook, i. 269;
+    letters of Washington to, ii. 23, 26, 149, 235, 239, 242, 252;
+    considered for command against Indians, 100;
+    commands troops to suppress Whiskey Rebellion, 127;
+    Washington's affection for, 362.
+
+  Lee, Richard Henry,
+    unfriendly to Washington, i. 214;
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 160.
+
+  Lewis, Lawrence,
+    at opening of Congress, ii. 78;
+    takes social duties at Mt. Vernon, 280.
+
+  Liancourt, Duc de,
+    refused reception by Washington, ii. 253.
+
+  Lincoln, Abraham,
+    compared with Washington, i. 349; ii. 308-313.
+
+  Lincoln, Benjamin,
+    sent by Washington against Burgoyne, i. 210;
+    fails to understand Washington's policy and tries to hold Charleston,
+  273, 274;
+    captured, 276;
+    commissioner to treat with Creeks, ii. 90.
+
+  Lippencott, Captain,
+    orders hanging of Huddy, i. 327;
+    acquitted by English court martial, 328.
+
+  Little Sarah,
+    the affair of, 155-157.
+
+  Livingston, Chancellor,
+    administers oath at Washington's inauguration, ii. 46.
+
+  Livingston, Edward,
+    moves call for papers relating to Jay treaty, ii. 207.
+
+  Logan, Dr. George,
+    goes on volunteer mission to France, ii. 262;
+    ridiculed by Federalists, publishes defense, 263;
+    calls upon Washington, 263;
+    mercilessly snubbed, 263-265.
+
+  Long Island,
+    battle of, i. 164,165.
+
+  London, Lord,
+    disappoints Washington by his inefficiency, i. 91.
+
+  Lovell, James,
+    follows the Adamses in opposing Washington, i. 214;
+    wishes to supplant him by Gates, 215;
+    writes hostile letters, 222.
+
+
+  MACKENZIE, CAPTAIN,
+    letter of Washington to, i. 130.
+
+  Madison, James,
+    begins to desire a stronger government, ii. 19, 29;
+    letters of Washington to, 30, 39, 53;
+    chosen for French mission, but does not go, 211.
+
+  Magaw, Colonel,
+    betrayed at Fort Washington, i. 175.
+
+  "Magnolia,"
+    Washington's pet colt, beaten in a race, i. 99, 113; ii. 381.
+
+  Marshall, John,
+    Chief Justice, on special commission to France, ii. 284;
+    tells anecdote of Washington's anger at cowardice, 392.
+
+  Maryland, the Washington family in, i.36.
+
+  Mason, George,
+    discusses political outlook with Washington, i. 119;
+    letter of Washington to, 263;
+    an opponent of the Constitution, ii. 71;
+    friendship of Washington for, 362;
+    debates with Washington the site of Pohick Church, 381.
+
+  Mason, S.T.,
+    communicates Jay treaty to Bache, ii. 185.
+
+  Massey, Rev. Lee,
+    rector of Pohick Church, i. 44.
+
+  Mathews, George,
+    letter of Washington to, i. 294.
+
+  Matthews, Edward,
+    makes raids in Virginia, i. 269.
+
+  Mawhood, General,
+    defeated at Princeton, i. 182.
+
+  McGillivray, Alexander,
+    chief of the Creeks, ii. 90;
+    his journey to New York and interview with Washington, 91.
+
+  McHenry, James,
+    at West Point, i. 284;
+    letters to, 325, ii. 22, 278, 287, 384;
+    becomes secretary of war, 246;
+    advised by Washington not to appoint Democrats, 260, 261.
+
+  McKean, Thomas, given letters to Dr. Logan, ii. 265.
+
+  McMaster, John B.,
+    calls Washington "an unknown man," i. 7, ii. 304;
+    calls him cold, 332, 352;
+    and avaricious in small ways, 352.
+
+  Meade, Colonel Richard,
+    Washington's opinion of, ii. 335.
+
+  Mercer, Hugh,
+    killed at Princeton, i. 182.
+
+  Merlin,----,
+    president of Directory, interview with Dr. Logan, ii. 265.
+
+  Mifflin, Thomas,
+    wishes to supplant Washington by Gates, i. 216;
+    member of board of war, 221;
+    put under Washington's orders, 226;
+    replies to Washington's surrender of commission, 349;
+    meets Washington on journey to inauguration, ii. 44;
+    notified of the Little Sarah, French privateer, 154;
+    orders its seizure, 155.
+
+  Militia,
+    abandon Continental army, i. 167;
+    cowardice of, 168;
+    despised by Washington, 169;
+    leave army again, 175;
+    assist in defeat of Burgoyne, 211.
+
+  Mischianza, i. 232.
+
+  Monmouth,
+    battle of, i. 235-239.
+
+  Monroe, James,
+    appointed minister to France, ii. 211;
+    his character, 212;
+    intrigues against Hamilton, 212;
+    effusively received in Paris, 212;
+    acts foolishly, 213;
+    tries to interfere with Jay, 213;
+    upheld, then condemned and recalled by Washington, 213, 214;
+    writes a vindication, 215;
+    Washington's opinion of him, 215, 216;
+    his selection one of Washington's few mistakes, 334.
+
+  Montgomery, General Richard,
+    sent by Washington to invade Canada, i. 143.
+
+  Morgan, Daniel,
+    sent against Burgoyne by Washington, i. 208;
+    at Saratoga, 210;
+    wins battle of Cowpens, joins Greene, 301.
+
+  Morris, Gouverneur,
+    letters of Washington to, i. 248, 263;
+    efforts towards financial reform, 264;
+    quotes speech of Washington at Federal convention in his eulogy,
+  ii. 31;
+    discussion as to his value as an authority, 32, note;
+    goes to England on unofficial mission, 137;
+    balked by English insolence, 137;
+    comprehends French Revolution, 139;
+    letters of Washington to, on the Revolution, 140,142,145;
+    recall demanded by France, 211;
+    letter of Washington to, 217,240, 254;
+    Washington's friendship for, 363.
+
+  Morris, Robert,
+    letter of Washington to, i. 187;
+    helps Washington to pay troops, 259;
+    efforts towards financial reform, 264;
+    difficulty in helping Washington in 1781, 309, 312;
+    considered for secretary of treasury, ii. 66;
+    his bank policy approved by Washington, 110;
+    Washington's friendship for, 363.
+
+  Moustier,
+    demands private access to Washington, ii. 59;
+    refused, 59, 60.
+
+  Murray, Vans, minister in Holland,
+    interview with Dr. Logan, ii. 264;
+    nominated for French mission by Adams, 292;
+    written to by Washington, 292.
+
+  Muse, Adjutant,
+    trains Washington in tactics and art of war, i. 65.
+
+
+  NAPOLEON,
+    orders public mourning for Washington's death, i. 1.
+
+  Nelson, General,
+    letter of Washington to, i. 257.
+
+  Newburgh,
+    addresses, ii. 335.
+
+  New England,
+    character of people, i. 138;
+    attitude toward Washington, 138, 139;
+    troops disliked by Washington, 152;
+    later praised by him, 152, 317, 344;
+    threatened by Burgoyne's invasion, 204;
+    its delegates in Congress demand appointment of Gates, 208;
+    and oppose Washington, 214;
+    welcomes Washington on tour as President, ii. 74;
+    more democratic than other colonies before Revolution, 315;
+    disliked by Washington for this reason, 316.
+
+  Newenham, Sir Edward,
+    letter of Washington to on American foreign policy, ii. 133.
+
+  New York,
+    Washington's first visit to, i. 99, 100;
+    defense of, in Revolution, 159-169;
+    abandoned by Washington, 169;
+    Howe establishes himself in, 177;
+    reoccupied by Clinton, 264;
+    Washington's journey to, ii. 44;
+    inauguration in, 46;
+    rioting in, against Jay treaty, 187.
+
+  Nicholas, John,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 259.
+
+  Nicola, Col.,
+    urges Washington to establish a despotism, i. 337.
+
+  Noailles, Vicomte de, French émigré,
+    referred to State Department, ii. 151, 253.
+
+
+  O'FLINN, CAPTAIN,
+    Washington's friendship with, ii. 318.
+
+  Organization of the national government,
+    absence of materials to work with, ii. 51;
+    debate over title of President, 52;
+    over his communications with Senate, 53;
+    over presidential etiquette, 53-56;
+    appointment of officials to cabinet offices established by Congress,
+  64-71;
+    appointment of supreme court judges, 72.
+
+  Orme,----,
+    letter of Washington to, i. 84.
+
+
+  PAINE, THOMAS,
+    his "Rights of Man" reprinted by Jefferson, ii. 226.
+
+  Parkinson, Richard,
+    says Washington was harsh to slaves, i. 105;
+    contradicts statement elsewhere, 106;
+    tells stories of Washington's pecuniary exactness, ii. 353, 354, 382;
+    his character, 355;
+    his high opinion of Washington, 356.
+
+  Parton, James,
+    considers Washington as good but commonplace, ii. 330, 374.
+
+  Peachey, Captain,
+    letter of Washington to, i. 92.
+
+  Pendleton, Edmund,
+    Virginia delegate to Continental Congress, i. 128.
+
+  Pennsylvania,
+    refuses to fight the French, i. 72,83;
+    fails to help Washington, 225;
+    remonstrates against his going into winter quarters, 229;
+    condemned by Washington, 229;
+    compromises with mutineers, 292.
+
+  Philipse, Mary,
+    brief love-affair of Washington with, i. 99, 100.
+
+  Phillips, General,
+    commands British troops in Virginia, i. 303;
+    death of, 303.
+
+  Pickering, Colonel, quiets Six Nations, ii. 94.
+
+  Pickering, Timothy,
+    letter of Washington to, on French Revolution, ii. 140;
+    on failure of Spanish negotiations, 166;
+    recalls Washington to Philadelphia to receive Fauchet letter, 195;
+    succeeds Randolph, 246;
+    letters of Washington to, on party government, 247;
+    appeals to Washington against Adams's reversal of Hamilton's rank,
+  286;
+    letters of Washington to, 292, 324;
+    criticises Washington as a commonplace person, 307.
+
+  Pinckney, Charles C.,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 90;
+    appointed to succeed Monroe as minister to France, 214;
+    refused reception, 284;
+    sent on special commission, 284;
+    named by Washington as general, 286;
+    accepts without complaint of Hamilton's higher rank, 290;
+    Washington's friendship with, 363.
+
+  Pinckney, Thomas,
+    sent on special mission to Spain, ii. 166;
+    unsuccessful at first, 166;
+    succeeds in making a good treaty, 167;
+    credit of his exploit, 168;
+    letter of Washington to, 325.
+
+  Pitt, William,
+    his conduct of French war, i. 93, 94.
+
+  Princeton,
+    battle of, i. 181-3.
+
+  Privateers,
+    sent out by Washington, i. 150.
+
+  "Protection"
+    favored in the first Congress, ii. 113-115;
+    arguments of Hamilton for, 114, 115;
+    of Washington, 116-122.
+
+  Provincialism,
+    of Americans, i. 193;
+    with regard to foreign officers, 193, 234, 250-252;
+    with regard to foreign politics, ii. 131, 132, 163, 237, 255.
+
+  Putnam, Israel,
+    escapes with difficulty from New York, i. 169;
+    fails to help Washington at Trenton, 180;
+    warned to defend the Hudson, 195;
+    tells Washington of Burgoyne's surrender, 211;
+    rebuked by Washington, 217;
+    amuses Washington, ii. 374.
+
+
+  RAHL, COLONEL,
+    defeated and killed at Trenton, i. 181.
+
+  Randolph, Edmund,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 30, 39;
+    relations with Washington, 64;
+    appointed attorney-general, 64;
+    his character, 64, 65;
+    a friend of the Constitution, 71;
+    opposes a bank, 110;
+    letter of Washington to, on protective bounties, 118;
+    drafts neutrality proclamation, 147;
+    vacillates with regard to Genet, 154;
+    argues that United States is bound by French alliance, 170;
+    succeeds Jefferson as secretary of state, 184;
+    directed to prepare a remonstrance against English "provision order,"
+  185;
+    opposed to Jay treaty, 188;
+    letter of Washington to, on conditional ratification, 189, 191, 192,
+  194;
+    guilty, apparently, from Fauchet letter, of corrupt practices, 196;
+    his position not a cause for Washington's signing treaty, 196-200;
+    receives Fauchet letter, resigns, 201;
+    his personal honesty, 201;
+    his discreditable carelessness, 202;
+    fairly treated by Washington, 203, 204;
+    his complaints against Washington, 203;
+    letter of Washington to, concerning Monroe, 213;
+    at first a Federalist, 246.
+
+  Randolph, John,
+    on early disappearance of Virginia colonial society, i. 15.
+
+  Rawdon, Lord,
+    commands British forces in South, too distant to help Cornwallis,
+  i. 304.
+
+  Reed, Joseph,
+    letters of Washington to, i. 151, 260.
+
+  Revolution, War of,
+    foreseen by Washington, i. 120, 122;
+    Lexington and Concord, 133;
+    Bunker Hill, 136;
+    siege of Boston, 137-154;
+    organization of army, 139-142;
+    operations in New York, 143;
+    invasion of Canada, 143, 144;
+    question as to treatment of prisoners, 145-148;
+    causes of British defeat, 154, 155;
+    campaign near New York, 161-177;
+    causes for attempted defense of Brooklyn, 163, 164;
+    battle of Long Island, 164-165;
+    escape of Americans, 166;
+    affair at Kip's Bay, 168;
+    at King's Bridge, 170;
+    at Frog's Point, 173;
+    battle of White Plains, 173;
+    at Chatterton Hill, 174;
+    capture of Forts Washington and Lee, 174, 175;
+    pursuit of Washington into New Jersey, 175-177;
+    retirement of Howe to New York, 177;
+    battle of Trenton, 180, 181;
+    campaign of Princeton, 181-183;
+    its brilliancy, 183;
+    Philadelphia campaign, 194-202;
+    British march across New Jersey prevented by Washington, 194;
+    sea voyage to Delaware, 195;
+    battle of the Brandywine, 196-198;
+    causes for defeat, 198;
+    defeat of Wayne, 198;
+    Philadelphia taken by Howe, 199;
+    battle of Germantown, 199;
+    its significance, 200, 201;
+    Burgoyne's invasion, 203-211;
+    Washington's preparations for, 204-206;
+    Howe's error in neglecting to cooperate, 205;
+    capture of Ticonderoga, 207;
+    battles of Bennington, Oriskany, Fort Schuyler, 210;
+    battle of Saratoga, 211;
+    British repulse at Fort Mercer, 217;
+    destruction of the forts, 217;
+    fruitless skirmishing before Philadelphia, 218;
+    Valley Forge, 228-232;
+    evacuation of Philadelphia, 234;
+    battle of Monmouth, 235-239;
+    its effect, 239;
+    cruise and failure of D'Estaing at Newport, 243, 244;
+    failure of D'Estaing at Savannah, 247, 248;
+    storming of Stony Point, 268, 269;
+    Tory raids near New York, 269;
+    standstill in 1780, 272;
+    siege and capture of Charleston, 273, 274, 276;
+    operations of French and Americans near Newport, 277, 278;
+    battle of Camden, 281;
+    treason of Arnold, 281-289;
+    battle of Cowpens, 301;
+    retreat of Greene before Cornwallis, 302;
+    battle of Guilford Court House, 302;
+    successful operations of Greene, 302, 303;
+    Southern campaign planned by Washington, 304-311;
+    feints against Clinton, 306;
+    operations of Cornwallis and Lafayette in Virginia, 307;
+    naval supremacy secured by Washington, 310, 311;
+    battle of De Grasse and Graves off Chesapeake, 312;
+    transport of American army to Virginia, 311-313;
+    siege and capture of Yorktown, 315-318;
+    masterly character of campaign, 318-320;
+    petty operations before New York, 326;
+    treaty of peace, 342.
+
+  Rives,
+    on Washington's doubts of constitutionality of Bank, ii. 110.
+
+  Robinson, Beverly,
+    speaker of Virginia House of Burgesses, his compliment to Washington,
+  i. 102.
+
+  Robinson, Colonel,
+    loyalist, i. 282.
+
+  Rumsey, James,
+    the inventor, asks Washington's consideration of his steamboat, ii. 4.
+
+  Rush, Benjamin,
+    describes Washington's impressiveness, ii. 389.
+
+  Rutledge, John,
+    letter of Washington to, i. 281;
+    nomination rejected by Senate, ii. 63;
+    nominated to Supreme Court, 73.
+
+
+  ST. CLAIR, Arthur,
+    removed after loss of Ticonderoga, i. 208;
+    appointed to command against Indians, ii. 94;
+    receives instructions and begins expedition, 95;
+    defeated, 96;
+    his character, 99;
+    fair treatment by Washington, 99;
+    popular execration of, 105.
+
+  St. Pierre, M. de,
+    French governor in Ohio, i. 67.
+
+  St. Simon, Count,
+    reinforces Lafayette, i. 312.
+
+  Sandwich, Lord,
+    calls all Yankees cowards, i. 155.
+
+  Saratoga,
+    anecdote concerning, i. 202.
+
+  Savage, Edward,
+    characteristics of his portrait of Washington, i. 13.
+
+  Savannah,
+    siege of, i. 247.
+
+  Scammel, Colonel,
+    amuses Washington, ii. 374.
+
+  Schuyler, Philip,
+    accompanies Washington to Boston, i. 136;
+    appointed military head in New York, 136;
+    directed by Washington how to meet Burgoyne, 204;
+    fails to carry out directions, 207;
+    removed, 208;
+    value of his preparations, 209.
+
+  Scott, Charles, commands expedition against Indians, ii. 95.
+
+  Sea-power,
+    its necessity seen by Washington, i. 283, 303, 304, 306, 310, 318, 319.
+
+  Sectional feeling,
+    deplored by Washington, ii. 222.
+
+  Sharpe, Governor,
+    offers Washington a company, i. 80;
+    Washington's reply to, 81.
+
+  Shays's Rebellion,
+    comments of Washington and Jefferson upon, ii. 26, 27.
+
+  Sherman, Roger,
+    makes sarcastic remark about Wilkinson, i. 220.
+
+  Shirley, Governor William,
+    adjusts matter of Washington's rank, i. 91, 97.
+
+  Short, William, minister to Holland,
+    on commission regarding opening of Mississippi, ii. 166.
+
+  Six Nations,
+    make satisfactory treaties, ii. 88;
+    stirred up by English, 94;
+    but pacified, 94, 101.
+
+  Slavery,
+    in Virginia, i. 20;
+    its evil effects, 104;
+    Washington's attitude toward slaves, 105;
+    his condemnation of the system, 106, 107;
+    gradual emancipation favored, 107, 108.
+
+  Smith, Colonel,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 340.
+
+  Spain,
+    instigates Indians to hostilities, ii. 89, 94, 101;
+    blocks Mississippi, 135;
+    makes treaty with Pinckney opening Mississippi, 167, 168;
+    angered at Jay treaty, 210.
+
+  Sparks, Jared,
+    his alterations of Washington's letters, ii. 337, 338.
+
+  Spotswood, Alexander,
+    asks Washington's opinion of Alien and Sedition Acts, ii. 297.
+
+  Stamp Act,
+    Washington's opinion of, i. 119, 120.
+
+  Stark, General,
+    leads attack at Trenton, i. 181.
+
+  States, in the Revolutionary war,
+    appeals of Washington to, i. 142, 186, 204, 259, 277, 295, 306, 323,
+  324, 326, 344;
+    issue paper money, 258;
+    grow tired of the war, 290;
+    alarmed by mutinies, 294;
+    try to appease soldiers, 295, 296;
+    their selfishness condemned by Washington, 333; ii. 21, 23;
+    thwart Indian policy of Congress, 88.
+
+  Stephen, Adam,
+    late in attacking at Germantown, i. 199.
+
+  Steuben, Baron,
+    Washington's appreciation of, i. 192, 249;
+    drills the army at Valley Forge, 232;
+    annoys Washington by wishing higher command, 249;
+    sent on mission to demand surrender of Western posts, 343;
+    his worth recognized by Washington, ii. 334.
+
+  Stirling, Lord,
+    defeated and captured at Long Island, i. 165.
+
+  Stockton, Mrs.,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 349.
+
+  Stone, General,
+    tells stories of Washington's closeness, ii. 353, 354.
+
+  Stuart, David,
+    letters of Washington to, ii. 107, 221, 222, 258.
+
+  Stuart, Gilbert,
+    his portrait of Washington contrasted with Savage's, i. 13.
+
+  Sullivan, John, General,
+    surprised at Long Island, i. 165;
+    attacks at Trenton, 180;
+    surprised and crushed at Brandywine, 197, 198;
+    unites with D'Estaing to attack Newport, 243;
+    angry at D'Estaing's desertion, 244;
+    soothed by Washington, 244;
+    sent against Indians, 266, 269.
+
+  Supreme Court,
+    appointed by Washington, ii. 72.
+
+
+  TAFT,----,
+    kindness of Washington toward, ii. 367.
+
+  Talleyrand,
+    eulogistic report to Napoleon on death of Washington, i. 1, note;
+    remark on Hamilton, ii. 139;
+    refused reception by Washington, 253.
+
+  Tarleton, Sir Banastre,
+    tries to escape at Yorktown, i. 317.
+
+  Thatcher, Dr.,
+    on Washington's appearance when taking command of army, i. 137.
+
+  Thomson, Charles,
+    complimented by Washington on retiring from secretary-ship of
+  Continental Congress, ii. 350.
+
+  Tories,
+    hated by Washington, i. 156;
+    his reasons, 157;
+    active in New York, 158;
+    suppressed by Washington, 159;
+    in Philadelphia, impressed by Continental army, 196;
+    make raids on frontier, 266;
+    strong in Southern States, 267;
+    raids under Tryon, 269.
+
+  Trent, Captain,
+    his incompetence in dealing with Indians and French, i. 72.
+
+  Trenton, campaign of, i. 180-183.
+
+  Trumbull, Governor,
+    letter of Washington to, refusing to stand for a third term,
+  ii. 269-271;
+    other letters, 298.
+
+  Trumbull, John,
+    on New England army before Boston, i. 139.
+
+  Trumbull, Jonathan,
+    his message on better government praised by Washington, ii. 21;
+    letters to, 42;
+    Washington's friendship for, 363.
+
+  Tryon, Governor,
+    Tory leader in New York, i. 143;
+    his intrigues stopped by Washington, 158, 159;
+    conspires to murder Washington, 160;
+    makes raids in Connecticut, 269.
+
+
+  VALLEY FORGE,
+    Continental Army at, i. 228-232.
+
+  Van Braam, Jacob,
+    friend of Lawrence Washington, trains George in fencing, i. 65;
+    accompanies him on mission to French, 66.
+
+  Vergennes,
+    requests release of Asgill, i. 329, 330;
+    letter of Washington to, 330;
+    proposes to submit disposition of a subsidy to Washington, 332.
+
+  Virginia, society in,
+    before the Revolution, i. 15-29;
+    its entire change since then, 15, 16;
+    population, distribution, and numbers, 17, 18;
+    absence of towns, 18;
+    and town life, 19;
+    trade and travel in, 19;
+    social classes, 20-24;
+    slaves and poor whites, 20;
+    clergy, 21;
+    planters and their estates, 22;
+    their life, 22;
+    education, 23;
+    habits of governing, 24;
+    luxury and extravagance, 25;
+    apparent wealth, 26;
+    agreeableness of life, 27;
+    aristocratic ideals, 28;
+    vigor of stock, 29;
+    unwilling to fight French, 71;
+    quarrels with Dinwiddie, 71;
+    thanks Washington after his French campaign, 79;
+    terrified at Braddock's defeat, 88;
+    gives Washington command, 89;
+    fails to support him, 89, 90, 93;
+    bad economic conditions in, 104,105;
+    local government in, 117;
+    condemns Stamp Act, 119;
+    adopts non-importation, 121;
+    condemns Boston Port Bill, 123;
+    asks opinion of counties, 124;
+    chooses delegates to a congress, 127;
+    prepares for war, 132;
+    British campaign in, 307, 315-318;
+    ratifies Constitution, ii. 40;
+    evil effect of free trade upon, 116, 117;
+    nullification resolutions, 266;
+    strength of its aristocracy, 315.
+
+
+  WADE, COLONEL,
+    in command at West Point after Arnold's flight, i. 285.
+
+  Walker, Benjamin,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 257.
+
+  Warren, James,
+    letters of Washington to, i. 262, ii. 118.
+
+  Washington,
+    ancestry, i. 30-40;
+    early genealogical researches concerning, 30-32;
+    pedigree finally established, 32;
+    origin of family, 33;
+    various members during middle ages, 34;
+    on royalist side in English civil war, 34, 36;
+    character of family, 35;
+    emigration to Virginia, 35, 36;
+    career of Washingtons in Maryland, 37;
+    in Virginia history, 38;
+    their estates, 39.
+
+  Washington, Augustine, father of George Washington,
+    birth, i. 35;
+    death, 39;
+    character, 39;
+    his estate, 41;
+    ridiculous part played by in Weems's anecdotes, 44, 47.
+
+  Washington, Augustine, half brother of George Washington,
+    keeps him after his father's death, i. 48.
+
+  Washington, Bushrod,
+    refused appointment as attorney by Washington, ii. 62;
+    educated by him, 370.
+
+  Washington, George,
+    honors to his memory in France, i. 1;
+    in England, 2;
+    grief in America, 3, 4;
+    general admission of his greatness, 4;
+    its significance, 5, 6;
+    tributes from England, 6;
+    from other countries, 6, 7;
+    yet an "unknown" man, 7;
+    minuteness of knowledge concerning, 8;
+    has become subject of myths, 9;
+    development of the Weems myth about, 10, 11;
+    necessity of a new treatment of, 12;
+    significant difference of real and ideal portraits of, 13;
+    his silence regarding himself, 14;
+    underlying traits, 14.
+
+  _Early Life_.
+    Ancestry, 30-41;
+    birth, 39;
+    origin of Weems's anecdotes about, 41-44;
+    their absurdity and evil results, 45-48;
+    early schooling, 48;
+    plan to send him to sea, 49, 50;
+    studies to be a surveyor, 51;
+    his rules of behavior, 52;
+    his family connections with Fairfaxes, 54, 55;
+    his friendship with Lord Fairfax, 56;
+    surveys Fairfax's estate, 57, 58, 59;
+    made public surveyor, 60;
+    his life at the time, 60, 61;
+    influenced by Fairfax's cultivation, 62;
+    goes to West Indies with his brother, 62;
+    has the small-pox, 63;
+    observations on the voyage, 63, 64;
+    returns to Virginia, 64;
+    becomes guardian of his brother's daughter, 64.
+
+  _Service against the French and Indians_.
+    Receives military training, 65;
+    a military appointment, 66;
+    goes on expedition to treat with French, 66;
+    meets Indians, 67;
+    deals with French, 67;
+    dangers of journey, 68;
+    his impersonal account, 69, 70;
+    appointed to command force against French, 71, 72;
+    his anger at neglect of Virginia Assembly, 73;
+    attacks and defeats force of Jumonville, 74;
+    called murderer by the French, 74;
+    surrounded by French at Great Meadows, 76;
+    surrenders, 76;
+    recklessness of his expedition, 77, 78;
+    effect of experience upon, 79;
+    gains a European notoriety, 79;
+    thanked by Virginia, 79;
+    protests against Dinwiddie's organization of soldiers, 80;
+    refuses to serve when ranked by British officers, 81;
+    accepts position on Braddock's staff, 82;
+    his treatment there, 82;
+    advises Braddock, 84;
+    rebuked for warning against surprise, 85;
+    his bravery in the battle, 86;
+    conducts retreat, 86, 87;
+    effect of experience on him, 87;
+    declines to solicit command of Virginia troops, 88;
+    accepts it when offered, 88;
+    his difficulties with Assembly, 89;
+    and with troops, 90;
+    settles question of rank, 91;
+    writes freely in criticism of government, 91, 92;
+    retires for rest to Mt. Vernon, 93;
+    offers services to General Forbes, 93;
+    irritated at slowness of English, 93, 94;
+    his love affairs, 95, 96;
+    journey to Boston, 97-101;
+    at festivities in New York and Philadelphia, 99;
+    meets Martha Custis, 101;
+    his wedding, 101, 102;
+    elected to House of Burgesses, 102;
+    confused at being thanked by Assembly, 102;
+    his local position, 103;
+    tries to farm his estate, 104;
+    his management of slaves, 105, 106, 108, 109;
+    cares for interests of old soldiers, 109;
+    rebukes a coward, 110;
+    cares for education of stepson, 111;
+    his furnishing of house, 112;
+    hunting habits, 113-115;
+    punishes a poacher, 116;
+    participates in colonial and local government, 117;
+    enters into society, 117, 118.
+
+  _Congressional delegate from Virginia_.
+    His influence in Assembly, 119;
+    discusses Stamp Act with Mason, 119;
+    foresees result to be independence, 119;
+    rejoices at its repeal, but notes Declaratory Act, 120;
+    ready to use force to defend colonial rights, 120;
+    presents non-importation resolutions to Burgesses, 121;
+    abstains from English products, 121;
+    notes ominous movements among Indians, 122;
+    on good terms with royal governors, 122, 123;
+    observes fast on account of Boston Port Bill, 123;
+    has controversy with Bryan Fairfax over Parliamentary policy,
+  124, 125, 126;
+    presides at Fairfax County meeting, 126;
+    declares himself ready for action, 126;
+    at convention of counties, offers to march to relief of Boston, 127;
+    elected to Continental Congress, 127;
+    his journey, 128;
+    silent in Congress, 129;
+    writes to a British officer that independence is not
+    desired, but war is certain, 130, 131;
+    returns to Virginia, 132;
+    aids in military preparations, 132;
+    his opinion after Concord, 133;
+    at second Continental Congress, wears uniform, 134;
+    made commander-in-chief, 134;
+    his modesty and courage in accepting position, 134, 135;
+    political motives for his choice, 135;
+    his popularity, 136;
+    his journey to Boston, 136, 137;
+    receives news of Bunker Hill, 136;
+    is received by Massachusetts Provincial Assembly, 137.
+
+  _Commander of the Army_.
+    Takes command at Cambridge, 137;
+    his impression upon people, 137, 138, 139;
+    begins reorganization of army, 139;
+    secures number of troops, 140;
+    enforces discipline, his difficulties, 140, 141;
+    forced to lead Congress, 142;
+    to arrange rank of officers, 142;
+    organizes privateers, 142;
+    discovers lack of powder, 143;
+    plans campaigns in Canada and elsewhere, 143, 144;
+    his plans of attack on Boston overruled by council of war, 144;
+    writes to Gage urging that captives be treated as prisoners of war,
+  145;
+    skill of his letter, 146;
+    retorts to Gage's reply, 147;
+    continues dispute with Howe, 148;
+    annoyed by insufficiency of provisions, 149;
+    and by desertions, 149;
+    stops quarrel between Virginia and Marblehead soldiers, 149;
+    suggests admiralty committees, 150;
+    annoyed by army contractors, 150;
+    and criticism, 151;
+    letter to Joseph Reed, 151;
+    occupies Dorchester Heights, 152;
+    begins to like New England men better, 152;
+    rejoices at prospect of a fight, 153;
+    departure of British due to his leadership, 154;
+    sends troops immediately to New York, 155;
+    enters Boston, 156;
+    expects a hard war, 156;
+    urges upon Congress the necessity of preparing for a long struggle,
+  156;
+    his growing hatred of Tories, 156, 157;
+    goes to New York, 157, 158;
+    difficulties of the situation, 158;
+    suppresses Tories, 159;
+    urges Congress to declare independence, 159, 160;
+    discovers and punishes a conspiracy to assassinate, 160;
+    insists on his title in correspondence with Howe, 161;
+    justice of his position, 162;
+    quiets sectional jealousies in army, 162;
+    his military inferiority to British, 163;
+    obliged by political considerations to attempt defense of New York,
+  163, 164;
+    assumes command on Long Island, 164;
+    sees defeat of his troops, 165;
+    sees plan of British fleet to cut off retreat, 166;
+    secures retreat of army, 167;
+    explains his policy of avoiding a pitched battle, 167;
+    anger at flight of militia at Kip's Bay, 168;
+    again secures safe retreat, 169;
+    secures slight advantage in a skirmish, 170;
+    continues to urge Congress to action, 170, 171;
+    success of his letters in securing a permanent army, 171;
+    surprised by advance of British fleet, 172;
+    moves to White Plains, 173;
+    blocks British advance, 174;
+    advises abandonment of American forts, 174;
+    blames himself for their capture, 175;
+    leads diminishing army through New Jersey, 175;
+    makes vain appeals for aid, 176;
+    resolves to take the offensive, 177;
+    desperateness of his situation, 178;
+    pledges his estate and private fortune to raise men, 179;
+    orders disregarded by officers, 180;
+    crosses Delaware and captures Hessians, 180, 181;
+    has difficulty in retaining soldiers, 181;
+    repulses Cornwallis at Assunpink, 181;
+    outwits Cornwallis and wins battle at Princeton, 182;
+    excellence of his strategy, 183;
+    effect of this campaign in saving Revolution, 183, 184;
+    withdraws to Morristown, 185;
+    fluctuations in size of army, 186;
+    his determination to keep the field, 186, 187;
+    criticised by Congress for not fighting, 187;
+    hampered by Congressional interference, 188;
+    issues proclamation requiring oath of allegiance, 188;
+    attacked in Congress for so doing, 189;
+    annoyed by Congressional alterations of rank, 189;
+    and by foreign military adventurers, 191;
+    value of his services in suppressing them, 192;
+    his American feelings, 191, 193;
+    warns Congress in vain that Howe means to attack Philadelphia, 193;
+    baffles Howe's advance across New Jersey, 195;
+    learning of his sailing, marches to defend Philadelphia, 195;
+    offers battle at Brandywine, 196, 197;
+    out-generaled and beaten, 197;
+    rallies army and prepares to fight again, 198;
+    prevented by storm, 199;
+    attacks British at Germantown, 199;
+    defeated, 200;
+    exposes himself in battle, 200;
+    real success of his action, 201;
+    despised by English, 202;
+    foresees danger of Burgoyne's invasion, 203;
+    sends instructions to Schuyler, 204;
+    urges use of New England and New York militia, 304;
+    dreads northern advance of Howe, 205;
+    determines to hold him at all hazards, 206, 207;
+    not cast down by loss of Ticonderoga, 207;
+    urges New England to rise, 208;
+    sends all possible troops, 208;
+    refuses to appoint a commander for Northern army, 208;
+    his probable reasons, 209;
+    continues to send suggestions, 210;
+    slighted by Gates after Burgoyne's surrender, 211;
+    rise of opposition in Congress, 212;
+    arouses ill-feeling by his frankness, 212, 213;
+    distrusted by Samuel and John Adams, 214;
+    by others, 214, 215;
+    formation of a plan to supplant him by Gates, 215;
+    opposed by Gates, Mifflin, and Conway, 215, 216;
+    angers Conway by preventing his increase in rank, 216;
+    is refused troops by Gates, 217;
+    defends and loses Delaware forts, 217;
+    refuses to attack Howe, 218;
+    propriety of his action, 219;
+    becomes aware of cabal, 220;
+    alarms them by showing extent of his knowledge, 221;
+    attacked bitterly in Congress, 222;
+    insulted by Gates, 223;
+    refuses to resign, 224;
+    refuses to notice cabal publicly, 224;
+    complains privately of slight support from Pennsylvania, 225;
+    continues to push Gates for explanations, 226;
+    regains complete control after collapse of cabal, 226, 227;
+    withdraws to Valley Forge, 227;
+    desperation of his situation, 228;
+    criticised by Pennsylvania legislature for going into winter quarters,
+  229;
+    his bitter reply, 229;
+    his unbending resolution, 230;
+    continues to urge improvements in army organization, 231;
+    manages to hold army together, 232;
+    sends Lafayette to watch Philadelphia, 233;
+    determines to fight, 234;
+    checked by Lee, 234;
+    pursues Clinton, 235;
+    orders Lee to attack British rearguard, 235;
+    discovers his force retreating, 236;
+    rebukes Lee and punishes him, 236, 237;
+    takes command and stops retreat, 237;
+    repulses British and assumes offensive, 238;
+    success due to his work at Valley Forge, 239;
+    celebrates French alliance, 241;
+    has to confront difficulty of managing allies, 241, 242;
+    welcomes D'Estaing, 243;
+    obliged to quiet recrimination after Newport failure, 244;
+    his letter to Sullivan, 244;
+    to Lafayette, 245;
+    to D'Estaing, 246;
+    tact and good effect of his letters, 246;
+    offers to cooperate in an attack on New York, 247;
+    furnishes admirable suggestions to D'Estaing, 247;
+    not dazzled by French, 248;
+    objects to giving rank to foreign officers, 248, 249;
+    opposes transfer of Steuben from inspectorship to the line, 249;
+    his thoroughly American position, 250;
+    absence of provinciality, 251, 252;
+    a national leader, 252;
+    opposes invasion of Canada, 253;
+    foresees danger of its recapture by France, 254, 255;
+    his clear understanding of French motives, 255, 256;
+    rejoices in condition of patriot cause, 257;
+    foresees ruin to army in financial troubles, 258;
+    has to appease mutinies among unpaid troops, 258;
+    appeals to Congress, 259;
+    urges election of better delegates to Congress, 259;
+    angry with speculators, 260, 261;
+    futility of his efforts, 261, 262;
+    his increasing alarm at social demoralization, 263;
+    effect of his exertions, 264;
+    conceals his doubts of the French, 264;
+    watches New York, 264;
+    keeps dreading an English campaign, 265;
+    labors with Congress to form a navy, 266;
+    plans expedition to chastise Indians, 266;
+    realizes that things are at a standstill in the North, 267;
+    sees danger to lie in the South, but determines to remain himself near
+  New York, 267;
+    not consulted by Congress in naming general for Southern army, 268;
+    plans attack on Stony Point, 268;
+    hatred of ravaging methods of British warfare, 270;
+    again has great difficulties in winter quarters, 270;
+    unable to act on offensive in the spring, 270, 272;
+    unable to help South, 272;
+    advises abandonment of Charleston, 273;
+    learns of arrival of French army, 274;
+    plans a number of enterprises with it, 275, 276;
+    refuses, even after loss of Charleston, to abandon Hudson, 276;
+    welcomes Rochambeau, 277;
+    writes to Congress against too optimistic feelings, 278, 279;
+    has extreme difficulty in holding army together, 280;
+    urges French to attack New York, 280;
+    sends Maryland troops South after Camden, 281;
+    arranges meeting with Rochambeau at Hartford, 282;
+    popular enthusiasm over him, 283;
+    goes to West Point, 284;
+    surprised at Arnold's absence, 284;
+    learns of his treachery, 284, 285;
+    his cool behavior, 285;
+    his real feelings, 286;
+    his conduct toward André, 287;
+    its justice, 287, 288;
+    his opinion of Arnold, 288, 289;
+    his responsibility in the general breakdown of the Congress and army,
+  290;
+    obliged to quell food mutinies in army, 291, 292;
+    difficulty of situation, 292;
+    his influence the salvation of army, 293;
+    his greatness best shown in this way, 293;
+    rebukes Congress, 294;
+    appoints Greene to command Southern army, 295;
+    sends Knox to confer with state governors, 296;
+    secures temporary relief for army, 296;
+    sees the real defect is in weak government, 296;
+    urges adoption of Articles of Confederation, 297;
+    works for improvements in executive, 298,299;
+    still keeps a Southern movement in mind, 301;
+    unable to do anything through lack of naval power, 303;
+    rebukes Lund Washington for entertaining British at Mt. Vernon, 303;
+    still unable to fight, 304;
+    tries to frighten Clinton into remaining in New York, 305;
+    succeeds with aid of Rochambeau, 306;
+    explains his plan to French and to Congress, 306;
+    learns of De Grasse's approach, prepares to move South, 306;
+    writes to De Grasse to meet him in Chesapeake, 308;
+    fears a premature peace, 308;
+    pecuniary difficulties, 309;
+    absolute need of command of sea, 310;
+    persuades De Barras to join De Grasse, 311;
+    starts on march for Chesapeake, 311;
+    hampered by lack of supplies, 312;
+    and by threat of Congress to reduce army, 313;
+    passes through Mt. Vernon, 314;
+    succeeds in persuading De Grasse not to abandon him, 315;
+    besieges Cornwallis, 315;
+    sees capture of redoubts, 316;
+    receives surrender of Cornwallis, 317;
+    admirable strategy and management of campaign, 318;
+    his personal influence the cause of success, 318;
+    especially his use of the fleet, 319;
+    his management of Cornwallis through Lafayette, 319;
+    his boldness in transferring army away from New York, 320;
+    does not lose his head over victory, 321;
+    urges De Grasse to repeat success against Charleston, 322;
+    returns north, 322;
+    saddened by death of Custis, 322;
+    continues to urge Congress to action, 323;
+    writes letters to the States, 323;
+    does not expect English surrender, 324;
+    urges renewed vigor, 324;
+    points out that war actually continues, 325;
+    urges not to give up army until peace is actually secured, 325;
+    failure of his appeals, 326;
+    reduced to inactivity, 326;
+    angered at murder of Huddy, 327;
+    threatens Carleton with retaliation, 328;
+    releases Asgill at request of Vergennes and order of Congress,
+  329, 330;
+    disclaims credit, 330;
+    justification of his behavior, 330;
+    his tenderness toward the soldiers, 331;
+    jealousy of Congress toward him, 332;
+    warns Congress of danger of further neglect of army, 333, 334;
+    takes control of mutinous movement, 335;
+    his address to the soldiers, 336;
+    its effect, 336;
+    movement among soldiers to make him dictator, 337;
+    replies to revolutionary proposals, 337;
+    reality of the danger, 339;
+    causes for his behaviour, 340, 341;
+    a friend of strong government, but devoid of personal ambition, 342;
+    chafes under delay to disband army, 343;
+    tries to secure Western posts, 343;
+    makes a journey through New York, 343;
+    gives Congress excellent but futile advice, 344;
+    issues circular letter to governors, 344;
+    and farewell address to army, 345;
+    enters New York after departure of British, 345;
+    his farewell to his officers, 345;
+    adjusts his accounts, 346;
+    appears before Congress, 347;
+    French account of his action, 347;
+    makes speech resigning commission, 348, 349.
+
+  _In Retirement_.
+    Returns to Mt. Vernon, ii. I;
+    tries to resume old life, 2;
+    gives up hunting, 2;
+    pursued by lion-hunters and artists, 3;
+    overwhelmed with correspondence, 3;
+    receives letters from Europe, 4;
+    from cranks, 4;
+    from officers, 4;
+    his share in Society of Cincinnati, 4;
+    manages his estate, 5;
+    visits Western lands, 5;
+    family cares, 5, 6;
+    continues to have interest in public affairs, 6;
+    advises Congress regarding peace establishment, 6;
+    urges acquisition of Western posts, 7;
+    his broad national views, 7;
+    alone in realizing future greatness of country, 7, 8;
+    appreciates importance of the West, 8;
+    urges development of inland navigation, 9;
+    asks Jefferson's aid, 9, 10;
+    lays canal scheme before Virginia legislature, 10;
+    his arguments, 10;
+    troubled by offer of stock, 11;
+    uses it to endow two schools, 12;
+    significance of his scheme, 12, 13;
+    his political purposes in binding West to East, 13;
+    willing to leave Mississippi closed for this purpose, 14, 15, 16;
+    feels need of firmer union during Revolution, 17;
+    his arguments, 18, 19;
+    his influence starts movement for reform, 20;
+    continues to urge it during retirement, 21;
+    foresees disasters of confederation, 21;
+    urges impost scheme, 22;
+    condemns action of States, 22, 23, 25;
+    favours commercial agreement between Maryland and Virginia, 23;
+    stung by contempt of foreign powers, 24;
+    his arguments for a national government, 24;
+    points out designs of England, 25;
+    works against paper money craze in States, 26;
+    his opinion of Shays's rebellion, 26;
+    his position contrasted with Jefferson's, 27;
+    influence of his letters, 28, 29;
+    shrinks from participating in Federal convention, 29;
+    elected unanimously, 30;
+    refuses to go to a feeble convention, 30, 31;
+    finally makes up his mind, 31.
+
+  _In the Federal Convention_.
+    Speech attributed to Washington by Morris on duties of delegates,
+  31, 32;
+    chosen to preside, 33;
+    takes no part in debate, 34;
+    his influence in convention, 34, 35;
+    despairs of success, 35;
+    signs the Constitution, 36;
+    words attributed to him, 36;
+    silent as to his thoughts, 36, 37;
+    sees clearly danger of failure to ratify, 37;
+    tries at first to act indifferently, 38;
+    begins to work for ratification, 38;
+    writes letters to various people, 38, 39;
+    circulates copies of "Federalist," 40;
+    saves ratification in Virginia, 40;
+    urges election of Federalists to Congress, 41;
+    receives general request to accept presidency, 41;
+    his objections, 41, 42;
+    dreads failure and responsibility, 42;
+    elected, 42;
+    his journey to New York, 42-46;
+    speech at Alexandria, 43;
+    popular reception at all points, 44, 45;
+    his feelings, 46;
+    his inauguration, 46.
+
+  _President_.
+    His speech to Congress, 48;
+    urges no specific policy, 48, 49;
+    his solemn feelings, 49;
+    his sober view of necessities of situation, 50;
+    question of his title, 52;
+    arranges to communicate with Senate by writing, 52, 53;
+    discusses social etiquette, 53;
+    takes middle ground, 54;
+    wisdom of his action, 55;
+    criticisms by Democrats, 55, 56;
+    accused of monarchical leanings, 56, 57;
+    familiarizes himself with work already accomplished under
+  Confederation, 58;
+    his business habits, 58;
+    refuses special privileges to French minister, 59, 60;
+    skill of his reply, 60, 61;
+    solicited for office, 61;
+    his views on appointment, 62;
+    favors friends of Constitution and old soldiers, 62;
+    success of his appointments, 63;
+    selects a cabinet, 64;
+    his regard for Knox 65;
+    for Morris, 66;
+    his skill in choosing, 66;
+    his appreciation of Hamilton, 67;
+    his grounds for choosing Jefferson, 68;
+    his contrast with Jefferson, 69;
+    his choice a mistake in policy, 70;
+    his partisan characteristics, 70, 71;
+    excludes anti-Federalists, 71;
+    nominates justices of Supreme Court, 72;
+    their party character, 73;
+    illness, 73;
+    visits the Eastern States, 73;
+    his reasons, 74;
+    stirs popular enthusiasm, 74;
+    snubbed by Hancock in Massachusetts, 75;
+    accepts Hancock's apology, 75;
+    importance of his action, 76;
+    success of journey, 76;
+    opens Congress, 78, 79;
+    his speech and its recommendations, 81;
+    how far carried out, 81-83;
+    national character of the speech, 83;
+    his fitness to deal with Indians, 87;
+    his policy, 88;
+    appoints commission to treat with Creeks, 90;
+    ascribes its failure to Spanish intrigue, 90;
+    succeeds by a personal interview in making treaty, 91;
+    wisdom of his policy, 92;
+    orders an expedition against Western Indians, 93;
+    angered at its failure, 94;
+    and at conduct of frontiersmen, 94;
+    prepares St. Clair's expedition, 95;
+    warns against ambush, 95;
+    hopes for decisive results, 97;
+    learns of St. Clair's defeat, 97;
+    his self-control, 97;
+    his outburst of anger against St. Clair, 97, 98;
+    masters his feelings, 98;
+    treats St. Clair kindly, 99;
+    determines on a second campaign, 100;
+    selects Wayne and other officers, 100;
+    tries to secure peace with tribes, 101;
+    efforts prevented by English influence, 101, 102;
+    and in South by conduct of Georgia, 103;
+    general results of his Indian policy, 104;
+    popular misunderstandings and criticism, 104, 105;
+    favors assumption of state debts by the government, 107, 108;
+    satisfied with bargain between Hamilton and Jefferson, 108;
+    his respectful attitude toward Constitution, 109;
+    asks opinions of cabinet on constitutionality of bank, 110;
+    signs bill creating it, 110;
+    reasons for his decision, 111;
+    supports Hamilton's financial policy, 112;
+    supports Hamilton's views on protection, 115, 116;
+    appreciates evil economic condition of Virginia, 116, 117;
+    sees necessity for self-sufficient industries in war time, 117;
+    urges protection, 118, 119, 120;
+    his purpose to build up national feeling, 121;
+    approves national excise tax, 122, 123;
+    does not realize unpopularity of method, 123;
+    ready to modify but insists on obedience, 124, 125;
+    issues proclamation against rioters, 125;
+    since Pennsylvania frontier continues rebellious, issues second
+  proclamation threatening to use force, 127;
+    calls out the militia, 127;
+    his advice to leaders and troops, 128;
+    importance of Washington's firmness, 129;
+    his good judgment and patience, 130;
+    decides success of the central authority, 130;
+    early advocacy of separation of United States from European politics,
+  133;
+    studies situation, 134, 135;
+    sees importance of binding West with Eastern States, 135;
+    sees necessity of good relations with England, 137;
+    authorizes Morris to sound England as to exchange of ministers and a
+  commercial treaty, 137;
+    not disturbed by British bad manners, 138;
+    succeeds in establishing diplomatic relations, 138;
+    early foresees danger of excess in French Revolution, 139, 140;
+    states a policy of strict neutrality, 140, 142, 143;
+    difficulties of his situation, 142;
+    objects to action of National Assembly on tobacco and oil, 144;
+    denies reported request by United States that England mediate with
+  Indians, 145;
+    announces neutrality in case of a European war, 146;
+    instructs cabinet to prepare a neutrality proclamation, 147;
+    importance of this step not understood at time, 148, 149;
+    foresees coming difficulties, 149, 150;
+    acts cautiously toward _émigrés_, 151;
+    contrast with Genet, 152;
+    greets him coldly, 152;
+    orders steps taken to prevent violations of neutrality, 153, 154;
+    retires to Mt. Vernon for rest, 154;
+    on returning finds Jefferson has allowed Little Sarah to escape, 156;
+    writes a sharp note to Jefferson, 156;
+    anger at escape, 157;
+    takes matters out of Jefferson's hands, 157;
+    determines on asking recall of Genet, 158;
+    revokes exequatur of Duplaine, French consul, 159;
+    insulted by Genet, 159, 160;
+    refuses to deny Jay's card, 160;
+    upheld by popular feeling, 160;
+    his annoyance at the episode, 160;
+    obliged to teach American people self-respect, 162, 163;
+    deals with troubles incited by Genet in the West, 162, 163;
+    sympathizes with frontiersmen, 163;
+    comprehends value of Mississippi, 164, 165;
+    sends a commission to Madrid to negotiate about free navigation, 166;
+    later sends Thomas Pinckney, 166;
+    despairs of success, 166;
+    apparent conflict between French treaties and neutrality, 169, 170;
+    value of Washington's policy to England, 171;
+    in spite of England's attitude, intends to keep peace, 177;
+    wishes to send Hamilton as envoy, 177;
+    after his refusal appoints Jay, 177;
+    fears that England intends war, 178;
+    determines to be prepared, 178;
+    urges upon Jay the absolute necessity of England's giving up Western
+  posts, 179;
+    dissatisfied with Jay treaty but willing to sign it, 184;
+    in doubt as to meaning of conditional ratification, 184;
+    protests against English "provision order" and refuses signature, 185;
+    meets uproar against treaty alone, 188;
+    determines to sign, 189;
+    answers resolutions of Boston town meeting, 190;
+    refuses to abandon his judgment to popular outcry, 190;
+    distinguishes temporary from permanent feeling, 191;
+    fears effect of excitement upon French government, 192;
+    his view of dangers of situation, 193, 194;
+    recalled to Philadelphia by cabinet, 195;
+    receives intercepted correspondence of Fauchet, 195, 196;
+    his course of action already determined, 197, 198;
+    not influenced by the Fauchet letter, 198;
+    evidence of this, 199, 200;
+    reasons for ratifying before showing letter to Randolph, 199, 200;
+    signs treaty, 201;
+    evidence that he did not sacrifice Randolph, 201, 202;
+    fairness of his action, 203;
+    refuses to reply to Randolph's attack, 204;
+    reasons for signing treaty, 205;
+    justified in course of time, 206;
+    refuses on constitutional grounds the call of representatives for
+  documents, 208;
+    insists on independence of treaty-making by executive and Senate, 209;
+    overcomes hostile majority in House, 210;
+    wishes Madison to succeed Morris at Paris, 211;
+    appoints Monroe, 216;
+    his mistake in not appointing a political supporter, 212;
+    disgusted at Monroe's behavior, 213, 214;
+    recalls Monroe and appoints C.C. Pinckney, 214;
+    angered at French policy, 214;
+    his contempt for Monroe's self-justification, 215, 216;
+    review of foreign policy, 216-219;
+    his guiding principle national independence, 216;
+    and abstention from European politics, 217;
+    desires peace and time for growth, 217, 218;
+    wishes development of the West, 218, 219;
+    wisdom of his policy, 219;
+    considers parties dangerous, 220;
+    but chooses cabinet from Federalists, 220;
+    prepared to undergo criticism, 221;
+    willingness to bear it, 221;
+    desires to learn public feeling, by travels, 221, 222;
+    feels that body of people will support national government, 222;
+    sees and deplores sectional feelings in the South, 222, 223;
+    objects to utterances of newspapers, 223;
+    attacked by "National Gazette," 227;
+    receives attacks on Hamilton from Jefferson and his friends, 228, 229;
+    sends charges to Hamilton, 229;
+    made anxious by signs of party division, 229;
+    urges both Hamilton and Jefferson to cease quarrel, 230, 231;
+    dreads an open division in cabinet, 232;
+    desirous to rule without party, 233;
+    accomplishes feat of keeping both secretaries in cabinet, 233;
+    keeps confidence in Hamilton, 234;
+    urged by all parties to accept presidency again, 235;
+    willing to be reelected, 235;
+    pleased at unanimous vote, 235;
+    his early immunity from attacks, 237;
+    later attacked by Freneau and Bache, 238;
+    regards opposition as dangerous to country, 239;
+    asserts his intention to disregard them, 240;
+    his success in Genet affair, 241;
+    disgusted at "democratic" societies, 242;
+    thinks they fomented Whiskey Rebellion, 242;
+    denounces them to Congress, 243;
+    effect of his remarks, 244;
+    accused of tyranny after Jay treaty, 244;
+    of embezzlement, 245;
+    of aristocracy, 245;
+    realizes that he must compose cabinet of sympathizers, 246;
+    reconstructs it, 246;
+    states determination to govern by party, 247;
+    slighted by House, 247;
+    refuses a third term, 248;
+    publishes Farewell Address, 248;
+    his justification for so doing, 248;
+    his wise advice, 249;
+    address Attacked by Democrats, 250, 251;
+    assailed in Congress by Giles, 251;
+    resents charge of being a British sympathizer, 252;
+    his scrupulously fair conduct toward France, 253;
+    his resentment at English policy, 254;
+    his retirement celebrated by the opposition, 255;
+    remarks of the "Aurora," 256;
+    forged letters of British circulated, 257;
+    he repudiates them, 257;
+    his view of opposition, 259.
+
+  _In Retirement_.
+    Regards Adams's administration as continuation of his own, 259;
+    understands Jefferson's attitude, 259;
+    wishes generals of provisional army to be Federalist, 260;
+    doubts fidelity of opposition as soldiers, 260;
+    dreads their poisoning mind of army, 261;
+    his condemnation of Democrats, 261, 262;
+    snubs Dr. Logan for assuming an unofficial mission to France, 263-265;
+    alarmed at Virginia and Kentucky resolutions, 266;
+    urges Henry to oppose Virginia resolutions, 267;
+    condemns the French party as unpatriotic, 267;
+    refuses request to stand again for presidency, 269;
+    comments on partisanship of Democrats, 269;
+    believes that he would be no better candidate than any other
+  Federalist, 270, 271;
+    error of statement that Washington was not a party man, 271, 272;
+    slow to relinquish non-partisan position, 272;
+    not the man to shrink from declaring his position, 273;
+    becomes a member of Federalist party, 273, 274;
+    eager for end of term of office, 275;
+    his farewell dinner, 275;
+    at Adams's inauguration, 276;
+    popular enthusiasm at Philadelphia, 276;
+    at Baltimore, 277;
+    returns to Mt. Vernon, 279;
+    describes his farm life, 278, 279;
+    burdened by necessities of hospitality, 280;
+    account of his meeting with Bernard, 281-283;
+    continued interest in politics, 284;
+    accepts command of provisional army, 285;
+    selects Hamilton, Pinckney, and Knox as major-generals, 286;
+    surprised at Adams's objection to Hamilton, 286;
+    rebukes Adams for altering order of rank of generals, 286, 287;
+    not influenced by intrigue, 287;
+    annoyed by Adams's conduct, 288;
+    tries to soothe Knox's irritation, 289;
+    fails to pacify him, 289;
+    carries out organization of army, 290;
+    does not expect actual war, 291;
+    disapproves of Gerry's conduct, 292;
+    disapproves of Adams's nomination of Vans Murray, 292;
+    his dread of French Revolution, 295;
+    distrusts Adams's attempts at peace, 296;
+    approves Alien and Sedition laws, 296;
+    his defense of them, 297;
+    distressed by dissensions among Federalists, 298;
+    predicts their defeat, 298;
+    his sudden illness, 299-302;
+    death, 303.
+
+  _Character_,
+    misunderstood, 304;
+    extravagantly praised, 304;
+    disliked on account of being called faultless, 305;
+    bitterly attacked in lifetime, 306;
+    sneered at by Jefferson, 306;
+    by Pickering, 307;
+    called an Englishman, not an American, 307, 308;
+    difference of his type from that of Lincoln, 310;
+    none the less American, 311, 312;
+    compared with Hampden, 312;
+    his manners those of the times elsewhere in America, 314;
+    aristocratic, but of a non-English type, 314-316;
+    less affected by Southern limitations than his neighbors, 316;
+    early dislike of New England changed to respect, 316, 317;
+    friendly with people of humble origin, 317, 318;
+    never an enemy of democracy, 318;
+    but opposes French excesses, 318;
+    his self-directed and American training, 319, 320;
+    early conception of a nation, 321;
+    works toward national government during Revolution, 321;
+    his interest in Western expansion, 321, 322;
+    national character of his Indian policy, 322;
+    of his desire to secure free Mississippi navigation, 322;
+    of his opposition to war as a danger to Union, 323;
+    his anger at accusation of foreign subservience, 323;
+    continually asserts necessity for independent American policy,
+  324, 325;
+    opposes foreign educational influences, 325, 326;
+    favors foundation of a national university, 326;
+    breadth and strength of his national feeling, 327;
+    absence of boastfulness about country, 328;
+    faith in it, 328;
+    charge that he was merely a figure-head, 329;
+    its injustice, 330;
+    charged with commonplaceness of intellect, 330;
+    incident of the deathbed explained, 330, 331;
+    falsity of the charge, 331;
+    inability of mere moral qualities to achieve what he did, 331;
+    charged with dullness and coldness, 332;
+    his seriousness, 333;
+    responsibility from early youth, 333;
+    his habits of keen observation, 333;
+    power of judging men, 334;
+    ability to use them for what they were worth, 335;
+    anecdote of advice to Hamilton and Meade, 335;
+    deceived only by Arnold, 336;
+    imperfect education, 337;
+    continual efforts to improve it, 337, 338;
+    modest regarding his literary ability, 339, 340;
+    interested in education, 339;
+    character of his writing, 340;
+    tastes in reading, 341;
+    modest but effective in conversation, 342;
+    his manner and interest described by Bernard, 343-347;
+    attractiveness of the picture, 347, 348;
+    his pleasure in society, 348;
+    power of paying compliments, letter to Mrs. Stockton, 349;
+    to Charles Thompson, 350;
+    to De Chastellux, 351;
+    his warmth of heart, 352;
+    extreme exactness in pecuniary matters, 352;
+    illustrative anecdotes, 353,354;
+    favorable opinion of teller of anecdotes, 356;
+    stern towards dishonesty or cowardice, 357;
+    treatment of André and Asgill, 357, 358;
+    sensitive to human suffering, 357, 358;
+    kind and courteous to poor, 359;
+    conversation with Cleaveland, 359;
+    sense of dignity in public office, 360;
+    hospitality at Mt. Vernon, 360, 361;
+    his intimate friendships, 361,362;
+    relations with Hamilton, Knox, Mason, Henry Lee, Craik, 362, 363;
+    the officers of the army, 363;
+    Trumbull, Robert and Gouverneur Morris, 363;
+    regard for and courtesy toward Franklin, 364;
+    love for Lafayette, 365;
+    care for his family, 366;
+    lasting regard for Fairfaxes, 366, 367;
+    kindness to Taft family, 367, 368;
+    destroys correspondence with his wife, 368;
+    their devoted relationship, 368;
+    care for his step-children and relatives, 369, 370;
+    charged with lack of humor, 371;
+    but never made himself ridiculous, 372;
+    not joyous in temperament, 372;
+    but had keen pleasure in sport, 373;
+    enjoyed a joke, even during Revolution, 374;
+    appreciates wit, 375;
+    writes a humorous letter, 376-378;
+    not devoid of worldly wisdom, 378, 379;
+    enjoys cards, dancing, the theatre, 380;
+    loves horses, 380;
+    thorough in small affairs as well as great, 381;
+    controversy over site of church, 381;
+    his careful domestic economy, 382;
+    love of method, 383;
+    of excellence in dress and furniture, 383, 384;
+    gives dignity to American cause, 385;
+    his personal appearance, 385;
+    statements of Houdon, 386;
+    of Ackerson, 386, 387;
+    his tremendous muscular strength, 388;
+    great personal impressiveness, 389, 390;
+    lacking in imagination, 391;
+    strong passions, 391;
+    fierce temper, 392;
+    anecdotes of outbreaks, 392;
+    his absence of self-love, 393;
+    confident in judgment of posterity, 393;
+    religious faith, 394;
+    summary and conclusion, 394, 395.
+
+  _Characteristics of_.
+    General view, ii. 304-395;
+    general admiration for, i. 1-7;
+    myths about, i. 9-12, ii. 307 ff.;
+    comparisons with Jefferson, ii. 69;
+    with Lincoln, ii. 310-312;
+    with Hampden, ii. 312, 313;
+    absence of self-seeking, i. 341;
+    affectionateness, i. 111, 285,331,345, ii. 332, 362-371;
+    agreeableness, ii. 344-347, 377;
+    Americanism, ii. 307-328;
+    aristocratic habits, ii. 314, 316;
+    business ability, i. 105, 109, ii. 5, 352, 382;
+    coldness on occasion, i. 223, 224, 263, ii. 318;
+    courage, i. 77, 78, 86, 127, 168, 292;
+    dignity, i. 81,161, ii. 52-57, 76;
+    hospitality, ii. 360;
+    impressiveness, i. 56, 83, 130, 138, 319, ii. 385;
+    indomitableness, i. 177, 181, 227;
+    judgments of men, i. 295, ii. 64, 86, 334, 335;
+    justice and sternness, i. 287, 330, ii. 203, 352-358, 389;
+    kindliness, ii. 349-356, 359;
+    lack of education, i. 62, ii. 337;
+    love of reading, i. 62, ii. 341, 342;
+    love of sport, i. 56, 98, 113-116, 118, ii. 380;
+    manners, ii. 282-283, 314;
+    military ability, i. 154, 166, 174, 183, 197, 204, 207, 239, 247,
+  265, 267, 305-320, ii. 331;
+    modesty, i. 102, 134;
+    not a figure-head, ii. 329, 330;
+    not a prig, i. 10-12, 41-47;
+    not cold and inhuman, ii. 332, 342;
+    not dull or commonplace, ii. 330, 332;
+    not superhuman and distant, i. 9, 10, 12, ii. 304, 305;
+    open-mindedness, ii. 317;
+    passionateness, i. 58, 73, 90;
+    personal appearance, i. 57, 136, 137, ii. 282, 343, 385-389;
+    religious views, i. 321, ii. 393;
+    romantic traits, i. 95-97;
+    sense of humor, ii. 371-377;
+    silence regarding self, i. 14, 69, 70, 116, 129, 285; ii. 37, 336;
+    simplicity, i. 59, 69, 348; ii. 50, 340;
+    sobriety, i. 49, 52, 134; ii. 43, 45, 333, 373;
+    tact, i. 162, 243, 244-246;
+    temper, i. 73, 92, 110, 168, 236, 237, 260; ii. 98, 392;
+    thoroughness, i. 112, 323, 341, ii. 381.
+
+  _Political Opinions_.
+    On Alien and Sedition Acts, ii. 196;
+    American nationality, i. 191, 250, 251, 255, 262, 279, ii. 7, 61,
+  133, 145, 324, 325, 327, 328;
+    Articles of Confederation, i. 297, ii. 17, 24;
+    bank, ii. 110, 111;
+    colonial rights, i. 120, 124-126, 130;
+    Constitution, i. 38-41;
+    democracy, ii. 317-319;
+    Democratic party, ii. 214, 239, 240, 258, 261, 267, 268;
+    disunion, ii. 22;
+    duties of the executive, ii. 190;
+    education, ii. 81, 326, 330;
+    Federalist party, ii. 71, 246, 247, 259, 260, 261, 269-274, 298;
+    finance, ii. 107, 108, 112, 122;
+    foreign relations, ii. 25, 134, 142, 145, 147, 179, 217-219, 323;
+    French Revolution, ii. 139, 140, 295, 318;
+    independence of colonies, i. 131, 159, 160;
+    Indian policy, ii. 82, 87, 88, 91, 92, 104, 105;
+    Jay treaty, ii. 184-205;
+    judiciary, i. 150;
+    nominations to office, ii. 62;
+    party, ii. 70, 222, 233, 249;
+    protection, ii. 116-122;
+    slavery, i. 106-108;
+    Stamp Act, i. 119;
+    strong government, i. 298, ii. 18, 24, 129, 130;
+    treaty power, ii. 190, 207-210;
+    Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, ii. 266, 267;
+    Western expansion, ii. 6, 8-16, 135, 163-165, 218, 322.
+
+  Washington, George Steptoe,
+    his sons educated by Washington, ii. 370.
+
+  Washington, John, brother of George,
+    letter of Washington, to, i. 132.
+
+  Washington, Lawrence, brother of George Washington,
+    educated in England, i. 54;
+    has military career, 54;
+    returns to Virginia and builds Mt. Vernon, 54;
+    marries into Fairfax family, 54, 55;
+    goes to West Indies for his health, 62;
+    dies, leaving George guardian of his daughter, 64;
+    chief manager of Ohio Company, 65;
+    gives George military education, 65.
+
+  Washington, Lund,
+    letter of Washington to, i. 152;
+    rebuked by Washington for entertaining British, ii. 303.
+
+  Washington, Martha, widow of Daniel P. Custis,
+    meets Washington, i. 101;
+    courtship of, and marriage, 101, 102;
+    hunts with her husband, 114;
+    joins him at Boston, 151;
+    holds levees as wife of President, ii. 54;
+    during his last illness, 300;
+    her correspondence destroyed, 368;
+    her relations with her husband, 368, 369.
+
+  Washington, Mary,
+    married to Augustine Washington, i. 39;
+    mother of George Washington, 39;
+    limited education but strong character, 40, 41;
+    wishes George to earn a living, 49;
+    opposes his going to sea, 49;
+    letters to, 88;
+    visited by her son, ii. 5.
+
+  Waters, Henry E.,
+    establishes Washington pedigree, i. 32.
+
+  Wayne, Anthony,
+    defeated after Brandywine, i. 198;
+    his opinion of Germantown, 199;
+    at Monmouth urges Washington to come, 235;
+    ready to attack Stony Point, 268;
+    his successful exploit, 269;
+    joins Lafayette in Virginia, 307;
+    appointed to command against Indians, ii. 100;
+    his character, 100;
+    organizes his force, 101;
+    his march, 102;
+    defeats the Indians, 103.
+
+  Weems, Mason L.,
+    influence of his life of Washington on popular opinion, i. 10;
+    originates idea of his priggishness, 11;
+    his character, 41, 43;
+    character of his book, 42;
+    his mythical "rectorate" of Mt. Vernon, 43, 44;
+    invents anecdotes of Washington's childhood, 44;
+    folly of cherry-tree and other stories, 46;
+    their evil influence, 47.
+
+  West, the,
+    its importance realized by Washington, ii. 7-16;
+    his influence counteracted by inertia of Congress, 8;
+    forwards inland navigation, 9;
+    desires to bind East to West, 9-11, 14;
+    formation of companies, 11-13;
+    on Mississippi navigation, 14-16, 164;
+    projects of Genet in, 162;
+    its attitude understood by Washington, 163, 164;
+    Washington wishes peace in order to develop it, 218, 219, 321.
+
+  "Whiskey Rebellion,"
+    passage of excise law, ii. 123;
+    outbreaks of violence in Pennsylvania and North Carolina, 124;
+    proclamation issued warning rioters to desist, 125;
+    renewed outbreaks in Pennsylvania, 125, 126;
+    the militia called out, 127;
+    suppression of the insurrection, 128;
+    real danger of movement, 129;
+    its suppression emphasizes national authority, 129, 130;
+    supposed by Washington to have been stirred up by Democratic clubs,
+  242.
+
+  White Plains,
+    battle at, i. 173.
+
+  Wilkinson, James,
+    brings Gates's message to Washington at Trenton, i. 180;
+    brings news of Saratoga to Congress, 220;
+    nettled at Sherman's sarcasm, discloses Conway cabal, 220;
+    quarrels with Gates, 223;
+    resigns from board of war, 223, 226;
+    leads expedition against Indians, ii. 95.
+
+  Willett, Colonel,
+    commissioner to Creeks, his success, ii. 91.
+
+  William and Mary College,
+    Washington Chancellor of, ii. 339.
+
+  Williams,
+    Washington's teacher, i. 48, 51.
+
+  Willis, Lewis,
+    story of Washington's school days, i. 95.
+
+  Wilson, James,
+    appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 72.
+
+  Wilson, James, "of England,"
+    hunts with Washington, i. 115.
+
+  Wolcott, Oliver,
+    receives Fauchet letter, ii. 195;
+    succeeds Hamilton as Secretary of Treasury, 246.
+
+  Wooster, Mrs.,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 61.
+
+
+  YORKTOWN,
+    siege of, i. 315-318.
+
+  "Young Man's Companion,"
+    used by George Washington, origin of his rules of conduct, i. 52.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's George Washington, Vol. I, by Henry Cabot Lodge
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+
+Project Gutenberg's George Washington, Vol. I, by Henry Cabot Lodge
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: George Washington, Vol. I
+
+Author: Henry Cabot Lodge
+
+Release Date: June 19, 2004 [EBook #12652]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GEORGE WASHINGTON, VOL. I ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Tim Koeller and PG Distributed
+Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <h5>American Statesmen</h5>
+  <hr />
+
+  <h1>GEORGE WASHINGTON</h1>
+
+  <h4>In Two Volumes</h4>
+
+  <h3>VOL. I.</h3>
+
+  <h4>By</h4>
+
+  <h3>HENRY CABOT LODGE</h3>
+
+  <h4>1899</h4>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;">
+    <a href="images/illus0379.jpg"><img width="100%" src=
+    "images/illus0379.jpg" alt="GEORGE WASHINGTON" /></a><br />
+    <i>Frontispiece I</i>.<br />
+    GEORGE WASHINGTON
+  </div>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:50%;">
+    <a href="images/illus0381.jpg"><img width="100%" src=
+    "images/illus0381.jpg" alt=
+    "The Home of the Washington Family" /></a><br />
+    <i>Frontispiece II</i>.<br />
+    The Home of the Washington Family
+  </div>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+  <p>This edition has been carefully revised, and although very
+  little has been added of late years to our knowledge of the facts
+  of Washington's life, I have tried to examine all that has
+  appeared. The researches of Mr. Waters, which were published just
+  after these volumes in the first edition had passed through the
+  press, enable me to give the Washington pedigree with certainty,
+  and have turned conjecture into fact. The recent publication in
+  full of Lear's memoranda, although they tell nothing new about
+  Washington's last moments, help toward a completion of all the
+  details of the scene.</p>
+
+  <p>H.C. LODGE.</p>
+
+  <p>WASHINGTON, February 7, 1898.</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <h2>Table of Contents</h2>
+
+  <p><a href="#I">Chapter I</a> &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp;THE OLD
+  DOMINION</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#II">Chapter II</a> &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; THE
+  WASHINGTONS</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#III">Chapter III</a> &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; ON THE
+  FRONTIER</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#IV">Chapter IV</a> &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; LOVE AND
+  MARRIAGE</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#V">Chapter V</a> &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; TAKING
+  COMMAND</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#VI">Chapter VI</a> &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; SAVING THE
+  REVOLUTION</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#VII">Chapter VII</a> &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; MALICE
+  DOMESTIC, AND FOREIGN LEVY</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#VIII">Chapter VIII</a> &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; THE
+  ALLIES</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#IX">Chapter IX</a> &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; ARNOLD'S
+  TREASON, AND THE WAR IN THE SOUTH</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#X">Chapter X</a> &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; YORKTOWN</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#XI">Chapter XI</a> &nbsp;&mdash;&nbsp; PEACE</p>
+
+  <p><a href="#INDEX">INDEX</a></p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <h2>List of Illustrations</h2>
+
+  <p><a href="images/illus0379.jpg">GEORGE WASHINGTON</a></p>
+
+  <p>From the painting by Gilbert Stuart in the Museum of Fine
+  Arts, Boston. This painting is owned by the Boston Athen&aelig;um
+  and is known as the Athen&aelig;um portrait.</p>
+
+  <p>Autograph is from Washington's signature to a bill of
+  exchange, from "Talks about Autographs" by George Birkbeck
+  Hill.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="images/illus0381.jpg">VIGNETTE of the RESIDENCE of
+  the WASHINGTON FAMILY</a></p>
+
+  <p>From "Homes of American Statesman," published by Alfred W.
+  Putnam, New York.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="images/illus0383.jpg">LAWRENCE WASHINGTON</a></p>
+
+  <p>From an original painting in the possession of Lawrence
+  Washington, Esq., Alexandria, Va., a
+  great-great-great-nephew.</p>
+
+  <p>Autograph from MS. in New York Public Library, Lenox
+  Building.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="images/illus0385.jpg">MISS MARY CARY</a></p>
+
+  <p>From an original painting owned by Dr. James D. Moncure of
+  Virginia, one of her descendants.</p>
+
+  <p>No autograph can be found.</p>
+
+  <p><a href="images/illus0387.jpg">MISS MARY PHILIPSE</a></p>
+
+  <p>From Irving's "Washington," published by G.P. Putnam's
+  Sons.</p>
+
+  <p>Autograph from Appleton's "Cyclop&aelig;dia of American
+  Biography."</p>
+
+  <p><a href="images/illus0389.jpg">WASHINGTON CROSSING THE
+  DELAWARE</a></p>
+
+  <p>From the original painting by Emanuel Leutze in the New York
+  Metropolitan Museum. The United States flag shown in the picture
+  is an anachronism. The stars and stripes were first adopted by
+  Congress in June, 1777; and any flag carried by Washington's army
+  in December, 1776, would have consisted of the stripes with the
+  crosses of St. George and St. Andrew in the blue field where the
+  stars now appear.</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <h2>INTRODUCTION</h2>
+
+  <p>February 9 in the year 1800 was a gala day in Paris. Napoleon
+  had decreed a triumphal procession, and on that day a splendid
+  military ceremony was performed in the Champ de Mars, and the
+  trophies of the Egyptian expedition were exultingly displayed.
+  There were, however, two features in all this pomp and show which
+  seemed strangely out of keeping with the glittering pageant and
+  the sounds of victorious rejoicing. The standards and flags of
+  the army were hung with crape, and after the grand parade the
+  dignitaries of the land proceeded solemnly to the Temple of Mars,
+  and heard the eloquent M. de Fontanes deliver an "Eloge
+  Fun&egrave;bre."<a id="footnotetag1" name=
+  "footnotetag1"></a><a href="#footnote1"><sup>1</sup></a></p>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote1" name="footnote1"></a> [<b>Footnote 1:</b>
+    <a href="#footnotetag1">(return)</a> A report recently
+    discovered shows that more even was intended than was actually
+    done.
+
+    <p>The following is a translation of the paper, the original of
+    which is Nos. 172 and 173 of volume 51 of the manuscript series
+    known as <i>Etats-Unis</i>, 1799, 1800 (years 7 and 8 of the
+    French republic):&mdash;</p>
+
+    <blockquote>
+      <p>"<i>Report of Talleyrand, Minister of Foreign Affairs, on
+      the occasion of the death of George Washington</i>.</p>
+
+      <p>"A nation which some day will he a great nation, and which
+      today is the wisest and happiest on the face of the earth,
+      weeps at the bier of a man whose courage and genius
+      contributed the most to free it from bondage, and elevate it
+      to the rank of an independent and sovereign power. The
+      regrets caused by the death of this great man, the memories
+      aroused by these regrets, and a proper veneration for all
+      that is held dear and sacred by mankind, impel us to give
+      expression to our sentiments by taking part in an event which
+      deprives the world of one of its brightest ornaments, and
+      removes to the realm of history one of the noblest lives that
+      ever honored the human race.</p>
+
+      <p>"The name of Washington is inseparably linked with a
+      memorable epoch. He adorned this epoch by his talents and the
+      nobility of his character, and with virtues that even envy
+      dared not assail. History offers few examples of such renown.
+      Great from the outset of his career, patriotic before his
+      country had become a nation, brilliant and universal despite
+      the passions and political resentments that would gladly have
+      checked his career, his fame is to-day
+      imperishable,&mdash;fortune having consecrated his claim to
+      greatness, while the prosperity of a people destined for
+      grand achievements is the best evidence of a fame ever to
+      increase.</p>
+
+      <p>"His own country now honors his memory with funeral
+      ceremonies, having lost a citizen whose public actions and
+      unassuming grandeur in private life were a living example of
+      courage, wisdom, and unselfishness; and France, which from
+      the dawn of the American Revolution hailed with hope a
+      nation, hitherto unknown, that was discarding the vices of
+      Europe, which foresaw all the glory that this nation would
+      bestow on humanity, and the enlightenment of governments that
+      would ensue from the novel character of the social
+      institutions and the new type of heroism of which Washington
+      and America were models for the world at large,&mdash;France,
+      I repeat, should depart from established usages and do honor
+      to one whose fame is beyond comparison with that of
+      others.</p>
+
+      <p>"The man who, amid the decadence of modern ages, first
+      dared believe that he could inspire degenerate nations with
+      courage to rise to the level of republican virtues, lived for
+      all nations and for all centuries; and this nation, which
+      first saw in the life and success of that illustrious man a
+      foreboding of its destiny, and therein recognized a future to
+      be realized and duties to be performed, has every right to
+      class him as a fellow-citizen. I therefore submit to the
+      First Consul the following decree:&mdash; "Bonaparte, First
+      Consul of the republic, decrees as follows:&mdash; "Article
+      1. A statue is to be erected to General Washington. "Article
+      2. This statue is to be placed in one of the squares of
+      Paris, to be chosen by the minister of the interior, and it
+      shall be his duty to execute the present decree."]</p>
+    </blockquote>
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>About the same time, if tradition may be trusted, the flags
+  upon the conquering Channel fleet of England were lowered to
+  half-mast in token of grief for the same event which had caused
+  the armies of France to wear the customary badges of
+  mourning.</p>
+
+  <p>If some "traveler from an antique land" had observed these
+  manifestations, he would have wondered much whose memory it was
+  that had called them forth from these two great nations, then
+  struggling fiercely with each other for supremacy on land and
+  sea. His wonder would not have abated had he been told that the
+  man for whom they mourned had wrested an empire from one, and at
+  the time of his death was arming his countrymen against the
+  other.</p>
+
+  <p>These signal honors were paid by England and France to a
+  simple Virginian gentleman who had never left his own country,
+  and who when he died held no other office than the titular
+  command of a provisional army. Yet although these marks of
+  respect from foreign nations were notable and striking, they were
+  slight and formal in comparison with the silence and grief which
+  fell upon the people of the United States when they heard that
+  Washington was dead. He had died in the fullness of time,
+  quietly, quickly, and in his own house, and yet his death called
+  out a display of grief which has rarely been equaled in history.
+  The trappings and suits of woe were there of course, but what
+  made this mourning memorable was that the land seemed hushed with
+  sadness, and that the sorrow dwelt among the people and was
+  neither forced nor fleeting. Men carried it home with them to
+  their firesides and to their churches, to their offices and their
+  workshops. Every preacher took the life which had closed as the
+  noblest of texts, and every orator made it the theme of his
+  loftiest eloquence. For more than a year the newspapers teemed
+  with eulogy and elegy, and both prose and poetry were severely
+  taxed to pay tribute to the memory of the great one who had gone.
+  The prose was often stilted and the verse was generally bad, but
+  yet through it all, from the polished sentences of the funeral
+  oration to the humble effusions of the obscurest poet's corner,
+  there ran a strong and genuine feeling, which the highest art
+  could not refine nor the clumsiest expression degrade.</p>
+
+  <p>From that time to this, the stream of praise has flowed on,
+  ever deepening and strengthening, both at home and abroad.
+  Washington alone in history seems to have risen so high in the
+  estimation of men that criticism has shrunk away abashed, and has
+  only been heard whispering in corners or growling hoarsely in the
+  now famous house in Cheyne Row.</p>
+
+  <p>There is a world of meaning in all this, could we but rightly
+  interpret it. It cannot be brushed aside as mere popular
+  superstition, formed of fancies and prejudices, to which
+  intelligent opposition would be useless. Nothing is in fact more
+  false than the way in which popular opinions are often belittled
+  and made light of. The opinion of the world, however reached,
+  becomes in the course of years or centuries the nearest approach
+  we can make to final judgment on human things. Don Quixote may be
+  dumb to one man, and the sonnets of Shakespeare may leave another
+  cold and weary. But the fault is in the reader. There is no doubt
+  of the greatness of Cervantes or Shakespeare, for they have stood
+  the test of time, and the voices of generations of men, from
+  which there is no appeal, have declared them to be great. The
+  lyrics that all the world loves and repeats, the poetry which is
+  often called hackneyed, is on the whole the best poetry. The
+  pictures and statues that have drawn crowds of admiring gazers
+  for centuries are the best. The things that are "caviare to the
+  general" often undoubtedly have much merit, but they lack quite
+  as often the warm, generous, and immortal vitality which appeals
+  alike to rich and poor, to the ignorant and to the learned.</p>
+
+  <p>So it is with men. When years after his death the world agrees
+  to call a man great, the verdict must be accepted. The historian
+  may whiten or blacken, the critic may weigh and dissect, the form
+  of the judgment may be altered, but the central fact remains, and
+  with the man, whom the world in its vague way has pronounced
+  great, history must reckon one way or the other, whether for good
+  or ill.</p>
+
+  <p>When we come to such a man as Washington, the case is still
+  stronger. Men seem to have agreed that here was greatness which
+  no one could question, and character which no one could fail to
+  respect. Around other leaders of men, even around the greatest of
+  them, sharp controversies have arisen, and they have their
+  partisans dead as they had them living. Washington had enemies
+  who assailed him, and friends whom he loved, but in death as in
+  life he seems to stand alone, above conflict and superior to
+  malice. In his own country there is no dispute as to his
+  greatness or his worth. Englishmen, the most unsparing censors of
+  everything American, have paid homage to Washington, from the
+  days of Fox and Byron to those of Tennyson and Gladstone. In
+  France his name has always been revered, and in distant lands
+  those who have scarcely heard of the existence of the United
+  States know the country of Washington. To the mighty cairn which
+  the nation and the states have raised to his memory, stones have
+  come from Greece, sending a fragment of the Parthenon; from
+  Brazil and Switzerland, Turkey and Japan, Siam and India beyond
+  the Ganges. On that sent by China we read: "In devising plans,
+  Washington was more decided than Ching Shing or Woo Kwang; in
+  winning a country he was braver than Tsau Tsau or Ling Pi.
+  Wielding his four-footed falchion, he extended the frontiers and
+  refused to accept the Royal Dignity. The sentiments of the Three
+  Dynasties have reappeared in him. Can any man of ancient or
+  modern times fail to pronounce Washington peerless?" These
+  comparisons so strange to our ears tell of a fame which has
+  reached farther than we can readily conceive.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington stands as a type, and has stamped himself deep upon
+  the imagination of mankind. Whether the image be true or false is
+  of no consequence: the fact endures. He rises up from the dust of
+  history as a Greek statue comes pure and serene from the earth in
+  which it has lain for centuries. We know his deeds; but what was
+  it in the man which has given him such a place in the affection,
+  the respect, and the imagination of his fellow men throughout the
+  world?</p>
+
+  <p>Perhaps this question has been fully answered already.
+  Possibly every one who has thought upon the subject has solved
+  the problem, so that even to state it is superfluous. Yet a
+  brilliant writer, the latest historian of the American people,
+  has said: "General Washington is known to us, and President
+  Washington. But George Washington is an unknown man." These are
+  pregnant words, and that they should be true seems to make any
+  attempt to fill the great gap an act of sheer and hopeless
+  audacity. Yet there can be certainly no reason for adding another
+  to the almost countless lives of Washington unless it be done
+  with the object in view which Mr. McMaster indicates. Any such
+  attempt may fail in execution, but if the purpose be right it has
+  at least an excuse for its existence.</p>
+
+  <p>To try to add to the existing knowledge of the facts in
+  Washington's career would have but little result beyond the
+  multiplication of printed pages. The antiquarian, the historian,
+  and the critic have exhausted every source, and the most minute
+  details have been and still are the subject of endless writing
+  and constant discussion. Every house he ever lived in has been
+  drawn and painted; every portrait, and statue, and medal has been
+  catalogued and engraved. His private affairs, his servants, his
+  horses, his arms, even his clothes, have all passed beneath the
+  merciless microscope of history. His biography has been written
+  and rewritten. His letters have been drawn out from every lurking
+  place, and have been given to the world in masses and in
+  detachments. His battles have been fought over and over again,
+  and his state papers have undergone an almost verbal examination.
+  Yet, despite his vast fame and all the labors of the antiquarian
+  and biographer, Washington is still not understood,&mdash;as a
+  man he is unfamiliar to the posterity that reverences his memory.
+  He has been misrepresented more or less covertly by hostile
+  critics and by candid friends, and has been disguised and hidden
+  away by the mistaken eulogy and erroneous theories of devout
+  admirers. All that any one now can do, therefore, is to endeavor
+  from this mass of material to depict the very man himself in the
+  various conjunctures of his life, and strive to see what he
+  really was and what he meant then, and what he is and what he
+  means to us and to the world to-day.</p>
+
+  <p>In the progress of time Washington has become in the popular
+  imagination largely mythical; for mythical ideas grow up in this
+  nineteenth century, notwithstanding its boasted intelligence,
+  much as they did in the infancy of the race. The old sentiment of
+  humanity, more ancient and more lasting than any records or
+  monuments, which led men in the dawn of history to worship their
+  ancestors and the founders of states, still endures. As the
+  centuries have gone by, this sentiment has lost its religious
+  flavor, and has become more and more restricted in its
+  application, but it has never been wholly extinguished. Let some
+  man arise great above the ordinary bounds of greatness, and the
+  feeling which caused our progenitors to bow down at the shrines
+  of their forefathers and chiefs leads us to invest our modern
+  hero with a mythical character, and picture him in our
+  imagination as a being to whom, a few thousand years ago, altars
+  would have been builded and libations poured out.</p>
+
+  <p>Thus we have to-day in our minds a Washington grand, solemn,
+  and impressive. In this guise he appears as a man of lofty
+  intellect, vast moral force, supremely successful and fortunate,
+  and wholly apart from and above all his fellow-men. This lonely
+  figure rises up to our imagination with all the imperial splendor
+  of the Livian Augustus, and with about as much warmth and life as
+  that unrivaled statue. In this vague but quite serious idea there
+  is a great deal of truth, but not the whole truth. It is the myth
+  of genuine love and veneration springing from the inborn
+  gratitude of man to the founders and chiefs of his race, but it
+  is not by any means the only one of its family. There is another,
+  equally diffused, of wholly different parentage. In its inception
+  this second myth is due to the itinerant parson, bookmaker, and
+  bookseller, Mason Weems. He wrote a brief biography of
+  Washington, of trifling historical value, yet with sufficient
+  literary skill to make it widely popular. It neither appealed to
+  nor was read by the cultivated and instructed few, but it reached
+  the homes of the masses of the people. It found its way to the
+  bench of the mechanic, to the house of the farmer, to the log
+  cabins of the frontiersman and pioneer. It was carried across the
+  continent on the first waves of advancing settlement. Its
+  anecdotes and its simplicity of thought commended it to children
+  both at home and at school, and, passing through edition after
+  edition, its statements were widely spread, and it colored
+  insensibly the ideas of hundreds of persons who never had heard
+  even the name of the author. To Weems we owe the anecdote of the
+  cherry-tree, and other tales of a similar nature. He wrote with
+  Dr. Beattie's life of his son before him as a model, and the
+  result is that Washington comes out in his pages a faultless
+  prig. Whether Weems intended it or not, that is the result which
+  he produced, and that is the Washington who was developed from
+  the wide sale of his book. When this idea took definite and
+  permanent shape it caused a reaction. There was a revolt against
+  it, for the hero thus engendered had qualities which the national
+  sense of humor could not endure in silence. The consequence is,
+  that the Washington of Weems has afforded an endless theme for
+  joke and burlesque. Every professional American humorist almost
+  has tried his hand at it; and with each recurring 22d of February
+  the hard-worked jesters of the daily newspapers take it up and
+  make a little fun out of it, sufficient for the day that is
+  passing over them. The opportunity is tempting, because of the
+  ease with which fun can be made when that fundamental source of
+  humor, a violent contrast, can be employed. But there is no
+  irreverence in it all, for the jest is not aimed at the real
+  Washington, but at the Washington portrayed in the Weems
+  biography. The worthy "rector of Mount Vernon," as he called
+  himself, meant no harm, and there is a good deal of truth, no
+  doubt, in his book. But the blameless and priggish boy, and the
+  equally faultless and uninteresting man, whom he originated, have
+  become in the process of development a myth. So in its further
+  development is the Washington of the humorist a myth. Both alike
+  are utterly and crudely false. They resemble their great original
+  as much as Greenough's classically nude statue, exposed to the
+  incongruities of the North American climate, resembles in dress
+  and appearance the general of our armies and the first President
+  of the United States.</p>
+
+  <p>Such are the myth-makers. They are widely different from the
+  critics who have assailed Washington in a sidelong way, and who
+  can be better dealt with in a later chapter. These last bring
+  charges which can be met; the myth-maker presents a vague
+  conception, extremely difficult to handle because it is so
+  elusive.</p>
+
+  <p>One of our well-known historical scholars and most learned
+  antiquarians, not long ago, in an essay vindicating the
+  "traditional Washington," treated with scorn the idea of a "new
+  Washington" being discovered. In one sense this is quite right,
+  in another totally wrong. There can be no new Washington
+  discovered, because there never was but one. But the real man has
+  been so overlaid with myths and traditions, and so distorted by
+  misleading criticisms, that, as has already been suggested, he
+  has been wellnigh lost. We have the religious or statuesque myth,
+  we have the Weems myth, and the ludicrous myth of the writer of
+  paragraphs. We have the stately hero of Sparks, and Everett, and
+  Marshall, and Irving, with all his great deeds as general and
+  president duly recorded and set down in polished and eloquent
+  sentences; and we know him to be very great and wise and pure,
+  and, be it said with bated breath, very dry and cold. We are also
+  familiar with the common-place man who so wonderfully illustrated
+  the power of character as set forth by various persons, either
+  from love of novelty or because the great chief seemed to get in
+  the way of their own heroes.</p>
+
+  <p>If this is all, then the career of Washington and his towering
+  fame present a problem of which the world has never seen the
+  like. But this cannot be all: there must be more behind. Every
+  one knows the famous Stuart portrait of Washington. The last
+  effort of the artist's cunning is there employed to paint his
+  great subject for posterity. How serene and beautiful it is! It
+  is a noble picture for future ages to look upon. Still it is not
+  all. There is in the dining-room of Memorial Hall at Cambridge
+  another portrait, painted by Savage. It is cold and dry, hard
+  enough to serve for the signboard of an inn, and able, one would
+  think, to withstand all weathers. Yet this picture has something
+  which Stuart left out. There is a rugged strength in the face
+  which gives us pause, there is a massiveness in the jaw, telling
+  of an iron grip and a relentless will, which has infinite
+  meaning.</p>
+
+  <div class="poem">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>"Here's John the Smith's rough-hammered head. Great
+      eye,</p>
+
+      <p>Gross jaw, and griped lips do what granite can</p>
+
+      <p>To give you the crown-grasper. What a man!"</p>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>In death as in life, there is something about Washington, call
+  it greatness, dignity, majesty, what you will, which seems to
+  hold men aloof and keep them from knowing him. In truth he was a
+  most difficult man to know. Carlyle, crying out through hundreds
+  of pages and myriads of words for the "silent man," passed by
+  with a sneer the most absolutely silent great man that history
+  can show. Washington's letters and speeches and messages fill
+  many volumes, but they are all on business. They are profoundly
+  silent as to the writer himself. From this Carlyle concluded
+  apparently that there was nothing to tell,&mdash;a very shallow
+  conclusion if it was the one he really reached. Such an idea was
+  certainly far, very far, from the truth.</p>
+
+  <p>Behind the popular myths, behind the statuesque figure of the
+  orator and the preacher, behind the general and the president of
+  the historian, there was a strong, vigorous man, in whose veins
+  ran warm, red blood, in whose heart were stormy passions and deep
+  sympathy for humanity, in whose brain were far-reaching thoughts,
+  and who was informed throughout his being with a resistless will.
+  The veil of his silence is not often lifted, and never
+  intentionally, but now and then there is a glimpse behind it; and
+  in stray sentences and in little incidents strenuously gathered
+  together; above all, in the right interpretation of the words,
+  and the deeds, and the true history known to all men,&mdash;we
+  can surely find George Washington "the noblest figure that ever
+  stood in the forefront of a nation's life."</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <h2>GEORGE WASHINGTON</h2>
+
+  <h2><a name="I" id="I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2>
+
+  <h2>THE OLD DOMINION</h2>
+
+  <p>To know George Washington, we must first of all understand the
+  society in which he was born and brought up. As certain lilies
+  draw their colors from the subtle qualities of the soil hidden
+  beneath the water upon which they float, so are men profoundly
+  affected by the obscure and insensible influences which surround
+  their childhood and youth. The art of the chemist may discover
+  perhaps the secret agent which tints the white flower with blue
+  or pink, but very often the elements, which analysis detects,
+  nature alone can combine. The analogy is not strained or fanciful
+  when we apply it to a past society. We can separate, and
+  classify, and label the various elements, but to combine them in
+  such a way as to form a vivid picture is a work of surpassing
+  difficulty. This is especially true of such a land as Virginia in
+  the middle of the last century. Virginian society, as it existed
+  at that period, is utterly extinct. John Randolph said it had
+  departed before the year 1800. Since then another century, with
+  all its manifold changes, has wellnigh come and gone. Most
+  important of all, the last surviving institution of colonial
+  Virginia has been swept away in the crash of civil war, which has
+  opened a gulf between past and present wider and deeper than any
+  that time alone could make.</p>
+
+  <p>Life and society as they existed in the Virginia of the
+  eighteenth century seem, moreover, to have been sharply broken
+  and ended. We cannot trace our steps backward, as is possible in
+  most cases, over the road by which the world has traveled since
+  those days. We are compelled to take a long leap mentally in
+  order to land ourselves securely in the Virginia which honored
+  the second George, and looked up to Walpole and Pitt as the
+  arbiters of its fate.</p>
+
+  <p>We live in a period of great cities, rapid communication, vast
+  and varied business interests, enormous diversity of occupation,
+  great industries, diffused intelligence, farming by steam, and
+  with everything and everybody pervaded by an unresting,
+  high-strung activity. We transport ourselves to the Virginia of
+  Washington's boyhood, and find a people without cities or towns,
+  with no means of communication except what was afforded by rivers
+  and wood roads; having no trades, no industries, no means of
+  spreading knowledge, only one occupation, clumsily performed; and
+  living a quiet, monotonous existence, which can now hardly be
+  realized. It is "a far cry to Loch-Awe," as the Scotch proverb
+  has it; and this old Virginian society, although we should find
+  it sorry work living in it, is both pleasant and picturesque in
+  the pages of history.</p>
+
+  <p>The population of Virginia, advancing toward half a million,
+  and divided pretty equally between the free whites and the
+  enslaved blacks, was densest, to use a most inappropriate word,
+  at the water's edge and near the mouths of the rivers. Thence it
+  crept backwards, following always the lines of the watercourses,
+  and growing ever thinner and more scattered until it reached the
+  Blue Ridge. Behind the mountains was the wilderness, haunted, as
+  old John Lederer said a century earlier, by monsters, and
+  inhabited, as the eighteenth-century Virginians very well knew,
+  by savages and wild beasts, much more real and dangerous than the
+  hobgoblins of their ancestors.</p>
+
+  <p>The population, in proportion to its numbers, was very widely
+  distributed. It was not collected in groups, after the fashion
+  with which we are now familiar, for then there were no cities or
+  towns in Virginia. The only place which could pretend to either
+  name was Norfolk, the solitary seaport, which, with its six or
+  seven thousand inhabitants, formed the most glaring exception
+  that any rule solicitous of proof could possibly desire.
+  Williamsburg, the capital, was a straggling village, somewhat
+  overweighted with the public buildings and those of the college.
+  It would light up into life and vivacity during the season of
+  politics and society, and then relapse again into the country
+  stillness. Outside of Williamsburg and Norfolk there were various
+  points which passed in the catalogue and on the map for towns,
+  but which in reality were merely the shadows of a name. The most
+  populous consisted of a few houses inhabited by storekeepers and
+  traders, some tobacco warehouses, and a tavern, clustered about
+  the church or court-house. Many others had only the church, or,
+  if a county seat, the church and court-house, keeping solitary
+  state in the woods. There once a week the sound of prayer and
+  gossip, or at longer intervals the voices of lawyers and
+  politicians, and the shouts of the wrestlers on the green, broke
+  through the stillness which with the going down of the sun
+  resumed its sway in the forests.</p>
+
+  <p>There was little chance here for that friction of mind with
+  mind, or for that quick interchange of thought and sentiment and
+  knowledge which are familiar to the dwellers in cities, and which
+  have driven forward more rapidly than all else what we call
+  civilization. Rare meetings for special objects with persons as
+  solitary in their lives and as ill-informed as himself,
+  constituted to the average Virginian the world of society, and
+  there was nothing from outside to supply the deficiencies at
+  home. Once a fortnight a mail crawled down from the North, and
+  once a month another crept on to the South. George Washington was
+  four years old when the first newspaper was published in the
+  colony, and he was twenty when the first actors appeared at
+  Williamsburg. What was not brought was not sought. The Virginians
+  did not go down to the sea in ships. They were not a seafaring
+  race, and as they had neither trade nor commerce they were
+  totally destitute of the inquiring, enterprising spirit, and of
+  the knowledge brought by those pursuits which involve travel and
+  adventure. The English tobacco-ships worked their way up the
+  rivers, taking the great staple, and leaving their varied goods,
+  and their tardy news from Europe, wherever they stopped. This was
+  the sum of the information and intercourse which Virginia got
+  from across the sea, for travelers were practically unknown. Few
+  came on business, fewer still from curiosity. Stray peddlers from
+  the North, or trappers from beyond the mountains with their packs
+  of furs, chiefly constituted what would now be called the
+  traveling public. There were in truth no means of traveling
+  except on foot, on horseback, or by boat on the rivers, which
+  formed the best and most expeditious highways. Stage-coaches, or
+  other public conveyances, were unknown. Over some of the roads
+  the rich man, with his six horses and black outriders, might make
+  his way in a lumbering carriage, but most of the roads were
+  little better than woodland paths; and the rivers, innocent of
+  bridges, offered in the uncertain fords abundance of
+  inconvenience, not unmixed with peril. The taverns were
+  execrable, and only the ever-ready hospitality of the people made
+  it possible to get from place to place. The result was that the
+  Virginians stayed at home, and sought and welcomed the rare
+  stranger at their gates as if they were well aware that they were
+  entertaining angels.</p>
+
+  <p>It is not difficult to sift this home-keeping people, and find
+  out that portion which was Virginia, for the mass was but an
+  appendage of the small fraction which ruled, led, and did the
+  thinking for the whole community. Half the people were slaves,
+  and in that single wretched word their history is told. They
+  were, on the whole, well and kindly treated, but they have no
+  meaning in history except as an institution, and as an influence
+  in the lives, feelings, and character of the men who made the
+  state.</p>
+
+  <p>Above the slaves, little better than they in condition, but
+  separated from them by the wide gulf of race and color, were the
+  indented white servants, some convicts, some redemptioners. They,
+  too, have their story told when we have catalogued them. We cross
+  another gulf and come to the farmers, to the men who grew wheat
+  as well as tobacco on their own land, sometimes working alone,
+  sometimes the owners of a few slaves. Some of these men were of
+  the class well known since as the "poor whites" of the South, the
+  weaker brothers who could not resist the poison of slavery, but
+  sank under it into ignorance and poverty. They were contented
+  because their skins were white, and because they were thereby
+  part of an aristocracy to whom labor was a badge of serfdom. The
+  larger portion of this middle class, however, were thrifty and
+  industrious enough. Including as they did in their ranks the
+  hunters and pioneers, the traders and merchants, all the freemen
+  in fact who toiled and worked, they formed the mass of the white
+  population, and furnished the bone and sinew and some of the
+  intellectual power of Virginia. The only professional men were
+  the clergy, for the lawyers were few, and growing to importance
+  only as the Revolution began; while the physicians were still
+  fewer, and as a class of no importance at all. The clergy were a
+  picturesque element in the social landscape, but they were as a
+  body very poor representatives of learning, religion, and
+  morality. They ranged from hedge parsons and Fleet chaplains, who
+  had slunk away from England to find a desirable obscurity in the
+  new world, to divines of real learning and genuine piety, who
+  were the supporters of the college, and who would have been a
+  credit to any society. These last, however, were lamentably few
+  in number. The mass of the clergy were men who worked their own
+  lands, sold tobacco, were the boon companions of the planters,
+  hunted, shot, drank hard, and lived well, performing their sacred
+  duties in a perfunctory and not always in a decent manner.</p>
+
+  <p>The clergy, however, formed the stepping-stone socially
+  between the farmers, traders, and small planters, and the highest
+  and most important class in Virginian society. The great planters
+  were the men who owned, ruled, and guided Virginia. Their vast
+  estates were scattered along the rivers from the seacoast to the
+  mountains. Each plantation was in itself a small village, with
+  the owner's house in the centre, surrounded by outbuildings and
+  negro cabins, and the pastures, meadows, and fields of tobacco
+  stretching away on all sides. The rare traveler, pursuing his
+  devious way on horseback or in a boat, would catch sight of these
+  noble estates opening up from the road or the river, and then the
+  forest would close in around him for several miles, until through
+  the thinning trees he would see again the white cabins and the
+  cleared fields of the next plantation.</p>
+
+  <p>In such places dwelt the Virginian planters, surrounded by
+  their families and slaves, and in a solitude broken only by the
+  infrequent and eagerly welcomed stranger, by their duties as
+  vestrymen and magistrates, or by the annual pilgrimage to
+  Williamsburg in search of society, or to sit in the House of
+  Burgesses. They were occupied by the care of their plantations,
+  which involved a good deal of riding in the open air, but which
+  was at best an easy and indolent pursuit made light by slave
+  labor and trained overseers. As a result the planters had an
+  abundance of spare time, which they devoted to cock-fighting,
+  horse-racing, fishing, shooting, and fox-hunting,&mdash;all, save
+  the first, wholesome and manly sports, but which did not demand
+  any undue mental strain. There is, indeed, no indication that the
+  Virginians had any great love for intellectual exertion. When the
+  amiable attorney-general of Charles II. said to the Virginian
+  commissioners, pleading the cause of learning and religion, "Damn
+  your souls! grow tobacco!" he uttered a precept which the mass of
+  the planters seem to have laid to heart. For fifty years there
+  were no schools, and down to the Revolution even the apologies
+  bearing that honored name were few, and the college was small and
+  struggling. In some of the great families, the eldest sons would
+  be sent to England and to the great universities: they would make
+  the grand tour, play a part in the fashionable society of London,
+  and come back to their plantations fine gentlemen and scholars.
+  Such was Colonel Byrd, in the early part of the eighteenth
+  century, a friend of the Earl of Orrery, and the author of
+  certain amusing memoirs. Such at a later day was Arthur Lee,
+  doctor and diplomat, student and politician. But most of these
+  young gentlemen thus sent abroad to improve their minds and
+  manners led a life not materially different from that of our
+  charming friend, Harry Warrington, after his arrival in
+  England.</p>
+
+  <p>The sons who stayed at home sometimes gathered a little
+  learning from the clergyman of the parish, or received a fair
+  education at the College of William and Mary, but very many did
+  not have even so much as this. There was not in truth much use
+  for learning in managing a plantation or raising horses, and men
+  get along surprisingly well without that which they do not need,
+  especially if the acquisition demands labor. The Virginian
+  planter thought little and read less, and there were no learned
+  professions to hold out golden prizes and stimulate the love of
+  knowledge. The women fared even worse, for they could not go to
+  Europe or to William and Mary's, so that after exhausting the
+  teaching capacity of the parson they settled down to a round of
+  household duties and to the cares of a multitude of slaves,
+  working much harder and more steadily than their lords and
+  masters ever thought of doing.</p>
+
+  <p>The only general form of intellectual exertion was that of
+  governing. The planters managed local affairs through the
+  vestries, and ruled Virginia in the House of Burgesses. To this
+  work they paid strict attention, and, after the fashion of their
+  race, did it very well and very efficiently. They were an
+  extremely competent body whenever they made up their minds to do
+  anything; but they liked the life and habits of Squire Western,
+  and saw no reason for adopting any others until it was
+  necessary.</p>
+
+  <p>There were, of course, vast differences in the condition of
+  the planters. Some counted their acres by thousands and their
+  slaves by hundreds, while others scrambled along as best they
+  might with one plantation and a few score of negroes. Some dwelt
+  in very handsome houses, picturesque and beautiful, like Gunston
+  Hall or Stratford, or in vast, tasteless, and extravagant piles
+  like Rosewell. Others were contented with very modest houses,
+  consisting of one story with a gabled roof, and flanked by two
+  massive chimneys. In some houses there was a brave show of
+  handsome plate and china, fine furniture, and London-made
+  carriages, rich silks and satins, and brocaded dresses. In others
+  there were earthenware and pewter, homespun and woolen, and
+  little use for horses, except in the plough or under the
+  saddle.</p>
+
+  <p>But there were certain qualities common to all the Virginia
+  planters. The luxury was imperfect. The splendor was sometimes
+  barbaric. There were holes in the brocades, and the fresh air of
+  heaven would often blow through a broken window upon the
+  glittering silver and the costly china. It was an easy-going
+  aristocracy, unfinished, and frequently slovenly in its
+  appointments, after the fashion of the warmer climates and the
+  regions of slavery.</p>
+
+  <p>Everything was plentiful except ready money. In this rich and
+  poor were alike. They were all ahead of their income, and it
+  seems as if, from one cause or another, from extravagance or
+  improvidence, from horses or the gaming-table, every Virginian
+  family went through bankruptcy about once in a generation.</p>
+
+  <p>When Harry Warrington arrived in England, all his relations at
+  Castlewood regarded the handsome young fellow as a prince, with
+  his acres and his slaves. It was a natural and pleasing delusion,
+  born of the possession of land and serfs, to which the Virginians
+  themselves gave ready credence. They forgot that the land was so
+  plentiful that it was of little value; that slaves were the most
+  wasteful form of labor; and that a failure of the tobacco crop,
+  pledged before it was gathered, meant ruin, although they had
+  been reminded more than once of this last impressive fact. They
+  knew that they had plenty to eat and drink, and a herd of people
+  to wait upon them and cultivate their land, as well as obliging
+  London merchants always ready to furnish every luxury in return
+  for the mortgage of a crop or an estate. So they gave themselves
+  little anxiety as to the future and lived in the present, very
+  much to their own satisfaction.</p>
+
+  <p>To the communities of trade and commerce, to the mercantile
+  and industrial spirit of to-day, such an existence and such modes
+  of life appear distressingly lax and unprogressive. The sages of
+  the bank parlors and the counting-rooms would shake their heads
+  at such spendthrifts as these, refuse to discount their paper,
+  and confidently predict that by no possibility could they come to
+  good. They had their defects, no doubt, these planters and
+  farmers of Virginia. The life they led was strongly developed on
+  the animal side, and was perhaps neither stimulating nor
+  elevating. The living was the reverse of plain, and the thinking
+  was neither extremely high nor notably laborious. Yet in this
+  very particular there is something rather restful and pleasant to
+  the eye wearied by the sight of incessant movement, and to the
+  ear deafened by the continual shout that nothing is good that
+  does not change, and that all change must be good. We should
+  probably find great discomforts and many unpleasant limitations
+  in the life and habits of a hundred years ago on any part of the
+  globe, and yet at a time when it seems as if rapidity and
+  movement were the last words and the ultimate ideals of
+  civilization, it is rather agreeable to turn to such a community
+  as the eighteenth-century planters of Virginia. They lived
+  contentedly on the acres of their fathers, and except at rare and
+  stated intervals they had no other interests than those furnished
+  by their ancestral domain. At the court-house, at the vestry, or
+  in Williamsburg, they met their neighbors and talked very keenly
+  about the politics of Europe, or the affairs of the colony. They
+  were little troubled about religion, but they worshiped after the
+  fashion of their fathers, and had a serious fidelity to church
+  and king. They wrangled with their governors over appropriations,
+  but they lived on good terms with those eminent persons, and
+  attended state balls at what they called the palace, and danced
+  and made merry with much stateliness and grace. Their every-day
+  life ran on in the quiet of their plantations as calmly as one of
+  their own rivers. The English trader would come and go; the
+  infrequent stranger would be received and welcomed; Christmas
+  would be kept in hearty English fashion; young men from a
+  neighboring estate would ride over through the darkening woods to
+  court, or dance, or play the fiddle, like Patrick Henry or Thomas
+  Jefferson; and these simple events were all that made a ripple on
+  the placid stream. Much time was given to sports, rough, hearty,
+  manly sports, with a spice of danger, and these, with an
+  occasional adventurous dash into the wilderness, kept them sound
+  and strong and brave, both in body and mind. There was nothing
+  languid or effeminate about the Virginian planter. He was a
+  robust man, quite ready to fight or work when the time came, and
+  well fitted to deal with affairs when he was needed. He was a
+  free-handed, hospitable, generous being, not much given to study
+  or thought, but thoroughly public-spirited and keenly alive to
+  the interests of Virginia. Above all things he was an aristocrat,
+  set apart by the dark line of race, color, and hereditary
+  servitude, as proud as the proudest Austrian with his endless
+  quarterings, as sturdy and vigorous as an English yeoman, and as
+  jealous of his rights and privileges as any baron who stood by
+  John at Runnymede. To this aristocracy, careless and indolent,
+  given to rough pleasures and indifferent to the finer and higher
+  sides of life, the call came, as it comes to all men sooner or
+  later, and in response they gave their country soldiers,
+  statesmen, and jurists of the highest order, and fit for the
+  great work they were asked to do. We must go back to Athens to
+  find another instance of a society so small in numbers, and yet
+  capable of such an outburst of ability and force. They were of
+  sound English stock, with a slight admixture of the Huguenots,
+  the best blood of France; and although for a century and a half
+  they had seemed to stagnate in the New World, they were strong,
+  fruitful, and effective beyond the measure of ordinary races when
+  the hour of peril and trial was at hand.</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <h2><a name="II" id="II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
+
+  <h2>THE WASHINGTONS</h2>
+
+  <p>Such was the world and such the community which counted as a
+  small fraction the Washington family. Our immediate concern is
+  with that family, for before we approach the man we must know his
+  ancestors. The greatest leader of scientific thought in this
+  century has come to the aid of the genealogist, and given to the
+  results of the latter's somewhat discredited labors a vitality
+  and meaning which it seemed impossible that dry and dusty
+  pedigrees and barren tables of descent should ever possess. We
+  have always selected our race-horses according to the doctrines
+  of evolution, and we now study the character of a great man by
+  examining first the history of his forefathers.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington made so great an impression upon the world in his
+  lifetime that genealogists at once undertook for him the
+  construction of a suitable pedigree. The excellent Sir Isaac
+  Heard, garter king-at-arms, worked out a genealogy which seemed
+  reasonable enough, and then wrote to the president in relation to
+  it. Washington in reply thanked him for his politeness, sent him
+  the Virginian genealogy of his own branch, and after expressing a
+  courteous interest said, in his simple and direct fashion, that
+  he had been a busy man and had paid but little attention to the
+  subject. His knowledge about his English forefathers was in fact
+  extremely slight. He had heard merely that the first of the name
+  in Virginia had come from one of the northern counties of
+  England, but whether from Lancashire or Yorkshire, or one still
+  more northerly, he could not tell. Sir Isaac was not thoroughly
+  satisfied with the correctness of his own work, but presently
+  Baker took it up in his history of Northamptonshire, and
+  perfected it to his own satisfaction and that of the world in
+  general. This genealogy derived Washington's descent from the
+  owners of the manor of Sulgrave, in Northamptonshire, and thence
+  carried it back to the Norman knight, Sir William de Hertburn.
+  According to this pedigree the Virginian settlers, John and
+  Lawrence, were the sons of Lawrence Washington of Sulgrave Manor,
+  and this genealogy was adopted by Sparks and Irving, as well as
+  by the public at large. Twenty years ago, however, Colonel
+  Chester, by his researches, broke the most essential link in the
+  chain forged by Heard and Baker, proving clearly that the
+  Virginian settlers could not have been the sons of Lawrence of
+  Sulgrave, as identified by the garter king-at-arms. Still more
+  recently the mythical spirit has taken violent possession of the
+  Washington ancestry, and an ingenious gentleman has traced the
+  pedigree of our first president back to Thorfinn and thence to
+  Odin, which is sufficiently remote, dignified, and lofty to
+  satisfy the most exacting Welshman that ever lived. Still the
+  breach made by Colonel Chester was not repaired, although many
+  writers, including some who should have known better, clung with
+  undiminished faith to the Heard pedigree. It was known that
+  Colonel Chester himself believed that he had found the true line,
+  coming, it is supposed, through a younger branch of the Sulgrave
+  race, but he died before he had discovered the one bit of
+  evidence necessary to prove an essential step, and he was too
+  conscientiously accurate to leave anything to conjecture. Since
+  then the researches of Mr. Henry E. Waters have established the
+  pedigree of the Virginian Washingtons, and we are now able to
+  know something of the men from whom George Washington drew his
+  descent.</p>
+
+  <p>In that interesting land where everything, according to our
+  narrow ideas, is upside down, it is customary, when an individual
+  arrives at distinction, to confer nobility upon his ancestors
+  instead of upon his children. The Washingtons offer an
+  interesting example of the application of this Chinese system in
+  the Western world, for, if they have not been actually ennobled
+  in recognition of the deeds of their great descendant, they have
+  at least become the subjects of intense and general interest.
+  Every one of the name who could be discovered anywhere has been
+  dragged forth into the light, and has had all that was known
+  about him duly recorded and set down. By scanning family trees
+  and pedigrees, and picking up stray bits of information here and
+  there, we can learn in a rude and general fashion what manner of
+  men those were who claimed descent from William of Hertburn, and
+  who bore the name of Washington in the mother-country. As Mr.
+  Galton passes a hundred faces before the same highly sensitized
+  plate, and gets a photograph which is a likeness of no one of his
+  subjects, and yet resembles them all, so we may turn the camera
+  of history upon these Washingtons, as they flash up for a moment
+  from the dim past, and hope to obtain what Professor Huxley calls
+  a "generic" picture of the race, even if the outlines be somewhat
+  blurred and indistinct.</p>
+
+  <p>In the North of England, in the region conquered first by
+  Saxons and then by Danes, lies the little village of Washington.
+  It came into the possession of Sir William de Hertburn, and
+  belonged to him at the time of the Boldon Book in 1183. Soon
+  after, he or his descendants took the name of De Wessyngton, and
+  there they remained for two centuries, knights of the palatinate,
+  holding their lands by a military tenure, fighting in all the
+  wars, and taking part in tournaments with becoming splendor. By
+  the beginning of the fifteenth century the line of feudal knights
+  of the palatinate was extinct, and the manor passed from the
+  family by the marriage of Dionisia de Wessyngton. But the main
+  stock had in the mean time thrown out many offshoots, which had
+  taken firm root in other parts and in many counties of England.
+  We hear of several who came in various ways to eminence. There
+  was the learned and vigorous prior of Durham, John de Wessyngton,
+  probably one of the original family, and the name appears in
+  various places after his time in records and on monuments,
+  indicating a flourishing and increasing race. Lawrence
+  Washington, the direct ancestor of the first President of the
+  United States, was, in the sixteenth century, the mayor of
+  Northampton, and received from King Henry VIII. the manor of
+  Sulgrave in 1538. In the next century we find traces of Robert
+  Washington of the Adwick family, a rich merchant of Leeds, and of
+  his son Joseph Washington, a learned lawyer and author, of Gray's
+  Inn. About the same time we hear of Richard Washington and Philip
+  Washington holding high places at University College, Oxford. The
+  Sulgrave branch, however, was the most numerous and prosperous.
+  From the mayor of Northampton were descended Sir William
+  Washington, who married the half-sister of George Villiers, Duke
+  of Buckingham; Sir Henry Washington, who made a desperate defense
+  of Worcester against the forces of the Parliament in 1646;
+  Lieutenant-Colonel James Washington, who fell at the siege of
+  Pontefract, fighting for King Charles; another James, of a later
+  time, who was implicated in Monmouth's rebellion, fled to Holland
+  and became the progenitor of a flourishing and successful family,
+  which has spread to Germany and there been ennobled; Sir Lawrence
+  Washington, of Garsdon, whose grand-daughter married Robert
+  Shirley, Baron Ferrers; and others of less note, but all men of
+  property and standing. They seem to have been a successful,
+  thrifty race, owning lands and estates, wise magistrates and good
+  soldiers, marrying well, and increasing their wealth and strength
+  from generation to generation. They were of Norman stock, knights
+  and gentlemen in the full sense of the word before the French
+  Revolution, and we can detect in them here and there a marked
+  strain of the old Norse blood, carrying with it across the
+  centuries the wild Berserker spirit which for centuries made the
+  adventurous Northmen the terror of Europe. They were a strong
+  race evidently, these Washingtons, whom we see now only by
+  glimpses through the mists of time, not brilliant apparently,
+  never winning the very highest fortune, having their failures and
+  reverses no doubt, but on the whole prudent, bold men, always
+  important in their several stations, ready to fight and ready to
+  work, and as a rule successful in that which they set themselves
+  to do.</p>
+
+  <p>In 1658 the two brothers, John and Lawrence, appeared in
+  Virginia. As has been proved by Mr. Waters, they were of the
+  Sulgrave family, the sons of Lawrence Washington, fifth son of
+  the elder Lawrence of Sulgrave and Brington. The father of the
+  emigrants was a fellow of Brasenose College, Oxford, and rector
+  of Purleigh, from which living he was ejected by the Puritans as
+  both "scandalous" and "malignant." That he was guilty of the
+  former charge we may well doubt; but that he was, in the language
+  of the time, "malignant," must be admitted, for all his family,
+  including his brothers, Sir William Washington of Packington, and
+  Sir John Washington of Thrapston, his nephew, Sir Henry
+  Washington, and his nephew-in-law, William Legge, ancestor of the
+  Earl of Dartmouth, were strongly on the side of the king. In a
+  marriage which seems to have been regarded as beneath the dignity
+  of the family, and in the poverty consequent upon the ejectment
+  from his living, we can find the reason for the sons of the Rev.
+  Lawrence Washington going forth into Virginia to find their
+  fortune, and flying from the world of victorious Puritanism which
+  offered just then so little hope to royalists like themselves.
+  Yet what was poverty in England was something much more agreeable
+  in the New World of America. The emigrant brothers at all events
+  seem to have had resources of a sufficient kind, and to have been
+  men of substance, for they purchased lands and established
+  themselves at Bridges Creek, in Westmoreland County. With this
+  brief statement, Lawrence disappears, leaving us nothing further
+  than the knowledge that he had numerous descendants. John, with
+  whom we are more concerned, figures at once in the colonial
+  records of Maryland. He made complaint to the Maryland
+  authorities, soon after his arrival, against Edward Prescott,
+  merchant, and captain of the ship in which he had come over, for
+  hanging a woman during the voyage for witchcraft. We have a
+  letter of his, explaining that he could not appear at the first
+  trial because he was about to baptize his son, and had bidden the
+  neighbors and gossips to the feast. A little incident this, dug
+  out of the musty records, but it shows us an active, generous
+  man, intolerant of oppression, public-spirited and hospitable,
+  social, and friendly in his new relations. He soon after was
+  called to mourn the death of his English wife and of two
+  children, but he speedily consoled himself by taking a second
+  wife, Anne Pope, by whom he had three children, Lawrence, John,
+  and Anne. According to the Virginian tradition, John Washington
+  the elder was a surveyor, and made a location of lands which was
+  set aside because they had been assigned to the Indians. It is
+  quite apparent that he was a forehanded person who acquired
+  property and impressed himself upon his neighbors. In 1667, when
+  he had been but ten years in the colony, he was chosen to the
+  House of Burgesses; and eight years later he was made a colonel
+  and sent with a thousand men to join the Marylanders in
+  destroying the "Susquehannocks," at the "Piscataway" fort, on
+  account of some murdering begun by another tribe. As a feat of
+  arms, the expedition was not a very brilliant affair. The
+  Virginians and Marylanders killed half a dozen Indian chiefs
+  during a parley, and then invested the fort. After repulsing
+  several sorties, they stupidly allowed the Indians to escape in
+  the night and carry murder and pillage through the outlying
+  settlements, lighting up first the flames of savage war and then
+  the fiercer fire of domestic insurrection. In the next year we
+  hear again of John Washington in the House of Burgesses, when Sir
+  William Berkeley assailed his troops for the murder of the
+  Indians during the parley. Popular feeling, however, was clearly
+  with the colonel, for nothing was done and the matter dropped. At
+  that point, too, in 1676, John Washington disappears from sight,
+  and we know only that as his will was proved in 1677, he must
+  have died soon after the scene with Berkeley. He was buried in
+  the family vault at Bridges Creek, and left a good estate to be
+  divided among his children. The colonel was evidently both a
+  prudent and popular man, and quite disposed to bustle about in
+  the world in which he found himself. He acquired lands, came to
+  the front at once as a leader although a new-comer in the
+  country, was evidently a fighting man as is shown by his
+  selection to command the Virginian forces, and was honored by his
+  neighbors, who gave his name to the parish in which he dwelt.
+  Then he died and his son Lawrence reigned in his stead, and
+  became by his wife, Mildred Warner, the father of John,
+  Augustine, and Mildred Washington.</p>
+
+  <p>This second son, Augustine, farmer and planter like his
+  forefathers, married first Jane Butler, by whom he had three sons
+  and a daughter, and second, Mary Ball, by whom he had four sons
+  and two daughters. The eldest child of these second nuptials was
+  named George, and was born on February 11 (O.S.), 1732, at
+  Bridges Creek. The house in which this event occurred was a
+  plain, wooden farmhouse of the primitive Virginian pattern, with
+  four rooms on the ground floor, an attic story with a long,
+  sloping roof, and a massive brick chimney. Three years after
+  George Washington's birth it is said to have been burned, and the
+  family for this or some other reason removed to another estate in
+  what is now Stafford County. The second house was like the first,
+  and stood on rising ground looking across a meadow to the
+  Rappahannock, and beyond the river to the village of
+  Fredericksburg, which was nearly opposite. Here, in 1743,
+  Augustine Washington died somewhat suddenly, at the age of
+  forty-nine, from an attack of gout brought on by exposure in the
+  rain, and was buried with his fathers in the old vault at Bridges
+  Creek. Here, too, the boyhood of Washington was passed, and
+  therefore it becomes necessary to look about us and see what we
+  can learn of this important period of his life.</p>
+
+  <p>We know nothing about his father, except that he was kindly
+  and affectionate, attached to his wife and children, and
+  apparently absorbed in the care of his estates. On his death the
+  children came wholly under the maternal influence and direction.
+  Much has been written about the "mother of Washington," but as a
+  matter of fact, although she lived to an advanced age, we know
+  scarcely more about her than we do about her husband. She was of
+  gentle birth, and possessed a vigorous character and a good deal
+  of business capacity. The advantages of education were given in
+  but slight measure to the Virginian ladies of her time, and Mrs.
+  Washington offered no exception to the general rule. Her reading
+  was confined to a small number of volumes, chiefly of a
+  devotional character, her favorite apparently being Hale's "Moral
+  and Divine Contemplations." She evidently knew no language but
+  her own, and her spelling was extremely bad even in that age of
+  uncertain orthography. Certain qualities, however, are clear to
+  us even now through all the dimness. We can see that Mary
+  Washington was gifted with strong sense, and had the power of
+  conducting business matters providently and exactly. She was an
+  imperious woman, of strong will, ruling her kingdom alone. Above
+  all she was very dignified, very silent, and very sober-minded.
+  That she was affectionate and loving cannot be doubted, for she
+  retained to the last a profound hold upon the reverential
+  devotion of her son, and yet as he rose steadily to the pinnacle
+  of human greatness, she could only say that "George had been a
+  good boy, and she was sure he would do his duty." Not a brilliant
+  woman evidently, not one suited to shine in courts, conduct
+  intrigues, or adorn literature, yet able to transmit moral
+  qualities to her oldest son, which, mingled with those of the
+  Washingtons, were of infinite value in the foundation of a great
+  Republic. She found herself a widow at an early age, with a
+  family of young children to educate and support. Her means were
+  narrow, for although Augustine Washington was able to leave what
+  was called a landed estate to each son, it was little more than
+  idle capital, and the income in ready money was by no means so
+  evident as the acres.</p>
+
+  <p>Many are the myths, and deplorably few the facts, that have
+  come down to us in regard to Washington's boyhood. For the former
+  we are indebted to the illustrious Weems, and to that personage a
+  few more words must be devoted. Weems has been held up to the
+  present age in various ways, usually, it must be confessed, of an
+  unflattering nature, and "mendacious" is the adjective most
+  commonly applied to him. There has been in reality a good deal of
+  needless confusion about Weems and his book, for he was not a
+  complex character, and neither he nor his writings are difficult
+  to value or understand. By profession a clergyman or preacher, by
+  nature an adventurer, Weems loved notoriety, money, and a
+  wandering life. So he wrote books which he correctly believed
+  would be popular, and sold them not only through the regular
+  channels, but by peddling them himself as he traveled about the
+  country. In this way he gratified all his propensities, and no
+  doubt derived from life a good deal of simple pleasure. Chance
+  brought him near Washington in the closing days, and his
+  commercial instinct told him that here was the subject of all
+  others for his pen and his market. He accordingly produced the
+  biography which had so much success. Judged solely as literature,
+  the book is beneath contempt. The style is turgid, overloaded,
+  and at times silly. The statements are loose, the mode of
+  narration confused and incoherent, and the moralizing is flat and
+  common-place to the last degree. Yet there was a certain
+  sincerity of feeling underneath all the bombast and platitudes,
+  and this saved the book. The biography did not go, and was not
+  intended to go, into the hands of the polite society of the great
+  eastern towns. It was meant for the farmers, the pioneers, and
+  the backwoodsmen of the country. It went into their homes, and
+  passed with them beyond the Alleghanies and out to the plains and
+  valleys of the great West. The very defects of the book helped it
+  to success among the simple, hard-working, hard-fighting race
+  engaged in the conquest of the American continent. To them its
+  heavy and tawdry style, its staring morals, and its real
+  patriotism all seemed eminently befitting the national hero, and
+  thus Weems created the Washington of the popular fancy. The idea
+  grew up with the country, and became so ingrained in the popular
+  thought that finally everybody was affected by it, and even the
+  most stately and solemn of the Washington biographers adopted the
+  unsupported tales of the itinerant parson and book-peddler.</p>
+
+  <p>In regard to the public life of Washington, Weems took the
+  facts known to every one, and drawn for the most part from the
+  gazettes. He then dressed them up in his own peculiar fashion and
+  gave them to the world. All this, forming of course nine tenths
+  of his book, has passed, despite its success, into oblivion. The
+  remaining tenth described Washington's boyhood until his
+  fourteenth or fifteenth year, and this, which is the work of the
+  author's imagination, has lived. Weems, having set himself up as
+  absolutely the only authority as to this period, has been
+  implicitly followed, and has thus come to demand serious
+  consideration. Until Weems is weighed and disposed of, we cannot
+  even begin an attempt to get at the real Washington.</p>
+
+  <p>Weems was not a cold-blooded liar, a mere forger of anecdotes.
+  He was simply a man destitute of historical sense, training, or
+  morals, ready to take the slenderest fact and work it up for the
+  purposes of the market until it became almost as impossible to
+  reduce it to its original dimensions as it was for the fisherman
+  to get the Afrit back into his jar. In a word, Weems was an
+  approved myth-maker. No better example can be given than the way
+  in which he described himself. It is believed that he preached
+  once, and possibly oftener, to a congregation which numbered
+  Washington among its members. Thereupon he published himself in
+  his book as the rector of Mount Vernon parish. There was, to
+  begin with, no such parish. There was Truro parish, in which was
+  a church called indifferently Pohick or Mount Vernon church. Of
+  this church Washington was a vestryman until 1785, when he joined
+  the church at Alexandria. The Rev. Lee Massey was the clergyman
+  of the Mount Vernon church, and the church at Alexandria had
+  nothing to do with Mount Vernon. There never was, moreover, such
+  a person as the rector of Mount Vernon parish, but it was the
+  Weems way of treating his appearance before the great man, and of
+  deceiving the world with the notion of an intimacy which the
+  title implied.</p>
+
+  <p>Weems, of course, had no difficulty with the public life, but
+  in describing the boyhood he was thrown on his own resources, and
+  out of them he evolved the cherry-tree, the refusal to fight or
+  permit fighting among the boys at school, and the initials in the
+  garden. This last story is to the effect that Augustine
+  Washington planted seeds in such a manner that when they sprouted
+  they formed on the earth the initials of his son's name, and the
+  boy being much delighted thereby, the father explained to him
+  that it was the work of the Creator, and thus inculcated a
+  profound belief in God. This tale is taken bodily from Dr.
+  Beattie's biographical sketch of his son, published in England in
+  1799, and may be dismissed at once. As to the other two more
+  familiar anecdotes there is not a scintilla of evidence that they
+  had any foundation, and with them may be included the colt story,
+  told by Mr. Custis, a simple variation of the cherry-tree theme,
+  which is Washington's early love of truth. Weems says that his
+  stories were told him by a lady, and "a good old gentleman," who
+  remembered the incidents, while Mr. Custis gives no authority for
+  his minute account of a trivial event over a century old when he
+  wrote. To a writer who invented the rector of Mount Vernon, the
+  further invention of a couple of Boswells would be a trifle. I
+  say Boswells advisedly, for these stories are told with the
+  utmost minuteness, and the conversations between Washington and
+  his father are given as if from a stenographic report. How Mr.
+  Custis, usually so accurate, came to be so far infected with the
+  Weems myth as to tell the colt story after the Weems manner,
+  cannot now be determined. There can be no doubt that Washington,
+  like most healthy boys, got into a good deal of mischief, and it
+  is not at all impossible that he injured fruit-trees and
+  confessed that he had done so. It may be accepted as certain that
+  he rode and mastered many unbroken thoroughbred colts, and it is
+  possible that one of them burst a blood-vessel in the process and
+  died, and that the boy promptly told his mother of the accident.
+  But this is the utmost credit which these two anecdotes can
+  claim. Even so much as this cannot be said of certain other
+  improving tales of like nature. That Washington lectured his
+  playmates on the wickedness of fighting, and in the year 1754
+  allowed himself to be knocked down in the presence of his
+  soldiers, and thereupon begged his assailant's pardon for having
+  spoken roughly to him, are stories so silly and so foolishly
+  impossible that they do not deserve an instant's
+  consideration.</p>
+
+  <p>There is nothing intrinsically impossible in either the
+  cherry-tree or the colt incident, nor would there be in a hundred
+  others which might be readily invented. The real point is that
+  these stories, as told by Weems and Mr. Custis, are on their face
+  hopelessly and ridiculously false. They are so, not merely
+  because they have no vestige of evidence to support them, but
+  because they are in every word and line the offspring of a period
+  more than fifty years later. No English-speaking people,
+  certainly no Virginians, ever thought or behaved or talked in
+  1740 like the personages in Weems's stories, whatever they may
+  have done in 1790, or at the beginning of the next century. These
+  precious anecdotes belong to the age of Miss Edgeworth and Hannah
+  More and Jane Taylor. They are engaging specimens of the "Harry
+  and Lucy" and "Purple Jar" morality, and accurately reflect the
+  pale didacticism which became fashionable in England at the close
+  of the last century. They are as untrue to nature and to fact at
+  the period to which they are assigned as would be efforts to
+  depict Augustine Washington and his wife in the dress of the
+  French revolution discussing the propriety of worshiping the
+  Goddess of Reason.</p>
+
+  <p>To enter into any serious historical criticism of these
+  stories would be to break a butterfly. So much as this even has
+  been said only because these wretched fables have gone throughout
+  the world, and it is time that they were swept away into the
+  dust-heaps of history. They represent Mr. and Mrs. Washington as
+  affected and priggish people, given to cheap moralizing, and,
+  what is far worse, they have served to place Washington himself
+  in a ridiculous light to an age which has outgrown the
+  educational foibles of seventy-five years ago. Augustine
+  Washington and his wife were a gentleman and lady of the
+  eighteenth century, living in Virginia. So far as we know without
+  guessing or conjecture, they were simple, honest, and
+  straight-forward, devoted to the care of their family and estate,
+  and doing their duty sensibly and after the fashion of their
+  time. Their son, to whom the greatest wrong has been done, not
+  only never did anything common or mean, but from the beginning to
+  the end of his life he was never for an instant ridiculous or
+  affected, and he was as utterly removed from canting or
+  priggishness as any human being could well be. Let us therefore
+  consign the Weems stories and their offspring to the limbo of
+  historical rubbish, and try to learn what the plain facts tell us
+  of the boy Washington.</p>
+
+  <p>Unfortunately these same facts are at first very few, so few
+  that they tell us hardly anything. We know when and where
+  Washington was born; and how, when he was little more than three
+  years old,<a id="footnotetag1-2" name=
+  "footnotetag1-2"></a><a href="#footnote1-2"><sup>1</sup></a> he
+  was taken from Bridges Creek to the banks of the Rappahannock.
+  There he was placed under the charge of one Hobby, the sexton of
+  the parish, to learn his alphabet and his pothooks; and when that
+  worthy man's store of learning was exhausted he was sent back to
+  Bridges Creek, soon after his father's death, to live with his
+  half-brother Augustine, and obtain the benefits of a school kept
+  by a Mr. Williams. There he received what would now be called a
+  fair common-school education, wholly destitute of any instruction
+  in languages, ancient or modern, but apparently with some
+  mathematical training.</p>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote1-2" name="footnote1-2"></a>[<b>Footnote 1:</b>
+    <a href="#footnotetag1-2">(return)</a> There is a conflict
+    about the period of this removal (see above, p. 37). Tradition
+    places it in 1735, but the Rev. Mr. McGuire (<i>Religious
+    Opinions of Washington</i>) puts it in 1739.]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>That he studied faithfully cannot be doubted, and we know,
+  too, that he matured early, and was a tall, active, and muscular
+  boy. He could outwalk and outrun and outride any of his
+  companions. As he could no doubt have thrashed any of them too,
+  he was, in virtue of these qualities, which are respected
+  everywhere by all wholesome minds, and especially by boys, a
+  leader among his school-fellows. We know further that he was
+  honest and true, and a lad of unusual promise, not because of the
+  goody-goody anecdotes of the myth-makers, but because he was
+  liked and trusted by such men as his brother Lawrence and Lord
+  Fairfax.</p>
+
+  <p>There he was, at all events, in his fourteenth year, a big,
+  strong, hearty boy, offering a serious problem to his mother, who
+  was struggling along with many acres, little money, and five
+  children. Mrs. Washington's chief desire naturally was to put
+  George in the way of earning a living, which no doubt seemed far
+  more important than getting an education, and, as he was a
+  sober-minded boy, the same idea was probably profoundly impressed
+  on his own mind also. This condition of domestic affairs led to
+  the first attempt to give Washington a start in life, which has
+  been given to us until very lately in a somewhat decorated form.
+  The fact is, that in casting about for something to do, it
+  occurred to some one, very likely to the boy himself, that it
+  would be a fine idea to go to sea. His masculine friends and
+  relatives urged the scheme upon Mrs. Washington, who consented
+  very reluctantly, if at all, not liking the notion of parting
+  with her oldest son, even in her anxiety to have him earn his
+  bread. When it came to the point, however, she finally decided
+  against his going, determined probably by a very sensible letter
+  from her brother, Joseph Ball, an English lawyer. In all the
+  ornamented versions we are informed that the boy was to enter the
+  royal navy, and that a midshipman's warrant was procured for him.
+  There does not appear to be any valid authority for the royal
+  navy, the warrant, or the midshipman. The contemporary Virginian
+  letters speak simply of "going to sea," while Mr. Ball says
+  distinctly that the plan was to enter the boy on a tobacco-ship,
+  with an excellent chance of being pressed on a man-of-war, and a
+  very faint prospect of either getting into the navy, or even
+  rising to be the captain of one of the petty trading-vessels
+  familiar to Virginian planters. Some recent writers have put Mr.
+  Ball aside as not knowing what was intended in regard to his
+  nephew, but in view of the difficulty at that time of obtaining
+  commissions in the navy without great political influence, it
+  seems probable that Mrs. Washington's brother knew very well what
+  he was talking about, and he certainly wrote a very sensible
+  letter. A bold, adventurous boy, eager to earn his living and
+  make his way in the world, would, like many others before him,
+  look longingly to the sea as the highway to fortune and success.
+  To Washington the romance of the sea was represented by the
+  tobacco-ship creeping up the river and bringing all the luxuries
+  and many of the necessaries of life from vaguely distant
+  countries. No doubt he wished to go on one of these vessels and
+  try his luck, and very possibly the royal navy was hoped for as
+  the ultimate result. The effort was certainly made to send him to
+  sea, but it failed, and he went back to school to study more
+  mathematics.</p>
+
+  <p>Apart from the fact that the exact sciences in moderate degree
+  were about all that Mr. Williams could teach, this branch of
+  learning had an immediate practical value, inasmuch as surveying
+  was almost the only immediately gainful pursuit open to a young
+  Virginia gentleman, who sorely needed a little ready money that
+  he might buy slaves and work a plantation. So Washington studied
+  on for two years more, and fitted himself to be a surveyor. There
+  are still extant some early papers belonging to this period,
+  chiefly fragments of school exercises, which show that he already
+  wrote the bold, handsome hand with which the world was to become
+  familiar, and that he made geometrical figures and notes of
+  surveys with the neatness and accuracy which clung to him in all
+  the work of his life, whether great or small. Among those papers,
+  too, were found many copies of legal forms, and a set of rules,
+  over a hundred in number, as to etiquette and behavior, carefully
+  written out. It has always been supposed that these rules were
+  copied, but it was reserved apparently for the storms of a mighty
+  civil war to lay bare what may have been, if not the source of
+  the rules themselves, the origin and suggestion of their
+  compilation. At that time a little volume was found in Virginia
+  bearing the name of George Washington in a boyish hand on the
+  fly-leaf, and the date 1742. The book was entitled, "The Young
+  Man's Companion." It was an English work, and had passed through
+  thirteen editions, which was little enough in view of its varied
+  and extensive information. It was written by W. Mather, in a
+  plain and easy style, and treated of arithmetic, surveying, forms
+  for legal documents, the measuring of land and lumber, gardening,
+  and many other useful topics, and it contained general precepts
+  which, with the aid of Hale's "Contemplations," may readily have
+  furnished the hints for the rules found in manuscript among
+  Washington's papers.<a id="footnotetag1-3" name=
+  "footnotetag1-3"></a><a href="#footnote1-3"><sup>1</sup></a>
+  These rules were in the main wise and sensible, and it is evident
+  they had occupied deeply the boy's mind.<a id="footnotetag2-4"
+  name="footnotetag2-4"></a><a href="#footnote2-4"><sup>2</sup></a>
+  They are for the most part concerned with the commonplaces of
+  etiquette and good manners, but there is something not only apt
+  but quite prophetic in the last one, "Labor to keep alive in your
+  breast that little spark of celestial fire called conscience." To
+  suppose that Washington's character was formed by these
+  sententious bits of not very profound wisdom would be absurd; but
+  that a series of rules which most lads would have regarded as
+  simply dull should have been written out and pondered by this boy
+  indicates a soberness and thoughtfulness of mind which certainly
+  are not usual at that age. The chief thought that runs through
+  all the sayings is to practice self-control, and no man ever
+  displayed that most difficult of virtues to such a degree as
+  George Washington. It was no ordinary boy who took such a lesson
+  as this to heart before he was fifteen, and carried it into his
+  daily life, never to be forgotten. It may also be said that very
+  few boys ever needed it more; but those persons who know what
+  they chiefly need, and pursue it, are by no means common.</p>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote1-3" name="footnote1-3"></a>[<b>Footnote 1:</b>
+    <a href="#footnotetag1-3">(return)</a> An account of this
+    volume was given in the <i>New York Tribune</i> in 1866, and
+    also in the <i>Historical Magazine</i> (x. 47).]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote2-4" name="footnote2-4"></a>[<b>Footnote 2:</b>
+    <a href="#footnotetag2-4">(return)</a> The most important are
+    given in Sparks' <i>Writings of Washington</i>, ii. 412, and
+    they may be found complete in the little pamphlet concerning
+    them, excellently edited by Dr. J.M. Toner, of Washington.]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <h2><a name="III" id="III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+
+  <h2>ON THE FRONTIER</h2>
+
+  <p>While Washington was working his way through the learning
+  purveyed by Mr. Williams, he was also receiving another
+  education, of a much broader and better sort, from the men and
+  women among whom he found himself, and with whom he made friends.
+  Chief among them was his eldest brother, Lawrence, fourteen years
+  his senior, who had been educated in England, had fought with
+  Vernon at Carthagena, and had then returned to Virginia, to be to
+  him a generous father and a loving friend. As the head of the
+  family, Lawrence Washington had received the lion's share of the
+  property, including the estate at Hunting Creek, on the Potomac,
+  which he christened Mount Vernon, after his admiral, and where he
+  settled down and built him a goodly house. To this pleasant spot
+  George Washington journeyed often in vacation time, and there he
+  came to live and further pursue his studies, after leaving school
+  in the autumn of 1747.</p>
+
+  <p>Lawrence Washington had married the daughter of William
+  Fairfax, the proprietor of Belvoir, a neighboring plantation, and
+  the agent for the vast estates held by his family in Virginia.
+  George Fairfax, Mrs. Washington's brother, had married a Miss
+  Gary, and thus two large and agreeable family connections were
+  thrown open to the young surveyor when he emerged from school.
+  The chief figure, however, in that pleasant winter of 1747-48, so
+  far as an influence upon the character of Washington is
+  concerned, was the head of the family into which Lawrence
+  Washington had married. Thomas, Lord Fairfax, then sixty years of
+  age, had come to Virginia to live upon and look after the kingdom
+  which he had inherited in the wilderness. He came of a noble and
+  distinguished race. Graduating at Oxford with credit, he served
+  in the army, dabbled in literature, had his fling in the London
+  world, and was jilted by a beauty who preferred a duke, and gave
+  her faithful but less titled lover an apparently incurable wound.
+  His life having been thus early twisted and set awry, Lord
+  Fairfax, when well past his prime, had determined finally to come
+  to Virginia, bury himself in the forests, and look after the
+  almost limitless possessions beyond the Blue Ridge, which he had
+  inherited from his maternal grandfather, Lord Culpeper, of
+  unsavory Restoration memory. It was a piece of great good-fortune
+  which threw in Washington's path this accomplished gentleman,
+  familiar with courts and camps, disappointed, but not morose,
+  disillusioned, but still kindly and generous. From him the boy
+  could gain that knowledge of men and manners which no school can
+  give, and which is as important in its way as any that a teacher
+  can impart.</p>
+
+  <p>Lord Fairfax and Washington became fast friends. They hunted
+  the fox together, and hunted him hard. They engaged in all the
+  rough sports and perilous excitements which Virginia winter life
+  could afford, and the boy's bold and skillful riding, his love of
+  sports and his fine temper, commended him to the warm and
+  affectionate interest of the old nobleman. Other qualities, too,
+  the experienced man of the world saw in his young companion: a
+  high and persistent courage, robust and calm sense, and, above
+  all, unusual force of will and character. Washington impressed
+  profoundly everybody with whom he was brought into personal
+  contact, a fact which is one of the most marked features of his
+  character and career, and one which deserves study more than
+  almost any other. Lord Fairfax was no exception to the rule. He
+  saw in Washington not simply a promising, brave, open-hearted
+  boy, diligent in practicing his profession, and whom he was
+  anxious to help, but something more; something which so impressed
+  him that he confided to this lad a task which, according to its
+  performance, would affect both his fortune and his peace. In a
+  word, he trusted Washington, and told him, as the spring of 1748
+  was opening, to go forth and survey the vast Fairfax estates
+  beyond the Ridge, define their boundaries, and save them from
+  future litigation. With this commission from Lord Fairfax,
+  Washington entered on the first period of his career. He passed
+  it on the frontier, fighting nature, the Indians, and the French.
+  He went in a schoolboy; he came out the first soldier in the
+  colonies, and one of the leading men of Virginia. Let us pause a
+  moment and look at him as he stands on the threshold of this
+  momentous period, rightly called momentous because it was the
+  formative period in the life of such a man.</p>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:35%;">
+    <a href="images/illus0383.jpg"><img width="100%" src=
+    "images/illus0383.jpg" alt="LAWRENCE WASHINGTON" /></a>LAWRENCE
+    WASHINGTON
+  </div>
+
+  <p>He had just passed his sixteenth birthday. He was tall and
+  muscular, approaching the stature of more than six feet which he
+  afterwards attained. He was not yet filled out to manly
+  proportions, but was rather spare, after the fashion of youth. He
+  had a well-shaped, active figure, symmetrical except for the
+  unusual length of the arms, indicating uncommon strength. His
+  light brown hair was drawn back from a broad forehead, and
+  grayish-blue eyes looked happily, and perhaps a trifle soberly,
+  on the pleasant Virginia world about him. The face was open and
+  manly, with a square, massive jaw, and a general expression of
+  calmness and strength. "Fair and florid," big and strong, he was,
+  take him for all in all, as fine a specimen of his race as could
+  be found in the English colonies.</p>
+
+  <p>Let us look a little closer through the keen eyes of one who
+  studied many faces to good purpose. The great painter of
+  portraits, Gilbert Stuart, tells us of Washington that he never
+  saw in any man such large eye-sockets, or such a breadth of nose
+  and forehead between the eyes, and that he read there the
+  evidences of the strongest passions possible to human nature.
+  John Bernard the actor, a good observer, too, saw in Washington's
+  face, in 1797, the signs of an habitual conflict and mastery of
+  passions, witnessed by the compressed mouth and deeply indented
+  brow. The problem had been solved then; but in 1748, passion and
+  will alike slumbered, and no man could tell which would prevail,
+  or whether they would work together to great purpose or go
+  jarring on to nothingness. He rises up to us out of the past in
+  that early springtime a fine, handsome, athletic boy, beloved by
+  those about him, who found him a charming companion and did not
+  guess that he might be a terribly dangerous foe. He rises up
+  instinct with life and strength, a being capable, as we know, of
+  great things whether for good or evil, with hot blood pulsing in
+  his veins and beating in his heart, with violent passions and
+  relentless will still undeveloped; and no one in all that jolly,
+  generous Virginian society even dimly dreamed what that
+  development would be, or what it would mean to the world.</p>
+
+  <p>It was in March, 1748, that George Fairfax and Washington set
+  forth on their adventures, and passing through Ashby's Gap in the
+  Blue Ridge, entered the valley of Virginia. Thence they worked
+  their way up the valley of the Shenandoah, surveying as they
+  went, returned and swam the swollen Potomac, surveyed the lands
+  about its south branch and in the mountainous region of Frederick
+  County, and finally reached Mount Vernon again on April 12. It
+  was a rough experience for a beginner, but a wholesome one, and
+  furnished the usual vicissitudes of frontier life. They were wet,
+  cold, and hungry, or warm, dry, and well fed, by turns. They
+  slept in a tent, or the huts of the scattered settlers, and
+  oftener still beneath the stars. They met a war party of Indians,
+  and having plied them with liquor, watched one of their mad
+  dances round the camp-fire. In another place they came on a
+  straggling settlement of Germans, dull, patient, and illiterate,
+  strangely unfit for the life of the wilderness. All these things,
+  as well as the progress of their work and their various
+  resting-places, Washington noted down briefly but methodically in
+  a diary, showing in these rough notes the first evidences of that
+  keen observation of nature and men and of daily incidents which
+  he developed to such good purpose in after-life. There are no
+  rhapsodies and no reflections in these hasty jottings, but the
+  employments and the discomforts are all set down in a simple and
+  matter-of-fact way, which omitted no essential thing and excluded
+  all that was worthless. His work, too, was well done, and Lord
+  Fairfax was so much pleased by the report that he moved across
+  the Blue Ridge, built a hunting lodge preparatory to something
+  more splendid which never came to pass, and laid out a noble
+  manor, to which he gave the name of Greenway Court. He also
+  procured for Washington an appointment as a public surveyor,
+  which conferred authority on his surveys and provided him with
+  regular work. Thus started, Washington toiled at his profession
+  for three years, living and working as he did on his first
+  expedition. It was a rough life, but a manly and robust one, and
+  the men who live it, although often rude and coarse, are never
+  weak or effeminate. To Washington it was an admirable school. It
+  strengthened his muscles and hardened him to exposure and
+  fatigue. It accustomed him to risks and perils of various kinds,
+  and made him fertile in expedients and confident of himself,
+  while the nature of his work rendered him careful and
+  industrious. That his work was well done is shown by the fact
+  that his surveys were considered of the first authority, and
+  stand unquestioned to this day, like certain other work which he
+  was subsequently called to do. It was part of his character, when
+  he did anything, to do it in a lasting fashion, and it is worth
+  while to remember that the surveys he made as a boy were the best
+  that could be made.</p>
+
+  <p>He wrote to a friend at this time: "Since you received my
+  letter of October last, I have not slept above three or four
+  nights in a bed, but, after walking a good deal all the day, I
+  have lain down before the fire upon a little hay, straw, fodder,
+  or a bearskin, whichever was to be had, with man, wife, and
+  children, like dogs and cats; and happy is he who gets the berth
+  nearest the fire. Nothing would make it pass off tolerably but a
+  good reward. A doubloon is my constant gain every day that the
+  weather will permit of my going out, and sometimes six pistoles."
+  He was evidently a thrifty lad, and honestly pleased with honest
+  earnings. He was no mere adventurous wanderer, but a man working
+  for results in money, reputation, or some solid value, and while
+  he worked and earned he kept an observant eye upon the
+  wilderness, and bought up when he could the best land for himself
+  and his family, laying the foundations of the great landed estate
+  of which he died possessed.</p>
+
+  <p>There was also a lighter and pleasanter side to this
+  hard-working existence, which was quite as useful, and more
+  attractive, than toiling in the woods and mountains. The young
+  surveyor passed much of his time at Greenway Court, hunting the
+  fox and rejoicing in all field sports which held high place in
+  that kingdom, while at the same time he profited much in graver
+  fashion by his friendship with such a man as Lord Fairfax. There,
+  too, he had a chance at a library, and his diaries show that he
+  read carefully the history of England and the essays of the
+  "Spectator." Neither in early days nor at any other time was he a
+  student, for he had few opportunities, and his life from the
+  beginning was out of doors and among men. But the idea sometimes
+  put forward that Washington cared nothing for reading or for
+  books is an idle one. He read at Greenway Court and everywhere
+  else when he had an opportunity. He read well, too, and to some
+  purpose, studying men and events in books as he did in the world,
+  for though he never talked of his reading, preserving silence on
+  that as on other things concerning himself, no one ever was able
+  to record an instance in which he showed himself ignorant of
+  history or of literature. He was never a learned man, but so far
+  as his own language could carry him he was an educated one. Thus
+  while he developed the sterner qualities by hard work and a rough
+  life, he did not bring back the coarse habits of the backwoods
+  and the camp-fire, but was able to refine his manners and improve
+  his mind in the excellent society and under the hospitable roof
+  of Lord Fairfax.</p>
+
+  <p>Three years slipped by, and then a domestic change came which
+  much affected Washington's whole life. The Carthagena campaign
+  had undermined the strength of Lawrence Washington and sown the
+  seeds of consumption, which showed itself in 1749, and became
+  steadily more alarming. A voyage to England and a summer at the
+  warm springs were tried without success, and finally, as a last
+  resort, the invalid sailed for the West Indies, in September,
+  1751. Thither his brother George accompanied him, and we have the
+  fragments of a diary kept during this first and last wandering
+  outside his native country. He copied the log, noted the weather,
+  and evidently strove to get some idea of nautical matters while
+  he was at sea and leading a life strangely unfamiliar to a
+  woodsman and pioneer. When they arrived at their destination they
+  were immediately asked to breakfast and dine with Major Clarke,
+  the military magnate of the place, and our young Virginian
+  remarked, with characteristic prudence and a certain touch of
+  grim humor, "We went,&mdash;myself with some reluctance, as the
+  smallpox was in the family." He fell a victim to his good
+  manners, for two weeks later he was "strongly attacked with the
+  smallpox," and was then housed for a month, getting safely and
+  successfully through this dangerous and then almost universal
+  ordeal. Before the disease declared itself, however, he went
+  about everywhere, innocently scattering infection, and greatly
+  enjoying the pleasures of the island. It is to be regretted that
+  any part of this diary should have been lost, for it is pleasant
+  reading, and exhibits the writer in an agreeable and
+  characteristic fashion. He commented on the country and the
+  scenery, inveighed against the extravagance of the charges for
+  board and lodging, told of his dinner-parties and his friends,
+  and noted the marvelous abundance and variety of the tropical
+  fruits, which contrasted strangely with the British dishes of
+  beefsteak and tripe. He also mentioned being treated to a ticket
+  to see the play of "George Barnwell," on which he offered this
+  cautious criticism: "The character of Barnwell and several others
+  were said to be well performed. There was music adapted and
+  regularly conducted."</p>
+
+  <p>Soon after his recovery Washington returned to Virginia,
+  arriving there in February, 1752. The diary concluded with a
+  brief but perfectly effective description of Barbadoes, touching
+  on its resources and scenery, its government and condition, and
+  the manners and customs of its inhabitants. All through these
+  notes we find the keenly observant spirit, and the evidence of a
+  mind constantly alert to learn. We see also a pleasant, happy
+  temperament, enjoying with hearty zest all the pleasures that
+  youth and life could furnish. He who wrote these lines was
+  evidently a vigorous, good-humored young fellow, with a quick eye
+  for the world opening before him, and for the delights as well as
+  the instruction which it offered.</p>
+
+  <p>From the sunshine and ease of this tropical winter Washington
+  passed to a long season of trial and responsibility at home and
+  abroad. In July, 1752, his much-loved brother Lawrence died,
+  leaving George guardian of his daughter, and heir to his estates
+  in the event of that daughter's death. Thus the current of his
+  home life changed, and responsibility came into it, while outside
+  the mighty stream of public events changed too, and swept him
+  along in the swelling torrent of a world-wide war.</p>
+
+  <p>In all the vast wilderness beyond the mountains there was not
+  room for both French and English. The rival nations had been for
+  years slowly approaching each other, until in 1749 each people
+  proceeded at last to take possession of the Ohio country after
+  its own fashion. The French sent a military expedition which sank
+  and nailed up leaden plates; the English formed a great land
+  company to speculate and make money, and both set diligently to
+  work to form Indian alliances. A man of far less perception than
+  Lawrence Washington, who had become the chief manager of the Ohio
+  Company, would have seen that the conditions on the frontier
+  rendered war inevitable, and he accordingly made ready for the
+  future by preparing his brother for the career of a soldier, so
+  far as it could be done. He brought to Mount Vernon two old
+  companions-in-arms of the Carthagena time, Adjutant Muse, a
+  Virginian, and Jacob Van Braam, a Dutch soldier of fortune. The
+  former instructed Washington in the art of war, tactics, and the
+  manual of arms, the latter in fencing and the sword exercise. At
+  the same time Lawrence Washington procured for his brother, then
+  only nineteen years of age, an appointment as one of the
+  adjutants-general of Virginia, with the rank of major. To all
+  this the young surveyor took kindly enough so far as we can tell,
+  but his military avocations were interrupted by his voyage to
+  Barbadoes, by the illness and death of his brother, and by the
+  cares and responsibilities thereby thrust upon him.</p>
+
+  <p>Meantime the French aggressions had continued, and French
+  soldiers and traders were working their way up from the South and
+  down from the North, bullying and cajoling the Indians by turns,
+  taking possession of the Ohio country, and selecting places as
+  they went for that chain of forts which was to hem in and slowly
+  strangle the English settlements. Governor Dinwiddie had sent a
+  commissioner to remonstrate against these encroachments, but his
+  envoy had stopped a hundred and fifty miles short of the French
+  posts, alarmed by the troublous condition of things, and by the
+  defeat and slaughter which the Frenchmen had already inflicted
+  upon the Indians. Some more vigorous person was evidently needed
+  to go through the form of warning France not to trespass on the
+  English wilderness, and thereupon Governor Dinwiddie selected for
+  the task George Washington, recently reappointed adjutant-general
+  of the northern division, and major in the Virginian forces. He
+  was a young man for such an undertaking, not yet twenty-two, but
+  clearly of good reputation. It is plain enough that Lord Fairfax
+  and others had said to the governor, "Here is the very man for
+  you; young, daring, and adventurous, but yet sober-minded and
+  responsible, who only lacks opportunity to show the stuff that is
+  in him."</p>
+
+  <p>Thus, then, in October, 1753, Washington set forth with Van
+  Braam, and various servants and horses, accompanied by the
+  boldest of Virginian frontiersmen, Christopher Gist. He wrote a
+  report in the form of a journal, which was sent to England and
+  much read at the time as part of the news of the day, and which
+  has an equal although different interest now. It is a succinct,
+  clear, and sober narrative. The little party was formed at Will's
+  Creek, and thence through woods and over swollen rivers made its
+  way to Logstown. Here they spent some days among the Indians,
+  whose leaders Washington got within his grasp after much
+  speech-making; and here, too, he met some French deserters from
+  the South, and drew from them all the knowledge they possessed of
+  New Orleans and the military expeditions from that region. From
+  Logstown he pushed on, accompanied by his Indian chiefs, to
+  Venango, on the Ohio, the first French outpost. The French
+  officers asked him to sup with them. The wine flowed freely, the
+  tongues of the hosts were loosened, and the young Virginian,
+  temperate and hard-headed, listened to all the conversation, and
+  noted down mentally much that was interesting and valuable. The
+  next morning the Indian chiefs, prudently kept in the background,
+  appeared, and a struggle ensued between the talkative, clever
+  Frenchmen and the quiet, persistent Virginian, over the
+  possession of these important savages. Finally Washington got
+  off, carrying his chiefs with him, and made his way seventy miles
+  further to the fort on French Creek. Here he delivered the
+  governor's letter, and while M. de St. Pierre wrote a vague and
+  polite answer, he sketched the fort and informed himself in
+  regard to the military condition of the post. Then came another
+  struggle over the Indians, and finally Washington got off with
+  them once more, and worked his way back to Venango. Another
+  struggle for the savages followed, rum being always the principal
+  factor in the negotiation, and at last the chiefs determined to
+  stay behind. Nevertheless, the work had been well done, and the
+  important Half-King remained true to the English cause.</p>
+
+  <p>Leaving his horses, Washington and Gist then took to the woods
+  on foot. The French Indians lay in wait for them and tried to
+  murder them, and Gist, like a true frontiersman, was for shooting
+  the scoundrel whom they captured. But Washington stayed his hand,
+  and they gave the savage the slip and pressed on. It was the
+  middle of December, very cold and stormy. In crossing a river,
+  Washington fell from the raft into deep water, amid the floating
+  ice, but fought his way out, and he and his companion passed the
+  night on an island, with their clothes frozen upon them. So
+  through peril and privation, and various dangers, stopping in the
+  midst of it all to win another savage potentate, they reached the
+  edge of the settlements and thence went on to Williamsburg, where
+  great praise and glory were awarded to the youthful envoy, the
+  hero of the hour in the little Virginia capital.</p>
+
+  <p>It is worth while to pause over this expedition a moment and
+  to consider attentively this journal which recounts it, for there
+  are very few incidents or documents which tell us more of
+  Washington. He was not yet twenty-two when he faced this first
+  grave responsibility, and he did his work absolutely well. Cool
+  courage, of course, he showed, but also patience and wisdom in
+  handling the Indians, a clear sense that the crafty and
+  well-trained Frenchmen could not blind, and a strong faculty for
+  dealing with men, always a rare and precious gift. As in the
+  little Barbadoes diary, so also in this journal, we see, and far
+  more strongly, the penetration and perception that nothing could
+  escape, and which set down all things essential and let the
+  "huddling silver, little worth," go by. The clearness, terseness,
+  and entire sufficiency of the narrative are obvious and lie on
+  the surface; but we find also another quality of the man which is
+  one of the most marked features in his character, and one which
+  we must dwell upon again and again, as we follow the story of his
+  life. Here it is that we learn directly for the first time that
+  Washington was a profoundly silent man. The gospel of silence has
+  been preached in these latter days by Carlyle, with the fervor of
+  a seer and prophet, and the world owes him a debt for the
+  historical discredit which he has brought upon the man of mere
+  words as compared with the man of deeds. Carlyle brushed
+  Washington aside as "a bloodless Cromwell," a phrase to which we
+  must revert later on other grounds, and, as has already been
+  said, failed utterly to see that he was the most supremely silent
+  of the great men of action that the world can show. Like Cromwell
+  and Frederic, Washington wrote countless letters, made many
+  speeches, and was agreeable in conversation. But this was all in
+  the way of business, and a man may be profoundly silent and yet
+  talk a great deal. Silence in the fine and true sense is neither
+  mere holding of the tongue nor an incapacity of expression. The
+  greatly silent man is he who is not given to words for their own
+  sake, and who never talks about himself. Both Cromwell, greatest
+  of Englishmen, and the great Frederic, Carlyle's especial heroes,
+  were fond of talking of themselves. So in still larger measure
+  was Napoleon, and many others of less importance. But Washington
+  differs from them all. He had abundant power of words, and could
+  use them with much force and point when he was so minded, but he
+  never used them needlessly or to hide his meaning, and he never
+  talked about himself. Hence the inestimable difficulty of knowing
+  him. A brief sentence here and there, a rare gleam of light
+  across the page of a letter, is all that we can find. The rest is
+  silence. He did as great work as has fallen to the lot of man, he
+  wrote volumes of correspondence, he talked with innumerable men
+  and women, and of himself he said nothing. Here in this youthful
+  journal we have a narrative of wild adventure, wily diplomacy,
+  and personal peril, impossible of condensation, and yet not a
+  word of the writer's thoughts or feelings. All that was done or
+  said important to the business in hand was set down, and nothing
+  was overlooked, but that is all. The work was done, and we know
+  how it was done, but the man is silent as to all else. Here,
+  indeed, is the man of action and of real silence, a character to
+  be much admired and wondered at in these or any other days.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington's report looked like war, and its author was
+  shortly afterwards appointed lieutenant-colonel of a Virginian
+  regiment, Colonel Fry commanding. Now began that long experience
+  of human stupidity and inefficiency with which Washington was
+  destined to struggle through all the years of his military
+  career, suffering from them, and triumphing in spite of them to a
+  degree unequaled by any other great commander. Dinwiddie, the
+  Scotch governor, was eager enough to fight, and full of energy
+  and good intentions, but he was hasty and not overwise, and was
+  filled with an excessive idea of his prerogatives. The assembly,
+  on its side, was sufficiently patriotic, but its members came
+  from a community which for more than half a century had had no
+  fighting, and they knew nothing of war or its necessities.
+  Unaccustomed to the large affairs into which they were suddenly
+  plunged, they displayed a narrow and provincial spirit. Keenly
+  alive to their own rights and privileges, they were more occupied
+  in quarreling with Dinwiddie than in prosecuting the war. In the
+  weak proprietary governments of Maryland and Pennsylvania there
+  was the same condition of affairs, with every evil exaggerated
+  tenfold. The fighting spirit was dominant in Virginia, but in
+  Quaker-ridden Pennsylvania it seems to have been almost extinct.
+  These three were not very promising communities to look to for
+  support in a difficult and costly war.</p>
+
+  <p>With all this inertia and stupidity Washington was called to
+  cope, and he rebelled against it in vigorous fashion. Leaving
+  Colonel Fry to follow with the main body of troops, Washington
+  set out on April 2, 1754, with two companies from Alexandria,
+  where he had been recruiting amidst most irritating difficulties.
+  He reached Will's Creek three weeks later; and then his real
+  troubles began. Captain Trent, the timid and halting envoy, who
+  had failed to reach the French, had been sent out by the wise
+  authorities to build a fort at the junction of the Alleghany and
+  Monongahela, on the admirable site selected by the keen eye of
+  Washington. There Trent left his men and returned to Will's
+  Creek, where Washington found him, but without the pack-horses
+  that he had promised to provide. Presently news came that the
+  French in overwhelming numbers had swept down upon Trent's little
+  party, captured their fort, and sent them packing back to
+  Virginia. Washington took this to be war, and determined at once
+  to march against the enemy. Having impressed from the
+  inhabitants, who were not bubbling over with patriotism, some
+  horses and wagons, he set out on his toilsome march across the
+  mountains.</p>
+
+  <p>It was a wild and desolate region, and progress was extremely
+  slow. By May 9 he was at the Little Meadows, twenty miles from
+  his starting-place; by the 18th at the Youghiogany River, which
+  he explored and found unnavigable. He was therefore forced to
+  take up his weary march again for the Monongahela, and by the
+  27th he was at the Great Meadows, a few miles further on. The
+  extreme danger of his position does not seem to have occurred to
+  him, but he was harassed and angered by the conduct of the
+  assembly. He wrote to Governor Dinwiddie that he had no idea of
+  giving up his commission. "But," he continued, "let me serve
+  voluntarily; then I will, with the greatest pleasure in life,
+  devote my services to the expedition, without any other reward
+  than the satisfaction of serving my country; but to be slaving
+  dangerously for the shadow of pay, through woods, rocks,
+  mountains,&mdash;I would rather prefer the great toil of a daily
+  laborer, and dig for a maintenance, provided I were reduced to
+  the necessity, than serve upon such ignoble terms; for I really
+  do not see why the lives of his Majesty's subjects in Virginia
+  should be of less value than those in other parts of his American
+  dominions, especially when it is well known that we must undergo
+  double their hardship." Here we have a high-spirited,
+  high-tempered young gentleman, with a contempt for shams that it
+  is pleasant to see, and evidently endowed also with a fine taste
+  for fighting and not too much patience.</p>
+
+  <p>Indignant letters written in vigorous language were, however,
+  of little avail, and Washington prepared to shift for himself as
+  best he might. His Indian allies brought him news that the French
+  were on the march and had thrown out scouting parties. Picking
+  out a place in the Great Meadows for a fort, "a charming field
+  for an encounter," he in his turn sent out a scouting party, and
+  then on fresh intelligence from the Indians set forth himself
+  with forty men to find the enemy. After a toilsome march they
+  discovered their foes in camp. The French, surprised and
+  surrounded, sprang to arms, the Virginians fired, there was a
+  sharp exchange of shots, and all was over. Ten of the French were
+  killed and twenty-one were taken prisoners, only one of the party
+  escaping to carry back the news.</p>
+
+  <p>This little skirmish made a prodigious noise in its day, and
+  was much heralded in France. The French declared that Jumonville,
+  the leader, who fell at the first fire, was foully assassinated,
+  and that he and his party were ambassadors and sacred characters.
+  Paris rang with this fresh instance of British perfidy, and a M.
+  Thomas celebrated the luckless Jumonville in a solemn epic poem
+  in four books. French historians, relying on the account of the
+  Canadian who escaped, adopted the same tone, and at a later day
+  mourned over this black spot on Washington's character. The
+  French view was simple nonsense. Jumonville and his party, as the
+  papers found on Jumonville showed, were out on a spying and
+  scouting expedition. They were seeking to surprise the English
+  when the English surprised them, with the usual backwoods result.
+  The affair has a dramatic interest because it was the first blood
+  shed in a great struggle, and was the beginning of a series of
+  world-wide wars and social and political convulsions, which
+  terminated more than half a century later on the plains of
+  Waterloo. It gave immortality to an obscure French officer by
+  linking his name with that of his opponent, and brought
+  Washington for the moment before the eyes of the world, which
+  little dreamed that this Virginian colonel was destined to be one
+  of the principal figures in the great revolutionary drama to
+  which the war then beginning was but the prologue.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington, for his part, well satisfied with his exploit,
+  retraced his steps, and having sent his prisoners back to
+  Virginia, proceeded to consider his situation. It was not a very
+  cheerful prospect. Contrecoeur, with the main body of the French
+  and Indians, was moving down from the Monongahela a thousand
+  strong. This of course was to have been anticipated, and it does
+  not seem to have in the least damped Washington's spirits. His
+  blood was up, his fighting temper thoroughly roused, and he
+  prepared to push on. Colonel Fry had died meanwhile, leaving
+  Washington in command; but his troops came forward, and also not
+  long after a useless "independent" company from South Carolina.
+  Thus reinforced Washington advanced painfully some thirteen
+  miles, and then receiving sure intelligence of the approach of
+  the French in great force fell back with difficulty to the Great
+  Meadows, where he was obliged by the exhausted condition of his
+  men to stop. He at once resumed work on Fort Necessity, and made
+  ready for a desperate defense, for the French were on his heels,
+  and on July 3 appeared at the Meadows. Washington offered battle
+  outside the fort, and this being declined withdrew to his
+  trenches, and skirmishing went on all day. When night fell it was
+  apparent that the end had come. The men were starved and worn
+  out. Their muskets in many cases were rendered useless by the
+  rain, and their ammunition was spent. The Indians had deserted,
+  and the foe outnumbered them four to one. When the French
+  therefore offered a parley, Washington was forced reluctantly to
+  accept. The French had no stomach for the fight, apparently, and
+  allowed the English to go with their arms, exacting nothing but a
+  pledge that for a year they would not come to the Ohio.</p>
+
+  <p>So ended Washington's first campaign. His friend the
+  Half-King, the celebrated Seneca chief, Thanacarishon, who
+  prudently departed on the arrival of the French, has left us a
+  candid opinion of Washington and his opponents. "The colonel," he
+  said, "was a good-natured man, but had no experience; he took
+  upon him to command the Indians as his slaves, and would have
+  them every day upon the scout and to attack the enemy by
+  themselves, but would by no means take advice from the Indians.
+  He lay in one place from one full moon to the other, without
+  making any fortifications, except that little thing on the
+  meadow; whereas, had he taken advice, and built such
+  fortifications as I advised him, he might easily have beat off
+  the French. But the French in the engagement acted like cowards,
+  and the English like fools."<a id="footnotetag1-5" name=
+  "footnotetag1-5"></a><a href="#footnote1-5"><sup>1</sup></a></p>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote1-5" name="footnote1-5"></a>[<b>Footnote 1:</b>
+    <a href="#footnotetag1-5">(return)</a> <i>Enquiry into the
+    Causes and Alienations of the Delaware and Shawanee
+    Indians</i>, etc. London, 1759. By Charles Thomson, afterwards
+    Secretary of Congress.]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>There is a deal of truth in this opinion. The whole expedition
+  was rash in the extreme. When Washington left Will's Creek he was
+  aware that he was going to meet a force of a thousand men with
+  only a hundred and fifty raw recruits at his back. In the same
+  spirit he pushed on; and after the Jumonville affair, although he
+  knew that the wilderness about him was swarming with enemies, he
+  still struggled forward. When forced to retreat he made a stand
+  at the Meadows and offered battle in the open to his more
+  numerous and more prudent foes, for he was one of those men who
+  by nature regard courage as a substitute for everything, and who
+  have a contempt for hostile odds. He was ready to meet any number
+  of French and Indians with cheerful confidence and with real
+  pleasure. He wrote, in a letter which soon became famous, that he
+  loved to hear bullets whistle, a sage observation which he set
+  down in later years as a folly of youth. Yet this boyish
+  outburst, foolish as it was, has a meaning to us, for it was
+  essentially true. Washington had the fierce fighting temper of
+  the Northmen. He loved battle and danger, and he never ceased to
+  love them and to give way to their excitement, although he did
+  not again set down such sentiments in boastful phrase that made
+  the world laugh. Men of such temper, moreover, are naturally
+  imperious and have a fine disregard of consequences, with the
+  result that their allies, Indian or otherwise, often become
+  impatient and finally useless. The campaign was perfectly wild
+  from the outset, and if it had not been for the utter
+  indifference to danger displayed by Washington, and the
+  consequent timidity of the French, that particular body of
+  Virginians would have been permanently lost to the British
+  Empire.</p>
+
+  <p>But we learn from all this many things. It appears that
+  Washington was not merely a brave man, but one who loved fighting
+  for its own sake. The whole expedition shows an arbitrary temper
+  and the most reckless courage, valuable qualities, but here
+  unrestrained, and mixed with very little prudence. Some important
+  lessons were learned by Washington from the rough teachings of
+  inexorable and unconquerable facts. He received in this campaign
+  the first taste of that severe experience which by its training
+  developed the self-control and mastery of temper for which he
+  became so remarkable. He did not spring into life a perfect and
+  impossible man, as is so often represented. On the contrary, he
+  was educated by circumstances; but the metal came out of the
+  furnace of experience finely tempered, because it was by nature
+  of the best and with but little dross to be purged away. In
+  addition to all this he acquired for the moment what would now be
+  called a European reputation. He was known in Paris as an
+  assassin, and in England, thanks to the bullet letter, as a
+  "fanfaron" and brave braggart. With these results he wended his
+  way home much depressed in spirits, but not in the least
+  discouraged, and fonder of fighting than ever.</p>
+
+  <p>Virginia, however, took a kinder view of the campaign than did
+  her defeated soldier. She appreciated the gallantry of the offer
+  to fight in the open and the general conduct of the troops, and
+  her House of Burgesses passed a vote of thanks to Washington and
+  his officers, and gave money to his men. In August he rejoined
+  his regiment, only to renew the vain struggle against
+  incompetence and extravagance, and as if this were not enough,
+  his sense of honor was wounded and his temper much irritated by
+  the governor's playing false to the prisoners taken in the
+  Jumonville fight. While thus engaged, news came that the French
+  were off their guard at Fort Duquesne, and Dinwiddie was for
+  having the regiment of undisciplined troops march again into the
+  wilderness. Washington, however, had learned something, if not a
+  great deal, and he demonstrated the folly of such an attempt in a
+  manner too clear to be confuted.</p>
+
+  <p>Meantime the Burgesses came together, and more money being
+  voted, Dinwiddie hit on a notable plan for quieting dissensions
+  between regulars and provincials by dividing all the troops into
+  independent companies, with no officer higher than a captain.
+  Washington, the only officer who had seen fighting and led a
+  regiment, resented quite properly this senseless policy, and
+  resigning his commission withdrew to Mount Vernon to manage the
+  estate and attend to his own affairs. He was driven to this
+  course still more strongly by the original cause of Dinwiddie's
+  arrangement. The English government had issued an order that
+  officers holding the king's commission should rank provincial
+  officers, and that provincial generals and field officers should
+  have no rank when a general or field officer holding a royal
+  commission was present. The degradation of being ranked by every
+  whipper-snapper who might hold a royal commission by virtue,
+  perhaps, of being the bastard son of some nobleman's cast-off
+  mistress was more than the temper of George Washington at least
+  could bear, and when Governor Sharpe, general by the king's
+  commission, and eager to secure the services of the best fighter
+  in Virginia, offered him a company and urged his acceptance, he
+  replied in language that must have somewhat astonished his
+  excellency. "You make mention in your letter," he wrote to
+  Colonel Fitzhugh, Governor Sharpe's second in command, "of my
+  continuing in the service, and retaining my colonel's commission.
+  This idea has filled me with surprise; for, if you think me
+  capable of holding a commission that has neither rank nor
+  emolument annexed to it, you must entertain a very contemptible
+  opinion of my weakness, and believe me to be more empty than the
+  commission itself.... In short, every captain bearing the king's
+  commission, every half-pay officer, or others, appearing with
+  such a commission, would rank before me.... Yet my inclinations
+  are strongly bent to arms."</p>
+
+  <p>It was a bitter disappointment to withdraw from military life,
+  but Washington had an intense sense of personal dignity; not the
+  small vanity of a petty mind, but the quality of a proud man
+  conscious of his own strength and purpose. It was of immense
+  value to the American people at a later day, and there is
+  something very instructive in this early revolt against the
+  stupid arrogance which England has always thought it wise to
+  display toward this country. She has paid dearly for indulging
+  it, but it has seldom cost her more than when it drove Washington
+  from her service, and left in his mind a sense of indignity and
+  injustice.</p>
+
+  <p>Meantime this Virginian campaigning had started a great
+  movement. England was aroused, and it was determined to assail
+  France in Nova Scotia, from New York and on the Ohio. In
+  accordance with this plan General Braddock arrived in Virginia
+  February 20, 1755, with two picked regiments, and encamped at
+  Alexandria. Thither Washington used to ride and look longingly at
+  the pomp and glitter, and wish that he wore engaged in the
+  service. Presently this desire became known, and Braddock,
+  hearing of the young Virginian's past experience, offered him a
+  place on his staff with the rank of colonel where he would be
+  subject only to the orders of the general, and could serve as a
+  volunteer. He therefore accepted at once, and threw himself into
+  his new duties with hearty good-will. Every step now was full of
+  instruction. At Annapolis he met the governors of the other
+  colonies, and was interested and attracted by this association
+  with distinguished public men. In the army to which he was
+  attached he studied with the deepest attention the best
+  discipline of Europe, observing everything and forgetting
+  nothing, thus preparing himself unconsciously to use against his
+  teachers the knowledge he acquired.</p>
+
+  <p>He also made warm friends with the English officers, and was
+  treated with consideration by his commander. The universal
+  practice of all Englishmen at that time was to behave
+  contemptuously to the colonists, but there was something about
+  Washington which made this impossible. They all treated him with
+  the utmost courtesy, vaguely conscious that beneath the pleasant,
+  quiet manner there was a strength of character and ability such
+  as is rarely found, and that this was a man whom it was unsafe to
+  affront. There is no stronger instance of Washington's power of
+  impressing himself upon others than that he commanded now the
+  respect and affection of his general, who was the last man to be
+  easily or favorably affected by a young provincial officer.</p>
+
+  <p>Edward Braddock was a veteran soldier, a skilled
+  disciplinarian, and a rigid martinet. He was narrow-minded,
+  brutal, and brave. He had led a fast life in society, indulging
+  in coarse and violent dissipations, and was proud with the
+  intense pride of a limited intelligence and a nature incapable of
+  physical fear. It would be difficult to conceive of a man more
+  unfit to be entrusted with the task of marching through the
+  wilderness and sweeping the French from the Ohio. All the
+  conditions which confronted him were unfamiliar and beyond his
+  experience. He cordially despised the provincials who were
+  essential to his success, and lost no opportunity of showing his
+  contempt for them. The colonists on their side, especially in
+  Pennsylvania, gave him, unfortunately, only too much ground for
+  irritation and disgust. They were delighted to see this brilliant
+  force come from England to fight their battles, but they kept on
+  wrangling and holding back, refusing money and supplies, and
+  doing nothing. Braddock chafed and delayed, swore angrily, and
+  lingered still. Washington strove to help him, but defended his
+  country fearlessly against wholesale and furious attacks.</p>
+
+  <p>Finally the army began to move, but so slowly and after so
+  much delay that they did not reach Will's Creek until the middle
+  of May. Here came another exasperating pause, relieved only by
+  Franklin, who, by giving his own time, ability, and money,
+  supplied the necessary wagons. Then they pushed on again, but
+  with the utmost slowness. With supreme difficulty they made an
+  elaborate road over the mountains as they marched, and did not
+  reach the Little Meadows until June 16. Then at last Braddock
+  turned to his young aide for the counsel which had already been
+  proffered and rejected many times. Washington advised the
+  division of the army, so that the main body could hurry forward
+  in light marching order while a detachment remained behind and
+  brought up the heavy baggage. This plan was adopted, and the army
+  started forward, still too heavily burdened, as Washington
+  thought, but in somewhat better trim for the wilderness than
+  before. Their progress, quickened as it was, still seemed slow to
+  Washington, but he was taken ill with a fever, and finally was
+  compelled by Braddock to stop for rest at the ford of
+  Youghiogany. He made Braddock promise that he should be brought
+  up before the army reached Fort Duquesne, and wrote to his friend
+  Orme that he would not miss the impending battle for five hundred
+  pounds.</p>
+
+  <p>As soon as his fever abated a little he left Colonel Dunbar,
+  and, being unable to sit on a horse, was conveyed to the front in
+  a wagon, coming up with the army on July 8. He was just in time,
+  for the next day the troops forded the Monongahela and marched to
+  attack the fort. The splendid appearance of the soldiers as they
+  crossed the river roused Washington's enthusiasm; but he was not
+  without misgivings. Franklin had already warned Braddock against
+  the danger of surprise, and had been told with a sneer that while
+  these savages might be a formidable enemy to raw American
+  militia, they could make no impression on disciplined troops. Now
+  at the last moment Washington warned the general again and was
+  angrily rebuked.</p>
+
+  <p>The troops marched on in ordered ranks, glittering and
+  beautiful. Suddenly firing was heard in the front, and presently
+  the van was flung back on the main body. Yells and war-whoops
+  resounded on every side, and an unseen enemy poured in a deadly
+  fire. Washington begged Braddock to throw his men into the woods,
+  but all in vain. Fight in platoons they must, or not at all. The
+  result was that they did not fight at all. They became
+  panic-stricken, and huddled together, overcome with fear, until
+  at last when Braddock was mortally wounded they broke in wild
+  rout and fled. Of the regular troops, seven hundred, and of the
+  officers, who showed the utmost bravery, sixty-two out of
+  eighty-six, were killed or wounded. Two hundred Frenchmen and six
+  hundred Indians achieved this signal victory. The only thing that
+  could be called fighting on the English side was done by the
+  Virginians, "the raw American militia," who, spread out as
+  skirmishers, met their foes on their own ground, and were cut off
+  after a desperate resistance almost to a man.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington at the outset flung himself headlong into the
+  fight. He rode up and down the field, carrying orders and
+  striving to rally "the dastards," as he afterwards called the
+  regular troops. He endeavored to bring up the artillery, but the
+  men would not serve the guns, although to set an example he aimed
+  and discharged one himself. All through that dreadful carnage he
+  rode fiercely about, raging with the excitement of battle, and
+  utterly exposed from beginning to end. Even now it makes the
+  heart beat quicker to think of him amid the smoke and slaughter
+  as he dashed hither and thither, his face glowing and his eyes
+  shining with the fierce light of battle, leading on his own
+  Virginians, and trying to stay the tide of disaster. He had two
+  horses shot under him and four bullets through his coat. The
+  Indians thought he bore a charmed life, while his death was
+  reported in the colonies, together with his dying speech, which,
+  he dryly wrote to his brother, he had not yet composed.</p>
+
+  <p>When the troops broke it was Washington who gathered the
+  fugitives and brought off the dying general. It was he who rode
+  on to meet Dunbar, and rallying the fugitives enabled the
+  wretched remnants to take up their march for the settlements. He
+  it was who laid Braddock in the grave four days after the defeat,
+  and read over the dead the solemn words of the English service.
+  Wise, sensible, and active in the advance, splendidly reckless on
+  the day of battle, cool and collected on the retreat, Washington
+  alone emerged from that history of disaster with added glory.
+  Again he comes before us as, above all things, the fighting man,
+  hot-blooded and fierce in action, and utterly indifferent to the
+  danger which excited and delighted him. But the earlier lesson
+  had not been useless. He now showed a prudence and wisdom in
+  counsel which were not apparent in the first of his campaigns,
+  and he no longer thought that mere courage was all-sufficient, or
+  that any enemy could be despised. He was plainly one of those who
+  could learn. His first experience had borne good fruit, and now
+  he had been taught a series of fresh and valuable lessons. Before
+  his eyes had been displayed the most brilliant European
+  discipline, both in camp and on the march. He had studied and
+  absorbed it all, talking with veterans and hearing from them many
+  things that he could have acquired nowhere else. Once more had he
+  been taught, in a way not to be forgotten, that it is never well
+  to underrate one's opponent. He had looked deeper, too, and had
+  seen what the whole continent soon understood, that English
+  troops were not invincible, that they could be beaten by Indians,
+  and that they were after all much like other men. This was the
+  knowledge, fatal in after days to British supremacy, which
+  Braddock's defeat brought to Washington and to the colonists, and
+  which was never forgotten. Could he have looked into the future,
+  he would have seen also in this ill-fated expedition an epitome
+  of much future history. The expedition began with stupid contempt
+  toward America and all things American, and ended in ruin and
+  defeat. It was a bitter experience, much heeded by the colonists,
+  but disregarded by England, whose indifference was paid for at a
+  heavy cost.</p>
+
+  <p>After the hasty retreat, Colonel Dunbar, stricken with panic,
+  fled onward to Philadelphia, abandoning everything, and Virginia
+  was left naturally in a state of great alarm. The assembly came
+  together, and at last, thoroughly frightened, voted abundant
+  money, and ordered a regiment of a thousand men to be raised.
+  Washington, who had returned to Mount Vernon ill and worn-out,
+  was urged to solicit the command, but it was not his way to
+  solicit, and he declined to do so now. August 14, he wrote to his
+  mother: "If it is in my power to avoid going to the Ohio again, I
+  shall; but if the command is pressed upon me by the general voice
+  of the country, and offered upon such terms as cannot be objected
+  against, it would reflect dishonor on me to refuse it." The same
+  day he was offered the command of all the Virginian forces on his
+  own terms, and accepted. Virginia believed in Washington, and he
+  was ready to obey her call.</p>
+
+  <p>He at once assumed command and betook himself to Winchester, a
+  general without an army, but still able to check by his presence
+  the existing panic, and ready to enter upon the trying, dreary,
+  and fruitless work that lay before him. In April, 1757, he wrote:
+  "I have been posted then, for more than twenty months past, upon
+  our cold and barren frontiers, to perform, I think I may say,
+  impossibilities; that is, to protect from the cruel incursions of
+  a crafty, savage enemy a line of inhabitants, of more than three
+  hundred and fifty miles in extent, with a force inadequate to the
+  task." This terse statement covers all that can be said of the
+  next three years. It was a long struggle against a savage foe in
+  front, and narrowness, jealousy, and stupidity behind; apparently
+  without any chance of effecting anything, or gaining any glory or
+  reward. Troops were voted, but were raised with difficulty, and
+  when raised were neglected and ill-treated by the wrangling
+  governor and assembly, which caused much ill-suppressed wrath in
+  the breast of the commander-in-chief, who labored day and night
+  to bring about better discipline in camp, and who wrote long
+  letters to Williamsburg recounting existing evils and praying for
+  a new militia law.</p>
+
+  <p>The troops, in fact, were got out with vast difficulty even
+  under the most stinging necessity, and were almost worthless when
+  they came. Of one "noble captain" who refused to come, Washington
+  wrote: "With coolness and moderation this great captain answered
+  that his wife, family, and corn were all at stake; so were those
+  of his soldiers; therefore it was impossible for him to come.
+  Such is the example of the officers; such the behavior of the
+  men; and upon such circumstances depends the safety of our
+  country!" But while the soldiers were neglected, and the assembly
+  faltered, and the militia disobeyed, the French and Indians kept
+  at work on the long, exposed frontier. There panic reigned,
+  farmhouses and villages went up in smoke, and the fields were
+  reddened with slaughter at each fresh incursion. Gentlemen in
+  Williamsburg bore these misfortunes with reasonable fortitude,
+  but Washington raged against the abuses and the inaction, and
+  vowed that nothing but the imminent danger prevented his
+  resignation. "The supplicating tears of the women," he wrote,
+  "and moving petitions of the men melt me into such deadly sorrow
+  that I solemnly declare, if I know my own mind, I could offer
+  myself a willing sacrifice to the butchering enemy, provided that
+  would contribute to the people's ease." This is one of the rare
+  flashes of personal feeling which disclose the real man, warm of
+  heart and temper, full of human sympathy, and giving vent to hot
+  indignation in words which still ring clear and strong across the
+  century that has come and gone.</p>
+
+  <p>Serious troubles, moreover, were complicated by petty
+  annoyances. A Maryland captain, at the head of thirty men,
+  undertook to claim rank over the Virginian commander-in-chief
+  because he had held a king's commission; and Washington was
+  obliged to travel to Boston in order to have the miserable thing
+  set right by Governor Shirley. This affair settled, he returned
+  to take up again the old disheartening struggle, and his
+  outspoken condemnation of Dinwiddie's foolish schemes and of the
+  shortcomings of the government began to raise up backbiters and
+  malcontents at Williamsburg. "My orders," he said, "are dark,
+  doubtful, and uncertain; to-day approved, to-morrow condemned.
+  Left to act and proceed at hazard, accountable for the
+  consequences, and blamed without the benefit of defense." He
+  determined nevertheless to bear with his trials until the arrival
+  of Lord Loudon, the new commander-in-chief, from whom he expected
+  vigor and improvement. Unfortunately he was destined to have only
+  fresh disappointment from the new general, for Lord Loudon was
+  merely one more incompetent man added to the existing confusion.
+  He paid no heed to the South, matters continued to go badly in
+  the North, and Virginia was left helpless. So Washington toiled
+  on with much discouragement, and the disagreeable attacks upon
+  him increased. That it should have been so is not surprising, for
+  he wrote to the governor, who now held him in much disfavor, to
+  the speaker, and indeed to every one, with a most galling
+  plainness. He was only twenty-five, be it remembered, and his
+  high temper was by no means under perfect control. He was
+  anything but diplomatic at that period of his life, and was far
+  from patient, using language with much sincerity and force, and
+  indulging in a blunt irony of rather a ferocious kind. When he
+  was accused finally of getting up reports of imaginary dangers,
+  his temper gave way entirely. He wrote wrathfully to the governor
+  for justice, and added in a letter to his friend, Captain
+  Peachey: "As to Colonel C.'s gross and infamous reflections on my
+  conduct last spring, it will be needless, I dare say, to observe
+  further at this time than that the liberty which he has been
+  pleased to allow himself in sporting with my character is little
+  else than a comic entertainment, discovering at one view his
+  passionate fondness for your friend, his inviolable love of
+  truth, his unfathomable knowledge, and the masterly strokes of
+  his wisdom in displaying it. You are heartily welcome to make use
+  of any letter or letters which I may at any time have written to
+  you; for although I keep no copies of epistles to my friends, nor
+  can remember the contents of all of them, yet I am sensible that
+  the narrations are just, and that truth and honesty will appear
+  in my writings; of which, therefore, I shall not be ashamed,
+  though criticism may censure my style."</p>
+
+  <p>Perhaps a little more patience would have produced better
+  results, but it is pleasant to find one man, in that period of
+  stupidity and incompetency, who was ready to free his mind in
+  this refreshing way. The only wonder is that he was not driven
+  from his command. That they insisted on keeping him there shows
+  beyond everything that he had already impressed himself so
+  strongly on Virginia that the authorities, although they smarted
+  under his attacks, did not dare to meddle with him. Dinwiddie and
+  the rest could foil him in obtaining a commission in the king's
+  army, but they could not shake his hold upon the people.</p>
+
+  <p>In the winter of 1758 his health broke down completely. He was
+  so ill that he thought that his constitution was seriously
+  injured; and therefore withdrew to Mount Vernon, where he slowly
+  recovered. Meantime a great man came at last to the head of
+  affairs in England, and inspired by William Pitt, fleets and
+  armies went forth to conquer. Reviving at the prospect,
+  Washington offered his services to General Forbes, who had come
+  to undertake the task which Braddock had failed to accomplish.
+  Once more English troops appeared, and a large army was gathered.
+  Then the old story began again, and Washington, whose proffered
+  aid had been gladly received, chafed and worried all summer at
+  the fresh spectacle of delay and stupidity which was presented to
+  him. His advice was disregarded, and all the weary business of
+  building new roads through the wilderness was once more
+  undertaken. A detachment, sent forward contrary to his views, met
+  with the fate of Braddock, and as the summer passed, and autumn
+  changed to winter, it looked as if nothing would be gained in
+  return for so much toil and preparation. But Pitt had conquered
+  the Ohio in Canada, news arrived of the withdrawal of the French,
+  the army pressed on, and, with Washington in the van, marched
+  into the smoking ruins of Fort Duquesne, henceforth to be known
+  to the world as Fort Pitt.</p>
+
+  <p>So closed the first period in Washington's public career. We
+  have seen him pass through it in all its phases. It shows him as
+  an adventurous pioneer, as a reckless frontier fighter, and as a
+  soldier of great promise. He learned many things in this time,
+  and was taught much in the hard school of adversity. In the
+  effort to conquer Frenchmen and Indians he studied the art of
+  war, and at the same time he learned to bear with and to overcome
+  the dullness and inefficiency of the government he served. Thus
+  he was forced to practise self-control in order to attain his
+  ends, and to acquire skill in the management of men. There could
+  have been no better training for the work he was to do in the
+  after years, and the future showed how deeply he profited by it.
+  Let us turn now, for a moment, to the softer and pleasanter side
+  of life, and having seen what Washington was, and what he did as
+  a fighting man, let us try to know him in the equally important
+  and far more attractive domain of private and domestic life.</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <h2><a name="IV" id="IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+
+  <h2>LOVE AND MARRIAGE</h2>
+
+  <div class="figleft" style="width:35%;">
+    <a href="images/illus0385.jpg"><img width="100%" src=
+    "images/illus0385.jpg" alt="Mary Cary" /></a>Mary Cary
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Lewis Willis, of Fredericksburg, who was at school with
+  Washington, used to speak of him as an unusually studious and
+  industrious boy, but recalled one occasion when he distinguished
+  himself and surprised his schoolmates by "romping with one of the
+  largest girls."<a id="footnotetag1-6" name=
+  "footnotetag1-6"></a><a href="#footnote1-6"><sup>1</sup></a> Half
+  a century later, when the days of romping were long over and
+  gone, a gentleman writing of a Mrs. Hartley, whom Washington much
+  admired, said that the general always liked a fine woman.<a id=
+  "footnotetag2-7" name="footnotetag2-7"></a><a href=
+  "#footnote2-7"><sup>2</sup></a> It is certain that from romping
+  he passed rapidly to more serious forms of expressing regard, for
+  by the time he was fourteen he had fallen deeply in love with
+  Mary Bland of Westmoreland, whom he calls his "Lowland Beauty,"
+  and to whom he wrote various copies of verses, preserved amid the
+  notes of surveys, in his diary for 1747-48. The old tradition
+  identified the "Lowland Beauty" with Miss Lucy Grymes, perhaps
+  correctly, and there are drafts of letters addressed to "Dear
+  Sally," which suggest that the mistake in identification might
+  have arisen from the fact that there were several ladies who
+  answered to that description. In the following sentence from the
+  draft of a letter to a masculine sympathizer, also preserved in
+  the tell-tale diary of 1748, there is certainly an indication
+  that the constancy of the lover was not perfect. "Dear Friend
+  Robin," he wrote: "My place of residence at present is at his
+  Lordship's, where I might, were my heart disengaged, pass my time
+  very pleasantly, as there is a very agreeable young lady in the
+  same house, Colonel George Fairfax's wife's sister. But that only
+  adds fuel to the fire, as being often and unavoidably in company
+  with her revives my former passion for your Lowland Beauty;
+  whereas were I to live more retired from young women, I might in
+  some measure alleviate my sorrow by burying that chaste and
+  troublesome passion in oblivion; I am very well assured that this
+  will be the only antidote or remedy." Our gloomy young gentleman,
+  however, did not take to solitude to cure the pangs of despised
+  love, but preceded to calm his spirits by the society of this
+  same sister-in-law of George Fairfax, Miss Mary Cary. One
+  "Lowland Beauty," Lucy Grymes, married Henry Lee, and became the
+  mother of "Legion Harry," a favorite officer and friend of
+  Washington in the Revolution, and the grandmother of Robert E.
+  Lee, the great soldier of the Southern Confederacy. The affair
+  with Miss Cary went on apparently for some years, fitfully
+  pursued in the intervals of war and Indian fighting, and
+  interrupted also by matters of a more tender nature. The first
+  diversion occurred about 1752, when we find Washington writing to
+  William Fauntleroy, at Richmond, that he proposed to come to his
+  house to see his sister, Miss Betsy, and that he hoped for a
+  revocation of her former cruel sentence.<a id="footnotetag3-8"
+  name="footnotetag3-8"></a><a href="#footnote3-8"><sup>3</sup></a>
+  Miss Betsy, however, seems to have been obdurate, and we hear no
+  more of love affairs until much later, and then in connection
+  with matters of a graver sort.</p>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote1-6" name="footnote1-6"></a>[<b>Footnote 1:</b>
+    <a href="#footnotetag1-6">(return)</a> Quoted from the Willis
+    MS. by Mr. Conway, in <i>Magazine of American History</i>,
+    March, 1887, p. 196.]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote2-7" name="footnote2-7"></a>[<b>Footnote 2:</b>
+    <a href="#footnotetag2-7">(return)</a> <i>Magazine of American
+    History</i>, i. 324.]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote3-8" name="footnote3-8"></a>[<b>Footnote 3:</b>
+    <a href="#footnotetag3-8">(return)</a> <i>Historical
+    Magazine</i>, 3d series, 1873. Letter communicated by Fitzhugh
+    Lee.]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>When Captain Dagworthy, commanding thirty men in the Maryland
+  service, undertook in virtue of a king's commission to outrank
+  the commander-in-chief of the Virginian forces, Washington made
+  up his mind that he would have this question at least finally and
+  properly settled. So, as has been said, he went to Boston, saw
+  Governor Shirley, and had the dispute determined in his own
+  favor. He made the journey on horseback, and had with him two of
+  his aides and two servants. An old letter, luckily preserved,
+  tells us how he looked, for it contains orders to his London
+  agents for various articles, sent for perhaps in anticipation of
+  this very expedition. In Braddock's campaign the young surveyor
+  and frontier soldier had been thrown among a party of dashing,
+  handsomely equipped officers fresh from London, and their
+  appearance had engaged his careful attention. Washington was a
+  thoroughly simple man in all ways, but he was also a man of taste
+  and a lover of military discipline. He had a keen sense of
+  appropriateness, a valuable faculty which stood him in good stead
+  in grave as well as trivial matters all through his career, and
+  which in his youth came out most strongly in the matter of
+  manners and personal appearance. He was a handsome man, and liked
+  to be well dressed and to have everything about himself or his
+  servants of the best. Yet he was not a mere imitator of fashions
+  or devoted to fine clothes. The American leggins and fringed
+  hunting-shirt had a strong hold on his affections, and he
+  introduced them into Forbes's army, and again into the army of
+  the Revolution, as the best uniform for the backwoods fighters.
+  But he learned with Braddock that the dress of parade has as real
+  military value as that of service, and when he traveled northward
+  to settle about Captain Dagworthy, he felt justly that he now was
+  going on parade for the first time as the representative of his
+  troops and his colony. Therefore with excellent sense he dressed
+  as befitted the occasion, and at the same time gratified his own
+  taste.</p>
+
+  <p>Thanks to these precautions, the little cavalcade that left
+  Virginia on February 4, 1756, must have looked brilliant enough
+  as they rode away through the dark woods. First came the colonel,
+  mounted of course on the finest of animals, for he loved and
+  understood horses from the time when he rode bareback in the
+  pasture to those later days when he acted as judge at a
+  horse-race and saw his own pet colt "Magnolia" beaten. In this
+  expedition he wore, of course, his uniform of buff and blue, with
+  a white and scarlet cloak over his shoulders, and a sword-knot of
+  red and gold. His "horse furniture" was of the best London make,
+  trimmed with "livery lace," and the Washington arms were engraved
+  upon the housings. Close by his side rode his two aides, likewise
+  in buff and blue, and behind came his servants, dressed in the
+  Washington colors of white and scarlet and wearing hats laced
+  with silver. Thus accoutred, they all rode on together to the
+  North.</p>
+
+  <p>The colonel's fame had gone before him, for the hero of
+  Braddock's stricken field and the commander of the Virginian
+  forces was known by reputation throughout the colonies. Every
+  door flew open to him as he passed, and every one was delighted
+  to welcome the young soldier. He was dined and wined and
+  f&ecirc;ted in Philadelphia, and again in New York, where he fell
+  in love at apparently short notice with the heiress Mary
+  Philipse, the sister-in-law of his friend Beverly Robinson.
+  Tearing himself away from these attractions he pushed on to
+  Boston, then the most important city on the continent, and the
+  head-quarters of Shirley, the commander-in-chief. The little New
+  England capital had at that time a society which, rich for those
+  days, was relieved from its Puritan sombreness by the gayety and
+  life brought in by the royal officers. Here Washington lingered
+  ten days, talking war and politics with the governor, visiting in
+  state the "great and general court," dancing every night at some
+  ball, dining with and being f&ecirc;ted by the magnates of the
+  town. His business done, he returned to New York, tarried there
+  awhile for the sake of the fair dame, but came to no conclusions,
+  and then, like the soldier in the song, he gave his bridle-rein a
+  shake and rode away again to the South, and to the harassed and
+  ravaged frontier of Virginia.</p>
+
+  <p>How much this little interlude, pushed into a corner as it has
+  been by the dignity of history,&mdash;how much it tells of the
+  real man! How the statuesque myth and the priggish myth and the
+  dull and solemn myth melt away before it! Wise and strong, a
+  bearer of heavy responsibility beyond his years, daring in fight
+  and sober in judgment, we have here the other and the more human
+  side of Washington. One loves to picture that gallant, generous,
+  youthful figure, brilliant in color and manly in form, riding
+  gayly on from one little colonial town to another, feasting,
+  dancing, courting, and making merry. For him the myrtle and ivy
+  were entwined with the laurel, and fame was sweetened by youth.
+  He was righteously ready to draw from life all the good things
+  which fate and fortune then smiling upon him could offer, and he
+  took his pleasure frankly, with an honest heart.</p>
+
+  <p>We know that he succeeded in his mission and put the captain
+  of thirty men in his proper place, but no one now can tell how
+  deeply he was affected by the charms of Miss Philipse. The only
+  certain fact is that he was able not long after to console
+  himself very effectually. Riding away from Mount Vernon once
+  more, in the spring of 1758, this time to Williamsburg with
+  dispatches, he stopped at William's Ferry to dine with his friend
+  Major Chamberlayne, and there he met Martha Dandridge, the widow
+  of Daniel Parke Custis. She was young, pretty, intelligent, and
+  an heiress, and her society seemed to attract the young soldier.
+  The afternoon wore away, the horses came to the door at the
+  appointed time, and after being walked back and forth for some
+  hours were returned to the stable. The sun went down, and still
+  the colonel lingered. The next morning he rode away with his
+  dispatches, but on his return he paused at the White House, the
+  home of Mrs. Custis, and then and there plighted his troth with
+  the charming widow. The wooing was brief and decisive, and the
+  successful lover departed for the camp, to feel more keenly than
+  ever the delays of the British officers and the shortcomings of
+  the colonial government. As soon as Fort Duquesne had fallen he
+  hurried home, resigned his commission in the last week of
+  December, and was married on January 6, 1759. It was a brilliant
+  wedding party which assembled on that winter day in the little
+  church near the White House. There were gathered Francis
+  Fauquier, the gay, free-thinking, high-living governor, gorgeous
+  in scarlet and gold; British officers, redcoated and gold-laced,
+  and all the neighboring gentry in the handsomest clothes that
+  London credit could furnish. The bride was attired in silk and
+  satin, laces and brocade, with pearls on her neck and in her
+  ears; while the bridegroom appeared in blue and silver trimmed
+  with scarlet, and with gold buckles at his knees and on his
+  shoes. After the ceremony the bride was taken home in a coach and
+  six, her husband riding beside her, mounted on a splendid horse
+  and followed by all the gentlemen of the party.</p>
+
+  <div class="figright" style="width:35%;">
+    <a href="images/illus0387.jpg"><img width="100%" src=
+    "images/illus0387.jpg" alt=
+    "Mary Morris born Mary Philipse" /></a> Mary Morris born Mary
+    Philipse
+  </div>
+
+  <p>The sunshine and glitter of the wedding-day must have appeared
+  to Washington deeply appropriate, for he certainly seemed to have
+  all that heart of man could desire. Just twenty-seven, in the
+  first flush of young manhood, keen of sense and yet wise in
+  experience, life must have looked very fair and smiling. He had
+  left the army with a well-earned fame, and had come home to take
+  the wife of his choice and enjoy the good-will and respect of all
+  men. While away on his last campaign he had been elected a member
+  of the House of Burgesses, and when he took his seat on removing
+  to Williamsburg, three months after his marriage, Mr. Robinson,
+  the speaker, thanked him publicly in eloquent words for his
+  services to the country. Washington rose to reply, but he was so
+  utterly unable to talk about himself that he stood before the
+  House stammering and blushing, until the speaker said, "Sit down,
+  Mr. Washington; your modesty equals your valor, and that
+  surpasses the power of any language I possess." It is an old
+  story, and as graceful as it is old, but it was all very grateful
+  to Washington, especially as the words of the speaker bodied
+  forth the feelings of Virginia. Such an atmosphere, filled with
+  deserved respect and praise, was pleasant to begin with, and then
+  he had everything else too.</p>
+
+  <p>He not only continued to sit in the House year after year and
+  help to rule Virginia, but he served on the church vestry, and so
+  held in his hands the reins of local government. He had married a
+  charming woman, simple, straightforward, and sympathetic, free
+  from gossip or pretense, and as capable in practical matters as
+  he was himself. By right of birth a member of the Virginian
+  aristocracy, he had widened and strengthened his connections
+  through his wife. A man of handsome property by the death of
+  Lawrence Washington's daughter, he had become by his marriage one
+  of the richest men of the country. Acknowledged to be the first
+  soldier on the continent, respected and trusted in public,
+  successful and happy in private life, he had attained before he
+  was thirty to all that Virginia could give of wealth, prosperity,
+  and honor, a fact of which he was well aware, for there never
+  breathed a man more wisely contented than George Washington at
+  this period.</p>
+
+  <p>He made his home at Mount Vernon, adding many acres to the
+  estate, and giving to it his best attention. It is needless to
+  say that he was successful, for that was the ease with everything
+  he undertook. He loved country life, and he was the best and most
+  prosperous planter in Virginia, which was really a more difficult
+  achievement than the mere statement implies. Genuinely profitable
+  farming in Virginia was not common, for the general system was a
+  bad one. A single great staple, easily produced by the reckless
+  exhaustion of land, and varying widely in the annual value of
+  crops, bred improvidence and speculation. Everything was bought
+  upon long credits, given by the London merchants, and this, too,
+  contributed largely to carelessness and waste. The chronic state
+  of a planter in a business way was one of debt, and the lack of
+  capital made his conduct of affairs extravagant and loose. With
+  all his care and method Washington himself was often pinched for
+  ready money, and it was only by his thoroughness and foresight
+  that he prospered and made money while so many of his neighbors
+  struggled with debt and lived on in easy luxury, not knowing what
+  the morrow might bring forth.</p>
+
+  <p>A far more serious trouble than bad business methods was one
+  which was little heeded at the moment, but which really lay at
+  the foundation of the whole system of society and business. This
+  was the character of the labor by which the plantations were
+  worked. Slave labor is well known now to be the most expensive
+  and the worst form of labor that can be employed. In the middle
+  of the eighteenth century, however, its evils were not
+  appreciated, either from an economical or a moral point of view.
+  This is not the place to discuss the subject of African slavery
+  in America. But it is important to know Washington's opinions in
+  regard to an institution which was destined to have such a
+  powerful influence upon the country, and it seems most
+  appropriate to consider those opinions at the moment when slaves
+  became a practical factor in his life as a Virginian planter.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington accepted the system as he found it, as most men
+  accept the social arrangements to which they are born. He grew up
+  in a world where slavery had always existed, and where its
+  rightfulness had never been questioned. Being on the frontier,
+  occupied with surveying and with war, he never had occasion to
+  really consider the matter at all until he found himself at the
+  head of large estates, with his own prosperity dependent on the
+  labor of slaves. The first practical question, therefore, was how
+  to employ this labor to the best advantage. A man of his clear
+  perceptions soon discovered the defects of the system, and he
+  gave great attention to feeding and clothing his slaves, and to
+  their general management. Parkinson<a id="footnotetag1-9" name=
+  "footnotetag1-9"></a><a href="#footnote1-9"><sup>1</sup></a> says
+  in a general way that Washington treated his slaves harshly,
+  spoke to them sharply, and maintained a military discipline, to
+  which he attributed the General's rare success as a planter.
+  There can be no doubt of the success, and the military discipline
+  is probably true, but the statement as to harshness is
+  unsupported by any other authority. Indeed, Parkinson even
+  contradicts it himself, for he says elsewhere that Washington
+  never bought or sold a slave, a proof of the highest and most
+  intelligent humanity; and he adds in his final sketch of the
+  General's character, that he "was incapable of wrong-doing, but
+  did to all men as he would they should do to him. Therefore it is
+  not to be supposed that he would injure the negro." This agrees
+  with what we learn from all other sources. Humane by nature, he
+  conceived a great interest and pity for these helpless beings,
+  and treated them with kindness and forethought. In a word, he was
+  a wise and good master, as well as a successful one, and the
+  condition of his slaves was as happy, and their labor as
+  profitable, as was possible to such a system.</p>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote1-9" name="footnote1-9"></a>[<b>Footnote 1:</b>
+    <a href="#footnotetag1-9">(return)</a> <i>Tour in America</i>,
+    1798-1800.]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>So the years rolled by; the war came and then the making of
+  the government, and Washington's thoughts were turned more and
+  more, as was the case with all the men of his time in that era of
+  change and of new ideas, to the consideration of human slavery in
+  its moral, political, and social aspects. To trace the course of
+  his opinions in detail is needless. It is sufficient to summarize
+  them, for the results of his reflection and observation are more
+  important than the processes by which they were reached.
+  Washington became convinced that the whole system was thoroughly
+  bad, as well as utterly repugnant to the ideas upon which the
+  Revolution was fought and the government of the United States
+  founded. With a prescience wonderful for those days and on that
+  subject, he saw that slavery meant the up-growth in the United
+  States of two systems so radically hostile, both socially and
+  economically, that they could lead only to a struggle for
+  political supremacy, which in its course he feared would imperil
+  the Union. For this reason he deprecated the introduction of the
+  slavery question into the debates of the first Congress, because
+  he realized its character, and he did not believe that the Union
+  or the government at that early day could bear the strain which
+  in this way would be produced. At the same time he felt that a
+  right solution must be found or inconceivable evils would ensue.
+  The inherent and everlasting wrong of the system made its
+  continuance, to his mind, impossible. While it existed, he
+  believed that the laws which surrounded it should be maintained,
+  because he thought that to violate these only added one wrong to
+  another. He also doubted, as will be seen in a later chapter,
+  where his conversation with John Bernard is quoted, whether the
+  negroes could be immediately emancipated with safety either to
+  themselves or to the whites, in their actual condition of
+  ignorance, illiteracy, and helplessness. The plan which he
+  favored, and which, it would seem, was his hope and reliance, was
+  first the checking of importation, followed by a gradual
+  emancipation, with proper compensation to the owners and suitable
+  preparation and education for the slaves. He told the clergymen
+  Asbury and Coke, when they visited him for that purpose, that he
+  was in favor of emancipation, and was ready to write a letter to
+  the assembly to that effect.<a id="footnotetag1-10" name=
+  "footnotetag1-10"></a><a href="#footnote1-10"><sup>1</sup></a> He
+  wished fervently that such a spirit might take possession of the
+  people of the country, but he wrote to Lafayette that he
+  despaired of seeing it. When he died he did all that lay within
+  his power to impress his views upon his countrymen by directing
+  that all his slaves should be set free on the death of his wife.
+  His precepts and his example in this grave matter went unheeded
+  for many years by the generations which came after him. But now
+  that slavery is dead, to the joy of all men, it is well to
+  remember that on this terrible question Washington's opinions
+  were those of a humane man, impatient of wrong, and of a noble
+  and far-seeing statesman, watchful of the evils that threatened
+  his country.<a id="footnotetag2-11" name=
+  "footnotetag2-11"></a><a href=
+  "#footnote2-11"><sup>2</sup></a></p>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote1-10" name="footnote1-10"></a>[<b>Footnote
+    1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-10">(return)</a> <i>Magazine of
+    American History</i>, 1880, p. 158.]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote2-11" name="footnote2-11"></a>[<b>Footnote
+    2:</b> <a href="#footnotetag2-11">(return)</a> For some
+    expressions of Washington's opinions on slavery, see Sparks,
+    viii. 414, ix. 159-163, and x. 224.]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>After this digression let us return to the Virginian farmer,
+  whose mind was not disturbed as yet by thoughts of the destiny of
+  the United States, or considerations of the rights of man, but
+  who was much exercised by the task of making an honest income out
+  of his estates. To do this he grappled with details as firmly as
+  he did with the general system under which all plantations in
+  that day were carried on. He understood every branch of farming;
+  he was on the alert for every improvement; he rose early, worked
+  steadily, gave to everything his personal supervision, kept his
+  own accounts with wonderful exactness, and naturally enough his
+  brands of flour went unquestioned everywhere, his credit was
+  high, and he made money&mdash;so far as it was possible under
+  existing conditions. Like Shakespeare, as Bishop Blougram has it,
+  he</p>
+
+  <div class="poem">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>"Saved money, spent it, owned the worth of things."</p>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>He had no fine and senseless disregard for money or the good
+  things of this world, but on the contrary saw in them not the
+  value attached to them by vulgar minds, but their true worth. He
+  was a solid, square, evenly-balanced man in those days, believing
+  that whatever he did was worth doing well. So he farmed, as he
+  fought and governed, better than anybody else.</p>
+
+  <p>While thus looking after his own estates at home, he went
+  further afield in search of investments, keeping a shrewd eye on
+  the western lands, and buying wisely and judiciously whenever he
+  had the opportunity. He also constituted himself now, as in a
+  later time, the champion of the soldiers, for whom he had the
+  truest sympathy and affection, and a large part of the
+  correspondence of this period is devoted to their claims for the
+  lands granted them by the assembly. He distinguished carefully
+  among them, however, those who were undeserving, and to the major
+  of the regiment, who had been excluded from the public thanks on
+  account of cowardice at the Great Meadows, he wrote as follows:
+  "Your impertinent letter was delivered to me yesterday. As I am
+  not accustomed to receive such from any man, nor would have taken
+  the same language from you personally without letting you feel
+  some marks of my resentment, I would advise you to be cautious in
+  writing me a second of the same tenor. But for your stupidity and
+  sottishness you might have known, by attending to the public
+  gazette, that you had your full quantity of ten thousand acres of
+  land allowed you. But suppose you had really fallen short, do you
+  think your superlative merit entitles you to greater indulgence
+  than others?... All my concern is that I ever engaged in behalf
+  of so ungrateful a fellow as you are." The writer of this letter,
+  be it said in passing, was the man whom Mr. Weems and others tell
+  us was knocked down before his soldiers, and then apologized to
+  his assailant. It may be suspected that it was well for the
+  recipient of this letter that he did not have a personal
+  interview with its author, and it may be doubted if he ever
+  sought one subsequently. Just, generous, and magnanimous to an
+  extraordinary degree, Washington had a dangerous temper, held
+  well under control, but blazing out now and again against
+  injustice, insolence, or oppression. He was a peaceful man,
+  leading a peaceful life, but the fighting spirit only slumbered,
+  and it would break out at wrong of any sort, in a way which was
+  extremely unpleasant and threatening to those who aroused it.</p>
+
+  <p>Apart from lands and money and the management of affairs,
+  public and private, there were many other interests of varied
+  nature which all had their share of Washington's time and
+  thought. He was a devoted husband, and gave to his stepchildren
+  the most affectionate care. He watched over and protected them,
+  and when the daughter died, after a long and wasting illness, in
+  1773, he mourned for her as if she had been his own, with all the
+  tenderness of a deep and reserved affection. The boy, John
+  Custis, he made his friend and companion from the beginning, and
+  his letters to the lad and about him are wise and judicious in
+  the highest degree. He spent much time and thought on the
+  question of education, and after securing the best instructors
+  took the boy to New York and entered him at Columbia College in
+  1773. Young Custis, however, did not remain there long, for he
+  had fallen in love, and the following year was married to Eleanor
+  Calvert, not without some misgivings on the part of Washington,
+  who had observed his ward's somewhat flighty disposition, and who
+  gave a great deal of anxious thought to his future. At home as
+  abroad he was an undemonstrative man, but he had abundance of
+  that real affection which labors for those to whom it goes out
+  more unselfishly and far more effectually than that which bubbles
+  and boils upon the surface like a shallow, noisy brook.</p>
+
+  <p>From the suggestions that he made in regard to young Custis,
+  it is evident that Washington valued and respected education, and
+  that he had that regard for learning for its own sake which
+  always exists in large measure in every thoughtful man. He read
+  well, even if his active life prevented his reading much, as we
+  can see by his vigorous English, and by his occasional allusions
+  to history. From his London orders we see, too, that everything
+  about his house must have denoted that its possessor had
+  refinement and taste. His intense sense of propriety and
+  unfailing instinct for what was appropriate are everywhere
+  apparent. His dress, his furniture, his harnesses, the things for
+  the children, all show the same fondness for simplicity, and yet
+  a constant insistence that everything should be the best of its
+  kind. We can learn a good deal about any man by the ornaments of
+  his house, and by the portraits which hang on his walls; for
+  these dumb things tell us whom among the great men of earth the
+  owner admires, and indicate the tastes he best loves to gratify.
+  When Washington first settled with his wife at Mount Vernon, he
+  ordered from Europe the busts of Alexander the Great, Charles
+  XII. of Sweden, Julius C&aelig;sar, Frederick of Prussia,
+  Marlborough, and Prince Eugene, and in addition he asked for
+  statuettes of "two wild beasts." The combination of soldier and
+  statesman is the predominant admiration, then comes the reckless
+  and splendid military adventurer, and lastly wild life and the
+  chase. There is no mistaking the ideas and fancies of the man who
+  penned this order which has drifted down to us from the past.</p>
+
+  <p>But as Washington's active life was largely out of doors, so
+  too were his pleasures. He loved the fresh open-air existence of
+  the woods and fields, and there he found his one great amusement.
+  He shot and fished, but did not care much for these pursuits, for
+  his hobby was hunting, which gratified at once his passion for
+  horses and dogs and his love for the strong excitement of the
+  chase, when dashed with just enough danger to make it really
+  fascinating. He showed in his sport the same thoroughness and
+  love of perfection that he displayed in everything else. His
+  stables were filled with the best horses that Virginia could
+  furnish. There were the "blooded coach-horses" for Mrs.
+  Washington's carriage, "Magnolia," a full-blooded Arabian, used
+  by his owner for the road, the ponies for the children, and
+  finally, the high-bred hunters Chinkling and Valiant, Ajax and
+  Blueskin, and the rest, all duly set down in the register in the
+  handwriting of the master himself. His first visit in the morning
+  was to the stables; the next to the kennels to inspect and
+  criticise the hounds, also methodically registered and described,
+  so that we can read the names of Vulcan and Ringwood, Singer and
+  Truelove, Music and Sweetlips, to which the Virginian woods once
+  echoed nearly a century and a half ago. His hounds were the
+  subject of much thought, and were so constantly and critically
+  drafted as to speed, keenness, and bottom, that when in full cry
+  they ran so closely bunched that tradition says, in classic
+  phrase, they could have been covered with a blanket. The hounds
+  met three times a week in the season, usually at Mount Vernon,
+  sometimes at Belvoir. They would get off at daybreak, Washington
+  in the midst of his hounds, splendidly mounted, generally on his
+  favorite Blueskin, a powerful iron-gray horse of great speed and
+  endurance. He wore a blue coat, scarlet waistcoat, buckskin
+  breeches, and a velvet cap. Closely followed by his huntsman and
+  the neighboring gentlemen, with the ladies, headed, very likely,
+  by Mrs. Washington in a scarlet habit, he would ride to the
+  appointed covert and throw in. There was no difficulty in
+  finding, and then away they would go, usually after a gray fox,
+  sometimes after a big black fox, rarely to be caught. Most of the
+  country was wild and unfenced, rough in footing, and offering
+  hard and dangerous going for the horses, but Washington always
+  made it a rule to stay with his hounds. Cautious or timid riders,
+  if they were so minded, could gallop along the wood roads with
+  the ladies, and content themselves with glimpses of the hunt, but
+  the master rode at the front. The fields, it is to be feared,
+  were sometimes small, but Washington hunted even if he had only
+  his stepson or was quite alone.</p>
+
+  <p>His diaries abound with allusions to the sport. "Went
+  a-hunting with Jacky Custis, and catched a fox after three hours
+  chase; found it in the creek." "Mr. Bryan Fairfax, Mr. Grayson,
+  and Phil. Alexander came home by sunrise. Hunted and catched a
+  fox with these. Lord Fairfax, his brother, and Colonel Fairfax,
+  all of whom, with Mr. Fairfax and Mr. Wilson of England, dined
+  here." Again, November 26 and 29, "Hunted again with the same
+  party." "1768, Jan. 8th. Hunting again with same company. Started
+  a fox and run him 4 hours. Took the hounds off at night." "Jan.
+  15. Shooting." "16. At home all day with cards; it snowing." "23.
+  Rid to Muddy Hole and directed paths to be cut for foxhunting."
+  "Feb. 12. Catched 2 foxes." "Feb. 13. Catched 2 more foxes."
+  "Mar. 2. Catched fox with bob'd tail and cut ears after 7 hours
+  chase, in which most of the dogs were worsted." "Dec. 5.
+  Fox-hunting with Lord Fairfax and his brother and Colonel
+  Fairfax. Started a fox and lost it. Dined at Belvoir and returned
+  in the evening."<a id="footnotetag1-12" name=
+  "footnotetag1-12"></a><a href=
+  "#footnote1-12"><sup>1</sup></a></p>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote1-12" name="footnote1-12"></a>[<b>Footnote
+    1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-12">(return)</a> MS. Diaries in
+    State Department.]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>So the entries run on, for he hunted almost every day in the
+  season, usually with success, but always with persistence. Like
+  all true sportsmen Washington had a horror of illicit sport of
+  any kind, and although he shot comparatively little, he was much
+  annoyed by a vagabond who lurked in the creeks and inlets on his
+  estate, and slaughtered his canvas-back ducks. Hearing the report
+  of a gun one morning, he rode through the bushes and saw his
+  poaching friend just shoving off in a canoe. The rascal raised
+  his gun and covered his pursuer, whereupon Washington, the
+  cold-blooded and patient person so familiar in the myths, dashed
+  his horse headlong into the water, seized the gun, grasped the
+  canoe, and dragging it ashore pulled the man out of the boat and
+  beat him soundly. If the man had yielded at once he would
+  probably have got off easily enough, but when he put Washington's
+  life in imminent peril, the wild fighting spirit flared up as
+  usual.</p>
+
+  <p>The hunting season was of course that of the most lavish
+  hospitality. There was always a great deal of dining about, but
+  Mount Vernon was the chief resort, and its doors, ever open, were
+  flung far back when people came for a meet, or gathered to talk
+  over the events of a good run. Company was the rule and solitude
+  the exception. When only the family were at dinner, the fact was
+  written down in the diary with great care as an unusual event,
+  for Washington was the soul of hospitality, and although he kept
+  early hours, he loved society and a houseful of people.
+  Profoundly reserved and silent as to himself, a lover of solitude
+  so far as his own thoughts and feelings were concerned, he was
+  far from being a solitary man in the ordinary acceptation of the
+  word. He liked life and gayety and conversation, he liked music
+  and dancing or a game of cards when the weather was bad, and he
+  enjoyed heartily the presence of young people and of his own
+  friends. So Mount Vernon was always full of guests, and the
+  master noted in his diary that although he owned more than a
+  hundred cows he was obliged, nevertheless, to buy butter, which
+  suggests an experience not unknown to gentlemen farmers of any
+  period, and also that company was never lacking in that generous,
+  open house overlooking the Potomac.</p>
+
+  <p>Beyond the bounds of his own estate he had also many
+  occupations and pleasures. He was a member of the House of
+  Burgesses, diligent in his attention to the work of governing the
+  colony. He was diligent also in church affairs, and very active
+  in the vestry, which was the seat of local government in
+  Virginia. We hear of him also as the manager of lotteries, which
+  were a common form of raising money for local purposes, in
+  preference to direct taxation. In a word, he was thoroughly
+  public-spirited, and performed all the small duties which his
+  position demanded in the same spirit that he afterwards brought
+  to the command of armies and to the government of the nation. He
+  had pleasure too, as well as business, away from Mount Vernon. He
+  liked to go to his neighbors' houses and enjoy their hospitality
+  as they enjoyed his. We hear of him at the courthouse on court
+  days, where all the country-side gathered to talk and listen to
+  the lawyers and hear the news, and when he went to Williamsburg
+  his diary tells us of a round of dinners, beginning with the
+  governor, of visits to the club, and of a regular attendance at
+  the theatre whenever actors came to the little capital. Whether
+  at home or abroad, he took part in all the serious pursuits, in
+  all the interests, and in every reasonable pleasure offered by
+  the colony.</p>
+
+  <p>Take it for all in all, it was a manly, wholesome, many-sided
+  life. It kept Washington young and strong, both mentally and
+  physically. When he was forty he flung the iron bar, at some
+  village sports, to a point which no competitor could approach.
+  There was no man in all Virginia who could ride a horse with such
+  a powerful and assured seat. There was no one who could journey
+  farther on foot, and no man at Williamsburg who showed at the
+  governor's receptions such a commanding presence, or who walked
+  with such a strong and elastic step. As with the body so with the
+  mind. He never rusted. A practical carpenter and smith, he
+  brought the same quiet intelligence and firm will to the forging
+  of iron or the felling and sawing of trees that he had displayed
+  in fighting France. The life of a country gentleman did not dull
+  or stupefy him, or lead him to gross indulgences. He remained
+  well-made and athletic, strong and enduring, keen in perception
+  and in sense, and warm in his feelings and affections. Many men
+  would have become heavy and useless in these years of quiet
+  country life, but Washington simply ripened, and, like all slowly
+  maturing men, grew stronger, abler, and wiser in the happy years
+  of rest and waiting which intervened between youth and middle
+  age.</p>
+
+  <p>Meantime, while the current of daily life flowed on thus
+  gently at Mount Vernon, the great stream of public events poured
+  by outside. It ran very calmly at first, after the war, and then
+  with a quickening murmur, which increased to an ominous roar when
+  the passage of the Stamp Act became known in America. Washington
+  was always a constant attendant at the assembly, in which by
+  sheer force of character, and despite his lack of the talking and
+  debating faculty, he carried more weight than any other member.
+  He was present on May 29, 1765, when Patrick Henry introduced his
+  famous resolutions and menaced the king's government in words
+  which rang through the continent. The resolutions were adopted,
+  and Washington went home, with many anxious thoughts, to discuss
+  the political outlook with his friend and neighbor George Mason,
+  one of the keenest and ablest men in Virginia. The utter folly of
+  the policy embodied in the Stamp Act struck Washington very
+  forcibly. With that foresight for which he was so remarkable, he
+  perceived what scarcely any one else even dreamt of, that
+  persistence in this course must surely lead to a violent
+  separation from the mother-country, and it is interesting to note
+  in this, the first instance when he was called upon to consider a
+  political question of great magnitude, his clearness of vision
+  and grasp of mind. In what he wrote there is no trace of the
+  ambitious schemer, no threatening nor blustering, no undue
+  despondency nor excited hopes. But there is a calm understanding
+  of all the conditions, an entire freedom from self-deception, and
+  the power of seeing facts exactly as they were, which were all
+  characteristic of his intellectual strength, and to which we
+  shall need to recur again and again.</p>
+
+  <p>The repeal of the Stamp Act was received by Washington with
+  sober but sincere pleasure. He had anticipated "direful" results
+  and "unhappy consequences" from its enforcement, and he freely
+  said that those who were instrumental in its repeal had his
+  cordial thanks. He was no agitator, and had not come forward in
+  this affair, so he now retired again to Mount Vernon, to his
+  farming and hunting, where he remained, watching very closely the
+  progress of events. He had marked the dangerous reservation of
+  the principle in the very act of repeal; he observed at Boston
+  the gathering strength of what the wise ministers of George III.
+  called sedition; he noted the arrival of British troops in the
+  rebellious Puritan town; and he saw plainly enough, looming in
+  the background, the final appeal to arms. He wrote to Mason
+  (April 5, 1769), that "at a time when our lordly masters in Great
+  Britain will be satisfied with nothing less than the deprivation
+  of American freedom, something should be done to avert the stroke
+  and maintain the liberty which we have derived from our
+  ancestors. But the manner of doing it, to answer the purpose
+  effectually, is the point in question. That no man should scruple
+  or hesitate a moment to use arms in defense of so valuable a
+  blessing is clearly my opinion. Yet arms, I would beg leave to
+  add, should be the last resource, the <i>dernier ressort</i>." He
+  then urged the adoption of the only middle course,
+  non-importation, but he had not much hope in this expedient,
+  although an honest desire is evident that it may prove
+  effectual.</p>
+
+  <p>When the assembly met in May, they received the new governor,
+  Lord Botetourt, with much cordiality, and then fell to passing
+  spirited and sharp-spoken resolutions declaring their own rights
+  and defending Massachusetts. The result was a dissolution.
+  Thereupon the burgesses repaired to the Raleigh tavern, where
+  they adopted a set of non-importation resolutions and formed an
+  association. The resolutions were offered by Washington, and were
+  the result of his quiet country talks with Mason. When the moment
+  for action arrived, Washington came naturally to the front, and
+  then returned quietly to Mount Vernon, once more to go about his
+  business and watch the threatening political horizon. Virginia
+  did not live up to this first non-importation agreement, and
+  formed another a year later. But Washington was not in the habit
+  of presenting resolutions merely for effect, and there was
+  nothing of the actor in his composition. His resolutions meant
+  business, and he lived up to them rigidly himself. Neither tea
+  nor any of the proscribed articles were allowed in his house.
+  Most of the leaders did not realize the seriousness of the
+  situation, but Washington, looking forward with clear and sober
+  gaze, was in grim earnest, and was fully conscious that when he
+  offered his resolutions the colony was trying the last peaceful
+  remedy, and that the next step would be war.</p>
+
+  <p>Still he went calmly about his many affairs as usual, and
+  gratified the old passion for the frontier by a journey to
+  Pittsburgh for the sake of lands and soldiers' claims, and thence
+  down the Ohio and into the wilderness with his old friends the
+  trappers and pioneers. He visited the Indian villages as in the
+  days of the French mission, and noted in the savages an ominous
+  restlessness, which seemed, like the flight of birds, to express
+  the dumb instinct of an approaching storm. The clouds broke away
+  somewhat under the kindly management of Lord Botetourt, and then
+  gathered again more thickly on the accession of his successor,
+  Lord Dunmore. With both these gentlemen Washington was on the
+  most friendly terms. He visited them often, and was consulted by
+  them, as it behooved them to consult the strongest man within the
+  limits of their government. Still he waited and watched, and
+  scanned carefully the news from the North. Before long he heard
+  that tea-chests were floating in Boston harbor, and then from
+  across the water came intelligence of the passage of the Port
+  Bill and other measures destined to crush to earth the little
+  rebel town.</p>
+
+  <p>When the Virginia assembly met again, they proceeded to
+  congratulate the governor on the arrival of Lady Dunmore, and
+  then suddenly, as all was flowing smoothly along, there came a
+  letter through the corresponding committee which Washington had
+  helped to establish, telling of the measures against Boston.
+  Everything else was thrown aside at once, a vigorous protest was
+  entered on the journal of the House, and June 1, when the Port
+  Bill was to go into operation, was appointed a day of fasting,
+  humiliation, and prayer. The first result was prompt dissolution
+  of the assembly. The next was another meeting in the long room of
+  the Raleigh tavern, where the Boston bill was denounced,
+  non-importation renewed, and the committee of correspondence
+  instructed to take steps for calling a general congress. Events
+  were beginning to move at last with perilous rapidity. Washington
+  dined with Lord Dunmore on the evening of that day, rode with
+  him, and appeared at her ladyship's ball the next night, for it
+  was not his way to bite his thumb at men from whom he differed
+  politically, nor to call the motives of his opponents in
+  question. But when the 1st of June arrived, he noted in his diary
+  that he fasted all day and attended the appointed services. He
+  always meant what he said, being of a simple nature, and when he
+  fasted and prayed there was something ominously earnest about it,
+  something that his excellency the governor, who liked the society
+  of this agreeable man and wise counselor, would have done well to
+  consider and draw conclusions from, and which he probably did not
+  heed at all. He might well have reflected, as he undoubtedly
+  failed to do, that when men of the George Washington type fast
+  and pray on account of political misdoings, it is well for their
+  opponents to look to it carefully.</p>
+
+  <p>Meantime Boston had sent forth appeals to form a league among
+  the colonies, and thereupon another meeting was held in the
+  Raleigh tavern, and a letter was dispatched advising the
+  burgesses to consider this matter of a general league and take
+  the sense of their respective counties. Virginia and
+  Massachusetts had joined hands now, and they were sweeping the
+  rest of the continent irresistibly forward with them. As for
+  Washington, he returned to Mount Vernon and at once set about
+  taking the sense of his county, as he had agreed. Before doing so
+  he had some correspondence with his old friend Bryan Fairfax. The
+  Fairfaxes naturally sided with the mother-country, and Bryan was
+  much distressed by the course of Virginia, and remonstrated
+  strongly, and at length by letter, against violent measures.
+  Washington replied to him: "Does it not appear as clear as the
+  sun in its meridian brightness that there is a regular,
+  systematic plan formed to fix the right and practice of taxation
+  on us? Does not the uniform conduct of Parliament for some years
+  past confirm this? Do not all the debates, especially those just
+  brought to us in the House of Commons, on the side of government
+  expressly declare that America must be taxed in aid of the
+  British funds, and that she has no longer resources within
+  herself? Is there anything to be expected from petitioning after
+  this? Is not the attack upon the liberty and property of the
+  people of Boston, before restitution of the loss to the India
+  Company was demanded, a plain and self-evident proof of what they
+  are aiming at? Do not the subsequent bills (now I dare say acts)
+  for depriving the Massachusetts Bay of its charter, and for
+  transporting offenders into other colonies, or to Great Britain
+  for trial, where it is impossible from the nature of the thing
+  that justice can be obtained, convince us that the administration
+  is determined to stick at nothing to carry its point? Ought we
+  not, then, to put our virtue and fortitude to the severest test?"
+  He was prepared, he continued, for anything except confiscating
+  British debts, which struck him as dishonorable. These were plain
+  but pregnant questions, but what we mark in them, and in all his
+  letters of this time, is the absence of constitutional
+  discussion, of which America was then full. They are confined to
+  a direct presentation of the broad political question, which
+  underlay everything. Washington always went straight to the mark,
+  and he now saw, through all the dust of legal and constitutional
+  strife, that the only real issue was whether America was to be
+  allowed to govern herself in her own way or not. In the acts of
+  the ministry he perceived a policy which aimed at substantial
+  power, and he believed that such a policy, if insisted on, could
+  have but one result.</p>
+
+  <p>The meeting of Fairfax County was held in due course, and
+  Washington presided. The usual resolutions for self-government
+  and against the vindictive Massachusetts measures were adopted.
+  Union and non-importation were urged; and then the congress,
+  which they advocated, was recommended to address a petition and
+  remonstrance to the king, and ask him to reflect that "from our
+  sovereign there can be but one appeal." Everything was to be
+  tried, everything was to be done, but the ultimate appeal was
+  never lost sight of where Washington appeared, and the final
+  sentence of these Fairfax County resolves is very characteristic
+  of the leader in the meeting. Two days later he wrote to the
+  worthy and still remonstrating Bryan Fairfax, repeating and
+  enlarging his former questions, and adding: "Has not General
+  Gage's conduct since his arrival, in stopping the address of his
+  council, and publishing a proclamation more becoming a Turkish
+  bashaw than an English governor, declaring it treason to
+  associate in any manner by which the commerce of Great Britain is
+  to be affected,&mdash;has not this exhibited an unexampled
+  testimony of the most despotic system of tyranny that ever was
+  practiced in a free government?... Shall we after this whine and
+  cry for relief, when we have already tried it in vain? Or shall
+  we supinely sit and see one province after another fall a
+  sacrifice to despotism?" The fighting spirit of the man was
+  rising. There was no rash rushing forward, no ignorant shouting
+  for war, no blinking of the real issue, but a foresight that
+  nothing could dim, and a perception of facts which nothing could
+  confuse. On August 1 Washington was at Williamsburg, to represent
+  his county in the meeting of representatives from all Virginia.
+  The convention passed resolutions like the Fairfax resolves, and
+  chose delegates to a general congress. The silent man was now
+  warming into action. He "made the most eloquent speech that ever
+  was made," and said, "I will raise a thousand men, subsist them
+  at my own expense, and march them to the relief of Boston." He
+  was capable, it would seem, of talking to the purpose with some
+  fire and force, for all he was so quiet and so retiring. When
+  there was anything to say, he could say it so that it stirred all
+  who listened, because they felt that there was a mastering
+  strength behind the words. He faced the terrible issue solemnly
+  and firmly, but his blood was up, the fighting spirit in him was
+  aroused, and the convention chose him as one of Virginia's six
+  delegates to the Continental Congress. He lingered long enough to
+  make a few preparations at Mount Vernon. He wrote another letter
+  to Fairfax, interesting to us as showing the keenness with which
+  he read in the meagre news-reports the character of Gage and of
+  the opposing people of Massachusetts. Then he started for the
+  North to take the first step on the long and difficult path that
+  lay before him.</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <h2><a name="V" id="V"></a> CHAPTER V</h2>
+
+  <h2>TAKING COMMAND</h2>
+
+  <p>In the warm days of closing August, a party of three gentlemen
+  rode away from Mount Vernon one morning, and set out upon their
+  long journey to Philadelphia. One cannot help wondering whether a
+  tender and somewhat sad remembrance did not rise in Washington's
+  mind, as he thought of the last time he had gone northward,
+  nearly twenty years before. Then, he was a light-hearted young
+  soldier, and he and his aides, albeit they went on business, rode
+  gayly through the forests, lighting the road with the bright
+  colors they wore and with the glitter of lace and arms, while
+  they anticipated all the pleasures of youth in the new lands they
+  were to visit. Now, he was in the prime of manhood, looking into
+  the future with prophetic eyes, and sober as was his wont when
+  the shadow of coming responsibility lay dark upon his path. With
+  him went Patrick Henry, four years his junior, and Edmund
+  Pendleton, now past threescore. They were all quiet and grave
+  enough, no doubt; but Washington, we may believe, was gravest of
+  all, because, being the most truthful of men to himself as to
+  others, he saw more plainly what was coming. So they made their
+  journey to the North, and on the memorable 5th of September they
+  met with their brethren from the other colonies in Carpenters'
+  Hall in Philadelphia.</p>
+
+  <p>The Congress sat fifty-one days, occupied with debates and
+  discussion. Few abler, more honest, or more memorable bodies of
+  men have ever assembled to settle the fate of nations. Much
+  debate, great and earnest in all directions, resulted in a
+  declaration of colonial rights, in an address to the king, in
+  another to the people of Canada, and a third to the people of
+  Great Britain; masterly state papers, seldom surpassed, and
+  extorting even then the admiration of England. In these debates
+  and state papers Washington took no part that is now apparent on
+  the face of the record. He was silent in the Congress, and if he
+  was consulted, as he unquestionably was by the committees, there
+  is no record of it now. The simple fact was that his time had not
+  come. He saw men of the most acute minds, liberal in education,
+  patriotic in heart, trained in law and in history, doing the work
+  of the moment in the best possible way. If anything had been done
+  wrongly, or had been left undone, Washington would have found his
+  voice quickly enough, and uttered another of the "most eloquent
+  speeches ever made," as he did shortly before in the Virginia
+  convention. He could speak in public when need was, but now there
+  was no need and nothing to arouse him. The work of Congress
+  followed the line of policy adopted by the Virginia convention,
+  and that had proceeded along the path marked out in the Fairfax
+  resolves, so that Washington could not be other than content. He
+  occupied his own time, as we see by notes in his diary, in
+  visiting the delegates from the other colonies, and in informing
+  himself as to their ideas and purposes, and those of the people
+  whom they represented. He was quietly working for the future, the
+  present being well taken care of. Yet this silent man, going
+  hither and thither, and chatting pleasantly with this member or
+  that, was in some way or other impressing himself deeply on all
+  the delegates, for Patrick Henry said: "If you speak of solid
+  information and sound judgment, Colonel Washington is
+  unquestionably the greatest man on the floor."</p>
+
+  <p>We have a letter, written at just this time, which shows us
+  how Washington felt, and we see again how his spirit rose as he
+  saw more and more clearly that the ultimate issue was inevitable.
+  The letter is addressed to Captain Mackenzie, a British officer
+  at Boston, and an old friend. "Permit me," he began, "with the
+  freedom of a friend (for you know I always esteemed you), to
+  express my sorrow that fortune should place you in a service that
+  must fix curses to the latest posterity upon the contrivers, and,
+  if success (which, by the by, is impossible) accompanies it,
+  execrations upon all those who have been instrumental in the
+  execution." This was rather uncompromising talk and not over
+  peaceable, it must be confessed. He continued: "Give me leave to
+  add, and I think I can announce it as a fact, that it is not the
+  wish or intent of that government [Massachusetts], or any other
+  upon this continent, separately or collectively, to set up for
+  independence; but this you may at the same time rely on, that
+  none of them will ever submit to the loss of those valuable
+  rights and privileges which are essential to the happiness of
+  every free state, and without which life, liberty, and property
+  are rendered totally insecure.... Again give me leave to add as
+  my opinion that more blood will be spilled on this occasion, if
+  the ministry are determined to push matters to extremity, than
+  history has ever yet furnished instances of in the annals of
+  North America, and such a vital wound will be given to the peace
+  of this great country, as time itself cannot cure or eradicate
+  the remembrance of." Washington was not a political agitator like
+  Sam Adams, planning with unerring intelligence to bring about
+  independence. On the contrary, he rightly declared that
+  independence was not desired. But although he believed in
+  exhausting every argument and every peaceful remedy, it is
+  evident that he felt that there now could be but one result, and
+  that violent separation from the mother country was inevitable.
+  Here is where he differed from his associates and from the great
+  mass of the people, and it is to this entire veracity of mind
+  that his wisdom and foresight were so largely due, as well as his
+  success when the time came for him to put his hand to the
+  plough.</p>
+
+  <p>When Congress adjourned, Washington returned to Mount Vernon,
+  to the pursuits and pleasures that he loved, to his family and
+  farm, and to his horses and hounds, with whom he had many a good
+  run, the last that he was to enjoy for years to come. He returned
+  also to wait and watch as before, and to see war rapidly gather
+  in the east. When the Virginia convention again assembled,
+  resolutions were introduced to arm and discipline men, and Henry
+  declared in their support that an "appeal to arms and to the God
+  of Hosts" was all that was left. Washington said nothing, but he
+  served on the committee to draft a plan of defense, and then fell
+  to reviewing the independent companies which were springing up
+  everywhere. At the same time he wrote to his brother John, who
+  had raised a troop, that he would accept the command of it if
+  desired, as it was his "full intention to devote his life and
+  fortune in the cause we are engaged in, if needful." At Mount
+  Vernon his old comrades of the French war began to appear, in
+  search of courage and sympathy. Thither, too, came Charles Lee, a
+  typical military adventurer of that period, a man of English
+  birth and of varied service, brilliant, whimsical, and
+  unbalanced. There also came Horatio Gates, likewise British, and
+  disappointed with his prospects at home; less adventurous than
+  Lee, but also less brilliant, and not much more valuable.</p>
+
+  <p>Thus the winter wore away; spring opened, and toward the end
+  of April Washington started again for the North, much occupied
+  with certain tidings from Lexington and Concord which just then
+  spread over the land. He saw all that it meant plainly enough,
+  and after noting the fact that the colonists fought and fought
+  well, he wrote to George Fairfax in England: "Unhappy it is to
+  reflect that a brother's sword has been sheathed in a brother's
+  breast, and that the once happy and peaceful plains of America
+  are either to be drenched in blood or inhabited by slaves. Sad
+  alternative. But can a virtuous man hesitate in his choice?"
+  Congress, it would seem, thought there was a good deal of room
+  for hesitation, both for virtuous men and others, and after the
+  fashion of their race determined to do a little more debating and
+  arguing, before taking any decisive step. After much resistance
+  and discussion, a second "humble and dutiful petition" to the
+  king was adopted, and with strange contradiction a confederation
+  was formed at the same time, and Congress proceeded to exercise
+  the sovereign powers thus vested in them. The most pressing and
+  troublesome question before them was what to do with the army
+  surrounding Boston, and with the actual hostilities there
+  existing.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington, for his part, went quietly about as before, saying
+  nothing and observing much, working hard as chairman of the
+  military committees, planning for defense, and arranging for
+  raising an army. One act of his alone stands out for us with
+  significance at this critical time. In this second Congress he
+  appeared habitually on the floor in his blue and buff uniform of
+  a Virginia colonel. It was his way of saying that the hour for
+  action had come, and that he at least was ready for the fight
+  whenever called upon.</p>
+
+  <p>Presently he was summoned. Weary of waiting, John Adams at
+  last declared that Congress must adopt the army and make
+  Washington, who at this mention of his name stepped out of the
+  room, commander-in-chief. On June 15, formal motions were made to
+  this effect and unanimously adopted, and the next day Washington
+  appeared before Congress and accepted the trust. His words were
+  few and simple. He expressed his sense of his own insufficiency
+  for the task before him, and said that as no pecuniary
+  consideration could have induced him to undertake the work, he
+  must decline all pay or emoluments, only looking to Congress to
+  defray his expenses. In the same spirit he wrote to his soldiers
+  in Virginia, to his brother, and finally, in terms at once simple
+  and pathetic, to his wife. There was no pretense about this, but
+  the sternest reality of self-distrust, for Washington saw and
+  measured as did no one else the magnitude of the work before him.
+  He knew that he was about to face the best troops of Europe, and
+  he had learned by experience that after the first excitement was
+  over he would be obliged to rely upon a people who were brave and
+  patriotic, but also undisciplined, untrained, and unprepared for
+  war, without money, without arms, without allies or credit, and
+  torn by selfish local interests. Nobody else perceived all this
+  as he was able to with his mastery of facts, but he faced the
+  duty unflinchingly. He did not put it aside because he distrusted
+  himself, for in his truthfulness he could not but confess that no
+  other American could show one tithe of his capacity, experience,
+  or military service. He knew what was coming, knew it, no doubt,
+  when he first put on his uniform, and he accepted instantly.</p>
+
+  <p>John Adams in his autobiography speaks of the necessity of
+  choosing a Southern general, and also says there were objectors
+  to the selection of Washington even among the Virginia delegates.
+  That there were political reasons for taking a Virginian cannot
+  be doubted. But the dissent, even if it existed, never appeared
+  on the surface, excepting in the case of John Hancock, who, with
+  curious vanity, thought that he ought to have this great place.
+  When Washington's name was proposed there was no murmur of
+  opposition, for there was no man who could for one moment be
+  compared with him in fitness. The choice was inevitable, and he
+  himself felt it to be so. He saw it coming; he would fain have
+  avoided the great task, but no thought of shrinking crossed his
+  mind. He saw with his entire freedom from constitutional
+  subtleties that an absolute parliament sought to extend its power
+  to the colonies. To this he would not submit, and he knew that
+  this was a question which could be settled only by one side
+  giving way, or by the dread appeal to arms. It was a question of
+  fact, hard, unrelenting fact, now to be determined by battle, and
+  on him had fallen the burden of sustaining the cause of his
+  country. In this spirit he accepted his commission, and rode
+  forth to review the troops. He was greeted with loud acclaim
+  wherever he appeared. Mankind is impressed by externals, and
+  those who gazed upon Washington in the streets of Philadelphia
+  felt their courage rise and their hearts grow strong at the sight
+  of his virile, muscular figure as he passed before them on
+  horseback, stately, dignified, and self-contained. The people
+  looked upon him, and were confident that this was a man worthy
+  and able to dare and do all things.</p>
+
+  <p>On June 21 he set forth accompanied by Lee and Schuyler, and
+  with a brilliant escort. He had ridden but twenty miles when he
+  was met by the news of Bunker Hill. "Did the militia fight?" was
+  the immediate and characteristic question; and being told that
+  they did fight, he exclaimed, "Then the liberties of the country
+  are safe." Given the fighting spirit, Washington felt he could do
+  anything. Full of this important intelligence he pressed forward
+  to Newark, where he was received by a committee of the provincial
+  congress, sent to conduct the commander-in-chief to New York.
+  There he tarried long enough to appoint Schuyler to the charge of
+  the military affairs in that colony, having mastered on the
+  journey its complicated social and political conditions. Pushing
+  on through Connecticut he reached Watertown, where he was
+  received by the provincial congress of Massachusetts, on July 2,
+  with every expression of attachment and confidence. Lingering
+  less than an hour for this ceremony, he rode on to the
+  headquarters at Cambridge, and when he came within the lines the
+  shouts of the soldiers and the booming of cannon announced his
+  arrival to the English in Boston.</p>
+
+  <p>The next day he rode forth in the presence of a great
+  multitude, and the troops having been drawn up before him, he
+  drew his sword beneath the historical elm-tree, and took command
+  of the first American army. "His excellency," wrote Dr. Thatcher
+  in his journal, "was on horseback in company with several
+  military gentlemen. It was not difficult to distinguish him from
+  all others. He is tall and well proportioned, and his personal
+  appearance truly noble and majestic." "He is tall and of easy and
+  agreeable address," the loyalist Curwen had remarked a few weeks
+  before; while Mrs. John Adams, warm-hearted and clever, wrote to
+  her husband after the general's arrival: "Dignity, ease, and
+  complacency, the gentleman and the soldier, look agreeably
+  blended in him. Modesty marks every line and feature of his face.
+  Those lines of Dryden instantly occurred to me,&mdash;</p>
+
+  <div class="poem">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>'Mark his majestic fabric! He's a temple</p>
+
+      <p>Sacred by birth, and built by hands divine;</p>
+
+      <p>His soul's the deity that lodges there;</p>
+
+      <p>Nor is the pile unworthy of the God.'"</p>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Lady, lawyer, and surgeon, patriot and tory, all speak alike,
+  and as they wrote so New England felt. A slave-owner, an
+  aristocrat, and a churchman, Washington came to Cambridge to pass
+  over the heads of native generals to the command of a New England
+  army, among a democratic people, hard-working and simple in their
+  lives, and dissenters to the backbone, who regarded episcopacy as
+  something little short of papistry and quite equivalent to
+  toryism. Yet the shout that went up from soldiers and people on
+  Cambridge common on that pleasant July morning came from the
+  heart and had no jarring note. A few of the political chiefs
+  growled a little in later days at Washington, but the soldiers
+  and the people, high and low, rich and poor, gave him an
+  unstinted loyalty. On the fields of battle and throughout eight
+  years of political strife the men of New England stood by the
+  great Virginian with a devotion and truth in which was no shadow
+  of turning. Here again we see exhibited most conspicuously the
+  powerful personality of the man who was able thus to command
+  immediately the allegiance of this naturally cold and reserved
+  people. What was it that they saw which inspired them at once
+  with so much confidence? They looked upon a tall, handsome man,
+  dressed in plain uniform, wearing across his breast a broad blue
+  band of silk, which some may have noticed as the badge and symbol
+  of a certain solemn league and covenant once very momentous in
+  the English-speaking world. They saw his calm, high bearing, and
+  in every line of face and figure they beheld the signs of force
+  and courage. Yet there must have been something more to call
+  forth the confidence then so quickly given, and which no one ever
+  long withheld. All felt dimly, but none the less surely, that
+  here was a strong, able man, capable of rising to the emergency,
+  whatever it might be, capable of continued growth and
+  development, clear of head and warm of heart; and so the New
+  England people gave to him instinctively their sympathy and their
+  faith, and never took either back.</p>
+
+  <p>The shouts and cheers died away, and then Washington returned
+  to his temporary quarters in the Wadsworth house, to master the
+  task before him. The first great test of his courage and ability
+  had come, and he faced it quietly as the excitement caused by his
+  arrival passed by. He saw before him, to use his own words, "a
+  mixed multitude of people, under very little discipline, order,
+  or government." In the language of one of his aides:<a id=
+  "footnotetag1-13" name="footnotetag1-13"></a><a href=
+  "#footnote1-13"><sup>1</sup></a> "The entire army, if it deserved
+  the name, was but an assemblage of brave, enthusiastic,
+  undisciplined, country lads; the officers in general quite as
+  ignorant of military life as the troops, excepting a few elderly
+  men, who had seen some irregular service among the provincials
+  under Lord Amherst." With this force, ill-posted and very
+  insecurely fortified, Washington was to drive the British from
+  Boston. His first step was to count his men, and it took eight
+  days to get the necessary returns, which in an ordinary army
+  would have been furnished in an hour. When he had them, he found
+  that instead of twenty thousand, as had been represented, but
+  fourteen thousand soldiers were actually present for duty. In a
+  short time, however, Mr. Emerson, the chaplain, noted in his
+  diary that it was surprising how much had been done, that the
+  lines had been so extended, and the works so shrewdly built, that
+  it was morally impossible for the enemy to get out except in one
+  place purposely left open. A little later the same observer
+  remarked: "There is a great overturning in the camp as to order
+  and regularity; new lords, new laws. The Generals Washington and
+  Lee are upon the lines every day. The strictest government is
+  taking place, and great distinction is made between officers and
+  soldiers." Bodies of troops scattered here and there by chance
+  were replaced by well-distributed forces, posted wisely and
+  effectively in strong intrenchments. It is little wonder that the
+  worthy chaplain was impressed, and now, seeing it all from every
+  side, we too can watch order come out of chaos and mark the
+  growth of an army under the guidance of a master-mind and the
+  steady pressure of an unbending will.</p>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote1-13" name="footnote1-13"></a>[<b>Footnote
+    1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-13">(return)</a> John Trumbull,
+    <i>Reminiscences</i>, p. 18.]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>Then too there was no discipline, for the army was composed of
+  raw militia, who elected their officers and carried on war as
+  they pleased. In a passage suppressed by Mr. Sparks, Washington
+  said: "There is no such thing as getting officers of this stamp
+  to carry orders into execution&mdash;to curry favor with the men
+  (by whom they were chosen, and on whose smile they may possibly
+  think that they may again rely) seems to be one of the principal
+  objects of their attention. I have made a pretty good slam
+  amongst such kind of officers as the Massachusetts government
+  abounds in, since I came into this camp, having broke one colonel
+  and two captains for cowardly behavior in the action on Bunker
+  Hill, two captains for drawing more pay and provisions than they
+  had men in their company, and one for being absent from his post
+  when the enemy appeared there and burnt a house just by it.
+  Besides these I have at this time one colonel, one major, one
+  captain, and two subalterns under arrest for trial. In short, I
+  spare none, and yet fear it will not all do, as these people seem
+  to be too attentive to everything but their own interests." This
+  may be plain and homely in phrase, but it is not stilted, and the
+  quick energy of the words shows how the New England farmers and
+  fishermen were being rapidly brought to discipline. Bringing the
+  army into order, however, was but a small part of his duties. It
+  is necessary to run over all his difficulties, great and small,
+  at this time, and count them up, in order to gain a just idea of
+  the force and capacity of the man who overcame them.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington, in the first place, was obliged to deal not only
+  with his army, but with the general congress and the congress of
+  the province. He had to teach them, utterly ignorant as they were
+  of the needs and details of war, how to organize and supply their
+  armies. There was no commissary department, there were no
+  uniforms, no arrangements for ammunition, no small arms, no
+  cannon, no resources to draw upon for all these necessaries of
+  war. Little by little he taught Congress to provide after a
+  fashion for these things, little by little he developed what he
+  needed, and by his own ingenuity, and by seizing alertly every
+  suggestion from others, he supplied for better or worse one
+  deficiency after another. He had to deal with various governors
+  and various colonies, each with its prejudices, jealousies, and
+  shortcomings. He had to arrange for new levies from a people
+  unused to war, and to settle with infinite anxiety and much wear
+  and tear of mind and body, the conflict as to rank among officers
+  to whom he could apply no test but his own insight. He had to
+  organize and stimulate the arming of privateers, which, by
+  preying on British commerce, were destined to exercise such a
+  powerful influence on the fate of the war. It was neither showy
+  nor attractive, such work as this, but it was very vital, and it
+  was done.</p>
+
+  <p>By the end of July the army was in a better posture of
+  defense; and then at the beginning of the next month, as the
+  prospect was brightening, it was suddenly discovered that there
+  was no gunpowder. An undrilled army, imperfectly organized, was
+  facing a disciplined force and had only some nine rounds in the
+  cartridge-boxes. Yet there is no quivering in the letters from
+  headquarters. Anxiety and strain of nerve are apparent; but a
+  resolute determination rises over all, supported by a ready
+  fertility of resource. Couriers flew over the country asking for
+  powder in every town and in every village. A vessel was even
+  dispatched to the Bermudas to seize there a supply of powder, of
+  which the general, always listening, had heard. Thus the
+  immediate and grinding pressure was presently relieved, but the
+  staple of war still remained pitifully and perilously meagre all
+  through the winter.</p>
+
+  <p>Meantime, while thus overwhelmed with the cares immediately
+  about him, Washington was watching the rest of the country. He
+  had a keen eye upon Johnson and his Indians in the valley of the
+  Mohawk; he followed sharply every movement of Tryon and the
+  Tories in New York; he refused with stern good sense to detach
+  troops to Connecticut and Long Island, knowing well when to give
+  and when to say No, a difficult monosyllable for the new general
+  of freshly revolted colonies. But if he would not detach in one
+  place, he was ready enough to do so in another. He sent one
+  expedition by Lake Champlain, under Montgomery, to Montreal, and
+  gave Arnold picked troops to march through the wilds of Maine and
+  strike Quebec. The scheme was bold and brilliant, both in
+  conception and in execution, and came very near severing Canada
+  forever from the British crown. A chapter of little accidents,
+  each one of which proved as fatal as it was unavoidable, a
+  moment's delay on the Plains of Abraham, and the whole campaign
+  failed; but there was a grasp of conditions, a clearness of
+  perception, and a comprehensiveness about the plan, which stamp
+  it as the work of a great soldier, who saw besides the military
+  importance, the enormous political value held out by the chance
+  of such a victory.</p>
+
+  <p>The daring, far-reaching quality of this Canadian expedition
+  was much more congenial to Washington's temper and character than
+  the wearing work of the siege. All that man could do before
+  Boston was done, and still Congress expected the impossible, and
+  grumbled because without ships he did not secure the harbor. He
+  himself, while he inwardly resented such criticism, chafed under
+  the monotonous drudgery of the intrenchments. He was longing,
+  according to his nature, to fight, and was, it must be confessed,
+  quite ready to attempt the impossible in his own way. Early in
+  September he proposed to attack the town in boats and by the neck
+  of land at Roxbury, but the council of officers unanimously voted
+  against him. A little more than a month later he planned another
+  attack, and was again voted down by his officers. Councils of war
+  never fight, it is said, and perhaps in this case it was well
+  that such was their habit, for the schemes look rather desperate
+  now. To us they serve to show the temper of the man, and also his
+  self-control in this respect at the beginning of the war, for
+  Washington became ready enough afterwards to override councils
+  when he was wholly free from doubt himself.</p>
+
+  <p>Thus the planning of campaigns, both distant and near, went
+  on, and at the same time the current of details, difficult,
+  vital, absolute in demanding prompt and vigorous solution, went
+  on too. The existence of war made it necessary to fix our
+  relations with our enemies, and that these relations should be
+  rightly settled was of vast moment to our cause, struggling for
+  recognition. The first question was the matter of prisoners, and
+  on August 11 Washington wrote to Gage:&mdash;</p>
+
+  <blockquote>
+  <p>"I understand that the officers engaged in the cause of
+  liberty and their country, who by the fortune of war have fallen
+  into your hands, have been thrown indiscriminately into a common
+  gaol appropriated for felons; that no consideration has been had
+  for those of the most respectable rank, when languishing with
+  wounds and sickness; and that some have been even amputated in
+  this unworthy situation.</p>
+
+  <p>"Let your opinion, sir, of the principle which actuates them
+  be what it may, they suppose that they act from the noblest of
+  all principles, a love of freedom and their country. But
+  political principles, I conceive, are foreign to this point. The
+  obligations arising from the rights of humanity and claims of
+  rank are universally binding and extensive, except in case of
+  retaliation. These, I should have hoped, would have dictated a
+  more tender treatment of those individuals whom chance or war had
+  put in your power. Nor can I forbear suggesting its fatal
+  tendency to widen that unhappy breach which you, and those
+  ministers under whom you act, have repeatedly declared your wish
+  is to see forever closed.</p>
+
+  <p>"My duty now makes it necessary to apprise you, that for the
+  future I shall regulate all my conduct towards those gentlemen
+  who are or may be in our possession, exactly by the rule you
+  shall observe towards those of ours now in your custody.</p>
+
+  <p>"If severity and hardship mark the line of your conduct,
+  painful as it may be to me, your prisoners will feel its effects.
+  But if kindness and humanity are shown to ours, I shall with
+  pleasure consider those in our hands only as unfortunate, and
+  they shall receive from me that treatment to which the
+  unfortunate are ever entitled."</p>
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>This is a letter worthy of a little study. The affair does not
+  look very important now, but it went then to the roots of things;
+  for this letter would go out to the world, and America and the
+  American cause would be judged by their leader. A little bluster
+  or ferocity, any fine writing, or any absurdity, and the world
+  would have sneered, condemned, or laughed. But no man could read
+  this letter and fail to perceive that here was dignity and force,
+  justice and sense, with just a touch of pathos and eloquence to
+  recommend it to the heart. Men might differ with the writer, but
+  they could neither laugh at him nor set him aside.</p>
+
+  <p>Gage replied after his kind. He was an inconsiderable person,
+  dull and well meaning, intended for the command of a garrison
+  town, and terribly twisted and torn by the great events in which
+  he was momentarily caught. His masters were stupid and arrogant,
+  and he imitated them with perfect success, except that arrogance
+  with him dwindled to impertinence. He answered Washington's
+  letter with denials and recriminations, lectured the American
+  general on the political situation, and talked about "usurped
+  authority," "rebels," "criminals," and persons destined to the
+  "cord." Washington, being a man of his word, proceeded to put
+  some English prisoners into jail, and then wrote a second note,
+  giving Gage a little lesson in manners, with the vain hope of
+  making him see that gentlemen did not scold and vituperate
+  because they fought. He restated his case calmly and coolly, as
+  before, informed Gage that he had investigated the counter-charge
+  of cruelty and found it without any foundation, and then
+  continued: "You advise me to give free operation to truth, and to
+  punish misrepresentation and falsehood. If experience stamps
+  value upon counsel, yours must have a weight which few can claim.
+  You best can tell how far the convulsion, which has brought such
+  ruin on both countries, and shaken the mighty empire of Britain
+  to its foundation, may be traced to these malignant causes.</p>
+
+  <p>"You affect, sir, to despise all rank not derived from the
+  same source with your own. I cannot conceive one more honorable
+  than that which flows from the uncorrupted choice of a brave and
+  free people, the purest source and original fountain of all
+  power. Far from making it a plea for cruelty, a mind of true
+  magnanimity and enlarged ideas would comprehend and respect
+  it."</p>
+
+  <p>Washington had grasped instinctively the general truth that
+  Englishmen are prone to mistake civility for servility, and
+  become offensive, whereas if they are treated with indifference,
+  rebuke, or even rudeness, they are apt to be respectful and
+  polite. He was obliged to go over the same ground with Sir
+  William Howe, a little later, and still more sharply; and this
+  matter of prisoners recurred, although at longer and longer
+  intervals, throughout the war. But as the British generals saw
+  their officers go to jail, and found that their impudence and
+  assumption were met by keen reproofs, they gradually comprehended
+  that Washington was not a man to be trifled with, and that in him
+  was a pride and dignity out-topping theirs and far stronger,
+  because grounded on responsibility borne and work done, and on
+  the deep sense of a great and righteous cause.</p>
+
+  <p>It was probably a pleasure and a relief to give to Gage and
+  Sir William Howe a little instruction in military behavior and
+  general good manners, but there was nothing save infinite
+  vexation in dealing with the difficulties arising on the American
+  side of the line. As the days shortened and the leaves fell,
+  Washington saw before him a New England winter, with no clothing
+  and no money for his troops. Through long letters to Congress,
+  and strenuous personal efforts, these wants were somehow
+  supplied. Then the men began to get restless and homesick, and
+  both privates and officers would disappear to their farms, which
+  Washington, always impatient of wrongdoing, styled "base and
+  pernicious conduct," and punished accordingly. By and by the
+  terms of enlistment ran out and the regiments began to melt away
+  even before the proper date. Recruiting was carried on slowly and
+  with difficulty, new levies were tardy in coming in, and Congress
+  could not be persuaded to stop limited enlistments. Still the
+  task was done. The old army departed and a new one arose in its
+  place, the posts were strengthened and ammunition secured.</p>
+
+  <p>Among these reinforcements came some Virginia riflemen, and it
+  must have warmed Washington's heart to see once more these brave
+  and hardy fighters in the familiar hunting shirt and leggins.
+  They certainly made him warm in a very different sense by getting
+  into a rough-and-tumble fight one winter's day with some
+  Marblehead fishermen. The quarrel was at its height, when
+  suddenly into the brawl rode the commander-in-chief. He quickly
+  dismounted, seized two of the combatants, shook them, berated
+  them, if tradition may be trusted, for their local jealousies,
+  and so with strong arm quelled the disturbance. He must have
+  longed to take more than one colonial governor or magnate by the
+  throat and shake him soundly, as he did his soldiers from the
+  woods of Virginia and the rocks of Marblehead, for to his temper
+  there was nothing so satisfying as rapid and decisive action. But
+  he could not quell governors and assemblies in this way, and yet
+  he managed them and got what he wanted with a patience and tact
+  which it must have been in the last degree trying to him to
+  practice, gifted as he was with a nature at once masterful and
+  passionate.</p>
+
+  <p>Another trial was brought about by his securing and sending
+  out privateers which did good service. They brought in many
+  valuable prizes which caused infinite trouble, and forced
+  Washington not only to be a naval secretary, but also made him a
+  species of admiralty judge. He implored the slow-moving Congress
+  to relieve him from this burden, and suggested a plan which led
+  to the formation of special committees and was the origin of the
+  Federal judiciary of the United States. Besides the local
+  jealousies and the personal jealousies, and the privateers and
+  their prizes, he had to meet also the greed and selfishness as
+  well of the money-making, stock-jobbing spirit which springs up
+  rankly under the influence of army contracts and large
+  expenditures among a people accustomed to trade and unused to
+  war. Washington wrote savagely of these practices, but still,
+  despite all hindrances and annoyances, he kept moving straight on
+  to his object.</p>
+
+  <p>In the midst of his labors, harassed and tried in all ways, he
+  was assailed as usual by complaint and criticism. Some of it came
+  to him through his friend and aide, Joseph Reed, to whom he wrote
+  in reply one of the noblest letters ever penned by a great man
+  struggling with adverse circumstances and wringing victory from
+  grudging fortune. He said that he was always ready to welcome
+  criticism, hear advice, and learn the opinion of the world. "For
+  as I have but one capital object in view, I could wish to make my
+  conduct coincide with the wishes of mankind, as far as I can
+  consistently; I mean, without departing from that great line of
+  duty which, though hid under a cloud for some time, from a
+  peculiarity of circumstances, may, nevertheless, bear a
+  scrutiny." Thus he held fast to "the great line of duty," though
+  bitterly tried the while by the news from Canada, where brilliant
+  beginnings were coming to dismal endings, and cheered only by the
+  arrival of his wife, who drove up one day in her coach and four,
+  with the horses ridden by black postilions in scarlet and white
+  liveries, much to the amazement, no doubt, of the sober-minded
+  New England folk.</p>
+
+  <p>Light, however, finally began to break on the work about him.
+  Henry Knox, sent out for that purpose, returned safely with the
+  guns captured at Ticonderoga, and thus heavy ordnance and
+  gunpowder were obtained. By the middle of February the harbor was
+  frozen over, and Washington arranged to cross the ice and carry
+  Boston by storm. Again he was held back by his council, but this
+  time he could not be stopped. If he could not cross the ice he
+  would go by land. He had been slowly but surely advancing his
+  works all winter, and now he determined on a decisive stroke. On
+  the evening of Monday, March 4, under cover of a heavy
+  bombardment which distracted the enemy's attention, he marched a
+  large body of troops to Dorchester Heights and began to throw up
+  redoubts. The work went forward rapidly, and Washington rode
+  about all night encouraging the men. The New England soldiers had
+  sorely tried his temper, and there were many severe attacks and
+  bitter criticisms upon them in his letters, which were suppressed
+  or smoothed over for the most part by Mr. Sparks, but which have
+  come to light since, as is sometimes the case with facts.
+  Gradually, however, the General had come to know his soldiers
+  better, and six months later he wrote to Lund Washington,
+  praising his northern troops in the highest terms. Even now he
+  understood them as never before, and as he watched them on that
+  raw March night, working with the energy and quick intelligence
+  of their race, he probably felt that the defects were
+  superficial, but the virtues, the tenacity, and the courage were
+  lasting and strong.</p>
+
+  <p>When day dawned, and the British caught sight of the
+  formidable works which had sprung up in the night, there was a
+  great excitement and running hither and thither in the town.
+  Still the men on the heights worked on, and still Washington rode
+  back and forth among them. He was stirred and greatly rejoiced at
+  the coming of the fight, which he now believed inevitable, and as
+  always, when he was deeply moved, the hidden springs of sentiment
+  and passion were opened, and he reminded his soldiers that it was
+  the anniversary of the Boston massacre, and appealed to them by
+  the memories of that day to prepare for battle with the enemy. As
+  with the Huguenots at Ivry,&mdash;</p>
+
+  <div class="poem">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>"Remember St. Bartholomew was passed from man to man."</p>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+  <p>But the fighting never came. The British troops were made
+  ready, then a gale arose and they could not cross the bay. The
+  next day it rained in torrents, and the next day it was too late.
+  The American intrenchments frowned threateningly above the town,
+  and began to send in certain ominous messengers in the shape of
+  shot and shell. The place was now so clearly untenable that Howe
+  determined to evacuate it. An informal request to allow the
+  troops to depart unmolested was not answered, but Washington
+  suspended his fire and the British made ready to withdraw. Still
+  they hesitated and delayed, until Washington again advanced his
+  works, and on this hint they started in earnest, on March 17,
+  amid confusion, pillage, and disorder, leaving cannon and much
+  else behind them, and seeking refuge in their ships.</p>
+
+  <p>All was over, and the town was in the hands of the Americans.
+  In Washington's own words, "To maintain a post within musket-shot
+  of the enemy for six months together, without powder, and at the
+  same time to disband one army and recruit another within that
+  distance of twenty-odd British regiments, is more, probably, than
+  ever was attempted." It was, in truth, a gallant feat of arms,
+  carried through by the resolute will and strong brain of one man.
+  The troops on both sides were brave, but the British had
+  advantages far more than compensating for a disparity of numbers,
+  always slight and often more imaginary than real. They had twelve
+  thousand men, experienced, disciplined, equipped, and thoroughly
+  supplied. They had the best arms and cannon and gunpowder. They
+  commanded the sea with a strong fleet, and they were concentrated
+  on the inside line, able to strike with suddenness and
+  overwhelming force at any point of widely extended posts.
+  Washington caught them with an iron grip and tightened it
+  steadily until, in disorderly haste, they took to their boats
+  without even striking a blow. Washington's great abilities, and
+  the incapacity of the generals opposed to him, were the causes of
+  this result. If Robert Clive, for instance, had chanced to have
+  been there the end might possibly have been the same, but there
+  would have been some bloody fighting before that end was reached.
+  The explanation of the feeble abandonment of Boston lies in the
+  stupidity of the English government, which had sown the wind and
+  then proceeded to handle the customary crop with equal
+  fatuity.</p>
+
+  <p>There were plenty of great men in England, but they were not
+  conducting her government or her armies. Lord Sandwich had
+  declared in the House of Lords that all "Yankees were cowards," a
+  simple and satisfactory statement, readily accepted by the
+  governing classes, and flung in the teeth of the British soldiers
+  as they fell back twice from the bloody slopes of Bunker Hill.
+  Acting on this pleasant idea, England sent out as commanders of
+  her American army a parcel of ministerial and court favorites,
+  thoroughly second-rate men, to whom was confided the task of
+  beating one of the best soldiers and hardest fighters of the
+  century. Despite the enormous material odds in favor of Great
+  Britain, the natural result of matching the Howes and Gages and
+  Clintons against George Washington ensued, and the first lesson
+  was taught by the evacuation of Boston.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington did not linger over his victory. Even while the
+  British fleet still hung about the harbor he began to send troops
+  to New York to make ready for the next attack. He entered Boston
+  in order to see that every precaution was taken against the
+  spread of the smallpox, and then prepared to depart himself. Two
+  ideas, during his first winter of conflict, had taken possession
+  of his mind, and undoubtedly influenced profoundly his future
+  course. One was the conviction that the struggle must be fought
+  out to the bitter end, and must bring either subjugation or
+  complete independence. He wrote in February: "With respect to
+  myself, I have never entertained an idea of an accommodation,
+  since I heard of the measures which were adopted in consequence
+  of the Bunker's Hill fight;" and at an earlier date he said: "I
+  hope my countrymen (of Virginia) will rise superior to any losses
+  the whole navy of Great Britain can bring on them, and that the
+  destruction of Norfolk and threatened devastation of other places
+  will have no other effect than to unite the whole country in one
+  indissoluble band against a nation which seems to be lost to
+  every sense of virtue and those feelings which distinguish a
+  civilized people from the most barbarous savages." With such
+  thoughts he sought to make Congress appreciate the probable long
+  duration of the struggle, and he bent every energy to giving
+  permanency to his army, and decisiveness to each campaign. The
+  other idea which had grown in his mind during the weary siege was
+  that the Tories were thoroughly dangerous and deserved scant
+  mercy. In his second letter to Gage he refers to them, with the
+  frankness which characterized him when he felt strongly, as
+  "execrable parricides," and he made ready to treat them with the
+  utmost severity at New York and elsewhere. When Washington was
+  aroused there was a stern and relentless side to his character,
+  in keeping with the force and strength which were his chief
+  qualities. His attitude on this point seems harsh now when the
+  old Tories no longer look very dreadful and we can appreciate the
+  sincerity of conviction which no doubt controlled most of them.
+  But they were dangerous then, and Washington, with his honest
+  hatred of all that seemed to him to partake of meanness or
+  treason, proposed to put them down and render them harmless,
+  being well convinced, after his clear-sighted fashion, that war
+  was not peace, and that mildness to domestic foes was sadly
+  misplaced.</p>
+
+  <p>His errand to New England was now done and well done. His
+  victory was won, everything was settled at Boston; and so, having
+  sent his army forward, he started for New York, to meet the
+  harder trials that still awaited him.</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <h2><a name="VI" id="VI"></a> CHAPTER VI</h2>
+
+  <h2>SAVING THE REVOLUTION</h2>
+
+  <p>After leaving Boston, Washington proceeded through Rhode
+  Island and Connecticut, pushing troops forward as he advanced,
+  and reached New York on April 13. There he found himself plunged
+  at once into the same sea of difficulties with which he had been
+  struggling at Boston, the only difference being that these were
+  fresh and entirely untouched. The army was inadequate, and the
+  town, which was the central point of the colonies, as well as the
+  great river at its side, was wholly unprotected. The troops were
+  in large measure raw and undrilled, the committee of safety was
+  hesitating, the Tories were virulent and active, corresponding
+  constantly with Tryon, who was lurking in a British man-of-war,
+  while from the north came tidings of retreat and disaster. All
+  these harassing difficulties crowded upon the commander-in-chief
+  as soon as he arrived. To appreciate him it is necessary to
+  understand these conditions and realize their weight and
+  consequence, albeit the details seem petty. When we comprehend
+  the difficulties, then we can see plainly the greatness of the
+  man who quietly and silently took them up and disposed of them.
+  Some he scotched and some he killed, but he dealt with them all
+  after a fashion sufficient to enable him to move steadily
+  forward. In his presence the provincial committee suddenly
+  stiffened and grew strong. All correspondence with Tryon was cut
+  off, the Tories were repressed, and on Long Island steps were
+  taken to root out "these abominable pests of society," as the
+  commander-in-chief called them in his plain-spoken way. Then
+  forts were built, soldiers energetically recruited and drilled,
+  arrangements made for prisoners, and despite all the present
+  cares anxious thought was given to the Canada campaign, and ideas
+  and expeditions, orders, suggestions, and encouragement were
+  freely furnished to the dispirited generals and broken forces of
+  the north.</p>
+
+  <p>One matter, however, overshadowed all others. Nearly a year
+  before, Washington had seen that there was no prospect or
+  possibility of accommodation with Great Britain. It was plain to
+  his mind that the struggle was final in its character and would
+  be decisive. Separation from the mother country, therefore, ought
+  to come at once, so that public opinion might be concentrated,
+  and above all, permanency ought to be given to the army. These
+  ideas he had been striving to impress upon Congress, for the most
+  part less clearsighted than he was as to facts, and as the months
+  slipped by his letters had grown constantly more earnest and more
+  vehement. Still Congress hesitated, and at last Washington went
+  himself to Philadelphia and held conferences with the principal
+  men. What he said is lost, but the tone of Congress certainly
+  rose after his visit. The aggressive leaders found their hands so
+  much strengthened that little more than a month later they
+  carried through a declaration of independence, which was solemnly
+  and gratefully proclaimed to the army by the general, much
+  relieved to have got through the necessary boat-burning, and to
+  have brought affairs, military and political, on to the hard
+  ground of actual fact.</p>
+
+  <p>Soon after his return from Philadelphia, he received
+  convincing proof that his views in regard to the Tories were
+  extremely sound. A conspiracy devised by Tryon, which aimed
+  apparently at the assassination of the commander-in-chief, and
+  which had corrupted his life-guards for that purpose, was
+  discovered and scattered before it had fairly hardened into
+  definite form. The mayor of the city and various other persons
+  were seized and thrown into prison, and one of the life-guards,
+  Thomas Hickey by name, who was the principal tool in the plot,
+  was hanged in the presence of a large concourse of people.
+  Washington wrote a brief and business-like account of the affair
+  to Congress, from which one would hardly suppose that his own
+  life had been aimed at. It is a curious instance of his cool
+  indifference to personal danger. The conspiracy had failed, that
+  was sufficient for him, and he had other things besides himself
+  to consider. "We expect a bloody summer in New York and Canada,"
+  he wrote to his brother, and even while the Canadian expedition
+  was coming to a disastrous close, and was bringing hostile
+  invasion instead of the hoped-for conquest, British men-of-war
+  were arriving daily in the harbor, and a large army was
+  collecting on Staten Island. The rejoicings over the Declaration
+  of Independence had hardly died away, when the vessels of the
+  enemy made their way up the Hudson without check from the embryo
+  forts, or the obstacles placed in the stream.</p>
+
+  <p>July 12 Lord Howe arrived with more troops, and also with
+  ample powers to pardon and negotiate. Almost immediately he tried
+  to open a correspondence with Washington, but Colonel Reed, in
+  behalf of the General, refused to receive the letter addressed to
+  "Mr. Washington." Then Lord Howe sent an officer to the American
+  camp with a second letter, addressed to "George Washington, Esq.,
+  etc., etc." The bearer was courteously received, but the letter
+  was declined. "The etc., etc. implies everything," said the
+  Englishman. It may also mean "anything," Washington replied, and
+  added that touching the pardoning power of Lord Howe there could
+  be no pardon where there was no guilt, and where no forgiveness
+  was asked. As a result of these interviews, Lord Howe wrote to
+  England that it would be well to give Mr. Washington his proper
+  title. A small question, apparently, this of the form of address,
+  especially to a lover of facts, and yet it was in reality of
+  genuine importance. To the world Washington represented the young
+  republic, and he was determined to extort from England the first
+  acknowledgment of independence by compelling her to recognize the
+  Americans as belligerents and not rebels. Washington cared as
+  little for vain shows as any man who ever lived, but he had the
+  highest sense of personal dignity, and of the dignity of his
+  cause and country. Neither should be allowed to suffer in his
+  hands. He appreciated the effect on mankind of forms and titles,
+  and with unerring judgment he insisted on what he knew to be of
+  real value. It is one of the earliest examples of the dignity and
+  good taste which were of such inestimable value to his
+  country.</p>
+
+  <p>He had abundant occasion also for the employment of these same
+  qualities, coupled with unwearied patience and tact, in dealing
+  with his own men. The present army was drawn from a wider range
+  than that which had taken Boston, and sectional jealousies and
+  disputes, growing every day more hateful to the
+  commander-in-chief, sprang up rankly. The men of Maryland thought
+  those of Connecticut ploughboys; the latter held the former to be
+  fops and dandies. These and a hundred other disputes buzzed and
+  whirled about Washington, stirring his strong temper, and
+  exercising his sternest self-control in the untiring effort to
+  suppress them and put them to death. "It requires," John Adams
+  truly said, "more serenity of temper, a deeper understanding, and
+  more courage than fell to the lot of Marlborough, to ride in this
+  whirlwind." Fortunately these qualities were all there, and with
+  them an honesty of purpose and an unbending directness of
+  character to which Anne's great general was a stranger.</p>
+
+  <p>Meantime, while the internal difficulties were slowly
+  diminished, the forces of the enemy rapidly increased. First it
+  became evident that attacks were not feasible. Then the question
+  changed to a mere choice of defenses. Even as to this there was
+  great and harassing doubt, for the enemy, having command of the
+  water, could concentrate and attack at any point they pleased.
+  Moreover, the British had thirty thousand of the best disciplined
+  and best equipped troops that Europe could furnish, while
+  Washington had some twenty thousand men, one fourth of whom were
+  unfit for duty, and with the remaining three fourths, raw
+  recruits for the most part, he was obliged to defend an extended
+  line of posts, without cavalry, and with no means for rapid
+  concentration. Had he been governed solely by military
+  considerations he would have removed the inhabitants, burned New
+  York, and drawing his forces together would have taken up a
+  secure post of observation. To have destroyed the town, however,
+  not only would have frightened the timid and the doubters, and
+  driven them over to the Tories, but would have dispirited the
+  patriots not yet alive to the exigencies of war, and deeply
+  injured the American cause. That Washington well understood the
+  need of such action is clear, both from the current rumors that
+  the town was to be burned, and from his expressed desire to
+  remove the women and children from New York. But political
+  considerations overruled the military necessity, and he spared
+  the town. It was bad enough to be thus hampered, but he was even
+  more fettered in other ways, for he could not even concentrate
+  his forces and withdraw to the Highlands without a battle, as he
+  was obliged to fight in order to sustain public feeling, and thus
+  he was driven on to almost sure defeat. With Brooklyn Heights in
+  the hands of the enemy New York was untenable, and yet it was
+  obvious that to hold Brooklyn when the enemy controlled the sea
+  was inviting defeat. Yet Washington under the existing conditions
+  had no choice except to fight on Long Island and to say that he
+  hoped to make a good defense.</p>
+
+  <p>Everything, too, as the day of battle drew near, seemed to
+  make against him. On August 22 the enemy began to land on Long
+  Island, where Greene had drawn a strong line of redoubts behind
+  the village of Brooklyn, to defend the heights which commanded
+  New York, and had made every arrangement to protect the three
+  roads through the wooded hills, about a mile from the
+  intrenchments. Most unfortunately, and just at the critical
+  moment, Greene was taken down with a raging fever, so that when
+  Washington came over on the 24th he found much confusion in the
+  camps, which he repressed as best he could, and then prepared for
+  the attack. Greene's illness, however, had caused some oversights
+  which were unknown to the commander-in-chief, and which, as it
+  turned out, proved fatal.</p>
+
+  <p>After indecisive skirmishing for two or three days, the
+  British started early on the morning of the 26th. They had nine
+  thousand men and were well informed as to the country. Advancing
+  through woodpaths and lanes, they came round to the left flank of
+  the Americans. One of the roads through the hills was unguarded,
+  the others feebly protected. The result is soon told. The
+  Americans, out-generaled and out-flanked, were taken by surprise
+  and surrounded, Sullivan and his division were cut off, and then
+  Lord Stirling. There was some desperate fighting, and the
+  Americans showed plenty of courage, but only a few forced their
+  way out. Most of them were killed or taken prisoners, the total
+  loss out of some five thousand men reaching as high as two
+  thousand.</p>
+
+  <p>From the redoubts, whither he had come at the sound of the
+  firing, Washington watched the slaughter and disaster in grim
+  silence. He saw the British troops, flushed with victory, press
+  on to the very edge of his works and then withdraw in obedience
+  to command. The British generals had their prey so surely, as
+  they believed, that they mercifully decided not to waste life
+  unnecessarily by storming the works in the first glow of success.
+  So they waited during that night and the two following days,
+  while Washington strengthened his intrenchments, brought over
+  reinforcements, and prepared for the worst. On the 29th it became
+  apparent that there was a movement in the fleet, and that
+  arrangements were being made to take the Americans in the rear
+  and wholly cut them off. It was an obvious and sensible plan, but
+  the British overlooked the fact that while they were lingering,
+  summing up their victory, and counting the future as assured,
+  there was a silent watchful man on the other side of the redoubts
+  who for forty-eight hours never left the lines, and who with a
+  great capacity for stubborn fighting could move, when the stress
+  came, with the celerity and stealth of a panther.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington swiftly determined to retreat. It was a desperate
+  undertaking, and a lesser man would have hesitated and been lost.
+  He had to transport nine thousand men across a strait of strong
+  tides and currents, and three quarters of a mile in width. It was
+  necessary to collect the boats from a distance, and do it all
+  within sight and hearing of the enemy. The boats were obtained, a
+  thick mist settled down on sea and land, the water was calm, and
+  as the night wore away, the entire army with all its arms and
+  baggage was carried over, Washington leaving in the last boat. At
+  daybreak the British awoke, but it was too late. They had fought
+  a successful battle, they had had the American army in their
+  grasp, and now all was over. The victory had melted away, and, as
+  a grand result, they had a few hundred prisoners, a stray boat
+  with three camp-followers, and the deserted works in which they
+  stood. To grasp so surely the happy chance of wind and weather
+  and make such a retreat as this was a feat of arms as great as
+  most victories, and in it we see, perhaps as plainly as anywhere,
+  the nerve and quickness of the man who conducted it. It is true,
+  it was the only chance of salvation, but the great man is he who
+  is entirely master of his opportunity, even if he have but
+  one.</p>
+
+  <p>The outlook, nevertheless, was, as Washington wrote, "truly
+  distressing." The troops were dispirited, and the militia began
+  to disappear, as they always did after a defeat. Congress would
+  not permit the destruction of the city, different interests
+  pulled in different directions, conflicting opinions distracted
+  the councils of war, and, with utter inability to predict the
+  enemy's movements, everything led to halfway measures and to
+  intense anxiety, while Lord Howe tried to negotiate with
+  Congress, and the Americans waited for events. Washington,
+  looking beyond the confusion of the moment, saw that he had
+  gained much by delay, and had his own plan well defined. He
+  wrote: "We have not only delayed the operations of the campaign
+  till it is too late to effect any capital incursion into the
+  country, but have drawn the enemy's forces to one point.... It
+  would be presumption to draw out our young troops into open
+  ground against their superiors both in number and discipline, and
+  I have never spared the spade and pickaxe." Every one else,
+  however, saw only past defeat and present peril.</p>
+
+  <p>The British ships gradually made their way up the river, until
+  it became apparent that they intended to surround and cut off the
+  American army. Washington made preparations to withdraw, but
+  uncertainty of information came near rendering his precautions
+  futile. September 15 the men-of-war opened fire, and troops were
+  landed near Kip's Bay. The militia in the breastworks at that
+  point had been at Brooklyn and gave way at once, communicating
+  their panic to two Connecticut regiments. Washington, galloping
+  down to the scene of battle, came upon the disordered and flying
+  troops. He dashed in among them, conjuring them to stop, but even
+  while he was trying to rally them they broke again on the
+  appearance of some sixty or seventy of the enemy, and ran in all
+  directions. In a tempest of anger Washington drew his pistols,
+  struck the fugitives with his sword, and was only forced from the
+  field by one of his officers seizing the bridle of his horse and
+  dragging him away from the British, now within a hundred yards of
+  the spot.</p>
+
+  <p>Through all his trials and anxieties Washington always showed
+  the broadest and most generous sympathy. When the militia had
+  begun to leave him a few days before, although he despised their
+  action and protested bitterly to Congress against their
+  employment, yet in his letters he displayed a keen appreciation
+  of their feelings, and saw plainly every palliation and excuse.
+  But there was one thing which he could never appreciate nor
+  realize. It was from first to last impossible for him to
+  understand how any man could refuse to fight, or could think of
+  running away. When he beheld rout and cowardly panic before his
+  very eyes, his temper broke loose and ran uncontrolled. His one
+  thought then was to fight to the last, and he would have thrown
+  himself single-handed on the enemy, with all his wisdom and
+  prudence flung to the winds. The day when the commander held his
+  place merely by virtue of personal prowess lay far back in the
+  centuries, and no one knew it better than Washington. But the old
+  fighting spirit awoke within him when the clash of arms sounded
+  in his ears, and though we may know the general in the tent and
+  in the council, we can only know the man when he breaks out from
+  all rules and customs, and shows the rage of battle, and the
+  indomitable eagerness for the fray, which lie at the bottom of
+  the tenacity and courage that carried the war for independence to
+  a triumphant close.</p>
+
+  <p>The rout and panic over, Washington quickly turned to deal
+  with the pressing danger. With coolness and quickness he issued
+  his orders, and succeeded in getting his army off, Putnam's
+  division escaping most narrowly. He then took post at King's
+  Bridge, and began to strengthen and fortify his lines. While thus
+  engaged, the enemy advanced, and on the 16th Washington suddenly
+  took the offensive and attacked the British light troops. The
+  result was a sharp skirmish, in which the British were driven
+  back with serious loss, and great bravery was shown by the
+  Connecticut and Virginia troops, the two commanding officers
+  being killed. This affair, which was the first gleam of success,
+  encouraged the troops, and was turned to the best account by the
+  general. Still a successful skirmish did not touch the essential
+  difficulties of the situation, which then as always came from
+  within, rather than without. To face and check twenty-five
+  thousand well-equipped and highly disciplined soldiers Washington
+  had now some twelve thousand men, lacking in everything which
+  goes to make an army, except mere individual courage and a high
+  average of intelligence. Even this meagre force was an inconstant
+  and diminishing quantity, shifting, uncertain, and always
+  threatening dissolution.</p>
+
+  <p>The task of facing and fighting the enemy was enough for the
+  ablest of men; but Washington was obliged also to combat and
+  overcome the inertness and dullness born of ignorance, and to
+  teach Congress how to govern a nation at war. In the hours
+  "allotted to sleep," he sat in his headquarters, writing a
+  letter, with "blots and scratches," which told Congress with the
+  utmost precision and vigor just what was needed. It was but one
+  of a long series of similar letters, written with unconquerable
+  patience and with unwearied iteration, lighted here and there by
+  flashes of deep and angry feeling, which would finally strike
+  home under the pressure of defeat, and bring the patriots of the
+  legislature to sudden action, always incomplete, but still action
+  of some sort. It must have been inexpressibly dreary work, but
+  quite as much was due to those letters as to the battles.
+  Thinking for other people, and teaching them what to do, is at
+  best an ungrateful duty, but when it is done while an enemy is at
+  your throat, it shows a grim tenacity of purpose which is well
+  worth consideration.</p>
+
+  <p>In this instance the letter of September 24, read in the light
+  of the battles of Long Island and Kip's Bay, had a considerable
+  effect. The first steps were taken to make the army national and
+  permanent, to raise the pay of officers, and to lengthen
+  enlistments. Like most of the war measures of Congress, they were
+  too late for the immediate necessity, but they helped the future.
+  Congress, moreover, then felt that all had been done that could
+  be demanded, and relapsed once more into confidence. "The British
+  force," said John Adams, chairman of the board of war, "is so
+  divided, they will do no great matter this fall." But Washington,
+  facing hard facts, wrote to Congress with his unsparing truth on
+  October 4: "Give me leave to say, sir, (I say it with due
+  deference and respect, and my knowledge of the facts, added to
+  the importance of the cause and the stake I hold in it, must
+  justify the freedom,) that your affairs are in a more unpromising
+  way than you seem to apprehend. Your army, as I mentioned in my
+  last, is on the eve of its political dissolution. True it is, you
+  have voted a larger one in lieu of it; but the season is late;
+  and there is a material difference between voting battalions and
+  raising men."</p>
+
+  <p>The campaign as seen from the board of war and from the Plains
+  of Harlem differed widely. It is needless to say now which was
+  correct; every one knows that the General was right and Congress
+  wrong, but being in the right did not help Washington, nor did he
+  take petty pleasure in being able to say, "I told you how it
+  would be." The hard facts remained unchanged. There was the
+  wholly patriotic but slumberous, and for fighting purposes quite
+  inefficient Congress still to be waked up and kept awake, and to
+  be instructed. With painful and plain-spoken repetition this work
+  was grappled with and done methodically, and like all else as
+  effectively as was possible.</p>
+
+  <p>Meanwhile the days slipped along, and Washington waited on the
+  Harlem Plains, planning descents on Long Island, and determining
+  to make a desperate stand where he was, unless the situation
+  decidedly changed. Then the situation did change, as neither he
+  nor any one else apparently had anticipated. The British warships
+  came up the Hudson past the forts, brushing aside our boasted
+  obstructions, destroying our little fleet, and getting command of
+  the river. Then General Howe landed at Frog's Point, where he was
+  checked for the moment by the good disposition of Heath, under
+  Washington's direction. These two events made it evident that the
+  situation of the American army was full of peril, and that
+  retreat was again necessary. Such certainly was the conclusion of
+  the council of war, on the 16th, acting this time in agreement
+  with their chief. Six days Howe lingered on Frog's Point,
+  bringing up stores or artillery or something; it matters little
+  now why he tarried. Suffice it that he waited, and gave six days
+  to his opponent. They were of little value to Howe, but they were
+  of inestimable worth to Washington, who employed them in getting
+  everything in readiness, in holding his council of war, and then
+  on the 17th in moving deliberately off to very strong ground at
+  White Plains. On his way he fought two or three slight, sharp,
+  and successful skirmishes with the British. Sir William followed
+  closely, but with much caution, having now a dull glimmer in his
+  mind that at the head of the raw troops in front of him was a man
+  with whom it was not safe to be entirely careless.</p>
+
+  <p>On the 28th, Howe came up to Washington's position, and found
+  the Americans quite equal in numbers, strongly intrenched, and
+  awaiting his attack with confidence. He hesitated, doubted, and
+  finally feeling that he must do something, sent four thousand men
+  to storm Chatterton Hill, an outlying post, where some fourteen
+  hundred Americans were stationed. There was a short, sharp
+  action, and then the Americans retreated in good order to the
+  main army, having lost less than half as many men as their
+  opponents. With caution now much enlarged, Howe sent for
+  reinforcements, and waited two days. The third day it rained, and
+  on the fourth Howe found that Washington had withdrawn to a
+  higher and quite impregnable line of hills, where he held all the
+  passes in the rear and awaited a second attack. Howe contemplated
+  the situation for two or three days longer, and then broke camp
+  and withdrew to Dobbs Ferry to secure Fort Washington, which
+  treachery offered him as an easy and inviting prize. Such were
+  the great results of the victory of Long Island, two wasted
+  months, and the American army still untouched.</p>
+
+  <p>Howe was resolved that his campaign should not be utterly
+  fruitless, and therefore directed his attention to the defenses
+  of the Hudson, and here he met with better success. Congress, in
+  its military wisdom, had insisted that these forts must and could
+  be held. So thought the generals, and so most especially, and
+  most unluckily, did Greene. Washington, with his usual accurate
+  and keen perception, saw, from the time the men-of-war came up
+  the Hudson, and, now that the British army was free, more clearly
+  than ever, that both forts ought to be abandoned. Sure of his
+  ground, he overruled Congress, but was so far influenced by
+  Greene that he gave to that officer discretionary orders as to
+  withdrawal. This was an act of weakness, as he afterwards
+  admitted, for which he bitterly reproached himself, never
+  confusing or glossing over his own errors, but loyal there, as
+  elsewhere, to facts. An attempt was made to hold both forts, and
+  both were lost, as he had foreseen. From Fort Lee the garrison
+  withdrew in safety. Fort Washington, with its plans all in Howe's
+  hands through the treachery of William Demont, the adjutant of
+  Colonel Magaw, was carried by storm, after a severe struggle.
+  Twenty-six hundred men and all the munitions of war fell into the
+  hands of the enemy. It was a serious and most depressing loss,
+  and was felt throughout the continent.</p>
+
+  <p>Meantime Washington had crossed info the Jerseys, and, after
+  the loss of Fort Lee, began to retreat before the British, who,
+  flushed with victory, now advanced rapidly under Lord Cornwallis.
+  The crisis of his fate and of the Revolution was upon him. His
+  army was melting away. The militia had almost all disappeared,
+  and regiments whose term of enlistment had expired were departing
+  daily. Lee, who had a division under his command, was ordered to
+  come up, but paid no attention, although the orders were repeated
+  almost every day for a month. He lingered, and loitered, and
+  excused himself, and at last was taken prisoner. This disposed of
+  him for a time very satisfactorily, but meanwhile he had
+  succeeded in keeping his troops from Washington, which was a most
+  serious misfortune.</p>
+
+  <p>On December 2 Washington was at Princeton with three thousand
+  ragged men, and the British close upon his heels. They had him
+  now surely in their grip. There could be no mistake this time,
+  and there was therefore no need of a forced march. But they had
+  not yet learned that to Washington even hours meant much, and
+  when, after duly resting, they reached the Delaware, they found
+  the Americans on the other side, and all the boats destroyed for
+  a distance of seventy miles.</p>
+
+  <p>It was winter now, the short gray days had come, and with them
+  piercing cold and storms of sleet and ice. It seemed as if the
+  elements alone would finally disperse the feeble body of men
+  still gathered about the commander-in-chief. Congress had sent
+  him blank commissions and orders to recruit, which were well
+  meant, but were not practically of much value. As Glendower could
+  call spirits from the vasty deep, so they, with like success,
+  sought to call soldiers from the earth in the midst of defeat,
+  and in the teeth of a North American winter. Washington, baffling
+  pursuit and flying from town to town, left nothing undone. North
+  and south went letters and appeals for men, money, and supplies.
+  Vain, very vain, it all was, for the most part, but still it was
+  done in a tenacious spirit. Lee would not come, the Jersey
+  militia would not turn out, thousands began to accept Howe's
+  amnesty, and signs of wavering were apparent in some of the
+  Middle States. Philadelphia was threatened, Newport was in the
+  hands of the enemy, and for ninety miles Washington had
+  retreated, evading ruin again and again only by the width of a
+  river. Congress voted not to leave Philadelphia,&mdash;a fact
+  which their General declined to publish,&mdash;and then fled.</p>
+
+  <p>No one remained to face the grim realities of the time but
+  Washington, and he met them unmoved. Not a moment passed that he
+  did not seek in some way to effect something. Not an hour went by
+  that he did not turn calmly from fresh and ever renewed
+  disappointment to work and action.</p>
+
+  <p>By the middle of December Howe felt satisfied that the
+  American army would soon dissolve, and leaving strong detachments
+  in various posts he withdrew to New York. His premises were
+  sound, and his conclusions logical, but he made his usual mistake
+  of overlooking and underestimating the American general. No
+  sooner was it known that he was on his way to New York than
+  Washington, at the head of his dissolving army, resolved to take
+  the offensive and strike an outlying post. In a letter of
+  December 14, the day after Howe began to move, we catch the first
+  glimpse of Trenton. It was a bold spirit which, in the dead of
+  winter, with a broken army, no prospect of reinforcements, and in
+  the midst of a terror-stricken people, could thus resolve with
+  some four thousand men to attack an army thoroughly appointed,
+  and numbering in all its divisions twenty-five thousand
+  soldiers.</p>
+
+  <p>It is well to pause a moment and look at that situation, and
+  at the overwhelming difficulties which hemmed it in, and then try
+  to realize what manner of man he was who rose superior to it, and
+  conquered it. Be it remembered, too, that he never deceived
+  himself, and never for one instant disguised the truth. Two years
+  later he wrote that at this supreme moment, in what were called
+  "the dark days of America," he was never despondent; and this was
+  true enough, for despair was not in his nature. But no delusions
+  lent him courage. On the 18th he wrote to his brother "that if
+  every nerve was not strained to recruit this new army the game
+  was pretty nearly up;" and added, "You can form no idea of the
+  perplexity of my situation. No man, I believe, ever had a greater
+  choice of difficulties, and less means to extricate himself from
+  them. However, under a full persuasion of the justice of our
+  cause, I cannot entertain an idea that it will finally sink,
+  though it may remain for some time under a cloud." There is no
+  complaint, no boasting, no despair in this letter. We can detect
+  a bitterness in the references to Congress and to Lee, but the
+  tone of the letter is as calm as a May morning, and it concludes
+  with sending love and good wishes to the writer's sister and her
+  family.</p>
+
+  <p>Thus in the dreary winter Washington was planning and devising
+  and sending hither and thither for men, and never ceased through
+  it all to write urgent and ever sharper letters and keep a wary
+  eye upon the future. He not only wrote strongly, but he pledged
+  his own estate and exceeded his powers in desperate efforts to
+  raise money and men. On the 20th he wrote to Congress: "It may be
+  thought that I am going a good deal out of the line of my duty to
+  adopt these measures, or to advise thus freely. A character to
+  lose, an estate to forfeit, the inestimable blessings of liberty
+  at stake, and a life devoted, must be my excuse." Even now across
+  the century these words come with a grave solemnity to our ears,
+  and we can feel as he felt when he alone saw that he stood on the
+  brink of a great crisis. It is an awful thing to know that the
+  life of a nation is at stake, and this thought throbs in his
+  words, measured and quiet as usual, but deeply fraught with much
+  meaning to him and to the world.</p>
+
+  <p>By Christmas all was ready, and when the Christian world was
+  rejoicing and feasting, and the British officers in New York and
+  in the New Jersey towns were reveling and laughing, Washington
+  prepared to strike. His whole force, broken into various
+  detachments, was less than six thousand men. To each division was
+  assigned, with provident forethought, its exact part. Nothing was
+  overlooked, nothing omitted; and then every division commander
+  failed, for good reason or bad, to do his duty. Gates was to
+  march from Bristol with two thousand men, Ewing was to cross at
+  Trenton, Putnam was to come up from Philadelphia, Griffin was to
+  make a diversion against Donop. When the moment came, Gates,
+  disapproving the scheme, was on his way to Congress, and
+  Wilkinson, with his message, found his way to headquarters by
+  following the bloody tracks of the barefooted soldiers. Griffin
+  abandoned New Jersey and fled before Donop. Putnam would not even
+  attempt to leave Philadelphia, and Ewing made no effort to cross
+  at Trenton. Cadwalader, indeed, came down from Bristol, but after
+  looking at the river and the floating ice, gave it up as
+  desperate.</p>
+
+  <p>But there was one man who did not hesitate nor give up, nor
+  halt on account of floating ice. With twenty-four hundred hardy
+  veterans, Washington crossed the Delaware. The night was bitter
+  cold and the passage difficult. When they landed, and began their
+  march of nine miles to Trenton, a fierce storm of sleet drove in
+  their faces. Sullivan; marching by the river, sent word that the
+  arms of his men were wet. "Then tell your general," said
+  Washington, "to use the bayonet, for the town must be taken." In
+  broad daylight they came to the town. Washington, at the front
+  and on the right of the line, swept down the Pennington road, and
+  as he drove in the pickets he heard the shouts of Sullivan's men,
+  as, with Stark leading the van, they charged in from the river. A
+  company of y&auml;gers and the light dragoons slipped away, there
+  was a little confused fighting in the streets, Colonel Rahl fell,
+  mortally wounded, his Hessians threw down their arms, and all was
+  over. The battle had been fought and won, and the Revolution was
+  saved.</p>
+
+  <div class="figcenter" style="width:100%;">
+    <a href="images/illus0389.jpg"><img width="100%" src=
+    "images/illus0389.jpg" alt=
+    "WASHINGTON CROSSING THE DELAWARE" /></a> WASHINGTON CROSSING
+    THE DELAWARE
+  </div>
+
+  <p>Taking his thousand prisoners with him, Washington recrossed
+  the Delaware to his old position. Had all done their duty, as he
+  had planned, the British hold on New Jersey would have been
+  shattered. As it was, it was only loosened. Congress, aroused at
+  last, had invested Washington with almost dictatorial powers; but
+  the time for action was short. The army was again melting away,
+  and only by urgent appeals were some veterans retained, and
+  enough new men gathered to make a force of five thousand men.
+  With this army Washington prepared to finish what he had
+  begun.</p>
+
+  <p>Trenton struck alarm and dismay into the British, and
+  Cornwallis, with seven thousand of the best troops, started from
+  New York to redeem what had been lost. Leaving three regiments at
+  Princeton, he pushed hotly after Washington, who fell back behind
+  the Assunpink River, skirmishing heavily and successfully. When
+  Cornwallis reached the river he found the American army drawn up
+  on the other side awaiting him. An attack on the bridge was
+  repulsed, and the prospect looked uninviting. Some officers urged
+  an immediate assault; but night was falling, and Cornwallis, sure
+  of the game, decided to wait till the morrow. He, too, forgot
+  that he was facing an enemy who never overlooked a mistake, and
+  never waited an hour. With quick decision Washington left his
+  camp-fires burning on the river bank, and taking roundabout
+  roads, which he had already reconnoitred, marched on to
+  Princeton. By sunrise he was in the outskirts of the town.
+  Mercer, detached with some three hundred men, fell in with
+  Mawhood's regiment, and a sharp action ensued. Mercer was
+  mortally wounded, and his men gave way just as the main army came
+  upon the field. The British charged, and as the raw Pennsylvanian
+  troops in the van wavered, Washington rode to the front, and
+  reining his horse within thirty yards of the British, ordered his
+  men to advance. The volleys of musketry left him unscathed, the
+  men stood firm, the other divisions came rapidly into action, and
+  the enemy gave way in all directions. The two other British
+  regiments were driven through the town and routed. Had there been
+  cavalry they would have been entirely cut off. As it was, they
+  were completely broken, and in this short but bloody action they
+  lost five hundred men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. It was
+  too late to strike the magazines at Brunswick, as Washington had
+  intended, and so he withdrew once more with his army to the high
+  lands to rest and recruit.</p>
+
+  <p>His work was done, however. The country, which had been
+  supine, and even hostile, rose now, and the British were
+  attacked, surprised, and cut off in all directions, until at last
+  they were shut up in the immediate vicinity of New York. The tide
+  had been turned, and Washington had won the precious
+  breathing-time which was all he required.</p>
+
+  <p>Frederick the Great is reported to have said that this was the
+  most brilliant campaign of the century. It certainly showed all
+  the characteristics of the highest strategy and most consummate
+  generalship. With a force numerically insignificant as compared
+  with that opposed to him, Washington won two decisive victories,
+  striking the enemy suddenly with superior numbers at each point
+  of attack. The Trenton campaign has all the quality of some of
+  the last battles fought by Napoleon in France before his
+  retirement to Elba. Moreover, these battles show not only
+  generalship of the first order, but great statesmanship. They
+  display that prescient knowledge which recognizes the supreme
+  moment when all must be risked to save the state. By Trenton and
+  Princeton Washington inflicted deadly blows upon the enemy, but
+  he did far more by reviving the patriotic spirit of the country
+  fainting under the bitter experience of defeat, and by sending
+  fresh life and hope and courage throughout the whole people.</p>
+
+  <p>It was the decisive moment of the war. Sooner or later the
+  American colonies were sure to part from the mother-country,
+  either peaceably or violently. But there was nothing inevitable
+  in the Revolution of 1776, nor was its end at all certain. It was
+  in the last extremities when the British overran New Jersey, and
+  if it had not been for Washington that particular revolution
+  would have most surely failed. Its fate lay in the hands of the
+  general and his army; and to the strong brain growing ever keener
+  and quicker as the pressure became more intense, to the iron will
+  gathering a more relentless force as defeat thickened, to the
+  high, unbending character, and to the passionate and fighting
+  temper of Washington, we owe the brilliant campaign which in the
+  darkest hour turned the tide and saved the cause of the
+  Revolution.</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <h2><a name="VII" id="VII"></a> CHAPTER VII</h2>
+
+  <h2>"MALICE DOMESTIC, AND FOREIGN LEVY"</h2>
+
+  <p>After the "two lucky strokes at Trenton and Princeton," as he
+  himself called them, Washington took up a strong position at
+  Morristown and waited. His plan was to hold the enemy in check,
+  and to delay all operations until spring. It is easy enough now
+  to state his purpose, and it looks very simple, but it was a grim
+  task to carry it out through the bleak winter days of 1777. The
+  Jerseys farmers, spurred by the sufferings inflicted upon them by
+  the British troops, had turned out at last in deference to
+  Washington's appeals, after the victories of Trenton and
+  Princeton, had harassed and cut off outlying parties, and had
+  thus straitened the movements of the enemy. But the main army of
+  the colonies, on which all depended, was in a pitiable state. It
+  shifted its character almost from day to day. The curse of short
+  enlistments, so denounced by Washington, made itself felt now
+  with frightful effect. With the new year most of the continental
+  troops departed, while others to replace them came in very
+  slowly, and recruiting dragged most wearisomely. Washington was
+  thus obliged, with temporary reinforcements of raw militia, to
+  keep up appearances; and no commander ever struggled with a more
+  trying task. At times it looked as if the whole army would
+  actually disappear, and more than once Washington expected that
+  the week's or the month's end would find him with not more than
+  five hundred men. At the beginning of March he had about four
+  thousand men, a few weeks later only three thousand raw troops,
+  ill-fed, ill-clad, ill-shod, ill-armed, and almost unpaid. Over
+  against him was Howe, with eleven thousand men in the field, and
+  still more in the city of New York, well disciplined and
+  equipped, well-armed, well-fed, and furnished with every needful
+  supply. The contrast is absolutely grotesque, and yet the force
+  of one man's genius and will was such that this excellent British
+  army was hemmed in and kept in harmless quiet by their ragged
+  opponents.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington's plan, from the first, was to keep the field at
+  all hazards, and literally at all hazards did he do so. Right and
+  left his letters went, day after day, calling with pathetic but
+  dignified earnestness for men and supplies. In one of these
+  epistles, to Governor Cooke of Rhode Island, written in January,
+  to remonstrate against raising troops for the State only, he set
+  forth his intentions in a few words. "You must be sensible," he
+  said, "that the season is fast approaching when a new campaign
+  will open; nay, the former is not yet closed; nor do I intend it
+  shall be, unless the enemy quits the Jerseys." To keep fighting
+  all the time, and never let the fire of active resistance flicker
+  or die out, was Washington's theory of the way to maintain his
+  own side and beat the enemy. If he could not fight big battles,
+  he would fight small ones; if he could not fight little battles,
+  he would raid and skirmish and surprise; but fighting of some
+  sort he would have, while the enemy attempted to spread over a
+  State and hold possession of it. We can see the obstacles now,
+  but we can only wonder how they were sufficiently overcome to
+  allow anything to be done.</p>
+
+  <p>Moreover, besides the purely physical difficulties in the lack
+  of men, money, and supplies, there were others of a political and
+  personal kind, which were even more wearing and trying, but
+  which, nevertheless, had to be dealt with also, in some fashion.
+  In order to sustain the courage of the people Washington was
+  obliged to give out, and to allow it to be supposed, that he had
+  more men than was really the case, and so Congress and various
+  wise and well-meaning persons grumbled because he did not do more
+  and fight more battles. He never deceived Congress, but they
+  either could not or would not understand the actual situation. In
+  March he wrote to Robert Morris: "Nor is it in my power to make
+  Congress fully sensible of the real situation of our affairs, and
+  that it is with difficulty, if I may use the expression, that I
+  can by every means in my power keep the life and soul of this
+  army together. In a word, when they are at a distance, they think
+  it is but to say, <i>Presto, begone</i>, and everything is done.
+  They seem not to have any conception of the difficulty and
+  perplexity attending those who are to execute." It was so easy to
+  see what they would like to have done, and so simple to pass a
+  resolve to that effect, that Congress never could appreciate the
+  reality of the difficulty and the danger until the hand of the
+  enemy was almost at their throats. They were not even content
+  with delay and neglect, but interfered actively at times, as in
+  the matter of the exchange of prisoners, where they made unending
+  trouble for Washington, and showed themselves unable to learn or
+  to keep their hands off after any amount of instruction.</p>
+
+  <p>In January Washington issued a proclamation requiring those
+  inhabitants who had subscribed to Howe's declaration to come in
+  within thirty days and take the oath of allegiance to the United
+  States. If they failed to do so they were to be treated as
+  enemies. The measure was an eminently proper one, and the
+  proclamation was couched in the most moderate language. It was
+  impossible to permit a large class of persons to exist on the
+  theory that they were peaceful American citizens and also
+  subjects of King George. The results of such conduct were in
+  every way perilous and intolerable, and Washington was determined
+  that he would divide the sheep from the goats, and know whom he
+  was defending and whom attacking. Yet for this wise and necessary
+  action he was called in question in Congress and accused of
+  violating civil rights and the resolves of Congress itself.
+  Nothing was actually done about it, but such an incident shows
+  from a single point the infinite tact and resolution required in
+  waging war under a government whose members were unable to
+  comprehend what was meant, and who could not see that until they
+  had beaten England it was hardly worth while to worry about civil
+  rights, which in case of defeat would speedily cease to exist
+  altogether.</p>
+
+  <p>Another fertile source of trouble arose from questions of
+  rank. Members of Congress, in making promotions and appointments,
+  were more apt to consider local claims than military merit, and
+  they also allowed their own personal prejudices to affect their
+  action in this respect far too much. Thence arose endless
+  heart-burnings and jealousies, followed by resignations and the
+  loss of valuable officers. Congress, having made the
+  appointments, would go cheerfully about its business, while the
+  swarm of grievances thus let loose would come buzzing about the
+  devoted head of the commander-in-chief. He could not adjourn, but
+  was compelled to quiet rivalries, allay irritated feelings, and
+  ride the storm as best he might. It was all done, however, in one
+  way or another: by personal appeals, and by letters full of
+  dignity, patriotism, and patience, which are very impressive and
+  full of meaning for students of character, even in this day and
+  generation.</p>
+
+  <p>Then again, not content with snarling up our native
+  appointments, Congress complicated matters still more dangerously
+  by its treatment of foreigners. The members of Congress were
+  colonists, and the fact that they had shaken off the yoke of the
+  mother country did not in the least alter their colonial and
+  perfectly natural habit of regarding with enormous respect
+  Englishmen and Frenchmen, and indeed anybody who had had the good
+  fortune to be born in Europe. The result was that they
+  distributed commissions and gave inordinate rank to the many
+  volunteers who came over the ocean, actuated by various motives,
+  but all filled with a profound sense of their own merits. It is
+  only fair to Congress to say that the American agents abroad were
+  even more to blame in this respect. Silas Deane especially
+  scattered promises of commissions with a lavish hand, and
+  Congress refused to fulfill many of the promises thus made in its
+  name. Nevertheless, Congress was far too lax, and followed too
+  closely the example of its agents. Some of these foreigners were
+  disinterested men and excellent soldiers, who proved of great
+  value to the American cause. Many others were mere military
+  adventurers, capable of being turned to good account, perhaps,
+  but by no means entitled to what they claimed and in most
+  instances received.</p>
+
+  <p>The ill-considered action of Congress and of our agents abroad
+  in this respect was a source of constantly recurring troubles of
+  a very serious nature. Native officers, who had borne the burden
+  and heat of the day, justly resented being superseded by some
+  stranger, unable to speak the language, who had landed in the
+  States but a few days before. As a result, resignations were
+  threatened which, if carried out, would affect the character of
+  the army very deeply. Then again, the foreigners themselves,
+  inflated by the eagerness of our agents and by their reception at
+  the hands of Congress, would find on joining the army that they
+  could get no commands, chiefly because there were none to give.
+  They would then become dissatisfied with their rank and
+  employment, and bitter complaints and recriminations would ensue.
+  All these difficulties, of course, fell most heavily upon the
+  commander-in-chief, who was heartily disgusted with the whole
+  business. Washington believed from the beginning, and said over
+  and over again in various and ever stronger terms, that this was
+  an American war and must be fought by Americans. In no other way,
+  and by no other persons, did he consider that it could be carried
+  to any success worth having. He saw of course the importance of a
+  French alliance, and deeply desired it, for it was a leading
+  element in the solution of the political and military situation;
+  but alliance with a foreign power was one thing, and sporadic
+  military volunteers were another. Washington had no narrow
+  prejudices against foreigners, for he was a man of broad and
+  liberal mind, and no one was more universally beloved and
+  respected by the foreign officers than he; but he was intensely
+  American in his feelings, and he would not admit for an instant
+  that the American war for independence could be righteously
+  fought or honestly won by others than Americans. He was well
+  aware that foreign volunteers had a value and use of which he
+  largely and gratefully availed himself; but he was exasperated
+  and alarmed by the indiscriminate and lavish way in which
+  Congress and our agents abroad gave rank and office to them.
+  "Hungry adventurers," he called them in one letter, when driven
+  beyond endurance by the endless annoyances thus forced upon him;
+  and so he pushed their pretensions aside, and managed, on the
+  whole, to keep them in their proper place. The operation was
+  delicate, difficult, and unpleasant, for it seemed to savor of
+  ingratitude. But Washington was never shaken for an instant in
+  his policy, and while he checked the danger, he showed in many
+  instances, like Lafayette and Steuben, that he could appreciate
+  and use all that was really valuable in the foreign
+  contingent.</p>
+
+  <p>The service rendered by Washington in this matter has never
+  been justly understood or appreciated. If he had not taken this
+  position, and held it with an absolute firmness which bordered on
+  harshness, we should have found ourselves in a short time with an
+  army of American soldiers officered by foreigners, many of them
+  mere mercenaries, "hungry adventurers," from France, Poland or
+  Hungary, from Germany, Ireland or England. The result of such a
+  combination would have been disorganization and defeat. That
+  members of Congress and some of our representatives in Europe did
+  not see the danger, and that they were impressed by the foreign
+  officers who came among them, was perfectly natural. Men are the
+  creatures of the time in which they live, and take their color
+  from the conditions which surround them, as the chameleon does
+  from the grass or leaves in which it hides. The rulers and
+  lawmakers of 1776 could not cast off their provincial awe of the
+  natives of England and Europe as they cast off their political
+  allegiance to the British king. The only wonder is that there
+  should have been even one man so great in mind and character that
+  he could rise at a single bound from the level of a provincial
+  planter to the heights of a great national leader. He proved
+  himself such in all ways, but in none more surely than in his
+  ability to consider all men simply as men, and, with a judgment
+  that nothing could confuse, to ward off from his cause and
+  country the dangers inherent in colonial habits of thought and
+  action, so menacing to a people struggling for independence. We
+  can see this strong, high spirit of nationality running through
+  Washington's whole career, but it never did better service than
+  when it stood between the American army and undue favor to
+  foreign volunteers.</p>
+
+  <p>Among other disagreeable and necessary truths, Washington had
+  told Congress that Philadelphia was in danger, that Howe probably
+  meant to occupy it, and that it would be nearly impossible to
+  prevent his doing so. This warning being given and unheeded, he
+  continued to watch his antagonist, doing so with increased
+  vigilance, as signs of activity began to appear in New York.
+  Toward the end of May he broke up his cantonments, having now
+  about seven thousand men, and took a strong position within ten
+  miles of Brunswick. Here he waited, keeping an anxious eye on the
+  Hudson in case he should be mistaken in his expectations, and
+  should find that the enemy really intended to go north to meet
+  Burgoyne instead of south to capture Philadelphia.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington's doubts were soon to be resolved and his
+  expectations fulfilled. May 31, a fleet of a hundred sail left
+  New York, and couriers were at once sent southward to warn the
+  States of the possibility of a speedy invasion. About the same
+  time transports arrived with more German mercenaries, and Howe,
+  thus reinforced, entered the Jerseys. Washington determined to
+  decline battle, and if the enemy pushed on and crossed the
+  Delaware, to hang heavily on their rear, while the militia from
+  the south were drawn up to Philadelphia. He adopted this course
+  because he felt confident that Howe would never cross the
+  Delaware and leave the main army of the Americans behind him. His
+  theory proved correct. The British advanced and retreated, burned
+  houses and villages and made feints, but all in vain. Washington
+  baffled them at every point, and finally Sir William evacuated
+  the Jerseys entirely and withdrew to New York and Staten Island,
+  where active preparations for some expedition were at once begun.
+  Again came anxious watching, with the old fear that Howe meant to
+  go northward and join the now advancing Burgoyne. The fear was
+  groundless. On July 23 the British fleet set sail from New York,
+  carrying between fifteen and eighteen thousand men. Not deceived
+  by the efforts to make him think that they aimed at Boston, but
+  still fearing that the sailing might be only a ruse and the
+  Hudson the real object after all, Washington moved cautiously to
+  the Delaware, holding himself ready to strike in either
+  direction. On the 31st he heard that the enemy were at the Capes.
+  This seemed decisive; so he sent in all directions for
+  reinforcements, moved the main army rapidly to Germantown, and
+  prepared to defend Philadelphia. The next news was that the fleet
+  had put to sea again, and again messengers went north to warn
+  Putnam to prepare for the defense of the Hudson. Washington
+  himself was about to re-cross the Delaware, when tidings arrived
+  that the fleet had once more appeared at the Capes, and after a
+  few more days of doubt the ships came up the Chesapeake and
+  anchored.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington thought the "route a strange one," but he knew now
+  that he was right in his belief that Howe aimed at Philadelphia.
+  He therefore gathered his forces and marched south to meet the
+  enemy, passing through the city in order to impress the
+  disaffected and the timid with the show of force. It was a motley
+  array that followed him. There was nothing uniform about the
+  troops except their burnished arms and the sprigs of evergreen in
+  their hats. Nevertheless Lafayette, who had just come among them,
+  thought that they looked like good soldiers, and the Tories woke
+  up sharply to the fact that there was a large body of men known
+  as the American army, and that they had a certain obvious
+  fighting capacity visible in their appearance. Neither friends
+  nor enemies knew, however, as they stood on the Philadelphia
+  sidewalks and watched the troops go past, that the mere fact of
+  that army's existence was the greatest victory of skill and
+  endurance which the war could show, and that the question of
+  success lay in its continuance.</p>
+
+  <p>Leaving Philadelphia, Washington pushed on to the junction of
+  the Brandywine and Christiana Creek, and posted his men along the
+  heights. August 25, Howe landed at the Head of Elk, and
+  Washington threw out light parties to drive in cattle, carry off
+  supplies, and annoy the enemy. This was done, on the whole,
+  satisfactorily, and after some successful skirmishing on the part
+  of the Americans, the two armies on the 5th of September found
+  themselves within eight or ten miles of each other. Washington
+  now determined to risk a battle in the field, despite his
+  inferiority in every way. He accordingly issued a stirring
+  proclamation to the soldiers, and then fell back behind the
+  Brandywine, to a strong position, and prepared to contest the
+  passage of the river.</p>
+
+  <p>Early on September 11, the British advanced to Chad's Ford,
+  where Washington was posted with the main body, and after some
+  skirmishing began to cannonade at long range. Meantime
+  Cornwallis, with the main body, made a long d&eacute;tour of
+  seventeen miles, and came upon the right flank and rear of the
+  Americans. Sullivan, who was on the right, had failed to guard
+  the fords above, and through lack of information was practically
+  surprised. Washington, on rumors that the enemy were marching
+  toward his right, with the instinct of a great soldier was about
+  to cross the river in his front and crush the enemy there, but he
+  also was misled and kept back by false reports. When the truth
+  was known, it was too late. The right wing had been beaten and
+  flung back, the enemy were nearly in the rear, and were now
+  advancing in earnest in front. All that man could do was done.
+  Troops were pushed forward and a gallant stand was made at
+  various points; but the critical moment had come and gone, and
+  there was nothing for it but a hasty retreat, which came near
+  degenerating into a rout.</p>
+
+  <p>The causes of this complete defeat, for such it was, are
+  easily seen. Washington had planned his battle and chosen his
+  position well. If he had not been deceived by the first reports,
+  he even then would have fallen upon and overwhelmed the British
+  centre before they could have reached his right wing. But the
+  Americans, to begin with, were outnumbered. They had only eleven
+  thousand effective men, while the British brought fifteen of
+  their eighteen thousand into action. Then the Americans suffered,
+  as they constantly did, from misinformation, and from an absence
+  of system in learning the enemy's movements. Washington's attack
+  was fatally checked in this way, and Sullivan was surprised from
+  the same causes, as well as from his own culpable ignorance of
+  the country beyond him, which was the reason of his failure to
+  guard the upper fords. The Americans lost, also, by the
+  unsteadiness of new troops when the unexpected happens, and when
+  the panic-bearing notion that they are surprised and likely to be
+  surrounded comes upon them with a sudden shock.</p>
+
+  <p>This defeat was complete and severe, and it was followed in a
+  few days by that of Wayne, who narrowly escaped utter ruin. Yet
+  through all this disaster we can see the advance which had been
+  made since the equally unfortunate and very similar battle on
+  Long Island. Then, the troops seemed to lose heart and courage,
+  the army was held together with difficulty, and could do nothing
+  but retreat. Now, in the few days which Howe, as usual, gave his
+  opponent with such fatal effect to himself, Washington rallied
+  his army, and finding them in excellent spirits marched down the
+  Lancaster road to fight again. On the eve of battle a heavy storm
+  came on, which so injured the arms and munitions that with bitter
+  disappointment he was obliged to withdraw; but nevertheless it is
+  plain how much this forward movement meant. At the moment,
+  however, it looked badly enough, especially after the defeat of
+  Wayne, for Howe pressed forward, took possession of Philadelphia,
+  and encamped the main body of his army at Germantown.</p>
+
+  <p>Meantime Washington, who had not in the least given up his
+  idea of fighting again, recruited his army, and having a little
+  more than eight thousand men, determined to try another stroke at
+  the British, while they were weakened by detachments. On the
+  night of October 3 he started, and reached Germantown at daybreak
+  on the 4th. At first the Americans swept everything before them,
+  and flung the British back in rout and confusion. Then matters
+  began to go wrong, as is always likely to happen when, as in this
+  case, widely separated and yet accurately concerted action is
+  essential to success. Some of the British threw themselves into a
+  stone house, and instead of leaving them there under guard, the
+  whole army stopped to besiege, and a precious half hour was lost.
+  Then Greene and Stephen were late in coming up, having made a
+  circuit, and although when they arrived all seemed to go well,
+  the Americans were seized with an inexplicable panic, and fell
+  back, as Wayne truly said, in the very moment of victory. One of
+  those unlucky accidents, utterly unavoidable, but always
+  dangerous to extensive combinations, had a principal effect on
+  the result. The morning was very misty, and the fog, soon
+  thickened by the smoke, caused confusion, random firing, and,
+  worst of all, that uncertainty of feeling and action which
+  something or nothing converted into a panic. Nevertheless, the
+  Americans rallied quickly this time, and a good retreat was made,
+  under the lead of Greene, until safety was reached. The action,
+  while it lasted, had been very sharp, and the losses on both
+  sides were severe, the Americans suffering most.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington, as usual when matters went ill, exposed himself
+  recklessly, to the great alarm of his generals, but all in vain.
+  He was deeply disappointed, and expressed himself so at first,
+  for he saw that the men had unaccountably given way when they
+  were on the edge of victory. The underlying cause was of course,
+  as at Long Island and Brandywine, the unsteadiness of raw troops,
+  and Washington felt rightly, after the first sting had passed,
+  that he had really achieved a great deal. Congress applauded the
+  attempt, and when the smoke of the battle had cleared away, men
+  generally perceived that its having been fought at all was in
+  reality the important fact. It made also a profound impression
+  upon the French cabinet. Eagerly watching the course of events,
+  they saw the significance of the fact that an army raised within
+  a year could fight a battle in the open field, endure a severe
+  defeat, and then take the offensive and make a bold and
+  well-planned attack, which narrowly missed being overwhelmingly
+  successful. To the observant and trained eyes of Europe, the
+  defeat at Germantown made it evident that there was fighting
+  material among these untrained colonists, capable of becoming
+  formidable; and that there was besides a powerful will and
+  directing mind, capable on its part of bringing this same
+  material into the required shape and condition. To dispassionate
+  onlookers, England's grasp on her colonies appeared to be
+  slipping away very rapidly. Washington himself saw the meaning of
+  it all plainly enough, for it was but the development of his
+  theory of carrying on the war.</p>
+
+  <p>There is no indication, however, that England detected, in all
+  that had gone on since her army landed at the Head of Elk,
+  anything more than a couple of natural defeats for the rebels.
+  General Howe was sufficiently impressed to draw in his troops,
+  and keep very closely shut up in Philadelphia, but his country
+  was not moved at all. The fact that it had taken forty-seven days
+  to get their army from the Elk River to Philadelphia, and that in
+  that time they had fought two successful battles and yet had left
+  the American army still active and menacing, had no effect upon
+  the British mind. The English were thoroughly satisfied that the
+  colonists were cowards and were sure to be defeated, no matter
+  what the actual facts might be. They regarded Washington as an
+  upstart militia colonel, and they utterly failed to comprehend
+  that they had to do with a great soldier, who was able to
+  organize and lead an army, overcome incredible difficulties, beat
+  and outgeneral them, bear defeat, and then fight again. They were
+  unable to realize that the mere fact that such a man could be
+  produced and such an army maintained meant the inevitable loss of
+  colonies three thousand miles away. Men there were in England,
+  undoubtedly, like Burke and Fox, who felt and understood the
+  significance of these things, but the mass of the people, as well
+  as the aristocracy, the king, and the cabinet, would have none of
+  them. Rude contempt for other people is a warming and satisfying
+  feeling, no doubt, and the English have had unquestionably great
+  satisfaction from its free indulgence. No one should grudge it to
+  them, least of all Americans. It is a comfort for which they have
+  paid, so far as this country is concerned, by the loss of their
+  North American colonies, and by a few other settlements with the
+  United States at other and later times.</p>
+
+  <p>But although Washington and his army failed to impress
+  England, events had happened in the north, during this same
+  summer, which were so sharp-pointed that they not only impressed
+  the English people keenly and unpleasantly, but they actually
+  penetrated the dull comprehension of George III. and his cabinet.
+  "Why," asked an English lady of an American naval officer, in the
+  year of grace 1887&mdash;"why is your ship named the Saratoga?"
+  "Because," was the reply, "at Saratoga an English general and an
+  English army of more than five thousand men surrendered to an
+  American army and laid down their arms." Although apparently
+  neglected now in the general scheme of British education,
+  Saratoga was a memorable event in the summer of 1777, and the
+  part taken by Washington in bringing about the great result has
+  never, it would seem, been properly set forth. There is no need
+  to trace here the history of that campaign, but it is necessary
+  to show how much was done by the commander-in-chief, five hundred
+  miles away, to win the final victory.</p>
+
+  <p>In the winter of 1776-77 reports came that a general and an
+  army were to be sent to Canada to invade the colonies from the
+  north by way of Lake Champlain. The news does not seem to have
+  made a very deep impression generally, nor to have been regarded
+  as anything beyond the ordinary course of military events. But
+  there was one man, fortunately, who in an instant perceived the
+  full significance of this movement. Washington saw that the
+  English had at last found an idea, or, at least, a general
+  possessed of one. So long as the British confined themselves to
+  fighting one or two battles, and then, taking possession of a
+  single town, were content to sit down and pass their winter in
+  good quarters, leaving the colonists in undisturbed control of
+  all the rest of the country, there was nothing to be feared. The
+  result of such campaigning as this could not be doubtful for a
+  moment to any clear-sighted man. But when a plan was on foot,
+  which, if successful, meant the control of the lakes and the
+  Hudson, and of a line of communication from the north to the
+  great colonial seaport, the case was very different. Such a
+  campaign as this would cause the complete severance of New
+  England, the chief source for men and supplies, from the rest of
+  the colonies. It promised the mastery, not of a town, but of half
+  a dozen States, and this to the American cause probably would be
+  ruin.</p>
+
+  <p>So strongly and clearly did Washington feel all this that his
+  counter-plan was at once ready, and before people had fairly
+  grasped the idea that there was to be a northern invasion, he was
+  sending, early in March, urgent letters to New England to rouse
+  up the militia and have them in readiness to march at a moment's
+  notice. To Schuyler, in command of the northern department, he
+  began now to write constantly, and to unfold the methods which
+  must be pursued in order to compass the defeat of the invaders.
+  His object was to delay the army of Burgoyne by every possible
+  device, while steadily avoiding a pitched battle. Then the
+  militia and hardy farmers of New England and New York were to be
+  rallied, and were to fall upon the flank and rear of the British,
+  harass them constantly, cut off their outlying parties, and
+  finally hem them in and destroy them. If the army and people of
+  the North could only be left undisturbed, it is evident from his
+  letters that Washington felt no doubt as to the result in that
+  quarter.</p>
+
+  <p>But the North included only half the conditions essential to
+  success. The grave danger feared by Washington was that Howe
+  would understand the situation, and seeing his opportunity, would
+  throw everything else aside, and marching northward with twenty
+  thousand men, would make himself master of the Hudson, effect a
+  junction with Burgoyne at Albany, and so cut the colonies in
+  twain. From all he could learn, and from his knowledge of his
+  opponents' character, Washington felt satisfied that Howe
+  intended to capture Philadelphia, advancing, probably, through
+  the Jerseys. Yet, despite his well-reasoned judgment on this
+  point, it seemed so incredible that any soldier could fail to see
+  that decisive victory lay in the north, and in a junction with
+  Burgoyne, that Washington could not really and fully believe in
+  such fatuity until he knew that Howe was actually landing at the
+  Head of Elk. This is the reason for the anxiety displayed in the
+  correspondence of that summer, for the changing and shifting
+  movements, and for the obvious hesitation of opinion, so unusual
+  with Washington at any time. Be it remembered, moreover, that it
+  was an awful doubt which went to bed and got up and walked with
+  him through all those long nights and days. If Howe, the dull and
+  lethargic, should awake from his dream of conquering America by
+  taking now and again an isolated town, and should break for the
+  north with twenty thousand men, the fortunes of the young
+  republic would come to their severest test.</p>
+
+  <p>In that event, Washington knew well enough what he meant to
+  do. He would march his main army to the Hudson, unite with the
+  strong body of troops which he kept there constantly, contest
+  every inch of the country and the river with Howe, and keep him
+  at all hazards from getting to Albany. But he also knew well that
+  if this were done the odds would be fearfully against him, for
+  Howe would then not only outnumber him very greatly, but there
+  would be ample time for the British to act, and but a short
+  distance to be covered. We can imagine, therefore, his profound
+  sense of relief when he found that Howe and his army were really
+  south of Philadelphia, after a waste of many precious weeks. He
+  could now devote himself single-hearted to the defense of the
+  city, for distance and time were at last on his side, and all
+  that remained was to fight Howe so hard and steadily that neither
+  in victory nor defeat would he remember Burgoyne. Pitt said that
+  he would conquer Canada on the plains of Germany, and Burgoyne
+  was compelled to surrender in large measure by the campaign of
+  Washington in New Jersey and Pennsylvania.</p>
+
+  <p>If we study carefully Washington's correspondence during that
+  eventful summer, grouping together that relating to the northern
+  campaign, and comparing it with that which dealt with the affairs
+  of his own army, all that has just been said comes out with
+  entire clearness, and it is astonishing to see how exactly events
+  justified his foresight. If he could only hold Howe in the south,
+  he was quite willing to trust Burgoyne to the rising of the
+  people and to the northern wilderness. Every effort he made was
+  in this direction, beginning, as has been said, by his appeals to
+  the New England governors in March. Schuyler, on his part, was
+  thoroughly imbued with Washington's other leading idea, that the
+  one way to victory was by retarding the enemy. At the outset
+  everything went utterly and disastrously wrong. Washington
+  counted on an obstinate struggle, and a long delay at
+  Ticonderoga, for he had not been on the ground, and could not
+  imagine that our officers would fortify everything but the one
+  commanding point.</p>
+
+  <p>The loss of the forts appalled the country and disappointed
+  Washington, but did not shake his nerve for an instant. He wrote
+  to Schuyler: "This stroke is severe indeed, and has distressed us
+  much. But notwithstanding things at present have a dark and
+  gloomy aspect, I hope a spirited opposition will check the
+  progress of General Burgoyne's army, and that the confidence
+  derived from his success will hurry him into measures that will,
+  in their consequences, be favorable to us. We should never
+  despair; our situation has before been unpromising, and has
+  changed for the better; so I trust it will again. If new
+  difficulties arise we must only put forth new exertions, and
+  proportion our efforts to the exigency of the times." Even after
+  this seemingly crushing defeat he still felt sure of Burgoyne, so
+  long as he was unsupported. Suiting the action to the word, he
+  again bent every nerve to rouse New England and get out her
+  militia. When he was satisfied that Howe was landing below
+  Philadelphia, the first thing he did was to send forth the same
+  cry in the same quarter, to bring out more men against Burgoyne.
+  He showed, too, the utmost generosity toward the northern army,
+  sending thither all the troops he could possibly spare, and even
+  parting with his favorite corps of Morgan's riflemen. Despite his
+  liberality, the commanders in the north were unreasonable in
+  their demands, and when they asked too much, Washington flatly
+  declined to send more men, for he would not weaken himself
+  unduly, and he knew what they did not see, that the fate of the
+  northern invasion turned largely on his own ability to cope with
+  Howe.</p>
+
+  <p>The blame for the loss of the forts fell of course upon
+  Schuyler, who was none too popular in Congress, and who with St.
+  Clair was accordingly made a scape-goat. Congress voted that
+  Washington should appoint a new commander, and the New England
+  delegates visited him to urge the selection of Gates. This task
+  Washington refused to perform, alleging as a reason that the
+  northern department had always been considered a separate
+  command, and that he had never done more than advise. These
+  reasons do not look very weighty or very strong, and it is not
+  quite clear what the underlying motive was. Washington never
+  shrank from responsibility, and he knew very well that he could
+  pick out the best man more unerringly than Congress. But he also
+  saw that Congress favored Gates, whom he would not have chosen,
+  and he therefore probably felt that it was more important to have
+  some one whom New England believed in and approved than a better
+  soldier who would have been unwelcome to her representatives. It
+  is certain that he would not have acted thus, had he thought that
+  generalship was an important element in the problem; but he
+  relied on a popular uprising, and not on the commander, to defeat
+  Burgoyne. He may have thought, too, that it was a mistake to
+  relieve Schuyler, who was working in the directions which he had
+  pointed out, and who, if not a great soldier, was a brave,
+  high-minded, and sensible man, devoted to his chief and to the
+  country. It was Schuyler indeed who, by his persistent labor in
+  breaking down bridges, tearing up roads, and felling trees, while
+  he gathered men industriously in all directions, did more than
+  any one else at that moment to prepare the way for an ultimate
+  victory.</p>
+
+  <p>Whatever his feelings may have been in regard to the command
+  of the northern department, Washington made no change in his own
+  course after Gates had been appointed. He knew that Gates was at
+  least harmless, and not likely to block the natural course of
+  events. He therefore felt free to press his own policy without
+  cessation, and without apprehension. He took care that Lincoln
+  and Arnold should be there to look after the New England militia,
+  and he wrote to Governor Clinton, in whose energy and courage he
+  had great confidence, to rouse up the men of New York. He
+  suggested the points of attack, and at every moment advised and
+  counseled and watched, holding all the while a firm grip on Howe.
+  Slowly and surely the net, thus painfully set, tightened round
+  Burgoyne. The New Englanders whipped one division at Bennington,
+  and the New Yorkers shattered another at Oriskany and Fort
+  Schuyler. The country people turned out in defense of their
+  invaded homes and poured into the American camp. Burgoyne
+  struggled and advanced, fought and retreated. Gates, stupid,
+  lethargic, and good-natured, did nothing, but there was no need
+  of generalship; and Arnold was there, turbulent and quarrelsome,
+  but full of daring; and Morgan, too, equally ready; and they and
+  others did all the necessary fighting.</p>
+
+  <p>Poor Burgoyne, a brave gentleman, if not a great general, had
+  the misfortune to be a clever man in the service of a stupid
+  administration, and he met the fate usually meted out under such
+  circumstances to men of ideas. Howe went off to the conquest of
+  Philadelphia, Clinton made a brief burning and plundering raid up
+  the river, and the northern invasion, which really had meaning,
+  was left to its fate. It was a hard fate, but there was no
+  escape. Outnumbered, beaten, and caught, Burgoyne surrendered. If
+  there had been a fighting-man at the head of the American army,
+  the British would have surrendered as prisoners of war, and not
+  on conditions. Schuyler, we may be sure, whatever his failings,
+  would never have let them off so easily. But it was sufficient as
+  it was. The wilderness, and the militia of New York and New
+  England swarming to the defense of their homes, had done the
+  work. It all fell out just as Washington had foreseen and
+  planned, and England, despising her enemy and their commander,
+  saw one of her armies surrender, and might have known, if she had
+  had the wit, that the colonies were now lost forever. The
+  Revolution had been saved at Trenton; it was established at
+  Saratoga. In the one case it was the direct, in the other the
+  indirect, work of Washington.</p>
+
+  <p>Poor Gates, with his dull brain turning under the impression
+  that this crowning mercy had been his own doing, lost his head,
+  forgot that there was a commander-in-chief, and sending his news
+  to Congress, left Washington to find out from chance rumors, and
+  a tardy letter from Putnam, that Burgoyne had actually
+  surrendered. This gross slight, however, had deeper roots than
+  the mere exultation of victory acting on a heavy and common mind.
+  It represented a hostile feeling which had been slowly increasing
+  for some time, which had been carefully nurtured by those
+  interested in its growth, and which blossomed rapidly in the
+  heated air of military triumph. From the outset it had been
+  Washington's business to fight the enemy, manage the army, deal
+  with Congress, and consider in all its bearings the political
+  situation at home and abroad; but he was now called upon to meet
+  a trouble outside the line of duty, and to face attacks from
+  within, which, ideally speaking, ought never to have existed, but
+  which, in view of our very fallible humanity, were certain to
+  come sooner or later. Much domestic malice Washington was
+  destined to encounter in the later years of political strife, but
+  this was the only instance in his military career where enmity
+  came to overt action and open speech. The first and the last of
+  its kind, this assault upon him has much interest, for a strong
+  light is thrown upon his character by studying him, thus beset,
+  and by seeing just how he passed through this most trying and
+  disagreeable of ordeals.</p>
+
+  <p>The germ of the difficulties was to be found where we should
+  expect it, in the differences between the men of speech and the
+  man of action, between the lawmakers and the soldier. Washington
+  had been obliged to tell Congress a great many plain and
+  unpleasant truths. It was part of his duty, and he did it
+  accordingly. He was always dignified, calm, and courteous, but he
+  had an alarmingly direct way with him, especially when he was
+  annoyed. He was simple almost to bluntness, but now and then
+  would use a grave irony which must have made listening ears
+  tingle. Congress was patriotic and well-intentioned, and on the
+  whole stood bravely by its general, but it was unversed in war,
+  very impatient, and at times wildly impracticable. Here is a
+  letter which depicts the situation, and the relation between the
+  general and his rulers, with great clearness. March 14, 1777,
+  Washington wrote to the President: "Could I accomplish the
+  important objects so eagerly wished by Congress,&mdash;'confining
+  the enemy within their present quarters, preventing their getting
+  supplies from the country, and totally subduing them before they
+  are reinforced,'&mdash;I should be happy indeed. But what
+  prospect or hope can there be of my effecting so desirable a work
+  at this time?"</p>
+
+  <p>We can imagine how exasperating such requests and suggestions
+  must have been. It was very much as if Congress had said: "Good
+  General, bring in the Atlantic tides and drown the enemy; or
+  pluck the moon from the sky and give it to us, as a mark of your
+  loyalty." Such requests are not soothing to any man struggling
+  his best with great anxieties, and with a host of petty cares.
+  Washington, nevertheless, kept his temper, and replied only by
+  setting down a few hard facts which answered the demands of
+  Congress in a final manner, and with all the sting of truth. Thus
+  a little irritation had been generated in Congress against the
+  general, and there were some members who developed a good deal of
+  pronounced hostility. Sam Adams, a born agitator and a trained
+  politician, unequaled almost in our history as an organizer and
+  manager of men, able, narrow, coldly fierce, the man of the town
+  meeting and the caucus, had no possibility of intellectual
+  sympathy with the silent, patient, hard-gripping soldier, hemmed
+  with difficulties, but ever moving straight forward to his
+  object, with occasional wild gusts of reckless fighting passion.
+  John Adams, too, brilliant of speech and pen, ardent, patriotic,
+  and high-minded, was, in his way, out of touch with Washington.
+  Although he moved Washington's appointment, he began almost
+  immediately to find fault with him, an exercise to which he was
+  extremely prone. Inasmuch as he could see how things ought to be
+  done, he could not understand why they were not done in that way
+  at once, for he had a fine forgetfulness of other people's
+  difficulties, as is the case with most of us. The New England
+  representatives generally took their cue from these two,
+  especially James Lovell, who carried his ideas into action, and
+  obtained a little niche in the temple of fame by making himself
+  disagreeably conspicuous in the intrigue against the
+  commander-in-chief, when it finally developed.</p>
+
+  <p>There were others, too, outside New England who were
+  discontented, and among them Richard Henry Lee, from the
+  General's own State. He was evidently critical and somewhat
+  unfriendly at this time, although the reasons for his being so
+  are not now very distinct. Then there was Mr. Clark of New
+  Jersey, an excellent man, who thought the General was invading
+  popular rights; and to him others might be added who vaguely felt
+  that things ought to be better than they were. This party,
+  adverse to Washington, obtained the appointment of Gates to the
+  northern department, under whom the army won a great victory, and
+  they were correspondingly happy. John Adams wrote his wife that
+  one cause of thanksgiving was that the tide had not been turned
+  by the commander-in-chief and southern troops, for the adulation
+  would have been intolerable; and that a man may be wise and
+  virtuous and not a deity.</p>
+
+  <p>Here, so far as the leading and influential men were
+  concerned, the matter would have dropped, probably; but there
+  were lesser men like Lovell who were much encouraged by the
+  surrender of Burgoyne, and who thought that they now might
+  supplant Washington with Gates. Before long, too, they found in
+  the army itself some active and not over-scrupulous allies. The
+  most conspicuous figure among the military malcontents was Gates
+  himself, who, although sluggish in all things, still had a keen
+  eye for his own advancement. He showed plainly how much his head
+  had been turned by the victory at Saratoga when he failed to
+  inform Washington of the fact, and when he afterward delayed
+  sending back troops until he was driven to it by the determined
+  energy of Hamilton, who was sent to bring him to reason. Next in
+  importance to Gates was Thomas Mifflin, an ardent patriot, but a
+  rather light-headed person, who espoused the opposition to
+  Washington for causes now somewhat misty, but among which
+  personal vanity played no inconsiderable part. About these two
+  leaders gathered a certain number of inferior officers of no
+  great moment then or since.</p>
+
+  <p>The active and moving spirit in the party, however, was one
+  Conway, an Irish adventurer, who made himself so prominent that
+  the whole affair passed into history bearing his name, and the
+  "Conway cabal" has obtained an enduring notoriety which its hero
+  never acquired by any public services. Conway was one of the
+  foreign officers who had gained the favor of Congress and held
+  the rank of brigadier-general, but this by no means filled the
+  measure of his pretensions, and when De Kalb was made a
+  major-general Conway immediately started forward with claims to
+  the same rank. He received strong support from the factious
+  opposition, and there was so much stir that Washington sharply
+  interfered, for to his general objection to these lavish gifts of
+  excessive rank was added an especial distrust in this particular
+  case. In his calm way he had evidently observed Conway, and with
+  his unerring judgment of men had found him wanting. "I may add,"
+  he wrote to Lee, "and I think with truth, that it will give a
+  fatal blow to the existence of the army. Upon so interesting a
+  subject I must speak plainly. General Conway's merit then as an
+  officer, and his importance in this army, exist more in his own
+  imagination than in reality." This plain talk soon reached
+  Conway, drove him at once into furious opposition, and caused him
+  to impart to the faction a cohesion and vigor which they had
+  before lacked. Circumstances favored them. The victory at
+  Saratoga gave them something tangible to go upon, and the first
+  move was made when Gates failed to inform Washington of the
+  surrender, and then held back the troops sent for so urgently by
+  the commander-in-chief, who had sacrificed so much from his own
+  army to secure that of the north.</p>
+
+  <p>At this very moment, indeed, when Washington was calling for
+  troops, he was struggling with the utmost tenacity to hold
+  control of the Delaware. He made every arrangement possible to
+  maintain the forts, and the first assaults upon them were
+  repulsed with great slaughter, the British in the attack on Fort
+  Mercer losing Count Donop, the leader, and four hundred men. Then
+  came a breathing space, and then the attacks were renewed,
+  supported by vessels, and both forts were abandoned after the
+  works had been leveled to the ground by the enemy's fire.
+  Meanwhile Hamilton, sent to the north, had done his work; Gates
+  had been stirred, and Putnam, well-meaning but stubborn, had been
+  sharply brought to his bearings. Reinforcements had come, and
+  Washington meditated an attack on Philadelphia. There was a good
+  deal of clamor for something brilliant and decisive, for both the
+  army and the public were a little dizzy from the effects of
+  Saratoga, and with sublime blindness to different conditions,
+  could not see why the same performance should not be repeated to
+  order everywhere else. To oppose this wish was trying, doubly
+  trying to a man eager to fight, and with his full share of the
+  very human desire to be as successful as his neighbor. It
+  required great nerve to say No; but Washington did not lack that
+  quality, and as general and statesman he reconnoitred the enemy's
+  works, weighed the chances, said No decisively, and took up an
+  almost impregnable position at White Marsh. Thereupon Howe
+  announced that he would drive Washington beyond the mountains,
+  and on December 4 he approached the American lines with this
+  highly proper purpose. There was some skirmishing along the foot
+  of the hills of an unimportant character, and on the third day
+  Washington, in high spirits, thought an attack would be made, and
+  rode among the soldiers directing and encouraging them. Nothing
+  came of it, however, but more skirmishing, and the next day Howe
+  marched back to Philadelphia. He had offered battle in all ways,
+  he had invited action; but again, with the same pressure both
+  from his own spirit and from public opinion, Washington had said
+  No. On his own ground he was more than ready to fight Howe, but
+  despite the terrible temptation he would fight on no other. Not
+  the least brilliant exploit of Wellington was the retreat to the
+  shrewdly prepared lines of Torres Vedras, and one of the most
+  difficult successes of Washington was his double refusal to fight
+  as the year 1777 drew to a close.</p>
+
+  <p>Like most right and wise things, Washington's action looks
+  now, a century later, so plainly sensible that it is hard to
+  imagine how any one could have questioned it; and one cannot,
+  without a great effort, realize the awful strain upon will and
+  temper involved in thus refusing battle. If the proposed attack
+  on Philadelphia had failed, or if our army had come down from the
+  hills and been beaten in the fields below, no American army would
+  have remained. The army of the north, of which men were talking
+  so proudly, had done its work and dispersed. The fate of the
+  Revolution rested where it had been from the beginning, with
+  Washington and his soldiers. Drive them beyond the mountains and
+  there was no other army to fall back upon. On their existence
+  everything hinged, and when Howe got back to Philadelphia, there
+  they were still existent, still coherent, hovering on his flank,
+  cooping him up in his lines, and leaving him master of little
+  more than the ground his men encamped upon, and the streets his
+  sentinels patrolled. When Franklin was told in Paris that Howe
+  had taken Philadelphia, his reply was, "Philadelphia has taken
+  Howe."</p>
+
+  <p>But, with the exception of Franklin, contemporary opinion in
+  the month of December, 1777, was very different from that of
+  to-day, and the cabal had been at work ever since the
+  commander-in-chief had stepped between Conway and the exorbitant
+  rank he coveted. Washington, indeed, was perfectly aware of what
+  was going on. He was quiet and dignified, impassive and silent,
+  but he knew when men, whether great or small, were plotting
+  against him, and he watched them with the same keenness as he did
+  Howe and the British.</p>
+
+  <p>In the midst of his struggle to hold the Delaware forts, and
+  of his efforts to get back his troops from the north, a story
+  came to him that arrested his attention. Wilkinson, of Gates's
+  staff, had come to Congress with the news of the surrender. He
+  had been fifteen days on the road and three days getting his
+  papers in order, and when it was proposed to give him a sword,
+  Roger Sherman suggested that they had better "give the lad a pair
+  of spurs." This thrust and some delay seem to have nettled
+  Wilkinson, who was swelling with importance, and although he was
+  finally made a brigadier-general, he rode off to the north much
+  ruffled. In later years Wilkinson was secretive enough; but in
+  his hot youth he could not hold his tongue, and on his way back
+  to Gates he talked. What he said was marked and carried to
+  headquarters, and on November 9 Washington wrote to
+  Conway:&mdash;</p>
+
+  <blockquote>
+    <p>"A letter which I received last night contained the
+    following paragraph,&mdash;'In a letter from General Conway to
+    General Gates he says, "<i>Heaven has determined to save your
+    country, or a weak general and bad counsellors would have
+    ruined it</i>" I am, sir, your humble servant,'" etc.</p>
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>This curt note fell upon Conway with stunning effect. It is
+  said that he tried to apologize, and he certainly resigned. As
+  for Gates, he fell to writing letters filled with expressions of
+  wonder as to who had betrayed him, and writhed most pitiably
+  under the exposure. Washington's replies are models of cold
+  dignity, and the calm indifference with which he treated the
+  whole matter, while holding Gates to the point with relentless
+  grasp, is very interesting. The cabal was seriously shaken by
+  this sudden blow. It must have dawned upon them dimly that they
+  might have mistaken their man, and that the silent soldier was
+  perhaps not so easy to dispose of by an intrigue as they had
+  fancied. Nevertheless, they rallied, and taking advantage of the
+  feeling in Congress created by Burgoyne's surrender, they set to
+  work to get control of military matters. The board of war was
+  enlarged to five, with Gates at its head and Mifflin a member,
+  and, thus constituted, it proceeded to make Conway
+  inspector-general, with the rank of major-general. This, after
+  Conway's conduct, was a direct insult to Washington, and marks
+  the highest point attained by his opponents.</p>
+
+  <p>In Congress, too, they became more active, and John Jay said
+  that there was in that body a party bitterly hostile to
+  Washington. We know little of the members of that faction now,
+  for they never took the trouble to refer to the matter in after
+  years, and did everything that silence could do to have it all
+  forgotten. But the party existed none the less, and significant
+  letters have come down to us, one of them written by Lovell, and
+  two anonymous, addressed respectively to Patrick Henry and to
+  Laurens, then president, which show a bitter and vindictive
+  spirit, and breathe but one purpose. The same thought is
+  constantly reiterated, that with a good general the northern army
+  had won a great victory, and that the main army, if commanded in
+  the same way, would do likewise. The plan was simple and
+  coherent. The cabal wished to drive Washington out of power and
+  replace him with Gates. With this purpose they wrote to Henry and
+  Laurens; with this purpose they made Conway
+  inspector-general.</p>
+
+  <p>When they turned from intrigue to action, however, they began
+  to fail. One of their pet schemes was the conquest of Canada, and
+  with this object Lafayette was sent to the lakes, only to find
+  that no preparations had been made, because the originators of
+  the idea were ignorant and inefficient. The expedition promptly
+  collapsed and was abandoned, with much instruction in consequence
+  to Congress and people. Under their control the commissariat also
+  went hopelessly to pieces, and a committee of Congress proceeded
+  to Valley Forge and found that in this direction, too, the new
+  managers had grievously failed. Then the original Conway letter,
+  uncovered so unceremoniously by Washington, kept returning to
+  plague its author. Gates's correspondence went on all through the
+  winter, and with every letter Gates floundered more and more, and
+  Washington's replies grew more and more freezing and severe.
+  Gates undertook to throw the blame on Wilkinson, who became
+  loftily indignant and challenged him. The two made up their
+  quarrel very soon in a ludicrous manner, but Wilkinson in the
+  interval had an interview with Washington, which revealed an
+  amount of duplicity and perfidy on the part of the cabal, so
+  shocking to the former's sensitive nature, that he resigned his
+  secretaryship of the board of war on account, as he frankly said,
+  of the treachery and falsehood of Gates. Such a quarrel of course
+  hurt the cabal, but it was still more weakened by Gates himself,
+  whose only idea seemed to be to supersede Washington by slighting
+  him, refusing troops, and declining to propose his health at
+  dinner,&mdash;methods as unusual as they were feeble.</p>
+
+  <p>The cabal, in fact, was so weak in ability and character that
+  the moment any responsibility fell upon its members it was
+  certain to break down, but the absolutely fatal obstacle to its
+  schemes was the man it aimed to overthrow. The idea evidently was
+  that Washington could be driven to resign. They knew that they
+  could not get either Congress or public opinion to support them
+  in removing him, but they believed that a few well-placed slights
+  and insults would make him remove himself. It was just here that
+  they made their mistake. Washington, as they were aware, was
+  sensitive and high-spirited to the last degree, and he had no
+  love for office, but he was not one of those weaklings who leave
+  power and place in a pet because they are criticised and
+  assailed. He was not ambitious in the ordinary personal sense,
+  but he had a passion for success. Whether it was breaking a
+  horse, or reclaiming land, or fighting Indians, or saving a
+  state, whatever he set his hand to, that he carried through to
+  the end. With him there never was any shadow of turning back.
+  When, without any self-seeking, he was placed at the head of the
+  Revolution, he made up his mind that he would carry it through
+  everything to victory, if victory were possible. Death or a
+  prison could stop him, but neither defeat nor neglect, and still
+  less the forces of intrigue and cabal.</p>
+
+  <p>When he wrote to his brother announcing Burgoyne's surrender,
+  he had nothing to say of the slight Gates put upon him, but
+  merely added in a postscript, "I most devoutly congratulate my
+  country and every well-wisher to the cause on this signal stroke
+  of Providence." This was his tone to every one, both in private
+  and public. His complaint of not being properly notified he made
+  to Gates alone, and put it in the form of a rebuke. He knew of
+  the movement against him from the beginning, but apparently the
+  first person he confided in was Conway, when he sent him the
+  brief note of November 9. Even after the cabal was fully
+  developed, he wrote about it only once or twice, when compelled
+  to do so, and there is no evidence that he ever talked about it
+  except, perhaps, to a few most intimate friends. In a letter to
+  Patrick Henry he said that he was obliged to allow a false
+  impression as to his strength to go abroad, and that he suffered
+  in consequence; and he added, with a little touch of feeling,
+  that while the yeomanry of New York and New England poured into
+  the camp of Gates, outnumbering the enemy two to one, he could
+  get no aid of that sort from Pennsylvania, and still marvels were
+  demanded of him.</p>
+
+  <p>Thus he went on his way through the winter, silent except when
+  obliged to answer some friend, and always ready to meet his
+  enemies. When Conway complained to Congress of his reception at
+  camp, Washington wrote the president that he was not given to
+  dissimulation, and that he certainly had been cold in his manner.
+  He wrote to Lafayette that slander had been busy, and that he had
+  urged his officers to be cool and dispassionate as to Conway,
+  adding, "I have no doubt that everything happens for the best,
+  that we shall triumph over all our misfortunes, and in the end be
+  happy; when, my dear Marquis, if you will give me your company in
+  Virginia, we will laugh at our past difficulties and the folly of
+  others." But though he wrote thus lightly to his friends, he
+  followed Gates sternly enough, and kept that gentleman occupied
+  as he drove him from point to point. Among other things he
+  touched upon Conway's character with sharp irony, saying, "It is,
+  however, greatly to be lamented that this adept in military
+  science did not employ his abilities in the progress of the
+  campaign, in pointing out those wise measures which were
+  calculated to give us 'that degree of success we could reasonably
+  expect.'"</p>
+
+  <p>Poor Gates did not find these letters pleasant reading, and
+  one more curt note, on February 24, finished the controversy. By
+  that time the cabal was falling to pieces, and in a little while
+  was dispersed. Wilkinson's resignation was accepted, Mifflin was
+  put under Washington's orders, and Gates was sent to his command
+  in the north. Conway resigned one day in a pet, and found his
+  resignation accepted and his power gone with unpleasant
+  suddenness. He then got into a quarrel with General Cadwalader on
+  account of his attacks on the commander-in-chief. The quarrel
+  ended in a duel. Conway was badly wounded, and thinking himself
+  dying, wrote a contrite note of apology to Washington, then
+  recovered, left the country, and disappeared from the ken of
+  history. Thus domestic malice and the "bitter party" in Congress
+  failed and perished. They had dashed themselves in vain against
+  the strong man who held firmly both soldiers and people. "While
+  the public are satisfied with my endeavors, I mean not to shrink
+  from the cause." So Washington wrote to Gordon as the cabal was
+  coming to an end, and in that spirit he crushed silently and
+  thoroughly the faction that sought to thwart his purpose, and
+  drive him from office by sneers, slights, and intrigues.</p>
+
+  <p>These attacks upon him came at the darkest moment of his
+  military career. Defeated at Brandywine and Germantown, he had
+  been forced from the forts after a desperate struggle, had seen
+  Philadelphia and the river fall completely into the hands of the
+  enemy, and, bitterest of all, he had been obliged to hold back
+  from another assault on the British lines, and to content himself
+  with baffling Howe when that gentleman came out and offered
+  battle. Then the enemy withdrew to their comfortable quarters,
+  and he was left to face again the harsh winter and the problem of
+  existence. It was the same ever recurring effort to keep the
+  American army, and thereby the American Revolution, alive. There
+  was nothing in this task to stir the blood and rouse the heart.
+  It was merely a question of grim tenacity of purpose and of the
+  ability to comprehend its overwhelming importance. It was not a
+  work that appealed to or inspirited any one, and to carry it
+  through to a successful issue rested with the commander-in-chief
+  alone.</p>
+
+  <p>In the frost and snow he withdrew to Valley Forge, within easy
+  striking distance of Philadelphia. He had literally nothing to
+  rely upon but his own stern will and strong head. His soldiers,
+  steadily dwindling in numbers, marked their road to Valley Forge
+  by the blood from their naked feet. They were destitute and in
+  rags. When they reached their destination they had no shelter,
+  and it was only by the energy and ingenuity of the General that
+  they were led to build huts, and thus secure a measure of
+  protection against the weather. There were literally no supplies,
+  and the Board of War failed completely to remedy the evil. The
+  army was in such straits that it was obliged to seize by force
+  the commonest necessaries. This was a desperate expedient and
+  shocked public opinion, which Washington, as a statesman, watched
+  and cultivated as an essential element of success in his
+  difficult business. He disliked to take extreme measures, but
+  there was nothing else to be done when his men were starving,
+  when nearly three thousand of them were unfit for duty because
+  "barefoot and otherwise naked," and when a large part of the army
+  were obliged to sit up all night by the fires for warmth's sake,
+  having no blankets with which to cover themselves if they lay
+  down. With nothing to eat, nothing to burn, nothing wherewith to
+  clothe themselves, wasting away from exposure and disease, we can
+  only wonder at the forbearance which stayed the hand of violent
+  seizure so long. Yet, as Washington had foreseen, there was even
+  then an outcry against him. Nevertheless, his action ultimately
+  did more good than harm in the very matter of public opinion, for
+  it opened men's eyes, and led to some tardy improvements and some
+  increased effort.</p>
+
+  <p>Worse even than this criticism was the remonstrance of the
+  legislature of Pennsylvania against the going into
+  winter-quarters. They expected Washington to keep the open field,
+  and even to attack the British, with his starving, ragged army,
+  in all the severity of a northern winter. They had failed him at
+  every point and in every promise, in men, clothing, and supplies.
+  They were not content that he covered their State and kept the
+  Revolution alive among the huts of Valley Forge. They wished the
+  impossible. They asked for the moon, and then cried out because
+  it was not given to them. It was a stupid, unkind thing to do,
+  and Washington answered their complaints in a letter to the
+  president of Congress. After setting forth the shortcomings of
+  the Pennsylvanians in the very plainest of plain English, he
+  said: "But what makes this matter still more extraordinary in my
+  eye is that these very gentlemen should think a winter's
+  campaign, and the covering of these States from the invasion of
+  an enemy, so easy and practicable a business. I can answer those
+  gentlemen, that it is a much easier and less distressing thing to
+  draw remonstrances in a comfortable room, by a good fireside,
+  than to occupy a cold, bleak hill, and sleep under frost and
+  snow, without clothes or blankets. However, although they seem to
+  have little feeling for the naked and distressed soldiers, I feel
+  superabundantly for them, and from my soul I pity those miseries
+  which it is neither in my power to relieve or prevent."</p>
+
+  <p>This was not a safe man for the gentlemen of Pennsylvania to
+  cross too far, nor could they swerve him, with all his sense of
+  public opinion, one jot from what he meant to do. In the stern
+  rebuke, and in the deep pathos of these sentences, we catch a
+  glimpse of the silent and self-controlled man breaking out for a
+  moment as he thinks of his faithful and suffering men. Whatever
+  happened, he would hold them together, for in this black time we
+  detect the fear which haunted him, that the people at large might
+  give way. He was determined on independence. He felt a keen
+  hatred against England for her whole conduct toward America, and
+  this hatred was sharpened by the efforts of the English to injure
+  him personally by forged letters and other despicable
+  contrivances. He was resolved that England should never prevail,
+  and his language in regard to her has a fierceness of tone which
+  is full of meaning. He was bent, also, on success, and if under
+  the long strain the people should weaken or waver, he was
+  determined to maintain the army at all hazards.</p>
+
+  <p>So, while he struggled against cold and hunger and
+  destitution, while he contended with faction at home and
+  lukewarmness in the administration of the war, even then, in the
+  midst of these trials, he was devising a new system for the
+  organization and permanence of his forces. Congress meddled with
+  the matter of prisoners and with the promotion of officers, and
+  he argued with and checked them, and still pressed on in his
+  plans. He insisted that officers must have better provision, for
+  they had begun to resign. "You must appeal to their interest as
+  well as to their patriotism," he wrote, "and you must give them
+  half-pay and full pay in proper measure." "You must follow the
+  same policy with the men," he said; "you must have done with
+  short enlistments. In a word, gentlemen, you must give me an
+  army, a lasting, enduring, continental army, for therein lies
+  independence."<a id="footnotetag1-14" name=
+  "footnotetag1-14"></a><a href="#footnote1-14"><sup>1</sup></a> It
+  all comes out now, through the dust of details and annoyances,
+  through the misery and suffering of that wretched winter, through
+  the shrill cries of ignorance and hostility,&mdash;the great,
+  clear, strong policy which meant to substitute an army for
+  militia, and thereby secure victory and independence. It is the
+  burden of all his letters to the governors of States, and to his
+  officers everywhere. "I will hold the army together," he said,
+  "but you on all sides must help me build it up."<a id=
+  "footnotetag1-14dup" name="footnotetag1-14dup"></a><a href=
+  "#footnote1-14"><sup>1</sup></a></p>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote1-14" name="footnote1-14"></a>[<b>Footnote
+    1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-14">(return)</a> These two
+    quotations are not literal, of course, but give the substance
+    of many letters.]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>Thus with much strenuous labor and many fervent appeals he
+  held his army together in some way, and slowly improved it. His
+  system began to be put in force, his reiterated lessons were
+  coming home to Congress, and his reforms and suggestions were in
+  some measure adopted. Under the sound and trained guidance of
+  Baron Steuben a drill and discipline were introduced, which soon
+  showed marked results. Greene succeeded Mifflin as
+  quartermaster-general, and brought order out of chaos. The Conway
+  cabal went to pieces, and as spring opened Washington began to
+  see light once more. To have held on through that winter was a
+  great feat, but to have built up and improved the army at such a
+  time was much more wonderful. It shows a greatness of character
+  and a force of will rarer than military genius, and enables us to
+  understand better, perhaps, than almost any of his victories, why
+  it was that the success of the Revolution lay in such large
+  measure in the hands of one man.</p>
+
+  <p>After Howe's withdrawal from the Jerseys in the previous year,
+  a contemporary wrote that Washington was left with the remnants
+  of an army "to scuffle for liberty." The winter had passed, and
+  he was prepared to scuffle again. On May 11 Sir Henry Clinton
+  relieved Sir William Howe at Philadelphia, and the latter took
+  his departure in a blaze of mock glory and resplendent millinery,
+  known as the Mischianza, a fit close to a career of failure,
+  which he was too dull to appreciate. The new commander was more
+  active than his predecessor, but no cleverer, and no better
+  fitted to cope with Washington. It was another characteristic
+  choice on the part of the British ministry, who could never
+  muster enough intellect to understand that the Americans would
+  fight, and that they were led by a really great soldier. The
+  coming of Clinton did not alter existing conditions.</p>
+
+  <p>Expecting a movement by the enemy, Washington sent Lafayette
+  forward to watch Philadelphia. Clinton and Howe, eager for a
+  victory before departure, determined to cut him off, and by a
+  rapid movement nearly succeeded in so doing. Timely information,
+  presence of mind, and quickness alone enabled the young Frenchman
+  to escape, narrowly but completely. Meantime, a cause for delay,
+  that curse of the British throughout the war, supervened. A peace
+  commission, consisting of the Earl of Carlisle, William Eden, and
+  Governor Johnstone, arrived. They were excellent men, but they
+  came too late. Their propositions three years before would have
+  been well enough, but as it was they were worse than nothing.
+  Coolly received, they held a fruitless interview with a committee
+  of Congress, tried to bribe and intrigue, found that their own
+  army had been already ordered to evacuate Philadelphia without
+  their knowledge, and finally gave up their task in angry despair,
+  and returned to England to join in the chorus of fault-finding
+  which was beginning to sound very loud in ministerial ears.</p>
+
+  <p>Meanwhile, Washington waited and watched, puzzled by the
+  delay, and hoping only to harass Sir Henry with militia on the
+  march to New York. But as the days slipped by, the Americans grew
+  stronger, while the British had been weakened by wholesale
+  desertions. When he finally started, he had with him probably
+  sixteen to seventeen thousand men, while the Americans had
+  apparently at least thirteen thousand, nearly all continental
+  troops.<a id="footnotetag1-15" name=
+  "footnotetag1-15"></a><a href="#footnote1-15"><sup>1</sup></a>
+  Under these circumstances, Washington determined to bring on a
+  battle. He was thwarted at the outset by his officers, as was
+  wont to be the case. Lee had returned more whimsical than ever,
+  and at the moment was strongly adverse to an attack, and was full
+  of wise saws about building a bridge of gold for the flying
+  enemy. The ascendancy which, as an English officer, he still
+  retained enabled him to get a certain following, and the councils
+  of war which were held compared unfavorably, as Hamilton put it,
+  with the deliberations of midwives. Washington was harassed of
+  course by all this, but he did not stay his purpose, and as soon
+  as he knew that Clinton actually had marched, he broke camp at
+  Valley Forge and started in pursuit. There were more councils of
+  an old-womanish character, but finally Washington took the matter
+  into his own hands, and ordered forth a strong detachment to
+  attack the British rear-guard. They set out on the 25th, and as
+  Lee, to whom the command belonged, did not care to go, Lafayette
+  was put in charge. As soon as Lafayette had departed, however,
+  Lee changed his mind, and insisted that all the detachments in
+  front, amounting to five thousand men, formed a division so large
+  that it was unjust not to give him the command. Washington,
+  therefore, sent him forward next day with two additional
+  brigades, and then Lee by seniority took command on the 27th of
+  the entire advance.</p>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote1-15" name="footnote1-15"></a>[<b>Footnote
+    1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-15">(return)</a> The authorities
+    are hopelessly conflicting as to the numbers on both sides. The
+    British returns on March 26 showed over 19,000 men. They had
+    since that date been weakened by desertions, but to what extent
+    we can only conjecture. The detachments to Florida and the West
+    Indies ordered from England do not appear to have taken place.
+    The estimate of 16,000 to 17,000 seems the most reasonable.
+    Washington returned his rank and file as just over 10,000,
+    which would indicate a total force of 13,000 to 14,000,
+    possibly more. Washington clearly underestimated the enemy, and
+    the best conclusion seems to be that they were nearly matched
+    in numbers, with a slight inferiority on the American side.]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>In the evening of that day, Washington came up, reconnoitred
+  the enemy, and saw that, although their position was a strong
+  one, another day's unmolested march would make it still stronger.
+  He therefore resolved to attack the next morning, and gave Lee
+  then and there explicit orders to that effect. In the early dawn
+  he dispatched similar orders, but Lee apparently did nothing
+  except move feebly forward, saying to Lafayette, "You don't know
+  the British soldiers; we cannot stand against them." He made a
+  weak attempt to cut off a covering party, marched and
+  countermarched, ordered and countermanded, until Lafayette and
+  Wayne, eager to fight, knew not what to do, and sent hot messages
+  to Washington to come to them.</p>
+
+  <p>Thus hesitating and confused, Lee permitted Clinton to get his
+  baggage and train to the front, and to mass all his best troops
+  in the rear under Cornwallis, who then advanced against the
+  American lines. Now there were no orders at all, and the troops
+  did not know what to do, or where to go. They stood still, then
+  began to fall back, and then to retreat. A very little more and
+  there would have been a rout. As it was, Washington alone
+  prevented disaster. His early reports from the front from
+  Dickinson's outlying party, and from Lee himself, were all
+  favorable. Then he heard the firing, and putting the main army in
+  motion, he rode rapidly forward. First he encountered a
+  straggler, who talked of defeat. He could not believe it, and the
+  fellow was pushed aside and silenced. Then came another and
+  another, all with songs of death. Finally, officers and regiments
+  began to come. No one knew why they fled, or what had happened.
+  As the ill tidings grew thicker, Washington spurred sharper and
+  rode faster through the deep sand, and under the blazing
+  midsummer sun. At last he met Lee and the main body all in full
+  retreat. He rode straight at Lee, savage with anger, not pleasant
+  to look at, one may guess, and asked fiercely and with a deep
+  oath, tradition says, what it all meant. Lee was no coward, and
+  did not usually lack for words. He was, too, a hardened man of
+  the world, and, in the phrase of that day, impudent to boot. But
+  then and there he stammered and hesitated. The fierce question
+  was repeated. Lee gathered himself and tried to excuse and
+  palliate what had happened, but although the brief words that
+  followed are variously reported to us across the century, we know
+  that Washington rebuked him in such a way, and with such passion,
+  that all was over between them. Lee had committed the one
+  unpardonable sin in the eyes of his commander. He had failed to
+  fight when the enemy was upon him. He had disobeyed orders and
+  retreated. It was the end of him. He went to the rear, thence to
+  a court-martial, thence to dismissal and to a solitary life with
+  a well-founded suspicion of treason hanging about him. He was an
+  intelligent, quick-witted, unstable man, much overrated because
+  he was an English officer among a colonial people. He was ever
+  treated magnanimously by Washington after the day of battle at
+  Monmouth, but he then disappeared from the latter's life.</p>
+
+  <p>When Lee bowed before the storm and stepped aside, Washington
+  was left to deal with the danger and confusion around him. Thus
+  did he tell the story afterwards to his brother: "A retreat,
+  however, was the fact, be the causes what they may; and the
+  disorder arising from it would have proved fatal to the army, had
+  not that bountiful Providence, which has never failed us in the
+  hour of distress, enabled me to form a regiment or two (of those
+  that were retreating) in the face of the enemy, and under their
+  fire; by which means a stand was made long enough (the place
+  through which the enemy were pressing being narrow) to form the
+  troops, that were advancing, upon an advantageous piece of ground
+  in the rear." We cannot add much to these simple and modest
+  words, for they tell the whole story. Having put Lee aside,
+  Washington rallied the broken troops, brought them into position,
+  turned them back, and held the enemy in check. It was not an easy
+  feat, but it was done, and when Lee's division again fell back in
+  good order the main army was in position, and the action became
+  general. The British were repulsed, and then Washington, taking
+  the offensive, drove them back until he occupied the battlefield
+  of the morning. Night came upon him still advancing. He halted
+  his army, lay down under a tree, his soldiers lying on their arms
+  about him, and planned a fresh attack, to be made at daylight.
+  But when the dawn came it was seen that the British had crept
+  off, and were far on their road. The heat prevented a rapid
+  pursuit, and Clinton got into New York. Between there and
+  Philadelphia he had lost at least two thousand men by desertions
+  in addition to nearly five hundred who fell at Monmouth.</p>
+
+  <p>It is worth while to pause a moment and compare this battle
+  with the rout of Long Island, the surprise at the Brandywine, and
+  the fatal unsteadiness at Germantown. Here, too, a check was
+  received at the outset, owing to blundering which no one could
+  have foreseen. The troops, confused and without orders, began to
+  retreat, but without panic or disorder. The moment Washington
+  appeared they rallied, returned to the field, showed perfect
+  steadiness, and the victory was won. Monmouth has never been one
+  of the famous battles of the Revolution, and yet there is no
+  other which can compare with it as an illustration of
+  Washington's ability as a soldier. It was not so much the way in
+  which it was fought, although that was fine enough, that its
+  importance lies as in the evidence which it gives of the way in
+  which Washington, after a series of defeats, during a winter of
+  terrible suffering and privation, had yet developed his ragged
+  volunteers into a well-disciplined and effective army. The battle
+  was a victory, but the existence and the quality of the army that
+  won it were a far greater triumph.</p>
+
+  <p>The dreary winter at Valley Forge had indeed borne fruit. With
+  a slight numerical superiority Washington had fought the British
+  in the open field, and fairly defeated them. "Clinton gained no
+  advantage," said the great Frederic, "except to reach New York
+  with the wreck of his army; America is probably lost for
+  England." Another year had passed, and England had lost an army,
+  and still held what she had before, the city of New York.
+  Washington was in the field with a better army than ever, and an
+  army flushed with a victory which had been achieved after
+  difficulties and trials such as no one now can rightly picture or
+  describe. The American Revolution was advancing, held firm by the
+  master-hand of its leader. Into it, during these days of struggle
+  and of battle, a new element had come, and the next step is to
+  see how Washington dealt with the fresh conditions upon which the
+  great conflict had entered.</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <h2><a name="VIII" id="VIII"></a> CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+
+  <h2>THE ALLIES</h2>
+
+  <p>On May 4, 1778, Congress ratified the treaties of commerce and
+  alliance with France. On the 6th, Washington, waiting at Valley
+  Forge for the British to start from Philadelphia, caused his
+  army, drawn out on parade, to celebrate the great event with
+  cheers and with salvos of artillery and musketry. The alliance
+  deserved cheers and celebration, for it marked a long step onward
+  in the Revolution. It showed that America had demonstrated to
+  Europe that she could win independence, and it had been proved to
+  the traditional enemy of England that the time had come when it
+  would be profitable to help the revolted colonies. But the
+  alliance brought troubles as well as blessings in its train. It
+  induced a relaxation in popular energy, and carried with it new
+  and difficult problems for the commander-in-chief. The successful
+  management of allies, and of allied forces, had been one of the
+  severest tests of the statesmanship of William III., and had
+  constituted one of the principal glories of Marlborough. A
+  similar problem now confronted the American general.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington was free from the diplomatic and political portion
+  of the business, but the military and popular part fell wholly
+  into his hands, and demanded the exercise of talents entirely
+  different from those of either a general or an administrator. It
+  has been not infrequently written more or less plainly, and it is
+  constantly said, that Washington was great in character, but that
+  in brains he was not far above the common-place. It is even
+  hinted sometimes that the father of his country was a dull man, a
+  notion which we shall have occasion to examine more fully further
+  on. At this point let the criticism be remembered merely in
+  connection with the fact that to co&ouml;perate with allies in
+  military matters demands tact, quick perception, firmness, and
+  patience. In a word, it is a task which calls for the finest and
+  most highly trained intellectual powers, and of which the
+  difficulty is enhanced a thousandfold when the allies are on the
+  one side, an old, aristocratic, punctilious people, and on the
+  other, colonists utterly devoid of tradition, etiquette, or fixed
+  habits, and very much accustomed to go their own way and speak
+  their own minds with careless freedom. With this problem
+  Washington was obliged suddenly to deal, both in ill success and
+  good success, as well as in many attempts which came to nothing.
+  Let us see how he solved it at the very outset, when everything
+  went most perversely wrong.</p>
+
+  <p>On July 14 he heard that D'Estaing's fleet was off the coast,
+  and at once, without a trace of elation or excitement, he began
+  to consider the possibility of intercepting the British fleet
+  expected to arrive shortly from Cork. As soon as D'Estaing was
+  within reach he sent two of his aides on board the flagship, and
+  at once opened a correspondence with his ally. These letters of
+  welcome, and those of suggestion which followed, are models, in
+  their way, of what such letters ought always to be. They were
+  perfectly adapted to satisfy the etiquette and the love of good
+  manners of the French, and yet there was not a trace of anything
+  like servility, or of an effusive gratitude which outran the
+  favors granted. They combined stately courtesy with simple
+  dignity, and are phrased with a sober grace which shows the
+  thoroughly strong man, as capable to turn a sentence, if need be,
+  as to rally retreating soldiers in the face of the enemy.</p>
+
+  <p>In this first meeting of the allies nothing happened
+  fortunately. D'Estaing had had a long passage, and was too late
+  to cut off Lord Howe at the Delaware. Then he turned to New York,
+  and was too late there, and found further that he could not get
+  his ships over the bar. Hence more delays, so that he was late
+  again in getting to Newport, where he was to unite with Sullivan
+  in driving the British from Rhode Island, as Washington had
+  planned, in case of failure at New York, while the French were
+  still hovering on the coast. When D'Estaing finally reached
+  Newport, there was still another delay of ten days, and then,
+  just as he and Sullivan were preparing to attack, Lord Howe, with
+  his squadron reinforced, appeared off the harbor. Promising to
+  return, D'Estaing sailed out to give the enemy battle, and after
+  much manoeuvring both fleets were driven off by a severe storm,
+  and D'Estaing came back only to tell Sullivan that he must go to
+  Boston at once to refit. Then came the protest addressed to the
+  Count and signed by all the American officers; then the departure
+  of D'Estaing, and an indiscreet proclamation to the troops by
+  Sullivan, reflecting on the conduct of the allies.</p>
+
+  <p>When D'Estaing had actually gone, and the Americans were
+  obliged to retreat, there was much grumbling in all directions,
+  and it looked as if the first result of the alliance was to be a
+  very pretty quarrel. It was a bad and awkward business. Congress
+  had the good sense to suppress the protest of the officers, and
+  Washington, disappointed, but perhaps not wholly surprised, set
+  himself to work to put matters right. It was no easy task to
+  soothe the French, on the one hand, who were naturally aggrieved
+  at the utterances of the American officers and at the popular
+  feeling, and on the other to calm his own people, who were, not
+  without reason, both disappointed and provoked. To Sullivan,
+  fuming with wrath, he wrote: "Should the expedition fail through
+  the abandonment of the French fleet, the officers concerned will
+  be apt to complain loudly. But prudence dictates that we should
+  put the best face upon the matter, and to the world attribute the
+  removal to Boston to necessity. The reasons are too obvious to
+  need explaining." And again, a few days later: "First
+  impressions, you know, are generally longest remembered, and will
+  serve to fix in a great degree our national character among the
+  French. In our conduct towards them we should remember that they
+  are a people old in war, very strict in military etiquette, and
+  apt to take fire when others scarcely seem warmed. Permit me to
+  recommend, in the most particular manner, the cultivation of
+  harmony and good agreement, and your endeavor to destroy that
+  ill-humor which may have got into officers." To Lafayette he
+  wrote: "Everybody, sir, who reasons, will acknowledge the
+  advantages which we have derived from the French fleet, and the
+  zeal of the commander of it; but in a free and republican
+  government you cannot restrain the voice of the multitude. Every
+  man will speak as he thinks, or, more properly, without thinking,
+  and consequently will judge of effects without attending to the
+  causes. The censures which have been leveled at the French fleet
+  would more than probably have fallen in a much higher degree upon
+  a fleet of our own, if we had had one in the same situation. It
+  is the nature of man to be displeased with everything that
+  disappoints a favorite hope or flattering project; and it is the
+  folly of too many of them to condemn without investigating
+  circumstances." Finally he wrote to D'Estaing, deploring the
+  difference which had arisen, mentioning his own efforts and
+  wishes to restore harmony, and said: "It is in the trying
+  circumstances to which your Excellency has been exposed that the
+  virtues of a great mind are displayed in their brightest lustre,
+  and that a general's character is better known than in the moment
+  of victory. It was yours by every title that can give it; and the
+  adverse elements that robbed you of your prize can never deprive
+  you of the glory due you. Though your success has not been equal
+  to your expectations, yet you have the satisfaction of reflecting
+  that you have rendered essential services to the common cause."
+  This is not the letter of a dull man. Indeed, there is a nicety
+  about it that partakes of cleverness, a much commoner thing than
+  greatness, but something which all great men by no means possess.
+  Thus by tact and comprehension of human nature, by judicious
+  suppression and equally judicious letters, Washington, through
+  the prudent exercise of all his commanding influence, quieted his
+  own people and soothed his allies. In this way a serious disaster
+  was averted, and an abortive expedition was all that was left to
+  be regretted, instead of an ugly quarrel, which might readily
+  have neutralized the vast advantages flowing from the French
+  alliance. Having refitted, D'Estaing bore away for the West
+  Indies, and so closed the first chapter in the history of the
+  alliance with France. Nothing more was heard of the allies until
+  the spring was well advanced, when M. Gerard, the minister,
+  wrote, intimating that D'Estaing was about to return, and asking
+  what we would do. Washington replied at length, professing his
+  willingness to co&ouml;perate in any way, and offering, if the
+  French would send ships, to abandon everything, run all risks,
+  and make an attack on New York. Nothing further came of it, and
+  Washington heard that the fleet had gone to the Southern States,
+  which he learned without regret, as he was apprehensive as to the
+  condition of affairs in that region. Again, in the autumn, it was
+  reported that the fleet was once more upon the northern coast.
+  Washington at once sent officers to be on the lookout at the most
+  likely points, and he wrote elaborately to D'Estaing, setting
+  forth with wonderful perspicuity the incidents of the past, the
+  condition of the present, and the probabilities of the future. He
+  was willing to do anything, or plan anything, provided his allies
+  would join with him. The jealousy so habitual in humanity, which
+  is afraid that some one else may get the glory of a common
+  success, was unknown to Washington, and if he could but drive the
+  British from America, and establish American independence, he was
+  perfectly willing that the glory should take care of itself. But
+  all his wisdom in dealing with the allies was, for the moment,
+  vain. While he was planning for a great stroke, and calling out
+  the militia of New England, D'Estaing was making ready to relieve
+  Georgia, and a few days after Washington wrote his second letter,
+  the French and Americans assaulted the British works at Savannah,
+  and were repulsed with heavy losses. Then D'Estaing sailed away
+  again, and the second effort of France to aid England's revolted
+  colonies came to an end. Their presence had had a good moral
+  effect, and the dread of D'Estaing's return had caused Clinton to
+  withdraw from Newport and concentrate in New York. This was all
+  that was actually accomplished, and there was nothing for it but
+  to await still another trial and a more convenient season.</p>
+
+  <p>With all his courtesy and consideration, with all his
+  readiness to fall in with the wishes and schemes of the French,
+  it must not be supposed that Washington ever went an inch too far
+  in this direction. He valued the French alliance, and proposed to
+  use it to great purpose, but he was not in the least dazzled or
+  blinded by it. Even in the earliest glow of excitement and hope
+  produced by D'Estaing's arrival, Washington took occasion to draw
+  once more the distinction between a valuable alliance and
+  volunteer adventurers, and to remonstrate again with Congress
+  about their reckless profusion in dealing with foreign officers.
+  To Gouverneur Morris he wrote on July 24, 1778: "The lavish
+  manner in which rank has hitherto been bestowed on these
+  gentlemen will certainly be productive of one or the other of
+  these two evils: either to make it despicable in the eyes of
+  Europe, or become the means of pouring them in upon us like a
+  torrent and adding to our present burden. But it is neither the
+  expense nor the trouble of them that I most dread. There is an
+  evil more extensive in its nature, and fatal in its consequences,
+  to be apprehended, and that is the driving of all our own
+  officers out of the service, and throwing not only our army, but
+  our military councils, entirely into the hands of foreigners....
+  Baron Steuben, I now find, is also wanting to quit his
+  inspectorship for a command in the line. This will be productive
+  of much discontent to the brigadiers. In a word, although I think
+  the baron an excellent officer, I do most devoutly wish that we
+  had not a single foreigner among us except the Marquis de
+  Lafayette, who acts upon very different principles from those
+  which govern the rest." A few days later he said, on the same
+  theme, to the president of Congress: "I trust you think me so
+  much a citizen of the world as to believe I am not easily warped
+  or led away by attachments merely local and American; yet I
+  confess I am not entirely without them, nor does it appear to me
+  that they are unwarrantable, if confined within proper limits.
+  Fewer promotions in the foreign line would have been productive
+  of more harmony, and made our warfare more agreeable to all
+  parties." Again, he said of Steuben: "I regret that there should
+  be a necessity that his services should be lost to the army; at
+  the same time I think it my duty explicitly to observe to
+  Congress that his desire of having an actual and permanent
+  command in the line cannot be complied with without wounding the
+  feelings of a number of officers, whose rank and merits give them
+  every claim to attention; and that the doing of it would be
+  productive of much dissatisfaction and extensive ill
+  consequences."</p>
+
+  <p>Washington's resistance to the colonial deference for
+  foreigners has already been pointed out, but this second burst of
+  opposition, coming at this especial time, deserves renewed
+  attention. The splendid fleet and well-equipped troops of our
+  ally were actually at our gates, and everybody was in a paroxysm
+  of perfectly natural gratitude. To the colonial mind, steeped in
+  colonial habits of thought, the foreigner at this particular
+  juncture appeared more than ever to be a splendid and superior
+  being. But he did not in the least confuse or sway the cool
+  judgment that guided the destinies of the Revolution. Let us
+  consider well the pregnant sentences just quoted, and the letters
+  from which they are taken. They deserve it, for they throw a
+  strong light on a side of Washington's mind and character too
+  little appreciated. One hears it said not infrequently, it has
+  been argued even in print with some solemnity, that Washington
+  was, no doubt, a great man and rightly a national hero, but that
+  he was not an American. It will be necessary to recur to this
+  charge again and consider it at some length. It is sufficient at
+  this point to see how it tallies with his conduct in a single
+  matter, which was a very perfect test of the national and
+  American quality of the man. We can get at the truth by
+  contrasting him with his own contemporaries, the only fair
+  comparison, for he was a man and an American of his own time and
+  not of the present day, which is a point his critics
+  overlook.</p>
+
+  <p>Where he differed from the men of his own time was in the fact
+  that he rose to a breadth and height of Americanism and of
+  national feeling which no other man of that day touched at all.
+  Nothing is more intense than the conservatism of mental habits,
+  and although it requires now an effort to realize it, it should
+  not be forgotten that in every habit of thought the inhabitants
+  of the thirteen colonies were wholly colonial. If this is
+  properly appreciated we can understand the mental breadth and
+  vigor which enabled Washington to shake off at once all past
+  habits and become an independent leader of an independent people.
+  He felt to the very core of his being the need of national
+  self-respect and national dignity. To him, as the chief of the
+  armies and the head of the Revolution, all men, no matter what
+  tongue they spake or what country they came from, were to be
+  dealt with on a footing of simple equality, and treated according
+  to their merits. There was to him no glamour in the fact that
+  this man was a Frenchman and that an Englishman. His own personal
+  pride extended to his people, and he bowed to no national
+  superiority anywhere. Hamilton was national throughout, but he
+  was born outside the thirteen colonies, and knew his
+  fellow-citizens only as Americans. Franklin was national by the
+  force of his own commanding genius. John Adams grew to the same
+  conception, so far as our relations to other nations were
+  concerned. But beyond these three we may look far and closely
+  before we find another among all the really great men of the time
+  who freed himself wholly from the superstition of the colonist
+  about the nations of Europe.</p>
+
+  <p>When Washington drew his sword beneath the Cambridge elm he
+  stood forth as the first American, the best type of man that the
+  New World could produce, with no provincial taint upon him, and
+  no shadow of the colonial past clouding his path. It was this
+  great quality that gave the struggle which he led a character it
+  would never have attained without a leader so constituted. Had he
+  been merely a colonial Englishman, had he not risen at once to
+  the conception of an American nation, the world would have looked
+  at us with very different eyes. It was the personal dignity of
+  the man, quite as much as his fighting capacity, which impressed
+  Europe. Kings and ministers, looking on dispassionately, soon
+  realized that here was no ordinary agitator or revolutionist, but
+  a great man on a great stage with great conceptions. England,
+  indeed, talked about a militia colonel, but this chatter
+  disappeared in the smoke of Trenton, and even England came to
+  look upon him as the all-powerful spirit of the Revolution. Dull
+  men and colonial squires do not grasp a great idea and carry it
+  into action on the world's stage in a few months. To stand
+  forward at the head of raw armies and of a colonial people as a
+  national leader, calm, dignified, and far-seeing, requires not
+  only character, but intellect of the highest and strongest kind.
+  Now that we have come as a people, after more than a century's
+  struggle, to the national feeling which Washington compassed in a
+  moment, it is well to consider that single achievement and to
+  meditate on its meaning, whether in estimating him, or in gauging
+  what he was to the American people when they came into
+  existence.</p>
+
+  <p>Let us take another instance of the same quality, shown also
+  in the winter of 1778. Congress had from the beginning a longing
+  to conquer Canada, which was a wholly natural and entirely
+  laudable desire, for conquest is always more interesting than
+  defense. Washington, on the other hand, after the first complete
+  failure, which was so nearly a success in the then undefended and
+  unsuspicious country, gave up pretty thoroughly all ideas of
+  attacking Canada again, and opposed the various plans of Congress
+  in that direction. When he had a life-and-death struggle to get
+  together and subsist enough men to protect their own firesides,
+  he had ample reason to know that invasions of Canada were
+  hopeless. Indeed, not much active opposition from the
+  commander-in-chief was needed to dispose of the Canadian schemes,
+  for facts settled them as fast as they arose. When the cabal got
+  up its Canadian expedition, it consisted of Lafayette, and
+  penetrated no farther than Albany. So Washington merely kept his
+  eye watchfully on Canada, and argued against expeditions thither,
+  until this winter of 1778, when something quite new in that
+  direction came up.</p>
+
+  <p>Lafayette's imagination had been fired by the notion of
+  conquering Canada. His idea was to get succors from France for
+  this especial purpose, and with them and American aid to achieve
+  the conquest. Congress was impressed and pleased by the scheme,
+  and sent a report upon it to Franklin, to communicate to the
+  French court, but Washington, when he heard of the plan, took a
+  very different view. He sent at once a long dispatch to Congress,
+  urging every possible objection to the proposed campaign, on the
+  ground of its utter impracticability, and with this official
+  letter, which was necessarily confined to the military side of
+  the question, went another addressed to President Laurens
+  personally, which contained the deeper reasons of his opposition.
+  He said that there was an objection not touched upon in his
+  public letter, which was absolutely insurmountable. This was the
+  introduction of French troops into Canada to take possession of
+  the capital, in the midst of a people of their own race and
+  religion, and but recently severed from them.</p>
+
+  <p>He pointed out the enormous advantages which would accrue to
+  France from the possession of Canada, such as independent posts,
+  control of the Indians, and the Newfoundland trade. "France, ...
+  possessed of New Orleans on our right, Canada on our left, and
+  seconded by the numerous tribes of Indians in our rear, ...
+  would, it is much to be apprehended, have it in her power to give
+  law to these States." He went on to show that France might easily
+  find an excuse for such conduct, in seeking a surety for her
+  advances of money, and that she had but little to fear from the
+  contingency of our being driven to reunite with England. He
+  continued: "Men are very apt to run into extremes. Hatred to
+  England may carry some into an excess of confidence in France,
+  especially when motives of gratitude are thrown into the scale.
+  Men of this description would be unwilling to suppose France
+  capable of acting so ungenerous a part. I am heartily disposed to
+  entertain the most favorable sentiments of our new ally, and to
+  cherish them in others to a reasonable degree. But it is a maxim,
+  founded on the universal experience of mankind, that no nation is
+  to be trusted farther than it is bound by its own interest; and
+  no prudent statesman or politician will venture to depart from
+  it. In our circumstances we ought to be particularly cautious;
+  for we have not yet attained sufficient vigor and maturity to
+  recover from the shock of any false steps into which we may
+  unwarily fall."</p>
+
+  <p>We shall have occasion to recall these utterances at a later
+  day, but at this time they serve to show yet again how broadly
+  and clearly Washington judged nations and policies. Uppermost in
+  his mind was the destiny of his own nation, just coming into
+  being, and from that firm point he watched and reasoned. His
+  words had no effect on Congress, but as it turned out, the plan
+  failed through adverse influences in the quarter where Washington
+  least expected them. He believed that this Canadian plan had been
+  put into Lafayette's mind by the cabinet of Louis XVI., and he
+  could not imagine that a policy of such obvious wisdom could be
+  overlooked by French statesmen. In this he was completely
+  mistaken, for France failed to see what seemed so simple to the
+  American general, that the opportunity had come to revive her old
+  American policy and reestablish her colonies under the most
+  favorable conditions. The ministers of Louis XVI., moreover, did
+  not wish the colonies to conquer Canada, and the plan of
+  Lafayette and the Congress received no aid in Paris and came to
+  nothing. But the fruitless incident exhibits in the strongest
+  light the attitude of Washington as a purely American statesman,
+  and the comprehensiveness of his mind in dealing with large
+  affairs.</p>
+
+  <p>The French alliance and the coming of the French fleet were of
+  incalculable advantage to the colonies, but they had one evil
+  effect, as has already been suggested. To a people weary with
+  unequal conflict, it was a debilitating influence, and America
+  needed at that moment more than ever energy and vigor, both in
+  the council and the field. Yet the general outlook was distinctly
+  better and more encouraging. Soon after Washington had defeated
+  Clinton at Monmouth, and had taken a position whence he could
+  watch and check him, he wrote to his friend General Nelson in
+  Virginia:&mdash;</p>
+
+  <blockquote>
+    "It is not a little pleasing, nor less wonderful to
+    contemplate, that, after two years' manoeuvring and undergoing
+    the strangest vicissitudes that perhaps ever attended any one
+    contest since the creation, both armies are brought back to the
+    very point they set out from, and that the offending party at
+    the beginning is now reduced to the spade and pickaxe for
+    defense. The hand of Providence has been so conspicuous in all
+    this that he must be worse than an infidel that lacks faith,
+    and more than wicked that has not gratitude enough to
+    acknowledge his obligations. But it will be time enough for me
+    to turn preacher when my present appointment ceases."
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>He had reason to congratulate himself on the result of his two
+  years' campaigning, but as the summer wore away and winter came
+  on he found causes for fresh and deep alarm, despite the good
+  outlook in the field. The demoralizing effects of civil war were
+  beginning to show themselves in various directions. The character
+  of Congress, in point of ability, had declined alarmingly, for
+  the ablest men of the first Congress, with few exceptions, had
+  departed. Some had gone to the army, some to the diplomatic
+  service, and many had remained at home, preferring the honors and
+  offices of the States to those of the Confederation. Their
+  successors, patriotic and well-meaning though they were, lacked
+  the energy and force of those who had started the Revolution,
+  and, as a consequence, Congress had become feeble and
+  ineffective, easily swayed by influential schemers, and unable to
+  cope with the difficulties which surrounded them.</p>
+
+  <p>Outside the government the popular tone had deteriorated
+  sadly. The lavish issues of irredeemable paper by the
+  Confederation and the States had brought their finances to the
+  verge of absolute ruin. The continental currency had fallen to
+  something like forty to one in gold, and the decline was hastened
+  by the forged notes put out by the enemy. The fluctuations of
+  this paper soon bred a spirit of gambling, and hence came a class
+  of men, both inside and outside of politics, who sought, more or
+  less corruptly, to make fortunes by army contracts, and by
+  forestalling the markets. These developments filled Washington
+  with anxiety, for in the financial troubles he saw ruin to the
+  army. The unpaid troops bore the injustice done them with
+  wonderful patience, but it was something that could not last, and
+  Washington knew the danger. In vain did he remonstrate. It seemed
+  to be impossible to get anything done, and at last, in the
+  following spring, the outbreak began. Two New Jersey regiments
+  refused to march until the assembly made provision for their pay.
+  Washington took high ground with them, but they stood
+  respectfully firm, and finally had their way. Not long after came
+  another outbreak in the Connecticut line, with similar results.
+  These object lessons had some result, and by foreign loans and
+  the ability of Robert Morris the country was enabled to stumble
+  along; but it was a frightful and wearing anxiety to the
+  commander-in-chief.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington saw at once that the root of the evil lay in the
+  feebleness of Congress, and although he could not deal with the
+  finances, he was able to strive for an improvement in the
+  governing body. Not content with letters, he left the army and
+  went to Philadelphia, in the winter of 1779, and there appealed
+  to Congress in person, setting forth the perils which beset them,
+  and urging action. He wrote also to his friends everywhere,
+  pointing out the deficiencies of Congress, and begging them to
+  send better and stronger men. To Benjamin Harrison he wrote: "It
+  appears to me as clear as ever the sun did in its meridian
+  brightness, that America never stood in more eminent need of the
+  wise, patriotic, and spirited exertions of her sons than at this
+  period; ... the States separately are too much engaged in their
+  local concerns, and have too many of their ablest men withdrawn
+  from the general council, for the good of the common weal." He
+  took the same high tone in all his letters, and there can be seen
+  through it all the desperate endeavor to make the States and the
+  people understand the dangers which he realized, but which they
+  either could not or would not appreciate.</p>
+
+  <p>On the other hand, while his anxiety was sharpened to the
+  highest point by the character of Congress, his sternest wrath
+  was kindled by the gambling and money-making which had become
+  rampant. To Reed he wrote in December, 1778:</p>
+
+  <blockquote>
+    "It gives me sincere pleasure to find that there is likely to
+    be a coalition of the Whigs in your State, a few only excepted,
+    and that the assembly is so well disposed to second your
+    endeavors in bringing those murderers of our cause, the
+    monopolizers, forestallers, and engrossers, to condign
+    punishment. It is much to be lamented that each State, long ere
+    this, has not hunted them down as pests to society and the
+    greatest enemies we have to the happiness of America. I would
+    to God that some one of the most atrocious in each State was
+    hung in gibbets upon a gallows five times as high as the one
+    prepared by Haman. No punishment, in my opinion, is too great
+    for the man who can build his greatness upon his country's
+    ruin."
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>He would have hanged them too had he had the power, for he was
+  always as good as his word.</p>
+
+  <p>It is refreshing to read these righteously angry words, still
+  ringing as sharply as when they were written. They clear away all
+  the myths&mdash;the priggish, the cold, the statuesque, the dull
+  myths&mdash;as the strong gusts of the northwest wind in autumn
+  sweep off the heavy mists of lingering August. They are the hot
+  words of a warm-blooded man, a good hater, who loathed meanness
+  and treachery, and who would have hanged those who battened upon
+  the country's distress. When he went to Philadelphia, a few weeks
+  later, and saw the state of things with nearer view, he felt the
+  wretchedness and outrage of such doings more than ever. He wrote
+  to Harrison:</p>
+
+  <blockquote>
+    "If I were to be called upon to draw a picture of the times and
+    of men, from what I have seen, heard, and in part know, I
+    should in one word say, that idleness, dissipation, and
+    extravagance seem to have laid fast hold of most of them; that
+    speculation, peculation, and an insatiable thirst for riches
+    seem to have got the better of every other consideration, and
+    almost of every order of men; that party disputes and personal
+    quarrels are the great business of the day; whilst the
+    momentous concerns of an empire, a great and accumulating debt,
+    ruined finances, depreciated money, and want of credit, which,
+    in its consequences, is the want of everything, are but
+    secondary considerations, and postponed from day to day, from
+    week to week, as if our affairs wore the most promising
+    aspect."
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>Other men talked about empire, but he alone grasped the great
+  conception, and felt it in his soul. To see not only immediate
+  success imperiled, but the future paltered with by small, mean,
+  and dishonest men, cut him to the quick. He set himself doggedly
+  to fight it, as he always fought every enemy, using both speech
+  and pen in all quarters. Much, no doubt, he ultimately effected,
+  but he was contending with the usual results of civil war, which
+  are demoralizing always, and especially so among a young people
+  in a new country. At first, therefore, all seemed vain. The
+  selfishness, "peculation, and speculation" seemed to get worse,
+  and the tone of Congress and the people lower, as he struggled
+  against them. In March, 1779, he wrote to James Warren of
+  Massachusetts:</p>
+
+  <blockquote>
+    <p>"Nothing, I am convinced, but the depreciation of our
+    currency, aided by stock-jobbing and party dissensions, has fed
+    the hopes of the enemy, and kept the British arms in America to
+    this day. They do not scruple to declare this themselves, and
+    add that we shall be our own conquerors. Can not our common
+    country, America, possess virtue enough to disappoint them? Is
+    the paltry consideration of a little pelf to individuals to be
+    placed in competition with the essential rights and liberties
+    of the present generation, and of millions yet unborn? Shall a
+    few designing men, for their own aggrandizement, and to gratify
+    their own avarice, overset the goodly fabric we have been
+    rearing, at the expense of so much time, blood, and treasure?
+    And shall we at last become the victims of our own lust of
+    gain? Forbid it, Heaven! Forbid it, all and every State in the
+    Union, by enacting and enforcing efficacious laws for checking
+    the growth of these monstrous evils, and restoring matters, in
+    some degree, to the state they were in at the commencement of
+    the war."</p>
+
+    <p>"Our cause is noble. It is the cause of mankind, and the
+    danger to it is to be apprehended from ourselves. Shall we
+    slumber and sleep, then, while we should be punishing those
+    miscreants who have brought these troubles upon us, and who are
+    aiming to continue us in them; while we should be striving to
+    fill our battalions, and devising ways and means to raise the
+    value of the currency, on the credit of which everything
+    depends?"</p>
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>Again we see the prevailing idea of the future, which haunted
+  him continually. Evidently, he had some imagination, and also a
+  power of terse and eloquent expression which we have heard of
+  before, and shall note again.</p>
+
+  <p>Still the appeals seemed to sound in deaf ears. He wrote to
+  George Mason: "I have seen, without despondency, even for a
+  moment, the hours which America has styled her gloomy ones; but I
+  have beheld no day since the commencement of hostilities that I
+  have thought her liberties in such imminent danger as at
+  present.... Indeed, we are verging so fast to destruction that I
+  am filled with sensations to which I have been a stranger till
+  within these three months." To Gouverneur Morris he said: "If the
+  enemy have it in their power to press us hard this campaign, I
+  know not what may be the consequence." He had faced the enemy,
+  the bleak winters, raw soldiers, and all the difficulties of
+  impecunious government, with a cheerful courage that never
+  failed. But the spectacle of widespread popular demoralization,
+  of selfish scrambles for plunder, and of feeble administration at
+  the centre of government weighed upon him heavily. It was not the
+  general's business to build up Congress and grapple with finance,
+  but Washington addressed himself to the new task with his usual
+  persistent courage. It was slow and painful work. He seemed to
+  make no progress, and then it was that his spirits sank at the
+  prospect of ruin and defeat, not coming on the field of battle,
+  but from our own vices and our own lack of energy and wisdom. Yet
+  his work told in the end, as it always did. His vast and steadily
+  growing influence made itself felt even through the dense
+  troubles of the uneasy times. Congress turned with energy to
+  Europe for fresh loans. Lafayette worked away to get an army sent
+  over. The two Morrises, stimulated by Washington, flung
+  themselves into the financial difficulties, and feeble but
+  distinct efforts toward a more concentrated and better organized
+  administration of public affairs were made both in the States and
+  the confederation.</p>
+
+  <p>But, although Washington's spirits fell, and his anxieties
+  became wellnigh intolerable in this period of reaction which
+  followed the French alliance, he made no public show of it, but
+  carried on his own work with the army and in the field as usual,
+  contending with all the difficulties, new and old, as calmly and
+  efficiently as ever. After Clinton slipped away from Monmouth and
+  sought refuge in New York, Washington took post at convenient
+  points and watched the movements of the enemy. In this way the
+  summer passed. As always, Washington's first object was to guard
+  the Hudson, and while he held this vital point firmly, he waited,
+  ready to strike elsewhere if necessary. It looked for a time as
+  if the British intended to descend on Boston, seize the town, and
+  destroy the French fleet, which had gone there to refit. Such was
+  the opinion of Gates, then commanding in that department, and as
+  Washington inclined to the same belief, the fear of this event
+  gave him many anxious moments. He even moved his troops so as to
+  be in readiness to march eastward at short notice; but he
+  gradually became convinced that the enemy had no such plan. Much
+  of his thought, now and always, was given to efforts to divine
+  the intentions of the British generals. They had so few settled
+  ideas, and were so tardy and lingering when they had plans, that
+  it is small wonder that their opponents were sorely puzzled in
+  trying to find out what their purposes were, when they really had
+  none. The fact was that Washington saw their military
+  opportunities with the eye of a great soldier, and so much better
+  than they, that he suffered a good deal of needless anxiety in
+  devising methods to meet attacks which they had not the wit to
+  undertake. He had a profound contempt for their policy of holding
+  towns, and believing that they must see the utter futility of it,
+  after several years of trial, he constantly expected from them a
+  well-planned and extensive campaign, which in reality they were
+  incapable of devising.</p>
+
+  <p>The main army, therefore, remained quiet, and when the autumn
+  had passed went into winter-quarters in well-posted detachments
+  about New York. In December Clinton made an ineffectual raid, and
+  then all was peaceful again, and Washington was able to go to
+  Philadelphia and struggle with Congress, leaving his army more
+  comfortable and secure than they had been in any previous
+  winter.</p>
+
+  <p>In January he informed Congress as to the next campaign. He
+  showed them the impossibility of undertaking anything on a large
+  scale, and announced his intention of remaining on the defensive.
+  It was a trying policy to a man of his temper, but he could do no
+  better, and he knew, now as always, what others could not yet
+  see, that by simply holding on and keeping his army in the field
+  he was slowly but surely winning independence. He tried to get
+  Congress to do something with the navy, and he planned an
+  expedition, under the command of Sullivan, to overrun the Indian
+  country and check the barbarous raids of the Tories and savages
+  on the frontier; and with this he was fain to be content. In
+  fact, he perceived very clearly the direction in which the war
+  was tending. He kept up his struggle with Congress for a
+  permanent army, and with the old persistency pleaded that
+  something should be done for the officers, and at the same time
+  he tried to keep the States in good humor when they were
+  grumbling about the amount of protection afforded them.</p>
+
+  <p>But all this wear and tear of heart and brain and temper,
+  while given chiefly to hold the army together, was not endured
+  with any notion that he and Clinton were eventually to fight it
+  out in the neighborhood of New York. Washington felt that that
+  part of the conflict was over. He now hoped and believed that the
+  moment would come, when, by uniting his army with the French, he
+  should be able to strike the decisive blow. Until that time came,
+  however, he knew that he could do nothing on a great scale, and
+  he felt that meanwhile the British, abandoning practically the
+  eastern and middle States, would make one last desperate struggle
+  for victory, and would make it in the south. Long before any one
+  else, he appreciated this fact, and saw a peril looming large in
+  that region, where everybody was considering the British invasion
+  as little more than an exaggerated raid. He foresaw, too, that we
+  should suffer more there than we had in the extreme north,
+  because the south was full of Tories and less well organized.</p>
+
+  <p>All this, however, did not change his own plans one jot. He
+  believed that the south must work out its own salvation, as New
+  York and New England had done with Burgoyne, and he felt sure
+  that in the end it would be successful. But he would not go
+  south, nor take his army there. The instinct of a great commander
+  for the vital point in a war or a battle, is as keen as that of
+  the tiger is said to be for the jugular vein of its victim. The
+  British might overrun the north or invade the south, but he would
+  stay where he was, with his grip upon New York and the Hudson
+  River. The tide of invasion might ebb and flow in this region or
+  that, but the British were doomed if they could not divide the
+  eastern colonies from the others. When the appointed hour came,
+  he was ready to abandon everything and strike the final and fatal
+  blow; but until then he waited and stood fast with his army,
+  holding the great river in his grasp. He felt much more anxiety
+  about the south than he had felt about the north, and expected
+  Congress to consult him as to a commander, having made up his
+  mind that Greene was the man to send. But Congress still believed
+  in Gates, who had been making trouble for Washington all winter;
+  and so Gates was sent, and Congress in due time got their lesson,
+  and found once more that Washington understood men better than
+  they did.</p>
+
+  <p>In the north the winter was comparatively uneventful. The
+  spring passed, and in June Clinton came out and took possession
+  of Stony Point and Verplanck's Point, and began to fortify them.
+  It looked a little as if Clinton might intend to get control of
+  the Hudson by slow approaches, fortifying, and then advancing
+  until he reached West Point. With this in mind, Washington at
+  once determined to check the British by striking sharply at one
+  of their new posts. Having made up his mind, he sent for Wayne
+  and asked him if he would storm Stony Point. Tradition says that
+  Wayne replied, "I will storm hell, if you will plan it." A true
+  tradition, probably, in keeping with Wayne's character, and
+  pleasant to us to-day as showing with a vivid gleam of rough
+  human speech the utter confidence of the army in their leader,
+  that confidence which only a great soldier can inspire. So
+  Washington planned, and Wayne stormed, and Stony Point fell. It
+  was a gallant and brilliant feat of arms, one of the most
+  brilliant of the war. Over five hundred prisoners were taken, the
+  guns were carried off, and the works destroyed, leaving the
+  British to begin afresh with a good deal of increased caution and
+  respect. Not long after, Harry Lee stormed Paulus Hook with equal
+  success, and the British were checked and arrested, if they
+  intended any extensive movement. On the frontier, Sullivan, after
+  some delays, did his work effectively, ravaging the Indian towns
+  and reducing them to quiet, thus taking away another annoyance
+  and danger.</p>
+
+  <p>In these various ways Clinton's circle of activity was
+  steadily narrowed, but it may be doubted whether he had any
+  coherent plan. The principal occupation of the British was to
+  send out marauding expeditions and cut off outlying parties.
+  Tryon burned and pillaged in Connecticut, Matthews in Virginia,
+  and others on a smaller scale elsewhere in New Jersey and New
+  York. The blundering stupidity of this system of warfare was only
+  equaled by its utter brutality. Houses were burned, peaceful
+  villages went up in smoke, women and children were outraged, and
+  soldiers were bayoneted after they had surrendered. These details
+  of the Revolution are wellnigh forgotten now, but when the ear is
+  wearied with talk about English generosity and love of fair play,
+  it is well to turn back and study the exploits of Tryon, and it
+  is not amiss in the same connection to recall that English
+  budgets contained a special appropriation for scalping-knives, a
+  delicate attention to the Tories and Indians who were burning and
+  butchering on the frontier.</p>
+
+  <p>Such methods of warfare Washington despised intellectually,
+  and hated morally. He saw that every raid only hardened the
+  people against England, and made her cause more hopeless. The
+  misery caused by these raids angered him, but he would not
+  retaliate in kind, and Wayne bayoneted no English soldiers after
+  they laid down their arms at Stony Point. It was enough for
+  Washington to hold fast to the great objects he had in view, to
+  check Clinton and circumscribe his movements. Steadfastly he did
+  this through the summer and winter of 1779, which proved one of
+  the worst that he had yet endured. Supplies did not come, the
+  army dwindled, and the miseries of Valley Forge were renewed.
+  Again was repeated the old and pitiful story of appeals to
+  Congress and the States, and again the undaunted spirit and
+  strenuous exertions of Washington saved the army and the
+  Revolution from the internal ruin which was his worst enemy. When
+  the new year began, he saw that he was again condemned to a
+  defensive campaign, but this made little difference now, for what
+  he had foreseen in the spring of 1779 became certainty in the
+  autumn. The active war was transferred to the south, where the
+  chapter of disasters was beginning, and Clinton had practically
+  given up everything except New York. The war had taken on the new
+  phase expected by Washington. Weak as he was, he began to detach
+  troops, and prepared to deal with the last desperate effort of
+  England to conquer her revolted colonies from the south.</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <h2><a name="IX" id="IX"></a> CHAPTER IX</h2>
+
+  <h2>ARNOLD'S TREASON, AND THE WAR IN THE SOUTH</h2>
+
+  <p>The spring of 1780 was the beginning of a period of inactivity
+  and disappointment, of diligent effort and frustrated plans.
+  During the months which ensued before the march to the south,
+  Washington passed through a stress of harassing anxiety, which
+  was far worse than anything he had to undergo at any other time.
+  Plans were formed, only to fail. Opportunities arose, only to
+  pass by unfulfilled. The network of hostile conditions bound him
+  hand and foot, and it seemed at times as if he could never break
+  the bonds that held him, or prevent or hold back the moral,
+  social, and political dissolution going on about him. With the
+  aid of France, he meant to strike one decisive blow, and end the
+  struggle. Every moment was of importance, and yet the days and
+  weeks and months slipped by, and he could get nothing done. He
+  could neither gain control of the sea, nor gather sufficient
+  forces of his own, although delay now meant ruin. He saw the
+  British overrun the south, and he could not leave the Hudson. He
+  was obliged to sacrifice the southern States, and yet he could
+  get neither ships nor men to attack New York. The army was
+  starving and mutinous, and he sought relief in vain. The finances
+  were ruined, Congress was helpless, the States seemed stupefied.
+  Treason of the most desperate kind suddenly reared its head, and
+  threatened the very citadel of the Revolution. These were the
+  days of the war least familiar to posterity. They are unmarked in
+  the main by action or fighting, and on this dreary monotony
+  nothing stands out except the black stain of Arnold's treason.
+  Yet it was the time of all others when Washington had most to
+  bear. It was the time of all others when his dogged persistence
+  and unwavering courage alone seemed to sustain the flickering
+  fortunes of the war.</p>
+
+  <p>In April Washington was pondering ruefully on the condition of
+  affairs at the south. He saw that the only hope of saving
+  Charleston was in the defense of the bar; and when that became
+  indefensible, he saw that the town ought to be abandoned to the
+  enemy, and the army withdrawn to the country. His military genius
+  showed itself again and again in his perfectly accurate judgment
+  on distant campaigns. He seemed to apprehend all the conditions
+  at a glance, and although his wisdom made him refuse to issue
+  orders when he was not on the ground, those generals who followed
+  his suggestions, even when a thousand miles away, were
+  successful, and those who disregarded them were not. Lincoln,
+  commanding at Charleston, was a brave and loyal man, but he had
+  neither the foresight nor the courage to withdraw to the country,
+  and then, hovering on the lines of the enemy, to confine them to
+  the town. He yielded to the entreaties of the citizens and
+  remained, only to surrender. Washington had retreated from New
+  York, and after five years of fighting the British still held it,
+  and had gone no further. He had refused to risk an assault to
+  redeem Philadelphia, at the expense of much grumbling and
+  cursing, and had then beaten the enemy when they hastily
+  retreated thence in the following spring. His cardinal doctrine
+  was that the Revolution depended upon the existence of the army,
+  and not on the possession of any particular spot of ground, and
+  his masterly adherence to this theory brought victory, slowly but
+  surely. Lincoln's very natural inability to grasp it, and to
+  withstand popular pressure, cost us for a time the southern
+  States and a great deal of bloody fighting.</p>
+
+  <p>In the midst of this anxiety about the south, and when he
+  foresaw the coming disasters, Washington was cheered and
+  encouraged by the arrival of Lafayette, whom he loved, and who
+  brought good tidings of his zealous work for the United States in
+  Paris. An army and a fleet were on their way to America, with a
+  promise of more to follow. This was great news indeed. It is
+  interesting to note how Washington took it, for we see here with
+  unusual clearness the readiness of grasp and quickness of thought
+  which have been noted before, but which are not commonly
+  attributed to him. It has been the fashion to treat Washington as
+  wise and prudent, but as distinctly slow, and when he was obliged
+  to concentrate public opinion, either military or civil, or when
+  doubt overhung his course, he moved with great deliberation. When
+  he required no concentration of opinion, and had made up his
+  mind, he could strike with a terribly swift decision, as at
+  Trenton or Monmouth. So when a new situation presented itself he
+  seized with wonderful rapidity every phase and possibility opened
+  by changed conditions.</p>
+
+  <p>The moment he learned from Lafayette that the French succors
+  were actually on the way, he began to lay out plans in a manner
+  which showed how he had taken in at the first glance every chance
+  and every contingency. He wrote that the decisive moment was at
+  hand, and that the French succors would be fatal if not used
+  successfully now. Congress must improve their methods of
+  administration, and for this purpose must appoint a small
+  committee to co&ouml;perate with him. This step he demanded, and
+  it was taken at once. Fresh from his interview with Lafayette, he
+  sent out orders to have inquiries made as to Halifax and its
+  defenses. Possibly a sudden and telling blow might be struck
+  there, and nothing should be overlooked. He also wrote to
+  Lafayette to urge upon the French commander an immediate assault
+  on New York the moment he landed. Yet despite his thought for New
+  York, he even then began to see the opportunities which were
+  destined to develop into Yorktown. He had longed to go to the
+  south before, and had held back only because he felt that the
+  main army and New York were still the key of the position, and
+  could not be safely abandoned. Now, while planning the capture of
+  New York, he asked in a letter whether the enemy was not more
+  exposed at the southward and therefore a better subject for a
+  combined attack there. Clearness and precision of plan as to the
+  central point, joined to a perfect readiness to change suddenly
+  and strike hard and decisively in a totally different quarter,
+  are sure marks of the great commander. We can find them all
+  through the correspondence, but here in May, 1780, they come out
+  with peculiar vividness. They are qualities arising from a wide
+  foresight, and from a sure and quick perception. They are not the
+  qualities of a slow or heavy mind.</p>
+
+  <p>On June 1 came the news of the surrender of Charleston and the
+  loss of the army, which was followed by the return of Clinton to
+  New York. The southern States lay open now to the enemy, and it
+  was a severe trial to Washington to be unable to go to their
+  rescue; but with the same dogged adherence to his ruling idea, he
+  concentrated his attention on the Hudson with renewed vigilance
+  on account of Clinton's return. Adversity and prosperity alike
+  were unable to divert him from the control of the great river and
+  the mastery of the middle States until he saw conclusive victory
+  elsewhere fairly within his grasp. In the same unswerving way he
+  pushed on the preparations for what he felt to be the coming of
+  the decisive campaign and the supreme moment of the war. To all
+  the governors went urgent letters, calling on the States to fill
+  their lines in the continental army, and to have their militia in
+  readiness.</p>
+
+  <p>In the midst of these anxieties and preparations, the French
+  arrived at Newport, bringing a well-equipped army of some five
+  thousand men, and a small fleet. They brought, too, something
+  quite as important, in the way of genuine good-will and full
+  intention to do all in their power for their allies. After a
+  moment's hesitation, born of unlucky memories, the people of
+  Rhode Island gave De Rochambeau a hearty welcome, and Washington
+  sent him the most cordial greeting. With the greeting went the
+  polite but earnest request for immediate action, together with
+  plans for attacking New York; and, at the same time, another
+  urgent call went out to the States for men, money, and supplies.
+  The long-looked-for hour had arrived, a fine French army was in
+  Newport, a French fleet rode in the harbor, and instead of
+  action, immediate and effective, the great event marked only the
+  beginning of a period of delays and disappointment, wearing heart
+  and nerve almost beyond endurance.</p>
+
+  <p>First it appeared that the French ships could not get into New
+  York harbor. Then there was sickness in the French army. Then the
+  British menaced Newport, and rapid preparations had to be made to
+  meet that danger. Then it came out that De Rochambeau was ordered
+  to await the arrival of the second division of the army, with
+  more ships; and after due waiting, it was discovered that the
+  aforesaid second division, with their ships, were securely
+  blockaded by the English fleet at Brest. On our side it was no
+  better; indeed, it was rather worse. There was lack of arms and
+  powder. The drafts were made with difficulty, and the new levies
+  came in slowly. Supplies failed altogether, and on every hand
+  there was nothing but delay, and ever fresh delay, and in the
+  midst of it all Washington, wrestling with sloth and incoherence
+  and inefficiency, trampled down one failure and disappointment
+  only to encounter another, equally important, equally petty, and
+  equally harassing.</p>
+
+  <p>On August 20 he wrote to Congress a long and most able letter,
+  which set forth forcibly the evil and perilous condition of
+  affairs. After reading that letter no man could say that there
+  was not need of the utmost exertion, and for the expenditure of
+  the last ounce of energy. In it Washington struck especially at
+  the two delusions with which the people and their representatives
+  were lulling themselves into security, and by which they were led
+  to relax their efforts. One was the belief that England was
+  breaking down; the other, that the arrival of the French was
+  synonymous with the victorious close of the war. Washington
+  demonstrated that England still commanded the sea, and that as
+  long as she did so there was a great advantage on her side. She
+  was stronger, on the whole, this year than the year before, and
+  her financial resources were still ample. There was no use in
+  looking for victory in the weakness of the enemy, and on the
+  other hand, to rely wholly on France was contemptible as well as
+  foolish. After stating plainly that the army was on the verge of
+  dissolution, he said: "To me it will appear miraculous if our
+  affairs can maintain themselves much longer in their present
+  train. If either the temper or the resources of the country will
+  not admit of an alteration, we may expect soon to be reduced to
+  the humiliating condition of seeing the cause of America, in
+  America, upheld by foreign arms. The generosity of our allies has
+  a claim to all our confidence and all our gratitude, but it is
+  neither for the honor of America, nor for the interest of the
+  common cause, to leave the work entirely to them."</p>
+
+  <p>It must have been bitter to Washington above all men, with his
+  high dignity and keen sense of national honor, to write such
+  words as these, or make such an argument to any of his
+  countrymen. But it was a work which the time demanded, and he did
+  it without flinching. Having thus laid bare the weak places, he
+  proceeded to rehearse once more, with a weariness we can easily
+  fancy, the old, old lesson as to organization, a permanent army,
+  and a better system of administration. This letter neither
+  scolded, nor bewailed, nor desponded, but it told the truth with
+  great force and vigor. Of course it had but slight results,
+  comparatively speaking; still it did something, and the final
+  success of the Revolution is due to the series of strong
+  truth-telling letters, of which this is an example, as much as to
+  any one thing done by Washington. There was need of some one, not
+  only to fight battles and lead armies, but to drive Congress into
+  some sort of harmony, spur the careless and indifferent to
+  action, arouse the States, and kill various fatal delusions, and
+  in Washington the robust teller of unwelcome truths was
+  found.</p>
+
+  <p>Still, even the results actually obtained by such letters came
+  but slowly, and Washington felt that he must strike at all
+  hazards. Through Lafayette he tried to get De Rochambeau to agree
+  to an immediate attack on New York. His army was on the very eve
+  of dissolution, and he began with reason to doubt his own power
+  of holding it together longer. The finances of the country were
+  going ever faster to irremediable ruin, and it seemed impossible
+  that anything could postpone open and avowed bankruptcy. So, with
+  his army crumbling, mutinous, and half starved, he turned to his
+  one unfailing resource of fighting, and tried to persuade De
+  Rochambeau to join him. Under the circumstances, Washington was
+  right to wish to risk a battle, and De Rochambeau, from his point
+  of view, was equally so in refusing to take the offensive, unless
+  the second division arrived or De Guichen came with his fleet, or
+  the English force at New York was reduced.</p>
+
+  <p>In these debates and delays, mingled with an appeal to De
+  Guichen in the West Indies, the summer was fast wearing away,
+  and, by way of addition, early in September came tidings of the
+  battle of Camden, and the utter rout of Gates's army. Despite his
+  own needs and trials, Washington's first idea was to stem the
+  current of disaster at the south, and he ordered the fresh
+  Maryland troops to turn back at once and march to the Carolinas,
+  but Gates fled so fast and far that it was some time before
+  anything was heard of him. As more news came of Camden and its
+  beaten general, Washington wrote to Rutledge that he should
+  ultimately come southward. Meantime, he could only struggle with
+  his own difficulties, and rack his brains for men and means to
+  rescue the south. It must have seemed to Washington, in those
+  lovely September days, as if fate could not have any worse trials
+  in store, and that if he could only breast the troubles now
+  surging about him, he might count on sure and speedy success. Yet
+  the bitterest trial of all was even then hanging over his head,
+  and with a sort of savage sarcasm it came upon him in one of
+  those rare moments when he had an hour of rest and sunshine.</p>
+
+  <p>The story of Arnold's treason is easily told. Its romantic
+  side has made it familiar to all Americans, and given it a
+  factitious importance. Had it succeeded it would have opened
+  opportunities of disaster to the American arms, although it would
+  not have affected the final outcome of the Revolution. As it was
+  it failed, and had no result whatever. It has passed into history
+  simply as a picturesque episode, charged with possibilities which
+  attract the imagination, but having, in itself, neither meaning
+  nor consequences beyond the two conspirators. To us it is of
+  interest, because it shows Washington in one of the sharpest and
+  bitterest experiences of his life. Let us see how he met it and
+  dealt with it.</p>
+
+  <p>From the day when the French landed, both De Rochambeau and
+  Washington had been most anxious to meet. The French general had
+  been particularly urgent, but it was difficult for Washington to
+  get away. As he wrote on August 21: "We are about ten miles from
+  the enemy. Our popular government imposes a necessity of great
+  circumspection. If any misfortune should happen in my absence, it
+  would be attended with every inconvenience. I will, however,
+  endeavor if possible, and as soon as possible, to meet you at
+  some convenient rendezvous." In accordance with this promise, a
+  few weeks later, he left Greene in command of the army, and, not
+  without misgivings, started on September 18 to meet De
+  Rochambeau. On his way he had an interview with Arnold, who came
+  to him to show a letter from the loyalist Colonel Robinson, and
+  thus disarm suspicion as to his doings. On the 20th, the day when
+  Andr&eacute; and Arnold met to arrange the terms of the sale,
+  Washington was with De Rochambeau at Hartford. News had arrived,
+  meantime, that De Guichen had sailed for Europe; the command of
+  the sea was therefore lost, and the opportunity for action had
+  gone by. There was no need for further conference, and Washington
+  accordingly set out on his return at once, two or three days
+  earlier than he had intended.</p>
+
+  <p>He was accompanied by his own staff, and by Knox and Lafayette
+  with their officers. With him, too, went the young Count Dumas,
+  who has left a description of their journey, and of the popular
+  enthusiasm displayed in the towns through which they passed. In
+  one village, which they reached after nightfall, all the people
+  turned out, the children bearing torches, and men and women
+  hailed Washington as father, and pressed about him to touch the
+  hem of his garments. Turning to Dumas he said, "We may be beaten
+  by the English; it is the chance of war; but there is the army
+  they will never conquer." Political leaders grumbled, and
+  military officers caballed, but the popular feeling went out to
+  Washington with a sure and utter confidence. The people in that
+  little village recognized the great and unselfish leader as they
+  recognized Lincoln a century later, and from the masses of the
+  people no one ever heard the cry that Washington was cold or
+  unsympathetic. They loved him, and believed in him, and such a
+  manifestation of their devotion touched him deeply. His spirits
+  rose under the spell of appreciation and affection, always so
+  strong upon human nature, and he rode away from Fishkill the next
+  morning at daybreak with a light heart.</p>
+
+  <p>The company was pleasant and lively, the morning was fair, and
+  as they approached Arnold's headquarters at the Robinson house,
+  Washington turned off to the redoubts by the river, telling the
+  young men that they were all in love with Mrs. Arnold and would
+  do well to go straight on and breakfast with her. Hamilton and
+  McHenry followed his advice, and while they were at breakfast a
+  note was brought to Arnold. It was the letter of warning from
+  Andr&eacute; announcing his capture, which Colonel Jameson, who
+  ought to have been cashiered for doing it, had forwarded. Arnold
+  at once left the table, and saying that he was going to West
+  Point, jumped into his boat and was rowed rapidly down the river
+  to the British man-of-war. Washington on his arrival was told
+  that Arnold had gone to the fort, and so after a hasty breakfast
+  he went over there himself. On reaching West Point no salute
+  broke the stillness, and no guard turned out to receive him. He
+  was astonished to learn that his arrival was unexpected, and that
+  Arnold had not been there for two days. Still unsuspecting he
+  inspected the works, and then returned.</p>
+
+  <p>Meantime, the messenger sent to Hartford with the papers taken
+  on Andr&eacute; reached the Robinson house and delivered them to
+  Hamilton, together with a letter of confession from Andr&eacute;
+  himself. Hamilton read them, and hurrying out met Washington just
+  coming up from the river. He took his chief aside, said a few
+  words to him in a low voice, and they went into the house
+  together. When they came out, Washington looked as calm as ever,
+  and calling to Lafayette and Knox gave them the papers, saying
+  simply, "Whom can we trust now?" He dispatched Hamilton at once
+  to try to intercept Arnold at Verplanck's Point, but it was too
+  late; the boat had passed, and Arnold was safe on board the
+  Vulture. This done, Washington bade his staff sit down with him
+  at dinner, as the general was absent, and Mrs. Arnold was ill in
+  her room. Dinner over, he immediately set about guarding the
+  post, which had been so near betrayal. To Colonel Wade at West
+  Point he wrote: "Arnold has gone to the enemy; you are in
+  command, be vigilant." To Jameson he sent word to guard
+  Andr&eacute; closely. To the colonels and commanders of various
+  outlying regiments he sent orders to bring up their troops.
+  Everything was done that should have been done, quickly, quietly,
+  and without comment. The most sudden and appalling treachery had
+  failed to shake his nerve, or confuse his mind.</p>
+
+  <p>Yet the strong and silent man was wrung to the quick, and when
+  everything possible had been done, and he had retired to his
+  room, the guard outside the door heard him marching back and
+  forth through all the weary night. The one thing he least
+  expected, because he least understood it, had come to pass. He
+  had been a good and true friend to the villain who had fled, for
+  Arnold's reckless bravery and dare-devil fighting had appealed to
+  the strongest passion of his nature, and he had stood by him
+  always. He had grieved over the refusal of Congress to promote
+  him in due order and had interceded with ultimate success in his
+  behalf. He had sympathized with him in his recent troubles in
+  Philadelphia, and had administered the reprimand awarded by the
+  court-martial so that rebuke seemed turned to praise. He had
+  sought to give him every opportunity that a soldier could desire,
+  and had finally conferred upon him the command of West Point. He
+  had admired his courage and palliated his misconduct, and now the
+  scoundrel had turned on him and fled. Mingled with the bitterness
+  of these memories of betrayed confidence was the torturing
+  ignorance of how far this base treachery had extended. For all he
+  knew there might be a brood of traitors about him in the very
+  citadel of America. We can never know Washington's thoughts at
+  that time, for he was ever silent, but as we listen in
+  imagination to the sound of the even footfalls which the guard
+  heard all through that September night, we can dimly guess the
+  feelings of the strong and passionate nature, wounded and
+  distressed almost beyond endurance.</p>
+
+  <p>There is but little more to tell. The conspiracy stopped with
+  Arnold. He had no accomplices, and meant to deliver the post and
+  pocket the booty alone. The British tried to spread the idea that
+  other officers had been corrupted, but the attempt failed, and
+  Washington's prompt measures of defense checked any movement
+  against the forts. Every effort was made by Clinton to save
+  Andr&eacute;, but in vain. He was tried by a court composed of
+  the highest officers in the American service, among whom was
+  Lafayette. On his own statement, but one decision was possible.
+  He was condemned as a spy, and as a spy he was sentenced to be
+  hanged. He made a manly appeal against the manner of his death,
+  and begged to be shot. Washington declined to interfere, and
+  Andr&eacute; went to the gallows.</p>
+
+  <p>The British, at the time, and some of their writers
+  afterwards, attacked Washington for insisting on this mode of
+  execution, but there never was an instance in his career when he
+  was more entirely right. Andr&eacute; was a spy and briber, who
+  sought to ruin the American cause by means of the treachery of an
+  American general. It was a dark and dangerous game, and he knew
+  that he staked his life on the result. He failed, and paid the
+  penalty. Washington could not permit, he would have been grossly
+  and feebly culpable if he had permitted, such an attempt to pass
+  without extreme punishment. He was generous and magnanimous, but
+  he was not a sentimentalist, and he punished this miserable
+  treason, so far as he could reach it, as it deserved. It is true
+  that Andr&eacute; was a man of talent, well-bred and courageous,
+  and of engaging manners. He deserved all the sympathy and sorrow
+  which he excited at the time, but nothing more. He was not only
+  technically a spy, but he had sought his ends by bribery, he had
+  prostituted a flag of truce, and he was to be richly paid for his
+  work. It was all hire and salary. No doubt Andr&eacute; was
+  patriotic and loyal. Many spies have been the same, and have
+  engaged in their dangerous exploits from the highest motives.
+  Nathan Hale, whom the British hanged without compunction, was as
+  well-born and well-bred as Andr&eacute;, and as patriotic as man
+  could be, and moreover he was a spy and nothing more.
+  Andr&eacute; was a trafficker in bribes and treachery, and
+  however we may pity his fate, his name has no proper place in the
+  great temple at Westminster, where all English-speaking people
+  bow with reverence, and only a most perverted sentimentality
+  could conceive that it was fitting to erect a monument to his
+  memory in this country.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington sent Andr&eacute; to the gallows because it was his
+  duty to do so, but he pitied him none the less, and whatever he
+  may have thought of the means Andr&eacute; employed to effect his
+  end, he made no comment upon him, except to say that "he met his
+  fate with that fortitude which was to be expected from an
+  accomplished man and gallant officer." As to Arnold, he was
+  almost equally silent. When obliged to refer to him he did so in
+  the plainest and simplest way, and only in a familiar letter to
+  Laurens do we get a glimpse of his feelings. He wrote: "I am
+  mistaken if at this time Arnold is undergoing the torment of a
+  mental hell. He wants feeling. From some traits of his character
+  which have lately come to my knowledge, he seems to have been so
+  hackneyed in villainy, and so lost to all sense of honor and
+  shame, that, while his faculties will enable him to continue his
+  sordid pursuits, there will be no time for remorse." With this
+  single expression of measureless contempt, Washington let Arnold
+  drop from his life. The first shock had touched him to the quick,
+  although it could not shake his steady mind. Reflection revealed
+  to him the extraordinary baseness of Arnold's real character, and
+  he cast the thought of him out forever, content to leave the
+  traitor to the tender mercies of history. The calmness and
+  dignity, the firmness and deep feeling which Washington
+  exhibited, are of far more interest than the abortive treason,
+  and have as real a value now as they had then, when suspicion for
+  a moment ran riot, and men wondered "whom they could trust."</p>
+
+  <p>The treason of Arnold swept like a black cloud across the sky,
+  broke, and left everything as before. That such a base peril
+  should have existed was alarming and hateful. That it should have
+  been exploded harmlessly made all men give a deep sigh of relief.
+  But neither the treason nor its discovery altered the current of
+  events one jot. The summer had come and gone. The French had
+  arrived, and no blow had been struck. There was nothing to show
+  for the campaign but inaction, disappointment, and the loss of
+  the Carolinas. With the commander-in-chief, through it all, were
+  ever present two great questions, getting more portentous and
+  more difficult of solution with each succeeding day. How he was
+  to keep his army in existence was one, and how he was to hold the
+  government together was the other. He had thirteen tired States,
+  a general government almost impotent, a bankrupt treasury, and a
+  broken credit. The American Revolution had come down to the
+  question of whether the brain, will, and nerve of one man could
+  keep the machine going long enough to find fit opportunity for a
+  final and decisive stroke. Washington had confidence in the
+  people of the country and in himself, but the difficulties in the
+  way were huge, and the means of surmounting them slight. There is
+  here and there a passionate undertone in the letters of this
+  period, which shows us the moments when the waves of trouble and
+  disaster seemed to sweep over him. But the feeling passed, or was
+  trampled under foot, for there was no break in the steady fight
+  against untoward circumstances, or in the grim refusal to accept
+  defeat.</p>
+
+  <p>It is almost impossible now to conceive the actual condition
+  at that time of every matter of detail which makes military and
+  political existence possible. No general phrases can do justice
+  to the situation of the army; and the petty miseries and
+  privations, which made life unendurable, went on from day to day
+  in ever varying forms. While Washington was hearing the first ill
+  news from the south and struggling with the problem on that side,
+  and at the same time was planning with Lafayette how to take
+  advantage of the French succors, the means of subsisting his army
+  were wholly giving out. The men actually had no food. For days,
+  as Washington wrote, there was no meat at all in camp. Goaded by
+  hunger, a Connecticut regiment mutinied. They were brought back
+  to duty, but held out steadily for their pay, which they had not
+  received for five months. Indeed, the whole army was more or less
+  mutinous, and it was only by the utmost tact that Washington kept
+  them from wholesale desertion. After the summer had passed and
+  the chance for a decisive campaign had gone with it, the
+  excitement of expected action ceased to sustain the men, and the
+  unclothed, unpaid, unfed soldiers began again to get restive. We
+  can imagine what the condition of the rank and file must have
+  been when we find that Washington himself could not procure an
+  express from the quartermaster-general, and was obliged to send a
+  letter to the Minister of France by the unsafe and slow medium of
+  the post. He was expected to carry on a war against a rich and
+  powerful enemy, and he could not even pay a courier to carry his
+  dispatches.</p>
+
+  <p>With the commander-in-chief thus straitened, the sufferings of
+  the men grew to be intolerable, and the spirit of revolt which
+  had been checked through the summer began again to appear. At
+  last, in January, 1781, it burst all the bounds. The Pennsylvania
+  line mutinied and threatened Congress. Attempts on the part of
+  the English to seduce them failed, but they remained in a state
+  of open rebellion. The officers were powerless, and it looked as
+  if the disaffection would spread, and the whole army go to pieces
+  in the very face of the enemy. Washington held firm, and intended
+  in his unshaken way to bring them back to their duty without
+  yielding in a dangerous fashion. But the government of
+  Pennsylvania, at last thoroughly frightened, rushed into the
+  field, and patched up a compromise which contained most perilous
+  concessions. The natural consequence was a fresh mutiny in the
+  New Jersey line, and this time Washington determined that he
+  would not be forestalled. He sent forward at once some regiments
+  of loyal troops, suppressed the mutiny suddenly and with a strong
+  hand, and hanged two of the ringleaders. The difficulty was
+  conquered, and discipline restored.</p>
+
+  <p>To take this course required great boldness, for these
+  mutinies were of no ordinary character. In the first place, it
+  was impossible to tell whether any troops would do their duty
+  against their fellows, and failure would have been fatal. In the
+  second place, the grievances of the soldiers were very great, and
+  their complaints were entirely righteous. Washington felt the
+  profoundest sympathy with his men, and it was no easy matter to
+  maintain order with soldiers tried almost beyond endurance,
+  against their comrades whose claims were just. Two things saved
+  the army. One was Washington's great influence with the men and
+  their utter belief in him. The other was the quality of the men
+  themselves. Lafayette said they were the most patient and
+  patriotic soldiers the world had seen, and it is easy to believe
+  him. The wonder is, not that they mutinied when they did, but
+  that the whole army had not mutinied and abandoned the struggle
+  years before. The misfortunes and mistakes of the Revolution, to
+  whomever due, were in no respect to be charged to the army, and
+  the conduct of the troops through all the dreary months of
+  starvation and cold and poverty is a proof of the intelligent
+  patriotism and patient courage of the American soldier which can
+  never be gainsaid. To fight successful battles is the test of a
+  good general, but to hold together a suffering army through years
+  of unexampled privations, to meet endless failure of details with
+  unending expedients, and then to fight battles and plan
+  campaigns, shows a leader who was far more than a good general.
+  Such multiplied trials and difficulties are overcome only by a
+  great soldier who with small means achieves large results, and by
+  a great man who by force of will and character can establish with
+  all who follow him a power which no miseries can conquer, and no
+  suffering diminish.</p>
+
+  <p>The height reached by the troubles in the army and their
+  menacing character had, however, a good as well as a bad side.
+  They penetrated the indifference and carelessness of both
+  Congress and the States. Gentlemen in the confederate and local
+  administrations and legislatures woke up to a realizing sense
+  that the dissolution of the army meant a general wreck, in which
+  their own necks would be in very considerable danger; and they
+  also had an uneasy feeling that starving and mutinous soldiers
+  were very uncertain in taking revenge. The condition of the army
+  gave a sudden and piercing reality to Washington's indignant
+  words to Mathews on October 4: "At a time when public harmony is
+  so essential, when we should aid and assist each other with all
+  our abilities, when our hearts should be open to information and
+  our hands ready to administer relief, to find distrusts and
+  jealousies taking possession of the mind and a party spirit
+  prevailing affords a most melancholy reflection, and forebodes no
+  good." The hoarse murmur of impending mutiny emphasized strongly
+  the words written on the same day to Duane: "The history of the
+  war is a history of false hopes and temporary expedients. Would
+  to God they were to end here."</p>
+
+  <p>The events in the south, too, had a sobering effect. The
+  congressional general Gates had not proved a success. His defeat
+  at Camden had been terribly complete, and his flight had been too
+  rapid to inspire confidence in his capacity for recuperation. The
+  members of Congress were thus led to believe that as managers of
+  military matters they left much to be desired; and when
+  Washington, on October 11, addressed to them one of his long and
+  admirable letters on reorganization, it was received in a very
+  chastened spirit. They had listened to many such letters before,
+  and had benefited by them always a little, but danger and defeat
+  gave this one peculiar point. They therefore accepted the
+  situation, and adopted all the suggestions of the
+  commander-in-chief. They also in the same reasonable frame of
+  mind determined that Washington should select the next general
+  for the southern army. A good deal could have been saved had this
+  decision been reached before; but even now it was not too late.
+  October 14, Washington appointed Greene to this post of
+  difficulty and danger, and Greene's assumption of the command
+  marks the turning-point in the tide of disaster, and the
+  beginning of the ultimate expulsion of the British from the only
+  portion of the colonies where they had made a tolerable
+  campaign.</p>
+
+  <p>The uses of adversity, moreover, did not stop here. They
+  extended to the States, which began to grow more vigorous in
+  action, and to show signs of appreciating the gravity of the
+  situation and the duties which rested upon them. This change and
+  improvement both in Congress and the States came none too soon.
+  Indeed, as it was, the results of their renewed efforts were too
+  slow to be felt at once by the army, and mutinies broke out even
+  after the new spirit had shown itself. Washington also sent Knox
+  to travel from State to State, to see the various governors, and
+  lay the situation of affairs before them; yet even with such a
+  text it was a difficult struggle to get the States to make quick
+  and strong exertions sufficient to prevent a partial mutiny from
+  becoming a general revolt. The lesson, however, had had its
+  effect. For the moment, at least, the cause was saved. The worst
+  defects were temporarily remedied, and something was done toward
+  supplies and subsistence. The army would be able to exist through
+  another winter, and face another summer. Then the next campaign
+  might bring the decisive moment; but still, who could tell?
+  Years, instead of months, might yet elapse before the end was
+  reached, and then no man could say what the result would be.</p>
+
+  <p>Washington saw plainly enough that the relief and improvement
+  were only temporary, and that carelessness and indifference were
+  likely to return, and be more case-hardened than ever. He was too
+  strong and sane a man to waste time in fighting shadows or in
+  nourishing himself with hopes. He dealt with the present as he
+  found it, and fought down difficulties as they sprang up in his
+  path. But he was also a man of extraordinary prescience, with a
+  foresight as penetrating as it was judicious. It was, perhaps,
+  his most remarkable gift, and while he controlled the present he
+  studied the future. Outside of the operations of armies, and the
+  plans of campaign, he saw, as the war progressed, that the really
+  fatal perils were involved in the political system. At the
+  beginning of the Revolution there was no organization outside the
+  local state governments. Congress voted and resolved in favor of
+  anything that seemed proper, and the States responded to their
+  appeal. In the first flush of revolution, and the first
+  excitement of freedom, this was all very well. But as the early
+  passion cooled, and a long and stubborn struggle, replete with
+  sufferings and defeat, developed itself, the want of system began
+  to appear.</p>
+
+  <p>One of the earliest tasks of Congress was the formation of
+  articles for a general government, but state jealousies, and the
+  delays incident to the movements of thirteen sovereignties,
+  prevented their adoption until the war was nearly over.
+  Washington, suffering from all the complicated troubles of
+  jarring States and general incoherence, longed for and urged the
+  adoption of the act of confederation. He saw sooner than any one
+  else, and with more painful intensity, the need of better union
+  and more energetic government. As the days and months of
+  difficulties and trials went by, the suggestions on this question
+  in his letters grew more frequent and more urgent, and they
+  showed the insight of the statesman and practical man of affairs.
+  How much he hoped from the final acceptance of the act of
+  confederation it is not easy to say, but he hoped for some
+  improvement certainly. When at last it went into force, he saw
+  almost at once that it would not do, and in the spring of 1780 he
+  knew it to be a miserable failure. The system which had been
+  established was really no better than that which had preceded it.
+  With alarm and disgust Washington found himself flung back on
+  what he called "the pernicious state system," and with worse
+  prospects than ever.</p>
+
+  <p>Up to the time of the Revolution he had never given attention
+  to the philosophy or science of government, but when it fell to
+  his lot to fight the war for independence he perceived almost
+  immediately the need of a strong central government, and his
+  suggestions, scattered broadcast among his correspondents,
+  manifested a knowledge of the conditions of the political problem
+  possessed by no one else at that period. When he was satisfied of
+  the failure of the confederation, his efforts to improve the
+  existing administration multiplied, and he soon had the
+  assistance of his aide-de-camp, Alexander Hamilton, who then
+  wrote, although little more than a boy, his remarkable letters on
+  government and finance, which were the first full expositions of
+  the political necessities from which sprang the Constitution of
+  the United States. Washington was vigorous in action and
+  methodical in business, while the system of thirteen
+  sovereignties was discordant, disorderly, and feeble in
+  execution. He knew that the vices inherent in the confederation
+  were ineradicable and fatal, and he also knew that it was useless
+  to expect any comprehensive reforms until the war was over. The
+  problem before him was whether the existing machine could be made
+  to work until the British were finally driven from the country.
+  The winter of 1780-81 was marked, therefore, on his part, by an
+  urgent striving for union, and by unceasing efforts to mend and
+  improve the rickety system of the confederation. It was with this
+  view that he secured the dispatch of Laurens, whom he carefully
+  instructed, to get money in Paris; for he was satisfied that it
+  was only possible to tide over the financial difficulties by
+  foreign loans from those interested in our success. In the same
+  spirit he worked to bring about the establishment of executive
+  departments, which was finally accomplished, after delays that
+  sorely tried his patience. These two cases were but the most
+  important among many of similar character, for he was always at
+  work on these perplexing questions.</p>
+
+  <p>It is an astonishing proof of the strength and power of his
+  mind that he was able to solve the daily questions of army
+  existence, to deal with the allies, to plan attacks on New York,
+  to watch and scheme for the southern department, to cope with
+  Arnold's treason, with mutiny, and with administrative
+  imbecility, and at the very same time consider the gravest
+  governmental problems, and send forth wise suggestions, which met
+  the exigencies of the moment, and laid the foundation of much
+  that afterwards appeared in the Constitution of the United
+  States. He was not a speculator on government, and after his
+  fashion he was engaged in dealing with the questions of the day
+  and hour. Yet the ideas that he put forth in this time of
+  confusion and conflict and expedients were so vitally sound and
+  wise that they deserve the most careful study in relation to
+  after events. The political trials and difficulties of this
+  period were the stern teachers from whom Washington acquired the
+  knowledge and experience which made him the principal agent in
+  bringing about the formation and adoption of the Constitution of
+  the United States. We shall have occasion to examine these
+  opinions and views more closely when they were afterwards brought
+  into actual play. At this point it is only necessary to trace the
+  history of the methods by which he solved the problem of the
+  Revolution before the political system of the confederation
+  became absolutely useless.</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <h2><a name="X" id="X"></a> CHAPTER X</h2>
+
+  <h2>YORKTOWN</h2>
+
+  <p>The failure to accomplish anything in the north caused
+  Washington, as the year drew to a close, to turn his thoughts
+  once more toward a combined movement at the south. In pursuance
+  of this idea, he devised a scheme of uniting with the Spaniards
+  in the seizure of Florida, and of advancing thence through
+  Georgia to assail the English in the rear. De Rochambeau did not
+  approve the plan, and it was abandoned; but the idea of a
+  southern movement was still kept steadily in sight. The governing
+  thought now was, not to protect this place or that, but to cast
+  aside everything else in order to strike one great blow which
+  would finish the war. Where he could do this, time alone would
+  show, but if one follows the correspondence closely, it is
+  apparent that Washington's military instinct turned more and more
+  toward the south.</p>
+
+  <p>In that department affairs changed their aspect rapidly.
+  January 17, Morgan won his brilliant victory at the Cowpens,
+  withdrew in good order with his prisoners, and united his army
+  with that of Greene. Cornwallis was terribly disappointed by this
+  unexpected reverse, but he determined to push on, defeat the
+  combined American army, and then join the British forces on the
+  Chesapeake. Greene was too weak to risk a battle, and made a
+  masterly retreat of two hundred miles before Cornwallis, escaping
+  across the Dan only twelve hours ahead of the enemy. The moment
+  the British moved away, Greene recrossed the river and hung upon
+  their rear. For a month he kept in their neighborhood, checking
+  the rising of the Tories, and declining battle. At last he
+  received reinforcements, felt strong enough to stand his ground,
+  and on March 15 the battle of Guilford Court House was fought. It
+  was a sharp and bloody fight; the British had the advantage, and
+  Greene abandoned the field, bringing off his army in good order.
+  Cornwallis, on his part, had suffered so heavily, however, that
+  his victory turned to ashes. On the 18th he was in full retreat,
+  with Greene in hot chase, and it was not until the 28th that he
+  succeeded in getting over the Deep River and escaping to
+  Wilmington. Thence he determined to push on and transfer the seat
+  of war to the Chesapeake. Greene, with the boldness and quickness
+  which showed him to be a soldier of a high order, now dropped the
+  pursuit and turned back to fight the British in detachments and
+  free the southern States. There is no need to follow him in the
+  brilliant operations which ensued, and by which he achieved this
+  result. It is sufficient to say here that he had altered the
+  whole aspect of the war, forced Cornwallis into Virginia within
+  reach of Washington, and begun the work of redeeming the
+  Carolinas.</p>
+
+  <p>The troops which Cornwallis intended to join had been sent in
+  detachments to Virginia during the winter and spring. The first
+  body had arrived early in January under the command of Arnold,
+  and a general marauding and ravaging took place. A little later
+  General Phillips arrived with reinforcements and took command. On
+  May 13, General Phillips died, and a week later Cornwallis
+  appeared at Petersburg, assumed control, and sent Arnold back to
+  New York.</p>
+
+  <p>Meantime Washington, though relieved by Morgan's and Greene's
+  admirable work, had a most trying and unhappy winter and spring.
+  He sent every man he could spare, and more than he ought to have
+  spared, to Greene, and he stripped himself still further when the
+  invasion of Virginia began. But for the most part he was obliged,
+  from lack of any naval strength, to stand helplessly by and see
+  more and more British troops sent to the south, and witness the
+  ravaging of his native State, without any ability to prevent it.
+  To these grave trials was added a small one, which stung him to
+  the quick. The British came up the Potomac, and Lund Washington,
+  in order to preserve Mount Vernon, gave them refreshments, and
+  treated them in a conciliatory manner. He meant well but acted
+  ill, and Washington wrote:&mdash;</p>
+
+  <p>"It would have been a less painful circumstance to me to have
+  heard that, in consequence of your non-compliance with their
+  request, they had burnt my house and laid the plantation in
+  ruins. You ought to have considered yourself as my
+  representative, and should have reflected on the bad example of
+  communicating with the enemy, and making a voluntary offer of
+  refreshments to them, with a view to prevent a
+  conflagration."</p>
+
+  <p>What a clear glimpse this little episode gives of the
+  earnestness of the man who wrote these lines. He could not bear
+  the thought that any favor should be shown him on any pretense.
+  He was ready to take his share of the marauding and pillaging
+  with the rest, but he was deeply indignant at the idea that any
+  one representing him should even appear to ask a favor of the
+  British.</p>
+
+  <p>Altogether, the spring of 1781 was very trying, for there was
+  nothing so galling to Washington as to be unable to fight. He
+  wanted to get to the south, but he was bound hand and foot by
+  lack of force. Yet the obstacles did not daunt or depress him. He
+  wrote in June that he felt sure of bringing the war to a happy
+  conclusion, and in the division of the British forces he saw his
+  opportunity taking shape. Greene had the southern forces well in
+  hand. Cornwallis was equally removed from Clinton on the north
+  and Rawdon on the south, and had come within reach; so that if he
+  could but have naval strength he could fall upon Cornwallis with
+  superior force and crush him. In naval matters fortune thus far
+  had dealt hardly with him, yet he could not but feel that a
+  French fleet of sufficient force must soon come. He grasped the
+  situation with a master-hand, and began to prepare the way. Still
+  he kept his counsel strictly to himself, and set to work to
+  threaten, and if possible to attack, New York, not with much hope
+  of succeeding in any such attempt, but with a view of frightening
+  Clinton and of inducing him either to withdraw troops from
+  Virginia, or at least to withhold reinforcements. As he began his
+  Virginian campaign in this distant and remote fashion at the
+  mouth of the Hudson, he was cheered by news that De Grasse, the
+  French admiral, had sent recruits to Newport, and intended to
+  come himself to the American coast. He at once wrote De Grasse
+  not to determine absolutely to come to New York, hinting that it
+  might prove more advisable to operate to the southward. It
+  required great tact to keep the French fleet where he needed it,
+  and yet not reveal his intentions, and nothing showed
+  Washington's foresight more plainly than the manner in which he
+  made the moves in this campaign, when miles of space and weeks of
+  time separated him from the final object of his plans. To trace
+  this mastery of details, and the skill with which every point was
+  remembered and covered, would require a long and minute
+  narrative. They can only be indicated here sufficiently to show
+  how exactly each movement fitted in its place, and how all
+  together brought the great result.</p>
+
+  <p>Fortified by the good news from De Grasse, Washington had an
+  interview with De Rochambeau, and effected a junction with the
+  French army. Thus strengthened, he opened his campaign against
+  Cornwallis by beginning a movement against Clinton. The troops
+  were massed above the city, and an effort was made to surprise
+  the upper posts and destroy Delancey's partisan corps. The
+  attempt, although well planned, failed of its immediate purpose,
+  giving Washington opportunity only for an effective
+  reconnoissance of the enemy's positions. But the move was
+  perfectly successful in its real and indirect object. Clinton was
+  alarmed. He began to write to Cornwallis that troops should be
+  returned to New York, and he gave up absolutely the idea of
+  sending more men to Virginia. Having thus convinced Clinton that
+  New York was menaced, Washington then set to work to familiarize
+  skillfully the minds of his allies and of Congress with the idea
+  of a southern campaign. With this end in view, he wrote on August
+  2 that, if more troops arrived from Virginia, New York would be
+  impracticable, and that the next point was the south. The only
+  contingency, as he set forth, was the all-important one of
+  obtaining naval superiority. August 15 this essential condition
+  gave promise of fulfillment, for on that day definite news
+  arrived that De Grasse with his fleet was on his way to the
+  Chesapeake. Without a moment's hesitation, Washington began to
+  move, and at the same time he sent an urgent letter to the New
+  England governors, demanding troops with an earnestness which he
+  had never surpassed.</p>
+
+  <p>In Virginia, meanwhile, during these long midsummer days,
+  while Washington was waiting and planning, Cornwallis had been
+  going up and down, harrying, burning, and plundering. His cavalry
+  had scattered the legislature, and driven Governor Jefferson in
+  headlong flight over the hills, while property to the value of
+  more than three millions had been destroyed. Lafayette, sent by
+  Washington to maintain the American cause, had been too weak to
+  act decisively, but he had been true to his general's teaching,
+  and, refusing battle, had hung upon the flanks of the British and
+  harassed and checked them. Joined by Wayne, he had fought an
+  unsuccessful engagement at Green Springs, but brought off his
+  army, and with steady pertinacity followed the enemy to the
+  coast, gathering strength as he moved. Now, when all was at last
+  ready, Washington began to draw his net about Cornwallis, whom he
+  had been keenly watching during the victorious marauding of the
+  summer. On the news of the coming of the French fleet, he wrote
+  to Lafayette to be prepared to join him when he reached Virginia,
+  to retain Wayne, who intended to join Greene, and to stop
+  Cornwallis at all hazards, if he attempted to go southward.</p>
+
+  <p>Cornwallis, however, had no intention of moving. He had seen
+  the peril of his position, and had wished to withdraw to
+  Charleston; but the ministry, highly pleased with his
+  performances, wished him to remain on the Chesapeake, and
+  decisive orders came to him to take a permanent post in that
+  region. Clinton, moreover, was jealous of Cornwallis, and,
+  impressed and deceived by Washington's movements, he not only
+  sent no reinforcements, but detained three thousand Hessians, who
+  had lately arrived. Cornwallis, therefore, had no choice, and
+  with much writing for aid, and some protesting, he obeyed his
+  orders, planted himself at Yorktown and Gloucester, and proceeded
+  to fortify, while Lafayette kept close watch upon him. Cornwallis
+  was a good soldier and a clever man, suffering, as Burgoyne did,
+  from a stupid ministry and a dull and jealous commander-in-chief.
+  Thus hampered and burdened, he was ready to fall a victim to the
+  operations of a really great general, whom his official superiors
+  in England undervalued and despised.</p>
+
+  <p>August 17, as soon as he had set his own machinery in motion,
+  Washington wrote to De Grasse to meet him in the Chesapeake. He
+  was working now more anxiously and earnestly than at any time in
+  the Revolution, not merely because he felt that success depended
+  on the blow, but because he descried a new and alarming danger.
+  He had perceived it in June, and the idea pursued him until all
+  was over, and kept recurring in his letters during this strained
+  and eager summer. To Washington's eyes, watching campaigns and
+  government at home and the politics of Europe abroad, the signs
+  of exhaustion, of mediation, and of coming peace across the
+  Atlantic were plainly visible. If peace should come as things
+  then were, America would get independence, and be shorn of many
+  of her most valuable possessions. The sprawling British campaign
+  of maraud and plunder, so bad in a military point of view, and
+  about to prove fatal to Cornwallis, would, in case of sudden
+  cessation of hostilities, be capable of the worst construction.
+  Time, therefore, had become of the last importance. The decisive
+  blow must be given at once, and before the slow political
+  movements could come to a head. On July 14, Washington had his
+  plan mapped out. He wrote in his diary:&mdash;</p>
+
+  <p>"Matters having now come to a crisis, and a decided plan to be
+  determined on, I was obliged&mdash;from the shortness of Count De
+  Grasse's promised stay on this coast, the apparent disinclination
+  of their naval officers to force the harbor of New York, and the
+  feeble compliance of the States with my requisitions for men
+  hitherto, and the little prospect of greater exertions in
+  future&mdash;to give up all ideas of attacking New York, and
+  instead thereof to remove the French troops and a detachment from
+  the American army to the Head of Elk, to be transported to
+  Virginia for the purpose of co&ouml;perating with the force from
+  the West Indies against the troops in that State."</p>
+
+  <p>Like most of Washington's plans, this one was clear-cut and
+  direct, and looks now simple enough, but at the moment it was
+  hedged with almost inconceivable difficulties at every step. The
+  ever-present and ever-growing obstacles at home were there as
+  usual. Appeals to Morris for money were met by the most
+  discouraging responses, and the States seemed more lethargic than
+  ever. Neither men nor supplies could be obtained; neither
+  transportation nor provision for the march could be promised.
+  Then, too, in addition to all this, came a wholly new set of
+  stumbling-blocks arising among the allies. Everything hinged on
+  the naval force. Washington needed it for a short time only; but
+  for that crucial moment he must have not only superiority but
+  supremacy at sea. Every French ship that could be reached must be
+  in the Chesapeake, and Washington had had too many French fleets
+  slip away from him at the last moment and bring everything to
+  naught to take any chances in this direction. To bring about his
+  naval supremacy required the utmost tact and good management, and
+  that he succeeded is one of the chief triumphs of the campaign.
+  In fact, at the very outset he was threatened in this quarter
+  with a serious defection. De Barras, with the squadron of the
+  American station, was at Boston, and it was essential that he
+  should be united with De Grasse at Yorktown. But De Barras was
+  nettled by the favoritism which had made De Grasse, his junior in
+  service, his superior in command. He determined therefore to take
+  advantage of his orders and sail away to the north to Nova Scotia
+  and Newfoundland, and leave De Grasse to fight it out alone. It
+  is a hard thing to beat an opposing army, but it is equally hard
+  to bring human jealousies and ambitions into the narrow path of
+  self-sacrifice and subordination. Alarmed beyond measure at the
+  suggested departure of the Boston squadron, Washington wrote a
+  letter, which De Rochambeau signed with him, urging De Barras to
+  turn his fleet toward the Chesapeake. It was a skillfully drawn
+  missive, an adroit mingling of appeals to honor and sympathy and
+  of vigorous demands to perform an obvious duty. The letter did
+  its work, the diplomacy of Washington was successful, and De
+  Barras suppressed his feelings of disappointment, and agreed to
+  go to the Chesapeake and serve under De Grasse.</p>
+
+  <p>This point made, Washington pushed on his preparations, or
+  rather pushed on despite his lack of preparations, and on August
+  17, as has been said, wrote to De Grasse to meet him in the
+  Chesapeake. He left the larger part of his own troops with Heath,
+  to whom in carefully drawn instructions he intrusted the grave
+  duty of guarding the Hudson and watching the British in New York.
+  This done, he gathered his forces together, and on August 21 the
+  army started on its march to the south. On the 23d and 24th it
+  crossed the Hudson, without annoyance from the British of any
+  kind. Washington had threatened New York so effectively, and
+  manoeuvred so successfully, that Clinton could not be shaken in
+  his belief that the real object of the Americans was his own
+  army; and it was not until September 6 that he fully realized
+  that his enemy was going to the south, and that Cornwallis was in
+  danger. He even then hesitated and delayed, but finally
+  dispatched Admiral Graves with the fleet to the Chesapeake. The
+  Admiral came upon the French early on September 5, the very day
+  that Washington was rejoicing in the news that De Grasse had
+  arrived in the Chesapeake and had landed St. Simon and three
+  thousand men to support Lafayette. As soon as the English fleet
+  appeared, the French, although many of their men were on shore,
+  sailed out and gave battle. An indecisive action ensued, in which
+  the British suffered so much that five days later they burned one
+  of their frigates and withdrew to New York. De Grasse returned to
+  his anchorage, to find that De Barras had come in from Newport
+  with eight ships and ten transports carrying ordnance.</p>
+
+  <p>While everything was thus moving well toward the consummation
+  of the campaign, Washington, in the midst of his delicate and
+  important work of breaking camp and beginning his rapid march to
+  the south, was harassed by the ever-recurring difficulties of the
+  feeble and bankrupt government of the confederation. He wrote
+  again and again to Morris for money, and finally got some. His
+  demands for men and supplies remained almost unheeded, but
+  somehow he got provisions enough to start. He foresaw the most
+  pressing need, and sent messages in all directions for shipping
+  to transport his army down the Chesapeake. No one responded, but
+  still he gathered the transports; at first a few, then more, and
+  finally, after many delays, enough to move his army to Yorktown.
+  The spectacle of such a struggle, so heroically made, one would
+  think, might have inspired every soul on the continent with
+  enthusiasm; but at this very moment, while Washington was
+  breaking camp and marching southward, Congress was considering
+  the reduction of the army!&mdash;which was as appropriate as it
+  would have been for the English Parliament to have reduced the
+  navy on the eve of Trafalgar, or for Lincoln to have advised the
+  restoration of the army to a peace footing while Grant was
+  fighting in the Wilderness. The fact was that the Continental
+  Congress was weakened in ability and very tired in point of nerve
+  and will-power. They saw that peace was coming, and naturally
+  thought that the sooner they could get it the better. They
+  entirely failed to see, as Washington saw, that in a too sudden
+  peace lurked the danger of the <i>uti possidetis</i>, and that
+  the mere fact of peace by no means implied necessarily complete
+  success. They did not, of course, effect their reductions, but
+  they remained inert, and so for the most part did the state
+  governments, becoming drags upon the wheels of war instead of
+  helpers to the man who was driving the Revolution forward to its
+  goal. Both state and confederate governments still meant well,
+  but they were worn out and relaxed. Yet over and through all
+  these heavy masses of misapprehension and feebleness, Washington
+  made his way. Here again all that can be said is that somehow or
+  other the thing was done. We can take account of the resisting
+  forces, but we cannot tell just how they were dealt with. We only
+  know that one strong man trampled them down and got what he
+  wanted done.</p>
+
+  <p>Pushing on after the joyful news of the arrival of De Grasse
+  had been received, Washington left the army to go by water from
+  the Head of Elk, and hurried to Mount Vernon, accompanied by De
+  Rochambeau. It was six years since he had seen his home. He had
+  left it a Virginian colonel, full of forebodings for his country,
+  with a vast and unknown problem awaiting solution at his hands.
+  He returned to it the first soldier of his day, after six years
+  of battle and trial, of victory and defeat, on the eve of the
+  last and crowning triumph. As he paused on the well-beloved spot,
+  and gazed across the broad and beautiful river at his feet,
+  thoughts and remembrances must have come thronging to his mind
+  which it is given to few men to know. He lingered there two days,
+  and then pressing on again, was in Williamsburg on the 14th, and
+  on the 17th went on board the Ville de Paris to congratulate De
+  Grasse on his victory, and to concert measures for the siege.</p>
+
+  <p>The meeting was most agreeable. All had gone well, all
+  promised well, and everything was smiling and harmonious. Yet
+  they were on the eve of the greatest peril which occurred in the
+  campaign. Washington had managed to scrape together enough
+  transports; but his almost unassisted labors had taken time, and
+  delay had followed. Then the transports were slow, and winds and
+  tides were uncertain, and there was further delay. The interval
+  permitted De Grasse to hear that the British fleet had received
+  reinforcements, and to become nervous in consequence. He wanted
+  to get out to sea; the season was advancing, and he was anxious
+  to return to the West Indies; and above all he did not wish to
+  fight in the bay. He therefore proposed firmly and vigorously to
+  leave two ships in the river, and stand out to sea with his
+  fleet. The Yorktown campaign began to look as if it had reached
+  its conclusion. Once again Washington wrote one of his masterly
+  letters of expostulation and remonstrance, and once more he
+  prevailed, aided by the reasoning and appeals of Lafayette, who
+  carried the message. De Grasse consented to stay, and Washington,
+  grateful beyond measure, wrote him that "a great mind knows how
+  to make personal sacrifice to secure an important general good."
+  Under the circumstances, and in view of the general truth of this
+  complimentary sentiment, one cannot help rejoicing that De Grasse
+  had "a great mind."</p>
+
+  <p>At all events he stayed, and thereafter everything went well.
+  The northern army landed at Williamsburg and marched for Yorktown
+  on the 28th. They reconnoitred the outlying works the next day,
+  and prepared for an immediate assault; but in the night
+  Cornwallis abandoned all his outside works and withdrew into the
+  town. Washington thereupon advanced at once, and prepared for the
+  siege. On the night of the 5th, the trenches were opened only six
+  hundred yards from the enemy's line, and in three days the first
+  parallel was completed. On the 11th the second parallel was
+  begun, and on the 14th the American batteries played on the two
+  advanced redoubts with such effect that the breaches were
+  pronounced practicable. Washington at once ordered an assault.
+  The smaller redoubt was stormed by the Americans under Hamilton
+  and taken in ten minutes. The other, larger and more strongly
+  garrisoned, was carried by the French with equal gallantry, after
+  half an hour's fighting. During the assault Washington stood in
+  an embrasure of the grand battery watching the advance of the
+  men. He was always given to exposing himself recklessly when
+  there was fighting to be done, but not when he was only an
+  observer. This night, however, he was much exposed to the enemy's
+  fire. One of his aides, anxious and disturbed for his safety,
+  told him that the place was perilous. "If you think so," was the
+  quiet answer, "you are at liberty to step back." The moment was
+  too exciting, too fraught with meaning, to think of peril. The
+  old fighting spirit of Braddock's field was unchained for the
+  last time. He would have liked to head the American assault,
+  sword in hand, and as he could not do that he stood as near his
+  troops as he could, utterly regardless of the bullets whistling
+  in the air about him. Who can wonder at his intense excitement at
+  that moment? Others saw a brilliant storming of two outworks, but
+  to Washington the whole Revolution, and all the labor and thought
+  and conflict of six years were culminating in the smoke and din
+  on those redoubts, while out of the dust and heat of the sharp
+  quick fight success was coming. He had waited long, and worked
+  hard, and his whole soul went out as he watched the troops cross
+  the abattis and scale the works. He could have no thought of
+  danger then, and when all was over he turned to Knox and said,
+  "The work is done, and well done. Bring me my horse."</p>
+
+  <p>Washington was not mistaken. The work was indeed done.
+  Tarleton early in the siege had dashed out against Lauzun on the
+  other side of the river and been repulsed. Cornwallis had been
+  forced back steadily into the town, and his redoubts, as soon as
+  taken, were included in the second parallel. A sortie to retake
+  the redoubts failed, and a wild attempt to transport the army
+  across the river was stopped by a gale of wind. On the 17th
+  Cornwallis was compelled to face much bloody and useless
+  slaughter, or to surrender. He chose the latter course, and after
+  opening negotiations and trying in vain to obtain delay, finally
+  signed the capitulation and gave up the town. The next day the
+  troops marched out and laid down their arms. Over 7000 British
+  and Hessian troops surrendered. It was a crushing defeat. The
+  victorious army consisted in round numbers of 5500 continentals,
+  3500 militia, and 7000 French, and they were backed by the French
+  fleet with entire control of the sea.</p>
+
+  <p>When Washington had once reached Yorktown with his fleet and
+  army, the campaign was really at an end, for he held Cornwallis
+  in an iron grip from which there was no escape. The masterly part
+  of the Yorktown campaign lay in the manner in which it was
+  brought about, in the management of so many elements, and in the
+  rapidity of movement which carried an army without any proper
+  supplies or means of transportation from New York to the mouth of
+  Chesapeake Bay. The control of the sea had been the great
+  advantage of the British from the beginning, and had enabled them
+  to achieve all that they ever gained. With these odds against
+  him, with no possibility of obtaining a fleet of his own,
+  Washington saw that his only chance of bringing the war to a
+  quick and successful issue was by means of the French. It is
+  difficult to manage allied troops. It is still more difficult to
+  manage allied troops and an allied fleet. Washington did both
+  with infinite address, and won. The chief factor of his success
+  in this direction lay in his profound personal influence on all
+  men with whom he came in contact. His courtesy and tact were
+  perfect, but he made no concessions, and never stooped. The
+  proudest French noble who came here shrank from disagreement with
+  the American general, and yet not one of them had anything but
+  admiration and respect to express when they wrote of Washington
+  in their memoirs, diaries, and letters. He impressed them one and
+  all with a sense of power and greatness which could not be
+  disregarded. Many times he failed to get the French fleet in
+  co&ouml;peration, but finally it came. Then he put forth all his
+  influence and all his address, and thus he got De Barras to the
+  Chesapeake, and kept De Grasse at Yorktown.</p>
+
+  <p>This was one side of the problem, the most essential because
+  everything hinged on the fleet, but by no means the most
+  harassing. The doubt about the control of the sea made it
+  impossible to work steadily for a sufficient time toward any one
+  end. It was necessary to have a plan for every contingency, and
+  be ready to adopt any one of several plans at short notice. With
+  a foresight and judgment that never failed, Washington planned an
+  attack on New York, another on Yorktown, and a third on
+  Charleston. The division of the British forces gave him his
+  opportunity of striking at one point with an overwhelming force,
+  but there was always the possibility of their suddenly reuniting.
+  In the extreme south he felt reasonably sure that Greene would
+  hold Rawdon, but he was obliged to deceive and amuse Clinton, and
+  at the same time, with a ridiculously inferior force, to keep
+  Cornwallis from marching to South Carolina. Partly by good
+  fortune, partly by skill, Cornwallis was kept in Virginia, while
+  by admirably managed feints and threats Clinton was held in New
+  York in inactivity. When the decisive moment came, and it was
+  evident that the control of the sea was to be determined in the
+  Chesapeake, Washington, overriding all sorts of obstacles, moved
+  forward, despite a bankrupt and inert government, with a rapidity
+  and daring which have been rarely equaled. It was a bold stroke
+  to leave Clinton behind at the mouth of the Hudson, and only the
+  quickness with which it was done, and the careful deception which
+  had been practiced, made it possible. Once at Yorktown, there was
+  little more to do. The combination was so perfect, and the
+  judgment had been so sure, that Cornwallis was crushed as
+  helplessly as if he had been thrown before the car of Juggernaut.
+  There was really but little fighting, for there was no
+  opportunity to fight. Washington held the British in a vice, and
+  the utter helplessness of Cornwallis, the entire inability of
+  such a good and gallant soldier even to struggle, are the most
+  convincing proofs of the military genius of his antagonist.</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+  <h2><a name="XI" id="XI"></a> CHAPTER XI</h2>
+
+  <h2>PEACE</h2>
+
+  <p>Fortitude in misfortune is more common than composure in the
+  hour of victory. The bitter medicine of defeat, however
+  unpalatable, is usually extremely sobering, but the strong new
+  wine of success generally sets the heads of poor humanity
+  spinning, and leads often to worse results than folly. The
+  capture of Cornwallis was enough to have turned the strongest
+  head, for the moment at least, but it had no apparent effect upon
+  the man who had brought it to pass, and who, more than any one
+  else, knew what it meant. Unshaken and undismayed in the New
+  Jersey winter, and among the complicated miseries of Valley
+  Forge, Washington turned from the spectacle of a powerful British
+  army laying down their arms as coolly as if he had merely fought
+  a successful skirmish, or repelled a dangerous raid. He had that
+  rare gift, the attribute of the strongest minds, of leaving the
+  past to take care of itself. He never fretted over what could not
+  be undone, nor dallied among pleasant memories while aught still
+  remained to do. He wrote to Congress in words of quiet
+  congratulation, through which pierced the devout and solemn sense
+  of the great deed accomplished, and then, while the salvos of
+  artillery were still booming in his ears, and the shouts of
+  victory were still rising about him, he set himself, after his
+  fashion, to care for the future and provide for the immediate
+  completion of his work.</p>
+
+  <p>He wrote to De Grasse, urging him to join in an immediate
+  movement against Charleston, such as he had already suggested,
+  and he presented in the strongest terms the opportunities now
+  offered for the sudden and complete ending of the struggle. But
+  the French admiral was by no means imbued with the tireless and
+  determined spirit of Washington. He had had his fill even of
+  victory, and was so eager to get back to the West Indies, where
+  he was to fall a victim to Rodney, that he would not even
+  transport troops to Wilmington. Thus deprived of the force which
+  alone made comprehensive and extended movements possible,
+  Washington returned, as he had done so often before, to making
+  the best of cramped circumstances and straitened means. He sent
+  all the troops he could spare to Greene, to help him in wresting
+  the southern States from the enemy, the work to which he had in
+  vain summoned De Grasse. This done, he prepared to go north. On
+  his way he was stopped at Eltham by the illness and death of his
+  wife's son, John Custis, a blow which he felt severely, and which
+  saddened the great victory he had just achieved. Still the
+  business of the State could not wait on private grief. He left
+  the house of mourning, and, pausing for an instant only at Mount
+  Vernon, hastened on to Philadelphia. At the very moment of
+  victory, and while honorable members were shaking each other's
+  hands and congratulating each other that the war was now really
+  over, the commander-in-chief had fallen again to writing them
+  letters in the old strain, and was once more urging them to keep
+  up the army, while he himself gave his personal attention to
+  securing a naval force for the ensuing year, through the medium
+  of Lafayette. Nothing was ever finished with Washington until it
+  was really complete throughout, and he had as little time for
+  rejoicing as he had for despondency or despair, while a British
+  force still remained in the country. He probably felt that this
+  was as untoward a time as he had ever met in a pretty large
+  experience of unsuitable occasions, for offering sound advice,
+  but he was not deterred thereby from doing it. This time,
+  however, he was destined to an agreeable disappointment, for on
+  his arrival at Philadelphia he found an excellent spirit
+  prevailing in Congress. That body was acting cheerfully on his
+  advice, it had filled the departments of the government, and set
+  on foot such measures as it could to keep up the army. So
+  Washington remained for some time at Philadelphia, helping and
+  counseling Congress in its work, and writing to the States
+  vigorous letters, demanding pay and clothing for the soldiers,
+  ever uppermost in his thoughts.</p>
+
+  <p>But although Congress was compliant, Washington could not
+  convince the country of the justice of his views, and of the
+  continued need of energetic exertion. The steady relaxation of
+  tone, which the strain of a long and trying war had produced, was
+  accelerated by the brilliant victory of Yorktown. Washington for
+  his own part had but little trust in the sense or the knowledge
+  of his enemy. He felt that Yorktown was decisive, but he also
+  thought that Great Britain would still struggle on, and that her
+  talk of peace was very probably a mere blind, to enable her to
+  gain time, and, by taking advantage of our relaxed and feeble
+  condition, to strike again in hope of winning back all that had
+  been lost. He therefore continued his appeals in behalf of the
+  army, and reiterated everywhere the necessity for fresh and ample
+  preparations.</p>
+
+  <p>As late as May 4 he wrote sharply to the States for men and
+  money, saying that the change of ministry was likely to be
+  adverse to peace, and that we were being lulled into a false and
+  fatal sense of security. A few days later, on receiving
+  information from Sir Guy Carleton of the address of the Commons
+  to the king for peace, Washington wrote to Congress: "For my own
+  part, I view our situation as such that, instead of relaxing, we
+  ought to improve the present moment as the most favorable to our
+  wishes. The British nation appear to me to be staggered, and
+  almost ready to sink beneath the accumulating weight of debt and
+  misfortune. If we follow the blow with vigor and energy, I think
+  the game is our own."</p>
+
+  <p>Again he wrote in July: "Sir Guy Carleton is using every art
+  to soothe and lull our people into a state of security. Admiral
+  Digby is capturing all our vessels, and suffocating as fast as
+  possible in prison-ships all our seamen who will not enlist into
+  the service of his Britannic Majesty; and Haldimand, with his
+  savage allies, is scalping and burning on the frontiers." Facts
+  always were the object of Washington's first regard, and while
+  gentlemen on all sides were talking of peace, war was going on,
+  and he could not understand the supineness which would permit our
+  seamen to be suffocated, and our borderers scalped, because some
+  people thought the war ought to be and practically was over.
+  While the other side was fighting, he wished to be fighting too.
+  A month later he wrote to Greene: "From the former infatuation,
+  duplicity, and perverse system of British policy, I confess I am
+  induced to doubt everything, to suspect everything." He could say
+  heartily with the Trojan priest, "Quicquid id est timeo Danaos et
+  dona ferentes." Yet again, a month later still, when the
+  negotiations were really going forward in Paris, he wrote to
+  McHenry: "If we are wise, let us prepare for the worst. There is
+  nothing which will so soon produce a speedy and honorable peace
+  as a state of preparation for war; and we must either do this, or
+  lay our account to patch up an inglorious peace, after all the
+  toil, blood, and treasure we have spent."</p>
+
+  <p>No man had done and given so much as Washington, and at the
+  same time no other man had his love of thoroughness, and his
+  indomitable fighting temper. He found few sympathizers, his words
+  fell upon deaf ears, and he was left to struggle on and maintain
+  his ground as best he might, without any substantial backing. As
+  it turned out, England was more severely wounded than he dared to
+  hope, and her desire for peace was real. But Washington's
+  distrust and the active policy which he urged were, in the
+  conditions of the moment, perfectly sound, both in a military and
+  a political point of view. It made no real difference, however,
+  whether he was right or wrong in his opinion. He could not get
+  what he wanted, and he was obliged to drag through another year,
+  fettered in his military movements, and oppressed with anxiety
+  for the future. He longed to drive the British from New York, and
+  was forced to content himself, as so often before, with keeping
+  his army in existence. It was a trying time, and fruitful in
+  nothing but anxious forebodings. All the fighting was confined to
+  skirmishes of outposts, and his days were consumed in vain
+  efforts to obtain help from the States, while he watched with
+  painful eagerness the current of events in Europe, down which the
+  fortunes of his country were feebly drifting.</p>
+
+  <p>Among the petty incidents of the year there was one which, in
+  its effects, gained an international importance, which has left a
+  deep stain upon the English arms, and which touched Washington
+  deeply. Captain Huddy, an American officer, was captured in a
+  skirmish and carried to New York, where he was placed in
+  confinement. Thence he was taken on April 12 by a party of Tories
+  in the British service, commanded by Captain Lippencott, and
+  hanged in the broad light of day on the heights near Middletown.
+  Testimony and affidavits to the fact, which was never questioned,
+  were duly gathered and laid before Washington. The deed was one
+  of wanton barbarity, for which it would be difficult to find a
+  parallel in the annals of modern warfare. The authors of this
+  brutal murder, to our shame be it said, were of American birth,
+  but they were fighting for the crown and wore the British
+  uniform. England, which for generations has deafened the world
+  with paeans of praise for her own love of fair play and for her
+  generous humanity, stepped in here and threw the mantle of her
+  protection over these cowardly hangmen. It has not been uncommon
+  for wild North American savages to deliver up criminals to the
+  vengeance of the law, but English ministers and officers condoned
+  the murder of Huddy, and sheltered his murderers.</p>
+
+  <p>When the case was laid before Washington it stirred him to the
+  deepest wrath. He submitted the facts to twenty-five of his
+  general officers, who unanimously advised what he was himself
+  determined upon, instant retaliation. He wrote at once to Sir Guy
+  Carleton, and informed him that unless the murderers were given
+  up he should be compelled to retaliate. Carleton replied that a
+  court-martial was ordered, and some attempt was made to
+  recriminate; but Washington pressed on in the path he had marked
+  out, and had an English officer selected by lot and held in close
+  confinement to await the action of the enemy. These sharp
+  measures brought the British, as nothing else could have done, to
+  some sense of the enormity of the crime that had been committed.
+  Sir Guy Carleton wrote in remonstrance, and Washington replied:
+  "Ever since the commencement of this unnatural war my conduct has
+  borne invariable testimony against those inhuman excesses, which,
+  in too many instances, have marked its progress. With respect to
+  a late transaction, to which I presume your excellency alludes, I
+  have already expressed my resolution, a resolution formed on the
+  most mature deliberation, and from which I shall not recede." The
+  affair dragged along, purposely protracted by the British, and
+  the court-martial on a technical point acquitted Lippencott. Sir
+  Guy Carleton, however, who really was deeply indignant at the
+  outrage, wrote, expressing his abhorrence, disavowed Lippencott,
+  and promised a further inquiry. This placed Washington in a very
+  trying position, more especially as his humanity was touched by
+  the situation of the unlucky hostage. The fatal lot had fallen
+  upon a mere boy, Captain Asgill, who was both amiable and
+  popular, and Washington was beset with appeals in his behalf, for
+  Lady Asgill moved heaven and earth to save her son. She
+  interested the French court, and Vergennes made a special request
+  that Asgill should be released. Even Washington's own officers,
+  notably Hamilton, sought to influence him, and begged him to
+  recede. In these difficult circumstances, which were enhanced by
+  the fact that contrary to his orders to select an unconditional
+  prisoner, the lot had fallen on a Yorktown prisoner protected by
+  the terms of the capitulation,<a id="footnotetag1-16" name=
+  "footnotetag1-16"></a><a href="#footnote1-16"><sup>1</sup></a> he
+  hesitated, and asked instructions from Congress. He wrote to
+  Duane in September: "While retaliation was apparently necessary,
+  however disagreeable in itself, I had no repugnance to the
+  measure. But when the end proposed by it is answered by a
+  disavowal of the act, by a dissolution of the board of refugees,
+  and by a promise (whether with or without meaning to comply with
+  it, I shall not determine) that further inquisition should be
+  made into the matter, I thought it incumbent upon me, before I
+  proceeded any farther in the matter, to have the sense of
+  Congress, who had most explicitly approved and impliedly indeed
+  ordered retaliation to take place. To this hour I am held in
+  darkness."</p>
+
+  <blockquote class="footnote">
+    <a id="footnote1-16" name="footnote1-16"></a>[<b>Footnote
+    1:</b> <a href="#footnotetag1-16">(return)</a> MS, letter to
+    Lincoln.]
+  </blockquote>
+
+  <p>He did not long remain in doubt. The fact was that the public,
+  as is commonly the case, had forgotten the original crime and saw
+  only the misery of the man who was to pay the just penalty, and
+  who was, in this instance, an innocent and vicarious sufferer. It
+  was difficult to refuse Vergennes, and Congress, glad of the
+  excuse and anxious to oblige their allies, ordered the release of
+  Asgill. That Washington, touched by the unhappy condition of his
+  prisoner, did not feel relieved by the result, it would be absurd
+  to suppose. But he was by no means satisfied, for the murderous
+  wrong that had been done rankled in his breast. He wrote to
+  Vergennes: "Captain Asgill has been released, and is at perfect
+  liberty to return to the arms of an affectionate parent, whose
+  pathetic address to your Excellency could not fail of interesting
+  every feeling heart in her behalf. I have no right to assume any
+  particular merit from the lenient manner in which this
+  disagreeable affair has terminated."</p>
+
+  <p>There is a perfect honesty about this which is very wholesome.
+  He had been freely charged with cruelty, and had regarded the
+  accusation with indifference. Now, when it was easy for him to
+  have taken the glory of mercy by simply keeping silent, he took
+  pains to avow that the leniency was not due to him. He was not
+  satisfied, and no one should believe that he was, even if the
+  admission seemed to justify the charge of cruelty. If he erred at
+  all it was in not executing some British officer at the very
+  start, unless Lippencott had been given up within a limited time.
+  As it was, after delay was once permitted, it is hard to see how
+  he could have acted otherwise than he did, but Washington was not
+  in the habit of receding from a fixed purpose, and being obliged
+  to do so in this case troubled him, for he knew that he did well
+  to be angry. But the frankness of the avowal to Vergennes is a
+  good example of his entire honesty and absolute moral
+  fearlessness.</p>
+
+  <p>The matter, however, which most filled his heart and mind
+  during these weary days of waiting and doubt was the condition
+  and the future of his soldiers. To those persons who have
+  suspected or suggested that Washington was cold-blooded and
+  unmindful of others, the letters he wrote in regard to the
+  soldiers may be commended. The man whose heart was wrung by the
+  sufferings of the poor people on the Virginian frontier, in the
+  days of the old French war, never in fact changed his nature.
+  Fierce in fight, passionate and hot when his anger was stirred,
+  his love and sympathy were keen and strong toward his army. His
+  heart went out to the brave men who had followed him, loved him,
+  and never swerved in their loyalty to him and to their country.
+  Washington's affection for his men, and their devotion to him,
+  had saved the cause of American independence more often than
+  strategy or daring. Now, when the war was practically over, his
+  influence with both officers and soldiers was destined to be put
+  to its severest tests.</p>
+
+  <p>The people of the American colonies were self-governing in the
+  extremest sense, that is, they were accustomed to very little
+  government interference of any sort. They were also poor and
+  entirely unused to war. Suddenly they found themselves plunged
+  into a bitter and protracted conflict with the most powerful of
+  civilized nations. In the first flush of excitement, patriotic
+  enthusiasm supplied many defects; but as time wore on, and year
+  after year passed, and the whole social and political fabric was
+  shaken, the moral tone of the people relaxed. In such a struggle,
+  coming upon an unprepared people of the habits and in the
+  circumstances of the colonists, this relaxation was inevitable.
+  It was likewise inevitable that, as the war continued, there
+  should be in both national and state governments, and in all
+  directions, many shortcomings and many lamentable errors. But for
+  the treatment accorded the army, no such excuse can be made, and
+  no sufficient explanation can be offered. There was throughout
+  the colonies an inborn and a carefully cultivated dread of
+  standing armies and military power. But this very natural feeling
+  was turned most unreasonably against our own army, and carried in
+  that direction to the verge of insanity. This jealousy of
+  military power indeed pursued Washington from the beginning to
+  the end of the Revolution. It cropped out as soon as he was
+  appointed, and came up in one form or another whenever he was
+  obliged to take strong measures. Even at the very end, after he
+  had borne the cause through to triumph, Congress was driven
+  almost to frenzy because Vergennes proposed to commit the
+  disposition of a French subsidy to the commander-in-chief.</p>
+
+  <p>If this feeling could show itself toward Washington, it is
+  easy to imagine that it was not restrained toward his officers
+  and men, and the treatment of the soldiers by Congress and by the
+  States was not only ungrateful to the last degree, but was
+  utterly unpardonable. Again and again the menace of immediate
+  ruin and the stern demands of Washington alone extorted the most
+  grudging concessions, and saved the army from dissolution. The
+  soldiers had every reason to think that nothing but personal fear
+  could obtain the barest consideration from the civil power. In
+  this frame of mind, they saw the war which they had fought and
+  won drawing to a close with no prospect of either provision or
+  reward for them, and every indication that they would be
+  disbanded when they were no longer needed, and left in many cases
+  to beggary and want. In the inaction consequent upon the victory
+  at Yorktown, they had ample time to reflect upon these facts, and
+  their reflections were of such a nature that the situation soon
+  became dangerous. Washington, who had struggled in season and out
+  of season for justice to the soldiers, labored more zealously
+  than ever during all this period, aided vigorously by Hamilton,
+  who was now in Congress. Still nothing was done, and in October,
+  1782, he wrote to the Secretary of War in words warm with
+  indignant feeling: "While I premise that no one I have seen or
+  heard of appears opposed to the principle of reducing the army as
+  circumstances may require, yet I cannot help fearing the result
+  of the measure in contemplation, under present circumstances,
+  when I see such a number of men, goaded by a thousand stings of
+  reflection on the past and of anticipation on the future, about
+  to be turned into the world, soured by penury and what they call
+  the ingratitude of the public, involved in debts, without one
+  farthing of money to carry them home after having spent the
+  flower of their days, and many of them their patrimonies, in
+  establishing the freedom and independence of their country, and
+  suffered everything that human nature is capable of enduring on
+  this side of death.... You may rely upon it, the patriotism and
+  long-suffering of this army are almost exhausted, and that there
+  never was so great a spirit of discontent as at this instant.
+  While in the field I think it may be kept from breaking into acts
+  of outrage; but when we retire into winter-quarters, unless the
+  storm is previously dissipated, I cannot be at ease respecting
+  the consequences. It is high time for a peace."</p>
+
+  <p>These were grave words, coming from such a man as Washington,
+  but they passed unheeded. Congress and the States went blandly
+  along as if everything was all right, and as if the army had no
+  grievances. But the soldiers thought differently.
+  "Dissatisfactions rose to a great and alarming height, and
+  combinations among officers to resign at given periods in a body
+  were beginning to take place." The outlook was so threatening
+  that Washington, who had intended to go to Mount Vernon, remained
+  in camp, and by management and tact thwarted these combinations
+  and converted these dangerous movements into an address to
+  Congress from the officers, asking for half-pay, arrearages, and
+  some other equally proper concessions. Still Congress did not
+  stir. Some indefinite resolutions were passed, but nothing was
+  done as to the commutation of half-pay into a fixed sum, and
+  after such a display of indifference the dissatisfaction
+  increased rapidly, and the army became more and more restless. In
+  March a call was issued for a meeting of officers, and an
+  anonymous address, written with much skill,&mdash;the work, as
+  afterwards appeared, of Major John Armstrong,&mdash;was published
+  at the same time. The address was well calculated to inflame the
+  passions of the troops; it advised a resort to force, and was
+  scattered broadcast through the camp. The army was now in a
+  ferment, and the situation was full of peril. A weak man would
+  have held his peace; a rash one would have tried to suppress the
+  meeting. Washington did neither, but quietly took control of the
+  whole movement himself. In general orders he censured the call
+  and the address as irregular, and then appointed a time and place
+  for the meeting. Another anonymous address thereupon appeared,
+  quieter in tone, but congratulating the army on the recognition
+  accorded by the commander-in-chief.</p>
+
+  <p>When the officers assembled, Washington arose with a
+  manuscript in his hand, and as he took out his glasses said,
+  simply, "You see, gentlemen, I have grown both blind and gray in
+  your service." His address was brief, calm, and strong. The
+  clear, vigorous sentences were charged with meaning and with deep
+  feeling. He exhorted them one and all, both officers and men, to
+  remain loyal and obedient, true to their glorious past and to
+  their country. He appealed to their patriotism, and promised them
+  that which they had always had, his own earnest support in
+  obtaining justice from Congress. When he had finished he quietly
+  withdrew. The officers were deeply moved by his words, and his
+  influence prevailed. Resolutions were passed, reiterating the
+  demands of the army, but professing entire faith in the
+  government. This time Congress listened, and the measures
+  granting half-pay in commutation and certain other requests were
+  passed. Thus this very serious danger was averted, not by the
+  reluctant action of Congress, but by the wisdom and strength of
+  the general, who was loved by his soldiers after a fashion that
+  few conquerors could boast.</p>
+
+  <p>Underlying all these general discontents, there was, besides,
+  a well-defined movement, which saw a solution of all difficulties
+  and a redress of all wrongs in a radical change of the form of
+  government, and in the elevation of Washington to supreme power.
+  This party was satisfied that the existing system was a failure,
+  and that it was not and could not be made either strong, honest,
+  or respectable. The obvious relief was in some kind of monarchy,
+  with a large infusion of the one-man power; and it followed, as a
+  matter of course, that the one man could be no other than the
+  commander-in-chief. In May, 1782, when the feeling in the army
+  had risen very high, this party of reform brought their ideas
+  before Washington through an old and respected friend of his,
+  Colonel Nicola. The colonel set forth very clearly the failure
+  and shortcomings of the existing government, argued in favor of
+  the substitution of something much stronger, and wound up by
+  hinting very plainly that his correspondent was the man for the
+  crisis and the proper savior of society. The letter was forcible
+  and well written, and Colonel Nicola was a man of character and
+  standing. It could not be passed over lightly or in silence, and
+  Washington replied as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+  <p>"With a mixture of surprise and astonishment, I have read with
+  attention the sentiments you have submitted to my perusal. Be
+  assured, sir, no occurrence in the course of the war has given me
+  more painful sensations than your information of there being such
+  ideas existing in the army as you have expressed, and [which] I
+  must view with abhorrence and reprehend with severity. For the
+  present, the communication of them will rest in my own bosom,
+  unless some further agitation of the matter shall make a
+  disclosure necessary. I am much at a loss to conceive what part
+  of my conduct could have given encouragement to an address which
+  seems to me big with the greatest mischiefs that can befall my
+  country. If I am not deceived in the knowledge of myself, you
+  could not have found a person to whom your schemes are more
+  disagreeable. At the same time, in justice to my own feelings, I
+  must add that no man possesses a more sincere wish to see justice
+  done to the army than I do; and as far as my power and influence
+  in a constitutional way extend, they shall be employed to the
+  utmost of my abilities to effect it, should there be any
+  occasion. Let me conjure you, then, if you have any regard for
+  your country, concern for yourself or posterity, or respect for
+  me, to banish these thoughts from your mind, and never
+  communicate, as from yourself or any one else, a sentiment of the
+  like nature."</p>
+
+  <p>This simple but exceedingly plain letter checked the whole
+  movement at once; but the feeling of hostility to the existing
+  system of government and of confidence in Washington increased
+  steadily through the summer and winter. When the next spring had
+  come round, and the "Newburgh addresses" had been published, the
+  excitement was at fever heat. All the army needed was a leader.
+  It was as easy for Washington to have grasped supreme power then,
+  as it would have been for C&aelig;sar to have taken the crown
+  from Antony upon the Lupercal. He repelled Nicola's suggestion
+  with quiet reproof, and took the actual movement, when it reared
+  its head, into his own hands and turned it into other channels.
+  This incident has been passed over altogether too carelessly by
+  historians and biographers. It has generally been used merely to
+  show the general nobility of Washington's sentiments, and no
+  proper stress has been laid upon the facts of the time which gave
+  birth to such an idea and such a proposition. It would have been
+  a perfectly feasible thing at that particular moment to have
+  altered the frame of government and placed the successful soldier
+  in possession of supreme power. The notion of kingly government
+  was, of course, entirely familiar to everybody, and had in itself
+  nothing repulsive. The confederation was disintegrated, the
+  States were demoralized, and the whole social and political life
+  was weakened. The army was the one coherent, active, and
+  thoroughly organized body in the country. Six years of war had
+  turned them from militia into seasoned veterans, and they stood
+  armed and angry, ready to respond to the call of the great leader
+  to whom they were entirely devoted. When the English troops were
+  once withdrawn, there was nothing on the continent that could
+  have stood against them. If they had moved, they would have been
+  everywhere supported by their old comrades who had returned to
+  the ranks of civil life, by all the large class who wanted peace
+  and order in the quickest and surest way, and by the timid and
+  tired generally. There would have been in fact no serious
+  opposition, probably because there would have been no means of
+  sustaining it.</p>
+
+  <p>The absolute feebleness of the general government was shown a
+  few weeks later, when a recently recruited regiment of
+  Pennsylvania troops mutinied, and obliged Congress to leave
+  Philadelphia, unable either to defend themselves or procure
+  defense from the State. This mutiny was put down suddenly and
+  effectively by Washington, very wroth at the insubordination of
+  raw troops, who had neither fought nor suffered. Yet even such
+  mutineers as these would have succeeded in a large measure, had
+  it not been for Washington, and one can easily imagine from this
+  incident the result of disciplined and well-planned action on the
+  part of the army led by their great chief. In that hour of
+  debility and relaxation, a military seizure of the government and
+  the erection of some form of monarchy would not have been
+  difficult. Whether such a change would have lasted is another
+  question, but there is no reason to doubt that at the moment it
+  might have been effected. Washington, however, not only refused
+  to have anything to do with the scheme, but he used the personal
+  loyalty which might have raised him to supreme power to check all
+  dangerous movements and put in motion the splendid and unselfish
+  patriotism for which the army was conspicuous, and which underlay
+  all their irritations and discontents.</p>
+
+  <p>The obvious view of Washington's action in this crisis as a
+  remarkable exhibition of patriotism is at best somewhat
+  superficial. In a man in any way less great, the letter of
+  refusal to Nicola and the treatment of the opportunity presented
+  at the time of the Newburgh addresses would have been fine in a
+  high degree. In Washington they were not so extraordinary, for
+  the situation offered him no temptation. Carlyle was led to think
+  slightingly of Washington, one may believe, because he did not
+  seize the tottering government with a strong hand, and bring
+  order out of chaos on the instant. But this is a woeful
+  misunderstanding of the man. To put aside a crown for love of
+  country is noble, but to look down upon such an opportunity
+  indicates a much greater loftiness and strength of mind.
+  Washington was wholly free from the vulgar ambition of the
+  usurper, and the desire of mere personal aggrandizement found no
+  place in his nature. His ruling passion was the passion for
+  success, and for thorough and complete success. What he could not
+  bear was the least shadow of failure. To have fought such a war
+  to a victorious finish, and then turned it to his own advantage,
+  would have been to him failure of the meanest kind. He fought to
+  free the colonies from England, and make them independent, not to
+  play the part of a C&aelig;sar or a Cromwell in the wreck and
+  confusion of civil war. He flung aside the suggestion of supreme
+  power, not simply as dishonorable and unpatriotic, but because
+  such a result would have defeated the one great and noble object
+  at which he aimed. Nor did he act in this way through any
+  indolent shrinking from the great task of making what he had won
+  worth winning, by crushing the forces of anarchy and separation,
+  and bringing order and unity out of confusion. From the surrender
+  of Yorktown to the day of his retirement from the Presidency, he
+  worked unceasingly to establish union and strong government in
+  the country he had made independent. He accomplished this great
+  labor more successfully by honest and lawful methods than if he
+  had taken the path of the strong-handed savior of society, and
+  his work in this field did more for the welfare of his country
+  than all his battles. To have restored order at the head of the
+  army was much easier than to effect it in the slow and
+  law-abiding fashion which he adopted. To have refused supreme
+  rule, and then to have effected in the spirit and under the forms
+  of free government all and more than the most brilliant of
+  military chiefs could have achieved by absolute power, is a glory
+  which belongs to Washington alone.</p>
+
+  <p>Nevertheless, at that particular juncture it was, as he
+  himself had said, "high time for a peace." The danger at Newburgh
+  had been averted by his commanding influence and the patriotic
+  conduct of the army. But it had been averted only, not removed.
+  The snake was scotched, not killed. The finishing stroke was
+  still needed in the form of an end to hostilities, and it was
+  therefore fortunate for the United States that a fortnight later,
+  on March 23, news came that a general treaty of peace had been
+  signed. This final consummation of his work, in addition to the
+  passage by Congress of the half-pay commutation and the
+  settlement of the army accounts, filled Washington with deep
+  rejoicing. He felt that in a short time, a few weeks at most, he
+  would be free to withdraw to the quiet life at Mount Vernon for
+  which he longed. But public bodies move slowly, and one delay
+  after another occurred to keep him still in the harness. He
+  chafed under the postponement, but it was not possible to him to
+  remain idle even when he awaited in almost daily expectation the
+  hour of dismissal. He saw with the instinctive glance of
+  statesmanship that the dangerous point in the treaty of peace was
+  in the provisions as to the western posts on the one side, and
+  those relating to British debts on the other. A month therefore
+  had not passed before he brought to the attention of Congress the
+  importance of getting immediate possession of those posts, and a
+  little later he succeeded in having Steuben sent out as a special
+  envoy to obtain their surrender. The mission was vain, as he had
+  feared. He was not destined to extract this thorn for many years,
+  and then only after many trials and troubles. Soon afterward he
+  made a journey with Governor Clinton to Ticonderoga, and along
+  the valley of the Mohawk, "to wear away the time," as he wrote to
+  Congress. He wore away time to more purpose than most people, for
+  where he traveled he observed closely, and his observations were
+  lessons which he never forgot. On this trip he had the western
+  posts and the Indians always in mind, and familiarized himself
+  with the conditions of a part of the country where these matters
+  were of great importance.</p>
+
+  <p>On his return he went to Princeton, where Congress had been
+  sitting since their flight from the mutiny which he had recently
+  suppressed, and where a house had been provided for his use. He
+  remained there two months, aiding Congress in their work. During
+  the spring he had been engaged on the matter of a peace
+  establishment, and he now gave Congress elaborate and
+  well-matured advice on that question, and on those of public
+  lands, western settlement, and the best Indian policy. In all
+  these directions his views were clear, far-sighted, and wise. He
+  saw that in these questions was involved much of the future
+  development and wellbeing of the country, and he treated them
+  with a precision and an easy mastery which showed the thought he
+  had given to the new problems which now were coming to the front.
+  Unluckily, he was so far ahead, both in knowledge and perception,
+  of the body with which he dealt, that he could get little or
+  nothing done, and in September he wrote in plain but guarded
+  terms of the incapacity of the lawmakers. The people were not yet
+  ripe for his measures, and he was forced to bide his time, and
+  see the injuries caused by indifference and short-sightedness
+  work themselves out. Gradually, however, the absolutely necessary
+  business was brought to an end. Then Washington issued a circular
+  letter to the governors of the States, which was one of the
+  ablest he ever wrote, and full of the profoundest statesmanship,
+  and he also sent out a touching address of farewell to the army,
+  eloquent with wisdom and with patriotism.</p>
+
+  <p>From Princeton he went to West Point, where the army that
+  still remained in service was stationed. Thence he moved to
+  Harlem, and on November 25 the British army departed, and
+  Washington, with his troops, accompanied by Governor Clinton and
+  some regiments of local militia, marched in and took possession.
+  This was the outward sign that the war was over, and that
+  American independence had been won. Carleton feared that the
+  entry of the American army might be the signal for confusion and
+  violence, in which the Tory inhabitants would suffer; but
+  everything passed off with perfect tranquillity and good order,
+  and in the evening Governor Clinton gave a public dinner to the
+  commander-in-chief and the officers of the army.</p>
+
+  <p>All was now over, and Washington prepared to go to Annapolis
+  and lay down his commission. On December 4 his officers assembled
+  in Fraunces' Tavern to bid him farewell. As he looked about on
+  his faithful friends, his usual self-command deserted him, and he
+  could not control his voice. Taking a glass of wine, he lifted it
+  up, and said simply, "With a heart full of love and gratitude I
+  now take my leave of you, most devoutly wishing that your latter
+  days may be as prosperous and happy as your former ones have been
+  glorious and honorable." The toast was drunk in silence, and then
+  Washington added, "I cannot come to each of you and take my
+  leave, but shall be obliged if you will come and take me by the
+  hand." One by one they approached, and Washington grasped the
+  hand of each man and embraced him. His eyes were full of tears,
+  and he could not trust himself to speak. In silence he bade each
+  and all farewell, and then, accompanied by his officers, walked
+  to Whitehall Ferry. Entering his barge, the word was given, and
+  as the oars struck the water he stood up and lifted his hat. In
+  solemn silence his officers returned the salute, and watched the
+  noble and gracious figure of their beloved chief until the boat
+  disappeared from sight behind the point of the Battery.</p>
+
+  <p>At Philadelphia he stopped a few days and adjusted his
+  accounts, which he had in characteristic fashion kept himself in
+  the neatest and most methodical way. He had drawn no pay, and had
+  expended considerable sums from his private fortune, which he had
+  omitted to charge to the government. The gross amount of his
+  expenses was about 15,000 pounds sterling, including secret
+  service and other incidental outlays. In these days of wild
+  money-hunting, there is something worth pondering in this simple
+  business settlement between a great general and his government,
+  at the close of eight years of war. This done, he started again
+  on his journey. From Philadelphia he proceeded to Annapolis,
+  greeted with addresses and hailed with shouts at every town and
+  village on his route, and having reached his destination, he
+  addressed a letter to Congress on December 20, asking when it
+  would be agreeable to them to receive him. The 23d was appointed,
+  and on that day, at noon, he appeared before Congress.</p>
+
+  <p>The following year a French orator and "ma&icirc;tre avocat,"
+  in an oration delivered at Toulouse upon the American Revolution,
+  described this scene in these words: "On the day when Washington
+  resigned his commission in the hall of Congress, a crown decked
+  with jewels was placed upon the Book of the Constitutions.
+  Suddenly Washington seizes it, breaks it, and flings the pieces
+  to the assembled people. How small ambitious C&aelig;sar seems
+  beside the hero of America." It is worth while to recall this
+  contemporary French description, because its theatrical and
+  dramatic untruth gives such point by contrast to the plain and
+  dignified reality. The scene was the hall of Congress. The
+  members representing the sovereign power were seated and covered,
+  while all the space about was filled by the governor and state
+  officers of Maryland, by military officers, and by the ladies and
+  gentlemen of the neighborhood, who stood in respectful silence
+  with uncovered heads. Washington was introduced by the Secretary
+  of Congress, and took a chair which had been assigned to him.
+  There was a brief pause, and then the president said that "the
+  United States in Congress assembled were prepared to receive his
+  communication." Washington rose, and replied as
+  follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+  <p>"Mr. President: The great events, on which my resignation
+  depended, having at length taken place, I have now the honor of
+  offering my sincere congratulations to Congress, and of
+  presenting myself before them, to surrender into their hands the
+  trust committed to me, and to claim the indulgence of retiring
+  from the service of my country.</p>
+
+  <p>"Happy in the confirmation of our independence and
+  sovereignty, and pleased with the opportunity afforded the United
+  States of becoming a respectable nation, I resign with
+  satisfaction the appointment I accepted with diffidence; a
+  diffidence in my abilities to accomplish so arduous a task,
+  which, however, was superseded by a confidence in the rectitude
+  of our cause, the support of the supreme power of the Union, and
+  the patronage of Heaven. The successful termination of the war
+  has verified the most sanguine expectations; and my gratitude for
+  the interposition of Providence, and the assistance I have
+  received from my countrymen, increases with every review of the
+  momentous contest." Then, after a word of gratitude to the army
+  and to his staff, he concluded as follows: "I consider it an
+  indispensable duty to close this last solemn act of my official
+  life by commending the interests of our dearest country to the
+  protection of Almighty God, and those who have the
+  superintendence of them to his holy keeping.</p>
+
+  <p>"Having now finished the work assigned me, I retire from the
+  great theatre of action; and bidding an affectionate farewell to
+  this august body, under whose orders I have so long acted, I here
+  offer my commission, and take my leave of all the employments of
+  public life."</p>
+
+  <p>In singularly graceful and eloquent words his old opponent,
+  Thomas Mifflin, the president, replied, the simple ceremony
+  ended, and Washington left the room a private citizen.</p>
+
+  <p>The great master of English fiction, touching this scene with
+  skillful hand, has said: "Which was the most splendid spectacle
+  ever witnessed, the opening feast of Prince George in London, or
+  the resignation of Washington? Which is the noble character for
+  after ages to admire,&mdash;yon fribble dancing in lace and
+  spangles, or yonder hero who sheathes his sword after a life of
+  spotless honor, a purity unreproached, a courage indomitable, and
+  a consummate victory?"</p>
+
+  <p>There is no need to say more. Comment or criticism on such a
+  farewell, from such a man, at the close of a long civil war,
+  would be not only superfluous but impertinent. The contemporary
+  newspaper, in its meagre account, said that the occasion was
+  deeply solemn and affecting, and that many persons shed tears.
+  Well indeed might those then present have been thus affected, for
+  they had witnessed a scene memorable forever in the annals of all
+  that is best and noblest in human nature. They had listened to a
+  speech which was not equaled in meaning and spirit in American
+  history until, eighty years later, Abraham Lincoln stood upon the
+  slopes of Gettysburg and uttered his immortal words upon those
+  who died that the country might live.</p>
+
+  <p>&nbsp;</p>
+  <hr />
+
+  <h2><a name="INDEX" id="INDEX"></a>INDEX for Volumes I &amp;
+  II</h2>
+
+  <div class="index">
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">ACKERSON, DAVID,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">describes Washington's personal appearance, ii.
+      386-388.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Adams, Abigail,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on Washington's appearance in 1775, i. 137.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Adams, John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">moves appointment of Washington as
+      commander-in-chief, i. 134;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on political necessity for his appointment,
+      135;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">and objections to it, 135;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">statement as to Washington's difficulties,
+      163;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">over-sanguine as to American prospects,
+      171;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">finds fault with Washington, 214, 215;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">one of few national statesmen, 252;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on Washington's opinion of titles, ii. 52;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">advocates ceremony, 54;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">returns to United States, 137;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacked by Jefferson as a monarchist, 226;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">praised by Democrats as superior to Washington,
+      251;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his administration upheld by Washington,
+      259;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">advised by Washington, 260;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his inauguration, 276;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends special mission to France, 284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges Washington to take command of provisional
+      army, 285;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes to make Knox senior to Hamilton,
+      286;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">censured by Washington, gives way, 287;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">lack of sympathy with Washington, 287;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his nomination of Murray disapproved by
+      Washington, 292, 293;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, on immigration,
+      326.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Adams, J.Q.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on weights and measures, ii. 81.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Adams, Samuel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not sympathized with by Washington in working
+      for independence, i. 131;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his inability to sympathize with Washington,
+      204;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">an enemy of Constitution, ii. 71;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">a genuine American, 309.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Alcudia, Duke de,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">interviews with Pinckney, ii. 166.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Alexander, Philip,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hunts with Washington, i. 115.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Alien and Sedition Laws,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">approved by Washington and Federalists, ii.
+      290, 297.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Ames, Fisher,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">speech on behalf of administration in Jay
+      treaty affair, ii. 210.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Andr&eacute;, Major,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">meets Arnold, i. 282;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">announces capture to Arnold, 284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">confesses, 284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">condemned and executed, 287;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">justice of the sentence, 287, 288;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of, 288, ii. 357.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Armstrong, John, Major,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes Newburg address, i. 335.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Army of the Revolution,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at Boston, adopted by Congress, i. 134;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its organization and character, 136-143;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sectional jealousies in, at New York, 162;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">goes to pieces after defeat, 167, 175, 176;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">condition in winter of 1777, 186;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">difficulties between officers, 189;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">with foreign officers, 190-192;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">improvement as shown by condition after
+      Brandywine and Germantown, 200, 201;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hard winter at Valley Forge, 228;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">maintained alive only by Washington, 227, 228,
+      232;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">improved morale at Monmouth, 239;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">mutinies for lack of pay, 258;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">suffers during 1779, 270;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">bad condition in 1780, 279;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">again mutinies for pay, 291, 292, 295;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">conduct of troops, 292, 293;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">jealousy of people towards, 332;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">badly treated by States and by Congress,
+      333;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">grows mutinous, 334;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">adopts Newburg addresses, 335, 336;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ready for a military dictatorship, 338,
+      340;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">farewell of Washington to, 345.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Arnold, Benedict,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent by Washington to attack Quebec, i.
+      144;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent against Burgoyne, 210;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">plans treason, 281;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">shows loyalist letter to Washington, 282;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">meets Andr&eacute;, 282;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">receives news of Andr&eacute;'s capture,
+      284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">escapes, 284, 285;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">previous benefits from Washington, 286;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of, 288;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ravages Virginia, 303;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent back to New York, 303;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">one of the few men who deceived Washington, ii.
+      336.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Arnold, Mrs.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">entertains Washington at time of her husband's
+      treachery, i. 284, 285.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Articles of Confederation,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">their inadequacy early seen by Washington, i.
+      297, 298; ii. 17.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Asgill, Capt.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">selected for retaliation for murder of Huddy,
+      i. 328;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">efforts for his release, 329;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">release ordered by Congress, 330.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">BACHE, B.F.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">publishes Jay treaty in "Aurora," ii. 185;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">joins in attack on Washington, 238, 244;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rejoices over his retirement, 256.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Baker,&mdash;&mdash;,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">works out a pedigree for Washington, i. 31.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Ball, Joseph,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">advises against sending Washington to sea, i.
+      49, 50.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Barbadoes,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's description of, i. 64.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Beckley, John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accuses Washington of embezzling, ii. 245.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Bernard, John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his conversation with Washington referred to,
+      i. 58, 107;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">describes encounter with Washington, ii.
+      281-283;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his description of Washington's conversation,
+      343-348.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Blackwell, Rev. Dr.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">calls on Washington with Dr. Logan, ii.
+      264.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Blair, John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 73.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Bland, Mary,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">"Lowland Beauty," admired by Washington, i. 95,
+      96.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Blount, Governor,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">pacifies Cherokees, ii. 94.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Boston,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">visit of Washington to, i. 97, 99;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">political troubles in, 120;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">British measures against condemned by Virginia,
+      122, 123;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appeals to colonies, 124;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">protests against Jay treaty, ii. 186;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">answered by Washington, 190.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Botetourt, Lord, Governor of Virginia,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">quarrels with Assembly, i. 121;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">manages to calm dissension, 122;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on friendly terms with Washington, 122.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Braddock, General Edward,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">arrives in Virginia, i. 82;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">invites Washington to serve on his staff,
+      82;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">respects him, 83;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his character and unfitness for his position,
+      83;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">despises provincials, 83;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accepts Washington's advice as to dividing
+      force, 84;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rebukes Washington for warning against ambush,
+      85;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">insists on fighting by rule, 85;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeated and mortally wounded, 85;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">death and burial, 87.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Bradford, William,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">succeeds Randolph, ii. 246.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Brandywine,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of, i. 196-198.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Bunker Hill,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">question of Washington regarding battle of, i.
+      136.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Burgoyne, General John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">junction of Howe with, feared by Washington, i.
+      194, 195, 205, 206;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">significance of his defeat, 202;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">danger of his invasion foreseen by Washington,
+      203-206;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">captures Ticonderoga, 207;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">outnumbered and defeated, 210;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">surrenders, 211.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Burke, Edmund,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">understands significance of Washington's
+      leadership, i. 202;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">unsettled by French Revolution, ii. 294.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">CABOT, GEORGE,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">entertains Lafayette's son, ii. 366.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Cadwalader, General,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to cross Delaware to help Washington, i.
+      180;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">duel with Conway, 226.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Calvert, Eleanor,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">misgivings of Washington over her marriage to
+      John Custis, i. 111.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Camden, battle of, i. 281.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Canada,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">captured by Wolfe, i. 94;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">expedition of Montgomery against, 143, 144;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">project of Conway cabal against, 222; 253;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">project of Lafayette to attack, 254;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">plan considered dangerous by Washington, 254,
+      255;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not undertaken by France, 256.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Carleton, Sir Guy,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">informs Washington of address of Commons for
+      peace, i. 324;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">suspected by Washington, 325;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">remonstrates against retaliation by Washington
+      for murder of</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">Huddy, 328;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disavows Lippencott, 328;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fears plunder of New York city, 345;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges Indians to attack the United States, ii.
+      102, 175.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Carlisle, Earl of,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">peace commissioner, i. 233.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Carlyle, Thomas,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sneers at Washington, i. 4, 14;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">calls him "a bloodless Cromwell," i. 69, ii.
+      332;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to understand his reticence, i. 70;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">despises him for not seizing power, 341.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Carmichael, William,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">minister at Madrid, ii. 165;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on commission regarding the Mississippi,
+      166.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Carrington, Paul,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 208;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's friendship for, 363.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Cary, Mary,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">early love affair of Washington with, i.
+      96.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Chamberlayne, Major,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">entertains Washington at Williams' Ferry, i.
+      101.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Charleston,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">siege and capture of, i. 273, 274, 276.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Chastellux, Marquis de,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's friendship for and letter to, ii.
+      351;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on Washington's training of horses, 380.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Cherokees,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">beaten by Sevier, ii. 89;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">pacified by Blount, 94,101.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Chester, Colonel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">researches on Washington pedigree, i. 31.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Chickasaws,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">desert from St. Clair, ii. 96.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">China,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">honors Washington, i. 6.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Choctaws,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">peaceable in 1788, ii. 89.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Cincinnati, Society of the,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's connection with, ii. 4.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Clarke, Governor,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">thinks Washington is invading popular rights,
+      i. 215.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Cleaveland, Rev.&mdash;&mdash;,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">complimented by Washington, ii. 359.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Clinton, George,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appealed to by Washington to attack Burgoyne,
+      i. 210;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">journey with Washington to Ticonderoga,
+      343;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">enters New York city, 345;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 1;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">meets Washington on journey to inauguration,
+      45;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">opponent of the Constitution, 71;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">orders seizure of French privateers, 153.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Clinton, Sir Henry,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to help Burgoyne, i. 210;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">replaces Howe at Philadelphia, his character,
+      232;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to cut off Lafayette, 233;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">leaves Philadelphia, 234;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeats Lee at Monmouth, 236;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">retreats to New York, 238;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">withdraws from Newport, 248;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes a raid, 265;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fortifies Stony Point, 268;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his aimless warfare, 269, 270;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">after capturing Charleston returns to New York,
+      276;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to save Andr&eacute;, 287;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">alarmed at attacks on New York, 306;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">jealous of Cornwallis, refuses to send
+      reinforcements, 308;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">deceived by Washington, 311;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends Graves to relieve Cornwallis, 312.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Congress, Continental,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's journey to, i. 128;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its character and ability, 129;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its state papers, 129;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">adjourns, 132;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">in second session, resolves to petition the
+      king, 133;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">adopts Massachusetts army and makes Washington
+      commander, 134;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reasons for his choice, 135;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">adheres to short-term enlistments, 149;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">influenced to declare independence by
+      Washington, 160;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hampers Washington in campaign of New York,
+      167;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, 170, 179, 212, 225,
+      229, 266, 278, 295, 321, 323, 333;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">takes steps to make army permanent, 171;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its over-confidence, 171;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">insists on holding Forts Washington and Lee,
+      174;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">dissatisfied with Washington's inactivity,
+      187;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">criticises his proclamation requiring oath of
+      allegiance, 189;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes unwise appointments of officers, 189;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">especially of foreigners, 190-192; 248,
+      249;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">applauds Washington's efforts at Germantown,
+      200;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">deposes Schuyler and St. Clair, 208;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appoints Gates, 210;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">irritation against Washington, 212-215;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">falls under guidance of Conway cabal, 221,
+      222;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">discovers incompetence of cabal, 223;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">meddles with prisoners and officers, 231;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rejects English peace offers, 233;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes alliance with France, 241;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">suppresses protests of officers against
+      D'Estaing, 244;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">decline in its character, 257;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">becomes feeble, 258;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">improvement urged by Washington, 259, 266;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appoints Gates to command in South, 268;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">loses interest in war, 278;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">asks Washington to name general for the South,
+      295;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">considers reduction of army, 313;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">elated by Yorktown, 323;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its unfair treatment of army, 333, 335;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">driven from Philadelphia by Pennsylvania
+      troops, 340;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">passes half-pay act, 342;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">receives commission of Washington, 347-349;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disbands army, ii. 6;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">indifferent to Western expansion, 15;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continues to decline, 22;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">merit of its Indian policy, 88.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Congress, Federal,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">establishes departments, ii. 64;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">opened by Washington, 78, 79;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ceremonial abolished by Jefferson, 79;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">recommendations made to by Washington,
+      81-83;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">acts upon them, 81-83;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">creates commission to treat with Creeks,
+      90;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">increases army, 94, 99;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to solve financial problems, 106;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">debates Hamilton's report on credit, 107,
+      108;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">establishes national bank, 109;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">establishes protective revenue duties, 113;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">imposes an excise tax, 123;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">prepares for retaliation on Great Britain,
+      176;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Senate ratifies Jay treaty conditionally,
+      184;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">House demands papers, 207;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">debates over its right to concur in treaty,
+      208-210;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to adjourn on Washington's birthday,
+      247;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">prepares for war with France, 285;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">passes Alien and Sedition Laws, 296.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Constitution, Federal,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">necessity of, foreseen by Washington, ii.
+      17-18, 23, 24;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the Annapolis Convention, 23-29;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the Federal Convention, 30-36;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's attitude in, 31,34;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his influence, 36;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">campaign for ratification, 38-41.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Contrecoeur, Captain,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">leader of French and Indians in Virginia, i.
+      75.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">"Conway cabal,"</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">elements of in Congress, i. 214, 215;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">in the army, 215;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">organized by Conway, 217;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">discovered by Washington, 220;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">gets control of Board of War, 221;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to make Washington resign, 222, 224;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to invade Canada or provide supplies,
+      222, 223;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">harassed by Washington's letters, 223,226;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">breaks down, 226.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Conway, Moncure D.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his life of Randolph, ii. 65, note, 196;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his defense of Randolph in Fauchet letter
+      affair, 196;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on Washington's motives, 200;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on his unfair treatment of Randolph, 201,
+      202.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Conway, Thomas,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">demand for higher rank refused by Washington,
+      i. 216;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">plots against him, 217;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his letter discovered by Washington, 221;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">made inspector-general, 221, 222;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">complains to Congress of his reception at camp,
+      225;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">resigns, has duel with Cadwalader, 226;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">apologizes to Washington and leaves country,
+      226.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Cooke, Governor,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">remonstrated with by Washington for raising
+      state troops, i. 186.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Cornwallis, Lord,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">pursues Washington in New Jersey, i. 175;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">repulsed at Assunpink, 181;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">outgeneraled by Washington, 182;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">surprises Sullivan at Brandywine, 197;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeats Lee at Monmouth, 236;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">pursues Greene in vain, 302;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wins battle of Guilford Court House, 302;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">retreats into Virginia, 302;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">joins British troops in Virginia, 303;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his dangerous position, 304;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urged by Clinton to return troops to New York,
+      306;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">plunders Virginia, 307;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeats Lafayette and Wayne, 307;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes to retreat South, 307;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ordered by ministry to stay on the Chesapeake,
+      307;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">abandoned by Clinton, 308;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">establishes himself at Yorktown, 308;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">withdraws into town, 315;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">besieged, 316, 317;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">surrenders, 317;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">outgeneraled by Washington, 319, 320.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Cowpens,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of, i. 301.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Craik, Dr.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attends Washington in last illness, ii.
+      300-302;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's friendship with, 363.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Creeks,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">their relations with Spaniards, ii. 89, 90;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">quarrel with Georgia, 90;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">agree to treaty with United States, 91;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">stirred up by Spain, 101.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Curwen, Samuel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on Washington's appearance, i. 137.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Cushing, Caleb,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 72.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Custis, Daniel Parke,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">first husband of Martha Washington, i. 101.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Custis, G.W.P.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tells mythical story of Washington and the
+      colt, i. 45;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's care for, ii. 369.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Custis, John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's tenderness toward, i. 111;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">care for his education and marriage, 111;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hunts with Washington, 141;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">death of, 322.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Custis, Nellie,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">marriage with Washington's nephew, ii. 281,
+      369;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 377.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">DAGWORTHY, CAPTAIN,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">claims to outrank Washington in Virginia army,
+      i. 91, 97.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Dallas, Alexander,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">protests to Genet against sailing of Little
+      Sarah, ii. 155.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Dalton, Senator,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">entertains Washington at Newburyport, ii.
+      359.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Deane, Silas,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">promises commissions to foreign military
+      adventurers, i. 190.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">De Barras,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">jealous of De Grasse, decides not to aid him,
+      i. 310;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">persuaded to do so by Washington and
+      Rochambeau, 311;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reaches Chesapeake, 312.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">De Grasse, Comte,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">announces intention of coming to Washington, i.
+      305;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">warned by Washington not to come to New York,
+      305;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sails to Chesapeake, 306;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">asked to meet Washington there, 308;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reaches Chesapeake, 312;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">repulses British fleet, 312;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes to return to West Indies, 315;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">persuaded to remain by Washington, 315;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to join Washington in attack on
+      Charleston, 322;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">returns to West Indies, 322.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">De Guichen,&mdash;&mdash;,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">commander of French fleet in West Indies, i.
+      280;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appealed to for aid by Washington, 281;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">returns home, 282.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Delancey, Oliver,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">escapes American attack, i. 306.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Democratic party,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its formation as a French party, ii. 225;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">furnished with catch-words by Jefferson,
+      226;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">with a newspaper organ, 227;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not ready to oppose Washington for president in
+      1792, 235;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">organized against treasury measure, 236;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">stimulated by French Revolution, 238;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">supports Genet, 237;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">begins to attack Washington, 238;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his opinion of it, 239, 240, 258, 261, 267,
+      268;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">forms clubs on French model, 241;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of, 242, 243;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continues to abuse him, 244, 245, 250, 252;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">exults at his retirement, 256;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">prints slanders, 257.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Demont, William,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">betrays plans of Fort Washington to Howe, i.
+      175.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">D'Estaing, Admiral,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reaches America, i. 242;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">welcomed by Washington, 243;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to cut off Howe and goes to Newport,
+      243;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">after battle with Howe goes to Boston, 244;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 246;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sails to West Indies, 246;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">second letter of Washington to, 247;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacks Savannah, 248;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">withdraws, 248.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">De Rochambeau, Comte,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">arrives at Newport, i. 277;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ordered to await second division of army,
+      278;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to attack New York, 280;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes a conference with Washington, 282;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">meets him at Hartford, 282;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disapproves attacking Florida, 301;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">joins Washington before New York, 306;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">persuades De Barras to join De Grasse, 311;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accompanies Washington to Yorktown, 314.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Dickinson, John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">commands scouts at Monmouth, i. 326.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Digby, Admiral,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">bitter comments of Washington on, i. 325.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Dinwiddie, Governor,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">remonstrates against French encroachments, i.
+      66;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends Washington on mission to French, 66;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">quarrels with the Virginia Assembly, 71;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 73;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes Washington to attack French, 79;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to quiet discussions between regular and
+      provincial troops, 80;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">military schemes condemned by Washington,
+      91;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">prevents his getting a royal commission,
+      93.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Diplomatic History:</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refusal by Washington of special privileges to
+      French minister, ii. 59-61;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">slow growth of idea of non-intervention, 132,
+      133;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">difficulties owing to French Revolution,
+      134;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">to English retention of frontier posts,
+      135;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attitude of Spain, 135;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">relations with Barbary States, 136;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">mission of Gouverneur Morris to sound English
+      feeling, 137;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">assertion by Washington of non-intervention
+      policy toward Europe, 145, 146;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">issue of neutrality proclamation, 147, 148;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its importance, 148;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">mission of Genet, 148-162;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">guarded attitude of Washington toward
+      &eacute;migr&eacute;s, 151;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">excesses of Genet, 151;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">neutrality enforced, 153, 154;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the Little Sarah episode, 154-157;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">recall of Genet demanded, 158;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">futile missions of Carmichael and Short to
+      Spain, 165, 166;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">successful treaty of Thomas Pinckney,
+      166-168;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">question as to binding nature of French treaty
+      of commerce, 169-171;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">irritating relations with England, 173-176;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Jay's mission, 177-184;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the questions at issue, 180, 181;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">terms of the treaty agreed upon, 182;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">good and bad points, 183;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ratified by Senate, 184;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">signing delayed by renewal of provision order,
+      185;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">war with England prevented by signing, 205;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">difficulties with France over Morris and
+      Monroe, 211-214;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">doings of Monroe, 212, 213;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">United States compromised by him, 213, 214;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Monroe replaced by Pinckney, 214;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">review of Washington's foreign policy,
+      216-219;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">mission of Pinckney, Marshall, and Gerry to
+      France, 284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the X.Y.Z. affair, 285.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Donop, Count,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">drives Griffin out of New Jersey, i. 180;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">killed at Fort Mercer, 217.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Dorchester, Lord.</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">See Carleton.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Duane, James,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, i. 294, 329.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Dumas, Comte,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">describes enthusiasm of people for Washington,
+      i. 288.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Dunbar, Colonel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">connection with Braddock's expedition, i. 84,
+      87.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Dunmore, Lord,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">arrives in Virginia as governor, i. 122;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on friendly terms with Washington, 122,
+      123;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">dissolves assembly, 123.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Duplaine, French consul,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">exequatur of revoked, ii. 159.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">EDEN, WILLIAM,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">peace commissioner, i. 233.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Edwards, Jonathan,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">a typical New England American, ii. 309.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Emerson, Rev. Dr.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">describes Washington's reforms in army before
+      Boston, i. 140.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Emigr&eacute;s,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's treatment of, ii. 151, 253.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">England,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">honors Washington, i. 20;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">arrogant behavior toward colonists, 80, 81, 82,
+      148;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its policy towards Boston condemned by
+      Virginia, 119, 121, 123, 126;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">by Washington, 124, 125,126;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends incompetent officers to America, 155,
+      201, 202, 233;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">stupidity of its operations, 203, 205, 206,
+      265;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sincerity of its desire for peace doubted by
+      Washington, 324, 325;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">arrogant conduct of toward the United States
+      after peace, ii. 24, 25;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">stirs up the Six Nations and Northwestern
+      Indians, 92, 94, 101;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">folly of her policy, 102;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends Hammond as minister, 169;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its opportunity to win United States as ally
+      against France, 171, 172;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">adopts contrary policy of opposition, 172,
+      173;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">adopts "provision order," 174;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">incites Indians against United States, 175;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">indignation of America against, 176;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">receives Jay well, but refuses to yield points
+      at issue, 180;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">insists on monopoly of West India trade,
+      180;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">and on impressment, 181;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">later history of, 181;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">renews provision order, 185;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">danger of war with, 193;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">avoided by Jay treaty, 205;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington said to sympathize with England,
+      252;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his real hostility toward, 254;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of liberty in, 344.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Ewing, General James,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to help Washington at Trenton, i.
+      180.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">FAIRFAX, BRYAN,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hunts with Washington, i. 115;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">remonstrates with Washington against violence
+      of patriots, 124;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's replies to, 124, 126, 127;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to in Revolution, ii.
+      366.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Fairfax, George,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">married to Miss Cary, i. 55;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accompanies Washington on surveying expedition,
+      58;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 133.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Fairfax, Mrs.&mdash;&mdash;,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 367.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Fairfax, Thomas, Lord,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his career in England, i. 55;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">comes to his Virginia estates, 55;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his character, 55;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his friendship for Washington, 56;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends him to survey estates, 56;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">plans a manor across the Blue Ridge, 59;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">secures for Washington position as public
+      surveyor, 60;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">probably influential in securing his
+      appointment as envoy to</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">French, 66;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hunts with Washington, 115;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his death remembered by Washington, ii.
+      366.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Fairlie, Major,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">amuses Washington, ii. 374.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Farewell Address, ii. 248, 249.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Fauchet, M.,&mdash;&mdash;,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of, incriminating Randolph, ii. 195,196,
+      202.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Fauntleroy, Betsy,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">love affair of Washington with, i. 97.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Fauquier, Francis, Governor,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at Washington's wedding, i. 101.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Federal courts,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">suggested by Washington, i. 150.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">"Federalist,"</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">circulated by Washington, ii. 40.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Federalist party,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">begun by Hamilton's controversy with Jefferson,
+      ii. 230;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">supports Washington for re&euml;lection,
+      235;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">organized in support of financial measures,
+      236;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington looked upon by Democrats as its
+      head, 244, 247;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">only its members trusted by Washington, 246,
+      247, 259, 260, 261;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">becomes a British party, 255;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington considers himself a member of,
+      269-274;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the only American party until 1800, 273;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">strengthened by X, Y, Z affair, 285;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">dissensions in, over army appointments,
+      286-290;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its horror at French Revolution, 294, 295;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attempts of Washington to heal divisions in,
+      298.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Fenno's newspaper,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">used by Hamilton against the "National
+      Gazette," ii. 230.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Finances of the Revolution,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">effect of paper money on war, i. 258, 262;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">difficulties in paying troops, 258;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">labors of Robert Morris, 259, 264, 312;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">connection of Washington with, 263;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continued collapse, 280, 290, 312.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Financial History,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">bad condition in 1789, ii. 105;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">decay of credit, paper, and revenue, 106;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">futile propositions, 106;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Hamilton's report on credit, 107;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">debate over assumption of state debt, 107;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">bargain between Hamilton and Jefferson,
+      108;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">establishment of bank, 109;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">other measures adopted, 112;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">protection in the first Congress, 112-115;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the excise tax imposed, 123;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">opposition to, 123-127;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">"Whiskey Rebellion," 127-128.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Fishbourn, Benjamin,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">nomination rejected by Senate, ii. 63.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Fontanes, M. de,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">delivers funeral oration on Washington, i.
+      1.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Forbes, General,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">renews attack on French in Ohio, i. 93.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Forman, Major,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">describes impressiveness of Washington, ii.
+      389.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Fox, Charles James,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">understands significance of Washington's
+      leadership, i. 202.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">France,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">pays honors to Washington, i. I, 6;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">war with England, see French and Indian
+      war;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">takes possession of Ohio, 65;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">considers Jumonville assassinated by
+      Washington, 74;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">importance of alliance with foreseen by
+      Washington, 191;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">impressed by battle of Germantown, 200;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes treaty of alliance with United States,
+      241;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends D'Estaing, 243;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">declines to attack Canada, 256;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends army and fleet, 274, 277;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">relations of French to Washington, 318,
+      319;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">absolute necessity of their naval aid, 318,
+      319;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Revolution in, applauded by America, ii. 138,
+      139, 142;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">real character understood by Washington and
+      others, 139-142, 295;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">debate over in America, 142;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">question of relations with United States, 143,
+      144;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">warned by Washington, 144, 145;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">neutrality toward declared, 147;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to drive United States into alliance,
+      149;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">terms of the treaty with, 169;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">latter held to be no longer binding,
+      169-171;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">abrogates it, 171;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">demands recall of Morris, 211;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">mission of Monroe to, 211-214;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes vague promises, 212, 213;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's fairness toward, 253;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to bully or corrupt American ministers,
+      284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the X, Y, Z affair, 285;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">war with not expected by Washington, 291;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">danger of concession to, 292, 293;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">progress of Revolution in, 294.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Franklin, Benjamin,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">gets wagons for Braddock's expedition, i.
+      84;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">remark on Howe in Philadelphia, 219;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">national, like Washington, 252, ii. 8;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">despairs of success of Constitutional
+      Convention, 35;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his unquestioned Americanism, 309;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">respect of Washington for, 344, 346, 364.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Frederick II., the Great,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his opinion of Trenton campaign, i. 183;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">of Monmouth campaign, 239.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">French and Indian war, i. 64-94;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">inevitable conflict, 65;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">efforts to negotiate, 66, 67;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hostilities begun, 72;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the Jumonville affair, 74;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeat of Washington, 76;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Braddock's campaign, 82-88;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ravages in Virginia, 90;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">carried to a favorable conclusion by Pitt, 93,
+      94.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Freneau, Philip,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">brought to Philadelphia and given clerkship by
+      Jefferson, ii. 227;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacks Adams, Hamilton, and Washington in
+      "National Gazette," 227;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes conflicting statements as to Jefferson's
+      share in the paper, 227, 228;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the first to attack Washington, 238.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Fry, Colonel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">commands a Virginia regiment against French and
+      Indians, i. 71;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">dies, leaving Washington in command, 75.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">GAGE, GENERAL THOMAS,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">conduct at Boston condemned by Washington, i.
+      126;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his treatment of prisoners protested against by
+      Washington, 145;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends an arrogant reply, 147;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">second letter of Washington to, 147, 156.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Gallatin, Albert,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">connection with Whiskey Rebellion, ii. 129.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Gates, Horatio,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">visits Mt. Vernon, his character, i. 132;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to cooperate with Washington at
+      Trenton, 180;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his appointment as commander against Burgoyne
+      urged, 208;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">chosen by Congress, 209;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his part in defeating Burgoyne, 210;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">neglects to inform Washington, 211;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">loses his head and wishes to supplant
+      Washington, 215;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">forced to send troops South, 216, 217;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his attitude discovered by Washington, 221;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes feeble efforts at opposition, 221,
+      223;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">correspondence with Washington, 221, 223,
+      226;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">becomes head of board of war, 221;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">quarrels with Wilkinson, 223;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent to his command, 226;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fears attack of British on Boston, 265;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent by Congress to command in South, 268;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeated at Camden, 281, 294;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">loses support of Congress, 294.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Genet, Edmond Charles,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">arrives as French minister, ii. 148;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his character, 149;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">violates neutrality, 151;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his journey to Philadelphia, 151;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reception by Washington, 152;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">complains of it, 153;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes demands upon State Department, 153;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">protests at seizure of privateers, 153;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">insists on sailing of Little Sarah, 155;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">succeeds in getting vessel away, 157;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his recall demanded, 158;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reproaches Jefferson, 158;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">remains in America, 158;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">threatens to appeal from Washington to
+      Massachusetts, 159;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">demands denial from Washington of Jay's
+      statements, 159;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">loses popular support, 160;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to raise a force to invade Southwest,
+      161;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">prevented by state and federal authorities,
+      162;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his arrival the signal for divisions of
+      parties, 237;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hurts Democratic party by his excesses,
+      241;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">suggests clubs, 241.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">George IV.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of, ii. 346.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Georgia,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">quarrels with Creeks, asks aid of United
+      States, ii. 90;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">becomes dissatisfied with treaty, 91;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disregards treaties of the United States,
+      103.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Gerard, M.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">notifies Washington of return of D'Estaing, i.
+      246.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Germantown,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of, i. 199.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Gerry, Elbridge,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on special mission to France, ii. 284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disliked by Washington, 292.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Giles, W.B.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacks Washington in Congress, ii. 251,
+      252.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Gist, Christopher,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accompanies Washington on his mission to
+      French, i. 66;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes to shoot French Indians, 68.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Gordon,&mdash;&mdash;,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 227.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Graves, Admiral,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent to relieve Cornwallis, i. 312; defeated by
+      De Grasse, 312.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Grayson, William,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hunts with Washington, i. 115; letter to, ii.
+      22.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Green Springs,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of, i. 307.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Greene, General Nathanael,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">commands at Long Island, ill with fever, i.
+      164;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes forts on Hudson held, 174;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">late in attacking at Germantown, 199;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">conducts retreat, 200;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">succeeds Mifflin as quartermaster-general,
+      232;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">selected by Washington to command in South,
+      268;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">commands army at New York in absence of
+      Washington, 282;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed to command Southern army, 295;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">retreats from Cornwallis, 302;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fights battle of Guilford Court House, 302;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">clears Southern States of enemy, 302;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">strong position, 304;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reinforced by Washington, 322;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter to, 325;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his military capacity early recognized by
+      Washington, ii. 334;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">amuses Washington, 374.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Greene, Mrs.&mdash;&mdash;,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">dances three hours with Washington, ii.
+      380.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Grenville, Lord,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">denies that ministry has incited Indians
+      against United States, ii. 175;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">receives Jay, 180;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">declines to grant United States trade with West
+      Indies, 181.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Griffin, David,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">commissioner to treat with Creeks, ii. 90.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Griffin,&mdash;&mdash;,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to help Washington at Trenton, i.
+      180.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Grymes, Lucy,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the "Lowland Beauty," love affair of Washington
+      with, i. 95;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">marries Henry Lee, 96.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">HALDIMAND, SIR FREDERICK,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">leads Indians against colonists, i. 325.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Hale, Nathan, compared with Andr&eacute;, i.
+      288.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Half-King,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">kept to English alliance by Washington, i.
+      68;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his criticism of Washington's first campaign,
+      76.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Hamilton, Alexander,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">forces Gates to send back troops to Washington,
+      i. 216, 217;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">remark on councils of war before Monmouth,
+      234;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">informs Washington of Arnold's treason,
+      284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent to intercept Arnold, 285;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes letters on government and finance,
+      298;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">leads attack at Yorktown, i. 316;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">requests release of Asgill, 329;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">aids Washington in Congress, 333;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">only man beside Washington and Franklin to
+      realize American future, ii. 7;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to on necessity of a
+      strong government, 17, 18;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes letters to Duane and Morris, 19;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">speech in Federal Convention and departure,
+      35;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">counseled by Washington, 39;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">consulted by Washington as to etiquette,
+      54;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">made secretary of treasury, 66;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his character, 67;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his report on the mint, 81;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on the public credit, 107;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">upheld by Washington, 107, 108;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his arrangement with Jefferson, 108;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">argument on the bank, 110;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his success largely due to Washington, 112;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his report on manufactures, 112, 114, 116;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">advocates an excise, 122;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to realize its unpopularity, 123;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accompanies expedition to suppress Whiskey
+      Rebellion, 128;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">comprehends French Revolution, 139;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">frames questions to cabinet on neutrality,
+      147;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges decisive measures against Genet, 154;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">argues against United States being bound by
+      French treaty, 169;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">selected for English mission, but withdraws,
+      177;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not likely to have done better than Jay,
+      183;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">mobbed in defending Jay treaty, 187;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes Camillus letters in favor of Jay treaty,
+      206;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">intrigued against by Monroe, 212;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">causes for his breach with Jefferson, 224;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his aristocratic tendencies, 225;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacked by Jefferson and his friends, 228,
+      229;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disposes of the charges, 229;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">retorts in newspapers with effect, 230;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ceases at Washington's request, 230, 234;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">resigns from the cabinet, 234;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">desires Washington's re&euml;lection, 235;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">selected by Washing, ton as senior general,
+      286;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appeals to Washington against Adams's reversal
+      of rank, 286;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to soothe Knox's anger, 288;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">report on army organization, 290;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, condemning Adams's
+      French mission, 293;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fears anarchy from Democratic success, 295;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">approves Alien and Sedition Acts, 296;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his scheme of a military academy approved by
+      Washington, 299;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's affection for, 317, 362;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his ability early recognized by Washington,
+      334, 335;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">aids Washington in literary points, 340;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">takes care of Lafayette's son, 366.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Hammond, George,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">protests against violations of neutrality, ii.
+      151;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his arrival as British minister, 169;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his offensive tone, 173;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">does not disavow Lord Dorchester's speech to
+      Indians, 176;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">gives Fauchet letters to Wolcott, 195;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">intrigues with American public men, 200.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Hampden, John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">compared with Washington, ii. 312, 313.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Hancock, John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disappointed at Washington's receiving command
+      of army, i. 135;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his character, ii. 74;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to call first on Washington as
+      President, 75;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">apologizes and calls, 75, 76.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Hardin, Colonel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">twice surprised and defeated by Indians, ii.
+      93.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Harmar, Colonel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">invades Indian country, ii. 92;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacks the Miamis, 93;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends out unsuccessful expeditions and
+      retreats, 93;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">court-martialed and resigns, 93.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Harrison, Benjamin,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, i. 259, 261; ii.
+      10.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Hartley, Mrs.&mdash;&mdash;,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">admired by Washington, i. 95.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Heard, Sir Isaac,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Garter King at Arms, makes out a pedigree for
+      Washington, i. 30, 31.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Heath, General,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">checks Howe at Frog's Point, i. 173;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">left in command at New York, 311.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Henry, Patrick,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his resolutions supported by Washington, i.
+      119;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accompanies him to Philadelphia, 128;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his tribute to Washington's influence, 130;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ready for war, 132;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Conway cabal to against Washington,
+      222;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 225;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appealed to by Washington on behalf of
+      Constitution, ii. 38;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">an opponent of the Constitution, 71;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urged by Washington to oppose Virginia
+      resolutions, 266-268, 293;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">a genuine American, 309;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">offered secretaryship of state, 324;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">friendship of Washington for, 362.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Hertburn, Sir William de,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ancestor of Washington family, i. 31, 33.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Hessians,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">in Revolution, i. 194.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Hickey, Thomas,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hanged for plotting to murder Washington, i.
+      160.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Hobby,&mdash;&mdash;, a sexton,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's earliest teacher, i. 48.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Hopkinson, Francis,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 3.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Houdon, J.A., sculptor,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on Washington's appearance, ii. 386.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Howe, Lord,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">arrives at New York with power to negotiate and
+      pardon, i. 161;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to give Washington his title, 161;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to negotiate with Congress, 167;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">escapes D'Estaing at Delaware, 244;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacks D'Estaing off Newport, 244.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Howe, Sir William,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">has controversy with Washington over treatment
+      of prisoners, i. 148;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">checked at Frog's Point, 173;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacks cautiously at Chatterton Hill, 173;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">retreats and attacks forts on Hudson, 174;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">takes Fort Washington, 175;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">goes into winter quarters in New York, 177,
+      186;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">suspected of purpose to meet Burgoyne, 194,
+      195;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">baffled in advance across New Jersey by
+      Washington, 194;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">goes by sea, 195;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">arrives at Head of Elk, 196;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeats Washington at Brandywine, 197;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">camps at Germantown, 199;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">withdraws after Germantown into Philadelphia,
+      201;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">folly of his failure to meet Burgoyne, 205,
+      206;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">offers battle in vain to Washington, 218;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">replaced by Clinton, 232;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to cut off Lafayette, 233.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Huddy, Captain,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">captured by English, hanged by Tories, i.
+      327.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Humphreys, Colonel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, ii. 13, 339;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at opening of Congress, 78;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">commissioner to treat with Creeks, 90;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">anecdote of, 375.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Huntington, Lady,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">asks Washington's aid in Christianizing
+      Indians, ii. 4.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">IMPRESSMENT,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">right of, maintained by England, ii. 181.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Independence,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not wished, but foreseen, by Washington, i.
+      131, 156;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">declared by Congress, possibly through
+      Washington's influence, 160.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Indians,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wars with in Virginia, i. 37, 38;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">in French and Indian war, 67,68;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">desert English, 76;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">in Braddock's defeat, 85, 86, 88;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">restless before Revolution, 122;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">in War of Revolution, 266, 270;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">punished by Sullivan, 269;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">policy toward, early suggested by Washington,
+      344;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">recommendations relative to in Washington's
+      address to Congress, ii. 82;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the "Indian problem" under Washington's
+      administration, 83-105;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">erroneous popular ideas of, 84, 85;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">real character and military ability, 85-87;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">understood by Washington, 87, 88;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">a real danger in 1788, 88;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">situation in the Northwest, 89;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">difficulties with Cherokees and Creeks, 89,
+      90;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">influence of Spanish intrigue, 90;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">successful treaty with Creeks, 90, 91;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wisdom of this policy, 92;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">warfare in the Northwest, 92;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeats of Harmar and Hardin, 93;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">causes for the failure, 93, 94;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">intrigues of England, 92, 94, 175, 178;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">expedition and defeat of St. Clair, 95-97;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">results, 99;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">expedition of Wayne, 100, 102;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his victory, 103;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">success of Washington's policy toward, 104,
+      105.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Iredell, James,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 73.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">JACKSON, MAJOR,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accompanies Washington to opening of Congress,
+      ii. 78.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Jameson, Colonel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">forwards Andrews letter to Arnold, i. 284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">receives orders from Washington, 285.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Jay, John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on opposition in Congress, to Washington, i.
+      222;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">consulted by Washington as to etiquette, ii.
+      54;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed chief justice, 72;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">publishes card against Genet, 159;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed on special mission to England,
+      177;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his character, 177;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">instructions from Washington, 179;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his reception in England, 180;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">difficulties in negotiating, 181;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">concludes treaty, 182;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">burnt in effigy while absent, 186;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">execrated after news of treaty, 187;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hampered by Monroe in France, 213.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Jay treaty, ii. 180-184;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">opposition to and debate over signing,
+      184-201;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reasons of Washington for signing, 205.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Jefferson, Thomas,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his flight from Cornwallis, i. 307;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">discusses with Washington needs of government,
+      ii. 9;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">adopts French democratic phraseology, 27;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">contrast with Washington, 27, 28, 69;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">criticises Washington's manners, 56;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">made secretary of state, 68;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his previous relations with Washington, 68;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his character, 69;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">supposed to be a friend of the Constitution,
+      72;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his objections to President's opening Congress,
+      79;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on weights and measures, 81;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to on assumption of state
+      debts, 107;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes bargain with Hamilton, 108;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">opposes a bank, 110;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">asked to prepare neutrality instructions,
+      146;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">upholds Genet, 153;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">argues against him publicly, supports him
+      privately, 154;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">notified of French privateer Little Sarah,
+      155;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">allows it to sail, 155;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">retires to country and is censured by
+      Washington, 156;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">assures Washington that vessel will wait his
+      decision, 156;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his un-American attitude, 157;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes to make terms of note demanding Genet's
+      recall mild, 158;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">argues that United States is bound by French
+      treaty, 170, 171;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">begs Madison to answer Hamilton's "Camillus"
+      letters, 206;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his attitude upon first entering cabinet,
+      223;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">causes for his breach with Hamilton, 224;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">jealousy, incompatibility of temper, 224;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his democratic opinions, 225;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">skill in creating party catch-words, 225;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">prints "Rights of Man" with note against Adams,
+      226;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacks him further in letter to Washington,
+      226;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">brings Freneau to Philadelphia and gives him an
+      office, 227;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">denies any connection with Freneau's newspaper,
+      227;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his real responsibility, 228;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his purpose to undermine Hamilton, 228;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">causes his friends to attack him, 229;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes a letter to Washington attacking
+      Hamilton's treasury measures, 229;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to produce any effect, 230;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">winces under Hamilton's counter attacks,
+      230;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reiterates charges and asserts devotion to
+      Constitution, 231;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continues attacks and resigns, 234;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes re&euml;lection of Washington, 235;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his charge of British sympathies resented by
+      Washington, 252;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">plain letter of Washington to, 259;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of, 259;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">suggests Logan's mission to France, 262,
+      265;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">takes oath as vice-president, 276;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">regarded as a Jacobin by Federalists, 294;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">jealous of Washington, 306;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accuses him of senility, 307;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">a genuine American, 309.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Johnson, William,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Tory leader in New York, i. 143.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Johnstone, Governor,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">peace commissioner, i. 233.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Jumonville, De, French leader,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">declared to have been assassinated by
+      Washington, i. 74,79;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">really a scout and spy, 75.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">KENTUCKY RESOLUTIONS,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">condemned by Washington, ii. 266-268.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">King, Clarence,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his opinion that Washington was not American,
+      ii. 308.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">King, Rufus,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">publishes card exposing Genet, ii. 159.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">King's Bridge,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fight at, i. 170.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Kip's Landing,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fight at, i. 168.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Kirkland, Rev. Samuel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">negotiates with Six Nations, ii. 101.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Knox, Henry,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">brings artillery to Boston from Ticonderoga, i.
+      152;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accompanies Washington to meet De Rochambeau,
+      283;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at West Point, 285;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent by Washington to confer with governors of
+      States, 295;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urged by Washington to establish Western posts,
+      ii. 7;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, 30, 39;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">made secretary of war, 65;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his character, 65;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">a Federalist, 71;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">deals with Creeks, 91;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges decisive measure against Genet, 154,
+      155;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, 260;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">selected by Washington as third major-general,
+      286;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">given first place by Adams, 286;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">angry at Hamilton's higher rank, 288;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses the office, 289;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his offer to serve on Washington's staff
+      refused, 289;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's affection for, 317, 362.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">LAFAYETTE, Madame de,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">aided by Washington, ii. 366;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 377.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Lafayette, Marquis de,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's regard for, i. 192;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his opinion of Continental troops, 196;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent on fruitless journey to the lakes by
+      cabal, 222, 253;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">encouraged by Washington, 225;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">narrowly escapes being cut off by Clinton,
+      233;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed to attack British rear, 235;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">superseded by Lee, 235;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges Washington to come, 235;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, regarding quarrel
+      between D'Estaing and Sullivan, 245;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">regard of Washington for, 249;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">desires to conquer Canada, 254;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his plan not supported in France, 256;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">works to get a French army sent, 264;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">brings news of French army and fleet, 274;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to get De Rochambeau to attack New York,
+      280;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accompanies Washington to meet De Rochambeau,
+      283;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">told by Washington of Arnold's treachery,
+      285;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on court to try Andr&eacute;, 287;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">opinion of Continental soldiers, 293;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">harasses Cornwallis, 307;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeated at Green Springs, 307;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">watches Cornwallis at Yorktown, 308;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reinforced by De Grasse, 312;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">persuades him to remain, 315;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends Washington French wolf-hounds, ii. 2;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, 23, 26, 118, 144,
+      165, 222, 261;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his son not received by Washington, 253;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">later taken care of, 277, 281, 366;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his worth, early seen by Washington, 334;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's affection for, 365;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends key of Bastile to Mt. Vernon, 365;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">helped by Washington, 365,366.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Laurens, Henry,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Conway cabal to, making attack on
+      Washington, i. 222;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, 254, 288;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent to Paris to get loans, 299.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Lauzun, Duc de,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">repulses Tarleton at Yorktown, i. 317.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Lear, Tobias,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's secretary, ii. 263;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his account of Washington's last illness,
+      299-303, 385;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters to, 361, 382.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Lee, Arthur,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">example of Virginia gentleman educated abroad,
+      i. 23.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Lee, Charles,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">visits Mt. Vernon, his character, i. 132;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accompanies Washington to Boston, 136;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">aids Washington in organizing army, 140;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disobeys orders and is captured, 175;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">objects to attacking Clinton, 234;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">first refuses, then claims command of van,
+      235;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disobeys orders and retreats, 236;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rebuked by Washington, 236, 237;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">court martial of and dismissal from army,
+      237;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his witty remark on taking oath of allegiance,
+      ii. 375.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Lee, Henry, marries Lucy Grymes,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's "Lowland Beauty," i. 96.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Lee, Henry,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">son of Lucy Grymes, Washington's "Lowland
+      Beauty," i. 96; ii. 362;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">captures Paulus Hook, i. 269;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, ii. 23, 26, 149, 235,
+      239, 242, 252;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">considered for command against Indians,
+      100;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">commands troops to suppress Whiskey Rebellion,
+      127;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's affection for, 362.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Lee, Richard Henry,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">unfriendly to Washington, i. 214;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 160.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Lewis, Lawrence,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at opening of Congress, ii. 78;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">takes social duties at Mt. Vernon, 280.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Liancourt, Duc de,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refused reception by Washington, ii. 253.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Lincoln, Abraham,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">compared with Washington, i. 349; ii.
+      308-313.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Lincoln, Benjamin,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent by Washington against Burgoyne, i.
+      210;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to understand Washington's policy and
+      tries to hold Charleston, 273, 274;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">captured, 276;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">commissioner to treat with Creeks, ii. 90.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Lippencott, Captain,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">orders hanging of Huddy, i. 327;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">acquitted by English court martial, 328.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Little Sarah,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the affair of, 155-157.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Livingston, Chancellor,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">administers oath at Washington's inauguration,
+      ii. 46.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Livingston, Edward,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">moves call for papers relating to Jay treaty,
+      ii. 207.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Logan, Dr. George,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">goes on volunteer mission to France, ii.
+      262;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ridiculed by Federalists, publishes defense,
+      263;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">calls upon Washington, 263;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">mercilessly snubbed, 263-265.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Long Island,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of, i. 164,165.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">London, Lord,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disappoints Washington by his inefficiency, i.
+      91.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Lovell, James,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">follows the Adamses in opposing Washington, i.
+      214;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes to supplant him by Gates, 215;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes hostile letters, 222.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">MACKENZIE, CAPTAIN,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 130.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Madison, James,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">begins to desire a stronger government, ii. 19,
+      29;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, 30, 39, 53;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">chosen for French mission, but does not go,
+      211.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Magaw, Colonel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">betrayed at Fort Washington, i. 175.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">"Magnolia,"</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's pet colt, beaten in a race, i. 99,
+      113; ii. 381.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Marshall, John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Chief Justice, on special commission to France,
+      ii. 284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tells anecdote of Washington's anger at
+      cowardice, 392.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Maryland, the Washington family in, i.36.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Mason, George,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">discusses political outlook with Washington, i.
+      119;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 263;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">an opponent of the Constitution, ii. 71;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">friendship of Washington for, 362;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">debates with Washington the site of Pohick
+      Church, 381.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Mason, S.T.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">communicates Jay treaty to Bache, ii. 185.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Massey, Rev. Lee,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rector of Pohick Church, i. 44.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Mathews, George,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 294.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Matthews, Edward,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes raids in Virginia, i. 269.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Mawhood, General,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeated at Princeton, i. 182.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">McGillivray, Alexander,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">chief of the Creeks, ii. 90;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his journey to New York and interview with
+      Washington, 91.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">McHenry, James,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at West Point, i. 284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters to, 325, ii. 22, 278, 287, 384;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">becomes secretary of war, 246;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">advised by Washington not to appoint Democrats,
+      260, 261.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">McKean, Thomas, given letters to Dr. Logan, ii.
+      265.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">McMaster, John B.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">calls Washington "an unknown man," i. 7, ii.
+      304;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">calls him cold, 332, 352;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">and avaricious in small ways, 352.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Meade, Colonel Richard,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of, ii. 335.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Mercer, Hugh,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">killed at Princeton, i. 182.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Merlin,&mdash;&mdash;,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">president of Directory, interview with Dr.
+      Logan, ii. 265.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Mifflin, Thomas,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes to supplant Washington by Gates, i.
+      216;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">member of board of war, 221;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">put under Washington's orders, 226;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">replies to Washington's surrender of
+      commission, 349;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">meets Washington on journey to inauguration,
+      ii. 44;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">notified of the Little Sarah, French privateer,
+      154;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">orders its seizure, 155.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Militia,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">abandon Continental army, i. 167;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">cowardice of, 168;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">despised by Washington, 169;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">leave army again, 175;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">assist in defeat of Burgoyne, 211.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Mischianza, i. 232.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Monmouth,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of, i. 235-239.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Monroe, James,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed minister to France, ii. 211;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his character, 212;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">intrigues against Hamilton, 212;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">effusively received in Paris, 212;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">acts foolishly, 213;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to interfere with Jay, 213;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">upheld, then condemned and recalled by
+      Washington, 213, 214;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes a vindication, 215;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of him, 215, 216;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his selection one of Washington's few mistakes,
+      334.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Montgomery, General Richard,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent by Washington to invade Canada, i.
+      143.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Morgan, Daniel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent against Burgoyne by Washington, i.
+      208;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at Saratoga, 210;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wins battle of Cowpens, joins Greene, 301.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Morris, Gouverneur,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, i. 248, 263;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">efforts towards financial reform, 264;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">quotes speech of Washington at Federal
+      convention in his eulogy, ii. 31;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">discussion as to his value as an authority, 32,
+      note;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">goes to England on unofficial mission, 137;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">balked by English insolence, 137;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">comprehends French Revolution, 139;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, on the Revolution,
+      140,142,145;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">recall demanded by France, 211;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 217,240, 254;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's friendship for, 363.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Morris, Robert,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 187;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">helps Washington to pay troops, 259;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">efforts towards financial reform, 264;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">difficulty in helping Washington in 1781, 309,
+      312;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">considered for secretary of treasury, ii.
+      66;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his bank policy approved by Washington,
+      110;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's friendship for, 363.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Moustier,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">demands private access to Washington, ii.
+      59;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refused, 59, 60.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Murray, Vans, minister in Holland,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">interview with Dr. Logan, ii. 264;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">nominated for French mission by Adams, 292;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">written to by Washington, 292.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Muse, Adjutant,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">trains Washington in tactics and art of war, i.
+      65.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">NAPOLEON,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">orders public mourning for Washington's death,
+      i. 1.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Nelson, General,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 257.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Newburgh,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">addresses, ii. 335.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">New England,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">character of people, i. 138;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attitude toward Washington, 138, 139;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">troops disliked by Washington, 152;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">later praised by him, 152, 317, 344;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">threatened by Burgoyne's invasion, 204;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its delegates in Congress demand appointment of
+      Gates, 208;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">and oppose Washington, 214;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">welcomes Washington on tour as President, ii.
+      74;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">more democratic than other colonies before
+      Revolution, 315;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disliked by Washington for this reason,
+      316.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Newenham, Sir Edward,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to on American foreign
+      policy, ii. 133.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">New York,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's first visit to, i. 99, 100;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defense of, in Revolution, 159-169;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">abandoned by Washington, 169;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Howe establishes himself in, 177;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reoccupied by Clinton, 264;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's journey to, ii. 44;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">inauguration in, 46;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rioting in, against Jay treaty, 187.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Nicholas, John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 259.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Nicola, Col.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges Washington to establish a despotism, i.
+      337.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Noailles, Vicomte de, French
+      &eacute;migr&eacute;,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">referred to State Department, ii. 151, 253.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">O'FLINN, CAPTAIN,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's friendship with, ii. 318.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Organization of the national government,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">absence of materials to work with, ii. 51;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">debate over title of President, 52;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">over his communications with Senate, 53;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">over presidential etiquette, 53-56;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointment of officials to cabinet offices
+      established by Congress, 64-71;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointment of supreme court judges, 72.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Orme,&mdash;&mdash;,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 84.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">PAINE, THOMAS,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his "Rights of Man" reprinted by Jefferson, ii.
+      226.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Parkinson, Richard,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">says Washington was harsh to slaves, i.
+      105;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">contradicts statement elsewhere, 106;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tells stories of Washington's pecuniary
+      exactness, ii. 353, 354, 382;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his character, 355;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his high opinion of Washington, 356.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Parton, James,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">considers Washington as good but commonplace,
+      ii. 330, 374.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Peachey, Captain,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 92.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Pendleton, Edmund,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Virginia delegate to Continental Congress, i.
+      128.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Pennsylvania,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to fight the French, i. 72,83;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to help Washington, 225;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">remonstrates against his going into winter
+      quarters, 229;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">condemned by Washington, 229;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">compromises with mutineers, 292.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Philipse, Mary,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">brief love-affair of Washington with, i. 99,
+      100.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Phillips, General,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">commands British troops in Virginia, i.
+      303;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">death of, 303.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Pickering, Colonel, quiets Six Nations, ii.
+      94.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Pickering, Timothy,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, on French Revolution,
+      ii. 140;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on failure of Spanish negotiations, 166;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">recalls Washington to Philadelphia to receive
+      Fauchet letter, 195;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">succeeds Randolph, 246;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, on party government,
+      247;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appeals to Washington against Adams's reversal
+      of Hamilton's rank, 286;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, 292, 324;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">criticises Washington as a commonplace person,
+      307.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Pinckney, Charles C.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 90;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed to succeed Monroe as minister to
+      France, 214;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refused reception, 284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent on special commission, 284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">named by Washington as general, 286;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accepts without complaint of Hamilton's higher
+      rank, 290;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's friendship with, 363.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Pinckney, Thomas,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent on special mission to Spain, ii. 166;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">unsuccessful at first, 166;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">succeeds in making a good treaty, 167;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">credit of his exploit, 168;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 325.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Pitt, William,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his conduct of French war, i. 93, 94.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Princeton,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of, i. 181-3.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Privateers,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent out by Washington, i. 150.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">"Protection"</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">favored in the first Congress, ii. 113-115;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">arguments of Hamilton for, 114, 115;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">of Washington, 116-122.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Provincialism,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">of Americans, i. 193;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">with regard to foreign officers, 193, 234,
+      250-252;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">with regard to foreign politics, ii. 131, 132,
+      163, 237, 255.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Putnam, Israel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">escapes with difficulty from New York, i.
+      169;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to help Washington at Trenton, 180;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">warned to defend the Hudson, 195;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tells Washington of Burgoyne's surrender,
+      211;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rebuked by Washington, 217;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">amuses Washington, ii. 374.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">RAHL, COLONEL,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeated and killed at Trenton, i. 181.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Randolph, Edmund,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 30, 39;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">relations with Washington, 64;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed attorney-general, 64;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his character, 64, 65;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">a friend of the Constitution, 71;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">opposes a bank, 110;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, on protective
+      bounties, 118;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">drafts neutrality proclamation, 147;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">vacillates with regard to Genet, 154;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">argues that United States is bound by French
+      alliance, 170;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">succeeds Jefferson as secretary of state,
+      184;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">directed to prepare a remonstrance against
+      English "provision order," 185;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">opposed to Jay treaty, 188;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, on conditional
+      ratification, 189, 191, 192, 194;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">guilty, apparently, from Fauchet letter, of
+      corrupt practices, 196;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his position not a cause for Washington's
+      signing treaty, 196-200;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">receives Fauchet letter, resigns, 201;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his personal honesty, 201;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his discreditable carelessness, 202;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fairly treated by Washington, 203, 204;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his complaints against Washington, 203;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, concerning Monroe,
+      213;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at first a Federalist, 246.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Randolph, John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on early disappearance of Virginia colonial
+      society, i. 15.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Rawdon, Lord,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">commands British forces in South, too distant
+      to help Cornwallis, i. 304.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Reed, Joseph,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, i. 151, 260.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Revolution, War of,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">foreseen by Washington, i. 120, 122;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Lexington and Concord, 133;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Bunker Hill, 136;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">siege of Boston, 137-154;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">organization of army, 139-142;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">operations in New York, 143;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">invasion of Canada, 143, 144;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">question as to treatment of prisoners,
+      145-148;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">causes of British defeat, 154, 155;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">campaign near New York, 161-177;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">causes for attempted defense of Brooklyn, 163,
+      164;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of Long Island, 164-165;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">escape of Americans, 166;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">affair at Kip's Bay, 168;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at King's Bridge, 170;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at Frog's Point, 173;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of White Plains, 173;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at Chatterton Hill, 174;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">capture of Forts Washington and Lee, 174,
+      175;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">pursuit of Washington into New Jersey,
+      175-177;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">retirement of Howe to New York, 177;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of Trenton, 180, 181;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">campaign of Princeton, 181-183;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its brilliancy, 183;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Philadelphia campaign, 194-202;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">British march across New Jersey prevented by
+      Washington, 194;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sea voyage to Delaware, 195;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of the Brandywine, 196-198;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">causes for defeat, 198;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeat of Wayne, 198;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Philadelphia taken by Howe, 199;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of Germantown, 199;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its significance, 200, 201;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Burgoyne's invasion, 203-211;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's preparations for, 204-206;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Howe's error in neglecting to cooperate,
+      205;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">capture of Ticonderoga, 207;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battles of Bennington, Oriskany, Fort Schuyler,
+      210;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of Saratoga, 211;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">British repulse at Fort Mercer, 217;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">destruction of the forts, 217;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fruitless skirmishing before Philadelphia,
+      218;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Valley Forge, 228-232;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">evacuation of Philadelphia, 234;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of Monmouth, 235-239;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its effect, 239;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">cruise and failure of D'Estaing at Newport,
+      243, 244;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">failure of D'Estaing at Savannah, 247, 248;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">storming of Stony Point, 268, 269;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Tory raids near New York, 269;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">standstill in 1780, 272;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">siege and capture of Charleston, 273, 274,
+      276;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">operations of French and Americans near
+      Newport, 277, 278;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of Camden, 281;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">treason of Arnold, 281-289;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of Cowpens, 301;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">retreat of Greene before Cornwallis, 302;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of Guilford Court House, 302;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">successful operations of Greene, 302, 303;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Southern campaign planned by Washington,
+      304-311;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">feints against Clinton, 306;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">operations of Cornwallis and Lafayette in
+      Virginia, 307;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">naval supremacy secured by Washington, 310,
+      311;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle of De Grasse and Graves off Chesapeake,
+      312;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">transport of American army to Virginia,
+      311-313;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">siege and capture of Yorktown, 315-318;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">masterly character of campaign, 318-320;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">petty operations before New York, 326;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">treaty of peace, 342.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Rives,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on Washington's doubts of constitutionality of
+      Bank, ii. 110.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Robinson, Beverly,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">speaker of Virginia House of Burgesses, his
+      compliment to Washington, i. 102.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Robinson, Colonel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">loyalist, i. 282.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Rumsey, James,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the inventor, asks Washington's consideration
+      of his steamboat, ii. 4.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Rush, Benjamin,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">describes Washington's impressiveness, ii.
+      389.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Rutledge, John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 281;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">nomination rejected by Senate, ii. 63;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">nominated to Supreme Court, 73.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">ST. CLAIR, Arthur,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">removed after loss of Ticonderoga, i. 208;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed to command against Indians, ii.
+      94;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">receives instructions and begins expedition,
+      95;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeated, 96;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his character, 99;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fair treatment by Washington, 99;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">popular execration of, 105.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">St. Pierre, M. de,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">French governor in Ohio, i. 67.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">St. Simon, Count,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reinforces Lafayette, i. 312.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Sandwich, Lord,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">calls all Yankees cowards, i. 155.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Saratoga,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">anecdote concerning, i. 202.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Savage, Edward,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">characteristics of his portrait of Washington,
+      i. 13.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Savannah,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">siege of, i. 247.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Scammel, Colonel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">amuses Washington, ii. 374.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Schuyler, Philip,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accompanies Washington to Boston, i. 136;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed military head in New York, 136;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">directed by Washington how to meet Burgoyne,
+      204;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to carry out directions, 207;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">removed, 208;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">value of his preparations, 209.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Scott, Charles, commands expedition against
+      Indians, ii. 95.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Sea-power,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its necessity seen by Washington, i. 283, 303,
+      304, 306, 310, 318, 319.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Sectional feeling,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">deplored by Washington, ii. 222.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Sharpe, Governor,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">offers Washington a company, i. 80;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's reply to, 81.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Shays's Rebellion,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">comments of Washington and Jefferson upon, ii.
+      26, 27.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Sherman, Roger,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes sarcastic remark about Wilkinson, i.
+      220.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Shirley, Governor William,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">adjusts matter of Washington's rank, i. 91,
+      97.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Short, William, minister to Holland,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on commission regarding opening of Mississippi,
+      ii. 166.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Six Nations,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">make satisfactory treaties, ii. 88;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">stirred up by English, 94;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">but pacified, 94, 101.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Slavery,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">in Virginia, i. 20;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its evil effects, 104;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's attitude toward slaves, 105;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his condemnation of the system, 106, 107;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">gradual emancipation favored, 107, 108.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Smith, Colonel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 340.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Spain,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">instigates Indians to hostilities, ii. 89, 94,
+      101;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">blocks Mississippi, 135;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes treaty with Pinckney opening Mississippi,
+      167, 168;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">angered at Jay treaty, 210.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Sparks, Jared,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his alterations of Washington's letters, ii.
+      337, 338.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Spotswood, Alexander,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">asks Washington's opinion of Alien and Sedition
+      Acts, ii. 297.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Stamp Act,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's opinion of, i. 119, 120.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Stark, General,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">leads attack at Trenton, i. 181.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">States, in the Revolutionary war,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appeals of Washington to, i. 142, 186, 204,
+      259, 277, 295, 306, 323, 324, 326, 344;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">issue paper money, 258;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">grow tired of the war, 290;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">alarmed by mutinies, 294;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">try to appease soldiers, 295, 296;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">their selfishness condemned by Washington, 333;
+      ii. 21, 23;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">thwart Indian policy of Congress, 88.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Stephen, Adam,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">late in attacking at Germantown, i. 199.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Steuben, Baron,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's appreciation of, i. 192, 249;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">drills the army at Valley Forge, 232;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">annoys Washington by wishing higher command,
+      249;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent on mission to demand surrender of Western
+      posts, 343;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his worth recognized by Washington, ii.
+      334.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Stirling, Lord,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeated and captured at Long Island, i.
+      165.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Stockton, Mrs.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 349.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Stone, General,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tells stories of Washington's closeness, ii.
+      353, 354.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Stuart, David,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, ii. 107, 221, 222,
+      258.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Stuart, Gilbert,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his portrait of Washington contrasted with
+      Savage's, i. 13.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Sullivan, John, General,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">surprised at Long Island, i. 165;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacks at Trenton, 180;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">surprised and crushed at Brandywine, 197,
+      198;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">unites with D'Estaing to attack Newport,
+      243;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">angry at D'Estaing's desertion, 244;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">soothed by Washington, 244;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sent against Indians, 266, 269.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Supreme Court,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed by Washington, ii. 72.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">TAFT,&mdash;&mdash;,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">kindness of Washington toward, ii. 367.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Talleyrand,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">eulogistic report to Napoleon on death of
+      Washington, i. 1, note;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">remark on Hamilton, ii. 139;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refused reception by Washington, 253.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Tarleton, Sir Banastre,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to escape at Yorktown, i. 317.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Thatcher, Dr.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on Washington's appearance when taking command
+      of army, i. 137.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Thomson, Charles,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">complimented by Washington on retiring from
+      secretary-ship of Continental Congress, ii. 350.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Tories,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hated by Washington, i. 156;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his reasons, 157;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">active in New York, 158;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">suppressed by Washington, 159;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">in Philadelphia, impressed by Continental army,
+      196;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">make raids on frontier, 266;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">strong in Southern States, 267;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">raids under Tryon, 269.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Trent, Captain,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his incompetence in dealing with Indians and
+      French, i. 72.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Trenton, campaign of, i. 180-183.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Trumbull, Governor,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, refusing to stand for
+      a third term, ii. 269-271;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">other letters, 298.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Trumbull, John,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on New England army before Boston, i. 139.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Trumbull, Jonathan,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his message on better government praised by
+      Washington, ii. 21;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters to, 42;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's friendship for, 363.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Tryon, Governor,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Tory leader in New York, i. 143;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his intrigues stopped by Washington, 158,
+      159;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">conspires to murder Washington, 160;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes raids in Connecticut, 269.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">VALLEY FORGE,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Continental Army at, i. 228-232.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Van Braam, Jacob,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">friend of Lawrence Washington, trains George in
+      fencing, i. 65;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accompanies him on mission to French, 66.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Vergennes,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">requests release of Asgill, i. 329, 330;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, 330;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">proposes to submit disposition of a subsidy to
+      Washington, 332.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Virginia, society in,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">before the Revolution, i. 15-29;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its entire change since then, 15, 16;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">population, distribution, and numbers, 17,
+      18;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">absence of towns, 18;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">and town life, 19;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">trade and travel in, 19;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">social classes, 20-24;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">slaves and poor whites, 20;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">clergy, 21;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">planters and their estates, 22;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">their life, 22;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">education, 23;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">habits of governing, 24;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">luxury and extravagance, 25;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">apparent wealth, 26;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">agreeableness of life, 27;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">aristocratic ideals, 28;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">vigor of stock, 29;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">unwilling to fight French, 71;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">quarrels with Dinwiddie, 71;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">thanks Washington after his French campaign,
+      79;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">terrified at Braddock's defeat, 88;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">gives Washington command, 89;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to support him, 89, 90, 93;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">bad economic conditions in, 104,105;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">local government in, 117;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">condemns Stamp Act, 119;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">adopts non-importation, 121;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">condemns Boston Port Bill, 123;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">asks opinion of counties, 124;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">chooses delegates to a congress, 127;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">prepares for war, 132;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">British campaign in, 307, 315-318;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ratifies Constitution, ii. 40;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">evil effect of free trade upon, 116, 117;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">nullification resolutions, 266;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">strength of its aristocracy, 315.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">WADE, COLONEL,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">in command at West Point after Arnold's flight,
+      i. 285.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Walker, Benjamin,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 257.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Warren, James,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters of Washington to, i. 262, ii. 118.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Washington,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ancestry, i. 30-40;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">early genealogical researches concerning,
+      30-32;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">pedigree finally established, 32;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">origin of family, 33;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">various members during middle ages, 34;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on royalist side in English civil war, 34,
+      36;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">character of family, 35;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">emigration to Virginia, 35, 36;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">career of Washingtons in Maryland, 37;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">in Virginia history, 38;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">their estates, 39.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Washington, Augustine, father of George
+      Washington,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">birth, i. 35;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">death, 39;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">character, 39;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his estate, 41;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ridiculous part played by in Weems's anecdotes,
+      44, 47.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Washington, Augustine, half brother of George
+      Washington,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">keeps him after his father's death, i. 48.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Washington, Bushrod,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refused appointment as attorney by Washington,
+      ii. 62;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">educated by him, 370.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Washington, George,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">honors to his memory in France, i. 1;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">in England, 2;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">grief in America, 3, 4;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">general admission of his greatness, 4;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its significance, 5, 6;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tributes from England, 6;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">from other countries, 6, 7;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">yet an "unknown" man, 7;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">minuteness of knowledge concerning, 8;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">has become subject of myths, 9;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">development of the Weems myth about, 10,
+      11;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">necessity of a new treatment of, 12;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">significant difference of real and ideal
+      portraits of, 13;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his silence regarding himself, 14;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">underlying traits, 14.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2"><i>Early Life</i>.</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Ancestry, 30-41;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">birth, 39;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">origin of Weems's anecdotes about, 41-44;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">their absurdity and evil results, 45-48;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">early schooling, 48;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">plan to send him to sea, 49, 50;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">studies to be a surveyor, 51;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his rules of behavior, 52;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his family connections with Fairfaxes, 54,
+      55;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his friendship with Lord Fairfax, 56;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">surveys Fairfax's estate, 57, 58, 59;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">made public surveyor, 60;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his life at the time, 60, 61;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">influenced by Fairfax's cultivation, 62;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">goes to West Indies with his brother, 62;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">has the small-pox, 63;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">observations on the voyage, 63, 64;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">returns to Virginia, 64;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">becomes guardian of his brother's daughter,
+      64.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2"><i>Service against the French and
+      Indians</i>.</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Receives military training, 65;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">a military appointment, 66;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">goes on expedition to treat with French,
+      66;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">meets Indians, 67;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">deals with French, 67;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">dangers of journey, 68;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his impersonal account, 69, 70;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed to command force against French, 71,
+      72;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his anger at neglect of Virginia Assembly,
+      73;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacks and defeats force of Jumonville,
+      74;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">called murderer by the French, 74;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">surrounded by French at Great Meadows, 76;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">surrenders, 76;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">recklessness of his expedition, 77, 78;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">effect of experience upon, 79;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">gains a European notoriety, 79;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">thanked by Virginia, 79;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">protests against Dinwiddie's organization of
+      soldiers, 80;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to serve when ranked by British
+      officers, 81;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accepts position on Braddock's staff, 82;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his treatment there, 82;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">advises Braddock, 84;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rebuked for warning against surprise, 85;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his bravery in the battle, 86;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">conducts retreat, 86, 87;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">effect of experience on him, 87;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">declines to solicit command of Virginia troops,
+      88;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accepts it when offered, 88;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his difficulties with Assembly, 89;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">and with troops, 90;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">settles question of rank, 91;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes freely in criticism of government, 91,
+      92;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">retires for rest to Mt. Vernon, 93;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">offers services to General Forbes, 93;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">irritated at slowness of English, 93, 94;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his love affairs, 95, 96;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">journey to Boston, 97-101;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at festivities in New York and Philadelphia,
+      99;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">meets Martha Custis, 101;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his wedding, 101, 102;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">elected to House of Burgesses, 102;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">confused at being thanked by Assembly, 102;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his local position, 103;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to farm his estate, 104;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his management of slaves, 105, 106, 108,
+      109;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">cares for interests of old soldiers, 109;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rebukes a coward, 110;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">cares for education of stepson, 111;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his furnishing of house, 112;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hunting habits, 113-115;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">punishes a poacher, 116;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">participates in colonial and local government,
+      117;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">enters into society, 117, 118.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2"><i>Congressional delegate from
+      Virginia</i>.</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">His influence in Assembly, 119;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">discusses Stamp Act with Mason, 119;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">foresees result to be independence, 119;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rejoices at its repeal, but notes Declaratory
+      Act, 120;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ready to use force to defend colonial rights,
+      120;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">presents non-importation resolutions to
+      Burgesses, 121;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">abstains from English products, 121;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">notes ominous movements among Indians, 122;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on good terms with royal governors, 122,
+      123;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">observes fast on account of Boston Port Bill,
+      123;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">has controversy with Bryan Fairfax over
+      Parliamentary policy, 124, 125, 126;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">presides at Fairfax County meeting, 126;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">declares himself ready for action, 126;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at convention of counties, offers to march to
+      relief of Boston, 127;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">elected to Continental Congress, 127;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his journey, 128;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">silent in Congress, 129;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes to a British officer that independence
+      is not</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">desired, but war is certain, 130, 131;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">returns to Virginia, 132;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">aids in military preparations, 132;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his opinion after Concord, 133;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at second Continental Congress, wears uniform,
+      134;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">made commander-in-chief, 134;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his modesty and courage in accepting position,
+      134, 135;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">political motives for his choice, 135;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his popularity, 136;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his journey to Boston, 136, 137;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">receives news of Bunker Hill, 136;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">is received by Massachusetts Provincial
+      Assembly, 137.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2"><i>Commander of the Army</i>.</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Takes command at Cambridge, 137;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his impression upon people, 137, 138, 139;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">begins reorganization of army, 139;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">secures number of troops, 140;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">enforces discipline, his difficulties, 140,
+      141;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">forced to lead Congress, 142;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">to arrange rank of officers, 142;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">organizes privateers, 142;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">discovers lack of powder, 143;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">plans campaigns in Canada and elsewhere, 143,
+      144;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his plans of attack on Boston overruled by
+      council of war, 144;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes to Gage urging that captives be treated
+      as prisoners of war, 145;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">skill of his letter, 146;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">retorts to Gage's reply, 147;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continues dispute with Howe, 148;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">annoyed by insufficiency of provisions,
+      149;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">and by desertions, 149;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">stops quarrel between Virginia and Marblehead
+      soldiers, 149;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">suggests admiralty committees, 150;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">annoyed by army contractors, 150;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">and criticism, 151;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter to Joseph Reed, 151;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">occupies Dorchester Heights, 152;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">begins to like New England men better, 152;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rejoices at prospect of a fight, 153;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">departure of British due to his leadership,
+      154;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends troops immediately to New York, 155;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">enters Boston, 156;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">expects a hard war, 156;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges upon Congress the necessity of preparing
+      for a long struggle, 156;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his growing hatred of Tories, 156, 157;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">goes to New York, 157, 158;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">difficulties of the situation, 158;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">suppresses Tories, 159;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges Congress to declare independence, 159,
+      160;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">discovers and punishes a conspiracy to
+      assassinate, 160;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">insists on his title in correspondence with
+      Howe, 161;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">justice of his position, 162;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">quiets sectional jealousies in army, 162;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his military inferiority to British, 163;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">obliged by political considerations to attempt
+      defense of New York, 163, 164;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">assumes command on Long Island, 164;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sees defeat of his troops, 165;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sees plan of British fleet to cut off retreat,
+      166;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">secures retreat of army, 167;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">explains his policy of avoiding a pitched
+      battle, 167;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">anger at flight of militia at Kip's Bay,
+      168;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">again secures safe retreat, 169;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">secures slight advantage in a skirmish,
+      170;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continues to urge Congress to action, 170,
+      171;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">success of his letters in securing a permanent
+      army, 171;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">surprised by advance of British fleet, 172;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">moves to White Plains, 173;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">blocks British advance, 174;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">advises abandonment of American forts, 174;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">blames himself for their capture, 175;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">leads diminishing army through New Jersey,
+      175;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes vain appeals for aid, 176;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">resolves to take the offensive, 177;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">desperateness of his situation, 178;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">pledges his estate and private fortune to raise
+      men, 179;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">orders disregarded by officers, 180;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">crosses Delaware and captures Hessians, 180,
+      181;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">has difficulty in retaining soldiers, 181;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">repulses Cornwallis at Assunpink, 181;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">outwits Cornwallis and wins battle at
+      Princeton, 182;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">excellence of his strategy, 183;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">effect of this campaign in saving Revolution,
+      183, 184;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">withdraws to Morristown, 185;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fluctuations in size of army, 186;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his determination to keep the field, 186,
+      187;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">criticised by Congress for not fighting,
+      187;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hampered by Congressional interference,
+      188;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">issues proclamation requiring oath of
+      allegiance, 188;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacked in Congress for so doing, 189;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">annoyed by Congressional alterations of rank,
+      189;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">and by foreign military adventurers, 191;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">value of his services in suppressing them,
+      192;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his American feelings, 191, 193;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">warns Congress in vain that Howe means to
+      attack Philadelphia, 193;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">baffles Howe's advance across New Jersey,
+      195;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">learning of his sailing, marches to defend
+      Philadelphia, 195;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">offers battle at Brandywine, 196, 197;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">out-generaled and beaten, 197;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rallies army and prepares to fight again,
+      198;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">prevented by storm, 199;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacks British at Germantown, 199;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeated, 200;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">exposes himself in battle, 200;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">real success of his action, 201;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">despised by English, 202;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">foresees danger of Burgoyne's invasion,
+      203;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends instructions to Schuyler, 204;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges use of New England and New York militia,
+      304;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">dreads northern advance of Howe, 205;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">determines to hold him at all hazards, 206,
+      207;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not cast down by loss of Ticonderoga, 207;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges New England to rise, 208;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends all possible troops, 208;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to appoint a commander for Northern
+      army, 208;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his probable reasons, 209;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continues to send suggestions, 210;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">slighted by Gates after Burgoyne's surrender,
+      211;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rise of opposition in Congress, 212;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">arouses ill-feeling by his frankness, 212,
+      213;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">distrusted by Samuel and John Adams, 214;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">by others, 214, 215;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">formation of a plan to supplant him by Gates,
+      215;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">opposed by Gates, Mifflin, and Conway, 215,
+      216;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">angers Conway by preventing his increase in
+      rank, 216;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">is refused troops by Gates, 217;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defends and loses Delaware forts, 217;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to attack Howe, 218;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">propriety of his action, 219;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">becomes aware of cabal, 220;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">alarms them by showing extent of his knowledge,
+      221;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacked bitterly in Congress, 222;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">insulted by Gates, 223;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to resign, 224;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to notice cabal publicly, 224;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">complains privately of slight support from
+      Pennsylvania, 225;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continues to push Gates for explanations,
+      226;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">regains complete control after collapse of
+      cabal, 226, 227;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">withdraws to Valley Forge, 227;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">desperation of his situation, 228;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">criticised by Pennsylvania legislature for
+      going into winter quarters, 229;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his bitter reply, 229;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his unbending resolution, 230;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continues to urge improvements in army
+      organization, 231;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">manages to hold army together, 232;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends Lafayette to watch Philadelphia, 233;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">determines to fight, 234;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">checked by Lee, 234;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">pursues Clinton, 235;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">orders Lee to attack British rearguard,
+      235;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">discovers his force retreating, 236;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rebukes Lee and punishes him, 236, 237;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">takes command and stops retreat, 237;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">repulses British and assumes offensive,
+      238;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">success due to his work at Valley Forge,
+      239;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">celebrates French alliance, 241;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">has to confront difficulty of managing allies,
+      241, 242;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">welcomes D'Estaing, 243;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">obliged to quiet recrimination after Newport
+      failure, 244;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his letter to Sullivan, 244;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">to Lafayette, 245;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">to D'Estaing, 246;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tact and good effect of his letters, 246;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">offers to cooperate in an attack on New York,
+      247;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">furnishes admirable suggestions to D'Estaing,
+      247;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not dazzled by French, 248;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">objects to giving rank to foreign officers,
+      248, 249;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">opposes transfer of Steuben from inspectorship
+      to the line, 249;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his thoroughly American position, 250;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">absence of provinciality, 251, 252;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">a national leader, 252;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">opposes invasion of Canada, 253;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">foresees danger of its recapture by France,
+      254, 255;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his clear understanding of French motives, 255,
+      256;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rejoices in condition of patriot cause,
+      257;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">foresees ruin to army in financial troubles,
+      258;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">has to appease mutinies among unpaid troops,
+      258;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appeals to Congress, 259;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges election of better delegates to Congress,
+      259;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">angry with speculators, 260, 261;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">futility of his efforts, 261, 262;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his increasing alarm at social demoralization,
+      263;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">effect of his exertions, 264;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">conceals his doubts of the French, 264;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">watches New York, 264;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">keeps dreading an English campaign, 265;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">labors with Congress to form a navy, 266;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">plans expedition to chastise Indians, 266;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">realizes that things are at a standstill in the
+      North, 267;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sees danger to lie in the South, but determines
+      to remain himself near New York, 267;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not consulted by Congress in naming general for
+      Southern army, 268;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">plans attack on Stony Point, 268;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hatred of ravaging methods of British warfare,
+      270;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">again has great difficulties in winter
+      quarters, 270;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">unable to act on offensive in the spring, 270,
+      272;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">unable to help South, 272;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">advises abandonment of Charleston, 273;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">learns of arrival of French army, 274;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">plans a number of enterprises with it, 275,
+      276;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses, even after loss of Charleston, to
+      abandon Hudson, 276;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">welcomes Rochambeau, 277;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes to Congress against too optimistic
+      feelings, 278, 279;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">has extreme difficulty in holding army
+      together, 280;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges French to attack New York, 280;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends Maryland troops South after Camden,
+      281;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">arranges meeting with Rochambeau at Hartford,
+      282;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">popular enthusiasm over him, 283;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">goes to West Point, 284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">surprised at Arnold's absence, 284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">learns of his treachery, 284, 285;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his cool behavior, 285;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his real feelings, 286;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his conduct toward Andr&eacute;, 287;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its justice, 287, 288;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his opinion of Arnold, 288, 289;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his responsibility in the general breakdown of
+      the Congress and army, 290;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">obliged to quell food mutinies in army, 291,
+      292;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">difficulty of situation, 292;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his influence the salvation of army, 293;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his greatness best shown in this way, 293;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rebukes Congress, 294;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appoints Greene to command Southern army,
+      295;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends Knox to confer with state governors,
+      296;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">secures temporary relief for army, 296;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sees the real defect is in weak government,
+      296;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges adoption of Articles of Confederation,
+      297;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">works for improvements in executive,
+      298,299;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">still keeps a Southern movement in mind,
+      301;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">unable to do anything through lack of naval
+      power, 303;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rebukes Lund Washington for entertaining
+      British at Mt. Vernon, 303;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">still unable to fight, 304;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to frighten Clinton into remaining in New
+      York, 305;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">succeeds with aid of Rochambeau, 306;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">explains his plan to French and to Congress,
+      306;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">learns of De Grasse's approach, prepares to
+      move South, 306;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes to De Grasse to meet him in Chesapeake,
+      308;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fears a premature peace, 308;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">pecuniary difficulties, 309;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">absolute need of command of sea, 310;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">persuades De Barras to join De Grasse, 311;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">starts on march for Chesapeake, 311;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hampered by lack of supplies, 312;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">and by threat of Congress to reduce army,
+      313;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">passes through Mt. Vernon, 314;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">succeeds in persuading De Grasse not to abandon
+      him, 315;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">besieges Cornwallis, 315;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sees capture of redoubts, 316;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">receives surrender of Cornwallis, 317;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">admirable strategy and management of campaign,
+      318;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his personal influence the cause of success,
+      318;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">especially his use of the fleet, 319;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his management of Cornwallis through Lafayette,
+      319;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his boldness in transferring army away from New
+      York, 320;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">does not lose his head over victory, 321;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges De Grasse to repeat success against
+      Charleston, 322;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">returns north, 322;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">saddened by death of Custis, 322;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continues to urge Congress to action, 323;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes letters to the States, 323;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">does not expect English surrender, 324;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges renewed vigor, 324;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">points out that war actually continues,
+      325;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges not to give up army until peace is
+      actually secured, 325;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">failure of his appeals, 326;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reduced to inactivity, 326;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">angered at murder of Huddy, 327;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">threatens Carleton with retaliation, 328;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">releases Asgill at request of Vergennes and
+      order of Congress, 329, 330;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disclaims credit, 330;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">justification of his behavior, 330;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his tenderness toward the soldiers, 331;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">jealousy of Congress toward him, 332;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">warns Congress of danger of further neglect of
+      army, 333, 334;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">takes control of mutinous movement, 335;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his address to the soldiers, 336;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its effect, 336;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">movement among soldiers to make him dictator,
+      337;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">replies to revolutionary proposals, 337;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reality of the danger, 339;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">causes for his behaviour, 340, 341;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">a friend of strong government, but devoid of
+      personal ambition, 342;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">chafes under delay to disband army, 343;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to secure Western posts, 343;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes a journey through New York, 343;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">gives Congress excellent but futile advice,
+      344;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">issues circular letter to governors, 344;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">and farewell address to army, 345;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">enters New York after departure of British,
+      345;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his farewell to his officers, 345;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">adjusts his accounts, 346;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appears before Congress, 347;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">French account of his action, 347;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">makes speech resigning commission, 348,
+      349.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2"><i>In Retirement</i>.</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Returns to Mt. Vernon, ii. I;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to resume old life, 2;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">gives up hunting, 2;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">pursued by lion-hunters and artists, 3;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">overwhelmed with correspondence, 3;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">receives letters from Europe, 4;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">from cranks, 4;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">from officers, 4;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his share in Society of Cincinnati, 4;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">manages his estate, 5;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">visits Western lands, 5;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">family cares, 5, 6;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continues to have interest in public affairs,
+      6;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">advises Congress regarding peace establishment,
+      6;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges acquisition of Western posts, 7;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his broad national views, 7;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">alone in realizing future greatness of country,
+      7, 8;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appreciates importance of the West, 8;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges development of inland navigation, 9;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">asks Jefferson's aid, 9, 10;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">lays canal scheme before Virginia legislature,
+      10;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his arguments, 10;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">troubled by offer of stock, 11;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">uses it to endow two schools, 12;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">significance of his scheme, 12, 13;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his political purposes in binding West to East,
+      13;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">willing to leave Mississippi closed for this
+      purpose, 14, 15, 16;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">feels need of firmer union during Revolution,
+      17;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his arguments, 18, 19;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his influence starts movement for reform,
+      20;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continues to urge it during retirement, 21;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">foresees disasters of confederation, 21;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges impost scheme, 22;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">condemns action of States, 22, 23, 25;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">favours commercial agreement between Maryland
+      and Virginia, 23;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">stung by contempt of foreign powers, 24;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his arguments for a national government,
+      24;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">points out designs of England, 25;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">works against paper money craze in States,
+      26;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his opinion of Shays's rebellion, 26;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his position contrasted with Jefferson's,
+      27;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">influence of his letters, 28, 29;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">shrinks from participating in Federal
+      convention, 29;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">elected unanimously, 30;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to go to a feeble convention, 30,
+      31;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">finally makes up his mind, 31.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2"><i>In the Federal Convention</i>.</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Speech attributed to Washington by Morris on
+      duties of delegates, 31, 32;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">chosen to preside, 33;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">takes no part in debate, 34;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his influence in convention, 34, 35;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">despairs of success, 35;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">signs the Constitution, 36;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">words attributed to him, 36;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">silent as to his thoughts, 36, 37;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sees clearly danger of failure to ratify,
+      37;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries at first to act indifferently, 38;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">begins to work for ratification, 38;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes letters to various people, 38, 39;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">circulates copies of "Federalist," 40;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">saves ratification in Virginia, 40;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges election of Federalists to Congress,
+      41;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">receives general request to accept presidency,
+      41;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his objections, 41, 42;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">dreads failure and responsibility, 42;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">elected, 42;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his journey to New York, 42-46;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">speech at Alexandria, 43;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">popular reception at all points, 44, 45;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his feelings, 46;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his inauguration, 46.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2"><i>President</i>.</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">His speech to Congress, 48;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges no specific policy, 48, 49;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his solemn feelings, 49;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his sober view of necessities of situation,
+      50;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">question of his title, 52;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">arranges to communicate with Senate by writing,
+      52, 53;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">discusses social etiquette, 53;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">takes middle ground, 54;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wisdom of his action, 55;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">criticisms by Democrats, 55, 56;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accused of monarchical leanings, 56, 57;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">familiarizes himself with work already
+      accomplished under Confederation, 58;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his business habits, 58;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses special privileges to French minister,
+      59, 60;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">skill of his reply, 60, 61;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">solicited for office, 61;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his views on appointment, 62;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">favors friends of Constitution and old
+      soldiers, 62;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">success of his appointments, 63;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">selects a cabinet, 64;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his regard for Knox 65;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">for Morris, 66;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his skill in choosing, 66;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his appreciation of Hamilton, 67;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his grounds for choosing Jefferson, 68;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his contrast with Jefferson, 69;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his choice a mistake in policy, 70;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his partisan characteristics, 70, 71;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">excludes anti-Federalists, 71;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">nominates justices of Supreme Court, 72;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">their party character, 73;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">illness, 73;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">visits the Eastern States, 73;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his reasons, 74;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">stirs popular enthusiasm, 74;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">snubbed by Hancock in Massachusetts, 75;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accepts Hancock's apology, 75;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">importance of his action, 76;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">success of journey, 76;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">opens Congress, 78, 79;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his speech and its recommendations, 81;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">how far carried out, 81-83;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">national character of the speech, 83;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his fitness to deal with Indians, 87;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his policy, 88;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appoints commission to treat with Creeks,
+      90;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ascribes its failure to Spanish intrigue,
+      90;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">succeeds by a personal interview in making
+      treaty, 91;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wisdom of his policy, 92;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">orders an expedition against Western Indians,
+      93;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">angered at its failure, 94;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">and at conduct of frontiersmen, 94;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">prepares St. Clair's expedition, 95;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">warns against ambush, 95;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hopes for decisive results, 97;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">learns of St. Clair's defeat, 97;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his self-control, 97;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his outburst of anger against St. Clair, 97,
+      98;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">masters his feelings, 98;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">treats St. Clair kindly, 99;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">determines on a second campaign, 100;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">selects Wayne and other officers, 100;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to secure peace with tribes, 101;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">efforts prevented by English influence, 101,
+      102;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">and in South by conduct of Georgia, 103;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">general results of his Indian policy, 104;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">popular misunderstandings and criticism, 104,
+      105;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">favors assumption of state debts by the
+      government, 107, 108;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">satisfied with bargain between Hamilton and
+      Jefferson, 108;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his respectful attitude toward Constitution,
+      109;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">asks opinions of cabinet on constitutionality
+      of bank, 110;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">signs bill creating it, 110;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reasons for his decision, 111;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">supports Hamilton's financial policy, 112;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">supports Hamilton's views on protection, 115,
+      116;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appreciates evil economic condition of
+      Virginia, 116, 117;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sees necessity for self-sufficient industries
+      in war time, 117;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges protection, 118, 119, 120;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his purpose to build up national feeling,
+      121;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">approves national excise tax, 122, 123;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">does not realize unpopularity of method,
+      123;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ready to modify but insists on obedience, 124,
+      125;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">issues proclamation against rioters, 125;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">since Pennsylvania frontier continues
+      rebellious, issues second proclamation threatening to use
+      force, 127;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">calls out the militia, 127;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his advice to leaders and troops, 128;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">importance of Washington's firmness, 129;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his good judgment and patience, 130;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">decides success of the central authority,
+      130;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">early advocacy of separation of United States
+      from European politics, 133;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">studies situation, 134, 135;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sees importance of binding West with Eastern
+      States, 135;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sees necessity of good relations with England,
+      137;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">authorizes Morris to sound England as to
+      exchange of ministers and a commercial treaty, 137;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not disturbed by British bad manners, 138;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">succeeds in establishing diplomatic relations,
+      138;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">early foresees danger of excess in French
+      Revolution, 139, 140;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">states a policy of strict neutrality, 140, 142,
+      143;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">difficulties of his situation, 142;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">objects to action of National Assembly on
+      tobacco and oil, 144;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">denies reported request by United States that
+      England mediate with Indians, 145;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">announces neutrality in case of a European war,
+      146;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">instructs cabinet to prepare a neutrality
+      proclamation, 147;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">importance of this step not understood at time,
+      148, 149;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">foresees coming difficulties, 149, 150;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">acts cautiously toward
+      <i>&eacute;migr&eacute;s</i>, 151;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">contrast with Genet, 152;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">greets him coldly, 152;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">orders steps taken to prevent violations of
+      neutrality, 153, 154;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">retires to Mt. Vernon for rest, 154;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on returning finds Jefferson has allowed Little
+      Sarah to escape, 156;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes a sharp note to Jefferson, 156;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">anger at escape, 157;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">takes matters out of Jefferson's hands,
+      157;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">determines on asking recall of Genet, 158;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">revokes exequatur of Duplaine, French consul,
+      159;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">insulted by Genet, 159, 160;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to deny Jay's card, 160;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">upheld by popular feeling, 160;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his annoyance at the episode, 160;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">obliged to teach American people self-respect,
+      162, 163;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">deals with troubles incited by Genet in the
+      West, 162, 163;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sympathizes with frontiersmen, 163;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">comprehends value of Mississippi, 164, 165;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends a commission to Madrid to negotiate about
+      free navigation, 166;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">later sends Thomas Pinckney, 166;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">despairs of success, 166;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">apparent conflict between French treaties and
+      neutrality, 169, 170;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">value of Washington's policy to England,
+      171;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">in spite of England's attitude, intends to keep
+      peace, 177;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes to send Hamilton as envoy, 177;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">after his refusal appoints Jay, 177;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fears that England intends war, 178;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">determines to be prepared, 178;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges upon Jay the absolute necessity of
+      England's giving up Western posts, 179;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">dissatisfied with Jay treaty but willing to
+      sign it, 184;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">in doubt as to meaning of conditional
+      ratification, 184;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">protests against English "provision order" and
+      refuses signature, 185;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">meets uproar against treaty alone, 188;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">determines to sign, 189;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">answers resolutions of Boston town meeting,
+      190;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to abandon his judgment to popular
+      outcry, 190;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">distinguishes temporary from permanent feeling,
+      191;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fears effect of excitement upon French
+      government, 192;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his view of dangers of situation, 193, 194;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">recalled to Philadelphia by cabinet, 195;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">receives intercepted correspondence of Fauchet,
+      195, 196;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his course of action already determined, 197,
+      198;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not influenced by the Fauchet letter, 198;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">evidence of this, 199, 200;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reasons for ratifying before showing letter to
+      Randolph, 199, 200;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">signs treaty, 201;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">evidence that he did not sacrifice Randolph,
+      201, 202;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fairness of his action, 203;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses to reply to Randolph's attack, 204;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reasons for signing treaty, 205;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">justified in course of time, 206;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses on constitutional grounds the call of
+      representatives for documents, 208;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">insists on independence of treaty-making by
+      executive and Senate, 209;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">overcomes hostile majority in House, 210;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes Madison to succeed Morris at Paris,
+      211;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appoints Monroe, 216;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his mistake in not appointing a political
+      supporter, 212;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disgusted at Monroe's behavior, 213, 214;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">recalls Monroe and appoints C.C. Pinckney,
+      214;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">angered at French policy, 214;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his contempt for Monroe's self-justification,
+      215, 216;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">review of foreign policy, 216-219;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his guiding principle national independence,
+      216;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">and abstention from European politics, 217;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">desires peace and time for growth, 217,
+      218;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes development of the West, 218, 219;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wisdom of his policy, 219;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">considers parties dangerous, 220;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">but chooses cabinet from Federalists, 220;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">prepared to undergo criticism, 221;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">willingness to bear it, 221;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">desires to learn public feeling, by travels,
+      221, 222;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">feels that body of people will support national
+      government, 222;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sees and deplores sectional feelings in the
+      South, 222, 223;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">objects to utterances of newspapers, 223;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attacked by "National Gazette," 227;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">receives attacks on Hamilton from Jefferson and
+      his friends, 228, 229;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sends charges to Hamilton, 229;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">made anxious by signs of party division,
+      229;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges both Hamilton and Jefferson to cease
+      quarrel, 230, 231;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">dreads an open division in cabinet, 232;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">desirous to rule without party, 233;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accomplishes feat of keeping both secretaries
+      in cabinet, 233;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">keeps confidence in Hamilton, 234;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urged by all parties to accept presidency
+      again, 235;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">willing to be reelected, 235;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">pleased at unanimous vote, 235;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his early immunity from attacks, 237;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">later attacked by Freneau and Bache, 238;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">regards opposition as dangerous to country,
+      239;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">asserts his intention to disregard them,
+      240;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his success in Genet affair, 241;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disgusted at "democratic" societies, 242;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">thinks they fomented Whiskey Rebellion,
+      242;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">denounces them to Congress, 243;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">effect of his remarks, 244;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accused of tyranny after Jay treaty, 244;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">of embezzlement, 245;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">of aristocracy, 245;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">realizes that he must compose cabinet of
+      sympathizers, 246;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">reconstructs it, 246;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">states determination to govern by party,
+      247;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">slighted by House, 247;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses a third term, 248;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">publishes Farewell Address, 248;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his justification for so doing, 248;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his wise advice, 249;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">address Attacked by Democrats, 250, 251;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">assailed in Congress by Giles, 251;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">resents charge of being a British sympathizer,
+      252;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his scrupulously fair conduct toward France,
+      253;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his resentment at English policy, 254;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his retirement celebrated by the opposition,
+      255;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">remarks of the "Aurora," 256;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">forged letters of British circulated, 257;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">he repudiates them, 257;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his view of opposition, 259.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2"><i>In Retirement</i>.</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Regards Adams's administration as continuation
+      of his own, 259;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">understands Jefferson's attitude, 259;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes generals of provisional army to be
+      Federalist, 260;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">doubts fidelity of opposition as soldiers,
+      260;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">dreads their poisoning mind of army, 261;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his condemnation of Democrats, 261, 262;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">snubs Dr. Logan for assuming an unofficial
+      mission to France, 263-265;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">alarmed at Virginia and Kentucky resolutions,
+      266;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">urges Henry to oppose Virginia resolutions,
+      267;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">condemns the French party as unpatriotic,
+      267;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">refuses request to stand again for presidency,
+      269;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">comments on partisanship of Democrats, 269;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">believes that he would be no better candidate
+      than any other Federalist, 270, 271;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">error of statement that Washington was not a
+      party man, 271, 272;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">slow to relinquish non-partisan position,
+      272;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not the man to shrink from declaring his
+      position, 273;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">becomes a member of Federalist party, 273,
+      274;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">eager for end of term of office, 275;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his farewell dinner, 275;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at Adams's inauguration, 276;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">popular enthusiasm at Philadelphia, 276;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at Baltimore, 277;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">returns to Mt. Vernon, 279;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">describes his farm life, 278, 279;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">burdened by necessities of hospitality,
+      280;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">account of his meeting with Bernard,
+      281-283;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continued interest in politics, 284;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">accepts command of provisional army, 285;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">selects Hamilton, Pinckney, and Knox as
+      major-generals, 286;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">surprised at Adams's objection to Hamilton,
+      286;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rebukes Adams for altering order of rank of
+      generals, 286, 287;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not influenced by intrigue, 287;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">annoyed by Adams's conduct, 288;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tries to soothe Knox's irritation, 289;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fails to pacify him, 289;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">carries out organization of army, 290;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">does not expect actual war, 291;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disapproves of Gerry's conduct, 292;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disapproves of Adams's nomination of Vans
+      Murray, 292;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his dread of French Revolution, 295;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">distrusts Adams's attempts at peace, 296;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">approves Alien and Sedition laws, 296;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his defense of them, 297;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">distressed by dissensions among Federalists,
+      298;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">predicts their defeat, 298;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his sudden illness, 299-302;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">death, 303.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2"><i>Character</i>.</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">misunderstood, 304;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">extravagantly praised, 304;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disliked on account of being called faultless,
+      305;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">bitterly attacked in lifetime, 306;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sneered at by Jefferson, 306;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">by Pickering, 307;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">called an Englishman, not an American, 307,
+      308;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">difference of his type from that of Lincoln,
+      310;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">none the less American, 311, 312;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">compared with Hampden, 312;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his manners those of the times elsewhere in
+      America, 314;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">aristocratic, but of a non-English type,
+      314-316;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">less affected by Southern limitations than his
+      neighbors, 316;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">early dislike of New England changed to
+      respect, 316, 317;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">friendly with people of humble origin, 317,
+      318;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">never an enemy of democracy, 318;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">but opposes French excesses, 318;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his self-directed and American training, 319,
+      320;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">early conception of a nation, 321;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">works toward national government during
+      Revolution, 321;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his interest in Western expansion, 321,
+      322;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">national character of his Indian policy,
+      322;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">of his desire to secure free Mississippi
+      navigation, 322;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">of his opposition to war as a danger to Union,
+      323;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his anger at accusation of foreign
+      subservience, 323;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continually asserts necessity for independent
+      American policy, 324, 325;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">opposes foreign educational influences, 325,
+      326;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">favors foundation of a national university,
+      326;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">breadth and strength of his national feeling,
+      327;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">absence of boastfulness about country, 328;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">faith in it, 328;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">charge that he was merely a figure-head,
+      329;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its injustice, 330;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">charged with commonplaceness of intellect,
+      330;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">incident of the deathbed explained, 330,
+      331;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">falsity of the charge, 331;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">inability of mere moral qualities to achieve
+      what he did, 331;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">charged with dullness and coldness, 332;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his seriousness, 333;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">responsibility from early youth, 333;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his habits of keen observation, 333;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">power of judging men, 334;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ability to use them for what they were worth,
+      335;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">anecdote of advice to Hamilton and Meade,
+      335;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">deceived only by Arnold, 336;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">imperfect education, 337;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">continual efforts to improve it, 337, 338;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">modest regarding his literary ability, 339,
+      340;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">interested in education, 339;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">character of his writing, 340;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tastes in reading, 341;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">modest but effective in conversation, 342;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his manner and interest described by Bernard,
+      343-347;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">attractiveness of the picture, 347, 348;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his pleasure in society, 348;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">power of paying compliments, letter to Mrs.
+      Stockton, 349;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">to Charles Thompson, 350;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">to De Chastellux, 351;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his warmth of heart, 352;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">extreme exactness in pecuniary matters,
+      352;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">illustrative anecdotes, 353,354;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">favorable opinion of teller of anecdotes,
+      356;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">stern towards dishonesty or cowardice, 357;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">treatment of Andr&eacute; and Asgill, 357,
+      358;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sensitive to human suffering, 357, 358;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">kind and courteous to poor, 359;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">conversation with Cleaveland, 359;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sense of dignity in public office, 360;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hospitality at Mt. Vernon, 360, 361;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his intimate friendships, 361,362;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">relations with Hamilton, Knox, Mason, Henry
+      Lee, Craik, 362, 363;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the officers of the army, 363;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Trumbull, Robert and Gouverneur Morris,
+      363;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">regard for and courtesy toward Franklin,
+      364;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">love for Lafayette, 365;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">care for his family, 366;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">lasting regard for Fairfaxes, 366, 367;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">kindness to Taft family, 367, 368;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">destroys correspondence with his wife, 368;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">their devoted relationship, 368;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">care for his step-children and relatives, 369,
+      370;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">charged with lack of humor, 371;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">but never made himself ridiculous, 372;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not joyous in temperament, 372;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">but had keen pleasure in sport, 373;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">enjoyed a joke, even during Revolution,
+      374;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appreciates wit, 375;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">writes a humorous letter, 376-378;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not devoid of worldly wisdom, 378, 379;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">enjoys cards, dancing, the theatre, 380;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">loves horses, 380;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">thorough in small affairs as well as great,
+      381;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">controversy over site of church, 381;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his careful domestic economy, 382;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">love of method, 383;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">of excellence in dress and furniture, 383,
+      384;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">gives dignity to American cause, 385;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his personal appearance, 385;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">statements of Houdon, 386;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">of Ackerson, 386, 387;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his tremendous muscular strength, 388;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">great personal impressiveness, 389, 390;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">lacking in imagination, 391;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">strong passions, 391;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">fierce temper, 392;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">anecdotes of outbreaks, 392;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his absence of self-love, 393;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">confident in judgment of posterity, 393;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">religious faith, 394;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">summary and conclusion, 394, 395.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2"><i>Characteristics of</i>.</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">General view, ii. 304-395;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">general admiration for, i. 1-7;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">myths about, i. 9-12, ii. 307 ff.;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">comparisons with Jefferson, ii. 69;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">with Lincoln, ii. 310-312;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">with Hampden, ii. 312, 313;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">absence of self-seeking, i. 341;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">affectionateness, i. 111, 285,331,345, ii. 332,
+      362-371;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">agreeableness, ii. 344-347, 377;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Americanism, ii. 307-328;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">aristocratic habits, ii. 314, 316;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">business ability, i. 105, 109, ii. 5, 352,
+      382;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">coldness on occasion, i. 223, 224, 263, ii.
+      318;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">courage, i. 77, 78, 86, 127, 168, 292;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">dignity, i. 81,161, ii. 52-57, 76;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hospitality, ii. 360;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">impressiveness, i. 56, 83, 130, 138, 319, ii.
+      385;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">indomitableness, i. 177, 181, 227;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">judgments of men, i. 295, ii. 64, 86, 334,
+      335;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">justice and sternness, i. 287, 330, ii. 203,
+      352-358, 389;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">kindliness, ii. 349-356, 359;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">lack of education, i. 62, ii. 337;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">love of reading, i. 62, ii. 341, 342;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">love of sport, i. 56, 98, 113-116, 118, ii.
+      380;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">manners, ii. 282-283, 314;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">military ability, i. 154, 166, 174, 183, 197,
+      204, 207, 239, 247, 265, 267, 305-320, ii. 331;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">modesty, i. 102, 134;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not a figure-head, ii. 329, 330;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not a prig, i. 10-12, 41-47;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not cold and inhuman, ii. 332, 342;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not dull or commonplace, ii. 330, 332;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">not superhuman and distant, i. 9, 10, 12, ii.
+      304, 305;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">open-mindedness, ii. 317;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">passionateness, i. 58, 73, 90;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">personal appearance, i. 57, 136, 137, ii. 282,
+      343, 385-389;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">religious views, i. 321, ii. 393;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">romantic traits, i. 95-97;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sense of humor, ii. 371-377;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">silence regarding self, i. 14, 69, 70, 116,
+      129, 285; ii. 37, 336;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">simplicity, i. 59, 69, 348; ii. 50, 340;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">sobriety, i. 49, 52, 134; ii. 43, 45, 333,
+      373;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">tact, i. 162, 243, 244-246;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">temper, i. 73, 92, 110, 168, 236, 237, 260; ii.
+      98, 392;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">thoroughness, i. 112, 323, 341, ii. 381.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2"><i>Political Opinions</i>.</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">On Alien and Sedition Acts, ii. 196;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">American nationality, i. 191, 250, 251, 255,
+      262, 279, ii. 7, 61, 133, 145, 324, 325, 327, 328;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Articles of Confederation, i. 297, ii. 17,
+      24;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">bank, ii. 110, 111;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">colonial rights, i. 120, 124-126, 130;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Constitution, i. 38-41;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">democracy, ii. 317-319;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Democratic party, ii. 214, 239, 240, 258, 261,
+      267, 268;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">disunion, ii. 22;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">duties of the executive, ii. 190;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">education, ii. 81, 326, 330;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Federalist party, ii. 71, 246, 247, 259, 260,
+      261, 269-274, 298;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">finance, ii. 107, 108, 112, 122;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">foreign relations, ii. 25, 134, 142, 145, 147,
+      179, 217-219, 323;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">French Revolution, ii. 139, 140, 295, 318;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">independence of colonies, i. 131, 159, 160;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Indian policy, ii. 82, 87, 88, 91, 92, 104,
+      105;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Jay treaty, ii. 184-205;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">judiciary, i. 150;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">nominations to office, ii. 62;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">party, ii. 70, 222, 233, 249;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">protection, ii. 116-122;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">slavery, i. 106-108;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Stamp Act, i. 119;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">strong government, i. 298, ii. 18, 24, 129,
+      130;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">treaty power, ii. 190, 207-210;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, ii. 266,
+      267;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Western expansion, ii. 6, 8-16, 135, 163-165,
+      218, 322.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Washington, George Steptoe,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his sons educated by Washington, ii. 370.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Washington, John, brother of George,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington, to, i. 132.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Washington, Lawrence, brother of George
+      Washington,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">educated in England, i. 54;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">has military career, 54;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">returns to Virginia and builds Mt. Vernon,
+      54;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">marries into Fairfax family, 54, 55;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">goes to West Indies for his health, 62;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">dies, leaving George guardian of his daughter,
+      64;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">chief manager of Ohio Company, 65;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">gives George military education, 65.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Washington, Lund,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, i. 152;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">rebuked by Washington for entertaining British,
+      ii. 303.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Washington, Martha, widow of Daniel P.
+      Custis,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">meets Washington, i. 101;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">courtship of, and marriage, 101, 102;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hunts with her husband, 114;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">joins him at Boston, 151;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">holds levees as wife of President, ii. 54;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">during his last illness, 300;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">her correspondence destroyed, 368;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">her relations with her husband, 368, 369.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Washington, Mary,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">married to Augustine Washington, i. 39;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">mother of George Washington, 39;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">limited education but strong character, 40,
+      41;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">wishes George to earn a living, 49;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">opposes his going to sea, 49;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letters to, 88;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">visited by her son, ii. 5.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Waters, Henry E.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">establishes Washington pedigree, i. 32.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Wayne, Anthony,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeated after Brandywine, i. 198;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his opinion of Germantown, 199;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">at Monmouth urges Washington to come, 235;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">ready to attack Stony Point, 268;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his successful exploit, 269;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">joins Lafayette in Virginia, 307;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed to command against Indians, ii.
+      100;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his character, 100;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">organizes his force, 101;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his march, 102;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">defeats the Indians, 103.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Weems, Mason L.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">influence of his life of Washington on popular
+      opinion, i. 10;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">originates idea of his priggishness, 11;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his character, 41, 43;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">character of his book, 42;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his mythical "rectorate" of Mt. Vernon, 43,
+      44;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">invents anecdotes of Washington's childhood,
+      44;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">folly of cherry-tree and other stories, 46;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">their evil influence, 47.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">West, the,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its importance realized by Washington, ii.
+      7-16;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">his influence counteracted by inertia of
+      Congress, 8;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">forwards inland navigation, 9;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">desires to bind East to West, 9-11, 14;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">formation of companies, 11-13;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">on Mississippi navigation, 14-16, 164;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">projects of Genet in, 162;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its attitude understood by Washington, 163,
+      164;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington wishes peace in order to develop it,
+      218, 219, 321.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">"Whiskey Rebellion,"</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">passage of excise law, ii. 123;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">outbreaks of violence in Pennsylvania and North
+      Carolina, 124;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">proclamation issued warning rioters to desist,
+      125;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">renewed outbreaks in Pennsylvania, 125,
+      126;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">the militia called out, 127;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">suppression of the insurrection, 128;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">real danger of movement, 129;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">its suppression emphasizes national authority,
+      129, 130;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">supposed by Washington to have been stirred up
+      by Democratic clubs, 242.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">White Plains,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">battle at, i. 173.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Wilkinson, James,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">brings Gates's message to Washington at
+      Trenton, i. 180;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">brings news of Saratoga to Congress, 220;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">nettled at Sherman's sarcasm, discloses Conway
+      cabal, 220;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">quarrels with Gates, 223;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">resigns from board of war, 223, 226;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">leads expedition against Indians, ii. 95.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Willett, Colonel,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">commissioner to Creeks, his success, ii.
+      91.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">William and Mary College,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington Chancellor of, ii. 339.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Williams,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">Washington's teacher, i. 48, 51.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Willis, Lewis,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">story of Washington's school days, i. 95.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Wilson, James,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 72.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Wilson, James, "of England,"</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">hunts with Washington, i. 115.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Wolcott, Oliver,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">receives Fauchet letter, ii. 195;</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">succeeds Hamilton as Secretary of Treasury,
+      246.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">Wooster, Mrs.,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">letter of Washington to, ii. 61.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza"></div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+      <p class="i2">YORKTOWN,</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">siege of, i. 315-318.</p>
+    </div>
+
+    <div class="stanza">
+      <p class="i2">"Young Man's Companion,"</p>
+
+      <p class="i4">used by George Washington, origin of his rules
+      of conduct, i. 52.</p>
+    </div>
+  </div>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's George Washington, Vol. I, by Henry Cabot Lodge
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+</pre>
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+</body>
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+Project Gutenberg's George Washington, Vol. I, by Henry Cabot Lodge
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: George Washington, Vol. I
+
+Author: Henry Cabot Lodge
+
+Release Date: June 19, 2004 [EBook #12652]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK GEORGE WASHINGTON, VOL. I ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Juliet Sutherland, Tim Koeller and PG Distributed
+Proofreaders
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: Frontispiece]
+
+American Statesmen
+
+STANDARD LIBRARY EDITION
+
+
+[Illustration: _The Home of the Washington Family_]
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+GEORGE WASHINGTON
+
+      BY
+
+HENRY CABOT LODGE
+
+  IN TWO VOLUMES
+     VOL. I.
+
+      1889
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+This edition has been carefully revised, and although very little has
+been added of late years to our knowledge of the facts of Washington's
+life, I have tried to examine all that has appeared. The researches of
+Mr. Waters, which were published just after these volumes in the first
+edition had passed through the press, enable me to give the Washington
+pedigree with certainty, and have turned conjecture into fact. The
+recent publication in full of Lear's memoranda, although they tell
+nothing new about Washington's last moments, help toward a completion
+of all the details of the scene.
+
+H.C. LODGE.
+
+WASHINGTON, February 7, 1898.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+CHAPTER.
+
+        INTRODUCTION
+     I. THE OLD DOMINION
+    II. THE WASHINGTONS
+   III. ON THE FRONTIER
+    IV. LOVE AND MARRIAGE
+     V. TAKING COMMAND
+    VI. SAVING THE REVOLUTION
+   VII. "MALICE DOMESTIC, AND FOREIGN LEVY"
+  VIII. THE ALLIES
+    IX. ARNOLD'S TREASON, AND THE WAR IN THE SOUTH
+     X. YORKTOWN
+    XI. PEACE
+
+        INDEX
+
+
+
+
+ILLUSTRATIONS
+
+
+GEORGE WASHINGTON
+
+From the painting by Gilbert Stuart in the Museum of Fine Arts,
+Boston. This painting is owned by the Boston Athenaeum and is known as
+the Athenaeum portrait.
+
+Autograph is from Washington's signature to a bill of exchange, from
+"Talks about Autographs" by George Birkbeck Hill.
+
+The vignette of the residence of the Washington family is from "Homes
+of American Statesman," published by Alfred W. Putnam, New York.
+
+
+LAWRENCE WASHINGTON
+
+From an original painting in the possession of Lawrence Washington,
+Esq., Alexandria, Va., a great-great-great-nephew.
+
+Autograph from MS. in New York Public Library, Lenox Building.
+
+
+MISS MARY CARY
+
+From an original painting owned by Dr. James D. Moncure of Virginia,
+one of her descendants.
+
+No autograph can be found.
+
+
+MISS MARY PHILIPSE
+
+From Irving's "Washington," published by G.P. Putnam's Sons.
+
+Autograph from Appleton's "Cyclopaedia of American Biography."
+
+
+WASHINGTON CROSSING THE DELAWARE
+
+From the original painting by Emanuel Leutze in the New York
+Metropolitan Museum. The United States flag shown in the picture is an
+anachronism. The stars and stripes were first adopted by Congress in
+June, 1777; and any flag carried by Washington's army in December,
+1776, would have consisted of the stripes with the crosses of St.
+George and St. Andrew in the blue field where the stars now appear.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+February 9 in the year 1800 was a gala day in Paris. Napoleon had
+decreed a triumphal procession, and on that day a splendid military
+ceremony was performed in the Champ de Mars, and the trophies of the
+Egyptian expedition were exultingly displayed. There were, however,
+two features in all this pomp and show which seemed strangely out
+of keeping with the glittering pageant and the sounds of victorious
+rejoicing. The standards and flags of the army were hung with crape,
+and after the grand parade the dignitaries of the land proceeded
+solemnly to the Temple of Mars, and heard the eloquent M. de Fontanes
+deliver an "Eloge Funebre."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: A report recently discovered shows that more even was
+intended than was actually done.
+
+The following is a translation of the paper, the original of which
+is Nos. 172 and 173 of volume 51 of the manuscript series known as
+_Etats-Unis_, 1799, 1800 (years 7 and 8 of the French republic):--
+
+    "_Report of Talleyrand, Minister of Foreign Affairs, on the
+    occasion of the death of George Washington_.
+
+    "A nation which some day will he a great nation, and which today
+    is the wisest and happiest on the face of the earth, weeps at the
+    bier of a man whose courage and genius contributed the most to
+    free it from bondage, and elevate it to the rank of an independent
+    and sovereign power. The regrets caused by the death of this
+    great man, the memories aroused by these regrets, and a proper
+    veneration for all that is held dear and sacred by mankind, impel
+    us to give expression to our sentiments by taking part in an event
+    which deprives the world of one of its brightest ornaments, and
+    removes to the realm of history one of the noblest lives that ever
+    honored the human race.
+
+    "The name of Washington is inseparably linked with a memorable
+    epoch. He adorned this epoch by his talents and the nobility of
+    his character, and with virtues that even envy dared not assail.
+    History offers few examples of such renown. Great from the outset
+    of his career, patriotic before his country had become a nation,
+    brilliant and universal despite the passions and political
+    resentments that would gladly have checked his career, his fame
+    is to-day imperishable,--fortune having consecrated his claim to
+    greatness, while the prosperity of a people destined for grand
+    achievements is the best evidence of a fame ever to increase.
+
+    "His own country now honors his memory with funeral ceremonies,
+    having lost a citizen whose public actions and unassuming grandeur
+    in private life were a living example of courage, wisdom, and
+    unselfishness; and France, which from the dawn of the American
+    Revolution hailed with hope a nation, hitherto unknown, that was
+    discarding the vices of Europe, which foresaw all the glory that
+    this nation would bestow on humanity, and the enlightenment of
+    governments that would ensue from the novel character of the
+    social institutions and the new type of heroism of which
+    Washington and America were models for the world at
+    large,--France, I repeat, should depart from established usages
+    and do honor to one whose fame is beyond comparison with that of
+    others.
+
+    "The man who, amid the decadence of modern ages, first dared
+    believe that he could inspire degenerate nations with courage to
+    rise to the level of republican virtues, lived for all nations and
+    for all centuries; and this nation, which first saw in the life
+    and success of that illustrious man a foreboding of its destiny,
+    and therein recognized a future to be realized and duties to be
+    performed, has every right to class him as a fellow-citizen. I
+    therefore submit to the First Consul the following decree:--
+      "Bonaparte, First Consul of the republic, decrees as follows:--
+      "Article 1. A statue is to be erected to General Washington.
+      "Article 2. This statue is to be placed in one of the squares of
+    Paris, to be chosen by the minister of the interior, and it shall
+    be his duty to execute the present decree."]
+
+About the same time, if tradition may be trusted, the flags upon the
+conquering Channel fleet of England were lowered to half-mast in token
+of grief for the same event which had caused the armies of France to
+wear the customary badges of mourning.
+
+If some "traveler from an antique land" had observed these
+manifestations, he would have wondered much whose memory it was that
+had called them forth from these two great nations, then struggling
+fiercely with each other for supremacy on land and sea. His wonder
+would not have abated had he been told that the man for whom they
+mourned had wrested an empire from one, and at the time of his death
+was arming his countrymen against the other.
+
+These signal honors were paid by England and France to a simple
+Virginian gentleman who had never left his own country, and who when
+he died held no other office than the titular command of a provisional
+army. Yet although these marks of respect from foreign nations were
+notable and striking, they were slight and formal in comparison with
+the silence and grief which fell upon the people of the United States
+when they heard that Washington was dead. He had died in the fullness
+of time, quietly, quickly, and in his own house, and yet his death
+called out a display of grief which has rarely been equaled in
+history. The trappings and suits of woe were there of course, but what
+made this mourning memorable was that the land seemed hushed with
+sadness, and that the sorrow dwelt among the people and was neither
+forced nor fleeting. Men carried it home with them to their firesides
+and to their churches, to their offices and their workshops. Every
+preacher took the life which had closed as the noblest of texts, and
+every orator made it the theme of his loftiest eloquence. For more
+than a year the newspapers teemed with eulogy and elegy, and both
+prose and poetry were severely taxed to pay tribute to the memory of
+the great one who had gone. The prose was often stilted and the verse
+was generally bad, but yet through it all, from the polished sentences
+of the funeral oration to the humble effusions of the obscurest poet's
+corner, there ran a strong and genuine feeling, which the highest art
+could not refine nor the clumsiest expression degrade.
+
+From that time to this, the stream of praise has flowed on, ever
+deepening and strengthening, both at home and abroad. Washington alone
+in history seems to have risen so high in the estimation of men that
+criticism has shrunk away abashed, and has only been heard whispering
+in corners or growling hoarsely in the now famous house in Cheyne Row.
+
+There is a world of meaning in all this, could we but rightly
+interpret it. It cannot be brushed aside as mere popular superstition,
+formed of fancies and prejudices, to which intelligent opposition
+would be useless. Nothing is in fact more false than the way in which
+popular opinions are often belittled and made light of. The opinion
+of the world, however reached, becomes in the course of years or
+centuries the nearest approach we can make to final judgment on
+human things. Don Quixote may be dumb to one man, and the sonnets of
+Shakespeare may leave another cold and weary. But the fault is in
+the reader. There is no doubt of the greatness of Cervantes or
+Shakespeare, for they have stood the test of time, and the voices of
+generations of men, from which there is no appeal, have declared them
+to be great. The lyrics that all the world loves and repeats, the
+poetry which is often called hackneyed, is on the whole the best
+poetry. The pictures and statues that have drawn crowds of admiring
+gazers for centuries are the best. The things that are "caviare to the
+general" often undoubtedly have much merit, but they lack quite as
+often the warm, generous, and immortal vitality which appeals alike to
+rich and poor, to the ignorant and to the learned.
+
+So it is with men. When years after his death the world agrees to call
+a man great, the verdict must be accepted. The historian may whiten or
+blacken, the critic may weigh and dissect, the form of the judgment
+may be altered, but the central fact remains, and with the man, whom
+the world in its vague way has pronounced great, history must reckon
+one way or the other, whether for good or ill.
+
+When we come to such a man as Washington, the case is still stronger.
+Men seem to have agreed that here was greatness which no one could
+question, and character which no one could fail to respect. Around
+other leaders of men, even around the greatest of them, sharp
+controversies have arisen, and they have their partisans dead as they
+had them living. Washington had enemies who assailed him, and friends
+whom he loved, but in death as in life he seems to stand alone, above
+conflict and superior to malice. In his own country there is no
+dispute as to his greatness or his worth. Englishmen, the most
+unsparing censors of everything American, have paid homage to
+Washington, from the days of Fox and Byron to those of Tennyson and
+Gladstone. In France his name has always been revered, and in distant
+lands those who have scarcely heard of the existence of the United
+States know the country of Washington. To the mighty cairn which the
+nation and the states have raised to his memory, stones have come
+from Greece, sending a fragment of the Parthenon; from Brazil and
+Switzerland, Turkey and Japan, Siam and India beyond the Ganges. On
+that sent by China we read: "In devising plans, Washington was more
+decided than Ching Shing or Woo Kwang; in winning a country he was
+braver than Tsau Tsau or Ling Pi. Wielding his four-footed falchion,
+he extended the frontiers and refused to accept the Royal Dignity. The
+sentiments of the Three Dynasties have reappeared in him. Can any man
+of ancient or modern times fail to pronounce Washington peerless?"
+These comparisons so strange to our ears tell of a fame which has
+reached farther than we can readily conceive.
+
+Washington stands as a type, and has stamped himself deep upon the
+imagination of mankind. Whether the image be true or false is of no
+consequence: the fact endures. He rises up from the dust of history as
+a Greek statue comes pure and serene from the earth in which it has
+lain for centuries. We know his deeds; but what was it in the man
+which has given him such a place in the affection, the respect, and
+the imagination of his fellow men throughout the world?
+
+Perhaps this question has been fully answered already. Possibly every
+one who has thought upon the subject has solved the problem, so that
+even to state it is superfluous. Yet a brilliant writer, the latest
+historian of the American people, has said: "General Washington is
+known to us, and President Washington. But George Washington is an
+unknown man." These are pregnant words, and that they should be true
+seems to make any attempt to fill the great gap an act of sheer and
+hopeless audacity. Yet there can be certainly no reason for adding
+another to the almost countless lives of Washington unless it be done
+with the object in view which Mr. McMaster indicates. Any such attempt
+may fail in execution, but if the purpose be right it has at least an
+excuse for its existence.
+
+To try to add to the existing knowledge of the facts in Washington's
+career would have but little result beyond the multiplication of
+printed pages. The antiquarian, the historian, and the critic have
+exhausted every source, and the most minute details have been and
+still are the subject of endless writing and constant discussion.
+Every house he ever lived in has been drawn and painted; every
+portrait, and statue, and medal has been catalogued and engraved. His
+private affairs, his servants, his horses, his arms, even his clothes,
+have all passed beneath the merciless microscope of history. His
+biography has been written and rewritten. His letters have been drawn
+out from every lurking place, and have been given to the world in
+masses and in detachments. His battles have been fought over and
+over again, and his state papers have undergone an almost verbal
+examination. Yet, despite his vast fame and all the labors of the
+antiquarian and biographer, Washington is still not understood,--as a
+man he is unfamiliar to the posterity that reverences his memory. He
+has been misrepresented more or less covertly by hostile critics and
+by candid friends, and has been disguised and hidden away by the
+mistaken eulogy and erroneous theories of devout admirers. All that
+any one now can do, therefore, is to endeavor from this mass of
+material to depict the very man himself in the various conjunctures of
+his life, and strive to see what he really was and what he meant then,
+and what he is and what he means to us and to the world to-day.
+
+In the progress of time Washington has become in the popular
+imagination largely mythical; for mythical ideas grow up in this
+nineteenth century, notwithstanding its boasted intelligence, much as
+they did in the infancy of the race. The old sentiment of humanity,
+more ancient and more lasting than any records or monuments, which led
+men in the dawn of history to worship their ancestors and the founders
+of states, still endures. As the centuries have gone by, this
+sentiment has lost its religious flavor, and has become more and
+more restricted in its application, but it has never been wholly
+extinguished. Let some man arise great above the ordinary bounds of
+greatness, and the feeling which caused our progenitors to bow down
+at the shrines of their forefathers and chiefs leads us to invest
+our modern hero with a mythical character, and picture him in our
+imagination as a being to whom, a few thousand years ago, altars would
+have been builded and libations poured out.
+
+Thus we have to-day in our minds a Washington grand, solemn, and
+impressive. In this guise he appears as a man of lofty intellect, vast
+moral force, supremely successful and fortunate, and wholly apart
+from and above all his fellow-men. This lonely figure rises up to our
+imagination with all the imperial splendor of the Livian Augustus, and
+with about as much warmth and life as that unrivaled statue. In this
+vague but quite serious idea there is a great deal of truth, but
+not the whole truth. It is the myth of genuine love and veneration
+springing from the inborn gratitude of man to the founders and chiefs
+of his race, but it is not by any means the only one of its family.
+There is another, equally diffused, of wholly different parentage.
+In its inception this second myth is due to the itinerant parson,
+bookmaker, and bookseller, Mason Weems. He wrote a brief biography of
+Washington, of trifling historical value, yet with sufficient literary
+skill to make it widely popular. It neither appealed to nor was read
+by the cultivated and instructed few, but it reached the homes of the
+masses of the people. It found its way to the bench of the mechanic,
+to the house of the farmer, to the log cabins of the frontiersman and
+pioneer. It was carried across the continent on the first waves of
+advancing settlement. Its anecdotes and its simplicity of thought
+commended it to children both at home and at school, and, passing
+through edition after edition, its statements were widely spread, and
+it colored insensibly the ideas of hundreds of persons who never had
+heard even the name of the author. To Weems we owe the anecdote of the
+cherry-tree, and other tales of a similar nature. He wrote with Dr.
+Beattie's life of his son before him as a model, and the result is
+that Washington comes out in his pages a faultless prig. Whether Weems
+intended it or not, that is the result which he produced, and that is
+the Washington who was developed from the wide sale of his book. When
+this idea took definite and permanent shape it caused a reaction.
+There was a revolt against it, for the hero thus engendered had
+qualities which the national sense of humor could not endure in
+silence. The consequence is, that the Washington of Weems has afforded
+an endless theme for joke and burlesque. Every professional American
+humorist almost has tried his hand at it; and with each recurring 22d
+of February the hard-worked jesters of the daily newspapers take it
+up and make a little fun out of it, sufficient for the day that is
+passing over them. The opportunity is tempting, because of the ease
+with which fun can be made when that fundamental source of humor, a
+violent contrast, can be employed. But there is no irreverence in it
+all, for the jest is not aimed at the real Washington, but at the
+Washington portrayed in the Weems biography. The worthy "rector of
+Mount Vernon," as he called himself, meant no harm, and there is a
+good deal of truth, no doubt, in his book. But the blameless and
+priggish boy, and the equally faultless and uninteresting man, whom he
+originated, have become in the process of development a myth. So in
+its further development is the Washington of the humorist a myth.
+Both alike are utterly and crudely false. They resemble their great
+original as much as Greenough's classically nude statue, exposed to
+the incongruities of the North American climate, resembles in dress
+and appearance the general of our armies and the first President of
+the United States.
+
+Such are the myth-makers. They are widely different from the critics
+who have assailed Washington in a sidelong way, and who can be better
+dealt with in a later chapter. These last bring charges which can be
+met; the myth-maker presents a vague conception, extremely difficult
+to handle because it is so elusive.
+
+One of our well-known historical scholars and most learned
+antiquarians, not long ago, in an essay vindicating the "traditional
+Washington," treated with scorn the idea of a "new Washington" being
+discovered. In one sense this is quite right, in another totally
+wrong. There can be no new Washington discovered, because there never
+was but one. But the real man has been so overlaid with myths and
+traditions, and so distorted by misleading criticisms, that, as
+has already been suggested, he has been wellnigh lost. We have
+the religious or statuesque myth, we have the Weems myth, and the
+ludicrous myth of the writer of paragraphs. We have the stately hero
+of Sparks, and Everett, and Marshall, and Irving, with all his great
+deeds as general and president duly recorded and set down in polished
+and eloquent sentences; and we know him to be very great and wise and
+pure, and, be it said with bated breath, very dry and cold. We are
+also familiar with the common-place man who so wonderfully illustrated
+the power of character as set forth by various persons, either from
+love of novelty or because the great chief seemed to get in the way of
+their own heroes.
+
+If this is all, then the career of Washington and his towering fame
+present a problem of which the world has never seen the like. But this
+cannot be all: there must be more behind. Every one knows the famous
+Stuart portrait of Washington. The last effort of the artist's cunning
+is there employed to paint his great subject for posterity. How serene
+and beautiful it is! It is a noble picture for future ages to look
+upon. Still it is not all. There is in the dining-room of Memorial
+Hall at Cambridge another portrait, painted by Savage. It is cold and
+dry, hard enough to serve for the signboard of an inn, and able, one
+would think, to withstand all weathers. Yet this picture has something
+which Stuart left out. There is a rugged strength in the face which
+gives us pause, there is a massiveness in the jaw, telling of an iron
+grip and a relentless will, which has infinite meaning.
+
+  "Here's John the Smith's rough-hammered head. Great eye,
+  Gross jaw, and griped lips do what granite can
+  To give you the crown-grasper. What a man!"
+
+In death as in life, there is something about Washington, call it
+greatness, dignity, majesty, what you will, which seems to hold men
+aloof and keep them from knowing him. In truth he was a most difficult
+man to know. Carlyle, crying out through hundreds of pages and myriads
+of words for the "silent man," passed by with a sneer the most
+absolutely silent great man that history can show. Washington's
+letters and speeches and messages fill many volumes, but they are all
+on business. They are profoundly silent as to the writer himself. From
+this Carlyle concluded apparently that there was nothing to tell,--a
+very shallow conclusion if it was the one he really reached. Such an
+idea was certainly far, very far, from the truth.
+
+Behind the popular myths, behind the statuesque figure of the orator
+and the preacher, behind the general and the president of the
+historian, there was a strong, vigorous man, in whose veins ran warm,
+red blood, in whose heart were stormy passions and deep sympathy for
+humanity, in whose brain were far-reaching thoughts, and who was
+informed throughout his being with a resistless will. The veil of his
+silence is not often lifted, and never intentionally, but now and then
+there is a glimpse behind it; and in stray sentences and in little
+incidents strenuously gathered together; above all, in the right
+interpretation of the words, and the deeds, and the true history known
+to all men,--we can surely find George Washington "the noblest figure
+that ever stood in the forefront of a nation's life."
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+GEORGE WASHINGTON
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+THE OLD DOMINION
+
+
+To know George Washington, we must first of all understand the society
+in which he was born and brought up. As certain lilies draw their
+colors from the subtle qualities of the soil hidden beneath the water
+upon which they float, so are men profoundly affected by the obscure
+and insensible influences which surround their childhood and youth.
+The art of the chemist may discover perhaps the secret agent which
+tints the white flower with blue or pink, but very often the elements,
+which analysis detects, nature alone can combine. The analogy is
+not strained or fanciful when we apply it to a past society. We can
+separate, and classify, and label the various elements, but to combine
+them in such a way as to form a vivid picture is a work of surpassing
+difficulty. This is especially true of such a land as Virginia in the
+middle of the last century. Virginian society, as it existed at that
+period, is utterly extinct. John Randolph said it had departed before
+the year 1800. Since then another century, with all its manifold
+changes, has wellnigh come and gone. Most important of all, the last
+surviving institution of colonial Virginia has been swept away in the
+crash of civil war, which has opened a gulf between past and present
+wider and deeper than any that time alone could make.
+
+Life and society as they existed in the Virginia of the eighteenth
+century seem, moreover, to have been sharply broken and ended. We
+cannot trace our steps backward, as is possible in most cases, over
+the road by which the world has traveled since those days. We are
+compelled to take a long leap mentally in order to land ourselves
+securely in the Virginia which honored the second George, and looked
+up to Walpole and Pitt as the arbiters of its fate.
+
+We live in a period of great cities, rapid communication, vast and
+varied business interests, enormous diversity of occupation, great
+industries, diffused intelligence, farming by steam, and with
+everything and everybody pervaded by an unresting, high-strung
+activity. We transport ourselves to the Virginia of Washington's
+boyhood, and find a people without cities or towns, with no means
+of communication except what was afforded by rivers and wood roads;
+having no trades, no industries, no means of spreading knowledge, only
+one occupation, clumsily performed; and living a quiet, monotonous
+existence, which can now hardly be realized. It is "a far cry to
+Loch-Awe," as the Scotch proverb has it; and this old Virginian
+society, although we should find it sorry work living in it, is both
+pleasant and picturesque in the pages of history.
+
+The population of Virginia, advancing toward half a million, and
+divided pretty equally between the free whites and the enslaved
+blacks, was densest, to use a most inappropriate word, at the water's
+edge and near the mouths of the rivers. Thence it crept backwards,
+following always the lines of the watercourses, and growing ever
+thinner and more scattered until it reached the Blue Ridge. Behind
+the mountains was the wilderness, haunted, as old John Lederer said a
+century earlier, by monsters, and inhabited, as the eighteenth-century
+Virginians very well knew, by savages and wild beasts, much more real
+and dangerous than the hobgoblins of their ancestors.
+
+The population, in proportion to its numbers, was very widely
+distributed. It was not collected in groups, after the fashion with
+which we are now familiar, for then there were no cities or towns
+in Virginia. The only place which could pretend to either name was
+Norfolk, the solitary seaport, which, with its six or seven thousand
+inhabitants, formed the most glaring exception that any rule
+solicitous of proof could possibly desire. Williamsburg, the capital,
+was a straggling village, somewhat overweighted with the public
+buildings and those of the college. It would light up into life and
+vivacity during the season of politics and society, and then relapse
+again into the country stillness. Outside of Williamsburg and Norfolk
+there were various points which passed in the catalogue and on the map
+for towns, but which in reality were merely the shadows of a name. The
+most populous consisted of a few houses inhabited by storekeepers and
+traders, some tobacco warehouses, and a tavern, clustered about the
+church or court-house. Many others had only the church, or, if a
+county seat, the church and court-house, keeping solitary state in the
+woods. There once a week the sound of prayer and gossip, or at longer
+intervals the voices of lawyers and politicians, and the shouts of the
+wrestlers on the green, broke through the stillness which with the
+going down of the sun resumed its sway in the forests.
+
+There was little chance here for that friction of mind with mind, or
+for that quick interchange of thought and sentiment and knowledge
+which are familiar to the dwellers in cities, and which have driven
+forward more rapidly than all else what we call civilization. Rare
+meetings for special objects with persons as solitary in their lives
+and as ill-informed as himself, constituted to the average Virginian
+the world of society, and there was nothing from outside to supply the
+deficiencies at home. Once a fortnight a mail crawled down from
+the North, and once a month another crept on to the South. George
+Washington was four years old when the first newspaper was published
+in the colony, and he was twenty when the first actors appeared at
+Williamsburg. What was not brought was not sought. The Virginians did
+not go down to the sea in ships. They were not a seafaring race, and
+as they had neither trade nor commerce they were totally destitute of
+the inquiring, enterprising spirit, and of the knowledge brought
+by those pursuits which involve travel and adventure. The English
+tobacco-ships worked their way up the rivers, taking the great staple,
+and leaving their varied goods, and their tardy news from Europe,
+wherever they stopped. This was the sum of the information and
+intercourse which Virginia got from across the sea, for travelers were
+practically unknown. Few came on business, fewer still from curiosity.
+Stray peddlers from the North, or trappers from beyond the mountains
+with their packs of furs, chiefly constituted what would now be called
+the traveling public. There were in truth no means of traveling except
+on foot, on horseback, or by boat on the rivers, which formed the
+best and most expeditious highways. Stage-coaches, or other public
+conveyances, were unknown. Over some of the roads the rich man, with
+his six horses and black outriders, might make his way in a lumbering
+carriage, but most of the roads were little better than woodland
+paths; and the rivers, innocent of bridges, offered in the uncertain
+fords abundance of inconvenience, not unmixed with peril. The taverns
+were execrable, and only the ever-ready hospitality of the people
+made it possible to get from place to place. The result was that the
+Virginians stayed at home, and sought and welcomed the rare stranger
+at their gates as if they were well aware that they were entertaining
+angels.
+
+It is not difficult to sift this home-keeping people, and find out
+that portion which was Virginia, for the mass was but an appendage
+of the small fraction which ruled, led, and did the thinking for the
+whole community. Half the people were slaves, and in that single
+wretched word their history is told. They were, on the whole, well
+and kindly treated, but they have no meaning in history except as an
+institution, and as an influence in the lives, feelings, and character
+of the men who made the state.
+
+Above the slaves, little better than they in condition, but separated
+from them by the wide gulf of race and color, were the indented white
+servants, some convicts, some redemptioners. They, too, have their
+story told when we have catalogued them. We cross another gulf and
+come to the farmers, to the men who grew wheat as well as tobacco on
+their own land, sometimes working alone, sometimes the owners of a few
+slaves. Some of these men were of the class well known since as the
+"poor whites" of the South, the weaker brothers who could not resist
+the poison of slavery, but sank under it into ignorance and poverty.
+They were contented because their skins were white, and because they
+were thereby part of an aristocracy to whom labor was a badge of
+serfdom. The larger portion of this middle class, however, were
+thrifty and industrious enough. Including as they did in their ranks
+the hunters and pioneers, the traders and merchants, all the freemen
+in fact who toiled and worked, they formed the mass of the white
+population, and furnished the bone and sinew and some of the
+intellectual power of Virginia. The only professional men were the
+clergy, for the lawyers were few, and growing to importance only as
+the Revolution began; while the physicians were still fewer, and as a
+class of no importance at all. The clergy were a picturesque
+element in the social landscape, but they were as a body very poor
+representatives of learning, religion, and morality. They ranged from
+hedge parsons and Fleet chaplains, who had slunk away from England
+to find a desirable obscurity in the new world, to divines of real
+learning and genuine piety, who were the supporters of the college,
+and who would have been a credit to any society. These last, however,
+were lamentably few in number. The mass of the clergy were men who
+worked their own lands, sold tobacco, were the boon companions of the
+planters, hunted, shot, drank hard, and lived well, performing their
+sacred duties in a perfunctory and not always in a decent manner.
+
+The clergy, however, formed the stepping-stone socially between
+the farmers, traders, and small planters, and the highest and most
+important class in Virginian society. The great planters were the
+men who owned, ruled, and guided Virginia. Their vast estates were
+scattered along the rivers from the seacoast to the mountains. Each
+plantation was in itself a small village, with the owner's house in
+the centre, surrounded by outbuildings and negro cabins, and the
+pastures, meadows, and fields of tobacco stretching away on all sides.
+The rare traveler, pursuing his devious way on horseback or in a boat,
+would catch sight of these noble estates opening up from the road or
+the river, and then the forest would close in around him for several
+miles, until through the thinning trees he would see again the white
+cabins and the cleared fields of the next plantation.
+
+In such places dwelt the Virginian planters, surrounded by their
+families and slaves, and in a solitude broken only by the infrequent
+and eagerly welcomed stranger, by their duties as vestrymen and
+magistrates, or by the annual pilgrimage to Williamsburg in search of
+society, or to sit in the House of Burgesses. They were occupied by
+the care of their plantations, which involved a good deal of riding in
+the open air, but which was at best an easy and indolent pursuit made
+light by slave labor and trained overseers. As a result the planters
+had an abundance of spare time, which they devoted to cock-fighting,
+horse-racing, fishing, shooting, and fox-hunting,--all, save the
+first, wholesome and manly sports, but which did not demand any undue
+mental strain. There is, indeed, no indication that the Virginians
+had any great love for intellectual exertion. When the amiable
+attorney-general of Charles II. said to the Virginian commissioners,
+pleading the cause of learning and religion, "Damn your souls! grow
+tobacco!" he uttered a precept which the mass of the planters seem to
+have laid to heart. For fifty years there were no schools, and down to
+the Revolution even the apologies bearing that honored name were
+few, and the college was small and struggling. In some of the great
+families, the eldest sons would be sent to England and to the great
+universities: they would make the grand tour, play a part in the
+fashionable society of London, and come back to their plantations fine
+gentlemen and scholars. Such was Colonel Byrd, in the early part of
+the eighteenth century, a friend of the Earl of Orrery, and the author
+of certain amusing memoirs. Such at a later day was Arthur Lee,
+doctor and diplomat, student and politician. But most of these young
+gentlemen thus sent abroad to improve their minds and manners led a
+life not materially different from that of our charming friend, Harry
+Warrington, after his arrival in England.
+
+The sons who stayed at home sometimes gathered a little learning from
+the clergyman of the parish, or received a fair education at the
+College of William and Mary, but very many did not have even so much
+as this. There was not in truth much use for learning in managing a
+plantation or raising horses, and men get along surprisingly well
+without that which they do not need, especially if the acquisition
+demands labor. The Virginian planter thought little and read less,
+and there were no learned professions to hold out golden prizes and
+stimulate the love of knowledge. The women fared even worse, for
+they could not go to Europe or to William and Mary's, so that after
+exhausting the teaching capacity of the parson they settled down to a
+round of household duties and to the cares of a multitude of slaves,
+working much harder and more steadily than their lords and masters
+ever thought of doing.
+
+The only general form of intellectual exertion was that of governing.
+The planters managed local affairs through the vestries, and ruled
+Virginia in the House of Burgesses. To this work they paid strict
+attention, and, after the fashion of their race, did it very well and
+very efficiently. They were an extremely competent body whenever they
+made up their minds to do anything; but they liked the life and habits
+of Squire Western, and saw no reason for adopting any others until it
+was necessary.
+
+There were, of course, vast differences in the condition of the
+planters. Some counted their acres by thousands and their slaves by
+hundreds, while others scrambled along as best they might with one
+plantation and a few score of negroes. Some dwelt in very handsome
+houses, picturesque and beautiful, like Gunston Hall or Stratford, or
+in vast, tasteless, and extravagant piles like Rosewell. Others were
+contented with very modest houses, consisting of one story with a
+gabled roof, and flanked by two massive chimneys. In some houses there
+was a brave show of handsome plate and china, fine furniture, and
+London-made carriages, rich silks and satins, and brocaded dresses.
+In others there were earthenware and pewter, homespun and woolen, and
+little use for horses, except in the plough or under the saddle.
+
+But there were certain qualities common to all the Virginia planters.
+The luxury was imperfect. The splendor was sometimes barbaric. There
+were holes in the brocades, and the fresh air of heaven would often
+blow through a broken window upon the glittering silver and the costly
+china. It was an easy-going aristocracy, unfinished, and frequently
+slovenly in its appointments, after the fashion of the warmer climates
+and the regions of slavery.
+
+Everything was plentiful except ready money. In this rich and poor
+were alike. They were all ahead of their income, and it seems as if,
+from one cause or another, from extravagance or improvidence, from
+horses or the gaming-table, every Virginian family went through
+bankruptcy about once in a generation.
+
+When Harry Warrington arrived in England, all his relations at
+Castlewood regarded the handsome young fellow as a prince, with his
+acres and his slaves. It was a natural and pleasing delusion, born of
+the possession of land and serfs, to which the Virginians themselves
+gave ready credence. They forgot that the land was so plentiful that
+it was of little value; that slaves were the most wasteful form of
+labor; and that a failure of the tobacco crop, pledged before it was
+gathered, meant ruin, although they had been reminded more than once
+of this last impressive fact. They knew that they had plenty to eat
+and drink, and a herd of people to wait upon them and cultivate their
+land, as well as obliging London merchants always ready to furnish
+every luxury in return for the mortgage of a crop or an estate. So
+they gave themselves little anxiety as to the future and lived in the
+present, very much to their own satisfaction.
+
+To the communities of trade and commerce, to the mercantile and
+industrial spirit of to-day, such an existence and such modes of life
+appear distressingly lax and unprogressive. The sages of the bank
+parlors and the counting-rooms would shake their heads at such
+spendthrifts as these, refuse to discount their paper, and confidently
+predict that by no possibility could they come to good. They had their
+defects, no doubt, these planters and farmers of Virginia. The life
+they led was strongly developed on the animal side, and was perhaps
+neither stimulating nor elevating. The living was the reverse of
+plain, and the thinking was neither extremely high nor notably
+laborious. Yet in this very particular there is something rather
+restful and pleasant to the eye wearied by the sight of incessant
+movement, and to the ear deafened by the continual shout that nothing
+is good that does not change, and that all change must be good. We
+should probably find great discomforts and many unpleasant limitations
+in the life and habits of a hundred years ago on any part of the
+globe, and yet at a time when it seems as if rapidity and movement
+were the last words and the ultimate ideals of civilization, it is
+rather agreeable to turn to such a community as the eighteenth-century
+planters of Virginia. They lived contentedly on the acres of their
+fathers, and except at rare and stated intervals they had no other
+interests than those furnished by their ancestral domain. At the
+court-house, at the vestry, or in Williamsburg, they met their
+neighbors and talked very keenly about the politics of Europe, or the
+affairs of the colony. They were little troubled about religion, but
+they worshiped after the fashion of their fathers, and had a serious
+fidelity to church and king. They wrangled with their governors over
+appropriations, but they lived on good terms with those eminent
+persons, and attended state balls at what they called the palace, and
+danced and made merry with much stateliness and grace. Their every-day
+life ran on in the quiet of their plantations as calmly as one of
+their own rivers. The English trader would come and go; the infrequent
+stranger would be received and welcomed; Christmas would be kept in
+hearty English fashion; young men from a neighboring estate would
+ride over through the darkening woods to court, or dance, or play
+the fiddle, like Patrick Henry or Thomas Jefferson; and these simple
+events were all that made a ripple on the placid stream. Much time was
+given to sports, rough, hearty, manly sports, with a spice of danger,
+and these, with an occasional adventurous dash into the wilderness,
+kept them sound and strong and brave, both in body and mind. There was
+nothing languid or effeminate about the Virginian planter. He was a
+robust man, quite ready to fight or work when the time came, and well
+fitted to deal with affairs when he was needed. He was a free-handed,
+hospitable, generous being, not much given to study or thought, but
+thoroughly public-spirited and keenly alive to the interests of
+Virginia. Above all things he was an aristocrat, set apart by the
+dark line of race, color, and hereditary servitude, as proud as the
+proudest Austrian with his endless quarterings, as sturdy and vigorous
+as an English yeoman, and as jealous of his rights and privileges
+as any baron who stood by John at Runnymede. To this aristocracy,
+careless and indolent, given to rough pleasures and indifferent to the
+finer and higher sides of life, the call came, as it comes to all men
+sooner or later, and in response they gave their country soldiers,
+statesmen, and jurists of the highest order, and fit for the great
+work they were asked to do. We must go back to Athens to find another
+instance of a society so small in numbers, and yet capable of such an
+outburst of ability and force. They were of sound English stock, with
+a slight admixture of the Huguenots, the best blood of France; and
+although for a century and a half they had seemed to stagnate in
+the New World, they were strong, fruitful, and effective beyond the
+measure of ordinary races when the hour of peril and trial was at
+hand.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+THE WASHINGTONS
+
+
+Such was the world and such the community which counted as a small
+fraction the Washington family. Our immediate concern is with that
+family, for before we approach the man we must know his ancestors. The
+greatest leader of scientific thought in this century has come to
+the aid of the genealogist, and given to the results of the latter's
+somewhat discredited labors a vitality and meaning which it seemed
+impossible that dry and dusty pedigrees and barren tables of descent
+should ever possess. We have always selected our race-horses according
+to the doctrines of evolution, and we now study the character of a
+great man by examining first the history of his forefathers.
+
+Washington made so great an impression upon the world in his lifetime
+that genealogists at once undertook for him the construction of a
+suitable pedigree. The excellent Sir Isaac Heard, garter king-at-arms,
+worked out a genealogy which seemed reasonable enough, and then wrote
+to the president in relation to it. Washington in reply thanked him
+for his politeness, sent him the Virginian genealogy of his own
+branch, and after expressing a courteous interest said, in his simple
+and direct fashion, that he had been a busy man and had paid but
+little attention to the subject. His knowledge about his English
+forefathers was in fact extremely slight. He had heard merely that
+the first of the name in Virginia had come from one of the northern
+counties of England, but whether from Lancashire or Yorkshire, or one
+still more northerly, he could not tell. Sir Isaac was not thoroughly
+satisfied with the correctness of his own work, but presently Baker
+took it up in his history of Northamptonshire, and perfected it to
+his own satisfaction and that of the world in general. This genealogy
+derived Washington's descent from the owners of the manor of Sulgrave,
+in Northamptonshire, and thence carried it back to the Norman knight,
+Sir William de Hertburn. According to this pedigree the Virginian
+settlers, John and Lawrence, were the sons of Lawrence Washington of
+Sulgrave Manor, and this genealogy was adopted by Sparks and Irving,
+as well as by the public at large. Twenty years ago, however, Colonel
+Chester, by his researches, broke the most essential link in the chain
+forged by Heard and Baker, proving clearly that the Virginian settlers
+could not have been the sons of Lawrence of Sulgrave, as identified by
+the garter king-at-arms. Still more recently the mythical spirit has
+taken violent possession of the Washington ancestry, and an ingenious
+gentleman has traced the pedigree of our first president back to
+Thorfinn and thence to Odin, which is sufficiently remote, dignified,
+and lofty to satisfy the most exacting Welshman that ever lived. Still
+the breach made by Colonel Chester was not repaired, although many
+writers, including some who should have known better, clung with
+undiminished faith to the Heard pedigree. It was known that Colonel
+Chester himself believed that he had found the true line, coming, it
+is supposed, through a younger branch of the Sulgrave race, but he
+died before he had discovered the one bit of evidence necessary to
+prove an essential step, and he was too conscientiously accurate to
+leave anything to conjecture. Since then the researches of Mr. Henry
+E. Waters have established the pedigree of the Virginian Washingtons,
+and we are now able to know something of the men from whom George
+Washington drew his descent.
+
+In that interesting land where everything, according to our narrow
+ideas, is upside down, it is customary, when an individual arrives at
+distinction, to confer nobility upon his ancestors instead of upon
+his children. The Washingtons offer an interesting example of the
+application of this Chinese system in the Western world, for, if they
+have not been actually ennobled in recognition of the deeds of their
+great descendant, they have at least become the subjects of intense
+and general interest. Every one of the name who could be discovered
+anywhere has been dragged forth into the light, and has had all that
+was known about him duly recorded and set down. By scanning family
+trees and pedigrees, and picking up stray bits of information here and
+there, we can learn in a rude and general fashion what manner of men
+those were who claimed descent from William of Hertburn, and who bore
+the name of Washington in the mother-country. As Mr. Galton passes
+a hundred faces before the same highly sensitized plate, and gets a
+photograph which is a likeness of no one of his subjects, and yet
+resembles them all, so we may turn the camera of history upon these
+Washingtons, as they flash up for a moment from the dim past, and hope
+to obtain what Professor Huxley calls a "generic" picture of the race,
+even if the outlines be somewhat blurred and indistinct.
+
+In the North of England, in the region conquered first by Saxons and
+then by Danes, lies the little village of Washington. It came into the
+possession of Sir William de Hertburn, and belonged to him at the time
+of the Boldon Book in 1183. Soon after, he or his descendants took
+the name of De Wessyngton, and there they remained for two centuries,
+knights of the palatinate, holding their lands by a military tenure,
+fighting in all the wars, and taking part in tournaments with becoming
+splendor. By the beginning of the fifteenth century the line of feudal
+knights of the palatinate was extinct, and the manor passed from the
+family by the marriage of Dionisia de Wessyngton. But the main stock
+had in the mean time thrown out many offshoots, which had taken firm
+root in other parts and in many counties of England. We hear of
+several who came in various ways to eminence. There was the learned
+and vigorous prior of Durham, John de Wessyngton, probably one of the
+original family, and the name appears in various places after his time
+in records and on monuments, indicating a flourishing and increasing
+race. Lawrence Washington, the direct ancestor of the first President
+of the United States, was, in the sixteenth century, the mayor of
+Northampton, and received from King Henry VIII. the manor of Sulgrave
+in 1538. In the next century we find traces of Robert Washington of
+the Adwick family, a rich merchant of Leeds, and of his son Joseph
+Washington, a learned lawyer and author, of Gray's Inn. About the same
+time we hear of Richard Washington and Philip Washington holding high
+places at University College, Oxford. The Sulgrave branch, however,
+was the most numerous and prosperous. From the mayor of Northampton
+were descended Sir William Washington, who married the half-sister of
+George Villiers, Duke of Buckingham; Sir Henry Washington, who made a
+desperate defense of Worcester against the forces of the Parliament in
+1646; Lieutenant-Colonel James Washington, who fell at the siege of
+Pontefract, fighting for King Charles; another James, of a later time,
+who was implicated in Monmouth's rebellion, fled to Holland and became
+the progenitor of a flourishing and successful family, which has
+spread to Germany and there been ennobled; Sir Lawrence Washington, of
+Garsdon, whose grand-daughter married Robert Shirley, Baron Ferrers;
+and others of less note, but all men of property and standing. They
+seem to have been a successful, thrifty race, owning lands and
+estates, wise magistrates and good soldiers, marrying well, and
+increasing their wealth and strength from generation to generation.
+They were of Norman stock, knights and gentlemen in the full sense of
+the word before the French Revolution, and we can detect in them here
+and there a marked strain of the old Norse blood, carrying with it
+across the centuries the wild Berserker spirit which for centuries
+made the adventurous Northmen the terror of Europe. They were a strong
+race evidently, these Washingtons, whom we see now only by glimpses
+through the mists of time, not brilliant apparently, never winning the
+very highest fortune, having their failures and reverses no doubt,
+but on the whole prudent, bold men, always important in their several
+stations, ready to fight and ready to work, and as a rule successful
+in that which they set themselves to do.
+
+In 1658 the two brothers, John and Lawrence, appeared in Virginia. As
+has been proved by Mr. Waters, they were of the Sulgrave family,
+the sons of Lawrence Washington, fifth son of the elder Lawrence of
+Sulgrave and Brington. The father of the emigrants was a fellow of
+Brasenose College, Oxford, and rector of Purleigh, from which living
+he was ejected by the Puritans as both "scandalous" and "malignant."
+That he was guilty of the former charge we may well doubt; but that he
+was, in the language of the time, "malignant," must be admitted, for
+all his family, including his brothers, Sir William Washington of
+Packington, and Sir John Washington of Thrapston, his nephew, Sir
+Henry Washington, and his nephew-in-law, William Legge, ancestor of
+the Earl of Dartmouth, were strongly on the side of the king. In a
+marriage which seems to have been regarded as beneath the dignity of
+the family, and in the poverty consequent upon the ejectment from
+his living, we can find the reason for the sons of the Rev. Lawrence
+Washington going forth into Virginia to find their fortune, and flying
+from the world of victorious Puritanism which offered just then so
+little hope to royalists like themselves. Yet what was poverty in
+England was something much more agreeable in the New World of America.
+The emigrant brothers at all events seem to have had resources of a
+sufficient kind, and to have been men of substance, for they purchased
+lands and established themselves at Bridges Creek, in Westmoreland
+County. With this brief statement, Lawrence disappears, leaving us
+nothing further than the knowledge that he had numerous descendants.
+John, with whom we are more concerned, figures at once in the colonial
+records of Maryland. He made complaint to the Maryland authorities,
+soon after his arrival, against Edward Prescott, merchant, and captain
+of the ship in which he had come over, for hanging a woman during the
+voyage for witchcraft. We have a letter of his, explaining that he
+could not appear at the first trial because he was about to baptize
+his son, and had bidden the neighbors and gossips to the feast. A
+little incident this, dug out of the musty records, but it shows us an
+active, generous man, intolerant of oppression, public-spirited and
+hospitable, social, and friendly in his new relations. He soon after
+was called to mourn the death of his English wife and of two children,
+but he speedily consoled himself by taking a second wife, Anne Pope,
+by whom he had three children, Lawrence, John, and Anne. According to
+the Virginian tradition, John Washington the elder was a surveyor, and
+made a location of lands which was set aside because they had been
+assigned to the Indians. It is quite apparent that he was a forehanded
+person who acquired property and impressed himself upon his neighbors.
+In 1667, when he had been but ten years in the colony, he was chosen
+to the House of Burgesses; and eight years later he was made a colonel
+and sent with a thousand men to join the Marylanders in destroying
+the "Susquehannocks," at the "Piscataway" fort, on account of some
+murdering begun by another tribe. As a feat of arms, the expedition
+was not a very brilliant affair. The Virginians and Marylanders killed
+half a dozen Indian chiefs during a parley, and then invested the
+fort. After repulsing several sorties, they stupidly allowed the
+Indians to escape in the night and carry murder and pillage through
+the outlying settlements, lighting up first the flames of savage war
+and then the fiercer fire of domestic insurrection. In the next year
+we hear again of John Washington in the House of Burgesses, when Sir
+William Berkeley assailed his troops for the murder of the Indians
+during the parley. Popular feeling, however, was clearly with the
+colonel, for nothing was done and the matter dropped. At that point,
+too, in 1676, John Washington disappears from sight, and we know only
+that as his will was proved in 1677, he must have died soon after the
+scene with Berkeley. He was buried in the family vault at Bridges
+Creek, and left a good estate to be divided among his children. The
+colonel was evidently both a prudent and popular man, and quite
+disposed to bustle about in the world in which he found himself. He
+acquired lands, came to the front at once as a leader although a
+new-comer in the country, was evidently a fighting man as is shown by
+his selection to command the Virginian forces, and was honored by his
+neighbors, who gave his name to the parish in which he dwelt. Then
+he died and his son Lawrence reigned in his stead, and became by his
+wife, Mildred Warner, the father of John, Augustine, and Mildred
+Washington.
+
+This second son, Augustine, farmer and planter like his forefathers,
+married first Jane Butler, by whom he had three sons and a daughter,
+and second, Mary Ball, by whom he had four sons and two daughters. The
+eldest child of these second nuptials was named George, and was born
+on February 11 (O.S.), 1732, at Bridges Creek. The house in which
+this event occurred was a plain, wooden farmhouse of the primitive
+Virginian pattern, with four rooms on the ground floor, an attic story
+with a long, sloping roof, and a massive brick chimney. Three years
+after George Washington's birth it is said to have been burned, and
+the family for this or some other reason removed to another estate in
+what is now Stafford County. The second house was like the first, and
+stood on rising ground looking across a meadow to the Rappahannock,
+and beyond the river to the village of Fredericksburg, which was
+nearly opposite. Here, in 1743, Augustine Washington died somewhat
+suddenly, at the age of forty-nine, from an attack of gout brought on
+by exposure in the rain, and was buried with his fathers in the old
+vault at Bridges Creek. Here, too, the boyhood of Washington was
+passed, and therefore it becomes necessary to look about us and see
+what we can learn of this important period of his life.
+
+We know nothing about his father, except that he was kindly and
+affectionate, attached to his wife and children, and apparently
+absorbed in the care of his estates. On his death the children came
+wholly under the maternal influence and direction. Much has been
+written about the "mother of Washington," but as a matter of fact,
+although she lived to an advanced age, we know scarcely more about her
+than we do about her husband. She was of gentle birth, and possessed
+a vigorous character and a good deal of business capacity. The
+advantages of education were given in but slight measure to the
+Virginian ladies of her time, and Mrs. Washington offered no exception
+to the general rule. Her reading was confined to a small number of
+volumes, chiefly of a devotional character, her favorite apparently
+being Hale's "Moral and Divine Contemplations." She evidently knew no
+language but her own, and her spelling was extremely bad even in that
+age of uncertain orthography. Certain qualities, however, are clear to
+us even now through all the dimness. We can see that Mary Washington
+was gifted with strong sense, and had the power of conducting business
+matters providently and exactly. She was an imperious woman, of strong
+will, ruling her kingdom alone. Above all she was very dignified, very
+silent, and very sober-minded. That she was affectionate and loving
+cannot be doubted, for she retained to the last a profound hold upon
+the reverential devotion of her son, and yet as he rose steadily to
+the pinnacle of human greatness, she could only say that "George
+had been a good boy, and she was sure he would do his duty." Not a
+brilliant woman evidently, not one suited to shine in courts, conduct
+intrigues, or adorn literature, yet able to transmit moral qualities
+to her oldest son, which, mingled with those of the Washingtons, were
+of infinite value in the foundation of a great Republic. She found
+herself a widow at an early age, with a family of young children to
+educate and support. Her means were narrow, for although Augustine
+Washington was able to leave what was called a landed estate to each
+son, it was little more than idle capital, and the income in ready
+money was by no means so evident as the acres.
+
+Many are the myths, and deplorably few the facts, that have come
+down to us in regard to Washington's boyhood. For the former we are
+indebted to the illustrious Weems, and to that personage a few more
+words must be devoted. Weems has been held up to the present age
+in various ways, usually, it must be confessed, of an unflattering
+nature, and "mendacious" is the adjective most commonly applied to
+him. There has been in reality a good deal of needless confusion about
+Weems and his book, for he was not a complex character, and neither he
+nor his writings are difficult to value or understand. By profession a
+clergyman or preacher, by nature an adventurer, Weems loved notoriety,
+money, and a wandering life. So he wrote books which he correctly
+believed would be popular, and sold them not only through the regular
+channels, but by peddling them himself as he traveled about the
+country. In this way he gratified all his propensities, and no doubt
+derived from life a good deal of simple pleasure. Chance brought him
+near Washington in the closing days, and his commercial instinct
+told him that here was the subject of all others for his pen and
+his market. He accordingly produced the biography which had so much
+success. Judged solely as literature, the book is beneath contempt.
+The style is turgid, overloaded, and at times silly. The statements
+are loose, the mode of narration confused and incoherent, and the
+moralizing is flat and common-place to the last degree. Yet there
+was a certain sincerity of feeling underneath all the bombast and
+platitudes, and this saved the book. The biography did not go, and was
+not intended to go, into the hands of the polite society of the great
+eastern towns. It was meant for the farmers, the pioneers, and the
+backwoodsmen of the country. It went into their homes, and passed with
+them beyond the Alleghanies and out to the plains and valleys of the
+great West. The very defects of the book helped it to success among
+the simple, hard-working, hard-fighting race engaged in the conquest
+of the American continent. To them its heavy and tawdry style, its
+staring morals, and its real patriotism all seemed eminently befitting
+the national hero, and thus Weems created the Washington of the
+popular fancy. The idea grew up with the country, and became so
+ingrained in the popular thought that finally everybody was affected
+by it, and even the most stately and solemn of the Washington
+biographers adopted the unsupported tales of the itinerant parson and
+book-peddler.
+
+In regard to the public life of Washington, Weems took the facts known
+to every one, and drawn for the most part from the gazettes. He then
+dressed them up in his own peculiar fashion and gave them to the
+world. All this, forming of course nine tenths of his book, has
+passed, despite its success, into oblivion. The remaining tenth
+described Washington's boyhood until his fourteenth or fifteenth year,
+and this, which is the work of the author's imagination, has lived.
+Weems, having set himself up as absolutely the only authority as to
+this period, has been implicitly followed, and has thus come to demand
+serious consideration. Until Weems is weighed and disposed of, we
+cannot even begin an attempt to get at the real Washington.
+
+Weems was not a cold-blooded liar, a mere forger of anecdotes. He was
+simply a man destitute of historical sense, training, or morals, ready
+to take the slenderest fact and work it up for the purposes of the
+market until it became almost as impossible to reduce it to its
+original dimensions as it was for the fisherman to get the Afrit back
+into his jar. In a word, Weems was an approved myth-maker. No better
+example can be given than the way in which he described himself. It
+is believed that he preached once, and possibly oftener, to a
+congregation which numbered Washington among its members. Thereupon he
+published himself in his book as the rector of Mount Vernon parish.
+There was, to begin with, no such parish. There was Truro parish, in
+which was a church called indifferently Pohick or Mount Vernon church.
+Of this church Washington was a vestryman until 1785, when he joined
+the church at Alexandria. The Rev. Lee Massey was the clergyman of the
+Mount Vernon church, and the church at Alexandria had nothing to do
+with Mount Vernon. There never was, moreover, such a person as the
+rector of Mount Vernon parish, but it was the Weems way of treating
+his appearance before the great man, and of deceiving the world with
+the notion of an intimacy which the title implied.
+
+Weems, of course, had no difficulty with the public life, but in
+describing the boyhood he was thrown on his own resources, and out
+of them he evolved the cherry-tree, the refusal to fight or permit
+fighting among the boys at school, and the initials in the garden.
+This last story is to the effect that Augustine Washington planted
+seeds in such a manner that when they sprouted they formed on the
+earth the initials of his son's name, and the boy being much delighted
+thereby, the father explained to him that it was the work of the
+Creator, and thus inculcated a profound belief in God. This tale
+is taken bodily from Dr. Beattie's biographical sketch of his son,
+published in England in 1799, and may be dismissed at once. As to the
+other two more familiar anecdotes there is not a scintilla of evidence
+that they had any foundation, and with them may be included the colt
+story, told by Mr. Custis, a simple variation of the cherry-tree
+theme, which is Washington's early love of truth. Weems says that
+his stories were told him by a lady, and "a good old gentleman," who
+remembered the incidents, while Mr. Custis gives no authority for his
+minute account of a trivial event over a century old when he wrote.
+To a writer who invented the rector of Mount Vernon, the further
+invention of a couple of Boswells would be a trifle. I say Boswells
+advisedly, for these stories are told with the utmost minuteness, and
+the conversations between Washington and his father are given as if
+from a stenographic report. How Mr. Custis, usually so accurate, came
+to be so far infected with the Weems myth as to tell the colt story
+after the Weems manner, cannot now be determined. There can be no
+doubt that Washington, like most healthy boys, got into a good deal of
+mischief, and it is not at all impossible that he injured fruit-trees
+and confessed that he had done so. It may be accepted as certain that
+he rode and mastered many unbroken thoroughbred colts, and it is
+possible that one of them burst a blood-vessel in the process and
+died, and that the boy promptly told his mother of the accident. But
+this is the utmost credit which these two anecdotes can claim. Even so
+much as this cannot be said of certain other improving tales of like
+nature. That Washington lectured his playmates on the wickedness of
+fighting, and in the year 1754 allowed himself to be knocked down in
+the presence of his soldiers, and thereupon begged his assailant's
+pardon for having spoken roughly to him, are stories so silly and
+so foolishly impossible that they do not deserve an instant's
+consideration.
+
+There is nothing intrinsically impossible in either the cherry-tree or
+the colt incident, nor would there be in a hundred others which might
+be readily invented. The real point is that these stories, as told by
+Weems and Mr. Custis, are on their face hopelessly and ridiculously
+false. They are so, not merely because they have no vestige of
+evidence to support them, but because they are in every word and
+line the offspring of a period more than fifty years later. No
+English-speaking people, certainly no Virginians, ever thought or
+behaved or talked in 1740 like the personages in Weems's stories,
+whatever they may have done in 1790, or at the beginning of the next
+century. These precious anecdotes belong to the age of Miss Edgeworth
+and Hannah More and Jane Taylor. They are engaging specimens of the
+"Harry and Lucy" and "Purple Jar" morality, and accurately reflect the
+pale didacticism which became fashionable in England at the close of
+the last century. They are as untrue to nature and to fact at the
+period to which they are assigned as would be efforts to depict
+Augustine Washington and his wife in the dress of the French
+revolution discussing the propriety of worshiping the Goddess of
+Reason.
+
+To enter into any serious historical criticism of these stories would
+be to break a butterfly. So much as this even has been said only
+because these wretched fables have gone throughout the world, and it
+is time that they were swept away into the dust-heaps of history. They
+represent Mr. and Mrs. Washington as affected and priggish people,
+given to cheap moralizing, and, what is far worse, they have served
+to place Washington himself in a ridiculous light to an age which has
+outgrown the educational foibles of seventy-five years ago. Augustine
+Washington and his wife were a gentleman and lady of the eighteenth
+century, living in Virginia. So far as we know without guessing or
+conjecture, they were simple, honest, and straight-forward, devoted to
+the care of their family and estate, and doing their duty sensibly and
+after the fashion of their time. Their son, to whom the greatest wrong
+has been done, not only never did anything common or mean, but from
+the beginning to the end of his life he was never for an instant
+ridiculous or affected, and he was as utterly removed from canting
+or priggishness as any human being could well be. Let us therefore
+consign the Weems stories and their offspring to the limbo of
+historical rubbish, and try to learn what the plain facts tell us of
+the boy Washington.
+
+Unfortunately these same facts are at first very few, so few that they
+tell us hardly anything. We know when and where Washington was born;
+and how, when he was little more than three years old,[1] he was taken
+from Bridges Creek to the banks of the Rappahannock. There he was
+placed under the charge of one Hobby, the sexton of the parish, to
+learn his alphabet and his pothooks; and when that worthy man's store
+of learning was exhausted he was sent back to Bridges Creek, soon
+after his father's death, to live with his half-brother Augustine,
+and obtain the benefits of a school kept by a Mr. Williams. There he
+received what would now be called a fair common-school education,
+wholly destitute of any instruction in languages, ancient or modern,
+but apparently with some mathematical training.
+
+[Footnote 1: There is a conflict about the period of this removal (see
+above, p. 37). Tradition places it in 1735, but the Rev. Mr. McGuire
+(_Religious Opinions of Washington_) puts it in 1739.]
+
+That he studied faithfully cannot be doubted, and we know, too, that
+he matured early, and was a tall, active, and muscular boy. He could
+outwalk and outrun and outride any of his companions. As he could
+no doubt have thrashed any of them too, he was, in virtue of these
+qualities, which are respected everywhere by all wholesome minds, and
+especially by boys, a leader among his school-fellows. We know further
+that he was honest and true, and a lad of unusual promise, not because
+of the goody-goody anecdotes of the myth-makers, but because he
+was liked and trusted by such men as his brother Lawrence and Lord
+Fairfax.
+
+There he was, at all events, in his fourteenth year, a big, strong,
+hearty boy, offering a serious problem to his mother, who was
+struggling along with many acres, little money, and five children.
+Mrs. Washington's chief desire naturally was to put George in the way
+of earning a living, which no doubt seemed far more important than
+getting an education, and, as he was a sober-minded boy, the same idea
+was probably profoundly impressed on his own mind also. This condition
+of domestic affairs led to the first attempt to give Washington a
+start in life, which has been given to us until very lately in a
+somewhat decorated form. The fact is, that in casting about for
+something to do, it occurred to some one, very likely to the boy
+himself, that it would be a fine idea to go to sea. His masculine
+friends and relatives urged the scheme upon Mrs. Washington, who
+consented very reluctantly, if at all, not liking the notion of
+parting with her oldest son, even in her anxiety to have him earn his
+bread. When it came to the point, however, she finally decided against
+his going, determined probably by a very sensible letter from her
+brother, Joseph Ball, an English lawyer. In all the ornamented
+versions we are informed that the boy was to enter the royal navy,
+and that a midshipman's warrant was procured for him. There does not
+appear to be any valid authority for the royal navy, the warrant, or
+the midshipman. The contemporary Virginian letters speak simply of
+"going to sea," while Mr. Ball says distinctly that the plan was to
+enter the boy on a tobacco-ship, with an excellent chance of being
+pressed on a man-of-war, and a very faint prospect of either getting
+into the navy, or even rising to be the captain of one of the petty
+trading-vessels familiar to Virginian planters. Some recent writers
+have put Mr. Ball aside as not knowing what was intended in regard to
+his nephew, but in view of the difficulty at that time of obtaining
+commissions in the navy without great political influence, it seems
+probable that Mrs. Washington's brother knew very well what he was
+talking about, and he certainly wrote a very sensible letter. A bold,
+adventurous boy, eager to earn his living and make his way in the
+world, would, like many others before him, look longingly to the sea
+as the highway to fortune and success. To Washington the romance of
+the sea was represented by the tobacco-ship creeping up the river and
+bringing all the luxuries and many of the necessaries of life from
+vaguely distant countries. No doubt he wished to go on one of these
+vessels and try his luck, and very possibly the royal navy was hoped
+for as the ultimate result. The effort was certainly made to send
+him to sea, but it failed, and he went back to school to study more
+mathematics.
+
+Apart from the fact that the exact sciences in moderate degree were
+about all that Mr. Williams could teach, this branch of learning had
+an immediate practical value, inasmuch as surveying was almost the
+only immediately gainful pursuit open to a young Virginia gentleman,
+who sorely needed a little ready money that he might buy slaves and
+work a plantation. So Washington studied on for two years more, and
+fitted himself to be a surveyor. There are still extant some early
+papers belonging to this period, chiefly fragments of school
+exercises, which show that he already wrote the bold, handsome
+hand with which the world was to become familiar, and that he made
+geometrical figures and notes of surveys with the neatness and
+accuracy which clung to him in all the work of his life, whether great
+or small. Among those papers, too, were found many copies of legal
+forms, and a set of rules, over a hundred in number, as to etiquette
+and behavior, carefully written out. It has always been supposed that
+these rules were copied, but it was reserved apparently for the storms
+of a mighty civil war to lay bare what may have been, if not the
+source of the rules themselves, the origin and suggestion of their
+compilation. At that time a little volume was found in Virginia
+bearing the name of George Washington in a boyish hand on the
+fly-leaf, and the date 1742. The book was entitled, "The Young Man's
+Companion." It was an English work, and had passed through thirteen
+editions, which was little enough in view of its varied and extensive
+information. It was written by W. Mather, in a plain and easy style,
+and treated of arithmetic, surveying, forms for legal documents, the
+measuring of land and lumber, gardening, and many other useful topics,
+and it contained general precepts which, with the aid of Hale's
+"Contemplations," may readily have furnished the hints for the rules
+found in manuscript among Washington's papers.[1] These rules were in
+the main wise and sensible, and it is evident they had occupied deeply
+the boy's mind.[2] They are for the most part concerned with the
+commonplaces of etiquette and good manners, but there is something not
+only apt but quite prophetic in the last one, "Labor to keep alive in
+your breast that little spark of celestial fire called conscience." To
+suppose that Washington's character was formed by these sententious
+bits of not very profound wisdom would be absurd; but that a series of
+rules which most lads would have regarded as simply dull should have
+been written out and pondered by this boy indicates a soberness and
+thoughtfulness of mind which certainly are not usual at that age.
+The chief thought that runs through all the sayings is to practice
+self-control, and no man ever displayed that most difficult of virtues
+to such a degree as George Washington. It was no ordinary boy who took
+such a lesson as this to heart before he was fifteen, and carried it
+into his daily life, never to be forgotten. It may also be said that
+very few boys ever needed it more; but those persons who know what
+they chiefly need, and pursue it, are by no means common.
+
+[Footnote 1: An account of this volume was given in the _New York
+Tribune_ in 1866, and also in the _Historical Magazine_ (x. 47).]
+
+[Footnote 2: The most important are given in Sparks' _Writings of
+Washington_, ii. 412, and they may be found complete in the little
+pamphlet concerning them, excellently edited by Dr. J.M. Toner, of
+Washington.]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+ON THE FRONTIER
+
+
+While Washington was working his way through the learning purveyed
+by Mr. Williams, he was also receiving another education, of a much
+broader and better sort, from the men and women among whom he found
+himself, and with whom he made friends. Chief among them was his
+eldest brother, Lawrence, fourteen years his senior, who had been
+educated in England, had fought with Vernon at Carthagena, and had
+then returned to Virginia, to be to him a generous father and a loving
+friend. As the head of the family, Lawrence Washington had received
+the lion's share of the property, including the estate at Hunting
+Creek, on the Potomac, which he christened Mount Vernon, after his
+admiral, and where he settled down and built him a goodly house. To
+this pleasant spot George Washington journeyed often in vacation
+time, and there he came to live and further pursue his studies, after
+leaving school in the autumn of 1747.
+
+Lawrence Washington had married the daughter of William Fairfax, the
+proprietor of Belvoir, a neighboring plantation, and the agent for
+the vast estates held by his family in Virginia. George Fairfax, Mrs.
+Washington's brother, had married a Miss Gary, and thus two large and
+agreeable family connections were thrown open to the young surveyor
+when he emerged from school. The chief figure, however, in that
+pleasant winter of 1747-48, so far as an influence upon the character
+of Washington is concerned, was the head of the family into which
+Lawrence Washington had married. Thomas, Lord Fairfax, then sixty
+years of age, had come to Virginia to live upon and look after the
+kingdom which he had inherited in the wilderness. He came of a noble
+and distinguished race. Graduating at Oxford with credit, he served in
+the army, dabbled in literature, had his fling in the London world,
+and was jilted by a beauty who preferred a duke, and gave her faithful
+but less titled lover an apparently incurable wound. His life having
+been thus early twisted and set awry, Lord Fairfax, when well past his
+prime, had determined finally to come to Virginia, bury himself in the
+forests, and look after the almost limitless possessions beyond the
+Blue Ridge, which he had inherited from his maternal grandfather, Lord
+Culpeper, of unsavory Restoration memory. It was a piece of great
+good-fortune which threw in Washington's path this accomplished
+gentleman, familiar with courts and camps, disappointed, but not
+morose, disillusioned, but still kindly and generous. From him the boy
+could gain that knowledge of men and manners which no school can give,
+and which is as important in its way as any that a teacher can impart.
+
+Lord Fairfax and Washington became fast friends. They hunted the fox
+together, and hunted him hard. They engaged in all the rough sports
+and perilous excitements which Virginia winter life could afford, and
+the boy's bold and skillful riding, his love of sports and his fine
+temper, commended him to the warm and affectionate interest of the old
+nobleman. Other qualities, too, the experienced man of the world saw
+in his young companion: a high and persistent courage, robust and calm
+sense, and, above all, unusual force of will and character. Washington
+impressed profoundly everybody with whom he was brought into personal
+contact, a fact which is one of the most marked features of his
+character and career, and one which deserves study more than almost
+any other. Lord Fairfax was no exception to the rule. He saw in
+Washington not simply a promising, brave, open-hearted boy, diligent
+in practicing his profession, and whom he was anxious to help, but
+something more; something which so impressed him that he confided to
+this lad a task which, according to its performance, would affect both
+his fortune and his peace. In a word, he trusted Washington, and told
+him, as the spring of 1748 was opening, to go forth and survey the
+vast Fairfax estates beyond the Ridge, define their boundaries, and
+save them from future litigation. With this commission from Lord
+Fairfax, Washington entered on the first period of his career. He
+passed it on the frontier, fighting nature, the Indians, and the
+French. He went in a schoolboy; he came out the first soldier in the
+colonies, and one of the leading men of Virginia. Let us pause a
+moment and look at him as he stands on the threshold of this momentous
+period, rightly called momentous because it was the formative period
+in the life of such a man.
+
+[Illustration: LAWRENCE WASHINGTON]
+
+He had just passed his sixteenth birthday. He was tall and muscular,
+approaching the stature of more than six feet which he afterwards
+attained. He was not yet filled out to manly proportions, but was
+rather spare, after the fashion of youth. He had a well-shaped,
+active figure, symmetrical except for the unusual length of the arms,
+indicating uncommon strength. His light brown hair was drawn back from
+a broad forehead, and grayish-blue eyes looked happily, and perhaps a
+trifle soberly, on the pleasant Virginia world about him. The face was
+open and manly, with a square, massive jaw, and a general expression
+of calmness and strength. "Fair and florid," big and strong, he was,
+take him for all in all, as fine a specimen of his race as could be
+found in the English colonies.
+
+Let us look a little closer through the keen eyes of one who studied
+many faces to good purpose. The great painter of portraits, Gilbert
+Stuart, tells us of Washington that he never saw in any man such large
+eye-sockets, or such a breadth of nose and forehead between the
+eyes, and that he read there the evidences of the strongest passions
+possible to human nature. John Bernard the actor, a good observer,
+too, saw in Washington's face, in 1797, the signs of an habitual
+conflict and mastery of passions, witnessed by the compressed mouth
+and deeply indented brow. The problem had been solved then; but in
+1748, passion and will alike slumbered, and no man could tell which
+would prevail, or whether they would work together to great purpose
+or go jarring on to nothingness. He rises up to us out of the past in
+that early springtime a fine, handsome, athletic boy, beloved by those
+about him, who found him a charming companion and did not guess that
+he might be a terribly dangerous foe. He rises up instinct with life
+and strength, a being capable, as we know, of great things whether for
+good or evil, with hot blood pulsing in his veins and beating in his
+heart, with violent passions and relentless will still undeveloped;
+and no one in all that jolly, generous Virginian society even dimly
+dreamed what that development would be, or what it would mean to the
+world.
+
+It was in March, 1748, that George Fairfax and Washington set forth on
+their adventures, and passing through Ashby's Gap in the Blue Ridge,
+entered the valley of Virginia. Thence they worked their way up the
+valley of the Shenandoah, surveying as they went, returned and swam
+the swollen Potomac, surveyed the lands about its south branch and in
+the mountainous region of Frederick County, and finally reached Mount
+Vernon again on April 12. It was a rough experience for a beginner,
+but a wholesome one, and furnished the usual vicissitudes of frontier
+life. They were wet, cold, and hungry, or warm, dry, and well fed, by
+turns. They slept in a tent, or the huts of the scattered settlers,
+and oftener still beneath the stars. They met a war party of Indians,
+and having plied them with liquor, watched one of their mad dances
+round the camp-fire. In another place they came on a straggling
+settlement of Germans, dull, patient, and illiterate, strangely unfit
+for the life of the wilderness. All these things, as well as the
+progress of their work and their various resting-places, Washington
+noted down briefly but methodically in a diary, showing in these rough
+notes the first evidences of that keen observation of nature and men
+and of daily incidents which he developed to such good purpose in
+after-life. There are no rhapsodies and no reflections in these hasty
+jottings, but the employments and the discomforts are all set down in
+a simple and matter-of-fact way, which omitted no essential thing and
+excluded all that was worthless. His work, too, was well done, and
+Lord Fairfax was so much pleased by the report that he moved across
+the Blue Ridge, built a hunting lodge preparatory to something more
+splendid which never came to pass, and laid out a noble manor, to
+which he gave the name of Greenway Court. He also procured for
+Washington an appointment as a public surveyor, which conferred
+authority on his surveys and provided him with regular work. Thus
+started, Washington toiled at his profession for three years, living
+and working as he did on his first expedition. It was a rough life,
+but a manly and robust one, and the men who live it, although often
+rude and coarse, are never weak or effeminate. To Washington it was
+an admirable school. It strengthened his muscles and hardened him to
+exposure and fatigue. It accustomed him to risks and perils of various
+kinds, and made him fertile in expedients and confident of himself,
+while the nature of his work rendered him careful and industrious.
+That his work was well done is shown by the fact that his surveys were
+considered of the first authority, and stand unquestioned to this day,
+like certain other work which he was subsequently called to do. It was
+part of his character, when he did anything, to do it in a lasting
+fashion, and it is worth while to remember that the surveys he made as
+a boy were the best that could be made.
+
+He wrote to a friend at this time: "Since you received my letter of
+October last, I have not slept above three or four nights in a bed,
+but, after walking a good deal all the day, I have lain down before
+the fire upon a little hay, straw, fodder, or a bearskin, whichever
+was to be had, with man, wife, and children, like dogs and cats; and
+happy is he who gets the berth nearest the fire. Nothing would make it
+pass off tolerably but a good reward. A doubloon is my constant gain
+every day that the weather will permit of my going out, and sometimes
+six pistoles." He was evidently a thrifty lad, and honestly pleased
+with honest earnings. He was no mere adventurous wanderer, but a man
+working for results in money, reputation, or some solid value,
+and while he worked and earned he kept an observant eye upon the
+wilderness, and bought up when he could the best land for himself and
+his family, laying the foundations of the great landed estate of which
+he died possessed.
+
+There was also a lighter and pleasanter side to this hard-working
+existence, which was quite as useful, and more attractive, than
+toiling in the woods and mountains. The young surveyor passed much of
+his time at Greenway Court, hunting the fox and rejoicing in all field
+sports which held high place in that kingdom, while at the same time
+he profited much in graver fashion by his friendship with such a man
+as Lord Fairfax. There, too, he had a chance at a library, and his
+diaries show that he read carefully the history of England and the
+essays of the "Spectator." Neither in early days nor at any other time
+was he a student, for he had few opportunities, and his life from the
+beginning was out of doors and among men. But the idea sometimes put
+forward that Washington cared nothing for reading or for books is an
+idle one. He read at Greenway Court and everywhere else when he had an
+opportunity. He read well, too, and to some purpose, studying men and
+events in books as he did in the world, for though he never talked of
+his reading, preserving silence on that as on other things concerning
+himself, no one ever was able to record an instance in which he showed
+himself ignorant of history or of literature. He was never a learned
+man, but so far as his own language could carry him he was an educated
+one. Thus while he developed the sterner qualities by hard work and a
+rough life, he did not bring back the coarse habits of the backwoods
+and the camp-fire, but was able to refine his manners and improve his
+mind in the excellent society and under the hospitable roof of Lord
+Fairfax.
+
+Three years slipped by, and then a domestic change came which much
+affected Washington's whole life. The Carthagena campaign had
+undermined the strength of Lawrence Washington and sown the seeds of
+consumption, which showed itself in 1749, and became steadily more
+alarming. A voyage to England and a summer at the warm springs were
+tried without success, and finally, as a last resort, the invalid
+sailed for the West Indies, in September, 1751. Thither his brother
+George accompanied him, and we have the fragments of a diary kept
+during this first and last wandering outside his native country. He
+copied the log, noted the weather, and evidently strove to get some
+idea of nautical matters while he was at sea and leading a life
+strangely unfamiliar to a woodsman and pioneer. When they arrived at
+their destination they were immediately asked to breakfast and dine
+with Major Clarke, the military magnate of the place, and our young
+Virginian remarked, with characteristic prudence and a certain touch
+of grim humor, "We went,--myself with some reluctance, as the smallpox
+was in the family." He fell a victim to his good manners, for two
+weeks later he was "strongly attacked with the smallpox," and was
+then housed for a month, getting safely and successfully through
+this dangerous and then almost universal ordeal. Before the disease
+declared itself, however, he went about everywhere, innocently
+scattering infection, and greatly enjoying the pleasures of the
+island. It is to be regretted that any part of this diary should have
+been lost, for it is pleasant reading, and exhibits the writer in an
+agreeable and characteristic fashion. He commented on the country and
+the scenery, inveighed against the extravagance of the charges for
+board and lodging, told of his dinner-parties and his friends, and
+noted the marvelous abundance and variety of the tropical fruits,
+which contrasted strangely with the British dishes of beefsteak and
+tripe. He also mentioned being treated to a ticket to see the play of
+"George Barnwell," on which he offered this cautious criticism:
+"The character of Barnwell and several others were said to be well
+performed. There was music adapted and regularly conducted."
+
+Soon after his recovery Washington returned to Virginia, arriving
+there in February, 1752. The diary concluded with a brief but
+perfectly effective description of Barbadoes, touching on its
+resources and scenery, its government and condition, and the manners
+and customs of its inhabitants. All through these notes we find the
+keenly observant spirit, and the evidence of a mind constantly alert
+to learn. We see also a pleasant, happy temperament, enjoying with
+hearty zest all the pleasures that youth and life could furnish. He
+who wrote these lines was evidently a vigorous, good-humored young
+fellow, with a quick eye for the world opening before him, and for the
+delights as well as the instruction which it offered.
+
+From the sunshine and ease of this tropical winter Washington passed
+to a long season of trial and responsibility at home and abroad. In
+July, 1752, his much-loved brother Lawrence died, leaving George
+guardian of his daughter, and heir to his estates in the event of
+that daughter's death. Thus the current of his home life changed, and
+responsibility came into it, while outside the mighty stream of public
+events changed too, and swept him along in the swelling torrent of a
+world-wide war.
+
+In all the vast wilderness beyond the mountains there was not room for
+both French and English. The rival nations had been for years slowly
+approaching each other, until in 1749 each people proceeded at last to
+take possession of the Ohio country after its own fashion. The French
+sent a military expedition which sank and nailed up leaden plates; the
+English formed a great land company to speculate and make money, and
+both set diligently to work to form Indian alliances. A man of far
+less perception than Lawrence Washington, who had become the chief
+manager of the Ohio Company, would have seen that the conditions on
+the frontier rendered war inevitable, and he accordingly made ready
+for the future by preparing his brother for the career of a soldier,
+so far as it could be done. He brought to Mount Vernon two old
+companions-in-arms of the Carthagena time, Adjutant Muse, a Virginian,
+and Jacob Van Braam, a Dutch soldier of fortune. The former instructed
+Washington in the art of war, tactics, and the manual of arms, the
+latter in fencing and the sword exercise. At the same time Lawrence
+Washington procured for his brother, then only nineteen years of age,
+an appointment as one of the adjutants-general of Virginia, with the
+rank of major. To all this the young surveyor took kindly enough so
+far as we can tell, but his military avocations were interrupted by
+his voyage to Barbadoes, by the illness and death of his brother, and
+by the cares and responsibilities thereby thrust upon him.
+
+Meantime the French aggressions had continued, and French soldiers and
+traders were working their way up from the South and down from the
+North, bullying and cajoling the Indians by turns, taking possession
+of the Ohio country, and selecting places as they went for that
+chain of forts which was to hem in and slowly strangle the English
+settlements. Governor Dinwiddie had sent a commissioner to remonstrate
+against these encroachments, but his envoy had stopped a hundred
+and fifty miles short of the French posts, alarmed by the troublous
+condition of things, and by the defeat and slaughter which the
+Frenchmen had already inflicted upon the Indians. Some more vigorous
+person was evidently needed to go through the form of warning France
+not to trespass on the English wilderness, and thereupon Governor
+Dinwiddie selected for the task George Washington, recently
+reappointed adjutant-general of the northern division, and major in
+the Virginian forces. He was a young man for such an undertaking, not
+yet twenty-two, but clearly of good reputation. It is plain enough
+that Lord Fairfax and others had said to the governor, "Here is the
+very man for you; young, daring, and adventurous, but yet sober-minded
+and responsible, who only lacks opportunity to show the stuff that is
+in him."
+
+Thus, then, in October, 1753, Washington set forth with Van Braam, and
+various servants and horses, accompanied by the boldest of Virginian
+frontiersmen, Christopher Gist. He wrote a report in the form of a
+journal, which was sent to England and much read at the time as part
+of the news of the day, and which has an equal although different
+interest now. It is a succinct, clear, and sober narrative. The little
+party was formed at Will's Creek, and thence through woods and over
+swollen rivers made its way to Logstown. Here they spent some days
+among the Indians, whose leaders Washington got within his grasp after
+much speech-making; and here, too, he met some French deserters from
+the South, and drew from them all the knowledge they possessed of New
+Orleans and the military expeditions from that region. From Logstown
+he pushed on, accompanied by his Indian chiefs, to Venango, on the
+Ohio, the first French outpost. The French officers asked him to sup
+with them. The wine flowed freely, the tongues of the hosts were
+loosened, and the young Virginian, temperate and hard-headed, listened
+to all the conversation, and noted down mentally much that was
+interesting and valuable. The next morning the Indian chiefs,
+prudently kept in the background, appeared, and a struggle ensued
+between the talkative, clever Frenchmen and the quiet, persistent
+Virginian, over the possession of these important savages. Finally
+Washington got off, carrying his chiefs with him, and made his way
+seventy miles further to the fort on French Creek. Here he delivered
+the governor's letter, and while M. de St. Pierre wrote a vague and
+polite answer, he sketched the fort and informed himself in regard to
+the military condition of the post. Then came another struggle over
+the Indians, and finally Washington got off with them once more, and
+worked his way back to Venango. Another struggle for the savages
+followed, rum being always the principal factor in the negotiation,
+and at last the chiefs determined to stay behind. Nevertheless, the
+work had been well done, and the important Half-King remained true to
+the English cause.
+
+Leaving his horses, Washington and Gist then took to the woods on
+foot. The French Indians lay in wait for them and tried to murder
+them, and Gist, like a true frontiersman, was for shooting the
+scoundrel whom they captured. But Washington stayed his hand, and
+they gave the savage the slip and pressed on. It was the middle of
+December, very cold and stormy. In crossing a river, Washington fell
+from the raft into deep water, amid the floating ice, but fought his
+way out, and he and his companion passed the night on an island, with
+their clothes frozen upon them. So through peril and privation, and
+various dangers, stopping in the midst of it all to win another savage
+potentate, they reached the edge of the settlements and thence went
+on to Williamsburg, where great praise and glory were awarded to the
+youthful envoy, the hero of the hour in the little Virginia capital.
+
+It is worth while to pause over this expedition a moment and to
+consider attentively this journal which recounts it, for there are
+very few incidents or documents which tell us more of Washington. He
+was not yet twenty-two when he faced this first grave responsibility,
+and he did his work absolutely well. Cool courage, of course, he
+showed, but also patience and wisdom in handling the Indians, a clear
+sense that the crafty and well-trained Frenchmen could not blind, and
+a strong faculty for dealing with men, always a rare and precious
+gift. As in the little Barbadoes diary, so also in this journal,
+we see, and far more strongly, the penetration and perception that
+nothing could escape, and which set down all things essential and let
+the "huddling silver, little worth," go by. The clearness, terseness,
+and entire sufficiency of the narrative are obvious and lie on the
+surface; but we find also another quality of the man which is one of
+the most marked features in his character, and one which we must dwell
+upon again and again, as we follow the story of his life. Here it
+is that we learn directly for the first time that Washington was a
+profoundly silent man. The gospel of silence has been preached in
+these latter days by Carlyle, with the fervor of a seer and prophet,
+and the world owes him a debt for the historical discredit which he
+has brought upon the man of mere words as compared with the man of
+deeds. Carlyle brushed Washington aside as "a bloodless Cromwell," a
+phrase to which we must revert later on other grounds, and, as
+has already been said, failed utterly to see that he was the most
+supremely silent of the great men of action that the world can show.
+Like Cromwell and Frederic, Washington wrote countless letters, made
+many speeches, and was agreeable in conversation. But this was all in
+the way of business, and a man may be profoundly silent and yet talk a
+great deal. Silence in the fine and true sense is neither mere holding
+of the tongue nor an incapacity of expression. The greatly silent man
+is he who is not given to words for their own sake, and who never
+talks about himself. Both Cromwell, greatest of Englishmen, and the
+great Frederic, Carlyle's especial heroes, were fond of talking of
+themselves. So in still larger measure was Napoleon, and many others
+of less importance. But Washington differs from them all. He had
+abundant power of words, and could use them with much force and point
+when he was so minded, but he never used them needlessly or to hide
+his meaning, and he never talked about himself. Hence the inestimable
+difficulty of knowing him. A brief sentence here and there, a rare
+gleam of light across the page of a letter, is all that we can find.
+The rest is silence. He did as great work as has fallen to the lot of
+man, he wrote volumes of correspondence, he talked with innumerable
+men and women, and of himself he said nothing. Here in this youthful
+journal we have a narrative of wild adventure, wily diplomacy, and
+personal peril, impossible of condensation, and yet not a word of the
+writer's thoughts or feelings. All that was done or said important to
+the business in hand was set down, and nothing was overlooked, but
+that is all. The work was done, and we know how it was done, but the
+man is silent as to all else. Here, indeed, is the man of action and
+of real silence, a character to be much admired and wondered at in
+these or any other days.
+
+Washington's report looked like war, and its author was shortly
+afterwards appointed lieutenant-colonel of a Virginian regiment,
+Colonel Fry commanding. Now began that long experience of human
+stupidity and inefficiency with which Washington was destined to
+struggle through all the years of his military career, suffering from
+them, and triumphing in spite of them to a degree unequaled by any
+other great commander. Dinwiddie, the Scotch governor, was eager
+enough to fight, and full of energy and good intentions, but he was
+hasty and not overwise, and was filled with an excessive idea of his
+prerogatives. The assembly, on its side, was sufficiently patriotic,
+but its members came from a community which for more than half a
+century had had no fighting, and they knew nothing of war or its
+necessities. Unaccustomed to the large affairs into which they were
+suddenly plunged, they displayed a narrow and provincial spirit.
+Keenly alive to their own rights and privileges, they were more
+occupied in quarreling with Dinwiddie than in prosecuting the war. In
+the weak proprietary governments of Maryland and Pennsylvania there
+was the same condition of affairs, with every evil exaggerated
+tenfold. The fighting spirit was dominant in Virginia, but in
+Quaker-ridden Pennsylvania it seems to have been almost extinct. These
+three were not very promising communities to look to for support in a
+difficult and costly war.
+
+With all this inertia and stupidity Washington was called to cope, and
+he rebelled against it in vigorous fashion. Leaving Colonel Fry to
+follow with the main body of troops, Washington set out on April 2,
+1754, with two companies from Alexandria, where he had been recruiting
+amidst most irritating difficulties. He reached Will's Creek three
+weeks later; and then his real troubles began. Captain Trent, the
+timid and halting envoy, who had failed to reach the French, had been
+sent out by the wise authorities to build a fort at the junction of
+the Alleghany and Monongahela, on the admirable site selected by the
+keen eye of Washington. There Trent left his men and returned to
+Will's Creek, where Washington found him, but without the pack-horses
+that he had promised to provide. Presently news came that the French
+in overwhelming numbers had swept down upon Trent's little party,
+captured their fort, and sent them packing back to Virginia.
+Washington took this to be war, and determined at once to march
+against the enemy. Having impressed from the inhabitants, who were not
+bubbling over with patriotism, some horses and wagons, he set out on
+his toilsome march across the mountains.
+
+It was a wild and desolate region, and progress was extremely slow.
+By May 9 he was at the Little Meadows, twenty miles from his
+starting-place; by the 18th at the Youghiogany River, which he
+explored and found unnavigable. He was therefore forced to take up his
+weary march again for the Monongahela, and by the 27th he was at the
+Great Meadows, a few miles further on. The extreme danger of his
+position does not seem to have occurred to him, but he was harassed
+and angered by the conduct of the assembly. He wrote to Governor
+Dinwiddie that he had no idea of giving up his commission. "But," he
+continued, "let me serve voluntarily; then I will, with the greatest
+pleasure in life, devote my services to the expedition, without any
+other reward than the satisfaction of serving my country; but to be
+slaving dangerously for the shadow of pay, through woods, rocks,
+mountains,--I would rather prefer the great toil of a daily laborer,
+and dig for a maintenance, provided I were reduced to the necessity,
+than serve upon such ignoble terms; for I really do not see why the
+lives of his Majesty's subjects in Virginia should be of less value
+than those in other parts of his American dominions, especially when
+it is well known that we must undergo double their hardship." Here we
+have a high-spirited, high-tempered young gentleman, with a contempt
+for shams that it is pleasant to see, and evidently endowed also with
+a fine taste for fighting and not too much patience.
+
+Indignant letters written in vigorous language were, however, of
+little avail, and Washington prepared to shift for himself as best he
+might. His Indian allies brought him news that the French were on the
+march and had thrown out scouting parties. Picking out a place in the
+Great Meadows for a fort, "a charming field for an encounter," he in
+his turn sent out a scouting party, and then on fresh intelligence
+from the Indians set forth himself with forty men to find the enemy.
+After a toilsome march they discovered their foes in camp. The French,
+surprised and surrounded, sprang to arms, the Virginians fired, there
+was a sharp exchange of shots, and all was over. Ten of the French
+were killed and twenty-one were taken prisoners, only one of the party
+escaping to carry back the news.
+
+This little skirmish made a prodigious noise in its day, and was much
+heralded in France. The French declared that Jumonville, the leader,
+who fell at the first fire, was foully assassinated, and that he and
+his party were ambassadors and sacred characters. Paris rang with this
+fresh instance of British perfidy, and a M. Thomas celebrated the
+luckless Jumonville in a solemn epic poem in four books. French
+historians, relying on the account of the Canadian who escaped,
+adopted the same tone, and at a later day mourned over this black
+spot on Washington's character. The French view was simple nonsense.
+Jumonville and his party, as the papers found on Jumonville showed,
+were out on a spying and scouting expedition. They were seeking to
+surprise the English when the English surprised them, with the usual
+backwoods result. The affair has a dramatic interest because it was
+the first blood shed in a great struggle, and was the beginning of a
+series of world-wide wars and social and political convulsions, which
+terminated more than half a century later on the plains of Waterloo.
+It gave immortality to an obscure French officer by linking his name
+with that of his opponent, and brought Washington for the moment
+before the eyes of the world, which little dreamed that this Virginian
+colonel was destined to be one of the principal figures in the great
+revolutionary drama to which the war then beginning was but the
+prologue.
+
+Washington, for his part, well satisfied with his exploit, retraced
+his steps, and having sent his prisoners back to Virginia, proceeded
+to consider his situation. It was not a very cheerful prospect.
+Contrecoeur, with the main body of the French and Indians, was moving
+down from the Monongahela a thousand strong. This of course was to
+have been anticipated, and it does not seem to have in the least
+damped Washington's spirits. His blood was up, his fighting temper
+thoroughly roused, and he prepared to push on. Colonel Fry had died
+meanwhile, leaving Washington in command; but his troops came forward,
+and also not long after a useless "independent" company from South
+Carolina. Thus reinforced Washington advanced painfully some thirteen
+miles, and then receiving sure intelligence of the approach of the
+French in great force fell back with difficulty to the Great Meadows,
+where he was obliged by the exhausted condition of his men to stop. He
+at once resumed work on Fort Necessity, and made ready for a desperate
+defense, for the French were on his heels, and on July 3 appeared at
+the Meadows. Washington offered battle outside the fort, and this
+being declined withdrew to his trenches, and skirmishing went on all
+day. When night fell it was apparent that the end had come. The men
+were starved and worn out. Their muskets in many cases were rendered
+useless by the rain, and their ammunition was spent. The Indians had
+deserted, and the foe outnumbered them four to one. When the French
+therefore offered a parley, Washington was forced reluctantly to
+accept. The French had no stomach for the fight, apparently, and
+allowed the English to go with their arms, exacting nothing but a
+pledge that for a year they would not come to the Ohio.
+
+So ended Washington's first campaign. His friend the Half-King, the
+celebrated Seneca chief, Thanacarishon, who prudently departed on the
+arrival of the French, has left us a candid opinion of Washington and
+his opponents. "The colonel," he said, "was a good-natured man, but
+had no experience; he took upon him to command the Indians as his
+slaves, and would have them every day upon the scout and to attack
+the enemy by themselves, but would by no means take advice from the
+Indians. He lay in one place from one full moon to the other, without
+making any fortifications, except that little thing on the meadow;
+whereas, had he taken advice, and built such fortifications as I
+advised him, he might easily have beat off the French. But the French
+in the engagement acted like cowards, and the English like fools."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Enquiry into the Causes and Alienations of the Delaware
+and Shawanee Indians_, etc. London, 1759. By Charles Thomson,
+afterwards Secretary of Congress.]
+
+There is a deal of truth in this opinion. The whole expedition was
+rash in the extreme. When Washington left Will's Creek he was aware
+that he was going to meet a force of a thousand men with only a
+hundred and fifty raw recruits at his back. In the same spirit he
+pushed on; and after the Jumonville affair, although he knew that the
+wilderness about him was swarming with enemies, he still struggled
+forward. When forced to retreat he made a stand at the Meadows and
+offered battle in the open to his more numerous and more prudent
+foes, for he was one of those men who by nature regard courage as a
+substitute for everything, and who have a contempt for hostile odds.
+He was ready to meet any number of French and Indians with cheerful
+confidence and with real pleasure. He wrote, in a letter which
+soon became famous, that he loved to hear bullets whistle, a sage
+observation which he set down in later years as a folly of youth. Yet
+this boyish outburst, foolish as it was, has a meaning to us, for it
+was essentially true. Washington had the fierce fighting temper of the
+Northmen. He loved battle and danger, and he never ceased to love them
+and to give way to their excitement, although he did not again set
+down such sentiments in boastful phrase that made the world laugh.
+Men of such temper, moreover, are naturally imperious and have a fine
+disregard of consequences, with the result that their allies, Indian
+or otherwise, often become impatient and finally useless. The campaign
+was perfectly wild from the outset, and if it had not been for
+the utter indifference to danger displayed by Washington, and the
+consequent timidity of the French, that particular body of Virginians
+would have been permanently lost to the British Empire.
+
+But we learn from all this many things. It appears that Washington was
+not merely a brave man, but one who loved fighting for its own sake.
+The whole expedition shows an arbitrary temper and the most reckless
+courage, valuable qualities, but here unrestrained, and mixed
+with very little prudence. Some important lessons were learned by
+Washington from the rough teachings of inexorable and unconquerable
+facts. He received in this campaign the first taste of that severe
+experience which by its training developed the self-control and
+mastery of temper for which he became so remarkable. He did not spring
+into life a perfect and impossible man, as is so often represented. On
+the contrary, he was educated by circumstances; but the metal came out
+of the furnace of experience finely tempered, because it was by nature
+of the best and with but little dross to be purged away. In addition
+to all this he acquired for the moment what would now be called a
+European reputation. He was known in Paris as an assassin, and in
+England, thanks to the bullet letter, as a "fanfaron" and brave
+braggart. With these results he wended his way home much depressed in
+spirits, but not in the least discouraged, and fonder of fighting than
+ever.
+
+Virginia, however, took a kinder view of the campaign than did her
+defeated soldier. She appreciated the gallantry of the offer to fight
+in the open and the general conduct of the troops, and her House of
+Burgesses passed a vote of thanks to Washington and his officers, and
+gave money to his men. In August he rejoined his regiment, only to
+renew the vain struggle against incompetence and extravagance, and as
+if this were not enough, his sense of honor was wounded and his temper
+much irritated by the governor's playing false to the prisoners taken
+in the Jumonville fight. While thus engaged, news came that the French
+were off their guard at Fort Duquesne, and Dinwiddie was for having
+the regiment of undisciplined troops march again into the wilderness.
+Washington, however, had learned something, if not a great deal, and
+he demonstrated the folly of such an attempt in a manner too clear to
+be confuted.
+
+Meantime the Burgesses came together, and more money being voted,
+Dinwiddie hit on a notable plan for quieting dissensions between
+regulars and provincials by dividing all the troops into independent
+companies, with no officer higher than a captain. Washington, the
+only officer who had seen fighting and led a regiment, resented quite
+properly this senseless policy, and resigning his commission withdrew
+to Mount Vernon to manage the estate and attend to his own affairs. He
+was driven to this course still more strongly by the original cause of
+Dinwiddie's arrangement. The English government had issued an order
+that officers holding the king's commission should rank provincial
+officers, and that provincial generals and field officers should have
+no rank when a general or field officer holding a royal commission was
+present. The degradation of being ranked by every whipper-snapper who
+might hold a royal commission by virtue, perhaps, of being the bastard
+son of some nobleman's cast-off mistress was more than the temper
+of George Washington at least could bear, and when Governor Sharpe,
+general by the king's commission, and eager to secure the services
+of the best fighter in Virginia, offered him a company and urged his
+acceptance, he replied in language that must have somewhat astonished
+his excellency. "You make mention in your letter," he wrote to Colonel
+Fitzhugh, Governor Sharpe's second in command, "of my continuing in
+the service, and retaining my colonel's commission. This idea has
+filled me with surprise; for, if you think me capable of holding a
+commission that has neither rank nor emolument annexed to it, you must
+entertain a very contemptible opinion of my weakness, and believe
+me to be more empty than the commission itself.... In short, every
+captain bearing the king's commission, every half-pay officer, or
+others, appearing with such a commission, would rank before me.... Yet
+my inclinations are strongly bent to arms."
+
+It was a bitter disappointment to withdraw from military life, but
+Washington had an intense sense of personal dignity; not the small
+vanity of a petty mind, but the quality of a proud man conscious of
+his own strength and purpose. It was of immense value to the American
+people at a later day, and there is something very instructive in this
+early revolt against the stupid arrogance which England has always
+thought it wise to display toward this country. She has paid dearly
+for indulging it, but it has seldom cost her more than when it drove
+Washington from her service, and left in his mind a sense of indignity
+and injustice.
+
+Meantime this Virginian campaigning had started a great movement.
+England was aroused, and it was determined to assail France in Nova
+Scotia, from New York and on the Ohio. In accordance with this plan
+General Braddock arrived in Virginia February 20, 1755, with two
+picked regiments, and encamped at Alexandria. Thither Washington used
+to ride and look longingly at the pomp and glitter, and wish that he
+wore engaged in the service. Presently this desire became known, and
+Braddock, hearing of the young Virginian's past experience, offered
+him a place on his staff with the rank of colonel where he would
+be subject only to the orders of the general, and could serve as a
+volunteer. He therefore accepted at once, and threw himself into
+his new duties with hearty good-will. Every step now was full of
+instruction. At Annapolis he met the governors of the other
+colonies, and was interested and attracted by this association with
+distinguished public men. In the army to which he was attached he
+studied with the deepest attention the best discipline of Europe,
+observing everything and forgetting nothing, thus preparing himself
+unconsciously to use against his teachers the knowledge he acquired.
+
+He also made warm friends with the English officers, and was treated
+with consideration by his commander. The universal practice of all
+Englishmen at that time was to behave contemptuously to the colonists,
+but there was something about Washington which made this impossible.
+They all treated him with the utmost courtesy, vaguely conscious that
+beneath the pleasant, quiet manner there was a strength of character
+and ability such as is rarely found, and that this was a man whom it
+was unsafe to affront. There is no stronger instance of Washington's
+power of impressing himself upon others than that he commanded now
+the respect and affection of his general, who was the last man to be
+easily or favorably affected by a young provincial officer.
+
+Edward Braddock was a veteran soldier, a skilled disciplinarian, and a
+rigid martinet. He was narrow-minded, brutal, and brave. He had led a
+fast life in society, indulging in coarse and violent dissipations,
+and was proud with the intense pride of a limited intelligence and a
+nature incapable of physical fear. It would be difficult to conceive
+of a man more unfit to be entrusted with the task of marching through
+the wilderness and sweeping the French from the Ohio. All the
+conditions which confronted him were unfamiliar and beyond his
+experience. He cordially despised the provincials who were essential
+to his success, and lost no opportunity of showing his contempt for
+them. The colonists on their side, especially in Pennsylvania, gave
+him, unfortunately, only too much ground for irritation and disgust.
+They were delighted to see this brilliant force come from England to
+fight their battles, but they kept on wrangling and holding back,
+refusing money and supplies, and doing nothing. Braddock chafed and
+delayed, swore angrily, and lingered still. Washington strove to help
+him, but defended his country fearlessly against wholesale and furious
+attacks.
+
+Finally the army began to move, but so slowly and after so much delay
+that they did not reach Will's Creek until the middle of May. Here
+came another exasperating pause, relieved only by Franklin, who,
+by giving his own time, ability, and money, supplied the necessary
+wagons. Then they pushed on again, but with the utmost slowness. With
+supreme difficulty they made an elaborate road over the mountains as
+they marched, and did not reach the Little Meadows until June 16. Then
+at last Braddock turned to his young aide for the counsel which had
+already been proffered and rejected many times. Washington advised the
+division of the army, so that the main body could hurry forward in
+light marching order while a detachment remained behind and brought
+up the heavy baggage. This plan was adopted, and the army started
+forward, still too heavily burdened, as Washington thought, but in
+somewhat better trim for the wilderness than before. Their progress,
+quickened as it was, still seemed slow to Washington, but he was taken
+ill with a fever, and finally was compelled by Braddock to stop for
+rest at the ford of Youghiogany. He made Braddock promise that he
+should be brought up before the army reached Fort Duquesne, and wrote
+to his friend Orme that he would not miss the impending battle for
+five hundred pounds.
+
+As soon as his fever abated a little he left Colonel Dunbar, and,
+being unable to sit on a horse, was conveyed to the front in a wagon,
+coming up with the army on July 8. He was just in time, for the next
+day the troops forded the Monongahela and marched to attack the fort.
+The splendid appearance of the soldiers as they crossed the river
+roused Washington's enthusiasm; but he was not without misgivings.
+Franklin had already warned Braddock against the danger of surprise,
+and had been told with a sneer that while these savages might be
+a formidable enemy to raw American militia, they could make no
+impression on disciplined troops. Now at the last moment Washington
+warned the general again and was angrily rebuked.
+
+The troops marched on in ordered ranks, glittering and beautiful.
+Suddenly firing was heard in the front, and presently the van was
+flung back on the main body. Yells and war-whoops resounded on every
+side, and an unseen enemy poured in a deadly fire. Washington begged
+Braddock to throw his men into the woods, but all in vain. Fight in
+platoons they must, or not at all. The result was that they did not
+fight at all. They became panic-stricken, and huddled together,
+overcome with fear, until at last when Braddock was mortally wounded
+they broke in wild rout and fled. Of the regular troops, seven
+hundred, and of the officers, who showed the utmost bravery, sixty-two
+out of eighty-six, were killed or wounded. Two hundred Frenchmen and
+six hundred Indians achieved this signal victory. The only thing
+that could be called fighting on the English side was done by
+the Virginians, "the raw American militia," who, spread out as
+skirmishers, met their foes on their own ground, and were cut off
+after a desperate resistance almost to a man.
+
+Washington at the outset flung himself headlong into the fight. He
+rode up and down the field, carrying orders and striving to rally "the
+dastards," as he afterwards called the regular troops. He endeavored
+to bring up the artillery, but the men would not serve the guns,
+although to set an example he aimed and discharged one himself. All
+through that dreadful carnage he rode fiercely about, raging with the
+excitement of battle, and utterly exposed from beginning to end. Even
+now it makes the heart beat quicker to think of him amid the smoke and
+slaughter as he dashed hither and thither, his face glowing and his
+eyes shining with the fierce light of battle, leading on his own
+Virginians, and trying to stay the tide of disaster. He had two horses
+shot under him and four bullets through his coat. The Indians thought
+he bore a charmed life, while his death was reported in the colonies,
+together with his dying speech, which, he dryly wrote to his brother,
+he had not yet composed.
+
+When the troops broke it was Washington who gathered the fugitives and
+brought off the dying general. It was he who rode on to meet Dunbar,
+and rallying the fugitives enabled the wretched remnants to take up
+their march for the settlements. He it was who laid Braddock in the
+grave four days after the defeat, and read over the dead the solemn
+words of the English service. Wise, sensible, and active in the
+advance, splendidly reckless on the day of battle, cool and collected
+on the retreat, Washington alone emerged from that history of disaster
+with added glory. Again he comes before us as, above all things,
+the fighting man, hot-blooded and fierce in action, and utterly
+indifferent to the danger which excited and delighted him. But the
+earlier lesson had not been useless. He now showed a prudence and
+wisdom in counsel which were not apparent in the first of his
+campaigns, and he no longer thought that mere courage was
+all-sufficient, or that any enemy could be despised. He was plainly
+one of those who could learn. His first experience had borne good
+fruit, and now he had been taught a series of fresh and valuable
+lessons. Before his eyes had been displayed the most brilliant
+European discipline, both in camp and on the march. He had studied
+and absorbed it all, talking with veterans and hearing from them many
+things that he could have acquired nowhere else. Once more had he
+been taught, in a way not to be forgotten, that it is never well to
+underrate one's opponent. He had looked deeper, too, and had seen what
+the whole continent soon understood, that English troops were not
+invincible, that they could be beaten by Indians, and that they were
+after all much like other men. This was the knowledge, fatal in
+after days to British supremacy, which Braddock's defeat brought to
+Washington and to the colonists, and which was never forgotten. Could
+he have looked into the future, he would have seen also in this
+ill-fated expedition an epitome of much future history. The expedition
+began with stupid contempt toward America and all things American, and
+ended in ruin and defeat. It was a bitter experience, much heeded by
+the colonists, but disregarded by England, whose indifference was paid
+for at a heavy cost.
+
+After the hasty retreat, Colonel Dunbar, stricken with panic, fled
+onward to Philadelphia, abandoning everything, and Virginia was left
+naturally in a state of great alarm. The assembly came together, and
+at last, thoroughly frightened, voted abundant money, and ordered a
+regiment of a thousand men to be raised. Washington, who had returned
+to Mount Vernon ill and worn-out, was urged to solicit the command,
+but it was not his way to solicit, and he declined to do so now.
+August 14, he wrote to his mother: "If it is in my power to avoid
+going to the Ohio again, I shall; but if the command is pressed upon
+me by the general voice of the country, and offered upon such terms as
+cannot be objected against, it would reflect dishonor on me to refuse
+it." The same day he was offered the command of all the Virginian
+forces on his own terms, and accepted. Virginia believed in
+Washington, and he was ready to obey her call.
+
+He at once assumed command and betook himself to Winchester, a general
+without an army, but still able to check by his presence the existing
+panic, and ready to enter upon the trying, dreary, and fruitless work
+that lay before him. In April, 1757, he wrote: "I have been posted
+then, for more than twenty months past, upon our cold and barren
+frontiers, to perform, I think I may say, impossibilities; that is, to
+protect from the cruel incursions of a crafty, savage enemy a line of
+inhabitants, of more than three hundred and fifty miles in extent,
+with a force inadequate to the task." This terse statement covers
+all that can be said of the next three years. It was a long struggle
+against a savage foe in front, and narrowness, jealousy, and stupidity
+behind; apparently without any chance of effecting anything, or
+gaining any glory or reward. Troops were voted, but were raised with
+difficulty, and when raised were neglected and ill-treated by the
+wrangling governor and assembly, which caused much ill-suppressed
+wrath in the breast of the commander-in-chief, who labored day and
+night to bring about better discipline in camp, and who wrote long
+letters to Williamsburg recounting existing evils and praying for a
+new militia law.
+
+The troops, in fact, were got out with vast difficulty even under the
+most stinging necessity, and were almost worthless when they came.
+Of one "noble captain" who refused to come, Washington wrote: "With
+coolness and moderation this great captain answered that his wife,
+family, and corn were all at stake; so were those of his soldiers;
+therefore it was impossible for him to come. Such is the example
+of the officers; such the behavior of the men; and upon such
+circumstances depends the safety of our country!" But while the
+soldiers were neglected, and the assembly faltered, and the militia
+disobeyed, the French and Indians kept at work on the long, exposed
+frontier. There panic reigned, farmhouses and villages went up in
+smoke, and the fields were reddened with slaughter at each fresh
+incursion. Gentlemen in Williamsburg bore these misfortunes with
+reasonable fortitude, but Washington raged against the abuses and the
+inaction, and vowed that nothing but the imminent danger prevented his
+resignation. "The supplicating tears of the women," he wrote, "and
+moving petitions of the men melt me into such deadly sorrow that
+I solemnly declare, if I know my own mind, I could offer myself
+a willing sacrifice to the butchering enemy, provided that would
+contribute to the people's ease." This is one of the rare flashes
+of personal feeling which disclose the real man, warm of heart and
+temper, full of human sympathy, and giving vent to hot indignation in
+words which still ring clear and strong across the century that has
+come and gone.
+
+Serious troubles, moreover, were complicated by petty annoyances. A
+Maryland captain, at the head of thirty men, undertook to claim rank
+over the Virginian commander-in-chief because he had held a king's
+commission; and Washington was obliged to travel to Boston in order to
+have the miserable thing set right by Governor Shirley. This affair
+settled, he returned to take up again the old disheartening struggle,
+and his outspoken condemnation of Dinwiddie's foolish schemes and of
+the shortcomings of the government began to raise up backbiters
+and malcontents at Williamsburg. "My orders," he said, "are dark,
+doubtful, and uncertain; to-day approved, to-morrow condemned. Left
+to act and proceed at hazard, accountable for the consequences, and
+blamed without the benefit of defense." He determined nevertheless
+to bear with his trials until the arrival of Lord Loudon, the new
+commander-in-chief, from whom he expected vigor and improvement.
+Unfortunately he was destined to have only fresh disappointment from
+the new general, for Lord Loudon was merely one more incompetent man
+added to the existing confusion. He paid no heed to the South, matters
+continued to go badly in the North, and Virginia was left helpless. So
+Washington toiled on with much discouragement, and the disagreeable
+attacks upon him increased. That it should have been so is not
+surprising, for he wrote to the governor, who now held him in much
+disfavor, to the speaker, and indeed to every one, with a most galling
+plainness. He was only twenty-five, be it remembered, and his high
+temper was by no means under perfect control. He was anything but
+diplomatic at that period of his life, and was far from patient, using
+language with much sincerity and force, and indulging in a blunt irony
+of rather a ferocious kind. When he was accused finally of getting up
+reports of imaginary dangers, his temper gave way entirely. He wrote
+wrathfully to the governor for justice, and added in a letter to
+his friend, Captain Peachey: "As to Colonel C.'s gross and infamous
+reflections on my conduct last spring, it will be needless, I dare
+say, to observe further at this time than that the liberty which he
+has been pleased to allow himself in sporting with my character is
+little else than a comic entertainment, discovering at one view his
+passionate fondness for your friend, his inviolable love of truth,
+his unfathomable knowledge, and the masterly strokes of his wisdom in
+displaying it. You are heartily welcome to make use of any letter or
+letters which I may at any time have written to you; for although
+I keep no copies of epistles to my friends, nor can remember the
+contents of all of them, yet I am sensible that the narrations are
+just, and that truth and honesty will appear in my writings; of which,
+therefore, I shall not be ashamed, though criticism may censure my
+style."
+
+Perhaps a little more patience would have produced better results,
+but it is pleasant to find one man, in that period of stupidity and
+incompetency, who was ready to free his mind in this refreshing way.
+The only wonder is that he was not driven from his command. That they
+insisted on keeping him there shows beyond everything that he
+had already impressed himself so strongly on Virginia that the
+authorities, although they smarted under his attacks, did not dare to
+meddle with him. Dinwiddie and the rest could foil him in obtaining a
+commission in the king's army, but they could not shake his hold upon
+the people.
+
+In the winter of 1758 his health broke down completely. He was so
+ill that he thought that his constitution was seriously injured;
+and therefore withdrew to Mount Vernon, where he slowly recovered.
+Meantime a great man came at last to the head of affairs in England,
+and inspired by William Pitt, fleets and armies went forth to conquer.
+Reviving at the prospect, Washington offered his services to General
+Forbes, who had come to undertake the task which Braddock had failed
+to accomplish. Once more English troops appeared, and a large army
+was gathered. Then the old story began again, and Washington, whose
+proffered aid had been gladly received, chafed and worried all summer
+at the fresh spectacle of delay and stupidity which was presented
+to him. His advice was disregarded, and all the weary business of
+building new roads through the wilderness was once more undertaken. A
+detachment, sent forward contrary to his views, met with the fate of
+Braddock, and as the summer passed, and autumn changed to winter, it
+looked as if nothing would be gained in return for so much toil and
+preparation. But Pitt had conquered the Ohio in Canada, news arrived
+of the withdrawal of the French, the army pressed on, and, with
+Washington in the van, marched into the smoking ruins of Fort
+Duquesne, henceforth to be known to the world as Fort Pitt.
+
+So closed the first period in Washington's public career. We have seen
+him pass through it in all its phases. It shows him as an adventurous
+pioneer, as a reckless frontier fighter, and as a soldier of great
+promise. He learned many things in this time, and was taught much in
+the hard school of adversity. In the effort to conquer Frenchmen and
+Indians he studied the art of war, and at the same time he learned
+to bear with and to overcome the dullness and inefficiency of the
+government he served. Thus he was forced to practise self-control in
+order to attain his ends, and to acquire skill in the management of
+men. There could have been no better training for the work he was to
+do in the after years, and the future showed how deeply he profited by
+it. Let us turn now, for a moment, to the softer and pleasanter side
+of life, and having seen what Washington was, and what he did as a
+fighting man, let us try to know him in the equally important and far
+more attractive domain of private and domestic life.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+LOVE AND MARRIAGE
+
+
+Lewis Willis, of Fredericksburg, who was at school with Washington,
+used to speak of him as an unusually studious and industrious boy, but
+recalled one occasion when he distinguished himself and surprised his
+schoolmates by "romping with one of the largest girls."[1] Half a
+century later, when the days of romping were long over and gone, a
+gentleman writing of a Mrs. Hartley, whom Washington much admired,
+said that the general always liked a fine woman.[2] It is certain that
+from romping he passed rapidly to more serious forms of expressing
+regard, for by the time he was fourteen he had fallen deeply in love
+with Mary Bland of Westmoreland, whom he calls his "Lowland Beauty,"
+and to whom he wrote various copies of verses, preserved amid the
+notes of surveys, in his diary for 1747-48. The old tradition
+identified the "Lowland Beauty" with Miss Lucy Grymes, perhaps
+correctly, and there are drafts of letters addressed to "Dear Sally,"
+which suggest that the mistake in identification might have arisen
+from the fact that there were several ladies who answered to that
+description. In the following sentence from the draft of a letter to a
+masculine sympathizer, also preserved in the tell-tale diary of 1748,
+there is certainly an indication that the constancy of the lover was
+not perfect. "Dear Friend Robin," he wrote: "My place of residence at
+present is at his Lordship's, where I might, were my heart disengaged,
+pass my time very pleasantly, as there is a very agreeable young lady
+in the same house, Colonel George Fairfax's wife's sister. But that
+only adds fuel to the fire, as being often and unavoidably in company
+with her revives my former passion for your Lowland Beauty; whereas
+were I to live more retired from young women, I might in some measure
+alleviate my sorrow by burying that chaste and troublesome passion in
+oblivion; I am very well assured that this will be the only antidote
+or remedy." Our gloomy young gentleman, however, did not take to
+solitude to cure the pangs of despised love, but preceded to calm his
+spirits by the society of this same sister-in-law of George Fairfax,
+Miss Mary Cary. One "Lowland Beauty," Lucy Grymes, married Henry Lee,
+and became the mother of "Legion Harry," a favorite officer and friend
+of Washington in the Revolution, and the grandmother of Robert E. Lee,
+the great soldier of the Southern Confederacy. The affair with Miss
+Cary went on apparently for some years, fitfully pursued in the
+intervals of war and Indian fighting, and interrupted also by matters
+of a more tender nature. The first diversion occurred about 1752, when
+we find Washington writing to William Fauntleroy, at Richmond, that he
+proposed to come to his house to see his sister, Miss Betsy, and that
+he hoped for a revocation of her former cruel sentence.[3] Miss Betsy,
+however, seems to have been obdurate, and we hear no more of love
+affairs until much later, and then in connection with matters of a
+graver sort.
+
+[Footnote 1: Quoted from the Willis MS. by Mr. Conway, in _Magazine of
+American History_, March, 1887, p. 196.]
+
+[Footnote 2: _Magazine of American History_, i. 324.]
+
+[Footnote 3: _Historical Magazine_, 3d series, 1873. Letter
+communicated by Fitzhugh Lee.]
+
+[Illustration: Mary Cary]
+
+When Captain Dagworthy, commanding thirty men in the Maryland
+service, undertook in virtue of a king's commission to outrank the
+commander-in-chief of the Virginian forces, Washington made up his
+mind that he would have this question at least finally and properly
+settled. So, as has been said, he went to Boston, saw Governor
+Shirley, and had the dispute determined in his own favor. He made
+the journey on horseback, and had with him two of his aides and two
+servants. An old letter, luckily preserved, tells us how he looked,
+for it contains orders to his London agents for various articles, sent
+for perhaps in anticipation of this very expedition. In Braddock's
+campaign the young surveyor and frontier soldier had been thrown among
+a party of dashing, handsomely equipped officers fresh from London,
+and their appearance had engaged his careful attention. Washington was
+a thoroughly simple man in all ways, but he was also a man of
+taste and a lover of military discipline. He had a keen sense of
+appropriateness, a valuable faculty which stood him in good stead in
+grave as well as trivial matters all through his career, and which in
+his youth came out most strongly in the matter of manners and personal
+appearance. He was a handsome man, and liked to be well dressed and to
+have everything about himself or his servants of the best. Yet he
+was not a mere imitator of fashions or devoted to fine clothes. The
+American leggins and fringed hunting-shirt had a strong hold on his
+affections, and he introduced them into Forbes's army, and again into
+the army of the Revolution, as the best uniform for the backwoods
+fighters. But he learned with Braddock that the dress of parade has as
+real military value as that of service, and when he traveled northward
+to settle about Captain Dagworthy, he felt justly that he now was
+going on parade for the first time as the representative of his troops
+and his colony. Therefore with excellent sense he dressed as befitted
+the occasion, and at the same time gratified his own taste.
+
+Thanks to these precautions, the little cavalcade that left Virginia
+on February 4, 1756, must have looked brilliant enough as they rode
+away through the dark woods. First came the colonel, mounted of course
+on the finest of animals, for he loved and understood horses from the
+time when he rode bareback in the pasture to those later days when he
+acted as judge at a horse-race and saw his own pet colt "Magnolia"
+beaten. In this expedition he wore, of course, his uniform of buff
+and blue, with a white and scarlet cloak over his shoulders, and a
+sword-knot of red and gold. His "horse furniture" was of the best
+London make, trimmed with "livery lace," and the Washington arms were
+engraved upon the housings. Close by his side rode his two aides,
+likewise in buff and blue, and behind came his servants, dressed in
+the Washington colors of white and scarlet and wearing hats laced with
+silver. Thus accoutred, they all rode on together to the North.
+
+The colonel's fame had gone before him, for the hero of Braddock's
+stricken field and the commander of the Virginian forces was known by
+reputation throughout the colonies. Every door flew open to him as he
+passed, and every one was delighted to welcome the young soldier. He
+was dined and wined and feted in Philadelphia, and again in New York,
+where he fell in love at apparently short notice with the heiress Mary
+Philipse, the sister-in-law of his friend Beverly Robinson. Tearing
+himself away from these attractions he pushed on to Boston, then
+the most important city on the continent, and the head-quarters of
+Shirley, the commander-in-chief. The little New England capital had at
+that time a society which, rich for those days, was relieved from its
+Puritan sombreness by the gayety and life brought in by the royal
+officers. Here Washington lingered ten days, talking war and politics
+with the governor, visiting in state the "great and general court,"
+dancing every night at some ball, dining with and being feted by the
+magnates of the town. His business done, he returned to New York,
+tarried there awhile for the sake of the fair dame, but came to no
+conclusions, and then, like the soldier in the song, he gave his
+bridle-rein a shake and rode away again to the South, and to the
+harassed and ravaged frontier of Virginia.
+
+How much this little interlude, pushed into a corner as it has been by
+the dignity of history,--how much it tells of the real man! How the
+statuesque myth and the priggish myth and the dull and solemn myth
+melt away before it! Wise and strong, a bearer of heavy responsibility
+beyond his years, daring in fight and sober in judgment, we have here
+the other and the more human side of Washington. One loves to picture
+that gallant, generous, youthful figure, brilliant in color and manly
+in form, riding gayly on from one little colonial town to another,
+feasting, dancing, courting, and making merry. For him the myrtle and
+ivy were entwined with the laurel, and fame was sweetened by youth. He
+was righteously ready to draw from life all the good things which
+fate and fortune then smiling upon him could offer, and he took his
+pleasure frankly, with an honest heart.
+
+We know that he succeeded in his mission and put the captain of thirty
+men in his proper place, but no one now can tell how deeply he was
+affected by the charms of Miss Philipse. The only certain fact is that
+he was able not long after to console himself very effectually. Riding
+away from Mount Vernon once more, in the spring of 1758, this time to
+Williamsburg with dispatches, he stopped at William's Ferry to dine
+with his friend Major Chamberlayne, and there he met Martha Dandridge,
+the widow of Daniel Parke Custis. She was young, pretty, intelligent,
+and an heiress, and her society seemed to attract the young soldier.
+The afternoon wore away, the horses came to the door at the appointed
+time, and after being walked back and forth for some hours were
+returned to the stable. The sun went down, and still the colonel
+lingered. The next morning he rode away with his dispatches, but on
+his return he paused at the White House, the home of Mrs. Custis, and
+then and there plighted his troth with the charming widow. The wooing
+was brief and decisive, and the successful lover departed for the
+camp, to feel more keenly than ever the delays of the British officers
+and the shortcomings of the colonial government. As soon as Fort
+Duquesne had fallen he hurried home, resigned his commission in the
+last week of December, and was married on January 6, 1759. It was a
+brilliant wedding party which assembled on that winter day in the
+little church near the White House. There were gathered Francis
+Fauquier, the gay, free-thinking, high-living governor, gorgeous in
+scarlet and gold; British officers, redcoated and gold-laced, and all
+the neighboring gentry in the handsomest clothes that London credit
+could furnish. The bride was attired in silk and satin, laces and
+brocade, with pearls on her neck and in her ears; while the bridegroom
+appeared in blue and silver trimmed with scarlet, and with gold
+buckles at his knees and on his shoes. After the ceremony the bride
+was taken home in a coach and six, her husband riding beside her,
+mounted on a splendid horse and followed by all the gentlemen of the
+party.
+
+[Illustration: Mary Morris born Mary Philipse]
+
+The sunshine and glitter of the wedding-day must have appeared to
+Washington deeply appropriate, for he certainly seemed to have all
+that heart of man could desire. Just twenty-seven, in the first flush
+of young manhood, keen of sense and yet wise in experience, life
+must have looked very fair and smiling. He had left the army with a
+well-earned fame, and had come home to take the wife of his choice and
+enjoy the good-will and respect of all men. While away on his last
+campaign he had been elected a member of the House of Burgesses, and
+when he took his seat on removing to Williamsburg, three months after
+his marriage, Mr. Robinson, the speaker, thanked him publicly in
+eloquent words for his services to the country. Washington rose to
+reply, but he was so utterly unable to talk about himself that he
+stood before the House stammering and blushing, until the speaker
+said, "Sit down, Mr. Washington; your modesty equals your valor, and
+that surpasses the power of any language I possess." It is an old
+story, and as graceful as it is old, but it was all very grateful to
+Washington, especially as the words of the speaker bodied forth the
+feelings of Virginia. Such an atmosphere, filled with deserved respect
+and praise, was pleasant to begin with, and then he had everything
+else too.
+
+He not only continued to sit in the House year after year and help to
+rule Virginia, but he served on the church vestry, and so held in his
+hands the reins of local government. He had married a charming
+woman, simple, straightforward, and sympathetic, free from gossip or
+pretense, and as capable in practical matters as he was himself. By
+right of birth a member of the Virginian aristocracy, he had widened
+and strengthened his connections through his wife. A man of handsome
+property by the death of Lawrence Washington's daughter, he had become
+by his marriage one of the richest men of the country. Acknowledged
+to be the first soldier on the continent, respected and trusted in
+public, successful and happy in private life, he had attained before
+he was thirty to all that Virginia could give of wealth, prosperity,
+and honor, a fact of which he was well aware, for there never breathed
+a man more wisely contented than George Washington at this period.
+
+He made his home at Mount Vernon, adding many acres to the estate, and
+giving to it his best attention. It is needless to say that he was
+successful, for that was the ease with everything he undertook. He
+loved country life, and he was the best and most prosperous planter in
+Virginia, which was really a more difficult achievement than the mere
+statement implies. Genuinely profitable farming in Virginia was not
+common, for the general system was a bad one. A single great staple,
+easily produced by the reckless exhaustion of land, and varying widely
+in the annual value of crops, bred improvidence and speculation.
+Everything was bought upon long credits, given by the London
+merchants, and this, too, contributed largely to carelessness and
+waste. The chronic state of a planter in a business way was one of
+debt, and the lack of capital made his conduct of affairs extravagant
+and loose. With all his care and method Washington himself was often
+pinched for ready money, and it was only by his thoroughness and
+foresight that he prospered and made money while so many of his
+neighbors struggled with debt and lived on in easy luxury, not knowing
+what the morrow might bring forth.
+
+A far more serious trouble than bad business methods was one which was
+little heeded at the moment, but which really lay at the foundation of
+the whole system of society and business. This was the character of
+the labor by which the plantations were worked. Slave labor is well
+known now to be the most expensive and the worst form of labor that
+can be employed. In the middle of the eighteenth century, however, its
+evils were not appreciated, either from an economical or a moral point
+of view. This is not the place to discuss the subject of African
+slavery in America. But it is important to know Washington's opinions
+in regard to an institution which was destined to have such a powerful
+influence upon the country, and it seems most appropriate to consider
+those opinions at the moment when slaves became a practical factor in
+his life as a Virginian planter.
+
+Washington accepted the system as he found it, as most men accept the
+social arrangements to which they are born. He grew up in a world
+where slavery had always existed, and where its rightfulness had never
+been questioned. Being on the frontier, occupied with surveying and
+with war, he never had occasion to really consider the matter at all
+until he found himself at the head of large estates, with his own
+prosperity dependent on the labor of slaves. The first practical
+question, therefore, was how to employ this labor to the best
+advantage. A man of his clear perceptions soon discovered the defects
+of the system, and he gave great attention to feeding and clothing
+his slaves, and to their general management. Parkinson[1] says in a
+general way that Washington treated his slaves harshly, spoke to them
+sharply, and maintained a military discipline, to which he attributed
+the General's rare success as a planter. There can be no doubt of
+the success, and the military discipline is probably true, but the
+statement as to harshness is unsupported by any other authority.
+Indeed, Parkinson even contradicts it himself, for he says elsewhere
+that Washington never bought or sold a slave, a proof of the highest
+and most intelligent humanity; and he adds in his final sketch of the
+General's character, that he "was incapable of wrong-doing, but did to
+all men as he would they should do to him. Therefore it is not to be
+supposed that he would injure the negro." This agrees with what we
+learn from all other sources. Humane by nature, he conceived a great
+interest and pity for these helpless beings, and treated them with
+kindness and forethought. In a word, he was a wise and good master,
+as well as a successful one, and the condition of his slaves was
+as happy, and their labor as profitable, as was possible to such a
+system.
+
+[Footnote 1: _Tour in America_, 1798-1800.]
+
+So the years rolled by; the war came and then the making of the
+government, and Washington's thoughts were turned more and more, as
+was the case with all the men of his time in that era of change and
+of new ideas, to the consideration of human slavery in its moral,
+political, and social aspects. To trace the course of his opinions
+in detail is needless. It is sufficient to summarize them, for the
+results of his reflection and observation are more important than the
+processes by which they were reached. Washington became convinced that
+the whole system was thoroughly bad, as well as utterly repugnant to
+the ideas upon which the Revolution was fought and the government of
+the United States founded. With a prescience wonderful for those days
+and on that subject, he saw that slavery meant the up-growth in the
+United States of two systems so radically hostile, both socially and
+economically, that they could lead only to a struggle for political
+supremacy, which in its course he feared would imperil the Union. For
+this reason he deprecated the introduction of the slavery question
+into the debates of the first Congress, because he realized its
+character, and he did not believe that the Union or the government
+at that early day could bear the strain which in this way would be
+produced. At the same time he felt that a right solution must be found
+or inconceivable evils would ensue. The inherent and everlasting wrong
+of the system made its continuance, to his mind, impossible. While
+it existed, he believed that the laws which surrounded it should be
+maintained, because he thought that to violate these only added one
+wrong to another. He also doubted, as will be seen in a later chapter,
+where his conversation with John Bernard is quoted, whether the
+negroes could be immediately emancipated with safety either to
+themselves or to the whites, in their actual condition of ignorance,
+illiteracy, and helplessness. The plan which he favored, and which,
+it would seem, was his hope and reliance, was first the checking
+of importation, followed by a gradual emancipation, with proper
+compensation to the owners and suitable preparation and education for
+the slaves. He told the clergymen Asbury and Coke, when they visited
+him for that purpose, that he was in favor of emancipation, and was
+ready to write a letter to the assembly to that effect.[1] He wished
+fervently that such a spirit might take possession of the people of
+the country, but he wrote to Lafayette that he despaired of seeing it.
+When he died he did all that lay within his power to impress his views
+upon his countrymen by directing that all his slaves should be set
+free on the death of his wife. His precepts and his example in this
+grave matter went unheeded for many years by the generations which
+came after him. But now that slavery is dead, to the joy of all men,
+it is well to remember that on this terrible question Washington's
+opinions were those of a humane man, impatient of wrong, and of a
+noble and far-seeing statesman, watchful of the evils that threatened
+his country.[2]
+
+[Footnote 1: _Magazine of American History_, 1880, p. 158.]
+
+[Footnote 2: For some expressions of Washington's opinions on slavery,
+see Sparks, viii. 414, ix. 159-163, and x. 224.]
+
+After this digression let us return to the Virginian farmer, whose
+mind was not disturbed as yet by thoughts of the destiny of the United
+States, or considerations of the rights of man, but who was much
+exercised by the task of making an honest income out of his estates.
+To do this he grappled with details as firmly as he did with the
+general system under which all plantations in that day were carried
+on. He understood every branch of farming; he was on the alert for
+every improvement; he rose early, worked steadily, gave to everything
+his personal supervision, kept his own accounts with wonderful
+exactness, and naturally enough his brands of flour went unquestioned
+everywhere, his credit was high, and he made money--so far as it
+was possible under existing conditions. Like Shakespeare, as Bishop
+Blougram has it, he
+
+  "Saved money, spent it, owned the worth of things."
+
+He had no fine and senseless disregard for money or the good things of
+this world, but on the contrary saw in them not the value attached to
+them by vulgar minds, but their true worth. He was a solid, square,
+evenly-balanced man in those days, believing that whatever he did was
+worth doing well. So he farmed, as he fought and governed, better than
+anybody else.
+
+While thus looking after his own estates at home, he went further
+afield in search of investments, keeping a shrewd eye on the western
+lands, and buying wisely and judiciously whenever he had the
+opportunity. He also constituted himself now, as in a later time, the
+champion of the soldiers, for whom he had the truest sympathy and
+affection, and a large part of the correspondence of this period is
+devoted to their claims for the lands granted them by the assembly.
+He distinguished carefully among them, however, those who were
+undeserving, and to the major of the regiment, who had been excluded
+from the public thanks on account of cowardice at the Great Meadows,
+he wrote as follows: "Your impertinent letter was delivered to me
+yesterday. As I am not accustomed to receive such from any man, nor
+would have taken the same language from you personally without letting
+you feel some marks of my resentment, I would advise you to be
+cautious in writing me a second of the same tenor. But for your
+stupidity and sottishness you might have known, by attending to the
+public gazette, that you had your full quantity of ten thousand acres
+of land allowed you. But suppose you had really fallen short, do you
+think your superlative merit entitles you to greater indulgence than
+others?... All my concern is that I ever engaged in behalf of so
+ungrateful a fellow as you are." The writer of this letter, be it said
+in passing, was the man whom Mr. Weems and others tell us was knocked
+down before his soldiers, and then apologized to his assailant. It may
+be suspected that it was well for the recipient of this letter that
+he did not have a personal interview with its author, and it may
+be doubted if he ever sought one subsequently. Just, generous, and
+magnanimous to an extraordinary degree, Washington had a dangerous
+temper, held well under control, but blazing out now and again against
+injustice, insolence, or oppression. He was a peaceful man, leading a
+peaceful life, but the fighting spirit only slumbered, and it
+would break out at wrong of any sort, in a way which was extremely
+unpleasant and threatening to those who aroused it.
+
+Apart from lands and money and the management of affairs, public and
+private, there were many other interests of varied nature which all
+had their share of Washington's time and thought. He was a devoted
+husband, and gave to his stepchildren the most affectionate care. He
+watched over and protected them, and when the daughter died, after a
+long and wasting illness, in 1773, he mourned for her as if she
+had been his own, with all the tenderness of a deep and reserved
+affection. The boy, John Custis, he made his friend and companion from
+the beginning, and his letters to the lad and about him are wise and
+judicious in the highest degree. He spent much time and thought on the
+question of education, and after securing the best instructors took
+the boy to New York and entered him at Columbia College in 1773. Young
+Custis, however, did not remain there long, for he had fallen in love,
+and the following year was married to Eleanor Calvert, not without
+some misgivings on the part of Washington, who had observed his ward's
+somewhat flighty disposition, and who gave a great deal of anxious
+thought to his future. At home as abroad he was an undemonstrative
+man, but he had abundance of that real affection which labors for
+those to whom it goes out more unselfishly and far more effectually
+than that which bubbles and boils upon the surface like a shallow,
+noisy brook.
+
+From the suggestions that he made in regard to young Custis, it is
+evident that Washington valued and respected education, and that he
+had that regard for learning for its own sake which always exists
+in large measure in every thoughtful man. He read well, even if his
+active life prevented his reading much, as we can see by his vigorous
+English, and by his occasional allusions to history. From his London
+orders we see, too, that everything about his house must have denoted
+that its possessor had refinement and taste. His intense sense
+of propriety and unfailing instinct for what was appropriate are
+everywhere apparent. His dress, his furniture, his harnesses, the
+things for the children, all show the same fondness for simplicity,
+and yet a constant insistence that everything should be the best of
+its kind. We can learn a good deal about any man by the ornaments of
+his house, and by the portraits which hang on his walls; for these
+dumb things tell us whom among the great men of earth the owner
+admires, and indicate the tastes he best loves to gratify. When
+Washington first settled with his wife at Mount Vernon, he ordered
+from Europe the busts of Alexander the Great, Charles XII. of Sweden,
+Julius Caesar, Frederick of Prussia, Marlborough, and Prince Eugene,
+and in addition he asked for statuettes of "two wild beasts." The
+combination of soldier and statesman is the predominant admiration,
+then comes the reckless and splendid military adventurer, and lastly
+wild life and the chase. There is no mistaking the ideas and fancies
+of the man who penned this order which has drifted down to us from the
+past.
+
+But as Washington's active life was largely out of doors, so too were
+his pleasures. He loved the fresh open-air existence of the woods
+and fields, and there he found his one great amusement. He shot and
+fished, but did not care much for these pursuits, for his hobby was
+hunting, which gratified at once his passion for horses and dogs and
+his love for the strong excitement of the chase, when dashed with just
+enough danger to make it really fascinating. He showed in his sport
+the same thoroughness and love of perfection that he displayed in
+everything else. His stables were filled with the best horses that
+Virginia could furnish. There were the "blooded coach-horses" for Mrs.
+Washington's carriage, "Magnolia," a full-blooded Arabian, used by
+his owner for the road, the ponies for the children, and finally, the
+high-bred hunters Chinkling and Valiant, Ajax and Blueskin, and the
+rest, all duly set down in the register in the handwriting of the
+master himself. His first visit in the morning was to the stables;
+the next to the kennels to inspect and criticise the hounds, also
+methodically registered and described, so that we can read the names
+of Vulcan and Ringwood, Singer and Truelove, Music and Sweetlips, to
+which the Virginian woods once echoed nearly a century and a half ago.
+His hounds were the subject of much thought, and were so constantly
+and critically drafted as to speed, keenness, and bottom, that when in
+full cry they ran so closely bunched that tradition says, in classic
+phrase, they could have been covered with a blanket. The hounds met
+three times a week in the season, usually at Mount Vernon, sometimes
+at Belvoir. They would get off at daybreak, Washington in the midst of
+his hounds, splendidly mounted, generally on his favorite Blueskin, a
+powerful iron-gray horse of great speed and endurance. He wore a blue
+coat, scarlet waistcoat, buckskin breeches, and a velvet cap. Closely
+followed by his huntsman and the neighboring gentlemen, with the
+ladies, headed, very likely, by Mrs. Washington in a scarlet habit,
+he would ride to the appointed covert and throw in. There was no
+difficulty in finding, and then away they would go, usually after a
+gray fox, sometimes after a big black fox, rarely to be caught. Most
+of the country was wild and unfenced, rough in footing, and offering
+hard and dangerous going for the horses, but Washington always made it
+a rule to stay with his hounds. Cautious or timid riders, if they were
+so minded, could gallop along the wood roads with the ladies, and
+content themselves with glimpses of the hunt, but the master rode at
+the front. The fields, it is to be feared, were sometimes small, but
+Washington hunted even if he had only his stepson or was quite alone.
+
+His diaries abound with allusions to the sport. "Went a-hunting with
+Jacky Custis, and catched a fox after three hours chase; found it in
+the creek." "Mr. Bryan Fairfax, Mr. Grayson, and Phil. Alexander came
+home by sunrise. Hunted and catched a fox with these. Lord Fairfax,
+his brother, and Colonel Fairfax, all of whom, with Mr. Fairfax and
+Mr. Wilson of England, dined here." Again, November 26 and 29, "Hunted
+again with the same party." "1768, Jan. 8th. Hunting again with same
+company. Started a fox and run him 4 hours. Took the hounds off at
+night." "Jan. 15. Shooting." "16. At home all day with cards; it
+snowing." "23. Rid to Muddy Hole and directed paths to be cut for
+foxhunting." "Feb. 12. Catched 2 foxes." "Feb. 13. Catched 2 more
+foxes." "Mar. 2. Catched fox with bob'd tail and cut ears after
+7 hours chase, in which most of the dogs were worsted." "Dec. 5.
+Fox-hunting with Lord Fairfax and his brother and Colonel Fairfax.
+Started a fox and lost it. Dined at Belvoir and returned in the
+evening."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: MS. Diaries in State Department.]
+
+So the entries run on, for he hunted almost every day in the season,
+usually with success, but always with persistence. Like all true
+sportsmen Washington had a horror of illicit sport of any kind, and
+although he shot comparatively little, he was much annoyed by a
+vagabond who lurked in the creeks and inlets on his estate, and
+slaughtered his canvas-back ducks. Hearing the report of a gun one
+morning, he rode through the bushes and saw his poaching friend just
+shoving off in a canoe. The rascal raised his gun and covered his
+pursuer, whereupon Washington, the cold-blooded and patient person
+so familiar in the myths, dashed his horse headlong into the water,
+seized the gun, grasped the canoe, and dragging it ashore pulled the
+man out of the boat and beat him soundly. If the man had yielded at
+once he would probably have got off easily enough, but when he put
+Washington's life in imminent peril, the wild fighting spirit flared
+up as usual.
+
+The hunting season was of course that of the most lavish hospitality.
+There was always a great deal of dining about, but Mount Vernon was
+the chief resort, and its doors, ever open, were flung far back when
+people came for a meet, or gathered to talk over the events of a good
+run. Company was the rule and solitude the exception. When only the
+family were at dinner, the fact was written down in the diary with
+great care as an unusual event, for Washington was the soul of
+hospitality, and although he kept early hours, he loved society and a
+houseful of people. Profoundly reserved and silent as to himself,
+a lover of solitude so far as his own thoughts and feelings were
+concerned, he was far from being a solitary man in the ordinary
+acceptation of the word. He liked life and gayety and conversation, he
+liked music and dancing or a game of cards when the weather was bad,
+and he enjoyed heartily the presence of young people and of his own
+friends. So Mount Vernon was always full of guests, and the master
+noted in his diary that although he owned more than a hundred cows he
+was obliged, nevertheless, to buy butter, which suggests an experience
+not unknown to gentlemen farmers of any period, and also that company
+was never lacking in that generous, open house overlooking the
+Potomac.
+
+Beyond the bounds of his own estate he had also many occupations and
+pleasures. He was a member of the House of Burgesses, diligent in his
+attention to the work of governing the colony. He was diligent also in
+church affairs, and very active in the vestry, which was the seat of
+local government in Virginia. We hear of him also as the manager
+of lotteries, which were a common form of raising money for local
+purposes, in preference to direct taxation. In a word, he was
+thoroughly public-spirited, and performed all the small duties which
+his position demanded in the same spirit that he afterwards brought
+to the command of armies and to the government of the nation. He had
+pleasure too, as well as business, away from Mount Vernon. He liked
+to go to his neighbors' houses and enjoy their hospitality as they
+enjoyed his. We hear of him at the courthouse on court days, where all
+the country-side gathered to talk and listen to the lawyers and hear
+the news, and when he went to Williamsburg his diary tells us of a
+round of dinners, beginning with the governor, of visits to the club,
+and of a regular attendance at the theatre whenever actors came to the
+little capital. Whether at home or abroad, he took part in all the
+serious pursuits, in all the interests, and in every reasonable
+pleasure offered by the colony.
+
+Take it for all in all, it was a manly, wholesome, many-sided life. It
+kept Washington young and strong, both mentally and physically. When
+he was forty he flung the iron bar, at some village sports, to a point
+which no competitor could approach. There was no man in all Virginia
+who could ride a horse with such a powerful and assured seat.
+There was no one who could journey farther on foot, and no man at
+Williamsburg who showed at the governor's receptions such a commanding
+presence, or who walked with such a strong and elastic step. As with
+the body so with the mind. He never rusted. A practical carpenter and
+smith, he brought the same quiet intelligence and firm will to the
+forging of iron or the felling and sawing of trees that he had
+displayed in fighting France. The life of a country gentleman did not
+dull or stupefy him, or lead him to gross indulgences. He remained
+well-made and athletic, strong and enduring, keen in perception and in
+sense, and warm in his feelings and affections. Many men would have
+become heavy and useless in these years of quiet country life, but
+Washington simply ripened, and, like all slowly maturing men, grew
+stronger, abler, and wiser in the happy years of rest and waiting
+which intervened between youth and middle age.
+
+Meantime, while the current of daily life flowed on thus gently at
+Mount Vernon, the great stream of public events poured by outside. It
+ran very calmly at first, after the war, and then with a quickening
+murmur, which increased to an ominous roar when the passage of the
+Stamp Act became known in America. Washington was always a constant
+attendant at the assembly, in which by sheer force of character, and
+despite his lack of the talking and debating faculty, he carried more
+weight than any other member. He was present on May 29, 1765, when
+Patrick Henry introduced his famous resolutions and menaced the king's
+government in words which rang through the continent. The resolutions
+were adopted, and Washington went home, with many anxious thoughts,
+to discuss the political outlook with his friend and neighbor George
+Mason, one of the keenest and ablest men in Virginia. The utter
+folly of the policy embodied in the Stamp Act struck Washington very
+forcibly. With that foresight for which he was so remarkable, he
+perceived what scarcely any one else even dreamt of, that persistence
+in this course must surely lead to a violent separation from the
+mother-country, and it is interesting to note in this, the first
+instance when he was called upon to consider a political question of
+great magnitude, his clearness of vision and grasp of mind. In what he
+wrote there is no trace of the ambitious schemer, no threatening nor
+blustering, no undue despondency nor excited hopes. But there is a
+calm understanding of all the conditions, an entire freedom from
+self-deception, and the power of seeing facts exactly as they were,
+which were all characteristic of his intellectual strength, and to
+which we shall need to recur again and again.
+
+The repeal of the Stamp Act was received by Washington with sober but
+sincere pleasure. He had anticipated "direful" results and "unhappy
+consequences" from its enforcement, and he freely said that those who
+were instrumental in its repeal had his cordial thanks. He was no
+agitator, and had not come forward in this affair, so he now retired
+again to Mount Vernon, to his farming and hunting, where he remained,
+watching very closely the progress of events. He had marked the
+dangerous reservation of the principle in the very act of repeal; he
+observed at Boston the gathering strength of what the wise ministers
+of George III. called sedition; he noted the arrival of British troops
+in the rebellious Puritan town; and he saw plainly enough, looming in
+the background, the final appeal to arms. He wrote to Mason (April 5,
+1769), that "at a time when our lordly masters in Great Britain will
+be satisfied with nothing less than the deprivation of American
+freedom, something should be done to avert the stroke and maintain the
+liberty which we have derived from our ancestors. But the manner of
+doing it, to answer the purpose effectually, is the point in question.
+That no man should scruple or hesitate a moment to use arms in defense
+of so valuable a blessing is clearly my opinion. Yet arms, I would beg
+leave to add, should be the last resource, the _dernier ressort_." He
+then urged the adoption of the only middle course, non-importation,
+but he had not much hope in this expedient, although an honest desire
+is evident that it may prove effectual.
+
+When the assembly met in May, they received the new governor, Lord
+Botetourt, with much cordiality, and then fell to passing spirited
+and sharp-spoken resolutions declaring their own rights and defending
+Massachusetts. The result was a dissolution. Thereupon the burgesses
+repaired to the Raleigh tavern, where they adopted a set of
+non-importation resolutions and formed an association. The resolutions
+were offered by Washington, and were the result of his quiet country
+talks with Mason. When the moment for action arrived, Washington came
+naturally to the front, and then returned quietly to Mount Vernon,
+once more to go about his business and watch the threatening political
+horizon. Virginia did not live up to this first non-importation
+agreement, and formed another a year later. But Washington was not in
+the habit of presenting resolutions merely for effect, and there
+was nothing of the actor in his composition. His resolutions meant
+business, and he lived up to them rigidly himself. Neither tea nor
+any of the proscribed articles were allowed in his house. Most of
+the leaders did not realize the seriousness of the situation, but
+Washington, looking forward with clear and sober gaze, was in grim
+earnest, and was fully conscious that when he offered his resolutions
+the colony was trying the last peaceful remedy, and that the next step
+would be war.
+
+Still he went calmly about his many affairs as usual, and gratified
+the old passion for the frontier by a journey to Pittsburgh for the
+sake of lands and soldiers' claims, and thence down the Ohio and into
+the wilderness with his old friends the trappers and pioneers. He
+visited the Indian villages as in the days of the French mission, and
+noted in the savages an ominous restlessness, which seemed, like the
+flight of birds, to express the dumb instinct of an approaching storm.
+The clouds broke away somewhat under the kindly management of Lord
+Botetourt, and then gathered again more thickly on the accession of
+his successor, Lord Dunmore. With both these gentlemen Washington was
+on the most friendly terms. He visited them often, and was consulted
+by them, as it behooved them to consult the strongest man within the
+limits of their government. Still he waited and watched, and scanned
+carefully the news from the North. Before long he heard that
+tea-chests were floating in Boston harbor, and then from across the
+water came intelligence of the passage of the Port Bill and other
+measures destined to crush to earth the little rebel town.
+
+When the Virginia assembly met again, they proceeded to congratulate
+the governor on the arrival of Lady Dunmore, and then suddenly, as
+all was flowing smoothly along, there came a letter through the
+corresponding committee which Washington had helped to establish,
+telling of the measures against Boston. Everything else was thrown
+aside at once, a vigorous protest was entered on the journal of the
+House, and June 1, when the Port Bill was to go into operation, was
+appointed a day of fasting, humiliation, and prayer. The first result
+was prompt dissolution of the assembly. The next was another meeting
+in the long room of the Raleigh tavern, where the Boston bill
+was denounced, non-importation renewed, and the committee of
+correspondence instructed to take steps for calling a general
+congress. Events were beginning to move at last with perilous
+rapidity. Washington dined with Lord Dunmore on the evening of that
+day, rode with him, and appeared at her ladyship's ball the next
+night, for it was not his way to bite his thumb at men from whom he
+differed politically, nor to call the motives of his opponents in
+question. But when the 1st of June arrived, he noted in his diary that
+he fasted all day and attended the appointed services. He always meant
+what he said, being of a simple nature, and when he fasted and prayed
+there was something ominously earnest about it, something that his
+excellency the governor, who liked the society of this agreeable
+man and wise counselor, would have done well to consider and draw
+conclusions from, and which he probably did not heed at all. He might
+well have reflected, as he undoubtedly failed to do, that when men
+of the George Washington type fast and pray on account of political
+misdoings, it is well for their opponents to look to it carefully.
+
+Meantime Boston had sent forth appeals to form a league among the
+colonies, and thereupon another meeting was held in the Raleigh
+tavern, and a letter was dispatched advising the burgesses to consider
+this matter of a general league and take the sense of their respective
+counties. Virginia and Massachusetts had joined hands now, and they
+were sweeping the rest of the continent irresistibly forward with
+them. As for Washington, he returned to Mount Vernon and at once set
+about taking the sense of his county, as he had agreed. Before doing
+so he had some correspondence with his old friend Bryan Fairfax. The
+Fairfaxes naturally sided with the mother-country, and Bryan was much
+distressed by the course of Virginia, and remonstrated strongly, and
+at length by letter, against violent measures. Washington replied
+to him: "Does it not appear as clear as the sun in its meridian
+brightness that there is a regular, systematic plan formed to fix the
+right and practice of taxation on us? Does not the uniform conduct of
+Parliament for some years past confirm this? Do not all the debates,
+especially those just brought to us in the House of Commons, on the
+side of government expressly declare that America must be taxed in
+aid of the British funds, and that she has no longer resources within
+herself? Is there anything to be expected from petitioning after this?
+Is not the attack upon the liberty and property of the people of
+Boston, before restitution of the loss to the India Company was
+demanded, a plain and self-evident proof of what they are aiming at?
+Do not the subsequent bills (now I dare say acts) for depriving the
+Massachusetts Bay of its charter, and for transporting offenders into
+other colonies, or to Great Britain for trial, where it is impossible
+from the nature of the thing that justice can be obtained, convince us
+that the administration is determined to stick at nothing to carry
+its point? Ought we not, then, to put our virtue and fortitude to the
+severest test?" He was prepared, he continued, for anything except
+confiscating British debts, which struck him as dishonorable. These
+were plain but pregnant questions, but what we mark in them, and
+in all his letters of this time, is the absence of constitutional
+discussion, of which America was then full. They are confined to a
+direct presentation of the broad political question, which underlay
+everything. Washington always went straight to the mark, and he now
+saw, through all the dust of legal and constitutional strife, that
+the only real issue was whether America was to be allowed to govern
+herself in her own way or not. In the acts of the ministry he
+perceived a policy which aimed at substantial power, and he believed
+that such a policy, if insisted on, could have but one result.
+
+The meeting of Fairfax County was held in due course, and Washington
+presided. The usual resolutions for self-government and against
+the vindictive Massachusetts measures were adopted. Union and
+non-importation were urged; and then the congress, which they
+advocated, was recommended to address a petition and remonstrance to
+the king, and ask him to reflect that "from our sovereign there can
+be but one appeal." Everything was to be tried, everything was to be
+done, but the ultimate appeal was never lost sight of where Washington
+appeared, and the final sentence of these Fairfax County resolves is
+very characteristic of the leader in the meeting. Two days later he
+wrote to the worthy and still remonstrating Bryan Fairfax, repeating
+and enlarging his former questions, and adding: "Has not General
+Gage's conduct since his arrival, in stopping the address of his
+council, and publishing a proclamation more becoming a Turkish bashaw
+than an English governor, declaring it treason to associate in any
+manner by which the commerce of Great Britain is to be affected,--has
+not this exhibited an unexampled testimony of the most despotic system
+of tyranny that ever was practiced in a free government?... Shall we
+after this whine and cry for relief, when we have already tried it in
+vain? Or shall we supinely sit and see one province after another fall
+a sacrifice to despotism?" The fighting spirit of the man was rising.
+There was no rash rushing forward, no ignorant shouting for war, no
+blinking of the real issue, but a foresight that nothing could dim,
+and a perception of facts which nothing could confuse. On August 1
+Washington was at Williamsburg, to represent his county in the
+meeting of representatives from all Virginia. The convention passed
+resolutions like the Fairfax resolves, and chose delegates to a
+general congress. The silent man was now warming into action. He "made
+the most eloquent speech that ever was made," and said, "I will raise
+a thousand men, subsist them at my own expense, and march them to the
+relief of Boston." He was capable, it would seem, of talking to the
+purpose with some fire and force, for all he was so quiet and so
+retiring. When there was anything to say, he could say it so that it
+stirred all who listened, because they felt that there was a mastering
+strength behind the words. He faced the terrible issue solemnly and
+firmly, but his blood was up, the fighting spirit in him was aroused,
+and the convention chose him as one of Virginia's six delegates to
+the Continental Congress. He lingered long enough to make a few
+preparations at Mount Vernon. He wrote another letter to Fairfax,
+interesting to us as showing the keenness with which he read in the
+meagre news-reports the character of Gage and of the opposing people
+of Massachusetts. Then he started for the North to take the first step
+on the long and difficult path that lay before him.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+TAKING COMMAND
+
+
+In the warm days of closing August, a party of three gentlemen rode
+away from Mount Vernon one morning, and set out upon their long
+journey to Philadelphia. One cannot help wondering whether a tender
+and somewhat sad remembrance did not rise in Washington's mind, as he
+thought of the last time he had gone northward, nearly twenty years
+before. Then, he was a light-hearted young soldier, and he and his
+aides, albeit they went on business, rode gayly through the forests,
+lighting the road with the bright colors they wore and with the
+glitter of lace and arms, while they anticipated all the pleasures of
+youth in the new lands they were to visit. Now, he was in the prime of
+manhood, looking into the future with prophetic eyes, and sober as was
+his wont when the shadow of coming responsibility lay dark upon his
+path. With him went Patrick Henry, four years his junior, and Edmund
+Pendleton, now past threescore. They were all quiet and grave enough,
+no doubt; but Washington, we may believe, was gravest of all, because,
+being the most truthful of men to himself as to others, he saw more
+plainly what was coming. So they made their journey to the North, and
+on the memorable 5th of September they met with their brethren from
+the other colonies in Carpenters' Hall in Philadelphia.
+
+The Congress sat fifty-one days, occupied with debates and discussion.
+Few abler, more honest, or more memorable bodies of men have ever
+assembled to settle the fate of nations. Much debate, great and
+earnest in all directions, resulted in a declaration of colonial
+rights, in an address to the king, in another to the people of Canada,
+and a third to the people of Great Britain; masterly state papers,
+seldom surpassed, and extorting even then the admiration of England.
+In these debates and state papers Washington took no part that is now
+apparent on the face of the record. He was silent in the Congress, and
+if he was consulted, as he unquestionably was by the committees, there
+is no record of it now. The simple fact was that his time had not
+come. He saw men of the most acute minds, liberal in education,
+patriotic in heart, trained in law and in history, doing the work
+of the moment in the best possible way. If anything had been done
+wrongly, or had been left undone, Washington would have found his
+voice quickly enough, and uttered another of the "most eloquent
+speeches ever made," as he did shortly before in the Virginia
+convention. He could speak in public when need was, but now there was
+no need and nothing to arouse him. The work of Congress followed
+the line of policy adopted by the Virginia convention, and that had
+proceeded along the path marked out in the Fairfax resolves, so that
+Washington could not be other than content. He occupied his own time,
+as we see by notes in his diary, in visiting the delegates from
+the other colonies, and in informing himself as to their ideas and
+purposes, and those of the people whom they represented. He was
+quietly working for the future, the present being well taken care of.
+Yet this silent man, going hither and thither, and chatting pleasantly
+with this member or that, was in some way or other impressing himself
+deeply on all the delegates, for Patrick Henry said: "If you speak
+of solid information and sound judgment, Colonel Washington is
+unquestionably the greatest man on the floor."
+
+We have a letter, written at just this time, which shows us how
+Washington felt, and we see again how his spirit rose as he saw more
+and more clearly that the ultimate issue was inevitable. The letter is
+addressed to Captain Mackenzie, a British officer at Boston, and an
+old friend. "Permit me," he began, "with the freedom of a friend (for
+you know I always esteemed you), to express my sorrow that fortune
+should place you in a service that must fix curses to the latest
+posterity upon the contrivers, and, if success (which, by the by, is
+impossible) accompanies it, execrations upon all those who have been
+instrumental in the execution." This was rather uncompromising talk
+and not over peaceable, it must be confessed. He continued: "Give me
+leave to add, and I think I can announce it as a fact, that it is not
+the wish or intent of that government [Massachusetts], or any other
+upon this continent, separately or collectively, to set up for
+independence; but this you may at the same time rely on, that none
+of them will ever submit to the loss of those valuable rights and
+privileges which are essential to the happiness of every free state,
+and without which life, liberty, and property are rendered totally
+insecure.... Again give me leave to add as my opinion that more blood
+will be spilled on this occasion, if the ministry are determined
+to push matters to extremity, than history has ever yet furnished
+instances of in the annals of North America, and such a vital wound
+will be given to the peace of this great country, as time itself
+cannot cure or eradicate the remembrance of." Washington was not a
+political agitator like Sam Adams, planning with unerring intelligence
+to bring about independence. On the contrary, he rightly declared that
+independence was not desired. But although he believed in exhausting
+every argument and every peaceful remedy, it is evident that he felt
+that there now could be but one result, and that violent separation
+from the mother country was inevitable. Here is where he differed from
+his associates and from the great mass of the people, and it is to
+this entire veracity of mind that his wisdom and foresight were so
+largely due, as well as his success when the time came for him to put
+his hand to the plough.
+
+When Congress adjourned, Washington returned to Mount Vernon, to the
+pursuits and pleasures that he loved, to his family and farm, and to
+his horses and hounds, with whom he had many a good run, the last that
+he was to enjoy for years to come. He returned also to wait and
+watch as before, and to see war rapidly gather in the east. When the
+Virginia convention again assembled, resolutions were introduced to
+arm and discipline men, and Henry declared in their support that
+an "appeal to arms and to the God of Hosts" was all that was left.
+Washington said nothing, but he served on the committee to draft a
+plan of defense, and then fell to reviewing the independent companies
+which were springing up everywhere. At the same time he wrote to his
+brother John, who had raised a troop, that he would accept the command
+of it if desired, as it was his "full intention to devote his life and
+fortune in the cause we are engaged in, if needful." At Mount Vernon
+his old comrades of the French war began to appear, in search of
+courage and sympathy. Thither, too, came Charles Lee, a typical
+military adventurer of that period, a man of English birth and of
+varied service, brilliant, whimsical, and unbalanced. There also came
+Horatio Gates, likewise British, and disappointed with his prospects
+at home; less adventurous than Lee, but also less brilliant, and not
+much more valuable.
+
+Thus the winter wore away; spring opened, and toward the end of April
+Washington started again for the North, much occupied with certain
+tidings from Lexington and Concord which just then spread over the
+land. He saw all that it meant plainly enough, and after noting the
+fact that the colonists fought and fought well, he wrote to George
+Fairfax in England: "Unhappy it is to reflect that a brother's sword
+has been sheathed in a brother's breast, and that the once happy and
+peaceful plains of America are either to be drenched in blood or
+inhabited by slaves. Sad alternative. But can a virtuous man hesitate
+in his choice?" Congress, it would seem, thought there was a good deal
+of room for hesitation, both for virtuous men and others, and after
+the fashion of their race determined to do a little more debating and
+arguing, before taking any decisive step. After much resistance and
+discussion, a second "humble and dutiful petition" to the king was
+adopted, and with strange contradiction a confederation was formed at
+the same time, and Congress proceeded to exercise the sovereign powers
+thus vested in them. The most pressing and troublesome question before
+them was what to do with the army surrounding Boston, and with the
+actual hostilities there existing.
+
+Washington, for his part, went quietly about as before, saying
+nothing and observing much, working hard as chairman of the military
+committees, planning for defense, and arranging for raising an army.
+One act of his alone stands out for us with significance at this
+critical time. In this second Congress he appeared habitually on the
+floor in his blue and buff uniform of a Virginia colonel. It was his
+way of saying that the hour for action had come, and that he at least
+was ready for the fight whenever called upon.
+
+Presently he was summoned. Weary of waiting, John Adams at last
+declared that Congress must adopt the army and make Washington, who at
+this mention of his name stepped out of the room, commander-in-chief.
+On June 15, formal motions were made to this effect and unanimously
+adopted, and the next day Washington appeared before Congress and
+accepted the trust. His words were few and simple. He expressed his
+sense of his own insufficiency for the task before him, and said that
+as no pecuniary consideration could have induced him to undertake the
+work, he must decline all pay or emoluments, only looking to Congress
+to defray his expenses. In the same spirit he wrote to his soldiers
+in Virginia, to his brother, and finally, in terms at once simple
+and pathetic, to his wife. There was no pretense about this, but the
+sternest reality of self-distrust, for Washington saw and measured as
+did no one else the magnitude of the work before him. He knew that he
+was about to face the best troops of Europe, and he had learned by
+experience that after the first excitement was over he would be
+obliged to rely upon a people who were brave and patriotic, but also
+undisciplined, untrained, and unprepared for war, without money,
+without arms, without allies or credit, and torn by selfish local
+interests. Nobody else perceived all this as he was able to with his
+mastery of facts, but he faced the duty unflinchingly. He did not put
+it aside because he distrusted himself, for in his truthfulness he
+could not but confess that no other American could show one tithe
+of his capacity, experience, or military service. He knew what was
+coming, knew it, no doubt, when he first put on his uniform, and he
+accepted instantly.
+
+John Adams in his autobiography speaks of the necessity of choosing a
+Southern general, and also says there were objectors to the selection
+of Washington even among the Virginia delegates. That there were
+political reasons for taking a Virginian cannot be doubted. But the
+dissent, even if it existed, never appeared on the surface, excepting
+in the case of John Hancock, who, with curious vanity, thought that he
+ought to have this great place. When Washington's name was proposed
+there was no murmur of opposition, for there was no man who could for
+one moment be compared with him in fitness. The choice was inevitable,
+and he himself felt it to be so. He saw it coming; he would fain have
+avoided the great task, but no thought of shrinking crossed his mind.
+He saw with his entire freedom from constitutional subtleties that an
+absolute parliament sought to extend its power to the colonies. To
+this he would not submit, and he knew that this was a question which
+could be settled only by one side giving way, or by the dread appeal
+to arms. It was a question of fact, hard, unrelenting fact, now to be
+determined by battle, and on him had fallen the burden of sustaining
+the cause of his country. In this spirit he accepted his commission,
+and rode forth to review the troops. He was greeted with loud acclaim
+wherever he appeared. Mankind is impressed by externals, and those
+who gazed upon Washington in the streets of Philadelphia felt their
+courage rise and their hearts grow strong at the sight of his virile,
+muscular figure as he passed before them on horseback, stately,
+dignified, and self-contained. The people looked upon him, and were
+confident that this was a man worthy and able to dare and do all
+things.
+
+On June 21 he set forth accompanied by Lee and Schuyler, and with a
+brilliant escort. He had ridden but twenty miles when he was met by
+the news of Bunker Hill. "Did the militia fight?" was the immediate
+and characteristic question; and being told that they did fight, he
+exclaimed, "Then the liberties of the country are safe." Given the
+fighting spirit, Washington felt he could do anything. Full of this
+important intelligence he pressed forward to Newark, where he was
+received by a committee of the provincial congress, sent to conduct
+the commander-in-chief to New York. There he tarried long enough to
+appoint Schuyler to the charge of the military affairs in that colony,
+having mastered on the journey its complicated social and political
+conditions. Pushing on through Connecticut he reached Watertown, where
+he was received by the provincial congress of Massachusetts, on July
+2, with every expression of attachment and confidence. Lingering less
+than an hour for this ceremony, he rode on to the headquarters at
+Cambridge, and when he came within the lines the shouts of the
+soldiers and the booming of cannon announced his arrival to the
+English in Boston.
+
+The next day he rode forth in the presence of a great multitude, and
+the troops having been drawn up before him, he drew his sword beneath
+the historical elm-tree, and took command of the first American army.
+"His excellency," wrote Dr. Thatcher in his journal, "was on horseback
+in company with several military gentlemen. It was not difficult to
+distinguish him from all others. He is tall and well proportioned, and
+his personal appearance truly noble and majestic." "He is tall and of
+easy and agreeable address," the loyalist Curwen had remarked a few
+weeks before; while Mrs. John Adams, warm-hearted and clever, wrote
+to her husband after the general's arrival: "Dignity, ease, and
+complacency, the gentleman and the soldier, look agreeably blended in
+him. Modesty marks every line and feature of his face. Those lines of
+Dryden instantly occurred to me,--
+
+  'Mark his majestic fabric! He's a temple
+  Sacred by birth, and built by hands divine;
+  His soul's the deity that lodges there;
+  Nor is the pile unworthy of the God.'"
+
+Lady, lawyer, and surgeon, patriot and tory, all speak alike, and as
+they wrote so New England felt. A slave-owner, an aristocrat, and a
+churchman, Washington came to Cambridge to pass over the heads
+of native generals to the command of a New England army, among a
+democratic people, hard-working and simple in their lives, and
+dissenters to the backbone, who regarded episcopacy as something
+little short of papistry and quite equivalent to toryism. Yet the
+shout that went up from soldiers and people on Cambridge common on
+that pleasant July morning came from the heart and had no jarring
+note. A few of the political chiefs growled a little in later days at
+Washington, but the soldiers and the people, high and low, rich and
+poor, gave him an unstinted loyalty. On the fields of battle and
+throughout eight years of political strife the men of New England
+stood by the great Virginian with a devotion and truth in which was no
+shadow of turning. Here again we see exhibited most conspicuously
+the powerful personality of the man who was able thus to command
+immediately the allegiance of this naturally cold and reserved people.
+What was it that they saw which inspired them at once with so much
+confidence? They looked upon a tall, handsome man, dressed in plain
+uniform, wearing across his breast a broad blue band of silk, which
+some may have noticed as the badge and symbol of a certain solemn
+league and covenant once very momentous in the English-speaking world.
+They saw his calm, high bearing, and in every line of face and figure
+they beheld the signs of force and courage. Yet there must have been
+something more to call forth the confidence then so quickly given, and
+which no one ever long withheld. All felt dimly, but none the less
+surely, that here was a strong, able man, capable of rising to the
+emergency, whatever it might be, capable of continued growth and
+development, clear of head and warm of heart; and so the New England
+people gave to him instinctively their sympathy and their faith, and
+never took either back.
+
+The shouts and cheers died away, and then Washington returned to his
+temporary quarters in the Wadsworth house, to master the task before
+him. The first great test of his courage and ability had come, and he
+faced it quietly as the excitement caused by his arrival passed by. He
+saw before him, to use his own words, "a mixed multitude of people,
+under very little discipline, order, or government." In the language
+of one of his aides:[1] "The entire army, if it deserved the name, was
+but an assemblage of brave, enthusiastic, undisciplined, country lads;
+the officers in general quite as ignorant of military life as the
+troops, excepting a few elderly men, who had seen some irregular
+service among the provincials under Lord Amherst." With this force,
+ill-posted and very insecurely fortified, Washington was to drive the
+British from Boston. His first step was to count his men, and it took
+eight days to get the necessary returns, which in an ordinary army
+would have been furnished in an hour. When he had them, he found that
+instead of twenty thousand, as had been represented, but fourteen
+thousand soldiers were actually present for duty. In a short time,
+however, Mr. Emerson, the chaplain, noted in his diary that it
+was surprising how much had been done, that the lines had been so
+extended, and the works so shrewdly built, that it was morally
+impossible for the enemy to get out except in one place purposely left
+open. A little later the same observer remarked: "There is a great
+overturning in the camp as to order and regularity; new lords, new
+laws. The Generals Washington and Lee are upon the lines every day.
+The strictest government is taking place, and great distinction is
+made between officers and soldiers." Bodies of troops scattered here
+and there by chance were replaced by well-distributed forces, posted
+wisely and effectively in strong intrenchments. It is little wonder
+that the worthy chaplain was impressed, and now, seeing it all from
+every side, we too can watch order come out of chaos and mark the
+growth of an army under the guidance of a master-mind and the steady
+pressure of an unbending will.
+
+[Footnote 1: John Trumbull, _Reminiscences_, p. 18.]
+
+Then too there was no discipline, for the army was composed of raw
+militia, who elected their officers and carried on war as they
+pleased. In a passage suppressed by Mr. Sparks, Washington said:
+"There is no such thing as getting officers of this stamp to carry
+orders into execution--to curry favor with the men (by whom they were
+chosen, and on whose smile they may possibly think that they may again
+rely) seems to be one of the principal objects of their attention.
+I have made a pretty good slam amongst such kind of officers as the
+Massachusetts government abounds in, since I came into this camp,
+having broke one colonel and two captains for cowardly behavior in
+the action on Bunker Hill, two captains for drawing more pay and
+provisions than they had men in their company, and one for being
+absent from his post when the enemy appeared there and burnt a house
+just by it. Besides these I have at this time one colonel, one major,
+one captain, and two subalterns under arrest for trial. In short, I
+spare none, and yet fear it will not all do, as these people seem to
+be too attentive to everything but their own interests." This may
+be plain and homely in phrase, but it is not stilted, and the quick
+energy of the words shows how the New England farmers and fishermen
+were being rapidly brought to discipline. Bringing the army into
+order, however, was but a small part of his duties. It is necessary
+to run over all his difficulties, great and small, at this time, and
+count them up, in order to gain a just idea of the force and capacity
+of the man who overcame them.
+
+Washington, in the first place, was obliged to deal not only with his
+army, but with the general congress and the congress of the province.
+He had to teach them, utterly ignorant as they were of the needs and
+details of war, how to organize and supply their armies. There was no
+commissary department, there were no uniforms, no arrangements for
+ammunition, no small arms, no cannon, no resources to draw upon for
+all these necessaries of war. Little by little he taught Congress
+to provide after a fashion for these things, little by little he
+developed what he needed, and by his own ingenuity, and by seizing
+alertly every suggestion from others, he supplied for better or worse
+one deficiency after another. He had to deal with various governors
+and various colonies, each with its prejudices, jealousies, and
+shortcomings. He had to arrange for new levies from a people unused
+to war, and to settle with infinite anxiety and much wear and tear of
+mind and body, the conflict as to rank among officers to whom he could
+apply no test but his own insight. He had to organize and stimulate
+the arming of privateers, which, by preying on British commerce, were
+destined to exercise such a powerful influence on the fate of the war.
+It was neither showy nor attractive, such work as this, but it was
+very vital, and it was done.
+
+By the end of July the army was in a better posture of defense;
+and then at the beginning of the next month, as the prospect was
+brightening, it was suddenly discovered that there was no gunpowder.
+An undrilled army, imperfectly organized, was facing a disciplined
+force and had only some nine rounds in the cartridge-boxes. Yet there
+is no quivering in the letters from headquarters. Anxiety and strain
+of nerve are apparent; but a resolute determination rises over all,
+supported by a ready fertility of resource. Couriers flew over the
+country asking for powder in every town and in every village. A vessel
+was even dispatched to the Bermudas to seize there a supply of powder,
+of which the general, always listening, had heard. Thus the immediate
+and grinding pressure was presently relieved, but the staple of war
+still remained pitifully and perilously meagre all through the winter.
+
+Meantime, while thus overwhelmed with the cares immediately about him,
+Washington was watching the rest of the country. He had a keen eye
+upon Johnson and his Indians in the valley of the Mohawk; he followed
+sharply every movement of Tryon and the Tories in New York; he refused
+with stern good sense to detach troops to Connecticut and Long Island,
+knowing well when to give and when to say No, a difficult monosyllable
+for the new general of freshly revolted colonies. But if he would not
+detach in one place, he was ready enough to do so in another. He sent
+one expedition by Lake Champlain, under Montgomery, to Montreal, and
+gave Arnold picked troops to march through the wilds of Maine and
+strike Quebec. The scheme was bold and brilliant, both in conception
+and in execution, and came very near severing Canada forever from the
+British crown. A chapter of little accidents, each one of which proved
+as fatal as it was unavoidable, a moment's delay on the Plains of
+Abraham, and the whole campaign failed; but there was a grasp of
+conditions, a clearness of perception, and a comprehensiveness about
+the plan, which stamp it as the work of a great soldier, who saw
+besides the military importance, the enormous political value held out
+by the chance of such a victory.
+
+The daring, far-reaching quality of this Canadian expedition was much
+more congenial to Washington's temper and character than the wearing
+work of the siege. All that man could do before Boston was done, and
+still Congress expected the impossible, and grumbled because without
+ships he did not secure the harbor. He himself, while he inwardly
+resented such criticism, chafed under the monotonous drudgery of the
+intrenchments. He was longing, according to his nature, to fight, and
+was, it must be confessed, quite ready to attempt the impossible in
+his own way. Early in September he proposed to attack the town in
+boats and by the neck of land at Roxbury, but the council of officers
+unanimously voted against him. A little more than a month later he
+planned another attack, and was again voted down by his officers.
+Councils of war never fight, it is said, and perhaps in this case
+it was well that such was their habit, for the schemes look rather
+desperate now. To us they serve to show the temper of the man, and
+also his self-control in this respect at the beginning of the war, for
+Washington became ready enough afterwards to override councils when he
+was wholly free from doubt himself.
+
+Thus the planning of campaigns, both distant and near, went on, and at
+the same time the current of details, difficult, vital, absolute in
+demanding prompt and vigorous solution, went on too. The existence of
+war made it necessary to fix our relations with our enemies, and that
+these relations should be rightly settled was of vast moment to our
+cause, struggling for recognition. The first question was the matter
+of prisoners, and on August 11 Washington wrote to Gage:--
+
+"I understand that the officers engaged in the cause of liberty and
+their country, who by the fortune of war have fallen into your hands,
+have been thrown indiscriminately into a common gaol appropriated
+for felons; that no consideration has been had for those of the most
+respectable rank, when languishing with wounds and sickness; and that
+some have been even amputated in this unworthy situation.
+
+"Let your opinion, sir, of the principle which actuates them be what
+it may, they suppose that they act from the noblest of all principles,
+a love of freedom and their country. But political principles, I
+conceive, are foreign to this point. The obligations arising from the
+rights of humanity and claims of rank are universally binding and
+extensive, except in case of retaliation. These, I should have hoped,
+would have dictated a more tender treatment of those individuals whom
+chance or war had put in your power. Nor can I forbear suggesting
+its fatal tendency to widen that unhappy breach which you, and those
+ministers under whom you act, have repeatedly declared your wish is to
+see forever closed.
+
+"My duty now makes it necessary to apprise you, that for the future I
+shall regulate all my conduct towards those gentlemen who are or may
+be in our possession, exactly by the rule you shall observe towards
+those of ours now in your custody.
+
+"If severity and hardship mark the line of your conduct, painful as it
+may be to me, your prisoners will feel its effects. But if kindness
+and humanity are shown to ours, I shall with pleasure consider those
+in our hands only as unfortunate, and they shall receive from me that
+treatment to which the unfortunate are ever entitled."
+
+This is a letter worthy of a little study. The affair does not look
+very important now, but it went then to the roots of things; for this
+letter would go out to the world, and America and the American cause
+would be judged by their leader. A little bluster or ferocity, any
+fine writing, or any absurdity, and the world would have sneered,
+condemned, or laughed. But no man could read this letter and fail to
+perceive that here was dignity and force, justice and sense, with just
+a touch of pathos and eloquence to recommend it to the heart. Men
+might differ with the writer, but they could neither laugh at him nor
+set him aside.
+
+Gage replied after his kind. He was an inconsiderable person, dull
+and well meaning, intended for the command of a garrison town,
+and terribly twisted and torn by the great events in which he was
+momentarily caught. His masters were stupid and arrogant, and he
+imitated them with perfect success, except that arrogance with him
+dwindled to impertinence. He answered Washington's letter with denials
+and recriminations, lectured the American general on the political
+situation, and talked about "usurped authority," "rebels,"
+"criminals," and persons destined to the "cord." Washington, being a
+man of his word, proceeded to put some English prisoners into jail,
+and then wrote a second note, giving Gage a little lesson in manners,
+with the vain hope of making him see that gentlemen did not scold
+and vituperate because they fought. He restated his case calmly
+and coolly, as before, informed Gage that he had investigated the
+counter-charge of cruelty and found it without any foundation, and
+then continued: "You advise me to give free operation to truth, and
+to punish misrepresentation and falsehood. If experience stamps value
+upon counsel, yours must have a weight which few can claim. You best
+can tell how far the convulsion, which has brought such ruin on both
+countries, and shaken the mighty empire of Britain to its foundation,
+may be traced to these malignant causes.
+
+"You affect, sir, to despise all rank not derived from the same source
+with your own. I cannot conceive one more honorable than that which
+flows from the uncorrupted choice of a brave and free people, the
+purest source and original fountain of all power. Far from making it a
+plea for cruelty, a mind of true magnanimity and enlarged ideas would
+comprehend and respect it."
+
+Washington had grasped instinctively the general truth that Englishmen
+are prone to mistake civility for servility, and become offensive,
+whereas if they are treated with indifference, rebuke, or even
+rudeness, they are apt to be respectful and polite. He was obliged to
+go over the same ground with Sir William Howe, a little later, and
+still more sharply; and this matter of prisoners recurred, although at
+longer and longer intervals, throughout the war. But as the British
+generals saw their officers go to jail, and found that their impudence
+and assumption were met by keen reproofs, they gradually comprehended
+that Washington was not a man to be trifled with, and that in him
+was a pride and dignity out-topping theirs and far stronger, because
+grounded on responsibility borne and work done, and on the deep sense
+of a great and righteous cause.
+
+It was probably a pleasure and a relief to give to Gage and Sir
+William Howe a little instruction in military behavior and general
+good manners, but there was nothing save infinite vexation in dealing
+with the difficulties arising on the American side of the line. As the
+days shortened and the leaves fell, Washington saw before him a New
+England winter, with no clothing and no money for his troops. Through
+long letters to Congress, and strenuous personal efforts, these
+wants were somehow supplied. Then the men began to get restless and
+homesick, and both privates and officers would disappear to their
+farms, which Washington, always impatient of wrongdoing, styled "base
+and pernicious conduct," and punished accordingly. By and by the terms
+of enlistment ran out and the regiments began to melt away even before
+the proper date. Recruiting was carried on slowly and with difficulty,
+new levies were tardy in coming in, and Congress could not be
+persuaded to stop limited enlistments. Still the task was done. The
+old army departed and a new one arose in its place, the posts were
+strengthened and ammunition secured.
+
+Among these reinforcements came some Virginia riflemen, and it must
+have warmed Washington's heart to see once more these brave and hardy
+fighters in the familiar hunting shirt and leggins. They certainly
+made him warm in a very different sense by getting into a
+rough-and-tumble fight one winter's day with some Marblehead
+fishermen. The quarrel was at its height, when suddenly into the brawl
+rode the commander-in-chief. He quickly dismounted, seized two of the
+combatants, shook them, berated them, if tradition may be trusted,
+for their local jealousies, and so with strong arm quelled the
+disturbance. He must have longed to take more than one colonial
+governor or magnate by the throat and shake him soundly, as he did his
+soldiers from the woods of Virginia and the rocks of Marblehead, for
+to his temper there was nothing so satisfying as rapid and decisive
+action. But he could not quell governors and assemblies in this way,
+and yet he managed them and got what he wanted with a patience and
+tact which it must have been in the last degree trying to him to
+practice, gifted as he was with a nature at once masterful and
+passionate.
+
+Another trial was brought about by his securing and sending out
+privateers which did good service. They brought in many valuable
+prizes which caused infinite trouble, and forced Washington not only
+to be a naval secretary, but also made him a species of admiralty
+judge. He implored the slow-moving Congress to relieve him from this
+burden, and suggested a plan which led to the formation of special
+committees and was the origin of the Federal judiciary of the United
+States. Besides the local jealousies and the personal jealousies, and
+the privateers and their prizes, he had to meet also the greed and
+selfishness as well of the money-making, stock-jobbing spirit which
+springs up rankly under the influence of army contracts and large
+expenditures among a people accustomed to trade and unused to war.
+Washington wrote savagely of these practices, but still, despite all
+hindrances and annoyances, he kept moving straight on to his object.
+
+In the midst of his labors, harassed and tried in all ways, he was
+assailed as usual by complaint and criticism. Some of it came to him
+through his friend and aide, Joseph Reed, to whom he wrote in reply
+one of the noblest letters ever penned by a great man struggling with
+adverse circumstances and wringing victory from grudging fortune. He
+said that he was always ready to welcome criticism, hear advice, and
+learn the opinion of the world. "For as I have but one capital object
+in view, I could wish to make my conduct coincide with the wishes of
+mankind, as far as I can consistently; I mean, without departing from
+that great line of duty which, though hid under a cloud for some
+time, from a peculiarity of circumstances, may, nevertheless, bear
+a scrutiny." Thus he held fast to "the great line of duty," though
+bitterly tried the while by the news from Canada, where brilliant
+beginnings were coming to dismal endings, and cheered only by the
+arrival of his wife, who drove up one day in her coach and four, with
+the horses ridden by black postilions in scarlet and white liveries,
+much to the amazement, no doubt, of the sober-minded New England folk.
+
+Light, however, finally began to break on the work about him. Henry
+Knox, sent out for that purpose, returned safely with the guns
+captured at Ticonderoga, and thus heavy ordnance and gunpowder were
+obtained. By the middle of February the harbor was frozen over, and
+Washington arranged to cross the ice and carry Boston by storm.
+Again he was held back by his council, but this time he could not be
+stopped. If he could not cross the ice he would go by land. He had
+been slowly but surely advancing his works all winter, and now he
+determined on a decisive stroke. On the evening of Monday, March
+4, under cover of a heavy bombardment which distracted the enemy's
+attention, he marched a large body of troops to Dorchester Heights
+and began to throw up redoubts. The work went forward rapidly, and
+Washington rode about all night encouraging the men. The New England
+soldiers had sorely tried his temper, and there were many severe
+attacks and bitter criticisms upon them in his letters, which were
+suppressed or smoothed over for the most part by Mr. Sparks, but
+which have come to light since, as is sometimes the case with facts.
+Gradually, however, the General had come to know his soldiers better,
+and six months later he wrote to Lund Washington, praising his
+northern troops in the highest terms. Even now he understood them as
+never before, and as he watched them on that raw March night, working
+with the energy and quick intelligence of their race, he probably felt
+that the defects were superficial, but the virtues, the tenacity, and
+the courage were lasting and strong.
+
+When day dawned, and the British caught sight of the formidable works
+which had sprung up in the night, there was a great excitement and
+running hither and thither in the town. Still the men on the heights
+worked on, and still Washington rode back and forth among them. He was
+stirred and greatly rejoiced at the coming of the fight, which he now
+believed inevitable, and as always, when he was deeply moved, the
+hidden springs of sentiment and passion were opened, and he reminded
+his soldiers that it was the anniversary of the Boston massacre, and
+appealed to them by the memories of that day to prepare for battle
+with the enemy. As with the Huguenots at Ivry,--
+
+  "Remember St. Bartholomew was passed from man to man."
+
+But the fighting never came. The British troops were made ready, then
+a gale arose and they could not cross the bay. The next day it
+rained in torrents, and the next day it was too late. The American
+intrenchments frowned threateningly above the town, and began to send
+in certain ominous messengers in the shape of shot and shell. The
+place was now so clearly untenable that Howe determined to evacuate
+it. An informal request to allow the troops to depart unmolested was
+not answered, but Washington suspended his fire and the British made
+ready to withdraw. Still they hesitated and delayed, until Washington
+again advanced his works, and on this hint they started in earnest, on
+March 17, amid confusion, pillage, and disorder, leaving cannon and
+much else behind them, and seeking refuge in their ships.
+
+All was over, and the town was in the hands of the Americans. In
+Washington's own words, "To maintain a post within musket-shot of the
+enemy for six months together, without powder, and at the same time
+to disband one army and recruit another within that distance of
+twenty-odd British regiments, is more, probably, than ever was
+attempted." It was, in truth, a gallant feat of arms, carried through
+by the resolute will and strong brain of one man. The troops on
+both sides were brave, but the British had advantages far more than
+compensating for a disparity of numbers, always slight and often
+more imaginary than real. They had twelve thousand men, experienced,
+disciplined, equipped, and thoroughly supplied. They had the best arms
+and cannon and gunpowder. They commanded the sea with a strong fleet,
+and they were concentrated on the inside line, able to strike with
+suddenness and overwhelming force at any point of widely extended
+posts. Washington caught them with an iron grip and tightened it
+steadily until, in disorderly haste, they took to their boats without
+even striking a blow. Washington's great abilities, and the incapacity
+of the generals opposed to him, were the causes of this result. If
+Robert Clive, for instance, had chanced to have been there the end
+might possibly have been the same, but there would have been some
+bloody fighting before that end was reached. The explanation of the
+feeble abandonment of Boston lies in the stupidity of the English
+government, which had sown the wind and then proceeded to handle the
+customary crop with equal fatuity.
+
+There were plenty of great men in England, but they were not
+conducting her government or her armies. Lord Sandwich had declared
+in the House of Lords that all "Yankees were cowards," a simple and
+satisfactory statement, readily accepted by the governing classes, and
+flung in the teeth of the British soldiers as they fell back twice
+from the bloody slopes of Bunker Hill. Acting on this pleasant idea,
+England sent out as commanders of her American army a parcel of
+ministerial and court favorites, thoroughly second-rate men, to whom
+was confided the task of beating one of the best soldiers and hardest
+fighters of the century. Despite the enormous material odds in favor
+of Great Britain, the natural result of matching the Howes and Gages
+and Clintons against George Washington ensued, and the first lesson
+was taught by the evacuation of Boston.
+
+Washington did not linger over his victory. Even while the British
+fleet still hung about the harbor he began to send troops to New York
+to make ready for the next attack. He entered Boston in order to see
+that every precaution was taken against the spread of the smallpox,
+and then prepared to depart himself. Two ideas, during his first
+winter of conflict, had taken possession of his mind, and undoubtedly
+influenced profoundly his future course. One was the conviction that
+the struggle must be fought out to the bitter end, and must bring
+either subjugation or complete independence. He wrote in February:
+"With respect to myself, I have never entertained an idea of an
+accommodation, since I heard of the measures which were adopted in
+consequence of the Bunker's Hill fight;" and at an earlier date he
+said: "I hope my countrymen (of Virginia) will rise superior to any
+losses the whole navy of Great Britain can bring on them, and that the
+destruction of Norfolk and threatened devastation of other places
+will have no other effect than to unite the whole country in one
+indissoluble band against a nation which seems to be lost to every
+sense of virtue and those feelings which distinguish a civilized
+people from the most barbarous savages." With such thoughts he
+sought to make Congress appreciate the probable long duration of the
+struggle, and he bent every energy to giving permanency to his army,
+and decisiveness to each campaign. The other idea which had grown in
+his mind during the weary siege was that the Tories were thoroughly
+dangerous and deserved scant mercy. In his second letter to Gage he
+refers to them, with the frankness which characterized him when he
+felt strongly, as "execrable parricides," and he made ready to
+treat them with the utmost severity at New York and elsewhere. When
+Washington was aroused there was a stern and relentless side to his
+character, in keeping with the force and strength which were his chief
+qualities. His attitude on this point seems harsh now when the
+old Tories no longer look very dreadful and we can appreciate the
+sincerity of conviction which no doubt controlled most of them. But
+they were dangerous then, and Washington, with his honest hatred of
+all that seemed to him to partake of meanness or treason, proposed to
+put them down and render them harmless, being well convinced, after
+his clear-sighted fashion, that war was not peace, and that mildness
+to domestic foes was sadly misplaced.
+
+His errand to New England was now done and well done. His victory was
+won, everything was settled at Boston; and so, having sent his army
+forward, he started for New York, to meet the harder trials that still
+awaited him.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+SAVING THE REVOLUTION
+
+
+After leaving Boston, Washington proceeded through Rhode Island and
+Connecticut, pushing troops forward as he advanced, and reached New
+York on April 13. There he found himself plunged at once into the same
+sea of difficulties with which he had been struggling at Boston, the
+only difference being that these were fresh and entirely untouched.
+The army was inadequate, and the town, which was the central point
+of the colonies, as well as the great river at its side, was wholly
+unprotected. The troops were in large measure raw and undrilled, the
+committee of safety was hesitating, the Tories were virulent and
+active, corresponding constantly with Tryon, who was lurking in a
+British man-of-war, while from the north came tidings of retreat
+and disaster. All these harassing difficulties crowded upon the
+commander-in-chief as soon as he arrived. To appreciate him it is
+necessary to understand these conditions and realize their weight and
+consequence, albeit the details seem petty. When we comprehend the
+difficulties, then we can see plainly the greatness of the man who
+quietly and silently took them up and disposed of them. Some he
+scotched and some he killed, but he dealt with them all after a
+fashion sufficient to enable him to move steadily forward. In his
+presence the provincial committee suddenly stiffened and grew strong.
+All correspondence with Tryon was cut off, the Tories were repressed,
+and on Long Island steps were taken to root out "these abominable
+pests of society," as the commander-in-chief called them in his
+plain-spoken way. Then forts were built, soldiers energetically
+recruited and drilled, arrangements made for prisoners, and despite
+all the present cares anxious thought was given to the Canada
+campaign, and ideas and expeditions, orders, suggestions, and
+encouragement were freely furnished to the dispirited generals and
+broken forces of the north.
+
+One matter, however, overshadowed all others. Nearly a year before,
+Washington had seen that there was no prospect or possibility of
+accommodation with Great Britain. It was plain to his mind that the
+struggle was final in its character and would be decisive. Separation
+from the mother country, therefore, ought to come at once, so that
+public opinion might be concentrated, and above all, permanency ought
+to be given to the army. These ideas he had been striving to impress
+upon Congress, for the most part less clearsighted than he was as to
+facts, and as the months slipped by his letters had grown constantly
+more earnest and more vehement. Still Congress hesitated, and at last
+Washington went himself to Philadelphia and held conferences with
+the principal men. What he said is lost, but the tone of Congress
+certainly rose after his visit. The aggressive leaders found their
+hands so much strengthened that little more than a month later they
+carried through a declaration of independence, which was solemnly and
+gratefully proclaimed to the army by the general, much relieved to
+have got through the necessary boat-burning, and to have brought
+affairs, military and political, on to the hard ground of actual fact.
+
+Soon after his return from Philadelphia, he received convincing
+proof that his views in regard to the Tories were extremely sound.
+A conspiracy devised by Tryon, which aimed apparently at the
+assassination of the commander-in-chief, and which had corrupted his
+life-guards for that purpose, was discovered and scattered before it
+had fairly hardened into definite form. The mayor of the city and
+various other persons were seized and thrown into prison, and one of
+the life-guards, Thomas Hickey by name, who was the principal tool in
+the plot, was hanged in the presence of a large concourse of people.
+Washington wrote a brief and business-like account of the affair to
+Congress, from which one would hardly suppose that his own life had
+been aimed at. It is a curious instance of his cool indifference to
+personal danger. The conspiracy had failed, that was sufficient for
+him, and he had other things besides himself to consider. "We expect
+a bloody summer in New York and Canada," he wrote to his brother, and
+even while the Canadian expedition was coming to a disastrous close,
+and was bringing hostile invasion instead of the hoped-for conquest,
+British men-of-war were arriving daily in the harbor, and a large army
+was collecting on Staten Island. The rejoicings over the Declaration
+of Independence had hardly died away, when the vessels of the enemy
+made their way up the Hudson without check from the embryo forts, or
+the obstacles placed in the stream.
+
+July 12 Lord Howe arrived with more troops, and also with ample
+powers to pardon and negotiate. Almost immediately he tried to open
+a correspondence with Washington, but Colonel Reed, in behalf of the
+General, refused to receive the letter addressed to "Mr. Washington."
+Then Lord Howe sent an officer to the American camp with a second
+letter, addressed to "George Washington, Esq., etc., etc." The bearer
+was courteously received, but the letter was declined. "The etc., etc.
+implies everything," said the Englishman. It may also mean "anything,"
+Washington replied, and added that touching the pardoning power of
+Lord Howe there could be no pardon where there was no guilt, and where
+no forgiveness was asked. As a result of these interviews, Lord Howe
+wrote to England that it would be well to give Mr. Washington his
+proper title. A small question, apparently, this of the form of
+address, especially to a lover of facts, and yet it was in reality
+of genuine importance. To the world Washington represented the young
+republic, and he was determined to extort from England the first
+acknowledgment of independence by compelling her to recognize the
+Americans as belligerents and not rebels. Washington cared as little
+for vain shows as any man who ever lived, but he had the highest sense
+of personal dignity, and of the dignity of his cause and country.
+Neither should be allowed to suffer in his hands. He appreciated the
+effect on mankind of forms and titles, and with unerring judgment
+he insisted on what he knew to be of real value. It is one of the
+earliest examples of the dignity and good taste which were of such
+inestimable value to his country.
+
+He had abundant occasion also for the employment of these same
+qualities, coupled with unwearied patience and tact, in dealing with
+his own men. The present army was drawn from a wider range than that
+which had taken Boston, and sectional jealousies and disputes, growing
+every day more hateful to the commander-in-chief, sprang up rankly.
+The men of Maryland thought those of Connecticut ploughboys; the
+latter held the former to be fops and dandies. These and a hundred
+other disputes buzzed and whirled about Washington, stirring his
+strong temper, and exercising his sternest self-control in the
+untiring effort to suppress them and put them to death. "It
+requires," John Adams truly said, "more serenity of temper, a deeper
+understanding, and more courage than fell to the lot of Marlborough,
+to ride in this whirlwind." Fortunately these qualities were all
+there, and with them an honesty of purpose and an unbending directness
+of character to which Anne's great general was a stranger.
+
+Meantime, while the internal difficulties were slowly diminished, the
+forces of the enemy rapidly increased. First it became evident that
+attacks were not feasible. Then the question changed to a mere choice
+of defenses. Even as to this there was great and harassing doubt, for
+the enemy, having command of the water, could concentrate and attack
+at any point they pleased. Moreover, the British had thirty thousand
+of the best disciplined and best equipped troops that Europe could
+furnish, while Washington had some twenty thousand men, one fourth of
+whom were unfit for duty, and with the remaining three fourths, raw
+recruits for the most part, he was obliged to defend an extended line
+of posts, without cavalry, and with no means for rapid concentration.
+Had he been governed solely by military considerations he would have
+removed the inhabitants, burned New York, and drawing his forces
+together would have taken up a secure post of observation. To have
+destroyed the town, however, not only would have frightened the timid
+and the doubters, and driven them over to the Tories, but would have
+dispirited the patriots not yet alive to the exigencies of war, and
+deeply injured the American cause. That Washington well understood the
+need of such action is clear, both from the current rumors that the
+town was to be burned, and from his expressed desire to remove the
+women and children from New York. But political considerations
+overruled the military necessity, and he spared the town. It was bad
+enough to be thus hampered, but he was even more fettered in other
+ways, for he could not even concentrate his forces and withdraw to the
+Highlands without a battle, as he was obliged to fight in order to
+sustain public feeling, and thus he was driven on to almost sure
+defeat. With Brooklyn Heights in the hands of the enemy New York was
+untenable, and yet it was obvious that to hold Brooklyn when the enemy
+controlled the sea was inviting defeat. Yet Washington under the
+existing conditions had no choice except to fight on Long Island and
+to say that he hoped to make a good defense.
+
+Everything, too, as the day of battle drew near, seemed to make
+against him. On August 22 the enemy began to land on Long Island,
+where Greene had drawn a strong line of redoubts behind the village of
+Brooklyn, to defend the heights which commanded New York, and had made
+every arrangement to protect the three roads through the wooded hills,
+about a mile from the intrenchments. Most unfortunately, and just at
+the critical moment, Greene was taken down with a raging fever, so
+that when Washington came over on the 24th he found much confusion in
+the camps, which he repressed as best he could, and then prepared for
+the attack. Greene's illness, however, had caused some oversights
+which were unknown to the commander-in-chief, and which, as it turned
+out, proved fatal.
+
+After indecisive skirmishing for two or three days, the British
+started early on the morning of the 26th. They had nine thousand men
+and were well informed as to the country. Advancing through woodpaths
+and lanes, they came round to the left flank of the Americans. One
+of the roads through the hills was unguarded, the others feebly
+protected. The result is soon told. The Americans, out-generaled and
+out-flanked, were taken by surprise and surrounded, Sullivan and
+his division were cut off, and then Lord Stirling. There was some
+desperate fighting, and the Americans showed plenty of courage, but
+only a few forced their way out. Most of them were killed or taken
+prisoners, the total loss out of some five thousand men reaching as
+high as two thousand.
+
+From the redoubts, whither he had come at the sound of the firing,
+Washington watched the slaughter and disaster in grim silence. He saw
+the British troops, flushed with victory, press on to the very edge
+of his works and then withdraw in obedience to command. The British
+generals had their prey so surely, as they believed, that they
+mercifully decided not to waste life unnecessarily by storming the
+works in the first glow of success. So they waited during that
+night and the two following days, while Washington strengthened his
+intrenchments, brought over reinforcements, and prepared for the
+worst. On the 29th it became apparent that there was a movement in the
+fleet, and that arrangements were being made to take the Americans in
+the rear and wholly cut them off. It was an obvious and sensible plan,
+but the British overlooked the fact that while they were lingering,
+summing up their victory, and counting the future as assured, there
+was a silent watchful man on the other side of the redoubts who for
+forty-eight hours never left the lines, and who with a great capacity
+for stubborn fighting could move, when the stress came, with the
+celerity and stealth of a panther.
+
+Washington swiftly determined to retreat. It was a desperate
+undertaking, and a lesser man would have hesitated and been lost. He
+had to transport nine thousand men across a strait of strong tides and
+currents, and three quarters of a mile in width. It was necessary to
+collect the boats from a distance, and do it all within sight and
+hearing of the enemy. The boats were obtained, a thick mist settled
+down on sea and land, the water was calm, and as the night wore away,
+the entire army with all its arms and baggage was carried over,
+Washington leaving in the last boat. At daybreak the British awoke,
+but it was too late. They had fought a successful battle, they had had
+the American army in their grasp, and now all was over. The victory
+had melted away, and, as a grand result, they had a few hundred
+prisoners, a stray boat with three camp-followers, and the deserted
+works in which they stood. To grasp so surely the happy chance of wind
+and weather and make such a retreat as this was a feat of arms as
+great as most victories, and in it we see, perhaps as plainly as
+anywhere, the nerve and quickness of the man who conducted it. It is
+true, it was the only chance of salvation, but the great man is he who
+is entirely master of his opportunity, even if he have but one.
+
+The outlook, nevertheless, was, as Washington wrote, "truly
+distressing." The troops were dispirited, and the militia began to
+disappear, as they always did after a defeat. Congress would not
+permit the destruction of the city, different interests pulled in
+different directions, conflicting opinions distracted the councils
+of war, and, with utter inability to predict the enemy's movements,
+everything led to halfway measures and to intense anxiety, while Lord
+Howe tried to negotiate with Congress, and the Americans waited for
+events. Washington, looking beyond the confusion of the moment, saw
+that he had gained much by delay, and had his own plan well defined.
+He wrote: "We have not only delayed the operations of the campaign
+till it is too late to effect any capital incursion into the country,
+but have drawn the enemy's forces to one point.... It would be
+presumption to draw out our young troops into open ground against
+their superiors both in number and discipline, and I have never spared
+the spade and pickaxe." Every one else, however, saw only past defeat
+and present peril.
+
+The British ships gradually made their way up the river, until it
+became apparent that they intended to surround and cut off the
+American army. Washington made preparations to withdraw, but
+uncertainty of information came near rendering his precautions futile.
+September 15 the men-of-war opened fire, and troops were landed near
+Kip's Bay. The militia in the breastworks at that point had been
+at Brooklyn and gave way at once, communicating their panic to two
+Connecticut regiments. Washington, galloping down to the scene of
+battle, came upon the disordered and flying troops. He dashed in among
+them, conjuring them to stop, but even while he was trying to rally
+them they broke again on the appearance of some sixty or seventy of
+the enemy, and ran in all directions. In a tempest of anger Washington
+drew his pistols, struck the fugitives with his sword, and was only
+forced from the field by one of his officers seizing the bridle of his
+horse and dragging him away from the British, now within a hundred
+yards of the spot.
+
+Through all his trials and anxieties Washington always showed the
+broadest and most generous sympathy. When the militia had begun to
+leave him a few days before, although he despised their action and
+protested bitterly to Congress against their employment, yet in his
+letters he displayed a keen appreciation of their feelings, and saw
+plainly every palliation and excuse. But there was one thing which
+he could never appreciate nor realize. It was from first to last
+impossible for him to understand how any man could refuse to fight, or
+could think of running away. When he beheld rout and cowardly panic
+before his very eyes, his temper broke loose and ran uncontrolled. His
+one thought then was to fight to the last, and he would have thrown
+himself single-handed on the enemy, with all his wisdom and prudence
+flung to the winds. The day when the commander held his place merely
+by virtue of personal prowess lay far back in the centuries, and no
+one knew it better than Washington. But the old fighting spirit awoke
+within him when the clash of arms sounded in his ears, and though we
+may know the general in the tent and in the council, we can only know
+the man when he breaks out from all rules and customs, and shows the
+rage of battle, and the indomitable eagerness for the fray, which lie
+at the bottom of the tenacity and courage that carried the war for
+independence to a triumphant close.
+
+The rout and panic over, Washington quickly turned to deal with the
+pressing danger. With coolness and quickness he issued his orders, and
+succeeded in getting his army off, Putnam's division escaping most
+narrowly. He then took post at King's Bridge, and began to strengthen
+and fortify his lines. While thus engaged, the enemy advanced, and
+on the 16th Washington suddenly took the offensive and attacked the
+British light troops. The result was a sharp skirmish, in which the
+British were driven back with serious loss, and great bravery was
+shown by the Connecticut and Virginia troops, the two commanding
+officers being killed. This affair, which was the first gleam of
+success, encouraged the troops, and was turned to the best account by
+the general. Still a successful skirmish did not touch the essential
+difficulties of the situation, which then as always came from
+within, rather than without. To face and check twenty-five thousand
+well-equipped and highly disciplined soldiers Washington had now some
+twelve thousand men, lacking in everything which goes to make an army,
+except mere individual courage and a high average of intelligence.
+Even this meagre force was an inconstant and diminishing quantity,
+shifting, uncertain, and always threatening dissolution.
+
+The task of facing and fighting the enemy was enough for the ablest
+of men; but Washington was obliged also to combat and overcome the
+inertness and dullness born of ignorance, and to teach Congress how to
+govern a nation at war. In the hours "allotted to sleep," he sat in
+his headquarters, writing a letter, with "blots and scratches," which
+told Congress with the utmost precision and vigor just what was
+needed. It was but one of a long series of similar letters, written
+with unconquerable patience and with unwearied iteration, lighted here
+and there by flashes of deep and angry feeling, which would finally
+strike home under the pressure of defeat, and bring the patriots of
+the legislature to sudden action, always incomplete, but still action
+of some sort. It must have been inexpressibly dreary work, but quite
+as much was due to those letters as to the battles. Thinking for other
+people, and teaching them what to do, is at best an ungrateful duty,
+but when it is done while an enemy is at your throat, it shows a grim
+tenacity of purpose which is well worth consideration.
+
+In this instance the letter of September 24, read in the light of the
+battles of Long Island and Kip's Bay, had a considerable effect. The
+first steps were taken to make the army national and permanent, to
+raise the pay of officers, and to lengthen enlistments. Like most of
+the war measures of Congress, they were too late for the immediate
+necessity, but they helped the future. Congress, moreover, then felt
+that all had been done that could be demanded, and relapsed once more
+into confidence. "The British force," said John Adams, chairman of the
+board of war, "is so divided, they will do no great matter this
+fall." But Washington, facing hard facts, wrote to Congress with his
+unsparing truth on October 4: "Give me leave to say, sir, (I say it
+with due deference and respect, and my knowledge of the facts, added
+to the importance of the cause and the stake I hold in it, must
+justify the freedom,) that your affairs are in a more unpromising way
+than you seem to apprehend. Your army, as I mentioned in my last, is
+on the eve of its political dissolution. True it is, you have voted
+a larger one in lieu of it; but the season is late; and there is a
+material difference between voting battalions and raising men."
+
+The campaign as seen from the board of war and from the Plains of
+Harlem differed widely. It is needless to say now which was correct;
+every one knows that the General was right and Congress wrong, but
+being in the right did not help Washington, nor did he take petty
+pleasure in being able to say, "I told you how it would be." The
+hard facts remained unchanged. There was the wholly patriotic but
+slumberous, and for fighting purposes quite inefficient Congress still
+to be waked up and kept awake, and to be instructed. With painful
+and plain-spoken repetition this work was grappled with and done
+methodically, and like all else as effectively as was possible.
+
+Meanwhile the days slipped along, and Washington waited on the Harlem
+Plains, planning descents on Long Island, and determining to make a
+desperate stand where he was, unless the situation decidedly changed.
+Then the situation did change, as neither he nor any one else
+apparently had anticipated. The British warships came up the Hudson
+past the forts, brushing aside our boasted obstructions, destroying
+our little fleet, and getting command of the river. Then General Howe
+landed at Frog's Point, where he was checked for the moment by the
+good disposition of Heath, under Washington's direction. These two
+events made it evident that the situation of the American army was
+full of peril, and that retreat was again necessary. Such certainly
+was the conclusion of the council of war, on the 16th, acting this
+time in agreement with their chief. Six days Howe lingered on Frog's
+Point, bringing up stores or artillery or something; it matters little
+now why he tarried. Suffice it that he waited, and gave six days to
+his opponent. They were of little value to Howe, but they were
+of inestimable worth to Washington, who employed them in getting
+everything in readiness, in holding his council of war, and then on
+the 17th in moving deliberately off to very strong ground at White
+Plains. On his way he fought two or three slight, sharp, and
+successful skirmishes with the British. Sir William followed closely,
+but with much caution, having now a dull glimmer in his mind that at
+the head of the raw troops in front of him was a man with whom it was
+not safe to be entirely careless.
+
+On the 28th, Howe came up to Washington's position, and found the
+Americans quite equal in numbers, strongly intrenched, and awaiting
+his attack with confidence. He hesitated, doubted, and finally feeling
+that he must do something, sent four thousand men to storm Chatterton
+Hill, an outlying post, where some fourteen hundred Americans were
+stationed. There was a short, sharp action, and then the Americans
+retreated in good order to the main army, having lost less than half
+as many men as their opponents. With caution now much enlarged, Howe
+sent for reinforcements, and waited two days. The third day it rained,
+and on the fourth Howe found that Washington had withdrawn to a higher
+and quite impregnable line of hills, where he held all the passes in
+the rear and awaited a second attack. Howe contemplated the situation
+for two or three days longer, and then broke camp and withdrew to
+Dobbs Ferry to secure Fort Washington, which treachery offered him as
+an easy and inviting prize. Such were the great results of the victory
+of Long Island, two wasted months, and the American army still
+untouched.
+
+Howe was resolved that his campaign should not be utterly fruitless,
+and therefore directed his attention to the defenses of the Hudson,
+and here he met with better success. Congress, in its military wisdom,
+had insisted that these forts must and could be held. So thought the
+generals, and so most especially, and most unluckily, did Greene.
+Washington, with his usual accurate and keen perception, saw, from the
+time the men-of-war came up the Hudson, and, now that the British
+army was free, more clearly than ever, that both forts ought to be
+abandoned. Sure of his ground, he overruled Congress, but was so far
+influenced by Greene that he gave to that officer discretionary orders
+as to withdrawal. This was an act of weakness, as he afterwards
+admitted, for which he bitterly reproached himself, never confusing or
+glossing over his own errors, but loyal there, as elsewhere, to facts.
+An attempt was made to hold both forts, and both were lost, as he
+had foreseen. From Fort Lee the garrison withdrew in safety. Fort
+Washington, with its plans all in Howe's hands through the treachery
+of William Demont, the adjutant of Colonel Magaw, was carried by
+storm, after a severe struggle. Twenty-six hundred men and all the
+munitions of war fell into the hands of the enemy. It was a serious
+and most depressing loss, and was felt throughout the continent.
+
+Meantime Washington had crossed info the Jerseys, and, after the loss
+of Fort Lee, began to retreat before the British, who, flushed with
+victory, now advanced rapidly under Lord Cornwallis. The crisis of his
+fate and of the Revolution was upon him. His army was melting away.
+The militia had almost all disappeared, and regiments whose term of
+enlistment had expired were departing daily. Lee, who had a division
+under his command, was ordered to come up, but paid no attention,
+although the orders were repeated almost every day for a month. He
+lingered, and loitered, and excused himself, and at last was taken
+prisoner. This disposed of him for a time very satisfactorily, but
+meanwhile he had succeeded in keeping his troops from Washington,
+which was a most serious misfortune.
+
+On December 2 Washington was at Princeton with three thousand ragged
+men, and the British close upon his heels. They had him now surely
+in their grip. There could be no mistake this time, and there was
+therefore no need of a forced march. But they had not yet learned that
+to Washington even hours meant much, and when, after duly resting,
+they reached the Delaware, they found the Americans on the other side,
+and all the boats destroyed for a distance of seventy miles.
+
+It was winter now, the short gray days had come, and with them
+piercing cold and storms of sleet and ice. It seemed as if the
+elements alone would finally disperse the feeble body of men still
+gathered about the commander-in-chief. Congress had sent him blank
+commissions and orders to recruit, which were well meant, but were not
+practically of much value. As Glendower could call spirits from the
+vasty deep, so they, with like success, sought to call soldiers from
+the earth in the midst of defeat, and in the teeth of a North American
+winter. Washington, baffling pursuit and flying from town to town,
+left nothing undone. North and south went letters and appeals for men,
+money, and supplies. Vain, very vain, it all was, for the most part,
+but still it was done in a tenacious spirit. Lee would not come, the
+Jersey militia would not turn out, thousands began to accept Howe's
+amnesty, and signs of wavering were apparent in some of the Middle
+States. Philadelphia was threatened, Newport was in the hands of the
+enemy, and for ninety miles Washington had retreated, evading ruin
+again and again only by the width of a river. Congress voted not
+to leave Philadelphia,--a fact which their General declined to
+publish,--and then fled.
+
+No one remained to face the grim realities of the time but Washington,
+and he met them unmoved. Not a moment passed that he did not seek in
+some way to effect something. Not an hour went by that he did not turn
+calmly from fresh and ever renewed disappointment to work and action.
+
+By the middle of December Howe felt satisfied that the American army
+would soon dissolve, and leaving strong detachments in various posts
+he withdrew to New York. His premises were sound, and his conclusions
+logical, but he made his usual mistake of overlooking and
+underestimating the American general. No sooner was it known that
+he was on his way to New York than Washington, at the head of his
+dissolving army, resolved to take the offensive and strike an outlying
+post. In a letter of December 14, the day after Howe began to move, we
+catch the first glimpse of Trenton. It was a bold spirit which, in the
+dead of winter, with a broken army, no prospect of reinforcements, and
+in the midst of a terror-stricken people, could thus resolve with
+some four thousand men to attack an army thoroughly appointed, and
+numbering in all its divisions twenty-five thousand soldiers.
+
+It is well to pause a moment and look at that situation, and at the
+overwhelming difficulties which hemmed it in, and then try to realize
+what manner of man he was who rose superior to it, and conquered it.
+Be it remembered, too, that he never deceived himself, and never for
+one instant disguised the truth. Two years later he wrote that at this
+supreme moment, in what were called "the dark days of America," he was
+never despondent; and this was true enough, for despair was not in his
+nature. But no delusions lent him courage. On the 18th he wrote to his
+brother "that if every nerve was not strained to recruit this new army
+the game was pretty nearly up;" and added, "You can form no idea of
+the perplexity of my situation. No man, I believe, ever had a greater
+choice of difficulties, and less means to extricate himself from them.
+However, under a full persuasion of the justice of our cause, I cannot
+entertain an idea that it will finally sink, though it may remain
+for some time under a cloud." There is no complaint, no boasting, no
+despair in this letter. We can detect a bitterness in the references
+to Congress and to Lee, but the tone of the letter is as calm as a May
+morning, and it concludes with sending love and good wishes to the
+writer's sister and her family.
+
+Thus in the dreary winter Washington was planning and devising and
+sending hither and thither for men, and never ceased through it all
+to write urgent and ever sharper letters and keep a wary eye upon the
+future. He not only wrote strongly, but he pledged his own estate and
+exceeded his powers in desperate efforts to raise money and men. On
+the 20th he wrote to Congress: "It may be thought that I am going a
+good deal out of the line of my duty to adopt these measures, or to
+advise thus freely. A character to lose, an estate to forfeit, the
+inestimable blessings of liberty at stake, and a life devoted, must be
+my excuse." Even now across the century these words come with a grave
+solemnity to our ears, and we can feel as he felt when he alone saw
+that he stood on the brink of a great crisis. It is an awful thing to
+know that the life of a nation is at stake, and this thought throbs in
+his words, measured and quiet as usual, but deeply fraught with much
+meaning to him and to the world.
+
+By Christmas all was ready, and when the Christian world was rejoicing
+and feasting, and the British officers in New York and in the New
+Jersey towns were reveling and laughing, Washington prepared to
+strike. His whole force, broken into various detachments, was less
+than six thousand men. To each division was assigned, with provident
+forethought, its exact part. Nothing was overlooked, nothing omitted;
+and then every division commander failed, for good reason or bad, to
+do his duty. Gates was to march from Bristol with two thousand
+men, Ewing was to cross at Trenton, Putnam was to come up from
+Philadelphia, Griffin was to make a diversion against Donop. When
+the moment came, Gates, disapproving the scheme, was on his way
+to Congress, and Wilkinson, with his message, found his way to
+headquarters by following the bloody tracks of the barefooted
+soldiers. Griffin abandoned New Jersey and fled before Donop. Putnam
+would not even attempt to leave Philadelphia, and Ewing made no effort
+to cross at Trenton. Cadwalader, indeed, came down from Bristol,
+but after looking at the river and the floating ice, gave it up as
+desperate.
+
+But there was one man who did not hesitate nor give up, nor halt on
+account of floating ice. With twenty-four hundred hardy veterans,
+Washington crossed the Delaware. The night was bitter cold and the
+passage difficult. When they landed, and began their march of nine
+miles to Trenton, a fierce storm of sleet drove in their faces.
+Sullivan; marching by the river, sent word that the arms of his men
+were wet. "Then tell your general," said Washington, "to use the
+bayonet, for the town must be taken." In broad daylight they came to
+the town. Washington, at the front and on the right of the line, swept
+down the Pennington road, and as he drove in the pickets he heard the
+shouts of Sullivan's men, as, with Stark leading the van, they charged
+in from the river. A company of yaegers and the light dragoons slipped
+away, there was a little confused fighting in the streets, Colonel
+Rahl fell, mortally wounded, his Hessians threw down their arms, and
+all was over. The battle had been fought and won, and the Revolution
+was saved.
+
+[Illustration: WASHINGTON CROSSING THE DELAWARE]
+
+Taking his thousand prisoners with him, Washington recrossed the
+Delaware to his old position. Had all done their duty, as he had
+planned, the British hold on New Jersey would have been shattered. As
+it was, it was only loosened. Congress, aroused at last, had invested
+Washington with almost dictatorial powers; but the time for action was
+short. The army was again melting away, and only by urgent appeals
+were some veterans retained, and enough new men gathered to make a
+force of five thousand men. With this army Washington prepared to
+finish what he had begun.
+
+Trenton struck alarm and dismay into the British, and Cornwallis, with
+seven thousand of the best troops, started from New York to redeem
+what had been lost. Leaving three regiments at Princeton, he pushed
+hotly after Washington, who fell back behind the Assunpink River,
+skirmishing heavily and successfully. When Cornwallis reached the
+river he found the American army drawn up on the other side awaiting
+him. An attack on the bridge was repulsed, and the prospect looked
+uninviting. Some officers urged an immediate assault; but night was
+falling, and Cornwallis, sure of the game, decided to wait till
+the morrow. He, too, forgot that he was facing an enemy who never
+overlooked a mistake, and never waited an hour. With quick decision
+Washington left his camp-fires burning on the river bank, and taking
+roundabout roads, which he had already reconnoitred, marched on to
+Princeton. By sunrise he was in the outskirts of the town. Mercer,
+detached with some three hundred men, fell in with Mawhood's regiment,
+and a sharp action ensued. Mercer was mortally wounded, and his men
+gave way just as the main army came upon the field. The British
+charged, and as the raw Pennsylvanian troops in the van wavered,
+Washington rode to the front, and reining his horse within thirty
+yards of the British, ordered his men to advance. The volleys of
+musketry left him unscathed, the men stood firm, the other divisions
+came rapidly into action, and the enemy gave way in all directions.
+The two other British regiments were driven through the town and
+routed. Had there been cavalry they would have been entirely cut off.
+As it was, they were completely broken, and in this short but bloody
+action they lost five hundred men in killed, wounded, and prisoners.
+It was too late to strike the magazines at Brunswick, as Washington
+had intended, and so he withdrew once more with his army to the high
+lands to rest and recruit.
+
+His work was done, however. The country, which had been supine, and
+even hostile, rose now, and the British were attacked, surprised, and
+cut off in all directions, until at last they were shut up in the
+immediate vicinity of New York. The tide had been turned, and
+Washington had won the precious breathing-time which was all he
+required.
+
+Frederick the Great is reported to have said that this was the most
+brilliant campaign of the century. It certainly showed all the
+characteristics of the highest strategy and most consummate
+generalship. With a force numerically insignificant as compared with
+that opposed to him, Washington won two decisive victories, striking
+the enemy suddenly with superior numbers at each point of attack.
+The Trenton campaign has all the quality of some of the last battles
+fought by Napoleon in France before his retirement to Elba. Moreover,
+these battles show not only generalship of the first order, but great
+statesmanship. They display that prescient knowledge which recognizes
+the supreme moment when all must be risked to save the state. By
+Trenton and Princeton Washington inflicted deadly blows upon the
+enemy, but he did far more by reviving the patriotic spirit of the
+country fainting under the bitter experience of defeat, and by sending
+fresh life and hope and courage throughout the whole people.
+
+It was the decisive moment of the war. Sooner or later the American
+colonies were sure to part from the mother-country, either peaceably
+or violently. But there was nothing inevitable in the Revolution of
+1776, nor was its end at all certain. It was in the last extremities
+when the British overran New Jersey, and if it had not been for
+Washington that particular revolution would have most surely failed.
+Its fate lay in the hands of the general and his army; and to the
+strong brain growing ever keener and quicker as the pressure became
+more intense, to the iron will gathering a more relentless force
+as defeat thickened, to the high, unbending character, and to the
+passionate and fighting temper of Washington, we owe the brilliant
+campaign which in the darkest hour turned the tide and saved the cause
+of the Revolution.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+"MALICE DOMESTIC, AND FOREIGN LEVY"
+
+
+After the "two lucky strokes at Trenton and Princeton," as he himself
+called them, Washington took up a strong position at Morristown and
+waited. His plan was to hold the enemy in check, and to delay all
+operations until spring. It is easy enough now to state his purpose,
+and it looks very simple, but it was a grim task to carry it out
+through the bleak winter days of 1777. The Jerseys farmers, spurred by
+the sufferings inflicted upon them by the British troops, had turned
+out at last in deference to Washington's appeals, after the victories
+of Trenton and Princeton, had harassed and cut off outlying parties,
+and had thus straitened the movements of the enemy. But the main army
+of the colonies, on which all depended, was in a pitiable state. It
+shifted its character almost from day to day. The curse of short
+enlistments, so denounced by Washington, made itself felt now with
+frightful effect. With the new year most of the continental troops
+departed, while others to replace them came in very slowly, and
+recruiting dragged most wearisomely. Washington was thus obliged, with
+temporary reinforcements of raw militia, to keep up appearances; and
+no commander ever struggled with a more trying task. At times it
+looked as if the whole army would actually disappear, and more than
+once Washington expected that the week's or the month's end would find
+him with not more than five hundred men. At the beginning of March he
+had about four thousand men, a few weeks later only three thousand raw
+troops, ill-fed, ill-clad, ill-shod, ill-armed, and almost unpaid.
+Over against him was Howe, with eleven thousand men in the field, and
+still more in the city of New York, well disciplined and equipped,
+well-armed, well-fed, and furnished with every needful supply. The
+contrast is absolutely grotesque, and yet the force of one man's
+genius and will was such that this excellent British army was hemmed
+in and kept in harmless quiet by their ragged opponents.
+
+Washington's plan, from the first, was to keep the field at all
+hazards, and literally at all hazards did he do so. Right and left
+his letters went, day after day, calling with pathetic but dignified
+earnestness for men and supplies. In one of these epistles, to
+Governor Cooke of Rhode Island, written in January, to remonstrate
+against raising troops for the State only, he set forth his intentions
+in a few words. "You must be sensible," he said, "that the season is
+fast approaching when a new campaign will open; nay, the former is not
+yet closed; nor do I intend it shall be, unless the enemy quits the
+Jerseys." To keep fighting all the time, and never let the fire of
+active resistance flicker or die out, was Washington's theory of the
+way to maintain his own side and beat the enemy. If he could not fight
+big battles, he would fight small ones; if he could not fight little
+battles, he would raid and skirmish and surprise; but fighting of some
+sort he would have, while the enemy attempted to spread over a State
+and hold possession of it. We can see the obstacles now, but we can
+only wonder how they were sufficiently overcome to allow anything to
+be done.
+
+Moreover, besides the purely physical difficulties in the lack of men,
+money, and supplies, there were others of a political and personal
+kind, which were even more wearing and trying, but which,
+nevertheless, had to be dealt with also, in some fashion. In order to
+sustain the courage of the people Washington was obliged to give out,
+and to allow it to be supposed, that he had more men than was really
+the case, and so Congress and various wise and well-meaning persons
+grumbled because he did not do more and fight more battles. He never
+deceived Congress, but they either could not or would not understand
+the actual situation. In March he wrote to Robert Morris: "Nor is it
+in my power to make Congress fully sensible of the real situation
+of our affairs, and that it is with difficulty, if I may use the
+expression, that I can by every means in my power keep the life and
+soul of this army together. In a word, when they are at a distance,
+they think it is but to say, _Presto, begone_, and everything is done.
+They seem not to have any conception of the difficulty and perplexity
+attending those who are to execute." It was so easy to see what they
+would like to have done, and so simple to pass a resolve to that
+effect, that Congress never could appreciate the reality of the
+difficulty and the danger until the hand of the enemy was almost at
+their throats. They were not even content with delay and neglect, but
+interfered actively at times, as in the matter of the exchange of
+prisoners, where they made unending trouble for Washington, and showed
+themselves unable to learn or to keep their hands off after any amount
+of instruction.
+
+In January Washington issued a proclamation requiring those
+inhabitants who had subscribed to Howe's declaration to come in within
+thirty days and take the oath of allegiance to the United States. If
+they failed to do so they were to be treated as enemies. The measure
+was an eminently proper one, and the proclamation was couched in the
+most moderate language. It was impossible to permit a large class
+of persons to exist on the theory that they were peaceful American
+citizens and also subjects of King George. The results of such conduct
+were in every way perilous and intolerable, and Washington was
+determined that he would divide the sheep from the goats, and know
+whom he was defending and whom attacking. Yet for this wise and
+necessary action he was called in question in Congress and accused of
+violating civil rights and the resolves of Congress itself. Nothing
+was actually done about it, but such an incident shows from a single
+point the infinite tact and resolution required in waging war under a
+government whose members were unable to comprehend what was meant, and
+who could not see that until they had beaten England it was hardly
+worth while to worry about civil rights, which in case of defeat would
+speedily cease to exist altogether.
+
+Another fertile source of trouble arose from questions of rank.
+Members of Congress, in making promotions and appointments, were
+more apt to consider local claims than military merit, and they also
+allowed their own personal prejudices to affect their action in
+this respect far too much. Thence arose endless heart-burnings
+and jealousies, followed by resignations and the loss of valuable
+officers. Congress, having made the appointments, would go cheerfully
+about its business, while the swarm of grievances thus let loose would
+come buzzing about the devoted head of the commander-in-chief. He
+could not adjourn, but was compelled to quiet rivalries, allay
+irritated feelings, and ride the storm as best he might. It was all
+done, however, in one way or another: by personal appeals, and by
+letters full of dignity, patriotism, and patience, which are very
+impressive and full of meaning for students of character, even in this
+day and generation.
+
+Then again, not content with snarling up our native appointments,
+Congress complicated matters still more dangerously by its treatment
+of foreigners. The members of Congress were colonists, and the fact
+that they had shaken off the yoke of the mother country did not in the
+least alter their colonial and perfectly natural habit of regarding
+with enormous respect Englishmen and Frenchmen, and indeed anybody who
+had had the good fortune to be born in Europe. The result was that
+they distributed commissions and gave inordinate rank to the many
+volunteers who came over the ocean, actuated by various motives, but
+all filled with a profound sense of their own merits. It is only fair
+to Congress to say that the American agents abroad were even more to
+blame in this respect. Silas Deane especially scattered promises of
+commissions with a lavish hand, and Congress refused to fulfill many
+of the promises thus made in its name. Nevertheless, Congress was far
+too lax, and followed too closely the example of its agents. Some of
+these foreigners were disinterested men and excellent soldiers, who
+proved of great value to the American cause. Many others were mere
+military adventurers, capable of being turned to good account,
+perhaps, but by no means entitled to what they claimed and in most
+instances received.
+
+The ill-considered action of Congress and of our agents abroad in
+this respect was a source of constantly recurring troubles of a very
+serious nature. Native officers, who had borne the burden and heat of
+the day, justly resented being superseded by some stranger, unable
+to speak the language, who had landed in the States but a few days
+before. As a result, resignations were threatened which, if carried
+out, would affect the character of the army very deeply. Then again,
+the foreigners themselves, inflated by the eagerness of our agents and
+by their reception at the hands of Congress, would find on joining the
+army that they could get no commands, chiefly because there were none
+to give. They would then become dissatisfied with their rank and
+employment, and bitter complaints and recriminations would ensue.
+All these difficulties, of course, fell most heavily upon the
+commander-in-chief, who was heartily disgusted with the whole
+business. Washington believed from the beginning, and said over and
+over again in various and ever stronger terms, that this was an
+American war and must be fought by Americans. In no other way, and
+by no other persons, did he consider that it could be carried to any
+success worth having. He saw of course the importance of a French
+alliance, and deeply desired it, for it was a leading element in the
+solution of the political and military situation; but alliance with
+a foreign power was one thing, and sporadic military volunteers were
+another. Washington had no narrow prejudices against foreigners,
+for he was a man of broad and liberal mind, and no one was more
+universally beloved and respected by the foreign officers than he; but
+he was intensely American in his feelings, and he would not admit for
+an instant that the American war for independence could be righteously
+fought or honestly won by others than Americans. He was well aware
+that foreign volunteers had a value and use of which he largely and
+gratefully availed himself; but he was exasperated and alarmed by the
+indiscriminate and lavish way in which Congress and our agents abroad
+gave rank and office to them. "Hungry adventurers," he called them in
+one letter, when driven beyond endurance by the endless annoyances
+thus forced upon him; and so he pushed their pretensions aside,
+and managed, on the whole, to keep them in their proper place. The
+operation was delicate, difficult, and unpleasant, for it seemed to
+savor of ingratitude. But Washington was never shaken for an instant
+in his policy, and while he checked the danger, he showed in many
+instances, like Lafayette and Steuben, that he could appreciate and
+use all that was really valuable in the foreign contingent.
+
+The service rendered by Washington in this matter has never been
+justly understood or appreciated. If he had not taken this position,
+and held it with an absolute firmness which bordered on harshness, we
+should have found ourselves in a short time with an army of American
+soldiers officered by foreigners, many of them mere mercenaries,
+"hungry adventurers," from France, Poland or Hungary, from Germany,
+Ireland or England. The result of such a combination would have been
+disorganization and defeat. That members of Congress and some of our
+representatives in Europe did not see the danger, and that they were
+impressed by the foreign officers who came among them, was perfectly
+natural. Men are the creatures of the time in which they live, and
+take their color from the conditions which surround them, as the
+chameleon does from the grass or leaves in which it hides. The rulers
+and lawmakers of 1776 could not cast off their provincial awe of
+the natives of England and Europe as they cast off their political
+allegiance to the British king. The only wonder is that there should
+have been even one man so great in mind and character that he could
+rise at a single bound from the level of a provincial planter to the
+heights of a great national leader. He proved himself such in all
+ways, but in none more surely than in his ability to consider all men
+simply as men, and, with a judgment that nothing could confuse, to
+ward off from his cause and country the dangers inherent in colonial
+habits of thought and action, so menacing to a people struggling for
+independence. We can see this strong, high spirit of nationality
+running through Washington's whole career, but it never did better
+service than when it stood between the American army and undue favor
+to foreign volunteers.
+
+Among other disagreeable and necessary truths, Washington had told
+Congress that Philadelphia was in danger, that Howe probably meant to
+occupy it, and that it would be nearly impossible to prevent his doing
+so. This warning being given and unheeded, he continued to watch his
+antagonist, doing so with increased vigilance, as signs of activity
+began to appear in New York. Toward the end of May he broke up his
+cantonments, having now about seven thousand men, and took a strong
+position within ten miles of Brunswick. Here he waited, keeping
+an anxious eye on the Hudson in case he should be mistaken in his
+expectations, and should find that the enemy really intended to go
+north to meet Burgoyne instead of south to capture Philadelphia.
+
+Washington's doubts were soon to be resolved and his expectations
+fulfilled. May 31, a fleet of a hundred sail left New York, and
+couriers were at once sent southward to warn the States of the
+possibility of a speedy invasion. About the same time transports
+arrived with more German mercenaries, and Howe, thus reinforced,
+entered the Jerseys. Washington determined to decline battle, and if
+the enemy pushed on and crossed the Delaware, to hang heavily on their
+rear, while the militia from the south were drawn up to Philadelphia.
+He adopted this course because he felt confident that Howe would never
+cross the Delaware and leave the main army of the Americans behind
+him. His theory proved correct. The British advanced and retreated,
+burned houses and villages and made feints, but all in vain.
+Washington baffled them at every point, and finally Sir William
+evacuated the Jerseys entirely and withdrew to New York and Staten
+Island, where active preparations for some expedition were at once
+begun. Again came anxious watching, with the old fear that Howe meant
+to go northward and join the now advancing Burgoyne. The fear was
+groundless. On July 23 the British fleet set sail from New York,
+carrying between fifteen and eighteen thousand men. Not deceived by
+the efforts to make him think that they aimed at Boston, but still
+fearing that the sailing might be only a ruse and the Hudson the real
+object after all, Washington moved cautiously to the Delaware, holding
+himself ready to strike in either direction. On the 31st he heard that
+the enemy were at the Capes. This seemed decisive; so he sent in
+all directions for reinforcements, moved the main army rapidly to
+Germantown, and prepared to defend Philadelphia. The next news was
+that the fleet had put to sea again, and again messengers went north
+to warn Putnam to prepare for the defense of the Hudson. Washington
+himself was about to re-cross the Delaware, when tidings arrived that
+the fleet had once more appeared at the Capes, and after a few more
+days of doubt the ships came up the Chesapeake and anchored.
+
+Washington thought the "route a strange one," but he knew now that he
+was right in his belief that Howe aimed at Philadelphia. He therefore
+gathered his forces and marched south to meet the enemy, passing
+through the city in order to impress the disaffected and the timid
+with the show of force. It was a motley array that followed him. There
+was nothing uniform about the troops except their burnished arms and
+the sprigs of evergreen in their hats. Nevertheless Lafayette, who had
+just come among them, thought that they looked like good soldiers, and
+the Tories woke up sharply to the fact that there was a large body of
+men known as the American army, and that they had a certain obvious
+fighting capacity visible in their appearance. Neither friends nor
+enemies knew, however, as they stood on the Philadelphia sidewalks
+and watched the troops go past, that the mere fact of that army's
+existence was the greatest victory of skill and endurance which
+the war could show, and that the question of success lay in its
+continuance.
+
+Leaving Philadelphia, Washington pushed on to the junction of the
+Brandywine and Christiana Creek, and posted his men along the heights.
+August 25, Howe landed at the Head of Elk, and Washington threw out
+light parties to drive in cattle, carry off supplies, and annoy the
+enemy. This was done, on the whole, satisfactorily, and after some
+successful skirmishing on the part of the Americans, the two armies
+on the 5th of September found themselves within eight or ten miles of
+each other. Washington now determined to risk a battle in the field,
+despite his inferiority in every way. He accordingly issued a
+stirring proclamation to the soldiers, and then fell back behind the
+Brandywine, to a strong position, and prepared to contest the passage
+of the river.
+
+Early on September 11, the British advanced to Chad's Ford, where
+Washington was posted with the main body, and after some skirmishing
+began to cannonade at long range. Meantime Cornwallis, with the main
+body, made a long detour of seventeen miles, and came upon the right
+flank and rear of the Americans. Sullivan, who was on the right, had
+failed to guard the fords above, and through lack of information was
+practically surprised. Washington, on rumors that the enemy were
+marching toward his right, with the instinct of a great soldier was
+about to cross the river in his front and crush the enemy there, but
+he also was misled and kept back by false reports. When the truth was
+known, it was too late. The right wing had been beaten and flung back,
+the enemy were nearly in the rear, and were now advancing in earnest
+in front. All that man could do was done. Troops were pushed forward
+and a gallant stand was made at various points; but the critical
+moment had come and gone, and there was nothing for it but a hasty
+retreat, which came near degenerating into a rout.
+
+The causes of this complete defeat, for such it was, are easily seen.
+Washington had planned his battle and chosen his position well. If he
+had not been deceived by the first reports, he even then would have
+fallen upon and overwhelmed the British centre before they could
+have reached his right wing. But the Americans, to begin with, were
+outnumbered. They had only eleven thousand effective men, while the
+British brought fifteen of their eighteen thousand into action. Then
+the Americans suffered, as they constantly did, from misinformation,
+and from an absence of system in learning the enemy's movements.
+Washington's attack was fatally checked in this way, and Sullivan
+was surprised from the same causes, as well as from his own culpable
+ignorance of the country beyond him, which was the reason of his
+failure to guard the upper fords. The Americans lost, also, by the
+unsteadiness of new troops when the unexpected happens, and when
+the panic-bearing notion that they are surprised and likely to be
+surrounded comes upon them with a sudden shock.
+
+This defeat was complete and severe, and it was followed in a few days
+by that of Wayne, who narrowly escaped utter ruin. Yet through all
+this disaster we can see the advance which had been made since the
+equally unfortunate and very similar battle on Long Island. Then, the
+troops seemed to lose heart and courage, the army was held together
+with difficulty, and could do nothing but retreat. Now, in the few
+days which Howe, as usual, gave his opponent with such fatal effect to
+himself, Washington rallied his army, and finding them in excellent
+spirits marched down the Lancaster road to fight again. On the eve of
+battle a heavy storm came on, which so injured the arms and munitions
+that with bitter disappointment he was obliged to withdraw; but
+nevertheless it is plain how much this forward movement meant. At the
+moment, however, it looked badly enough, especially after the defeat
+of Wayne, for Howe pressed forward, took possession of Philadelphia,
+and encamped the main body of his army at Germantown.
+
+Meantime Washington, who had not in the least given up his idea of
+fighting again, recruited his army, and having a little more than
+eight thousand men, determined to try another stroke at the British,
+while they were weakened by detachments. On the night of October 3 he
+started, and reached Germantown at daybreak on the 4th. At first the
+Americans swept everything before them, and flung the British back
+in rout and confusion. Then matters began to go wrong, as is always
+likely to happen when, as in this case, widely separated and yet
+accurately concerted action is essential to success. Some of the
+British threw themselves into a stone house, and instead of leaving
+them there under guard, the whole army stopped to besiege, and a
+precious half hour was lost. Then Greene and Stephen were late in
+coming up, having made a circuit, and although when they arrived all
+seemed to go well, the Americans were seized with an inexplicable
+panic, and fell back, as Wayne truly said, in the very moment of
+victory. One of those unlucky accidents, utterly unavoidable, but
+always dangerous to extensive combinations, had a principal effect on
+the result. The morning was very misty, and the fog, soon thickened by
+the smoke, caused confusion, random firing, and, worst of all, that
+uncertainty of feeling and action which something or nothing converted
+into a panic. Nevertheless, the Americans rallied quickly this time,
+and a good retreat was made, under the lead of Greene, until safety
+was reached. The action, while it lasted, had been very sharp, and the
+losses on both sides were severe, the Americans suffering most.
+
+Washington, as usual when matters went ill, exposed himself
+recklessly, to the great alarm of his generals, but all in vain. He
+was deeply disappointed, and expressed himself so at first, for he saw
+that the men had unaccountably given way when they were on the edge
+of victory. The underlying cause was of course, as at Long Island
+and Brandywine, the unsteadiness of raw troops, and Washington felt
+rightly, after the first sting had passed, that he had really achieved
+a great deal. Congress applauded the attempt, and when the smoke of
+the battle had cleared away, men generally perceived that its having
+been fought at all was in reality the important fact. It made also
+a profound impression upon the French cabinet. Eagerly watching the
+course of events, they saw the significance of the fact that an army
+raised within a year could fight a battle in the open field, endure
+a severe defeat, and then take the offensive and make a bold and
+well-planned attack, which narrowly missed being overwhelmingly
+successful. To the observant and trained eyes of Europe, the defeat
+at Germantown made it evident that there was fighting material among
+these untrained colonists, capable of becoming formidable; and that
+there was besides a powerful will and directing mind, capable on
+its part of bringing this same material into the required shape and
+condition. To dispassionate onlookers, England's grasp on her colonies
+appeared to be slipping away very rapidly. Washington himself saw the
+meaning of it all plainly enough, for it was but the development of
+his theory of carrying on the war.
+
+There is no indication, however, that England detected, in all that
+had gone on since her army landed at the Head of Elk, anything more
+than a couple of natural defeats for the rebels. General Howe was
+sufficiently impressed to draw in his troops, and keep very closely
+shut up in Philadelphia, but his country was not moved at all. The
+fact that it had taken forty-seven days to get their army from the
+Elk River to Philadelphia, and that in that time they had fought two
+successful battles and yet had left the American army still active
+and menacing, had no effect upon the British mind. The English were
+thoroughly satisfied that the colonists were cowards and were sure to
+be defeated, no matter what the actual facts might be. They regarded
+Washington as an upstart militia colonel, and they utterly failed to
+comprehend that they had to do with a great soldier, who was able to
+organize and lead an army, overcome incredible difficulties, beat and
+outgeneral them, bear defeat, and then fight again. They were unable
+to realize that the mere fact that such a man could be produced and
+such an army maintained meant the inevitable loss of colonies three
+thousand miles away. Men there were in England, undoubtedly, like
+Burke and Fox, who felt and understood the significance of these
+things, but the mass of the people, as well as the aristocracy, the
+king, and the cabinet, would have none of them. Rude contempt for
+other people is a warming and satisfying feeling, no doubt, and the
+English have had unquestionably great satisfaction from its free
+indulgence. No one should grudge it to them, least of all Americans.
+It is a comfort for which they have paid, so far as this country is
+concerned, by the loss of their North American colonies, and by a few
+other settlements with the United States at other and later times.
+
+But although Washington and his army failed to impress England, events
+had happened in the north, during this same summer, which were so
+sharp-pointed that they not only impressed the English people keenly
+and unpleasantly, but they actually penetrated the dull comprehension
+of George III. and his cabinet. "Why," asked an English lady of an
+American naval officer, in the year of grace 1887--"why is your ship
+named the Saratoga?" "Because," was the reply, "at Saratoga an English
+general and an English army of more than five thousand men surrendered
+to an American army and laid down their arms." Although apparently
+neglected now in the general scheme of British education, Saratoga
+was a memorable event in the summer of 1777, and the part taken by
+Washington in bringing about the great result has never, it would
+seem, been properly set forth. There is no need to trace here the
+history of that campaign, but it is necessary to show how much was
+done by the commander-in-chief, five hundred miles away, to win the
+final victory.
+
+In the winter of 1776-77 reports came that a general and an army were
+to be sent to Canada to invade the colonies from the north by way
+of Lake Champlain. The news does not seem to have made a very deep
+impression generally, nor to have been regarded as anything beyond
+the ordinary course of military events. But there was one man,
+fortunately, who in an instant perceived the full significance of this
+movement. Washington saw that the English had at last found an idea,
+or, at least, a general possessed of one. So long as the British
+confined themselves to fighting one or two battles, and then, taking
+possession of a single town, were content to sit down and pass their
+winter in good quarters, leaving the colonists in undisturbed control
+of all the rest of the country, there was nothing to be feared. The
+result of such campaigning as this could not be doubtful for a moment
+to any clear-sighted man. But when a plan was on foot, which, if
+successful, meant the control of the lakes and the Hudson, and of a
+line of communication from the north to the great colonial seaport,
+the case was very different. Such a campaign as this would cause
+the complete severance of New England, the chief source for men and
+supplies, from the rest of the colonies. It promised the mastery, not
+of a town, but of half a dozen States, and this to the American cause
+probably would be ruin.
+
+So strongly and clearly did Washington feel all this that his
+counter-plan was at once ready, and before people had fairly grasped
+the idea that there was to be a northern invasion, he was sending,
+early in March, urgent letters to New England to rouse up the militia
+and have them in readiness to march at a moment's notice. To Schuyler,
+in command of the northern department, he began now to write
+constantly, and to unfold the methods which must be pursued in order
+to compass the defeat of the invaders. His object was to delay the
+army of Burgoyne by every possible device, while steadily avoiding a
+pitched battle. Then the militia and hardy farmers of New England and
+New York were to be rallied, and were to fall upon the flank and
+rear of the British, harass them constantly, cut off their outlying
+parties, and finally hem them in and destroy them. If the army and
+people of the North could only be left undisturbed, it is evident from
+his letters that Washington felt no doubt as to the result in that
+quarter.
+
+But the North included only half the conditions essential to success.
+The grave danger feared by Washington was that Howe would understand
+the situation, and seeing his opportunity, would throw everything else
+aside, and marching northward with twenty thousand men, would make
+himself master of the Hudson, effect a junction with Burgoyne at
+Albany, and so cut the colonies in twain. From all he could learn,
+and from his knowledge of his opponents' character, Washington felt
+satisfied that Howe intended to capture Philadelphia, advancing,
+probably, through the Jerseys. Yet, despite his well-reasoned judgment
+on this point, it seemed so incredible that any soldier could fail to
+see that decisive victory lay in the north, and in a junction with
+Burgoyne, that Washington could not really and fully believe in such
+fatuity until he knew that Howe was actually landing at the Head
+of Elk. This is the reason for the anxiety displayed in the
+correspondence of that summer, for the changing and shifting
+movements, and for the obvious hesitation of opinion, so unusual with
+Washington at any time. Be it remembered, moreover, that it was an
+awful doubt which went to bed and got up and walked with him through
+all those long nights and days. If Howe, the dull and lethargic,
+should awake from his dream of conquering America by taking now and
+again an isolated town, and should break for the north with twenty
+thousand men, the fortunes of the young republic would come to their
+severest test.
+
+In that event, Washington knew well enough what he meant to do. He
+would march his main army to the Hudson, unite with the strong body
+of troops which he kept there constantly, contest every inch of the
+country and the river with Howe, and keep him at all hazards from
+getting to Albany. But he also knew well that if this were done the
+odds would be fearfully against him, for Howe would then not only
+outnumber him very greatly, but there would be ample time for the
+British to act, and but a short distance to be covered. We can
+imagine, therefore, his profound sense of relief when he found that
+Howe and his army were really south of Philadelphia, after a waste of
+many precious weeks. He could now devote himself single-hearted to the
+defense of the city, for distance and time were at last on his side,
+and all that remained was to fight Howe so hard and steadily that
+neither in victory nor defeat would he remember Burgoyne. Pitt said
+that he would conquer Canada on the plains of Germany, and Burgoyne
+was compelled to surrender in large measure by the campaign of
+Washington in New Jersey and Pennsylvania.
+
+If we study carefully Washington's correspondence during that eventful
+summer, grouping together that relating to the northern campaign, and
+comparing it with that which dealt with the affairs of his own army,
+all that has just been said comes out with entire clearness, and it is
+astonishing to see how exactly events justified his foresight. If
+he could only hold Howe in the south, he was quite willing to trust
+Burgoyne to the rising of the people and to the northern wilderness.
+Every effort he made was in this direction, beginning, as has been
+said, by his appeals to the New England governors in March. Schuyler,
+on his part, was thoroughly imbued with Washington's other leading
+idea, that the one way to victory was by retarding the enemy. At the
+outset everything went utterly and disastrously wrong. Washington
+counted on an obstinate struggle, and a long delay at Ticonderoga, for
+he had not been on the ground, and could not imagine that our officers
+would fortify everything but the one commanding point.
+
+The loss of the forts appalled the country and disappointed
+Washington, but did not shake his nerve for an instant. He wrote to
+Schuyler: "This stroke is severe indeed, and has distressed us much.
+But notwithstanding things at present have a dark and gloomy aspect,
+I hope a spirited opposition will check the progress of General
+Burgoyne's army, and that the confidence derived from his success will
+hurry him into measures that will, in their consequences, be favorable
+to us. We should never despair; our situation has before been
+unpromising, and has changed for the better; so I trust it will again.
+If new difficulties arise we must only put forth new exertions, and
+proportion our efforts to the exigency of the times." Even after this
+seemingly crushing defeat he still felt sure of Burgoyne, so long as
+he was unsupported. Suiting the action to the word, he again bent
+every nerve to rouse New England and get out her militia. When he was
+satisfied that Howe was landing below Philadelphia, the first thing he
+did was to send forth the same cry in the same quarter, to bring out
+more men against Burgoyne. He showed, too, the utmost generosity
+toward the northern army, sending thither all the troops he could
+possibly spare, and even parting with his favorite corps of Morgan's
+riflemen. Despite his liberality, the commanders in the north
+were unreasonable in their demands, and when they asked too much,
+Washington flatly declined to send more men, for he would not weaken
+himself unduly, and he knew what they did not see, that the fate of
+the northern invasion turned largely on his own ability to cope with
+Howe.
+
+The blame for the loss of the forts fell of course upon Schuyler,
+who was none too popular in Congress, and who with St. Clair was
+accordingly made a scape-goat. Congress voted that Washington should
+appoint a new commander, and the New England delegates visited him to
+urge the selection of Gates. This task Washington refused to perform,
+alleging as a reason that the northern department had always been
+considered a separate command, and that he had never done more than
+advise. These reasons do not look very weighty or very strong, and it
+is not quite clear what the underlying motive was. Washington never
+shrank from responsibility, and he knew very well that he could pick
+out the best man more unerringly than Congress. But he also saw
+that Congress favored Gates, whom he would not have chosen, and he
+therefore probably felt that it was more important to have some one
+whom New England believed in and approved than a better soldier who
+would have been unwelcome to her representatives. It is certain that
+he would not have acted thus, had he thought that generalship was an
+important element in the problem; but he relied on a popular uprising,
+and not on the commander, to defeat Burgoyne. He may have thought,
+too, that it was a mistake to relieve Schuyler, who was working in the
+directions which he had pointed out, and who, if not a great soldier,
+was a brave, high-minded, and sensible man, devoted to his chief and
+to the country. It was Schuyler indeed who, by his persistent labor in
+breaking down bridges, tearing up roads, and felling trees, while he
+gathered men industriously in all directions, did more than any one
+else at that moment to prepare the way for an ultimate victory.
+
+Whatever his feelings may have been in regard to the command of the
+northern department, Washington made no change in his own course after
+Gates had been appointed. He knew that Gates was at least harmless,
+and not likely to block the natural course of events. He therefore
+felt free to press his own policy without cessation, and without
+apprehension. He took care that Lincoln and Arnold should be there to
+look after the New England militia, and he wrote to Governor Clinton,
+in whose energy and courage he had great confidence, to rouse up the
+men of New York. He suggested the points of attack, and at every
+moment advised and counseled and watched, holding all the while a firm
+grip on Howe. Slowly and surely the net, thus painfully set, tightened
+round Burgoyne. The New Englanders whipped one division at Bennington,
+and the New Yorkers shattered another at Oriskany and Fort Schuyler.
+The country people turned out in defense of their invaded homes and
+poured into the American camp. Burgoyne struggled and advanced,
+fought and retreated. Gates, stupid, lethargic, and good-natured, did
+nothing, but there was no need of generalship; and Arnold was there,
+turbulent and quarrelsome, but full of daring; and Morgan, too,
+equally ready; and they and others did all the necessary fighting.
+
+Poor Burgoyne, a brave gentleman, if not a great general, had
+the misfortune to be a clever man in the service of a stupid
+administration, and he met the fate usually meted out under such
+circumstances to men of ideas. Howe went off to the conquest of
+Philadelphia, Clinton made a brief burning and plundering raid up the
+river, and the northern invasion, which really had meaning, was left
+to its fate. It was a hard fate, but there was no escape. Outnumbered,
+beaten, and caught, Burgoyne surrendered. If there had been a
+fighting-man at the head of the American army, the British would have
+surrendered as prisoners of war, and not on conditions. Schuyler, we
+may be sure, whatever his failings, would never have let them off
+so easily. But it was sufficient as it was. The wilderness, and the
+militia of New York and New England swarming to the defense of their
+homes, had done the work. It all fell out just as Washington had
+foreseen and planned, and England, despising her enemy and their
+commander, saw one of her armies surrender, and might have known, if
+she had had the wit, that the colonies were now lost forever. The
+Revolution had been saved at Trenton; it was established at Saratoga.
+In the one case it was the direct, in the other the indirect, work of
+Washington.
+
+Poor Gates, with his dull brain turning under the impression that this
+crowning mercy had been his own doing, lost his head, forgot that
+there was a commander-in-chief, and sending his news to Congress, left
+Washington to find out from chance rumors, and a tardy letter from
+Putnam, that Burgoyne had actually surrendered. This gross slight,
+however, had deeper roots than the mere exultation of victory acting
+on a heavy and common mind. It represented a hostile feeling which
+had been slowly increasing for some time, which had been carefully
+nurtured by those interested in its growth, and which blossomed
+rapidly in the heated air of military triumph. From the outset it had
+been Washington's business to fight the enemy, manage the army,
+deal with Congress, and consider in all its bearings the political
+situation at home and abroad; but he was now called upon to meet a
+trouble outside the line of duty, and to face attacks from within,
+which, ideally speaking, ought never to have existed, but which, in
+view of our very fallible humanity, were certain to come sooner or
+later. Much domestic malice Washington was destined to encounter in
+the later years of political strife, but this was the only instance in
+his military career where enmity came to overt action and open speech.
+The first and the last of its kind, this assault upon him has much
+interest, for a strong light is thrown upon his character by studying
+him, thus beset, and by seeing just how he passed through this most
+trying and disagreeable of ordeals.
+
+The germ of the difficulties was to be found where we should expect
+it, in the differences between the men of speech and the man of
+action, between the lawmakers and the soldier. Washington had been
+obliged to tell Congress a great many plain and unpleasant truths.
+It was part of his duty, and he did it accordingly. He was always
+dignified, calm, and courteous, but he had an alarmingly direct way
+with him, especially when he was annoyed. He was simple almost to
+bluntness, but now and then would use a grave irony which must
+have made listening ears tingle. Congress was patriotic and
+well-intentioned, and on the whole stood bravely by its general,
+but it was unversed in war, very impatient, and at times wildly
+impracticable. Here is a letter which depicts the situation, and the
+relation between the general and his rulers, with great clearness.
+March 14, 1777, Washington wrote to the President: "Could I accomplish
+the important objects so eagerly wished by Congress,--'confining the
+enemy within their present quarters, preventing their getting
+supplies from the country, and totally subduing them before they are
+reinforced,'--I should be happy indeed. But what prospect or hope can
+there be of my effecting so desirable a work at this time?"
+
+We can imagine how exasperating such requests and suggestions must
+have been. It was very much as if Congress had said: "Good General,
+bring in the Atlantic tides and drown the enemy; or pluck the moon
+from the sky and give it to us, as a mark of your loyalty." Such
+requests are not soothing to any man struggling his best with great
+anxieties, and with a host of petty cares. Washington, nevertheless,
+kept his temper, and replied only by setting down a few hard facts
+which answered the demands of Congress in a final manner, and with all
+the sting of truth. Thus a little irritation had been generated
+in Congress against the general, and there were some members who
+developed a good deal of pronounced hostility. Sam Adams, a born
+agitator and a trained politician, unequaled almost in our history as
+an organizer and manager of men, able, narrow, coldly fierce, the man
+of the town meeting and the caucus, had no possibility of intellectual
+sympathy with the silent, patient, hard-gripping soldier, hemmed with
+difficulties, but ever moving straight forward to his object, with
+occasional wild gusts of reckless fighting passion. John Adams, too,
+brilliant of speech and pen, ardent, patriotic, and high-minded,
+was, in his way, out of touch with Washington. Although he moved
+Washington's appointment, he began almost immediately to find fault
+with him, an exercise to which he was extremely prone. Inasmuch as he
+could see how things ought to be done, he could not understand
+why they were not done in that way at once, for he had a fine
+forgetfulness of other people's difficulties, as is the case with most
+of us. The New England representatives generally took their cue from
+these two, especially James Lovell, who carried his ideas into action,
+and obtained a little niche in the temple of fame by making
+himself disagreeably conspicuous in the intrigue against the
+commander-in-chief, when it finally developed.
+
+There were others, too, outside New England who were discontented, and
+among them Richard Henry Lee, from the General's own State. He was
+evidently critical and somewhat unfriendly at this time, although the
+reasons for his being so are not now very distinct. Then there was Mr.
+Clark of New Jersey, an excellent man, who thought the General was
+invading popular rights; and to him others might be added who vaguely
+felt that things ought to be better than they were. This party,
+adverse to Washington, obtained the appointment of Gates to the
+northern department, under whom the army won a great victory, and they
+were correspondingly happy. John Adams wrote his wife that one
+cause of thanksgiving was that the tide had not been turned by the
+commander-in-chief and southern troops, for the adulation would have
+been intolerable; and that a man may be wise and virtuous and not a
+deity.
+
+Here, so far as the leading and influential men were concerned, the
+matter would have dropped, probably; but there were lesser men like
+Lovell who were much encouraged by the surrender of Burgoyne, and who
+thought that they now might supplant Washington with Gates. Before
+long, too, they found in the army itself some active and not
+over-scrupulous allies. The most conspicuous figure among the military
+malcontents was Gates himself, who, although sluggish in all things,
+still had a keen eye for his own advancement. He showed plainly how
+much his head had been turned by the victory at Saratoga when he
+failed to inform Washington of the fact, and when he afterward delayed
+sending back troops until he was driven to it by the determined energy
+of Hamilton, who was sent to bring him to reason. Next in importance
+to Gates was Thomas Mifflin, an ardent patriot, but a rather
+light-headed person, who espoused the opposition to Washington for
+causes now somewhat misty, but among which personal vanity played no
+inconsiderable part. About these two leaders gathered a certain number
+of inferior officers of no great moment then or since.
+
+The active and moving spirit in the party, however, was one Conway, an
+Irish adventurer, who made himself so prominent that the whole affair
+passed into history bearing his name, and the "Conway cabal" has
+obtained an enduring notoriety which its hero never acquired by any
+public services. Conway was one of the foreign officers who had gained
+the favor of Congress and held the rank of brigadier-general, but this
+by no means filled the measure of his pretensions, and when De Kalb
+was made a major-general Conway immediately started forward with
+claims to the same rank. He received strong support from the factious
+opposition, and there was so much stir that Washington sharply
+interfered, for to his general objection to these lavish gifts of
+excessive rank was added an especial distrust in this particular
+case. In his calm way he had evidently observed Conway, and with his
+unerring judgment of men had found him wanting. "I may add," he wrote
+to Lee, "and I think with truth, that it will give a fatal blow to
+the existence of the army. Upon so interesting a subject I must speak
+plainly. General Conway's merit then as an officer, and his importance
+in this army, exist more in his own imagination than in reality."
+This plain talk soon reached Conway, drove him at once into furious
+opposition, and caused him to impart to the faction a cohesion and
+vigor which they had before lacked. Circumstances favored them. The
+victory at Saratoga gave them something tangible to go upon, and the
+first move was made when Gates failed to inform Washington of the
+surrender, and then held back the troops sent for so urgently by the
+commander-in-chief, who had sacrificed so much from his own army to
+secure that of the north.
+
+At this very moment, indeed, when Washington was calling for troops,
+he was struggling with the utmost tenacity to hold control of the
+Delaware. He made every arrangement possible to maintain the forts,
+and the first assaults upon them were repulsed with great slaughter,
+the British in the attack on Fort Mercer losing Count Donop, the
+leader, and four hundred men. Then came a breathing space, and then
+the attacks were renewed, supported by vessels, and both forts were
+abandoned after the works had been leveled to the ground by the
+enemy's fire. Meanwhile Hamilton, sent to the north, had done his
+work; Gates had been stirred, and Putnam, well-meaning but stubborn,
+had been sharply brought to his bearings. Reinforcements had come, and
+Washington meditated an attack on Philadelphia. There was a good deal
+of clamor for something brilliant and decisive, for both the army and
+the public were a little dizzy from the effects of Saratoga, and with
+sublime blindness to different conditions, could not see why the same
+performance should not be repeated to order everywhere else. To oppose
+this wish was trying, doubly trying to a man eager to fight, and with
+his full share of the very human desire to be as successful as his
+neighbor. It required great nerve to say No; but Washington did not
+lack that quality, and as general and statesman he reconnoitred the
+enemy's works, weighed the chances, said No decisively, and took up an
+almost impregnable position at White Marsh. Thereupon Howe announced
+that he would drive Washington beyond the mountains, and on December
+4 he approached the American lines with this highly proper purpose.
+There was some skirmishing along the foot of the hills of an
+unimportant character, and on the third day Washington, in high
+spirits, thought an attack would be made, and rode among the soldiers
+directing and encouraging them. Nothing came of it, however, but more
+skirmishing, and the next day Howe marched back to Philadelphia. He
+had offered battle in all ways, he had invited action; but again, with
+the same pressure both from his own spirit and from public opinion,
+Washington had said No. On his own ground he was more than ready to
+fight Howe, but despite the terrible temptation he would fight on no
+other. Not the least brilliant exploit of Wellington was the retreat
+to the shrewdly prepared lines of Torres Vedras, and one of the most
+difficult successes of Washington was his double refusal to fight as
+the year 1777 drew to a close.
+
+Like most right and wise things, Washington's action looks now, a
+century later, so plainly sensible that it is hard to imagine how any
+one could have questioned it; and one cannot, without a great effort,
+realize the awful strain upon will and temper involved in thus
+refusing battle. If the proposed attack on Philadelphia had failed, or
+if our army had come down from the hills and been beaten in the fields
+below, no American army would have remained. The army of the north, of
+which men were talking so proudly, had done its work and dispersed.
+The fate of the Revolution rested where it had been from the
+beginning, with Washington and his soldiers. Drive them beyond the
+mountains and there was no other army to fall back upon. On their
+existence everything hinged, and when Howe got back to Philadelphia,
+there they were still existent, still coherent, hovering on his flank,
+cooping him up in his lines, and leaving him master of little more
+than the ground his men encamped upon, and the streets his sentinels
+patrolled. When Franklin was told in Paris that Howe had taken
+Philadelphia, his reply was, "Philadelphia has taken Howe."
+
+But, with the exception of Franklin, contemporary opinion in the month
+of December, 1777, was very different from that of to-day, and the
+cabal had been at work ever since the commander-in-chief had stepped
+between Conway and the exorbitant rank he coveted. Washington, indeed,
+was perfectly aware of what was going on. He was quiet and dignified,
+impassive and silent, but he knew when men, whether great or small,
+were plotting against him, and he watched them with the same keenness
+as he did Howe and the British.
+
+In the midst of his struggle to hold the Delaware forts, and of his
+efforts to get back his troops from the north, a story came to him
+that arrested his attention. Wilkinson, of Gates's staff, had come to
+Congress with the news of the surrender. He had been fifteen days on
+the road and three days getting his papers in order, and when it was
+proposed to give him a sword, Roger Sherman suggested that they had
+better "give the lad a pair of spurs." This thrust and some delay
+seem to have nettled Wilkinson, who was swelling with importance, and
+although he was finally made a brigadier-general, he rode off to the
+north much ruffled. In later years Wilkinson was secretive enough; but
+in his hot youth he could not hold his tongue, and on his way back to
+Gates he talked. What he said was marked and carried to headquarters,
+and on November 9 Washington wrote to Conway:--
+
+    "A letter which I received last night contained the following
+    paragraph,--'In a letter from General Conway to General Gates he
+    says, "_Heaven has determined to save your country, or a weak
+    general and bad counsellors would have ruined it_" I am, sir, your
+    humble servant,'" etc.
+
+This curt note fell upon Conway with stunning effect. It is said that
+he tried to apologize, and he certainly resigned. As for Gates, he
+fell to writing letters filled with expressions of wonder as to who
+had betrayed him, and writhed most pitiably under the exposure.
+Washington's replies are models of cold dignity, and the calm
+indifference with which he treated the whole matter, while holding
+Gates to the point with relentless grasp, is very interesting. The
+cabal was seriously shaken by this sudden blow. It must have dawned
+upon them dimly that they might have mistaken their man, and that the
+silent soldier was perhaps not so easy to dispose of by an intrigue as
+they had fancied. Nevertheless, they rallied, and taking advantage of
+the feeling in Congress created by Burgoyne's surrender, they set to
+work to get control of military matters. The board of war was enlarged
+to five, with Gates at its head and Mifflin a member, and, thus
+constituted, it proceeded to make Conway inspector-general, with the
+rank of major-general. This, after Conway's conduct, was a direct
+insult to Washington, and marks the highest point attained by his
+opponents.
+
+In Congress, too, they became more active, and John Jay said that
+there was in that body a party bitterly hostile to Washington. We know
+little of the members of that faction now, for they never took the
+trouble to refer to the matter in after years, and did everything that
+silence could do to have it all forgotten. But the party existed none
+the less, and significant letters have come down to us, one of them
+written by Lovell, and two anonymous, addressed respectively to
+Patrick Henry and to Laurens, then president, which show a bitter and
+vindictive spirit, and breathe but one purpose. The same thought is
+constantly reiterated, that with a good general the northern army had
+won a great victory, and that the main army, if commanded in the same
+way, would do likewise. The plan was simple and coherent. The cabal
+wished to drive Washington out of power and replace him with Gates.
+With this purpose they wrote to Henry and Laurens; with this purpose
+they made Conway inspector-general.
+
+When they turned from intrigue to action, however, they began to fail.
+One of their pet schemes was the conquest of Canada, and with
+this object Lafayette was sent to the lakes, only to find that no
+preparations had been made, because the originators of the idea were
+ignorant and inefficient. The expedition promptly collapsed and was
+abandoned, with much instruction in consequence to Congress and
+people. Under their control the commissariat also went hopelessly to
+pieces, and a committee of Congress proceeded to Valley Forge and
+found that in this direction, too, the new managers had grievously
+failed. Then the original Conway letter, uncovered so unceremoniously
+by Washington, kept returning to plague its author. Gates's
+correspondence went on all through the winter, and with every letter
+Gates floundered more and more, and Washington's replies grew more
+and more freezing and severe. Gates undertook to throw the blame on
+Wilkinson, who became loftily indignant and challenged him. The two
+made up their quarrel very soon in a ludicrous manner, but Wilkinson
+in the interval had an interview with Washington, which revealed an
+amount of duplicity and perfidy on the part of the cabal, so shocking
+to the former's sensitive nature, that he resigned his secretaryship
+of the board of war on account, as he frankly said, of the treachery
+and falsehood of Gates. Such a quarrel of course hurt the cabal, but
+it was still more weakened by Gates himself, whose only idea seemed
+to be to supersede Washington by slighting him, refusing troops, and
+declining to propose his health at dinner,--methods as unusual as they
+were feeble.
+
+The cabal, in fact, was so weak in ability and character that the
+moment any responsibility fell upon its members it was certain to
+break down, but the absolutely fatal obstacle to its schemes was the
+man it aimed to overthrow. The idea evidently was that Washington
+could be driven to resign. They knew that they could not get either
+Congress or public opinion to support them in removing him, but they
+believed that a few well-placed slights and insults would make him
+remove himself. It was just here that they made their mistake.
+Washington, as they were aware, was sensitive and high-spirited to
+the last degree, and he had no love for office, but he was not one of
+those weaklings who leave power and place in a pet because they are
+criticised and assailed. He was not ambitious in the ordinary personal
+sense, but he had a passion for success. Whether it was breaking a
+horse, or reclaiming land, or fighting Indians, or saving a state,
+whatever he set his hand to, that he carried through to the end. With
+him there never was any shadow of turning back. When, without any
+self-seeking, he was placed at the head of the Revolution, he made
+up his mind that he would carry it through everything to victory, if
+victory were possible. Death or a prison could stop him, but neither
+defeat nor neglect, and still less the forces of intrigue and cabal.
+
+When he wrote to his brother announcing Burgoyne's surrender, he had
+nothing to say of the slight Gates put upon him, but merely added in
+a postscript, "I most devoutly congratulate my country and every
+well-wisher to the cause on this signal stroke of Providence." This
+was his tone to every one, both in private and public. His complaint
+of not being properly notified he made to Gates alone, and put it in
+the form of a rebuke. He knew of the movement against him from the
+beginning, but apparently the first person he confided in was Conway,
+when he sent him the brief note of November 9. Even after the cabal
+was fully developed, he wrote about it only once or twice, when
+compelled to do so, and there is no evidence that he ever talked about
+it except, perhaps, to a few most intimate friends. In a letter to
+Patrick Henry he said that he was obliged to allow a false impression
+as to his strength to go abroad, and that he suffered in consequence;
+and he added, with a little touch of feeling, that while the
+yeomanry of New York and New England poured into the camp of Gates,
+outnumbering the enemy two to one, he could get no aid of that sort
+from Pennsylvania, and still marvels were demanded of him.
+
+Thus he went on his way through the winter, silent except when obliged
+to answer some friend, and always ready to meet his enemies. When
+Conway complained to Congress of his reception at camp, Washington
+wrote the president that he was not given to dissimulation, and that
+he certainly had been cold in his manner. He wrote to Lafayette that
+slander had been busy, and that he had urged his officers to be
+cool and dispassionate as to Conway, adding, "I have no doubt that
+everything happens for the best, that we shall triumph over all our
+misfortunes, and in the end be happy; when, my dear Marquis, if you
+will give me your company in Virginia, we will laugh at our past
+difficulties and the folly of others." But though he wrote thus
+lightly to his friends, he followed Gates sternly enough, and kept
+that gentleman occupied as he drove him from point to point. Among
+other things he touched upon Conway's character with sharp irony,
+saying, "It is, however, greatly to be lamented that this adept in
+military science did not employ his abilities in the progress of the
+campaign, in pointing out those wise measures which were calculated to
+give us 'that degree of success we could reasonably expect.'"
+
+Poor Gates did not find these letters pleasant reading, and one more
+curt note, on February 24, finished the controversy. By that time the
+cabal was falling to pieces, and in a little while was dispersed.
+Wilkinson's resignation was accepted, Mifflin was put under
+Washington's orders, and Gates was sent to his command in the north.
+Conway resigned one day in a pet, and found his resignation accepted
+and his power gone with unpleasant suddenness. He then got into a
+quarrel with General Cadwalader on account of his attacks on the
+commander-in-chief. The quarrel ended in a duel. Conway was badly
+wounded, and thinking himself dying, wrote a contrite note of apology
+to Washington, then recovered, left the country, and disappeared from
+the ken of history. Thus domestic malice and the "bitter party" in
+Congress failed and perished. They had dashed themselves in vain
+against the strong man who held firmly both soldiers and people.
+"While the public are satisfied with my endeavors, I mean not to
+shrink from the cause." So Washington wrote to Gordon as the cabal
+was coming to an end, and in that spirit he crushed silently and
+thoroughly the faction that sought to thwart his purpose, and drive
+him from office by sneers, slights, and intrigues.
+
+These attacks upon him came at the darkest moment of his military
+career. Defeated at Brandywine and Germantown, he had been forced from
+the forts after a desperate struggle, had seen Philadelphia and the
+river fall completely into the hands of the enemy, and, bitterest of
+all, he had been obliged to hold back from another assault on the
+British lines, and to content himself with baffling Howe when that
+gentleman came out and offered battle. Then the enemy withdrew to
+their comfortable quarters, and he was left to face again the harsh
+winter and the problem of existence. It was the same ever recurring
+effort to keep the American army, and thereby the American Revolution,
+alive. There was nothing in this task to stir the blood and rouse the
+heart. It was merely a question of grim tenacity of purpose and of the
+ability to comprehend its overwhelming importance. It was not a work
+that appealed to or inspirited any one, and to carry it through to a
+successful issue rested with the commander-in-chief alone.
+
+In the frost and snow he withdrew to Valley Forge, within easy
+striking distance of Philadelphia. He had literally nothing to rely
+upon but his own stern will and strong head. His soldiers, steadily
+dwindling in numbers, marked their road to Valley Forge by the blood
+from their naked feet. They were destitute and in rags. When they
+reached their destination they had no shelter, and it was only by the
+energy and ingenuity of the General that they were led to build huts,
+and thus secure a measure of protection against the weather. There
+were literally no supplies, and the Board of War failed completely to
+remedy the evil. The army was in such straits that it was obliged
+to seize by force the commonest necessaries. This was a desperate
+expedient and shocked public opinion, which Washington, as a
+statesman, watched and cultivated as an essential element of success
+in his difficult business. He disliked to take extreme measures, but
+there was nothing else to be done when his men were starving, when
+nearly three thousand of them were unfit for duty because "barefoot
+and otherwise naked," and when a large part of the army were obliged
+to sit up all night by the fires for warmth's sake, having no blankets
+with which to cover themselves if they lay down. With nothing to eat,
+nothing to burn, nothing wherewith to clothe themselves, wasting away
+from exposure and disease, we can only wonder at the forbearance which
+stayed the hand of violent seizure so long. Yet, as Washington had
+foreseen, there was even then an outcry against him. Nevertheless, his
+action ultimately did more good than harm in the very matter of public
+opinion, for it opened men's eyes, and led to some tardy improvements
+and some increased effort.
+
+Worse even than this criticism was the remonstrance of the legislature
+of Pennsylvania against the going into winter-quarters. They expected
+Washington to keep the open field, and even to attack the British,
+with his starving, ragged army, in all the severity of a northern
+winter. They had failed him at every point and in every promise, in
+men, clothing, and supplies. They were not content that he covered
+their State and kept the Revolution alive among the huts of Valley
+Forge. They wished the impossible. They asked for the moon, and then
+cried out because it was not given to them. It was a stupid, unkind
+thing to do, and Washington answered their complaints in a letter to
+the president of Congress. After setting forth the shortcomings of the
+Pennsylvanians in the very plainest of plain English, he said: "But
+what makes this matter still more extraordinary in my eye is that
+these very gentlemen should think a winter's campaign, and the
+covering of these States from the invasion of an enemy, so easy and
+practicable a business. I can answer those gentlemen, that it is a
+much easier and less distressing thing to draw remonstrances in a
+comfortable room, by a good fireside, than to occupy a cold, bleak
+hill, and sleep under frost and snow, without clothes or blankets.
+However, although they seem to have little feeling for the naked and
+distressed soldiers, I feel superabundantly for them, and from my soul
+I pity those miseries which it is neither in my power to relieve or
+prevent."
+
+This was not a safe man for the gentlemen of Pennsylvania to cross too
+far, nor could they swerve him, with all his sense of public opinion,
+one jot from what he meant to do. In the stern rebuke, and in the
+deep pathos of these sentences, we catch a glimpse of the silent and
+self-controlled man breaking out for a moment as he thinks of his
+faithful and suffering men. Whatever happened, he would hold them
+together, for in this black time we detect the fear which haunted
+him, that the people at large might give way. He was determined on
+independence. He felt a keen hatred against England for her whole
+conduct toward America, and this hatred was sharpened by the efforts
+of the English to injure him personally by forged letters and other
+despicable contrivances. He was resolved that England should never
+prevail, and his language in regard to her has a fierceness of tone
+which is full of meaning. He was bent, also, on success, and if under
+the long strain the people should weaken or waver, he was determined
+to maintain the army at all hazards.
+
+So, while he struggled against cold and hunger and destitution,
+while he contended with faction at home and lukewarmness in the
+administration of the war, even then, in the midst of these trials, he
+was devising a new system for the organization and permanence of his
+forces. Congress meddled with the matter of prisoners and with the
+promotion of officers, and he argued with and checked them, and still
+pressed on in his plans. He insisted that officers must have better
+provision, for they had begun to resign. "You must appeal to their
+interest as well as to their patriotism," he wrote, "and you must give
+them half-pay and full pay in proper measure." "You must follow the
+same policy with the men," he said; "you must have done with short
+enlistments. In a word, gentlemen, you must give me an army,
+a lasting, enduring, continental army, for therein lies
+independence."[1] It all comes out now, through the dust of details
+and annoyances, through the misery and suffering of that wretched
+winter, through the shrill cries of ignorance and hostility,--the
+great, clear, strong policy which meant to substitute an army for
+militia, and thereby secure victory and independence. It is the burden
+of all his letters to the governors of States, and to his officers
+everywhere. "I will hold the army together," he said, "but you on all
+sides must help me build it up."[1]
+
+[Footnote 1: These two quotations are not literal, of course, but give
+the substance of many letters.]
+
+Thus with much strenuous labor and many fervent appeals he held his
+army together in some way, and slowly improved it. His system began to
+be put in force, his reiterated lessons were coming home to Congress,
+and his reforms and suggestions were in some measure adopted. Under
+the sound and trained guidance of Baron Steuben a drill and discipline
+were introduced, which soon showed marked results. Greene succeeded
+Mifflin as quartermaster-general, and brought order out of chaos. The
+Conway cabal went to pieces, and as spring opened Washington began to
+see light once more. To have held on through that winter was a great
+feat, but to have built up and improved the army at such a time was
+much more wonderful. It shows a greatness of character and a force of
+will rarer than military genius, and enables us to understand better,
+perhaps, than almost any of his victories, why it was that the success
+of the Revolution lay in such large measure in the hands of one man.
+
+After Howe's withdrawal from the Jerseys in the previous year, a
+contemporary wrote that Washington was left with the remnants of an
+army "to scuffle for liberty." The winter had passed, and he was
+prepared to scuffle again. On May 11 Sir Henry Clinton relieved Sir
+William Howe at Philadelphia, and the latter took his departure in
+a blaze of mock glory and resplendent millinery, known as the
+Mischianza, a fit close to a career of failure, which he was too dull
+to appreciate. The new commander was more active than his predecessor,
+but no cleverer, and no better fitted to cope with Washington. It was
+another characteristic choice on the part of the British ministry, who
+could never muster enough intellect to understand that the Americans
+would fight, and that they were led by a really great soldier. The
+coming of Clinton did not alter existing conditions.
+
+Expecting a movement by the enemy, Washington sent Lafayette forward
+to watch Philadelphia. Clinton and Howe, eager for a victory before
+departure, determined to cut him off, and by a rapid movement nearly
+succeeded in so doing. Timely information, presence of mind, and
+quickness alone enabled the young Frenchman to escape, narrowly but
+completely. Meantime, a cause for delay, that curse of the British
+throughout the war, supervened. A peace commission, consisting of the
+Earl of Carlisle, William Eden, and Governor Johnstone, arrived. They
+were excellent men, but they came too late. Their propositions three
+years before would have been well enough, but as it was they were
+worse than nothing. Coolly received, they held a fruitless interview
+with a committee of Congress, tried to bribe and intrigue, found that
+their own army had been already ordered to evacuate Philadelphia
+without their knowledge, and finally gave up their task in
+angry despair, and returned to England to join in the chorus of
+fault-finding which was beginning to sound very loud in ministerial
+ears.
+
+Meanwhile, Washington waited and watched, puzzled by the delay, and
+hoping only to harass Sir Henry with militia on the march to New York.
+But as the days slipped by, the Americans grew stronger, while the
+British had been weakened by wholesale desertions. When he finally
+started, he had with him probably sixteen to seventeen thousand men,
+while the Americans had apparently at least thirteen thousand, nearly
+all continental troops.[1] Under these circumstances, Washington
+determined to bring on a battle. He was thwarted at the outset by his
+officers, as was wont to be the case. Lee had returned more whimsical
+than ever, and at the moment was strongly adverse to an attack, and
+was full of wise saws about building a bridge of gold for the flying
+enemy. The ascendancy which, as an English officer, he still retained
+enabled him to get a certain following, and the councils of war
+which were held compared unfavorably, as Hamilton put it, with the
+deliberations of midwives. Washington was harassed of course by all
+this, but he did not stay his purpose, and as soon as he knew that
+Clinton actually had marched, he broke camp at Valley Forge and
+started in pursuit. There were more councils of an old-womanish
+character, but finally Washington took the matter into his own
+hands, and ordered forth a strong detachment to attack the British
+rear-guard. They set out on the 25th, and as Lee, to whom the command
+belonged, did not care to go, Lafayette was put in charge. As soon as
+Lafayette had departed, however, Lee changed his mind, and insisted
+that all the detachments in front, amounting to five thousand men,
+formed a division so large that it was unjust not to give him the
+command. Washington, therefore, sent him forward next day with two
+additional brigades, and then Lee by seniority took command on the
+27th of the entire advance.
+
+[Footnote 1: The authorities are hopelessly conflicting as to the
+numbers on both sides. The British returns on March 26 showed over
+19,000 men. They had since that date been weakened by desertions, but
+to what extent we can only conjecture. The detachments to Florida
+and the West Indies ordered from England do not appear to have taken
+place. The estimate of 16,000 to 17,000 seems the most reasonable.
+Washington returned his rank and file as just over 10,000, which would
+indicate a total force of 13,000 to 14,000, possibly more. Washington
+clearly underestimated the enemy, and the best conclusion seems to be
+that they were nearly matched in numbers, with a slight inferiority on
+the American side.]
+
+In the evening of that day, Washington came up, reconnoitred the
+enemy, and saw that, although their position was a strong one, another
+day's unmolested march would make it still stronger. He therefore
+resolved to attack the next morning, and gave Lee then and there
+explicit orders to that effect. In the early dawn he dispatched
+similar orders, but Lee apparently did nothing except move feebly
+forward, saying to Lafayette, "You don't know the British soldiers;
+we cannot stand against them." He made a weak attempt to cut off a
+covering party, marched and countermarched, ordered and countermanded,
+until Lafayette and Wayne, eager to fight, knew not what to do, and
+sent hot messages to Washington to come to them.
+
+Thus hesitating and confused, Lee permitted Clinton to get his baggage
+and train to the front, and to mass all his best troops in the rear
+under Cornwallis, who then advanced against the American lines. Now
+there were no orders at all, and the troops did not know what to do,
+or where to go. They stood still, then began to fall back, and then to
+retreat. A very little more and there would have been a rout. As it
+was, Washington alone prevented disaster. His early reports from the
+front from Dickinson's outlying party, and from Lee himself, were all
+favorable. Then he heard the firing, and putting the main army in
+motion, he rode rapidly forward. First he encountered a straggler, who
+talked of defeat. He could not believe it, and the fellow was pushed
+aside and silenced. Then came another and another, all with songs of
+death. Finally, officers and regiments began to come. No one knew why
+they fled, or what had happened. As the ill tidings grew thicker,
+Washington spurred sharper and rode faster through the deep sand, and
+under the blazing midsummer sun. At last he met Lee and the main body
+all in full retreat. He rode straight at Lee, savage with anger, not
+pleasant to look at, one may guess, and asked fiercely and with a deep
+oath, tradition says, what it all meant. Lee was no coward, and did
+not usually lack for words. He was, too, a hardened man of the world,
+and, in the phrase of that day, impudent to boot. But then and there
+he stammered and hesitated. The fierce question was repeated. Lee
+gathered himself and tried to excuse and palliate what had happened,
+but although the brief words that followed are variously reported to
+us across the century, we know that Washington rebuked him in such a
+way, and with such passion, that all was over between them. Lee had
+committed the one unpardonable sin in the eyes of his commander. He
+had failed to fight when the enemy was upon him. He had disobeyed
+orders and retreated. It was the end of him. He went to the rear,
+thence to a court-martial, thence to dismissal and to a solitary life
+with a well-founded suspicion of treason hanging about him. He was an
+intelligent, quick-witted, unstable man, much overrated because he
+was an English officer among a colonial people. He was ever treated
+magnanimously by Washington after the day of battle at Monmouth, but
+he then disappeared from the latter's life.
+
+When Lee bowed before the storm and stepped aside, Washington was left
+to deal with the danger and confusion around him. Thus did he tell the
+story afterwards to his brother: "A retreat, however, was the fact, be
+the causes what they may; and the disorder arising from it would have
+proved fatal to the army, had not that bountiful Providence, which has
+never failed us in the hour of distress, enabled me to form a regiment
+or two (of those that were retreating) in the face of the enemy, and
+under their fire; by which means a stand was made long enough (the
+place through which the enemy were pressing being narrow) to form the
+troops, that were advancing, upon an advantageous piece of ground in
+the rear." We cannot add much to these simple and modest words, for
+they tell the whole story. Having put Lee aside, Washington rallied
+the broken troops, brought them into position, turned them back, and
+held the enemy in check. It was not an easy feat, but it was done, and
+when Lee's division again fell back in good order the main army was in
+position, and the action became general. The British were repulsed,
+and then Washington, taking the offensive, drove them back until he
+occupied the battlefield of the morning. Night came upon him still
+advancing. He halted his army, lay down under a tree, his soldiers
+lying on their arms about him, and planned a fresh attack, to be made
+at daylight. But when the dawn came it was seen that the British had
+crept off, and were far on their road. The heat prevented a rapid
+pursuit, and Clinton got into New York. Between there and Philadelphia
+he had lost at least two thousand men by desertions in addition to
+nearly five hundred who fell at Monmouth.
+
+It is worth while to pause a moment and compare this battle with the
+rout of Long Island, the surprise at the Brandywine, and the fatal
+unsteadiness at Germantown. Here, too, a check was received at the
+outset, owing to blundering which no one could have foreseen. The
+troops, confused and without orders, began to retreat, but without
+panic or disorder. The moment Washington appeared they rallied,
+returned to the field, showed perfect steadiness, and the victory
+was won. Monmouth has never been one of the famous battles of the
+Revolution, and yet there is no other which can compare with it as an
+illustration of Washington's ability as a soldier. It was not so much
+the way in which it was fought, although that was fine enough, that
+its importance lies as in the evidence which it gives of the way
+in which Washington, after a series of defeats, during a winter
+of terrible suffering and privation, had yet developed his ragged
+volunteers into a well-disciplined and effective army. The battle was
+a victory, but the existence and the quality of the army that won it
+were a far greater triumph.
+
+The dreary winter at Valley Forge had indeed borne fruit. With a
+slight numerical superiority Washington had fought the British in the
+open field, and fairly defeated them. "Clinton gained no advantage,"
+said the great Frederic, "except to reach New York with the wreck of
+his army; America is probably lost for England." Another year had
+passed, and England had lost an army, and still held what she had
+before, the city of New York. Washington was in the field with a
+better army than ever, and an army flushed with a victory which had
+been achieved after difficulties and trials such as no one now can
+rightly picture or describe. The American Revolution was advancing,
+held firm by the master-hand of its leader. Into it, during these days
+of struggle and of battle, a new element had come, and the next step
+is to see how Washington dealt with the fresh conditions upon which
+the great conflict had entered.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+THE ALLIES
+
+
+On May 4, 1778, Congress ratified the treaties of commerce and
+alliance with France. On the 6th, Washington, waiting at Valley Forge
+for the British to start from Philadelphia, caused his army, drawn out
+on parade, to celebrate the great event with cheers and with salvos of
+artillery and musketry. The alliance deserved cheers and celebration,
+for it marked a long step onward in the Revolution. It showed that
+America had demonstrated to Europe that she could win independence,
+and it had been proved to the traditional enemy of England that
+the time had come when it would be profitable to help the revolted
+colonies. But the alliance brought troubles as well as blessings in
+its train. It induced a relaxation in popular energy, and carried
+with it new and difficult problems for the commander-in-chief. The
+successful management of allies, and of allied forces, had been one
+of the severest tests of the statesmanship of William III., and had
+constituted one of the principal glories of Marlborough. A similar
+problem now confronted the American general.
+
+Washington was free from the diplomatic and political portion of the
+business, but the military and popular part fell wholly into his
+hands, and demanded the exercise of talents entirely different from
+those of either a general or an administrator. It has been not
+infrequently written more or less plainly, and it is constantly said,
+that Washington was great in character, but that in brains he was
+not far above the common-place. It is even hinted sometimes that the
+father of his country was a dull man, a notion which we shall have
+occasion to examine more fully further on. At this point let the
+criticism be remembered merely in connection with the fact that
+to cooeperate with allies in military matters demands tact, quick
+perception, firmness, and patience. In a word, it is a task which
+calls for the finest and most highly trained intellectual powers, and
+of which the difficulty is enhanced a thousandfold when the allies are
+on the one side, an old, aristocratic, punctilious people, and on the
+other, colonists utterly devoid of tradition, etiquette, or fixed
+habits, and very much accustomed to go their own way and speak their
+own minds with careless freedom. With this problem Washington was
+obliged suddenly to deal, both in ill success and good success, as
+well as in many attempts which came to nothing. Let us see how he
+solved it at the very outset, when everything went most perversely
+wrong.
+
+On July 14 he heard that D'Estaing's fleet was off the coast, and at
+once, without a trace of elation or excitement, he began to consider
+the possibility of intercepting the British fleet expected to arrive
+shortly from Cork. As soon as D'Estaing was within reach he sent
+two of his aides on board the flagship, and at once opened a
+correspondence with his ally. These letters of welcome, and those of
+suggestion which followed, are models, in their way, of what such
+letters ought always to be. They were perfectly adapted to satisfy the
+etiquette and the love of good manners of the French, and yet there
+was not a trace of anything like servility, or of an effusive
+gratitude which outran the favors granted. They combined stately
+courtesy with simple dignity, and are phrased with a sober grace which
+shows the thoroughly strong man, as capable to turn a sentence, if
+need be, as to rally retreating soldiers in the face of the enemy.
+
+In this first meeting of the allies nothing happened fortunately.
+D'Estaing had had a long passage, and was too late to cut off Lord
+Howe at the Delaware. Then he turned to New York, and was too late
+there, and found further that he could not get his ships over the bar.
+Hence more delays, so that he was late again in getting to Newport,
+where he was to unite with Sullivan in driving the British from Rhode
+Island, as Washington had planned, in case of failure at New York,
+while the French were still hovering on the coast. When D'Estaing
+finally reached Newport, there was still another delay of ten days,
+and then, just as he and Sullivan were preparing to attack, Lord Howe,
+with his squadron reinforced, appeared off the harbor. Promising to
+return, D'Estaing sailed out to give the enemy battle, and after
+much manoeuvring both fleets were driven off by a severe storm, and
+D'Estaing came back only to tell Sullivan that he must go to Boston at
+once to refit. Then came the protest addressed to the Count and signed
+by all the American officers; then the departure of D'Estaing, and an
+indiscreet proclamation to the troops by Sullivan, reflecting on the
+conduct of the allies.
+
+When D'Estaing had actually gone, and the Americans were obliged to
+retreat, there was much grumbling in all directions, and it looked as
+if the first result of the alliance was to be a very pretty quarrel.
+It was a bad and awkward business. Congress had the good sense to
+suppress the protest of the officers, and Washington, disappointed,
+but perhaps not wholly surprised, set himself to work to put matters
+right. It was no easy task to soothe the French, on the one hand, who
+were naturally aggrieved at the utterances of the American officers
+and at the popular feeling, and on the other to calm his own people,
+who were, not without reason, both disappointed and provoked. To
+Sullivan, fuming with wrath, he wrote: "Should the expedition fail
+through the abandonment of the French fleet, the officers concerned
+will be apt to complain loudly. But prudence dictates that we should
+put the best face upon the matter, and to the world attribute the
+removal to Boston to necessity. The reasons are too obvious to need
+explaining." And again, a few days later: "First impressions, you
+know, are generally longest remembered, and will serve to fix in a
+great degree our national character among the French. In our conduct
+towards them we should remember that they are a people old in war,
+very strict in military etiquette, and apt to take fire when others
+scarcely seem warmed. Permit me to recommend, in the most particular
+manner, the cultivation of harmony and good agreement, and your
+endeavor to destroy that ill-humor which may have got into officers."
+To Lafayette he wrote: "Everybody, sir, who reasons, will acknowledge
+the advantages which we have derived from the French fleet, and the
+zeal of the commander of it; but in a free and republican government
+you cannot restrain the voice of the multitude. Every man will speak
+as he thinks, or, more properly, without thinking, and consequently
+will judge of effects without attending to the causes. The censures
+which have been leveled at the French fleet would more than probably
+have fallen in a much higher degree upon a fleet of our own, if we
+had had one in the same situation. It is the nature of man to be
+displeased with everything that disappoints a favorite hope or
+flattering project; and it is the folly of too many of them to condemn
+without investigating circumstances." Finally he wrote to D'Estaing,
+deploring the difference which had arisen, mentioning his own efforts
+and wishes to restore harmony, and said: "It is in the trying
+circumstances to which your Excellency has been exposed that the
+virtues of a great mind are displayed in their brightest lustre, and
+that a general's character is better known than in the moment of
+victory. It was yours by every title that can give it; and the adverse
+elements that robbed you of your prize can never deprive you of
+the glory due you. Though your success has not been equal to your
+expectations, yet you have the satisfaction of reflecting that you
+have rendered essential services to the common cause." This is not the
+letter of a dull man. Indeed, there is a nicety about it that partakes
+of cleverness, a much commoner thing than greatness, but something
+which all great men by no means possess. Thus by tact and
+comprehension of human nature, by judicious suppression and equally
+judicious letters, Washington, through the prudent exercise of all his
+commanding influence, quieted his own people and soothed his allies.
+In this way a serious disaster was averted, and an abortive expedition
+was all that was left to be regretted, instead of an ugly quarrel,
+which might readily have neutralized the vast advantages flowing from
+the French alliance. Having refitted, D'Estaing bore away for the West
+Indies, and so closed the first chapter in the history of the alliance
+with France. Nothing more was heard of the allies until the spring was
+well advanced, when M. Gerard, the minister, wrote, intimating that
+D'Estaing was about to return, and asking what we would do. Washington
+replied at length, professing his willingness to cooeperate in any way,
+and offering, if the French would send ships, to abandon everything,
+run all risks, and make an attack on New York. Nothing further came
+of it, and Washington heard that the fleet had gone to the Southern
+States, which he learned without regret, as he was apprehensive as to
+the condition of affairs in that region. Again, in the autumn, it
+was reported that the fleet was once more upon the northern coast.
+Washington at once sent officers to be on the lookout at the most
+likely points, and he wrote elaborately to D'Estaing, setting forth
+with wonderful perspicuity the incidents of the past, the condition of
+the present, and the probabilities of the future. He was willing to do
+anything, or plan anything, provided his allies would join with him.
+The jealousy so habitual in humanity, which is afraid that some one
+else may get the glory of a common success, was unknown to Washington,
+and if he could but drive the British from America, and establish
+American independence, he was perfectly willing that the glory should
+take care of itself. But all his wisdom in dealing with the allies
+was, for the moment, vain. While he was planning for a great stroke,
+and calling out the militia of New England, D'Estaing was making ready
+to relieve Georgia, and a few days after Washington wrote his second
+letter, the French and Americans assaulted the British works at
+Savannah, and were repulsed with heavy losses. Then D'Estaing sailed
+away again, and the second effort of France to aid England's revolted
+colonies came to an end. Their presence had had a good moral effect,
+and the dread of D'Estaing's return had caused Clinton to withdraw
+from Newport and concentrate in New York. This was all that was
+actually accomplished, and there was nothing for it but to await still
+another trial and a more convenient season.
+
+With all his courtesy and consideration, with all his readiness to
+fall in with the wishes and schemes of the French, it must not be
+supposed that Washington ever went an inch too far in this direction.
+He valued the French alliance, and proposed to use it to great
+purpose, but he was not in the least dazzled or blinded by it. Even
+in the earliest glow of excitement and hope produced by D'Estaing's
+arrival, Washington took occasion to draw once more the distinction
+between a valuable alliance and volunteer adventurers, and to
+remonstrate again with Congress about their reckless profusion in
+dealing with foreign officers. To Gouverneur Morris he wrote on July
+24, 1778: "The lavish manner in which rank has hitherto been bestowed
+on these gentlemen will certainly be productive of one or the other of
+these two evils: either to make it despicable in the eyes of Europe,
+or become the means of pouring them in upon us like a torrent and
+adding to our present burden. But it is neither the expense nor the
+trouble of them that I most dread. There is an evil more extensive in
+its nature, and fatal in its consequences, to be apprehended, and
+that is the driving of all our own officers out of the service, and
+throwing not only our army, but our military councils, entirely into
+the hands of foreigners.... Baron Steuben, I now find, is also wanting
+to quit his inspectorship for a command in the line. This will be
+productive of much discontent to the brigadiers. In a word, although I
+think the baron an excellent officer, I do most devoutly wish that we
+had not a single foreigner among us except the Marquis de Lafayette,
+who acts upon very different principles from those which govern the
+rest." A few days later he said, on the same theme, to the president
+of Congress: "I trust you think me so much a citizen of the world as
+to believe I am not easily warped or led away by attachments merely
+local and American; yet I confess I am not entirely without them, nor
+does it appear to me that they are unwarrantable, if confined within
+proper limits. Fewer promotions in the foreign line would have been
+productive of more harmony, and made our warfare more agreeable to all
+parties." Again, he said of Steuben: "I regret that there should be a
+necessity that his services should be lost to the army; at the same
+time I think it my duty explicitly to observe to Congress that his
+desire of having an actual and permanent command in the line cannot be
+complied with without wounding the feelings of a number of officers,
+whose rank and merits give them every claim to attention; and that the
+doing of it would be productive of much dissatisfaction and extensive
+ill consequences."
+
+Washington's resistance to the colonial deference for foreigners has
+already been pointed out, but this second burst of opposition, coming
+at this especial time, deserves renewed attention. The splendid fleet
+and well-equipped troops of our ally were actually at our gates, and
+everybody was in a paroxysm of perfectly natural gratitude. To the
+colonial mind, steeped in colonial habits of thought, the foreigner at
+this particular juncture appeared more than ever to be a splendid and
+superior being. But he did not in the least confuse or sway the cool
+judgment that guided the destinies of the Revolution. Let us consider
+well the pregnant sentences just quoted, and the letters from which
+they are taken. They deserve it, for they throw a strong light on a
+side of Washington's mind and character too little appreciated. One
+hears it said not infrequently, it has been argued even in print with
+some solemnity, that Washington was, no doubt, a great man and rightly
+a national hero, but that he was not an American. It will be necessary
+to recur to this charge again and consider it at some length. It is
+sufficient at this point to see how it tallies with his conduct in
+a single matter, which was a very perfect test of the national and
+American quality of the man. We can get at the truth by contrasting
+him with his own contemporaries, the only fair comparison, for he was
+a man and an American of his own time and not of the present day,
+which is a point his critics overlook.
+
+Where he differed from the men of his own time was in the fact that he
+rose to a breadth and height of Americanism and of national feeling
+which no other man of that day touched at all. Nothing is more intense
+than the conservatism of mental habits, and although it requires now
+an effort to realize it, it should not be forgotten that in every
+habit of thought the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies were wholly
+colonial. If this is properly appreciated we can understand the mental
+breadth and vigor which enabled Washington to shake off at once all
+past habits and become an independent leader of an independent
+people. He felt to the very core of his being the need of national
+self-respect and national dignity. To him, as the chief of the armies
+and the head of the Revolution, all men, no matter what tongue they
+spake or what country they came from, were to be dealt with on a
+footing of simple equality, and treated according to their merits.
+There was to him no glamour in the fact that this man was a Frenchman
+and that an Englishman. His own personal pride extended to his people,
+and he bowed to no national superiority anywhere. Hamilton was
+national throughout, but he was born outside the thirteen colonies,
+and knew his fellow-citizens only as Americans. Franklin was national
+by the force of his own commanding genius. John Adams grew to the same
+conception, so far as our relations to other nations were concerned.
+But beyond these three we may look far and closely before we find
+another among all the really great men of the time who freed himself
+wholly from the superstition of the colonist about the nations of
+Europe.
+
+When Washington drew his sword beneath the Cambridge elm he stood
+forth as the first American, the best type of man that the New World
+could produce, with no provincial taint upon him, and no shadow of the
+colonial past clouding his path. It was this great quality that gave
+the struggle which he led a character it would never have attained
+without a leader so constituted. Had he been merely a colonial
+Englishman, had he not risen at once to the conception of an American
+nation, the world would have looked at us with very different eyes.
+It was the personal dignity of the man, quite as much as his fighting
+capacity, which impressed Europe. Kings and ministers, looking on
+dispassionately, soon realized that here was no ordinary agitator
+or revolutionist, but a great man on a great stage with great
+conceptions. England, indeed, talked about a militia colonel, but this
+chatter disappeared in the smoke of Trenton, and even England came to
+look upon him as the all-powerful spirit of the Revolution. Dull men
+and colonial squires do not grasp a great idea and carry it into
+action on the world's stage in a few months. To stand forward at the
+head of raw armies and of a colonial people as a national leader,
+calm, dignified, and far-seeing, requires not only character, but
+intellect of the highest and strongest kind. Now that we have come
+as a people, after more than a century's struggle, to the national
+feeling which Washington compassed in a moment, it is well to consider
+that single achievement and to meditate on its meaning, whether in
+estimating him, or in gauging what he was to the American people when
+they came into existence.
+
+Let us take another instance of the same quality, shown also in the
+winter of 1778. Congress had from the beginning a longing to conquer
+Canada, which was a wholly natural and entirely laudable desire, for
+conquest is always more interesting than defense. Washington, on the
+other hand, after the first complete failure, which was so nearly
+a success in the then undefended and unsuspicious country, gave up
+pretty thoroughly all ideas of attacking Canada again, and opposed
+the various plans of Congress in that direction. When he had a
+life-and-death struggle to get together and subsist enough men
+to protect their own firesides, he had ample reason to know that
+invasions of Canada were hopeless. Indeed, not much active opposition
+from the commander-in-chief was needed to dispose of the Canadian
+schemes, for facts settled them as fast as they arose. When the
+cabal got up its Canadian expedition, it consisted of Lafayette, and
+penetrated no farther than Albany. So Washington merely kept his eye
+watchfully on Canada, and argued against expeditions thither, until
+this winter of 1778, when something quite new in that direction came
+up.
+
+Lafayette's imagination had been fired by the notion of conquering
+Canada. His idea was to get succors from France for this especial
+purpose, and with them and American aid to achieve the conquest.
+Congress was impressed and pleased by the scheme, and sent a report
+upon it to Franklin, to communicate to the French court, but
+Washington, when he heard of the plan, took a very different view.
+He sent at once a long dispatch to Congress, urging every possible
+objection to the proposed campaign, on the ground of its utter
+impracticability, and with this official letter, which was necessarily
+confined to the military side of the question, went another addressed
+to President Laurens personally, which contained the deeper reasons of
+his opposition. He said that there was an objection not touched upon
+in his public letter, which was absolutely insurmountable. This was
+the introduction of French troops into Canada to take possession of
+the capital, in the midst of a people of their own race and religion,
+and but recently severed from them.
+
+He pointed out the enormous advantages which would accrue to France
+from the possession of Canada, such as independent posts, control of
+the Indians, and the Newfoundland trade. "France, ... possessed of New
+Orleans on our right, Canada on our left, and seconded by the
+numerous tribes of Indians in our rear, ... would, it is much to be
+apprehended, have it in her power to give law to these States." He
+went on to show that France might easily find an excuse for such
+conduct, in seeking a surety for her advances of money, and that she
+had but little to fear from the contingency of our being driven to
+reunite with England. He continued: "Men are very apt to run into
+extremes. Hatred to England may carry some into an excess of
+confidence in France, especially when motives of gratitude are thrown
+into the scale. Men of this description would be unwilling to suppose
+France capable of acting so ungenerous a part. I am heartily disposed
+to entertain the most favorable sentiments of our new ally, and to
+cherish them in others to a reasonable degree. But it is a maxim,
+founded on the universal experience of mankind, that no nation is
+to be trusted farther than it is bound by its own interest; and no
+prudent statesman or politician will venture to depart from it. In our
+circumstances we ought to be particularly cautious; for we have not
+yet attained sufficient vigor and maturity to recover from the shock
+of any false steps into which we may unwarily fall."
+
+We shall have occasion to recall these utterances at a later day, but
+at this time they serve to show yet again how broadly and clearly
+Washington judged nations and policies. Uppermost in his mind was the
+destiny of his own nation, just coming into being, and from that firm
+point he watched and reasoned. His words had no effect on Congress,
+but as it turned out, the plan failed through adverse influences in
+the quarter where Washington least expected them. He believed that
+this Canadian plan had been put into Lafayette's mind by the cabinet
+of Louis XVI., and he could not imagine that a policy of such obvious
+wisdom could be overlooked by French statesmen. In this he was
+completely mistaken, for France failed to see what seemed so simple to
+the American general, that the opportunity had come to revive her old
+American policy and reestablish her colonies under the most favorable
+conditions. The ministers of Louis XVI., moreover, did not wish the
+colonies to conquer Canada, and the plan of Lafayette and the Congress
+received no aid in Paris and came to nothing. But the fruitless
+incident exhibits in the strongest light the attitude of Washington as
+a purely American statesman, and the comprehensiveness of his mind in
+dealing with large affairs.
+
+The French alliance and the coming of the French fleet were of
+incalculable advantage to the colonies, but they had one evil effect,
+as has already been suggested. To a people weary with unequal
+conflict, it was a debilitating influence, and America needed at that
+moment more than ever energy and vigor, both in the council and
+the field. Yet the general outlook was distinctly better and more
+encouraging. Soon after Washington had defeated Clinton at Monmouth,
+and had taken a position whence he could watch and check him, he wrote
+to his friend General Nelson in Virginia:--
+
+"It is not a little pleasing, nor less wonderful to contemplate, that,
+after two years' manoeuvring and undergoing the strangest vicissitudes
+that perhaps ever attended any one contest since the creation, both
+armies are brought back to the very point they set out from, and that
+the offending party at the beginning is now reduced to the spade and
+pickaxe for defense. The hand of Providence has been so conspicuous in
+all this that he must be worse than an infidel that lacks faith, and
+more than wicked that has not gratitude enough to acknowledge his
+obligations. But it will be time enough for me to turn preacher when
+my present appointment ceases."
+
+He had reason to congratulate himself on the result of his two years'
+campaigning, but as the summer wore away and winter came on he found
+causes for fresh and deep alarm, despite the good outlook in the
+field. The demoralizing effects of civil war were beginning to show
+themselves in various directions. The character of Congress, in point
+of ability, had declined alarmingly, for the ablest men of the first
+Congress, with few exceptions, had departed. Some had gone to the
+army, some to the diplomatic service, and many had remained at home,
+preferring the honors and offices of the States to those of the
+Confederation. Their successors, patriotic and well-meaning though
+they were, lacked the energy and force of those who had started the
+Revolution, and, as a consequence, Congress had become feeble and
+ineffective, easily swayed by influential schemers, and unable to cope
+with the difficulties which surrounded them.
+
+Outside the government the popular tone had deteriorated sadly. The
+lavish issues of irredeemable paper by the Confederation and the
+States had brought their finances to the verge of absolute ruin. The
+continental currency had fallen to something like forty to one in
+gold, and the decline was hastened by the forged notes put out by the
+enemy. The fluctuations of this paper soon bred a spirit of gambling,
+and hence came a class of men, both inside and outside of politics,
+who sought, more or less corruptly, to make fortunes by army
+contracts, and by forestalling the markets. These developments filled
+Washington with anxiety, for in the financial troubles he saw ruin
+to the army. The unpaid troops bore the injustice done them with
+wonderful patience, but it was something that could not last, and
+Washington knew the danger. In vain did he remonstrate. It seemed to
+be impossible to get anything done, and at last, in the following
+spring, the outbreak began. Two New Jersey regiments refused to march
+until the assembly made provision for their pay. Washington took high
+ground with them, but they stood respectfully firm, and finally had
+their way. Not long after came another outbreak in the Connecticut
+line, with similar results. These object lessons had some result, and
+by foreign loans and the ability of Robert Morris the country was
+enabled to stumble along; but it was a frightful and wearing anxiety
+to the commander-in-chief.
+
+Washington saw at once that the root of the evil lay in the feebleness
+of Congress, and although he could not deal with the finances, he was
+able to strive for an improvement in the governing body. Not content
+with letters, he left the army and went to Philadelphia, in the winter
+of 1779, and there appealed to Congress in person, setting forth the
+perils which beset them, and urging action. He wrote also to his
+friends everywhere, pointing out the deficiencies of Congress, and
+begging them to send better and stronger men. To Benjamin Harrison he
+wrote: "It appears to me as clear as ever the sun did in its meridian
+brightness, that America never stood in more eminent need of the wise,
+patriotic, and spirited exertions of her sons than at this period; ...
+the States separately are too much engaged in their local concerns,
+and have too many of their ablest men withdrawn from the general
+council, for the good of the common weal." He took the same high tone
+in all his letters, and there can be seen through it all the desperate
+endeavor to make the States and the people understand the dangers
+which he realized, but which they either could not or would not
+appreciate.
+
+On the other hand, while his anxiety was sharpened to the highest
+point by the character of Congress, his sternest wrath was kindled by
+the gambling and money-making which had become rampant. To Reed he
+wrote in December, 1778: "It gives me sincere pleasure to find that
+there is likely to be a coalition of the Whigs in your State, a few
+only excepted, and that the assembly is so well disposed to second
+your endeavors in bringing those murderers of our cause, the
+monopolizers, forestallers, and engrossers, to condign punishment. It
+is much to be lamented that each State, long ere this, has not hunted
+them down as pests to society and the greatest enemies we have to
+the happiness of America. I would to God that some one of the most
+atrocious in each State was hung in gibbets upon a gallows five times
+as high as the one prepared by Haman. No punishment, in my opinion, is
+too great for the man who can build his greatness upon his country's
+ruin." He would have hanged them too had he had the power, for he was
+always as good as his word.
+
+It is refreshing to read these righteously angry words, still ringing
+as sharply as when they were written. They clear away all the
+myths--the priggish, the cold, the statuesque, the dull myths--as the
+strong gusts of the northwest wind in autumn sweep off the heavy mists
+of lingering August. They are the hot words of a warm-blooded man, a
+good hater, who loathed meanness and treachery, and who would have
+hanged those who battened upon the country's distress. When he went
+to Philadelphia, a few weeks later, and saw the state of things with
+nearer view, he felt the wretchedness and outrage of such doings more
+than ever. He wrote to Harrison: "If I were to be called upon to draw
+a picture of the times and of men, from what I have seen, heard, and
+in part know, I should in one word say, that idleness, dissipation,
+and extravagance seem to have laid fast hold of most of them; that
+speculation, peculation, and an insatiable thirst for riches seem to
+have got the better of every other consideration, and almost of every
+order of men; that party disputes and personal quarrels are the great
+business of the day; whilst the momentous concerns of an empire, a
+great and accumulating debt, ruined finances, depreciated money, and
+want of credit, which, in its consequences, is the want of everything,
+are but secondary considerations, and postponed from day to day, from
+week to week, as if our affairs wore the most promising aspect."
+
+Other men talked about empire, but he alone grasped the great
+conception, and felt it in his soul. To see not only immediate success
+imperiled, but the future paltered with by small, mean, and dishonest
+men, cut him to the quick. He set himself doggedly to fight it, as he
+always fought every enemy, using both speech and pen in all quarters.
+Much, no doubt, he ultimately effected, but he was contending with
+the usual results of civil war, which are demoralizing always, and
+especially so among a young people in a new country. At first,
+therefore, all seemed vain. The selfishness, "peculation, and
+speculation" seemed to get worse, and the tone of Congress and the
+people lower, as he struggled against them. In March, 1779, he wrote
+to James Warren of Massachusetts: "Nothing, I am convinced, but
+the depreciation of our currency, aided by stock-jobbing and party
+dissensions, has fed the hopes of the enemy, and kept the British
+arms in America to this day. They do not scruple to declare this
+themselves, and add that we shall be our own conquerors. Can not our
+common country, America, possess virtue enough to disappoint them? Is
+the paltry consideration of a little pelf to individuals to be placed
+in competition with the essential rights and liberties of the present
+generation, and of millions yet unborn? Shall a few designing men, for
+their own aggrandizement, and to gratify their own avarice, overset
+the goodly fabric we have been rearing, at the expense of so much
+time, blood, and treasure? And shall we at last become the victims
+of our own lust of gain? Forbid it, Heaven! Forbid it, all and every
+State in the Union, by enacting and enforcing efficacious laws for
+checking the growth of these monstrous evils, and restoring matters,
+in some degree, to the state they were in at the commencement of the
+war."
+
+"Our cause is noble. It is the cause of mankind, and the danger to it
+is to be apprehended from ourselves. Shall we slumber and sleep, then,
+while we should be punishing those miscreants who have brought these
+troubles upon us, and who are aiming to continue us in them; while we
+should be striving to fill our battalions, and devising ways and means
+to raise the value of the currency, on the credit of which everything
+depends?" Again we see the prevailing idea of the future, which
+haunted him continually. Evidently, he had some imagination, and
+also a power of terse and eloquent expression which we have heard of
+before, and shall note again.
+
+Still the appeals seemed to sound in deaf ears. He wrote to George
+Mason: "I have seen, without despondency, even for a moment, the hours
+which America has styled her gloomy ones; but I have beheld no
+day since the commencement of hostilities that I have thought her
+liberties in such imminent danger as at present.... Indeed, we are
+verging so fast to destruction that I am filled with sensations to
+which I have been a stranger till within these three months." To
+Gouverneur Morris he said: "If the enemy have it in their power to
+press us hard this campaign, I know not what may be the consequence."
+He had faced the enemy, the bleak winters, raw soldiers, and all the
+difficulties of impecunious government, with a cheerful courage that
+never failed. But the spectacle of widespread popular demoralization,
+of selfish scrambles for plunder, and of feeble administration at
+the centre of government weighed upon him heavily. It was not the
+general's business to build up Congress and grapple with finance, but
+Washington addressed himself to the new task with his usual persistent
+courage. It was slow and painful work. He seemed to make no progress,
+and then it was that his spirits sank at the prospect of ruin and
+defeat, not coming on the field of battle, but from our own vices and
+our own lack of energy and wisdom. Yet his work told in the end, as it
+always did. His vast and steadily growing influence made itself felt
+even through the dense troubles of the uneasy times. Congress turned
+with energy to Europe for fresh loans. Lafayette worked away to get
+an army sent over. The two Morrises, stimulated by Washington, flung
+themselves into the financial difficulties, and feeble but distinct
+efforts toward a more concentrated and better organized administration
+of public affairs were made both in the States and the confederation.
+
+But, although Washington's spirits fell, and his anxieties became
+wellnigh intolerable in this period of reaction which followed the
+French alliance, he made no public show of it, but carried on his own
+work with the army and in the field as usual, contending with all the
+difficulties, new and old, as calmly and efficiently as ever. After
+Clinton slipped away from Monmouth and sought refuge in New York,
+Washington took post at convenient points and watched the movements
+of the enemy. In this way the summer passed. As always, Washington's
+first object was to guard the Hudson, and while he held this vital
+point firmly, he waited, ready to strike elsewhere if necessary. It
+looked for a time as if the British intended to descend on Boston,
+seize the town, and destroy the French fleet, which had gone there
+to refit. Such was the opinion of Gates, then commanding in that
+department, and as Washington inclined to the same belief, the fear of
+this event gave him many anxious moments. He even moved his troops
+so as to be in readiness to march eastward at short notice; but he
+gradually became convinced that the enemy had no such plan. Much
+of his thought, now and always, was given to efforts to divine the
+intentions of the British generals. They had so few settled ideas,
+and were so tardy and lingering when they had plans, that it is small
+wonder that their opponents were sorely puzzled in trying to find out
+what their purposes were, when they really had none. The fact was that
+Washington saw their military opportunities with the eye of a great
+soldier, and so much better than they, that he suffered a good deal of
+needless anxiety in devising methods to meet attacks which they had
+not the wit to undertake. He had a profound contempt for their policy
+of holding towns, and believing that they must see the utter futility
+of it, after several years of trial, he constantly expected from them
+a well-planned and extensive campaign, which in reality they were
+incapable of devising.
+
+The main army, therefore, remained quiet, and when the autumn had
+passed went into winter-quarters in well-posted detachments about New
+York. In December Clinton made an ineffectual raid, and then all was
+peaceful again, and Washington was able to go to Philadelphia and
+struggle with Congress, leaving his army more comfortable and secure
+than they had been in any previous winter.
+
+In January he informed Congress as to the next campaign. He showed
+them the impossibility of undertaking anything on a large scale, and
+announced his intention of remaining on the defensive. It was a trying
+policy to a man of his temper, but he could do no better, and he knew,
+now as always, what others could not yet see, that by simply holding
+on and keeping his army in the field he was slowly but surely winning
+independence. He tried to get Congress to do something with the navy,
+and he planned an expedition, under the command of Sullivan, to
+overrun the Indian country and check the barbarous raids of the Tories
+and savages on the frontier; and with this he was fain to be content.
+In fact, he perceived very clearly the direction in which the war was
+tending. He kept up his struggle with Congress for a permanent army,
+and with the old persistency pleaded that something should be done for
+the officers, and at the same time he tried to keep the States in good
+humor when they were grumbling about the amount of protection afforded
+them.
+
+But all this wear and tear of heart and brain and temper, while given
+chiefly to hold the army together, was not endured with any
+notion that he and Clinton were eventually to fight it out in the
+neighborhood of New York. Washington felt that that part of the
+conflict was over. He now hoped and believed that the moment would
+come, when, by uniting his army with the French, he should be able to
+strike the decisive blow. Until that time came, however, he knew that
+he could do nothing on a great scale, and he felt that meanwhile the
+British, abandoning practically the eastern and middle States, would
+make one last desperate struggle for victory, and would make it in the
+south. Long before any one else, he appreciated this fact, and saw a
+peril looming large in that region, where everybody was considering
+the British invasion as little more than an exaggerated raid. He
+foresaw, too, that we should suffer more there than we had in the
+extreme north, because the south was full of Tories and less well
+organized.
+
+All this, however, did not change his own plans one jot. He believed
+that the south must work out its own salvation, as New York and New
+England had done with Burgoyne, and he felt sure that in the end it
+would be successful. But he would not go south, nor take his army
+there. The instinct of a great commander for the vital point in a war
+or a battle, is as keen as that of the tiger is said to be for the
+jugular vein of its victim. The British might overrun the north or
+invade the south, but he would stay where he was, with his grip upon
+New York and the Hudson River. The tide of invasion might ebb and flow
+in this region or that, but the British were doomed if they could not
+divide the eastern colonies from the others. When the appointed hour
+came, he was ready to abandon everything and strike the final and
+fatal blow; but until then he waited and stood fast with his army,
+holding the great river in his grasp. He felt much more anxiety about
+the south than he had felt about the north, and expected Congress to
+consult him as to a commander, having made up his mind that Greene was
+the man to send. But Congress still believed in Gates, who had been
+making trouble for Washington all winter; and so Gates was sent,
+and Congress in due time got their lesson, and found once more that
+Washington understood men better than they did.
+
+In the north the winter was comparatively uneventful. The spring
+passed, and in June Clinton came out and took possession of Stony
+Point and Verplanck's Point, and began to fortify them. It looked a
+little as if Clinton might intend to get control of the Hudson by
+slow approaches, fortifying, and then advancing until he reached West
+Point. With this in mind, Washington at once determined to check the
+British by striking sharply at one of their new posts. Having made
+up his mind, he sent for Wayne and asked him if he would storm Stony
+Point. Tradition says that Wayne replied, "I will storm hell, if you
+will plan it." A true tradition, probably, in keeping with Wayne's
+character, and pleasant to us to-day as showing with a vivid gleam of
+rough human speech the utter confidence of the army in their leader,
+that confidence which only a great soldier can inspire. So Washington
+planned, and Wayne stormed, and Stony Point fell. It was a gallant and
+brilliant feat of arms, one of the most brilliant of the war. Over
+five hundred prisoners were taken, the guns were carried off, and the
+works destroyed, leaving the British to begin afresh with a good deal
+of increased caution and respect. Not long after, Harry Lee stormed
+Paulus Hook with equal success, and the British were checked and
+arrested, if they intended any extensive movement. On the frontier,
+Sullivan, after some delays, did his work effectively, ravaging the
+Indian towns and reducing them to quiet, thus taking away another
+annoyance and danger.
+
+In these various ways Clinton's circle of activity was steadily
+narrowed, but it may be doubted whether he had any coherent plan.
+The principal occupation of the British was to send out marauding
+expeditions and cut off outlying parties. Tryon burned and pillaged
+in Connecticut, Matthews in Virginia, and others on a smaller scale
+elsewhere in New Jersey and New York. The blundering stupidity of this
+system of warfare was only equaled by its utter brutality. Houses were
+burned, peaceful villages went up in smoke, women and children were
+outraged, and soldiers were bayoneted after they had surrendered.
+These details of the Revolution are wellnigh forgotten now, but when
+the ear is wearied with talk about English generosity and love of fair
+play, it is well to turn back and study the exploits of Tryon, and it
+is not amiss in the same connection to recall that English budgets
+contained a special appropriation for scalping-knives, a delicate
+attention to the Tories and Indians who were burning and butchering on
+the frontier.
+
+Such methods of warfare Washington despised intellectually, and hated
+morally. He saw that every raid only hardened the people against
+England, and made her cause more hopeless. The misery caused by these
+raids angered him, but he would not retaliate in kind, and Wayne
+bayoneted no English soldiers after they laid down their arms at Stony
+Point. It was enough for Washington to hold fast to the great objects
+he had in view, to check Clinton and circumscribe his movements.
+Steadfastly he did this through the summer and winter of 1779, which
+proved one of the worst that he had yet endured. Supplies did not
+come, the army dwindled, and the miseries of Valley Forge were
+renewed. Again was repeated the old and pitiful story of appeals to
+Congress and the States, and again the undaunted spirit and strenuous
+exertions of Washington saved the army and the Revolution from the
+internal ruin which was his worst enemy. When the new year began, he
+saw that he was again condemned to a defensive campaign, but this made
+little difference now, for what he had foreseen in the spring of 1779
+became certainty in the autumn. The active war was transferred to the
+south, where the chapter of disasters was beginning, and Clinton had
+practically given up everything except New York. The war had taken
+on the new phase expected by Washington. Weak as he was, he began to
+detach troops, and prepared to deal with the last desperate effort of
+England to conquer her revolted colonies from the south.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+ARNOLD'S TREASON, AND THE WAR IN THE SOUTH
+
+
+The spring of 1780 was the beginning of a period of inactivity and
+disappointment, of diligent effort and frustrated plans. During the
+months which ensued before the march to the south, Washington passed
+through a stress of harassing anxiety, which was far worse than
+anything he had to undergo at any other time. Plans were formed, only
+to fail. Opportunities arose, only to pass by unfulfilled. The network
+of hostile conditions bound him hand and foot, and it seemed at times
+as if he could never break the bonds that held him, or prevent or hold
+back the moral, social, and political dissolution going on about him.
+With the aid of France, he meant to strike one decisive blow, and end
+the struggle. Every moment was of importance, and yet the days and
+weeks and months slipped by, and he could get nothing done. He could
+neither gain control of the sea, nor gather sufficient forces of his
+own, although delay now meant ruin. He saw the British overrun the
+south, and he could not leave the Hudson. He was obliged to sacrifice
+the southern States, and yet he could get neither ships nor men to
+attack New York. The army was starving and mutinous, and he sought
+relief in vain. The finances were ruined, Congress was helpless, the
+States seemed stupefied. Treason of the most desperate kind suddenly
+reared its head, and threatened the very citadel of the Revolution.
+These were the days of the war least familiar to posterity. They
+are unmarked in the main by action or fighting, and on this dreary
+monotony nothing stands out except the black stain of Arnold's
+treason. Yet it was the time of all others when Washington had most to
+bear. It was the time of all others when his dogged persistence and
+unwavering courage alone seemed to sustain the flickering fortunes of
+the war.
+
+In April Washington was pondering ruefully on the condition of affairs
+at the south. He saw that the only hope of saving Charleston was in
+the defense of the bar; and when that became indefensible, he saw that
+the town ought to be abandoned to the enemy, and the army withdrawn to
+the country. His military genius showed itself again and again in
+his perfectly accurate judgment on distant campaigns. He seemed to
+apprehend all the conditions at a glance, and although his wisdom
+made him refuse to issue orders when he was not on the ground, those
+generals who followed his suggestions, even when a thousand miles
+away, were successful, and those who disregarded them were not.
+Lincoln, commanding at Charleston, was a brave and loyal man, but he
+had neither the foresight nor the courage to withdraw to the country,
+and then, hovering on the lines of the enemy, to confine them to the
+town. He yielded to the entreaties of the citizens and remained, only
+to surrender. Washington had retreated from New York, and after five
+years of fighting the British still held it, and had gone no further.
+He had refused to risk an assault to redeem Philadelphia, at the
+expense of much grumbling and cursing, and had then beaten the enemy
+when they hastily retreated thence in the following spring. His
+cardinal doctrine was that the Revolution depended upon the existence
+of the army, and not on the possession of any particular spot of
+ground, and his masterly adherence to this theory brought victory,
+slowly but surely. Lincoln's very natural inability to grasp it, and
+to withstand popular pressure, cost us for a time the southern States
+and a great deal of bloody fighting.
+
+In the midst of this anxiety about the south, and when he foresaw the
+coming disasters, Washington was cheered and encouraged by the arrival
+of Lafayette, whom he loved, and who brought good tidings of his
+zealous work for the United States in Paris. An army and a fleet were
+on their way to America, with a promise of more to follow. This was
+great news indeed. It is interesting to note how Washington took it,
+for we see here with unusual clearness the readiness of grasp and
+quickness of thought which have been noted before, but which are
+not commonly attributed to him. It has been the fashion to treat
+Washington as wise and prudent, but as distinctly slow, and when he
+was obliged to concentrate public opinion, either military or civil,
+or when doubt overhung his course, he moved with great deliberation.
+When he required no concentration of opinion, and had made up his
+mind, he could strike with a terribly swift decision, as at Trenton
+or Monmouth. So when a new situation presented itself he seized with
+wonderful rapidity every phase and possibility opened by changed
+conditions.
+
+The moment he learned from Lafayette that the French succors were
+actually on the way, he began to lay out plans in a manner which
+showed how he had taken in at the first glance every chance and every
+contingency. He wrote that the decisive moment was at hand, and that
+the French succors would be fatal if not used successfully now.
+Congress must improve their methods of administration, and for this
+purpose must appoint a small committee to cooeperate with him. This
+step he demanded, and it was taken at once. Fresh from his interview
+with Lafayette, he sent out orders to have inquiries made as to
+Halifax and its defenses. Possibly a sudden and telling blow might
+be struck there, and nothing should be overlooked. He also wrote to
+Lafayette to urge upon the French commander an immediate assault on
+New York the moment he landed. Yet despite his thought for New York,
+he even then began to see the opportunities which were destined to
+develop into Yorktown. He had longed to go to the south before, and
+had held back only because he felt that the main army and New York
+were still the key of the position, and could not be safely abandoned.
+Now, while planning the capture of New York, he asked in a letter
+whether the enemy was not more exposed at the southward and therefore
+a better subject for a combined attack there. Clearness and precision
+of plan as to the central point, joined to a perfect readiness to
+change suddenly and strike hard and decisively in a totally different
+quarter, are sure marks of the great commander. We can find them all
+through the correspondence, but here in May, 1780, they come out with
+peculiar vividness. They are qualities arising from a wide foresight,
+and from a sure and quick perception. They are not the qualities of a
+slow or heavy mind.
+
+On June 1 came the news of the surrender of Charleston and the loss of
+the army, which was followed by the return of Clinton to New York. The
+southern States lay open now to the enemy, and it was a severe trial
+to Washington to be unable to go to their rescue; but with the same
+dogged adherence to his ruling idea, he concentrated his attention
+on the Hudson with renewed vigilance on account of Clinton's return.
+Adversity and prosperity alike were unable to divert him from the
+control of the great river and the mastery of the middle States until
+he saw conclusive victory elsewhere fairly within his grasp. In the
+same unswerving way he pushed on the preparations for what he felt to
+be the coming of the decisive campaign and the supreme moment of the
+war. To all the governors went urgent letters, calling on the States
+to fill their lines in the continental army, and to have their militia
+in readiness.
+
+In the midst of these anxieties and preparations, the French arrived
+at Newport, bringing a well-equipped army of some five thousand men,
+and a small fleet. They brought, too, something quite as important,
+in the way of genuine good-will and full intention to do all in their
+power for their allies. After a moment's hesitation, born of unlucky
+memories, the people of Rhode Island gave De Rochambeau a hearty
+welcome, and Washington sent him the most cordial greeting. With the
+greeting went the polite but earnest request for immediate action,
+together with plans for attacking New York; and, at the same time,
+another urgent call went out to the States for men, money, and
+supplies. The long-looked-for hour had arrived, a fine French army was
+in Newport, a French fleet rode in the harbor, and instead of action,
+immediate and effective, the great event marked only the beginning of
+a period of delays and disappointment, wearing heart and nerve almost
+beyond endurance.
+
+First it appeared that the French ships could not get into New York
+harbor. Then there was sickness in the French army. Then the British
+menaced Newport, and rapid preparations had to be made to meet that
+danger. Then it came out that De Rochambeau was ordered to await the
+arrival of the second division of the army, with more ships; and after
+due waiting, it was discovered that the aforesaid second division,
+with their ships, were securely blockaded by the English fleet at
+Brest. On our side it was no better; indeed, it was rather worse.
+There was lack of arms and powder. The drafts were made with
+difficulty, and the new levies came in slowly. Supplies failed
+altogether, and on every hand there was nothing but delay, and ever
+fresh delay, and in the midst of it all Washington, wrestling with
+sloth and incoherence and inefficiency, trampled down one failure and
+disappointment only to encounter another, equally important, equally
+petty, and equally harassing.
+
+On August 20 he wrote to Congress a long and most able letter, which
+set forth forcibly the evil and perilous condition of affairs. After
+reading that letter no man could say that there was not need of the
+utmost exertion, and for the expenditure of the last ounce of energy.
+In it Washington struck especially at the two delusions with which
+the people and their representatives were lulling themselves into
+security, and by which they were led to relax their efforts. One was
+the belief that England was breaking down; the other, that the arrival
+of the French was synonymous with the victorious close of the war.
+Washington demonstrated that England still commanded the sea, and that
+as long as she did so there was a great advantage on her side. She
+was stronger, on the whole, this year than the year before, and her
+financial resources were still ample. There was no use in looking for
+victory in the weakness of the enemy, and on the other hand, to rely
+wholly on France was contemptible as well as foolish. After stating
+plainly that the army was on the verge of dissolution, he said: "To me
+it will appear miraculous if our affairs can maintain themselves much
+longer in their present train. If either the temper or the resources
+of the country will not admit of an alteration, we may expect soon
+to be reduced to the humiliating condition of seeing the cause of
+America, in America, upheld by foreign arms. The generosity of our
+allies has a claim to all our confidence and all our gratitude, but
+it is neither for the honor of America, nor for the interest of the
+common cause, to leave the work entirely to them."
+
+It must have been bitter to Washington above all men, with his high
+dignity and keen sense of national honor, to write such words as
+these, or make such an argument to any of his countrymen. But it was a
+work which the time demanded, and he did it without flinching. Having
+thus laid bare the weak places, he proceeded to rehearse once more,
+with a weariness we can easily fancy, the old, old lesson as to
+organization, a permanent army, and a better system of administration.
+This letter neither scolded, nor bewailed, nor desponded, but it told
+the truth with great force and vigor. Of course it had but slight
+results, comparatively speaking; still it did something, and the final
+success of the Revolution is due to the series of strong truth-telling
+letters, of which this is an example, as much as to any one thing done
+by Washington. There was need of some one, not only to fight battles
+and lead armies, but to drive Congress into some sort of harmony, spur
+the careless and indifferent to action, arouse the States, and kill
+various fatal delusions, and in Washington the robust teller of
+unwelcome truths was found.
+
+Still, even the results actually obtained by such letters came but
+slowly, and Washington felt that he must strike at all hazards.
+Through Lafayette he tried to get De Rochambeau to agree to an
+immediate attack on New York. His army was on the very eve of
+dissolution, and he began with reason to doubt his own power of
+holding it together longer. The finances of the country were going
+ever faster to irremediable ruin, and it seemed impossible that
+anything could postpone open and avowed bankruptcy. So, with his army
+crumbling, mutinous, and half starved, he turned to his one unfailing
+resource of fighting, and tried to persuade De Rochambeau to join
+him. Under the circumstances, Washington was right to wish to risk a
+battle, and De Rochambeau, from his point of view, was equally so in
+refusing to take the offensive, unless the second division arrived or
+De Guichen came with his fleet, or the English force at New York was
+reduced.
+
+In these debates and delays, mingled with an appeal to De Guichen in
+the West Indies, the summer was fast wearing away, and, by way of
+addition, early in September came tidings of the battle of Camden,
+and the utter rout of Gates's army. Despite his own needs and trials,
+Washington's first idea was to stem the current of disaster at the
+south, and he ordered the fresh Maryland troops to turn back at once
+and march to the Carolinas, but Gates fled so fast and far that it
+was some time before anything was heard of him. As more news came of
+Camden and its beaten general, Washington wrote to Rutledge that he
+should ultimately come southward. Meantime, he could only struggle
+with his own difficulties, and rack his brains for men and means to
+rescue the south. It must have seemed to Washington, in those lovely
+September days, as if fate could not have any worse trials in store,
+and that if he could only breast the troubles now surging about him,
+he might count on sure and speedy success. Yet the bitterest trial of
+all was even then hanging over his head, and with a sort of savage
+sarcasm it came upon him in one of those rare moments when he had an
+hour of rest and sunshine.
+
+The story of Arnold's treason is easily told. Its romantic side
+has made it familiar to all Americans, and given it a factitious
+importance. Had it succeeded it would have opened opportunities of
+disaster to the American arms, although it would not have affected
+the final outcome of the Revolution. As it was it failed, and had no
+result whatever. It has passed into history simply as a picturesque
+episode, charged with possibilities which attract the imagination, but
+having, in itself, neither meaning nor consequences beyond the two
+conspirators. To us it is of interest, because it shows Washington in
+one of the sharpest and bitterest experiences of his life. Let us see
+how he met it and dealt with it.
+
+From the day when the French landed, both De Rochambeau and
+Washington had been most anxious to meet. The French general had been
+particularly urgent, but it was difficult for Washington to get away.
+As he wrote on August 21: "We are about ten miles from the enemy. Our
+popular government imposes a necessity of great circumspection. If
+any misfortune should happen in my absence, it would be attended with
+every inconvenience. I will, however, endeavor if possible, and as
+soon as possible, to meet you at some convenient rendezvous." In
+accordance with this promise, a few weeks later, he left Greene in
+command of the army, and, not without misgivings, started on September
+18 to meet De Rochambeau. On his way he had an interview with Arnold,
+who came to him to show a letter from the loyalist Colonel Robinson,
+and thus disarm suspicion as to his doings. On the 20th, the day when
+Andre and Arnold met to arrange the terms of the sale, Washington was
+with De Rochambeau at Hartford. News had arrived, meantime, that De
+Guichen had sailed for Europe; the command of the sea was therefore
+lost, and the opportunity for action had gone by. There was no need
+for further conference, and Washington accordingly set out on his
+return at once, two or three days earlier than he had intended.
+
+He was accompanied by his own staff, and by Knox and Lafayette with
+their officers. With him, too, went the young Count Dumas, who has
+left a description of their journey, and of the popular enthusiasm
+displayed in the towns through which they passed. In one village,
+which they reached after nightfall, all the people turned out, the
+children bearing torches, and men and women hailed Washington as
+father, and pressed about him to touch the hem of his garments.
+Turning to Dumas he said, "We may be beaten by the English; it is
+the chance of war; but there is the army they will never conquer."
+Political leaders grumbled, and military officers caballed, but
+the popular feeling went out to Washington with a sure and utter
+confidence. The people in that little village recognized the great and
+unselfish leader as they recognized Lincoln a century later, and from
+the masses of the people no one ever heard the cry that Washington was
+cold or unsympathetic. They loved him, and believed in him, and such a
+manifestation of their devotion touched him deeply. His spirits rose
+under the spell of appreciation and affection, always so strong upon
+human nature, and he rode away from Fishkill the next morning at
+daybreak with a light heart.
+
+The company was pleasant and lively, the morning was fair, and as they
+approached Arnold's headquarters at the Robinson house, Washington
+turned off to the redoubts by the river, telling the young men that
+they were all in love with Mrs. Arnold and would do well to go
+straight on and breakfast with her. Hamilton and McHenry followed his
+advice, and while they were at breakfast a note was brought to Arnold.
+It was the letter of warning from Andre announcing his capture, which
+Colonel Jameson, who ought to have been cashiered for doing it, had
+forwarded. Arnold at once left the table, and saying that he was going
+to West Point, jumped into his boat and was rowed rapidly down the
+river to the British man-of-war. Washington on his arrival was told
+that Arnold had gone to the fort, and so after a hasty breakfast he
+went over there himself. On reaching West Point no salute broke the
+stillness, and no guard turned out to receive him. He was astonished
+to learn that his arrival was unexpected, and that Arnold had not been
+there for two days. Still unsuspecting he inspected the works, and
+then returned.
+
+Meantime, the messenger sent to Hartford with the papers taken on
+Andre reached the Robinson house and delivered them to Hamilton,
+together with a letter of confession from Andre himself. Hamilton read
+them, and hurrying out met Washington just coming up from the river.
+He took his chief aside, said a few words to him in a low voice, and
+they went into the house together. When they came out, Washington
+looked as calm as ever, and calling to Lafayette and Knox gave them
+the papers, saying simply, "Whom can we trust now?" He dispatched
+Hamilton at once to try to intercept Arnold at Verplanck's Point, but
+it was too late; the boat had passed, and Arnold was safe on board the
+Vulture. This done, Washington bade his staff sit down with him at
+dinner, as the general was absent, and Mrs. Arnold was ill in her
+room. Dinner over, he immediately set about guarding the post, which
+had been so near betrayal. To Colonel Wade at West Point he wrote:
+"Arnold has gone to the enemy; you are in command, be vigilant." To
+Jameson he sent word to guard Andre closely. To the colonels and
+commanders of various outlying regiments he sent orders to bring up
+their troops. Everything was done that should have been done, quickly,
+quietly, and without comment. The most sudden and appalling treachery
+had failed to shake his nerve, or confuse his mind.
+
+Yet the strong and silent man was wrung to the quick, and when
+everything possible had been done, and he had retired to his room, the
+guard outside the door heard him marching back and forth through all
+the weary night. The one thing he least expected, because he least
+understood it, had come to pass. He had been a good and true friend to
+the villain who had fled, for Arnold's reckless bravery and dare-devil
+fighting had appealed to the strongest passion of his nature, and he
+had stood by him always. He had grieved over the refusal of Congress
+to promote him in due order and had interceded with ultimate success
+in his behalf. He had sympathized with him in his recent troubles
+in Philadelphia, and had administered the reprimand awarded by the
+court-martial so that rebuke seemed turned to praise. He had sought
+to give him every opportunity that a soldier could desire, and had
+finally conferred upon him the command of West Point. He had admired
+his courage and palliated his misconduct, and now the scoundrel had
+turned on him and fled. Mingled with the bitterness of these memories
+of betrayed confidence was the torturing ignorance of how far this
+base treachery had extended. For all he knew there might be a brood of
+traitors about him in the very citadel of America. We can never know
+Washington's thoughts at that time, for he was ever silent, but as we
+listen in imagination to the sound of the even footfalls which the
+guard heard all through that September night, we can dimly guess the
+feelings of the strong and passionate nature, wounded and distressed
+almost beyond endurance.
+
+There is but little more to tell. The conspiracy stopped with Arnold.
+He had no accomplices, and meant to deliver the post and pocket the
+booty alone. The British tried to spread the idea that other officers
+had been corrupted, but the attempt failed, and Washington's prompt
+measures of defense checked any movement against the forts. Every
+effort was made by Clinton to save Andre, but in vain. He was tried
+by a court composed of the highest officers in the American service,
+among whom was Lafayette. On his own statement, but one decision was
+possible. He was condemned as a spy, and as a spy he was sentenced to
+be hanged. He made a manly appeal against the manner of his death, and
+begged to be shot. Washington declined to interfere, and Andre went to
+the gallows.
+
+The British, at the time, and some of their writers afterwards,
+attacked Washington for insisting on this mode of execution, but there
+never was an instance in his career when he was more entirely right.
+Andre was a spy and briber, who sought to ruin the American cause
+by means of the treachery of an American general. It was a dark and
+dangerous game, and he knew that he staked his life on the result. He
+failed, and paid the penalty. Washington could not permit, he would
+have been grossly and feebly culpable if he had permitted, such an
+attempt to pass without extreme punishment. He was generous and
+magnanimous, but he was not a sentimentalist, and he punished this
+miserable treason, so far as he could reach it, as it deserved. It is
+true that Andre was a man of talent, well-bred and courageous, and of
+engaging manners. He deserved all the sympathy and sorrow which he
+excited at the time, but nothing more. He was not only technically a
+spy, but he had sought his ends by bribery, he had prostituted a flag
+of truce, and he was to be richly paid for his work. It was all hire
+and salary. No doubt Andre was patriotic and loyal. Many spies have
+been the same, and have engaged in their dangerous exploits from
+the highest motives. Nathan Hale, whom the British hanged without
+compunction, was as well-born and well-bred as Andre, and as patriotic
+as man could be, and moreover he was a spy and nothing more. Andre
+was a trafficker in bribes and treachery, and however we may pity his
+fate, his name has no proper place in the great temple at Westminster,
+where all English-speaking people bow with reverence, and only a most
+perverted sentimentality could conceive that it was fitting to erect a
+monument to his memory in this country.
+
+Washington sent Andre to the gallows because it was his duty to do so,
+but he pitied him none the less, and whatever he may have thought of
+the means Andre employed to effect his end, he made no comment upon
+him, except to say that "he met his fate with that fortitude which was
+to be expected from an accomplished man and gallant officer." As to
+Arnold, he was almost equally silent. When obliged to refer to him he
+did so in the plainest and simplest way, and only in a familiar letter
+to Laurens do we get a glimpse of his feelings. He wrote: "I am
+mistaken if at this time Arnold is undergoing the torment of a mental
+hell. He wants feeling. From some traits of his character which have
+lately come to my knowledge, he seems to have been so hackneyed in
+villainy, and so lost to all sense of honor and shame, that, while his
+faculties will enable him to continue his sordid pursuits, there will
+be no time for remorse." With this single expression of measureless
+contempt, Washington let Arnold drop from his life. The first shock
+had touched him to the quick, although it could not shake his steady
+mind. Reflection revealed to him the extraordinary baseness of
+Arnold's real character, and he cast the thought of him out forever,
+content to leave the traitor to the tender mercies of history. The
+calmness and dignity, the firmness and deep feeling which Washington
+exhibited, are of far more interest than the abortive treason, and
+have as real a value now as they had then, when suspicion for a moment
+ran riot, and men wondered "whom they could trust."
+
+The treason of Arnold swept like a black cloud across the sky, broke,
+and left everything as before. That such a base peril should have
+existed was alarming and hateful. That it should have been exploded
+harmlessly made all men give a deep sigh of relief. But neither the
+treason nor its discovery altered the current of events one jot. The
+summer had come and gone. The French had arrived, and no blow had
+been struck. There was nothing to show for the campaign but
+inaction, disappointment, and the loss of the Carolinas. With the
+commander-in-chief, through it all, were ever present two great
+questions, getting more portentous and more difficult of solution with
+each succeeding day. How he was to keep his army in existence was one,
+and how he was to hold the government together was the other. He
+had thirteen tired States, a general government almost impotent, a
+bankrupt treasury, and a broken credit. The American Revolution had
+come down to the question of whether the brain, will, and nerve of one
+man could keep the machine going long enough to find fit opportunity
+for a final and decisive stroke. Washington had confidence in the
+people of the country and in himself, but the difficulties in the way
+were huge, and the means of surmounting them slight. There is here
+and there a passionate undertone in the letters of this period, which
+shows us the moments when the waves of trouble and disaster seemed to
+sweep over him. But the feeling passed, or was trampled under
+foot, for there was no break in the steady fight against untoward
+circumstances, or in the grim refusal to accept defeat.
+
+It is almost impossible now to conceive the actual condition at that
+time of every matter of detail which makes military and political
+existence possible. No general phrases can do justice to the situation
+of the army; and the petty miseries and privations, which made life
+unendurable, went on from day to day in ever varying forms. While
+Washington was hearing the first ill news from the south and
+struggling with the problem on that side, and at the same time was
+planning with Lafayette how to take advantage of the French succors,
+the means of subsisting his army were wholly giving out. The men
+actually had no food. For days, as Washington wrote, there was no meat
+at all in camp. Goaded by hunger, a Connecticut regiment mutinied.
+They were brought back to duty, but held out steadily for their pay,
+which they had not received for five months. Indeed, the whole army
+was more or less mutinous, and it was only by the utmost tact that
+Washington kept them from wholesale desertion. After the summer had
+passed and the chance for a decisive campaign had gone with it, the
+excitement of expected action ceased to sustain the men, and the
+unclothed, unpaid, unfed soldiers began again to get restive. We can
+imagine what the condition of the rank and file must have been when
+we find that Washington himself could not procure an express from
+the quartermaster-general, and was obliged to send a letter to the
+Minister of France by the unsafe and slow medium of the post. He was
+expected to carry on a war against a rich and powerful enemy, and he
+could not even pay a courier to carry his dispatches.
+
+With the commander-in-chief thus straitened, the sufferings of the
+men grew to be intolerable, and the spirit of revolt which had been
+checked through the summer began again to appear. At last, in January,
+1781, it burst all the bounds. The Pennsylvania line mutinied and
+threatened Congress. Attempts on the part of the English to seduce
+them failed, but they remained in a state of open rebellion. The
+officers were powerless, and it looked as if the disaffection would
+spread, and the whole army go to pieces in the very face of the enemy.
+Washington held firm, and intended in his unshaken way to bring them
+back to their duty without yielding in a dangerous fashion. But the
+government of Pennsylvania, at last thoroughly frightened, rushed into
+the field, and patched up a compromise which contained most perilous
+concessions. The natural consequence was a fresh mutiny in the New
+Jersey line, and this time Washington determined that he would not be
+forestalled. He sent forward at once some regiments of loyal troops,
+suppressed the mutiny suddenly and with a strong hand, and hanged
+two of the ringleaders. The difficulty was conquered, and discipline
+restored.
+
+To take this course required great boldness, for these mutinies were
+of no ordinary character. In the first place, it was impossible to
+tell whether any troops would do their duty against their fellows, and
+failure would have been fatal. In the second place, the grievances
+of the soldiers were very great, and their complaints were entirely
+righteous. Washington felt the profoundest sympathy with his men, and
+it was no easy matter to maintain order with soldiers tried almost
+beyond endurance, against their comrades whose claims were just. Two
+things saved the army. One was Washington's great influence with the
+men and their utter belief in him. The other was the quality of
+the men themselves. Lafayette said they were the most patient and
+patriotic soldiers the world had seen, and it is easy to believe him.
+The wonder is, not that they mutinied when they did, but that the
+whole army had not mutinied and abandoned the struggle years before.
+The misfortunes and mistakes of the Revolution, to whomever due, were
+in no respect to be charged to the army, and the conduct of the troops
+through all the dreary months of starvation and cold and poverty is
+a proof of the intelligent patriotism and patient courage of the
+American soldier which can never be gainsaid. To fight successful
+battles is the test of a good general, but to hold together a
+suffering army through years of unexampled privations, to meet endless
+failure of details with unending expedients, and then to fight battles
+and plan campaigns, shows a leader who was far more than a good
+general. Such multiplied trials and difficulties are overcome only by
+a great soldier who with small means achieves large results, and by a
+great man who by force of will and character can establish with all
+who follow him a power which no miseries can conquer, and no suffering
+diminish.
+
+The height reached by the troubles in the army and their menacing
+character had, however, a good as well as a bad side. They penetrated
+the indifference and carelessness of both Congress and the States.
+Gentlemen in the confederate and local administrations and
+legislatures woke up to a realizing sense that the dissolution of the
+army meant a general wreck, in which their own necks would be in very
+considerable danger; and they also had an uneasy feeling that starving
+and mutinous soldiers were very uncertain in taking revenge.
+The condition of the army gave a sudden and piercing reality to
+Washington's indignant words to Mathews on October 4: "At a time when
+public harmony is so essential, when we should aid and assist each
+other with all our abilities, when our hearts should be open to
+information and our hands ready to administer relief, to find
+distrusts and jealousies taking possession of the mind and a party
+spirit prevailing affords a most melancholy reflection, and forebodes
+no good." The hoarse murmur of impending mutiny emphasized strongly
+the words written on the same day to Duane: "The history of the war is
+a history of false hopes and temporary expedients. Would to God they
+were to end here."
+
+The events in the south, too, had a sobering effect. The congressional
+general Gates had not proved a success. His defeat at Camden had
+been terribly complete, and his flight had been too rapid to inspire
+confidence in his capacity for recuperation. The members of Congress
+were thus led to believe that as managers of military matters they
+left much to be desired; and when Washington, on October 11, addressed
+to them one of his long and admirable letters on reorganization, it
+was received in a very chastened spirit. They had listened to many
+such letters before, and had benefited by them always a little,
+but danger and defeat gave this one peculiar point. They therefore
+accepted the situation, and adopted all the suggestions of the
+commander-in-chief. They also in the same reasonable frame of mind
+determined that Washington should select the next general for the
+southern army. A good deal could have been saved had this decision
+been reached before; but even now it was not too late. October 14,
+Washington appointed Greene to this post of difficulty and danger, and
+Greene's assumption of the command marks the turning-point in the
+tide of disaster, and the beginning of the ultimate expulsion of the
+British from the only portion of the colonies where they had made a
+tolerable campaign.
+
+The uses of adversity, moreover, did not stop here. They extended to
+the States, which began to grow more vigorous in action, and to show
+signs of appreciating the gravity of the situation and the duties
+which rested upon them. This change and improvement both in Congress
+and the States came none too soon. Indeed, as it was, the results of
+their renewed efforts were too slow to be felt at once by the army,
+and mutinies broke out even after the new spirit had shown itself.
+Washington also sent Knox to travel from State to State, to see the
+various governors, and lay the situation of affairs before them; yet
+even with such a text it was a difficult struggle to get the States to
+make quick and strong exertions sufficient to prevent a partial mutiny
+from becoming a general revolt. The lesson, however, had had its
+effect. For the moment, at least, the cause was saved. The worst
+defects were temporarily remedied, and something was done toward
+supplies and subsistence. The army would be able to exist through
+another winter, and face another summer. Then the next campaign might
+bring the decisive moment; but still, who could tell? Years, instead
+of months, might yet elapse before the end was reached, and then no
+man could say what the result would be.
+
+Washington saw plainly enough that the relief and improvement were
+only temporary, and that carelessness and indifference were likely to
+return, and be more case-hardened than ever. He was too strong and
+sane a man to waste time in fighting shadows or in nourishing himself
+with hopes. He dealt with the present as he found it, and fought down
+difficulties as they sprang up in his path. But he was also a man of
+extraordinary prescience, with a foresight as penetrating as it was
+judicious. It was, perhaps, his most remarkable gift, and while
+he controlled the present he studied the future. Outside of the
+operations of armies, and the plans of campaign, he saw, as the
+war progressed, that the really fatal perils were involved in the
+political system. At the beginning of the Revolution there was no
+organization outside the local state governments. Congress voted and
+resolved in favor of anything that seemed proper, and the States
+responded to their appeal. In the first flush of revolution, and the
+first excitement of freedom, this was all very well. But as the
+early passion cooled, and a long and stubborn struggle, replete with
+sufferings and defeat, developed itself, the want of system began to
+appear.
+
+One of the earliest tasks of Congress was the formation of articles
+for a general government, but state jealousies, and the delays
+incident to the movements of thirteen sovereignties, prevented their
+adoption until the war was nearly over. Washington, suffering from all
+the complicated troubles of jarring States and general incoherence,
+longed for and urged the adoption of the act of confederation. He saw
+sooner than any one else, and with more painful intensity, the need of
+better union and more energetic government. As the days and months of
+difficulties and trials went by, the suggestions on this question in
+his letters grew more frequent and more urgent, and they showed the
+insight of the statesman and practical man of affairs. How much he
+hoped from the final acceptance of the act of confederation it is not
+easy to say, but he hoped for some improvement certainly. When at last
+it went into force, he saw almost at once that it would not do, and in
+the spring of 1780 he knew it to be a miserable failure. The system
+which had been established was really no better than that which had
+preceded it. With alarm and disgust Washington found himself flung
+back on what he called "the pernicious state system," and with worse
+prospects than ever.
+
+Up to the time of the Revolution he had never given attention to the
+philosophy or science of government, but when it fell to his lot to
+fight the war for independence he perceived almost immediately the
+need of a strong central government, and his suggestions, scattered
+broadcast among his correspondents, manifested a knowledge of the
+conditions of the political problem possessed by no one else at that
+period. When he was satisfied of the failure of the confederation, his
+efforts to improve the existing administration multiplied, and he soon
+had the assistance of his aide-de-camp, Alexander Hamilton, who then
+wrote, although little more than a boy, his remarkable letters on
+government and finance, which were the first full expositions of the
+political necessities from which sprang the Constitution of the United
+States. Washington was vigorous in action and methodical in business,
+while the system of thirteen sovereignties was discordant, disorderly,
+and feeble in execution. He knew that the vices inherent in the
+confederation were ineradicable and fatal, and he also knew that it
+was useless to expect any comprehensive reforms until the war was
+over. The problem before him was whether the existing machine could be
+made to work until the British were finally driven from the country.
+The winter of 1780-81 was marked, therefore, on his part, by an urgent
+striving for union, and by unceasing efforts to mend and improve the
+rickety system of the confederation. It was with this view that he
+secured the dispatch of Laurens, whom he carefully instructed, to get
+money in Paris; for he was satisfied that it was only possible to tide
+over the financial difficulties by foreign loans from those interested
+in our success. In the same spirit he worked to bring about
+the establishment of executive departments, which was finally
+accomplished, after delays that sorely tried his patience. These two
+cases were but the most important among many of similar character, for
+he was always at work on these perplexing questions.
+
+It is an astonishing proof of the strength and power of his mind that
+he was able to solve the daily questions of army existence, to deal
+with the allies, to plan attacks on New York, to watch and scheme for
+the southern department, to cope with Arnold's treason, with mutiny,
+and with administrative imbecility, and at the very same time consider
+the gravest governmental problems, and send forth wise suggestions,
+which met the exigencies of the moment, and laid the foundation of
+much that afterwards appeared in the Constitution of the United
+States. He was not a speculator on government, and after his fashion
+he was engaged in dealing with the questions of the day and hour. Yet
+the ideas that he put forth in this time of confusion and conflict and
+expedients were so vitally sound and wise that they deserve the most
+careful study in relation to after events. The political trials
+and difficulties of this period were the stern teachers from whom
+Washington acquired the knowledge and experience which made him the
+principal agent in bringing about the formation and adoption of the
+Constitution of the United States. We shall have occasion to examine
+these opinions and views more closely when they were afterwards
+brought into actual play. At this point it is only necessary to trace
+the history of the methods by which he solved the problem of the
+Revolution before the political system of the confederation became
+absolutely useless.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+YORKTOWN
+
+
+The failure to accomplish anything in the north caused Washington,
+as the year drew to a close, to turn his thoughts once more toward a
+combined movement at the south. In pursuance of this idea, he devised
+a scheme of uniting with the Spaniards in the seizure of Florida, and
+of advancing thence through Georgia to assail the English in the rear.
+De Rochambeau did not approve the plan, and it was abandoned; but the
+idea of a southern movement was still kept steadily in sight. The
+governing thought now was, not to protect this place or that, but to
+cast aside everything else in order to strike one great blow which
+would finish the war. Where he could do this, time alone would show,
+but if one follows the correspondence closely, it is apparent that
+Washington's military instinct turned more and more toward the south.
+
+In that department affairs changed their aspect rapidly. January 17,
+Morgan won his brilliant victory at the Cowpens, withdrew in good
+order with his prisoners, and united his army with that of Greene.
+Cornwallis was terribly disappointed by this unexpected reverse, but
+he determined to push on, defeat the combined American army, and then
+join the British forces on the Chesapeake. Greene was too weak to risk
+a battle, and made a masterly retreat of two hundred miles before
+Cornwallis, escaping across the Dan only twelve hours ahead of the
+enemy. The moment the British moved away, Greene recrossed the river
+and hung upon their rear. For a month he kept in their neighborhood,
+checking the rising of the Tories, and declining battle. At last he
+received reinforcements, felt strong enough to stand his ground, and
+on March 15 the battle of Guilford Court House was fought. It was a
+sharp and bloody fight; the British had the advantage, and Greene
+abandoned the field, bringing off his army in good order. Cornwallis,
+on his part, had suffered so heavily, however, that his victory turned
+to ashes. On the 18th he was in full retreat, with Greene in hot
+chase, and it was not until the 28th that he succeeded in getting over
+the Deep River and escaping to Wilmington. Thence he determined to
+push on and transfer the seat of war to the Chesapeake. Greene, with
+the boldness and quickness which showed him to be a soldier of a high
+order, now dropped the pursuit and turned back to fight the British in
+detachments and free the southern States. There is no need to follow
+him in the brilliant operations which ensued, and by which he achieved
+this result. It is sufficient to say here that he had altered the
+whole aspect of the war, forced Cornwallis into Virginia within reach
+of Washington, and begun the work of redeeming the Carolinas.
+
+The troops which Cornwallis intended to join had been sent in
+detachments to Virginia during the winter and spring. The first body
+had arrived early in January under the command of Arnold, and a
+general marauding and ravaging took place. A little later General
+Phillips arrived with reinforcements and took command. On May 13,
+General Phillips died, and a week later Cornwallis appeared at
+Petersburg, assumed control, and sent Arnold back to New York.
+
+Meantime Washington, though relieved by Morgan's and Greene's
+admirable work, had a most trying and unhappy winter and spring. He
+sent every man he could spare, and more than he ought to have spared,
+to Greene, and he stripped himself still further when the invasion of
+Virginia began. But for the most part he was obliged, from lack of any
+naval strength, to stand helplessly by and see more and more British
+troops sent to the south, and witness the ravaging of his native
+State, without any ability to prevent it. To these grave trials was
+added a small one, which stung him to the quick. The British came up
+the Potomac, and Lund Washington, in order to preserve Mount Vernon,
+gave them refreshments, and treated them in a conciliatory manner. He
+meant well but acted ill, and Washington wrote:--
+
+"It would have been a less painful circumstance to me to have heard
+that, in consequence of your non-compliance with their request, they
+had burnt my house and laid the plantation in ruins. You ought to have
+considered yourself as my representative, and should have reflected
+on the bad example of communicating with the enemy, and making a
+voluntary offer of refreshments to them, with a view to prevent a
+conflagration."
+
+What a clear glimpse this little episode gives of the earnestness of
+the man who wrote these lines. He could not bear the thought that any
+favor should be shown him on any pretense. He was ready to take his
+share of the marauding and pillaging with the rest, but he was deeply
+indignant at the idea that any one representing him should even appear
+to ask a favor of the British.
+
+Altogether, the spring of 1781 was very trying, for there was nothing
+so galling to Washington as to be unable to fight. He wanted to get to
+the south, but he was bound hand and foot by lack of force. Yet the
+obstacles did not daunt or depress him. He wrote in June that he felt
+sure of bringing the war to a happy conclusion, and in the division of
+the British forces he saw his opportunity taking shape. Greene had
+the southern forces well in hand. Cornwallis was equally removed from
+Clinton on the north and Rawdon on the south, and had come within
+reach; so that if he could but have naval strength he could fall upon
+Cornwallis with superior force and crush him. In naval matters fortune
+thus far had dealt hardly with him, yet he could not but feel that
+a French fleet of sufficient force must soon come. He grasped the
+situation with a master-hand, and began to prepare the way. Still he
+kept his counsel strictly to himself, and set to work to threaten, and
+if possible to attack, New York, not with much hope of succeeding
+in any such attempt, but with a view of frightening Clinton and of
+inducing him either to withdraw troops from Virginia, or at least to
+withhold reinforcements. As he began his Virginian campaign in this
+distant and remote fashion at the mouth of the Hudson, he was cheered
+by news that De Grasse, the French admiral, had sent recruits to
+Newport, and intended to come himself to the American coast. He at
+once wrote De Grasse not to determine absolutely to come to New
+York, hinting that it might prove more advisable to operate to the
+southward. It required great tact to keep the French fleet where he
+needed it, and yet not reveal his intentions, and nothing showed
+Washington's foresight more plainly than the manner in which he made
+the moves in this campaign, when miles of space and weeks of time
+separated him from the final object of his plans. To trace this
+mastery of details, and the skill with which every point was
+remembered and covered, would require a long and minute narrative.
+They can only be indicated here sufficiently to show how exactly each
+movement fitted in its place, and how all together brought the great
+result.
+
+Fortified by the good news from De Grasse, Washington had an interview
+with De Rochambeau, and effected a junction with the French army. Thus
+strengthened, he opened his campaign against Cornwallis by beginning a
+movement against Clinton. The troops were massed above the city, and
+an effort was made to surprise the upper posts and destroy Delancey's
+partisan corps. The attempt, although well planned, failed of its
+immediate purpose, giving Washington opportunity only for an effective
+reconnoissance of the enemy's positions. But the move was perfectly
+successful in its real and indirect object. Clinton was alarmed. He
+began to write to Cornwallis that troops should be returned to New
+York, and he gave up absolutely the idea of sending more men to
+Virginia. Having thus convinced Clinton that New York was menaced,
+Washington then set to work to familiarize skillfully the minds of his
+allies and of Congress with the idea of a southern campaign. With this
+end in view, he wrote on August 2 that, if more troops arrived from
+Virginia, New York would be impracticable, and that the next point
+was the south. The only contingency, as he set forth, was the
+all-important one of obtaining naval superiority. August 15 this
+essential condition gave promise of fulfillment, for on that day
+definite news arrived that De Grasse with his fleet was on his way to
+the Chesapeake. Without a moment's hesitation, Washington began to
+move, and at the same time he sent an urgent letter to the New England
+governors, demanding troops with an earnestness which he had never
+surpassed.
+
+In Virginia, meanwhile, during these long midsummer days, while
+Washington was waiting and planning, Cornwallis had been going up and
+down, harrying, burning, and plundering. His cavalry had scattered the
+legislature, and driven Governor Jefferson in headlong flight over the
+hills, while property to the value of more than three millions had
+been destroyed. Lafayette, sent by Washington to maintain the American
+cause, had been too weak to act decisively, but he had been true to
+his general's teaching, and, refusing battle, had hung upon the flanks
+of the British and harassed and checked them. Joined by Wayne, he had
+fought an unsuccessful engagement at Green Springs, but brought off
+his army, and with steady pertinacity followed the enemy to the coast,
+gathering strength as he moved. Now, when all was at last ready,
+Washington began to draw his net about Cornwallis, whom he had been
+keenly watching during the victorious marauding of the summer. On the
+news of the coming of the French fleet, he wrote to Lafayette to be
+prepared to join him when he reached Virginia, to retain Wayne, who
+intended to join Greene, and to stop Cornwallis at all hazards, if he
+attempted to go southward.
+
+Cornwallis, however, had no intention of moving. He had seen the peril
+of his position, and had wished to withdraw to Charleston; but the
+ministry, highly pleased with his performances, wished him to remain
+on the Chesapeake, and decisive orders came to him to take a permanent
+post in that region. Clinton, moreover, was jealous of Cornwallis,
+and, impressed and deceived by Washington's movements, he not only
+sent no reinforcements, but detained three thousand Hessians, who had
+lately arrived. Cornwallis, therefore, had no choice, and with much
+writing for aid, and some protesting, he obeyed his orders, planted
+himself at Yorktown and Gloucester, and proceeded to fortify, while
+Lafayette kept close watch upon him. Cornwallis was a good soldier and
+a clever man, suffering, as Burgoyne did, from a stupid ministry and
+a dull and jealous commander-in-chief. Thus hampered and burdened,
+he was ready to fall a victim to the operations of a really great
+general, whom his official superiors in England undervalued and
+despised.
+
+August 17, as soon as he had set his own machinery in motion,
+Washington wrote to De Grasse to meet him in the Chesapeake. He was
+working now more anxiously and earnestly than at any time in the
+Revolution, not merely because he felt that success depended on the
+blow, but because he descried a new and alarming danger. He had
+perceived it in June, and the idea pursued him until all was over, and
+kept recurring in his letters during this strained and eager summer.
+To Washington's eyes, watching campaigns and government at home and
+the politics of Europe abroad, the signs of exhaustion, of mediation,
+and of coming peace across the Atlantic were plainly visible. If peace
+should come as things then were, America would get independence, and
+be shorn of many of her most valuable possessions. The sprawling
+British campaign of maraud and plunder, so bad in a military point of
+view, and about to prove fatal to Cornwallis, would, in case of sudden
+cessation of hostilities, be capable of the worst construction. Time,
+therefore, had become of the last importance. The decisive blow must
+be given at once, and before the slow political movements could come
+to a head. On July 14, Washington had his plan mapped out. He wrote in
+his diary:--
+
+"Matters having now come to a crisis, and a decided plan to be
+determined on, I was obliged--from the shortness of Count De Grasse's
+promised stay on this coast, the apparent disinclination of their
+naval officers to force the harbor of New York, and the feeble
+compliance of the States with my requisitions for men hitherto, and
+the little prospect of greater exertions in future--to give up all
+ideas of attacking New York, and instead thereof to remove the French
+troops and a detachment from the American army to the Head of Elk, to
+be transported to Virginia for the purpose of cooeperating with the
+force from the West Indies against the troops in that State."
+
+Like most of Washington's plans, this one was clear-cut and direct,
+and looks now simple enough, but at the moment it was hedged with
+almost inconceivable difficulties at every step. The ever-present and
+ever-growing obstacles at home were there as usual. Appeals to Morris
+for money were met by the most discouraging responses, and the States
+seemed more lethargic than ever. Neither men nor supplies could be
+obtained; neither transportation nor provision for the march could be
+promised. Then, too, in addition to all this, came a wholly new set of
+stumbling-blocks arising among the allies. Everything hinged on the
+naval force. Washington needed it for a short time only; but for that
+crucial moment he must have not only superiority but supremacy at sea.
+Every French ship that could be reached must be in the Chesapeake, and
+Washington had had too many French fleets slip away from him at the
+last moment and bring everything to naught to take any chances in this
+direction. To bring about his naval supremacy required the utmost
+tact and good management, and that he succeeded is one of the
+chief triumphs of the campaign. In fact, at the very outset he was
+threatened in this quarter with a serious defection. De Barras, with
+the squadron of the American station, was at Boston, and it was
+essential that he should be united with De Grasse at Yorktown. But De
+Barras was nettled by the favoritism which had made De Grasse, his
+junior in service, his superior in command. He determined therefore to
+take advantage of his orders and sail away to the north to Nova Scotia
+and Newfoundland, and leave De Grasse to fight it out alone. It is a
+hard thing to beat an opposing army, but it is equally hard to bring
+human jealousies and ambitions into the narrow path of self-sacrifice
+and subordination. Alarmed beyond measure at the suggested departure
+of the Boston squadron, Washington wrote a letter, which De Rochambeau
+signed with him, urging De Barras to turn his fleet toward the
+Chesapeake. It was a skillfully drawn missive, an adroit mingling of
+appeals to honor and sympathy and of vigorous demands to perform an
+obvious duty. The letter did its work, the diplomacy of Washington was
+successful, and De Barras suppressed his feelings of disappointment,
+and agreed to go to the Chesapeake and serve under De Grasse.
+
+This point made, Washington pushed on his preparations, or rather
+pushed on despite his lack of preparations, and on August 17, as has
+been said, wrote to De Grasse to meet him in the Chesapeake. He left
+the larger part of his own troops with Heath, to whom in carefully
+drawn instructions he intrusted the grave duty of guarding the Hudson
+and watching the British in New York. This done, he gathered his
+forces together, and on August 21 the army started on its march to the
+south. On the 23d and 24th it crossed the Hudson, without annoyance
+from the British of any kind. Washington had threatened New York so
+effectively, and manoeuvred so successfully, that Clinton could not be
+shaken in his belief that the real object of the Americans was his own
+army; and it was not until September 6 that he fully realized that his
+enemy was going to the south, and that Cornwallis was in danger. He
+even then hesitated and delayed, but finally dispatched Admiral Graves
+with the fleet to the Chesapeake. The Admiral came upon the French
+early on September 5, the very day that Washington was rejoicing in
+the news that De Grasse had arrived in the Chesapeake and had landed
+St. Simon and three thousand men to support Lafayette. As soon as the
+English fleet appeared, the French, although many of their men were
+on shore, sailed out and gave battle. An indecisive action ensued, in
+which the British suffered so much that five days later they burned
+one of their frigates and withdrew to New York. De Grasse returned to
+his anchorage, to find that De Barras had come in from Newport with
+eight ships and ten transports carrying ordnance.
+
+While everything was thus moving well toward the consummation of the
+campaign, Washington, in the midst of his delicate and important work
+of breaking camp and beginning his rapid march to the south, was
+harassed by the ever-recurring difficulties of the feeble and bankrupt
+government of the confederation. He wrote again and again to Morris
+for money, and finally got some. His demands for men and supplies
+remained almost unheeded, but somehow he got provisions enough to
+start. He foresaw the most pressing need, and sent messages in all
+directions for shipping to transport his army down the Chesapeake. No
+one responded, but still he gathered the transports; at first a few,
+then more, and finally, after many delays, enough to move his army to
+Yorktown. The spectacle of such a struggle, so heroically made, one
+would think, might have inspired every soul on the continent with
+enthusiasm; but at this very moment, while Washington was breaking
+camp and marching southward, Congress was considering the reduction
+of the army!--which was as appropriate as it would have been for the
+English Parliament to have reduced the navy on the eve of Trafalgar,
+or for Lincoln to have advised the restoration of the army to a peace
+footing while Grant was fighting in the Wilderness. The fact was that
+the Continental Congress was weakened in ability and very tired in
+point of nerve and will-power. They saw that peace was coming, and
+naturally thought that the sooner they could get it the better. They
+entirely failed to see, as Washington saw, that in a too sudden peace
+lurked the danger of the _uti possidetis_, and that the mere fact of
+peace by no means implied necessarily complete success. They did not,
+of course, effect their reductions, but they remained inert, and so
+for the most part did the state governments, becoming drags upon
+the wheels of war instead of helpers to the man who was driving the
+Revolution forward to its goal. Both state and confederate governments
+still meant well, but they were worn out and relaxed. Yet over and
+through all these heavy masses of misapprehension and feebleness,
+Washington made his way. Here again all that can be said is that
+somehow or other the thing was done. We can take account of the
+resisting forces, but we cannot tell just how they were dealt with.
+We only know that one strong man trampled them down and got what he
+wanted done.
+
+Pushing on after the joyful news of the arrival of De Grasse had been
+received, Washington left the army to go by water from the Head of
+Elk, and hurried to Mount Vernon, accompanied by De Rochambeau. It
+was six years since he had seen his home. He had left it a Virginian
+colonel, full of forebodings for his country, with a vast and unknown
+problem awaiting solution at his hands. He returned to it the first
+soldier of his day, after six years of battle and trial, of victory
+and defeat, on the eve of the last and crowning triumph. As he paused
+on the well-beloved spot, and gazed across the broad and beautiful
+river at his feet, thoughts and remembrances must have come thronging
+to his mind which it is given to few men to know. He lingered there
+two days, and then pressing on again, was in Williamsburg on the 14th,
+and on the 17th went on board the Ville de Paris to congratulate De
+Grasse on his victory, and to concert measures for the siege.
+
+The meeting was most agreeable. All had gone well, all promised well,
+and everything was smiling and harmonious. Yet they were on the eve
+of the greatest peril which occurred in the campaign. Washington
+had managed to scrape together enough transports; but his almost
+unassisted labors had taken time, and delay had followed. Then the
+transports were slow, and winds and tides were uncertain, and there
+was further delay. The interval permitted De Grasse to hear that the
+British fleet had received reinforcements, and to become nervous in
+consequence. He wanted to get out to sea; the season was advancing,
+and he was anxious to return to the West Indies; and above all he
+did not wish to fight in the bay. He therefore proposed firmly and
+vigorously to leave two ships in the river, and stand out to sea with
+his fleet. The Yorktown campaign began to look as if it had reached
+its conclusion. Once again Washington wrote one of his masterly
+letters of expostulation and remonstrance, and once more he prevailed,
+aided by the reasoning and appeals of Lafayette, who carried the
+message. De Grasse consented to stay, and Washington, grateful beyond
+measure, wrote him that "a great mind knows how to make personal
+sacrifice to secure an important general good." Under the
+circumstances, and in view of the general truth of this complimentary
+sentiment, one cannot help rejoicing that De Grasse had "a great
+mind."
+
+At all events he stayed, and thereafter everything went well. The
+northern army landed at Williamsburg and marched for Yorktown on the
+28th. They reconnoitred the outlying works the next day, and prepared
+for an immediate assault; but in the night Cornwallis abandoned all
+his outside works and withdrew into the town. Washington thereupon
+advanced at once, and prepared for the siege. On the night of the 5th,
+the trenches were opened only six hundred yards from the enemy's line,
+and in three days the first parallel was completed. On the 11th the
+second parallel was begun, and on the 14th the American batteries
+played on the two advanced redoubts with such effect that the breaches
+were pronounced practicable. Washington at once ordered an assault.
+The smaller redoubt was stormed by the Americans under Hamilton and
+taken in ten minutes. The other, larger and more strongly garrisoned,
+was carried by the French with equal gallantry, after half an hour's
+fighting. During the assault Washington stood in an embrasure of the
+grand battery watching the advance of the men. He was always given to
+exposing himself recklessly when there was fighting to be done, but
+not when he was only an observer. This night, however, he was much
+exposed to the enemy's fire. One of his aides, anxious and disturbed
+for his safety, told him that the place was perilous. "If you think
+so," was the quiet answer, "you are at liberty to step back." The
+moment was too exciting, too fraught with meaning, to think of peril.
+The old fighting spirit of Braddock's field was unchained for the last
+time. He would have liked to head the American assault, sword in hand,
+and as he could not do that he stood as near his troops as he could,
+utterly regardless of the bullets whistling in the air about him. Who
+can wonder at his intense excitement at that moment? Others saw a
+brilliant storming of two outworks, but to Washington the whole
+Revolution, and all the labor and thought and conflict of six years
+were culminating in the smoke and din on those redoubts, while out of
+the dust and heat of the sharp quick fight success was coming. He
+had waited long, and worked hard, and his whole soul went out as he
+watched the troops cross the abattis and scale the works. He could
+have no thought of danger then, and when all was over he turned to
+Knox and said, "The work is done, and well done. Bring me my horse."
+
+Washington was not mistaken. The work was indeed done. Tarleton early
+in the siege had dashed out against Lauzun on the other side of the
+river and been repulsed. Cornwallis had been forced back steadily into
+the town, and his redoubts, as soon as taken, were included in the
+second parallel. A sortie to retake the redoubts failed, and a wild
+attempt to transport the army across the river was stopped by a gale
+of wind. On the 17th Cornwallis was compelled to face much bloody and
+useless slaughter, or to surrender. He chose the latter course, and
+after opening negotiations and trying in vain to obtain delay, finally
+signed the capitulation and gave up the town. The next day the troops
+marched out and laid down their arms. Over 7000 British and Hessian
+troops surrendered. It was a crushing defeat. The victorious army
+consisted in round numbers of 5500 continentals, 3500 militia, and
+7000 French, and they were backed by the French fleet with entire
+control of the sea.
+
+When Washington had once reached Yorktown with his fleet and army, the
+campaign was really at an end, for he held Cornwallis in an iron grip
+from which there was no escape. The masterly part of the Yorktown
+campaign lay in the manner in which it was brought about, in the
+management of so many elements, and in the rapidity of movement which
+carried an army without any proper supplies or means of transportation
+from New York to the mouth of Chesapeake Bay. The control of the sea
+had been the great advantage of the British from the beginning, and
+had enabled them to achieve all that they ever gained. With these odds
+against him, with no possibility of obtaining a fleet of his own,
+Washington saw that his only chance of bringing the war to a quick and
+successful issue was by means of the French. It is difficult to manage
+allied troops. It is still more difficult to manage allied troops and
+an allied fleet. Washington did both with infinite address, and won.
+The chief factor of his success in this direction lay in his profound
+personal influence on all men with whom he came in contact. His
+courtesy and tact were perfect, but he made no concessions, and
+never stooped. The proudest French noble who came here shrank from
+disagreement with the American general, and yet not one of them had
+anything but admiration and respect to express when they wrote of
+Washington in their memoirs, diaries, and letters. He impressed them
+one and all with a sense of power and greatness which could not
+be disregarded. Many times he failed to get the French fleet in
+cooeperation, but finally it came. Then he put forth all his influence
+and all his address, and thus he got De Barras to the Chesapeake, and
+kept De Grasse at Yorktown.
+
+This was one side of the problem, the most essential because
+everything hinged on the fleet, but by no means the most harassing.
+The doubt about the control of the sea made it impossible to work
+steadily for a sufficient time toward any one end. It was necessary to
+have a plan for every contingency, and be ready to adopt any one of
+several plans at short notice. With a foresight and judgment that
+never failed, Washington planned an attack on New York, another on
+Yorktown, and a third on Charleston. The division of the British
+forces gave him his opportunity of striking at one point with an
+overwhelming force, but there was always the possibility of their
+suddenly reuniting. In the extreme south he felt reasonably sure that
+Greene would hold Rawdon, but he was obliged to deceive and amuse
+Clinton, and at the same time, with a ridiculously inferior force,
+to keep Cornwallis from marching to South Carolina. Partly by good
+fortune, partly by skill, Cornwallis was kept in Virginia, while by
+admirably managed feints and threats Clinton was held in New York in
+inactivity. When the decisive moment came, and it was evident that the
+control of the sea was to be determined in the Chesapeake, Washington,
+overriding all sorts of obstacles, moved forward, despite a bankrupt
+and inert government, with a rapidity and daring which have been
+rarely equaled. It was a bold stroke to leave Clinton behind at the
+mouth of the Hudson, and only the quickness with which it was done,
+and the careful deception which had been practiced, made it possible.
+Once at Yorktown, there was little more to do. The combination was
+so perfect, and the judgment had been so sure, that Cornwallis was
+crushed as helplessly as if he had been thrown before the car of
+Juggernaut. There was really but little fighting, for there was no
+opportunity to fight. Washington held the British in a vice, and the
+utter helplessness of Cornwallis, the entire inability of such a good
+and gallant soldier even to struggle, are the most convincing proofs
+of the military genius of his antagonist.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+PEACE
+
+
+Fortitude in misfortune is more common than composure in the hour
+of victory. The bitter medicine of defeat, however unpalatable,
+is usually extremely sobering, but the strong new wine of success
+generally sets the heads of poor humanity spinning, and leads often to
+worse results than folly. The capture of Cornwallis was enough to have
+turned the strongest head, for the moment at least, but it had no
+apparent effect upon the man who had brought it to pass, and who, more
+than any one else, knew what it meant. Unshaken and undismayed in the
+New Jersey winter, and among the complicated miseries of Valley Forge,
+Washington turned from the spectacle of a powerful British army laying
+down their arms as coolly as if he had merely fought a successful
+skirmish, or repelled a dangerous raid. He had that rare gift, the
+attribute of the strongest minds, of leaving the past to take care of
+itself. He never fretted over what could not be undone, nor dallied
+among pleasant memories while aught still remained to do. He wrote to
+Congress in words of quiet congratulation, through which pierced the
+devout and solemn sense of the great deed accomplished, and then,
+while the salvos of artillery were still booming in his ears, and the
+shouts of victory were still rising about him, he set himself, after
+his fashion, to care for the future and provide for the immediate
+completion of his work.
+
+He wrote to De Grasse, urging him to join in an immediate movement
+against Charleston, such as he had already suggested, and he presented
+in the strongest terms the opportunities now offered for the sudden
+and complete ending of the struggle. But the French admiral was by no
+means imbued with the tireless and determined spirit of Washington. He
+had had his fill even of victory, and was so eager to get back to the
+West Indies, where he was to fall a victim to Rodney, that he would
+not even transport troops to Wilmington. Thus deprived of the force
+which alone made comprehensive and extended movements possible,
+Washington returned, as he had done so often before, to making the
+best of cramped circumstances and straitened means. He sent all the
+troops he could spare to Greene, to help him in wresting the southern
+States from the enemy, the work to which he had in vain summoned De
+Grasse. This done, he prepared to go north. On his way he was stopped
+at Eltham by the illness and death of his wife's son, John Custis, a
+blow which he felt severely, and which saddened the great victory he
+had just achieved. Still the business of the State could not wait on
+private grief. He left the house of mourning, and, pausing for an
+instant only at Mount Vernon, hastened on to Philadelphia. At the
+very moment of victory, and while honorable members were shaking each
+other's hands and congratulating each other that the war was now
+really over, the commander-in-chief had fallen again to writing them
+letters in the old strain, and was once more urging them to keep up
+the army, while he himself gave his personal attention to securing a
+naval force for the ensuing year, through the medium of Lafayette.
+Nothing was ever finished with Washington until it was really complete
+throughout, and he had as little time for rejoicing as he had for
+despondency or despair, while a British force still remained in the
+country. He probably felt that this was as untoward a time as he had
+ever met in a pretty large experience of unsuitable occasions, for
+offering sound advice, but he was not deterred thereby from doing it.
+This time, however, he was destined to an agreeable disappointment,
+for on his arrival at Philadelphia he found an excellent spirit
+prevailing in Congress. That body was acting cheerfully on his advice,
+it had filled the departments of the government, and set on foot such
+measures as it could to keep up the army. So Washington remained for
+some time at Philadelphia, helping and counseling Congress in its
+work, and writing to the States vigorous letters, demanding pay and
+clothing for the soldiers, ever uppermost in his thoughts.
+
+But although Congress was compliant, Washington could not convince
+the country of the justice of his views, and of the continued need of
+energetic exertion. The steady relaxation of tone, which the strain of
+a long and trying war had produced, was accelerated by the brilliant
+victory of Yorktown. Washington for his own part had but little trust
+in the sense or the knowledge of his enemy. He felt that Yorktown was
+decisive, but he also thought that Great Britain would still struggle
+on, and that her talk of peace was very probably a mere blind, to
+enable her to gain time, and, by taking advantage of our relaxed and
+feeble condition, to strike again in hope of winning back all that had
+been lost. He therefore continued his appeals in behalf of the
+army, and reiterated everywhere the necessity for fresh and ample
+preparations.
+
+As late as May 4 he wrote sharply to the States for men and money,
+saying that the change of ministry was likely to be adverse to
+peace, and that we were being lulled into a false and fatal sense of
+security. A few days later, on receiving information from Sir Guy
+Carleton of the address of the Commons to the king for peace,
+Washington wrote to Congress: "For my own part, I view our situation
+as such that, instead of relaxing, we ought to improve the present
+moment as the most favorable to our wishes. The British nation
+appear to me to be staggered, and almost ready to sink beneath the
+accumulating weight of debt and misfortune. If we follow the blow with
+vigor and energy, I think the game is our own."
+
+Again he wrote in July: "Sir Guy Carleton is using every art to
+soothe and lull our people into a state of security. Admiral Digby
+is capturing all our vessels, and suffocating as fast as possible in
+prison-ships all our seamen who will not enlist into the service of
+his Britannic Majesty; and Haldimand, with his savage allies, is
+scalping and burning on the frontiers." Facts always were the object
+of Washington's first regard, and while gentlemen on all sides were
+talking of peace, war was going on, and he could not understand the
+supineness which would permit our seamen to be suffocated, and our
+borderers scalped, because some people thought the war ought to be and
+practically was over. While the other side was fighting, he wished to
+be fighting too. A month later he wrote to Greene: "From the former
+infatuation, duplicity, and perverse system of British policy, I
+confess I am induced to doubt everything, to suspect everything." He
+could say heartily with the Trojan priest, "Quicquid id est timeo
+Danaos et dona ferentes." Yet again, a month later still, when the
+negotiations were really going forward in Paris, he wrote to McHenry:
+"If we are wise, let us prepare for the worst. There is nothing which
+will so soon produce a speedy and honorable peace as a state of
+preparation for war; and we must either do this, or lay our account to
+patch up an inglorious peace, after all the toil, blood, and treasure
+we have spent."
+
+No man had done and given so much as Washington, and at the same
+time no other man had his love of thoroughness, and his indomitable
+fighting temper. He found few sympathizers, his words fell upon deaf
+ears, and he was left to struggle on and maintain his ground as best
+he might, without any substantial backing. As it turned out, England
+was more severely wounded than he dared to hope, and her desire for
+peace was real. But Washington's distrust and the active policy which
+he urged were, in the conditions of the moment, perfectly sound,
+both in a military and a political point of view. It made no real
+difference, however, whether he was right or wrong in his opinion.
+He could not get what he wanted, and he was obliged to drag through
+another year, fettered in his military movements, and oppressed with
+anxiety for the future. He longed to drive the British from New York,
+and was forced to content himself, as so often before, with keeping
+his army in existence. It was a trying time, and fruitful in nothing
+but anxious forebodings. All the fighting was confined to skirmishes
+of outposts, and his days were consumed in vain efforts to obtain help
+from the States, while he watched with painful eagerness the current
+of events in Europe, down which the fortunes of his country were
+feebly drifting.
+
+Among the petty incidents of the year there was one which, in its
+effects, gained an international importance, which has left a deep
+stain upon the English arms, and which touched Washington deeply.
+Captain Huddy, an American officer, was captured in a skirmish and
+carried to New York, where he was placed in confinement. Thence he
+was taken on April 12 by a party of Tories in the British service,
+commanded by Captain Lippencott, and hanged in the broad light of day
+on the heights near Middletown. Testimony and affidavits to the
+fact, which was never questioned, were duly gathered and laid before
+Washington. The deed was one of wanton barbarity, for which it would
+be difficult to find a parallel in the annals of modern warfare.
+The authors of this brutal murder, to our shame be it said, were of
+American birth, but they were fighting for the crown and wore the
+British uniform. England, which for generations has deafened the
+world with paeans of praise for her own love of fair play and for
+her generous humanity, stepped in here and threw the mantle of her
+protection over these cowardly hangmen. It has not been uncommon for
+wild North American savages to deliver up criminals to the vengeance
+of the law, but English ministers and officers condoned the murder of
+Huddy, and sheltered his murderers.
+
+When the case was laid before Washington it stirred him to the deepest
+wrath. He submitted the facts to twenty-five of his general officers,
+who unanimously advised what he was himself determined upon, instant
+retaliation. He wrote at once to Sir Guy Carleton, and informed him
+that unless the murderers were given up he should be compelled to
+retaliate. Carleton replied that a court-martial was ordered, and some
+attempt was made to recriminate; but Washington pressed on in the path
+he had marked out, and had an English officer selected by lot and held
+in close confinement to await the action of the enemy. These sharp
+measures brought the British, as nothing else could have done, to some
+sense of the enormity of the crime that had been committed. Sir Guy
+Carleton wrote in remonstrance, and Washington replied: "Ever since
+the commencement of this unnatural war my conduct has borne invariable
+testimony against those inhuman excesses, which, in too many
+instances, have marked its progress. With respect to a late
+transaction, to which I presume your excellency alludes, I have
+already expressed my resolution, a resolution formed on the most
+mature deliberation, and from which I shall not recede." The
+affair dragged along, purposely protracted by the British, and the
+court-martial on a technical point acquitted Lippencott. Sir Guy
+Carleton, however, who really was deeply indignant at the outrage,
+wrote, expressing his abhorrence, disavowed Lippencott, and promised
+a further inquiry. This placed Washington in a very trying position,
+more especially as his humanity was touched by the situation of the
+unlucky hostage. The fatal lot had fallen upon a mere boy, Captain
+Asgill, who was both amiable and popular, and Washington was beset
+with appeals in his behalf, for Lady Asgill moved heaven and earth to
+save her son. She interested the French court, and Vergennes made a
+special request that Asgill should be released. Even Washington's own
+officers, notably Hamilton, sought to influence him, and begged him to
+recede. In these difficult circumstances, which were enhanced by the
+fact that contrary to his orders to select an unconditional prisoner,
+the lot had fallen on a Yorktown prisoner protected by the terms
+of the capitulation,[1] he hesitated, and asked instructions from
+Congress. He wrote to Duane in September: "While retaliation was
+apparently necessary, however disagreeable in itself, I had no
+repugnance to the measure. But when the end proposed by it is answered
+by a disavowal of the act, by a dissolution of the board of refugees,
+and by a promise (whether with or without meaning to comply with it, I
+shall not determine) that further inquisition should be made into the
+matter, I thought it incumbent upon me, before I proceeded any farther
+in the matter, to have the sense of Congress, who had most explicitly
+approved and impliedly indeed ordered retaliation to take place. To
+this hour I am held in darkness."
+
+[Footnote 1: MS, letter to Lincoln.]
+
+He did not long remain in doubt. The fact was that the public, as is
+commonly the case, had forgotten the original crime and saw only the
+misery of the man who was to pay the just penalty, and who was, in
+this instance, an innocent and vicarious sufferer. It was difficult
+to refuse Vergennes, and Congress, glad of the excuse and anxious to
+oblige their allies, ordered the release of Asgill. That Washington,
+touched by the unhappy condition of his prisoner, did not feel
+relieved by the result, it would be absurd to suppose. But he was by
+no means satisfied, for the murderous wrong that had been done rankled
+in his breast. He wrote to Vergennes: "Captain Asgill has been
+released, and is at perfect liberty to return to the arms of an
+affectionate parent, whose pathetic address to your Excellency could
+not fail of interesting every feeling heart in her behalf. I have no
+right to assume any particular merit from the lenient manner in which
+this disagreeable affair has terminated."
+
+There is a perfect honesty about this which is very wholesome. He had
+been freely charged with cruelty, and had regarded the accusation with
+indifference. Now, when it was easy for him to have taken the glory
+of mercy by simply keeping silent, he took pains to avow that the
+leniency was not due to him. He was not satisfied, and no one should
+believe that he was, even if the admission seemed to justify the
+charge of cruelty. If he erred at all it was in not executing some
+British officer at the very start, unless Lippencott had been given up
+within a limited time. As it was, after delay was once permitted, it
+is hard to see how he could have acted otherwise than he did, but
+Washington was not in the habit of receding from a fixed purpose, and
+being obliged to do so in this case troubled him, for he knew that he
+did well to be angry. But the frankness of the avowal to Vergennes is
+a good example of his entire honesty and absolute moral fearlessness.
+
+The matter, however, which most filled his heart and mind during these
+weary days of waiting and doubt was the condition and the future of
+his soldiers. To those persons who have suspected or suggested that
+Washington was cold-blooded and unmindful of others, the letters he
+wrote in regard to the soldiers may be commended. The man whose heart
+was wrung by the sufferings of the poor people on the Virginian
+frontier, in the days of the old French war, never in fact changed
+his nature. Fierce in fight, passionate and hot when his anger was
+stirred, his love and sympathy were keen and strong toward his army.
+His heart went out to the brave men who had followed him, loved him,
+and never swerved in their loyalty to him and to their country.
+Washington's affection for his men, and their devotion to him, had
+saved the cause of American independence more often than strategy or
+daring. Now, when the war was practically over, his influence with
+both officers and soldiers was destined to be put to its severest
+tests.
+
+The people of the American colonies were self-governing in the
+extremest sense, that is, they were accustomed to very little
+government interference of any sort. They were also poor and entirely
+unused to war. Suddenly they found themselves plunged into a bitter
+and protracted conflict with the most powerful of civilized nations.
+In the first flush of excitement, patriotic enthusiasm supplied many
+defects; but as time wore on, and year after year passed, and the
+whole social and political fabric was shaken, the moral tone of the
+people relaxed. In such a struggle, coming upon an unprepared people
+of the habits and in the circumstances of the colonists, this
+relaxation was inevitable. It was likewise inevitable that, as the war
+continued, there should be in both national and state governments, and
+in all directions, many shortcomings and many lamentable errors. But
+for the treatment accorded the army, no such excuse can be made, and
+no sufficient explanation can be offered. There was throughout the
+colonies an inborn and a carefully cultivated dread of standing armies
+and military power. But this very natural feeling was turned most
+unreasonably against our own army, and carried in that direction to
+the verge of insanity. This jealousy of military power indeed pursued
+Washington from the beginning to the end of the Revolution. It cropped
+out as soon as he was appointed, and came up in one form or another
+whenever he was obliged to take strong measures. Even at the very end,
+after he had borne the cause through to triumph, Congress was driven
+almost to frenzy because Vergennes proposed to commit the disposition
+of a French subsidy to the commander-in-chief.
+
+If this feeling could show itself toward Washington, it is easy to
+imagine that it was not restrained toward his officers and men, and
+the treatment of the soldiers by Congress and by the States was not
+only ungrateful to the last degree, but was utterly unpardonable.
+Again and again the menace of immediate ruin and the stern demands of
+Washington alone extorted the most grudging concessions, and saved the
+army from dissolution. The soldiers had every reason to think that
+nothing but personal fear could obtain the barest consideration from
+the civil power. In this frame of mind, they saw the war which they
+had fought and won drawing to a close with no prospect of either
+provision or reward for them, and every indication that they would be
+disbanded when they were no longer needed, and left in many cases
+to beggary and want. In the inaction consequent upon the victory at
+Yorktown, they had ample time to reflect upon these facts, and their
+reflections were of such a nature that the situation soon became
+dangerous. Washington, who had struggled in season and out of season
+for justice to the soldiers, labored more zealously than ever during
+all this period, aided vigorously by Hamilton, who was now in
+Congress. Still nothing was done, and in October, 1782, he wrote to
+the Secretary of War in words warm with indignant feeling: "While I
+premise that no one I have seen or heard of appears opposed to the
+principle of reducing the army as circumstances may require, yet I
+cannot help fearing the result of the measure in contemplation, under
+present circumstances, when I see such a number of men, goaded by a
+thousand stings of reflection on the past and of anticipation on the
+future, about to be turned into the world, soured by penury and what
+they call the ingratitude of the public, involved in debts, without
+one farthing of money to carry them home after having spent the flower
+of their days, and many of them their patrimonies, in establishing the
+freedom and independence of their country, and suffered everything
+that human nature is capable of enduring on this side of death.... You
+may rely upon it, the patriotism and long-suffering of this army
+are almost exhausted, and that there never was so great a spirit of
+discontent as at this instant. While in the field I think it may be
+kept from breaking into acts of outrage; but when we retire into
+winter-quarters, unless the storm is previously dissipated, I cannot
+be at ease respecting the consequences. It is high time for a peace."
+
+These were grave words, coming from such a man as Washington, but they
+passed unheeded. Congress and the States went blandly along as if
+everything was all right, and as if the army had no grievances. But
+the soldiers thought differently. "Dissatisfactions rose to a great
+and alarming height, and combinations among officers to resign at
+given periods in a body were beginning to take place." The outlook
+was so threatening that Washington, who had intended to go to Mount
+Vernon, remained in camp, and by management and tact thwarted these
+combinations and converted these dangerous movements into an address
+to Congress from the officers, asking for half-pay, arrearages, and
+some other equally proper concessions. Still Congress did not stir.
+Some indefinite resolutions were passed, but nothing was done as to
+the commutation of half-pay into a fixed sum, and after such a display
+of indifference the dissatisfaction increased rapidly, and the army
+became more and more restless. In March a call was issued for a
+meeting of officers, and an anonymous address, written with
+much skill,--the work, as afterwards appeared, of Major John
+Armstrong,--was published at the same time. The address was well
+calculated to inflame the passions of the troops; it advised a resort
+to force, and was scattered broadcast through the camp. The army was
+now in a ferment, and the situation was full of peril. A weak man
+would have held his peace; a rash one would have tried to suppress the
+meeting. Washington did neither, but quietly took control of the whole
+movement himself. In general orders he censured the call and the
+address as irregular, and then appointed a time and place for the
+meeting. Another anonymous address thereupon appeared, quieter in
+tone, but congratulating the army on the recognition accorded by the
+commander-in-chief.
+
+When the officers assembled, Washington arose with a manuscript in
+his hand, and as he took out his glasses said, simply, "You see,
+gentlemen, I have grown both blind and gray in your service." His
+address was brief, calm, and strong. The clear, vigorous sentences
+were charged with meaning and with deep feeling. He exhorted them one
+and all, both officers and men, to remain loyal and obedient, true
+to their glorious past and to their country. He appealed to their
+patriotism, and promised them that which they had always had, his
+own earnest support in obtaining justice from Congress. When he had
+finished he quietly withdrew. The officers were deeply moved by
+his words, and his influence prevailed. Resolutions were passed,
+reiterating the demands of the army, but professing entire faith in
+the government. This time Congress listened, and the measures granting
+half-pay in commutation and certain other requests were passed. Thus
+this very serious danger was averted, not by the reluctant action of
+Congress, but by the wisdom and strength of the general, who was loved
+by his soldiers after a fashion that few conquerors could boast.
+
+Underlying all these general discontents, there was, besides, a
+well-defined movement, which saw a solution of all difficulties and a
+redress of all wrongs in a radical change of the form of government,
+and in the elevation of Washington to supreme power. This party was
+satisfied that the existing system was a failure, and that it was
+not and could not be made either strong, honest, or respectable. The
+obvious relief was in some kind of monarchy, with a large infusion of
+the one-man power; and it followed, as a matter of course, that the
+one man could be no other than the commander-in-chief. In May, 1782,
+when the feeling in the army had risen very high, this party of reform
+brought their ideas before Washington through an old and respected
+friend of his, Colonel Nicola. The colonel set forth very clearly the
+failure and shortcomings of the existing government, argued in favor
+of the substitution of something much stronger, and wound up by
+hinting very plainly that his correspondent was the man for the crisis
+and the proper savior of society. The letter was forcible and well
+written, and Colonel Nicola was a man of character and standing. It
+could not be passed over lightly or in silence, and Washington replied
+as follows:--
+
+"With a mixture of surprise and astonishment, I have read with
+attention the sentiments you have submitted to my perusal. Be assured,
+sir, no occurrence in the course of the war has given me more painful
+sensations than your information of there being such ideas existing
+in the army as you have expressed, and [which] I must view with
+abhorrence and reprehend with severity. For the present, the
+communication of them will rest in my own bosom, unless some further
+agitation of the matter shall make a disclosure necessary. I am
+much at a loss to conceive what part of my conduct could have given
+encouragement to an address which seems to me big with the greatest
+mischiefs that can befall my country. If I am not deceived in the
+knowledge of myself, you could not have found a person to whom your
+schemes are more disagreeable. At the same time, in justice to my own
+feelings, I must add that no man possesses a more sincere wish to
+see justice done to the army than I do; and as far as my power and
+influence in a constitutional way extend, they shall be employed to
+the utmost of my abilities to effect it, should there be any occasion.
+Let me conjure you, then, if you have any regard for your country,
+concern for yourself or posterity, or respect for me, to banish these
+thoughts from your mind, and never communicate, as from yourself or
+any one else, a sentiment of the like nature."
+
+This simple but exceedingly plain letter checked the whole movement
+at once; but the feeling of hostility to the existing system of
+government and of confidence in Washington increased steadily through
+the summer and winter. When the next spring had come round, and the
+"Newburgh addresses" had been published, the excitement was at fever
+heat. All the army needed was a leader. It was as easy for Washington
+to have grasped supreme power then, as it would have been for Caesar
+to have taken the crown from Antony upon the Lupercal. He repelled
+Nicola's suggestion with quiet reproof, and took the actual movement,
+when it reared its head, into his own hands and turned it into other
+channels. This incident has been passed over altogether too carelessly
+by historians and biographers. It has generally been used merely to
+show the general nobility of Washington's sentiments, and no proper
+stress has been laid upon the facts of the time which gave birth to
+such an idea and such a proposition. It would have been a perfectly
+feasible thing at that particular moment to have altered the frame of
+government and placed the successful soldier in possession of supreme
+power. The notion of kingly government was, of course, entirely
+familiar to everybody, and had in itself nothing repulsive. The
+confederation was disintegrated, the States were demoralized, and the
+whole social and political life was weakened. The army was the one
+coherent, active, and thoroughly organized body in the country. Six
+years of war had turned them from militia into seasoned veterans, and
+they stood armed and angry, ready to respond to the call of the great
+leader to whom they were entirely devoted. When the English troops
+were once withdrawn, there was nothing on the continent that could
+have stood against them. If they had moved, they would have been
+everywhere supported by their old comrades who had returned to the
+ranks of civil life, by all the large class who wanted peace and order
+in the quickest and surest way, and by the timid and tired generally.
+There would have been in fact no serious opposition, probably because
+there would have been no means of sustaining it.
+
+The absolute feebleness of the general government was shown a few
+weeks later, when a recently recruited regiment of Pennsylvania troops
+mutinied, and obliged Congress to leave Philadelphia, unable either to
+defend themselves or procure defense from the State. This mutiny was
+put down suddenly and effectively by Washington, very wroth at the
+insubordination of raw troops, who had neither fought nor suffered.
+Yet even such mutineers as these would have succeeded in a large
+measure, had it not been for Washington, and one can easily imagine
+from this incident the result of disciplined and well-planned action
+on the part of the army led by their great chief. In that hour of
+debility and relaxation, a military seizure of the government and
+the erection of some form of monarchy would not have been difficult.
+Whether such a change would have lasted is another question, but there
+is no reason to doubt that at the moment it might have been effected.
+Washington, however, not only refused to have anything to do with the
+scheme, but he used the personal loyalty which might have raised him
+to supreme power to check all dangerous movements and put in motion
+the splendid and unselfish patriotism for which the army was
+conspicuous, and which underlay all their irritations and discontents.
+
+The obvious view of Washington's action in this crisis as a remarkable
+exhibition of patriotism is at best somewhat superficial. In a man in
+any way less great, the letter of refusal to Nicola and the treatment
+of the opportunity presented at the time of the Newburgh addresses
+would have been fine in a high degree. In Washington they were not so
+extraordinary, for the situation offered him no temptation. Carlyle
+was led to think slightingly of Washington, one may believe, because
+he did not seize the tottering government with a strong hand, and
+bring order out of chaos on the instant. But this is a woeful
+misunderstanding of the man. To put aside a crown for love of country
+is noble, but to look down upon such an opportunity indicates a much
+greater loftiness and strength of mind. Washington was wholly free
+from the vulgar ambition of the usurper, and the desire of mere
+personal aggrandizement found no place in his nature. His ruling
+passion was the passion for success, and for thorough and complete
+success. What he could not bear was the least shadow of failure. To
+have fought such a war to a victorious finish, and then turned it to
+his own advantage, would have been to him failure of the meanest
+kind. He fought to free the colonies from England, and make them
+independent, not to play the part of a Caesar or a Cromwell in the
+wreck and confusion of civil war. He flung aside the suggestion of
+supreme power, not simply as dishonorable and unpatriotic, but because
+such a result would have defeated the one great and noble object
+at which he aimed. Nor did he act in this way through any indolent
+shrinking from the great task of making what he had won worth winning,
+by crushing the forces of anarchy and separation, and bringing order
+and unity out of confusion. From the surrender of Yorktown to the
+day of his retirement from the Presidency, he worked unceasingly to
+establish union and strong government in the country he had made
+independent. He accomplished this great labor more successfully
+by honest and lawful methods than if he had taken the path of the
+strong-handed savior of society, and his work in this field did more
+for the welfare of his country than all his battles. To have restored
+order at the head of the army was much easier than to effect it in the
+slow and law-abiding fashion which he adopted. To have refused supreme
+rule, and then to have effected in the spirit and under the forms
+of free government all and more than the most brilliant of military
+chiefs could have achieved by absolute power, is a glory which belongs
+to Washington alone.
+
+Nevertheless, at that particular juncture it was, as he himself had
+said, "high time for a peace." The danger at Newburgh had been averted
+by his commanding influence and the patriotic conduct of the army. But
+it had been averted only, not removed. The snake was scotched, not
+killed. The finishing stroke was still needed in the form of an end to
+hostilities, and it was therefore fortunate for the United States that
+a fortnight later, on March 23, news came that a general treaty
+of peace had been signed. This final consummation of his work, in
+addition to the passage by Congress of the half-pay commutation and
+the settlement of the army accounts, filled Washington with deep
+rejoicing. He felt that in a short time, a few weeks at most, he would
+be free to withdraw to the quiet life at Mount Vernon for which he
+longed. But public bodies move slowly, and one delay after another
+occurred to keep him still in the harness. He chafed under the
+postponement, but it was not possible to him to remain idle even when
+he awaited in almost daily expectation the hour of dismissal. He saw
+with the instinctive glance of statesmanship that the dangerous point
+in the treaty of peace was in the provisions as to the western posts
+on the one side, and those relating to British debts on the other. A
+month therefore had not passed before he brought to the attention
+of Congress the importance of getting immediate possession of those
+posts, and a little later he succeeded in having Steuben sent out as a
+special envoy to obtain their surrender. The mission was vain, as he
+had feared. He was not destined to extract this thorn for many years,
+and then only after many trials and troubles. Soon afterward he made a
+journey with Governor Clinton to Ticonderoga, and along the valley of
+the Mohawk, "to wear away the time," as he wrote to Congress. He wore
+away time to more purpose than most people, for where he traveled he
+observed closely, and his observations were lessons which he never
+forgot. On this trip he had the western posts and the Indians always
+in mind, and familiarized himself with the conditions of a part of the
+country where these matters were of great importance.
+
+On his return he went to Princeton, where Congress had been sitting
+since their flight from the mutiny which he had recently suppressed,
+and where a house had been provided for his use. He remained there two
+months, aiding Congress in their work. During the spring he had been
+engaged on the matter of a peace establishment, and he now gave
+Congress elaborate and well-matured advice on that question, and on
+those of public lands, western settlement, and the best Indian policy.
+In all these directions his views were clear, far-sighted, and wise.
+He saw that in these questions was involved much of the future
+development and wellbeing of the country, and he treated them with a
+precision and an easy mastery which showed the thought he had given to
+the new problems which now were coming to the front. Unluckily, he was
+so far ahead, both in knowledge and perception, of the body with which
+he dealt, that he could get little or nothing done, and in September
+he wrote in plain but guarded terms of the incapacity of the
+lawmakers. The people were not yet ripe for his measures, and he was
+forced to bide his time, and see the injuries caused by indifference
+and short-sightedness work themselves out. Gradually, however, the
+absolutely necessary business was brought to an end. Then Washington
+issued a circular letter to the governors of the States, which was
+one of the ablest he ever wrote, and full of the profoundest
+statesmanship, and he also sent out a touching address of farewell to
+the army, eloquent with wisdom and with patriotism.
+
+From Princeton he went to West Point, where the army that still
+remained in service was stationed. Thence he moved to Harlem, and
+on November 25 the British army departed, and Washington, with his
+troops, accompanied by Governor Clinton and some regiments of local
+militia, marched in and took possession. This was the outward sign
+that the war was over, and that American independence had been won.
+Carleton feared that the entry of the American army might be the
+signal for confusion and violence, in which the Tory inhabitants would
+suffer; but everything passed off with perfect tranquillity and good
+order, and in the evening Governor Clinton gave a public dinner to the
+commander-in-chief and the officers of the army.
+
+All was now over, and Washington prepared to go to Annapolis and lay
+down his commission. On December 4 his officers assembled in Fraunces'
+Tavern to bid him farewell. As he looked about on his faithful
+friends, his usual self-command deserted him, and he could not control
+his voice. Taking a glass of wine, he lifted it up, and said simply,
+"With a heart full of love and gratitude I now take my leave of you,
+most devoutly wishing that your latter days may be as prosperous and
+happy as your former ones have been glorious and honorable." The toast
+was drunk in silence, and then Washington added, "I cannot come to
+each of you and take my leave, but shall be obliged if you will come
+and take me by the hand." One by one they approached, and Washington
+grasped the hand of each man and embraced him. His eyes were full of
+tears, and he could not trust himself to speak. In silence he bade
+each and all farewell, and then, accompanied by his officers, walked
+to Whitehall Ferry. Entering his barge, the word was given, and as
+the oars struck the water he stood up and lifted his hat. In solemn
+silence his officers returned the salute, and watched the noble and
+gracious figure of their beloved chief until the boat disappeared from
+sight behind the point of the Battery.
+
+At Philadelphia he stopped a few days and adjusted his accounts, which
+he had in characteristic fashion kept himself in the neatest and most
+methodical way. He had drawn no pay, and had expended considerable
+sums from his private fortune, which he had omitted to charge to the
+government. The gross amount of his expenses was about 15,000 pounds
+sterling, including secret service and other incidental outlays. In
+these days of wild money-hunting, there is something worth pondering
+in this simple business settlement between a great general and his
+government, at the close of eight years of war. This done, he started
+again on his journey. From Philadelphia he proceeded to Annapolis,
+greeted with addresses and hailed with shouts at every town and
+village on his route, and having reached his destination, he addressed
+a letter to Congress on December 20, asking when it would be agreeable
+to them to receive him. The 23d was appointed, and on that day, at
+noon, he appeared before Congress.
+
+The following year a French orator and "maitre avocat," in an oration
+delivered at Toulouse upon the American Revolution, described this
+scene in these words: "On the day when Washington resigned his
+commission in the hall of Congress, a crown decked with jewels was
+placed upon the Book of the Constitutions. Suddenly Washington seizes
+it, breaks it, and flings the pieces to the assembled people. How
+small ambitious Caesar seems beside the hero of America." It is worth
+while to recall this contemporary French description, because its
+theatrical and dramatic untruth gives such point by contrast to the
+plain and dignified reality. The scene was the hall of Congress. The
+members representing the sovereign power were seated and covered,
+while all the space about was filled by the governor and state
+officers of Maryland, by military officers, and by the ladies and
+gentlemen of the neighborhood, who stood in respectful silence with
+uncovered heads. Washington was introduced by the Secretary of
+Congress, and took a chair which had been assigned to him. There was
+a brief pause, and then the president said that "the United States
+in Congress assembled were prepared to receive his communication."
+Washington rose, and replied as follows:--
+
+"Mr. President: The great events, on which my resignation depended,
+having at length taken place, I have now the honor of offering my
+sincere congratulations to Congress, and of presenting myself before
+them, to surrender into their hands the trust committed to me, and to
+claim the indulgence of retiring from the service of my country.
+
+"Happy in the confirmation of our independence and sovereignty, and
+pleased with the opportunity afforded the United States of becoming
+a respectable nation, I resign with satisfaction the appointment I
+accepted with diffidence; a diffidence in my abilities to accomplish
+so arduous a task, which, however, was superseded by a confidence in
+the rectitude of our cause, the support of the supreme power of the
+Union, and the patronage of Heaven. The successful termination of the
+war has verified the most sanguine expectations; and my gratitude for
+the interposition of Providence, and the assistance I have received
+from my countrymen, increases with every review of the momentous
+contest." Then, after a word of gratitude to the army and to his
+staff, he concluded as follows: "I consider it an indispensable duty
+to close this last solemn act of my official life by commending the
+interests of our dearest country to the protection of Almighty God,
+and those who have the superintendence of them to his holy keeping.
+
+"Having now finished the work assigned me, I retire from the great
+theatre of action; and bidding an affectionate farewell to this
+august body, under whose orders I have so long acted, I here offer my
+commission, and take my leave of all the employments of public life."
+
+In singularly graceful and eloquent words his old opponent, Thomas
+Mifflin, the president, replied, the simple ceremony ended, and
+Washington left the room a private citizen.
+
+The great master of English fiction, touching this scene with skillful
+hand, has said: "Which was the most splendid spectacle ever witnessed,
+the opening feast of Prince George in London, or the resignation
+of Washington? Which is the noble character for after ages to
+admire,--yon fribble dancing in lace and spangles, or yonder hero
+who sheathes his sword after a life of spotless honor, a purity
+unreproached, a courage indomitable, and a consummate victory?"
+
+There is no need to say more. Comment or criticism on such a farewell,
+from such a man, at the close of a long civil war, would be not only
+superfluous but impertinent. The contemporary newspaper, in its meagre
+account, said that the occasion was deeply solemn and affecting, and
+that many persons shed tears. Well indeed might those then present
+have been thus affected, for they had witnessed a scene memorable
+forever in the annals of all that is best and noblest in human nature.
+They had listened to a speech which was not equaled in meaning and
+spirit in American history until, eighty years later, Abraham Lincoln
+stood upon the slopes of Gettysburg and uttered his immortal words
+upon those who died that the country might live.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX for Volumes I & II
+
+
+  ACKERSON, DAVID,
+    describes Washington's personal appearance, ii. 386-388.
+
+  Adams, Abigail,
+    on Washington's appearance in 1775, i. 137.
+
+  Adams, John,
+    moves appointment of Washington as commander-in-chief, i. 134;
+    on political necessity for his appointment, 135;
+    and objections to it, 135;
+    statement as to Washington's difficulties, 163;
+    over-sanguine as to American prospects, 171;
+    finds fault with Washington, 214, 215;
+    one of few national statesmen, 252;
+    on Washington's opinion of titles, ii. 52;
+    advocates ceremony, 54;
+    returns to United States, 137;
+    attacked by Jefferson as a monarchist, 226;
+    praised by Democrats as superior to Washington, 251;
+    his administration upheld by Washington, 259;
+    advised by Washington, 260;
+    his inauguration, 276;
+    sends special mission to France, 284;
+    urges Washington to take command of provisional army, 285;
+    wishes to make Knox senior to Hamilton, 286;
+    censured by Washington, gives way, 287;
+    lack of sympathy with Washington, 287;
+    his nomination of Murray disapproved by Washington, 292, 293;
+    letter of Washington to, on immigration, 326.
+
+  Adams, J.Q.,
+    on weights and measures, ii. 81.
+
+  Adams, Samuel,
+    not sympathized with by Washington in working for independence, i. 131;
+    his inability to sympathize with Washington, 204;
+    an enemy of Constitution, ii. 71;
+    a genuine American, 309.
+
+  Alcudia, Duke de,
+    interviews with Pinckney, ii. 166.
+
+  Alexander, Philip,
+    hunts with Washington, i. 115.
+
+  Alien and Sedition Laws,
+    approved by Washington and Federalists, ii. 290, 297.
+
+  Ames, Fisher,
+    speech on behalf of administration in Jay treaty affair, ii. 210.
+
+  Andre, Major,
+    meets Arnold, i. 282;
+    announces capture to Arnold, 284;
+    confesses, 284;
+    condemned and executed, 287;
+    justice of the sentence, 287, 288;
+    Washington's opinion of, 288, ii. 357.
+
+  Armstrong, John, Major,
+    writes Newburg address, i. 335.
+
+  Army of the Revolution,
+    at Boston, adopted by Congress, i. 134;
+    its organization and character, 136-143;
+    sectional jealousies in, at New York, 162;
+    goes to pieces after defeat, 167, 175, 176;
+    condition in winter of 1777, 186;
+    difficulties between officers, 189;
+    with foreign officers, 190-192;
+    improvement as shown by condition after Brandywine and Germantown,
+  200, 201;
+    hard winter at Valley Forge, 228;
+    maintained alive only by Washington, 227, 228, 232;
+    improved morale at Monmouth, 239;
+    mutinies for lack of pay, 258;
+    suffers during 1779, 270;
+    bad condition in 1780, 279;
+    again mutinies for pay, 291, 292, 295;
+    conduct of troops, 292, 293;
+    jealousy of people towards, 332;
+    badly treated by States and by Congress, 333;
+    grows mutinous, 334;
+    adopts Newburg addresses, 335, 336;
+    ready for a military dictatorship, 338, 340;
+    farewell of Washington to, 345.
+
+  Arnold, Benedict,
+    sent by Washington to attack Quebec, i. 144;
+    sent against Burgoyne, 210;
+    plans treason, 281;
+    shows loyalist letter to Washington, 282;
+    meets Andre, 282;
+    receives news of Andre's capture, 284;
+    escapes, 284, 285;
+    previous benefits from Washington, 286;
+    Washington's opinion of, 288;
+    ravages Virginia, 303;
+    sent back to New York, 303;
+    one of the few men who deceived Washington, ii. 336.
+
+  Arnold, Mrs.,
+    entertains Washington at time of her husband's treachery, i. 284, 285.
+
+  Articles of Confederation,
+    their inadequacy early seen by Washington, i. 297, 298; ii. 17.
+
+  Asgill, Capt.,
+    selected for retaliation for murder of Huddy, i. 328;
+    efforts for his release, 329;
+    release ordered by Congress, 330.
+
+
+  BACHE, B.F.,
+    publishes Jay treaty in "Aurora," ii. 185;
+    joins in attack on Washington, 238, 244;
+    rejoices over his retirement, 256.
+
+  Baker,----,
+    works out a pedigree for Washington, i. 31.
+
+  Ball, Joseph,
+    advises against sending Washington to sea, i. 49, 50.
+
+  Barbadoes,
+    Washington's description of, i. 64.
+
+  Beckley, John,
+    accuses Washington of embezzling, ii. 245.
+
+  Bernard, John,
+    his conversation with Washington referred to, i. 58, 107;
+    describes encounter with Washington, ii. 281-283;
+    his description of Washington's conversation, 343-348.
+
+  Blackwell, Rev. Dr.,
+    calls on Washington with Dr. Logan, ii. 264.
+
+  Blair, John,
+    appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 73.
+
+  Bland, Mary,
+    "Lowland Beauty," admired by Washington, i. 95, 96.
+
+  Blount, Governor,
+    pacifies Cherokees, ii. 94.
+
+  Boston,
+    visit of Washington to, i. 97, 99;
+    political troubles in, 120;
+    British measures against condemned by Virginia, 122, 123;
+    appeals to colonies, 124;
+    protests against Jay treaty, ii. 186;
+    answered by Washington, 190.
+
+  Botetourt, Lord, Governor of Virginia,
+    quarrels with Assembly, i. 121;
+    manages to calm dissension, 122;
+    on friendly terms with Washington, 122.
+
+  Braddock, General Edward,
+    arrives in Virginia, i. 82;
+    invites Washington to serve on his staff, 82;
+    respects him, 83;
+    his character and unfitness for his position, 83;
+    despises provincials, 83;
+    accepts Washington's advice as to dividing force, 84;
+    rebukes Washington for warning against ambush, 85;
+    insists on fighting by rule, 85;
+    defeated and mortally wounded, 85;
+    death and burial, 87.
+
+  Bradford, William,
+    succeeds Randolph, ii. 246.
+
+  Brandywine,
+    battle of, i. 196-198.
+
+  Bunker Hill,
+    question of Washington regarding battle of, i. 136.
+
+  Burgoyne, General John,
+    junction of Howe with, feared by Washington, i. 194, 195, 205, 206;
+    significance of his defeat, 202;
+    danger of his invasion foreseen by Washington, 203-206;
+    captures Ticonderoga, 207;
+    outnumbered and defeated, 210;
+    surrenders, 211.
+
+  Burke, Edmund,
+    understands significance of Washington's leadership, i. 202;
+    unsettled by French Revolution, ii. 294.
+
+
+  CABOT, GEORGE,
+    entertains Lafayette's son, ii. 366.
+
+  Cadwalader, General,
+    fails to cross Delaware to help Washington, i. 180;
+    duel with Conway, 226.
+
+  Calvert, Eleanor,
+    misgivings of Washington over her marriage to John Custis, i. 111.
+
+  Camden, battle of, i. 281.
+
+  Canada,
+    captured by Wolfe, i. 94;
+    expedition of Montgomery against, 143, 144;
+    project of Conway cabal against, 222; 253;
+    project of Lafayette to attack, 254;
+    plan considered dangerous by Washington, 254, 255;
+    not undertaken by France, 256.
+
+  Carleton, Sir Guy,
+    informs Washington of address of Commons for peace, i. 324;
+    suspected by Washington, 325;
+    remonstrates against retaliation by Washington for murder of
+  Huddy, 328;
+    disavows Lippencott, 328;
+    fears plunder of New York city, 345;
+    urges Indians to attack the United States, ii. 102, 175.
+
+  Carlisle, Earl of,
+    peace commissioner, i. 233.
+
+  Carlyle, Thomas,
+    sneers at Washington, i. 4, 14;
+    calls him "a bloodless Cromwell," i. 69, ii. 332;
+    fails to understand his reticence, i. 70;
+    despises him for not seizing power, 341.
+
+  Carmichael, William,
+    minister at Madrid, ii. 165;
+    on commission regarding the Mississippi, 166.
+
+  Carrington, Paul,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 208;
+    Washington's friendship for, 363.
+
+  Cary, Mary,
+    early love affair of Washington with, i. 96.
+
+  Chamberlayne, Major,
+    entertains Washington at Williams' Ferry, i. 101.
+
+  Charleston,
+    siege and capture of, i. 273, 274, 276.
+
+  Chastellux, Marquis de,
+    Washington's friendship for and letter to, ii. 351;
+    on Washington's training of horses, 380.
+
+  Cherokees,
+    beaten by Sevier, ii. 89;
+    pacified by Blount, 94,101.
+
+  Chester, Colonel,
+    researches on Washington pedigree, i. 31.
+
+  Chickasaws,
+    desert from St. Clair, ii. 96.
+
+  China,
+    honors Washington, i. 6.
+
+  Choctaws,
+    peaceable in 1788, ii. 89.
+
+  Cincinnati, Society of the,
+    Washington's connection with, ii. 4.
+
+  Clarke, Governor,
+    thinks Washington is invading popular rights, i. 215.
+
+  Cleaveland, Rev.----,
+    complimented by Washington, ii. 359.
+
+  Clinton, George,
+    appealed to by Washington to attack Burgoyne, i. 210;
+    journey with Washington to Ticonderoga, 343;
+    enters New York city, 345;
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 1;
+    meets Washington on journey to inauguration, 45;
+    opponent of the Constitution, 71;
+    orders seizure of French privateers, 153.
+
+  Clinton, Sir Henry,
+    fails to help Burgoyne, i. 210;
+    replaces Howe at Philadelphia, his character, 232;
+    tries to cut off Lafayette, 233;
+    leaves Philadelphia, 234;
+    defeats Lee at Monmouth, 236;
+    retreats to New York, 238;
+    withdraws from Newport, 248;
+    makes a raid, 265;
+    fortifies Stony Point, 268;
+    his aimless warfare, 269, 270;
+    after capturing Charleston returns to New York, 276;
+    tries to save Andre, 287;
+    alarmed at attacks on New York, 306;
+    jealous of Cornwallis, refuses to send reinforcements, 308;
+    deceived by Washington, 311;
+    sends Graves to relieve Cornwallis, 312.
+
+  Congress, Continental,
+    Washington's journey to, i. 128;
+    its character and ability, 129;
+    its state papers, 129;
+    adjourns, 132;
+    in second session, resolves to petition the king, 133;
+    adopts Massachusetts army and makes Washington commander, 134;
+    reasons for his choice, 135;
+    adheres to short-term enlistments, 149;
+    influenced to declare independence by Washington, 160;
+    hampers Washington in campaign of New York, 167;
+    letters of Washington to, 170, 179, 212, 225, 229, 266, 278, 295,
+  321, 323, 333;
+    takes steps to make army permanent, 171;
+    its over-confidence, 171;
+    insists on holding Forts Washington and Lee, 174;
+    dissatisfied with Washington's inactivity, 187;
+    criticises his proclamation requiring oath of allegiance, 189;
+    makes unwise appointments of officers, 189;
+    especially of foreigners, 190-192; 248, 249;
+    applauds Washington's efforts at Germantown, 200;
+    deposes Schuyler and St. Clair, 208;
+    appoints Gates, 210;
+    irritation against Washington, 212-215;
+    falls under guidance of Conway cabal, 221, 222;
+    discovers incompetence of cabal, 223;
+    meddles with prisoners and officers, 231;
+    rejects English peace offers, 233;
+    makes alliance with France, 241;
+    suppresses protests of officers against D'Estaing, 244;
+    decline in its character, 257;
+    becomes feeble, 258;
+    improvement urged by Washington, 259, 266;
+    appoints Gates to command in South, 268;
+    loses interest in war, 278;
+    asks Washington to name general for the South, 295;
+    considers reduction of army, 313;
+    elated by Yorktown, 323;
+    its unfair treatment of army, 333, 335;
+    driven from Philadelphia by Pennsylvania troops, 340;
+    passes half-pay act, 342;
+    receives commission of Washington, 347-349;
+    disbands army, ii. 6;
+    indifferent to Western expansion, 15;
+    continues to decline, 22;
+    merit of its Indian policy, 88.
+
+  Congress, Federal,
+    establishes departments, ii. 64;
+    opened by Washington, 78, 79;
+    ceremonial abolished by Jefferson, 79;
+    recommendations made to by Washington, 81-83;
+    acts upon them, 81-83;
+    creates commission to treat with Creeks, 90;
+    increases army, 94, 99;
+    fails to solve financial problems, 106;
+    debates Hamilton's report on credit, 107, 108;
+    establishes national bank, 109;
+    establishes protective revenue duties, 113;
+    imposes an excise tax, 123;
+    prepares for retaliation on Great Britain, 176;
+    Senate ratifies Jay treaty conditionally, 184;
+    House demands papers, 207;
+    debates over its right to concur in treaty, 208-210;
+    refuses to adjourn on Washington's birthday, 247;
+    prepares for war with France, 285;
+    passes Alien and Sedition Laws, 296.
+
+  Constitution, Federal,
+    necessity of, foreseen by Washington, ii. 17-18, 23, 24;
+    the Annapolis Convention, 23-29;
+    the Federal Convention, 30-36;
+    Washington's attitude in, 31,34;
+    his influence, 36;
+    campaign for ratification, 38-41.
+
+  Contrecoeur, Captain,
+    leader of French and Indians in Virginia, i. 75.
+
+  "Conway cabal,"
+    elements of in Congress, i. 214, 215;
+    in the army, 215;
+    organized by Conway, 217;
+    discovered by Washington, 220;
+    gets control of Board of War, 221;
+    tries to make Washington resign, 222, 224;
+    fails to invade Canada or provide supplies, 222, 223;
+    harassed by Washington's letters, 223,226;
+    breaks down, 226.
+
+  Conway, Moncure D.,
+    his life of Randolph, ii. 65, note, 196;
+    his defense of Randolph in Fauchet letter affair, 196;
+    on Washington's motives, 200;
+    on his unfair treatment of Randolph, 201, 202.
+
+  Conway, Thomas,
+    demand for higher rank refused by Washington, i. 216;
+    plots against him, 217;
+    his letter discovered by Washington, 221;
+    made inspector-general, 221, 222;
+    complains to Congress of his reception at camp, 225;
+    resigns, has duel with Cadwalader, 226;
+    apologizes to Washington and leaves country, 226.
+
+  Cooke, Governor,
+    remonstrated with by Washington for raising state troops, i. 186.
+
+  Cornwallis, Lord,
+    pursues Washington in New Jersey, i. 175;
+    repulsed at Assunpink, 181;
+    outgeneraled by Washington, 182;
+    surprises Sullivan at Brandywine, 197;
+    defeats Lee at Monmouth, 236;
+    pursues Greene in vain, 302;
+    wins battle of Guilford Court House, 302;
+    retreats into Virginia, 302;
+    joins British troops in Virginia, 303;
+    his dangerous position, 304;
+    urged by Clinton to return troops to New York, 306;
+    plunders Virginia, 307;
+    defeats Lafayette and Wayne, 307;
+    wishes to retreat South, 307;
+    ordered by ministry to stay on the Chesapeake, 307;
+    abandoned by Clinton, 308;
+    establishes himself at Yorktown, 308;
+    withdraws into town, 315;
+    besieged, 316, 317;
+    surrenders, 317;
+    outgeneraled by Washington, 319, 320.
+
+  Cowpens,
+    battle of, i. 301.
+
+  Craik, Dr.,
+    attends Washington in last illness, ii. 300-302;
+    Washington's friendship with, 363.
+
+  Creeks,
+    their relations with Spaniards, ii. 89, 90;
+    quarrel with Georgia, 90;
+    agree to treaty with United States, 91;
+    stirred up by Spain, 101.
+
+  Curwen, Samuel,
+    on Washington's appearance, i. 137.
+
+  Cushing, Caleb,
+    appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 72.
+
+  Custis, Daniel Parke,
+    first husband of Martha Washington, i. 101.
+
+  Custis, G.W.P.,
+    tells mythical story of Washington and the colt, i. 45;
+    Washington's care for, ii. 369.
+
+  Custis, John,
+    Washington's tenderness toward, i. 111;
+    care for his education and marriage, 111;
+    hunts with Washington, 141;
+    death of, 322.
+
+  Custis, Nellie,
+    marriage with Washington's nephew, ii. 281, 369;
+    letter of Washington to, 377.
+
+
+  DAGWORTHY, CAPTAIN,
+    claims to outrank Washington in Virginia army, i. 91, 97.
+
+  Dallas, Alexander,
+    protests to Genet against sailing of Little Sarah, ii. 155.
+
+  Dalton, Senator,
+    entertains Washington at Newburyport, ii. 359.
+
+  Deane, Silas,
+    promises commissions to foreign military adventurers, i. 190.
+
+  De Barras,
+    jealous of De Grasse, decides not to aid him, i. 310;
+    persuaded to do so by Washington and Rochambeau, 311;
+    reaches Chesapeake, 312.
+
+  De Grasse, Comte,
+    announces intention of coming to Washington, i. 305;
+    warned by Washington not to come to New York, 305;
+    sails to Chesapeake, 306;
+    asked to meet Washington there, 308;
+    reaches Chesapeake, 312;
+    repulses British fleet, 312;
+    wishes to return to West Indies, 315;
+    persuaded to remain by Washington, 315;
+    refuses to join Washington in attack on Charleston, 322;
+    returns to West Indies, 322.
+
+  De Guichen,----,
+    commander of French fleet in West Indies, i. 280;
+    appealed to for aid by Washington, 281;
+    returns home, 282.
+
+  Delancey, Oliver,
+    escapes American attack, i. 306.
+
+  Democratic party,
+    its formation as a French party, ii. 225;
+    furnished with catch-words by Jefferson, 226;
+    with a newspaper organ, 227;
+    not ready to oppose Washington for president in 1792, 235;
+    organized against treasury measure, 236;
+    stimulated by French Revolution, 238;
+    supports Genet, 237;
+    begins to attack Washington, 238;
+    his opinion of it, 239, 240, 258, 261, 267, 268;
+    forms clubs on French model, 241;
+    Washington's opinion of, 242, 243;
+    continues to abuse him, 244, 245, 250, 252;
+    exults at his retirement, 256;
+    prints slanders, 257.
+
+  Demont, William,
+    betrays plans of Fort Washington to Howe, i. 175.
+
+  D'Estaing, Admiral,
+    reaches America, i. 242;
+    welcomed by Washington, 243;
+    fails to cut off Howe and goes to Newport, 243;
+    after battle with Howe goes to Boston, 244;
+    letter of Washington to, 246;
+    sails to West Indies, 246;
+    second letter of Washington to, 247;
+    attacks Savannah, 248;
+    withdraws, 248.
+
+  De Rochambeau, Comte,
+    arrives at Newport, i. 277;
+    ordered to await second division of army, 278;
+    refuses to attack New York, 280;
+    wishes a conference with Washington, 282;
+    meets him at Hartford, 282;
+    disapproves attacking Florida, 301;
+    joins Washington before New York, 306;
+    persuades De Barras to join De Grasse, 311;
+    accompanies Washington to Yorktown, 314.
+
+  Dickinson, John,
+    commands scouts at Monmouth, i. 326.
+
+  Digby, Admiral,
+    bitter comments of Washington on, i. 325.
+
+  Dinwiddie, Governor,
+    remonstrates against French encroachments, i. 66;
+    sends Washington on mission to French, 66;
+    quarrels with the Virginia Assembly, 71;
+    letter of Washington to, 73;
+    wishes Washington to attack French, 79;
+    tries to quiet discussions between regular and provincial troops, 80;
+    military schemes condemned by Washington, 91;
+    prevents his getting a royal commission, 93.
+
+  Diplomatic History:
+    refusal by Washington of special privileges to French minister,
+  ii. 59-61;
+    slow growth of idea of non-intervention, 132, 133;
+    difficulties owing to French Revolution, 134;
+    to English retention of frontier posts, 135;
+    attitude of Spain, 135;
+    relations with Barbary States, 136;
+    mission of Gouverneur Morris to sound English feeling, 137;
+    assertion by Washington of non-intervention policy toward Europe,
+  145, 146;
+    issue of neutrality proclamation, 147, 148;
+    its importance, 148;
+    mission of Genet, 148-162;
+    guarded attitude of Washington toward emigres, 151;
+    excesses of Genet, 151;
+    neutrality enforced, 153, 154;
+    the Little Sarah episode, 154-157;
+    recall of Genet demanded, 158;
+    futile missions of Carmichael and Short to Spain, 165, 166;
+    successful treaty of Thomas Pinckney, 166-168;
+    question as to binding nature of French treaty of commerce, 169-171;
+    irritating relations with England, 173-176;
+    Jay's mission, 177-184;
+    the questions at issue, 180, 181;
+    terms of the treaty agreed upon, 182;
+    good and bad points, 183;
+    ratified by Senate, 184;
+    signing delayed by renewal of provision order, 185;
+    war with England prevented by signing, 205;
+    difficulties with France over Morris and Monroe, 211-214;
+    doings of Monroe, 212, 213;
+    United States compromised by him, 213, 214;
+    Monroe replaced by Pinckney, 214;
+    review of Washington's foreign policy, 216-219;
+    mission of Pinckney, Marshall, and Gerry to France, 284;
+    the X.Y.Z. affair, 285.
+
+  Donop, Count,
+    drives Griffin out of New Jersey, i. 180;
+    killed at Fort Mercer, 217.
+
+  Dorchester, Lord.
+    See Carleton.
+
+  Duane, James,
+    letters of Washington to, i. 294, 329.
+
+  Dumas, Comte,
+    describes enthusiasm of people for Washington, i. 288.
+
+  Dunbar, Colonel,
+    connection with Braddock's expedition, i. 84, 87.
+
+  Dunmore, Lord,
+    arrives in Virginia as governor, i. 122;
+    on friendly terms with Washington, 122, 123;
+    dissolves assembly, 123.
+
+  Duplaine, French consul,
+    exequatur of revoked, ii. 159.
+
+
+  EDEN, WILLIAM,
+    peace commissioner, i. 233.
+
+  Edwards, Jonathan,
+    a typical New England American, ii. 309.
+
+  Emerson, Rev. Dr.,
+    describes Washington's reforms in army before Boston, i. 140.
+
+  Emigres,
+    Washington's treatment of, ii. 151, 253.
+
+  England,
+    honors Washington, i. 20;
+    arrogant behavior toward colonists, 80, 81, 82, 148;
+    its policy towards Boston condemned by Virginia, 119, 121, 123, 126;
+    by Washington, 124, 125,126;
+    sends incompetent officers to America, 155, 201, 202, 233;
+    stupidity of its operations, 203, 205, 206, 265;
+    sincerity of its desire for peace doubted by Washington, 324, 325;
+    arrogant conduct of toward the United States after peace, ii. 24, 25;
+    stirs up the Six Nations and Northwestern Indians, 92, 94, 101;
+    folly of her policy, 102;
+    sends Hammond as minister, 169;
+    its opportunity to win United States as ally against France, 171, 172;
+    adopts contrary policy of opposition, 172, 173;
+    adopts "provision order," 174;
+    incites Indians against United States, 175;
+    indignation of America against, 176;
+    receives Jay well, but refuses to yield points at issue, 180;
+    insists on monopoly of West India trade, 180;
+    and on impressment, 181;
+    later history of, 181;
+    renews provision order, 185;
+    danger of war with, 193;
+    avoided by Jay treaty, 205;
+    Washington said to sympathize with England, 252;
+    his real hostility toward, 254;
+    Washington's opinion of liberty in, 344.
+
+  Ewing, General James,
+    fails to help Washington at Trenton, i. 180.
+
+
+  FAIRFAX, BRYAN,
+    hunts with Washington, i. 115;
+    remonstrates with Washington against violence of patriots, 124;
+    Washington's replies to, 124, 126, 127;
+    letter of Washington to in Revolution, ii. 366.
+
+  Fairfax, George,
+    married to Miss Cary, i. 55;
+    accompanies Washington on surveying expedition, 58;
+    letter of Washington to, 133.
+
+  Fairfax, Mrs.----,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 367.
+
+  Fairfax, Thomas, Lord,
+    his career in England, i. 55;
+    comes to his Virginia estates, 55;
+    his character, 55;
+    his friendship for Washington, 56;
+    sends him to survey estates, 56;
+    plans a manor across the Blue Ridge, 59;
+    secures for Washington position as public surveyor, 60;
+    probably influential in securing his appointment as envoy to
+  French, 66;
+    hunts with Washington, 115;
+    his death remembered by Washington, ii. 366.
+
+  Fairlie, Major,
+    amuses Washington, ii. 374.
+
+  Farewell Address, ii. 248, 249.
+
+  Fauchet, M.,----,
+    letter of, incriminating Randolph, ii. 195,196, 202.
+
+  Fauntleroy, Betsy,
+    love affair of Washington with, i. 97.
+
+  Fauquier, Francis, Governor,
+    at Washington's wedding, i. 101.
+
+  Federal courts,
+    suggested by Washington, i. 150.
+
+  "Federalist,"
+    circulated by Washington, ii. 40.
+
+  Federalist party,
+    begun by Hamilton's controversy with Jefferson, ii. 230;
+    supports Washington for reelection, 235;
+    organized in support of financial measures, 236;
+    Washington looked upon by Democrats as its head, 244, 247;
+    only its members trusted by Washington, 246, 247, 259, 260, 261;
+    becomes a British party, 255;
+    Washington considers himself a member of, 269-274;
+    the only American party until 1800, 273;
+    strengthened by X, Y, Z affair, 285;
+    dissensions in, over army appointments, 286-290;
+    its horror at French Revolution, 294, 295;
+    attempts of Washington to heal divisions in, 298.
+
+  Fenno's newspaper,
+    used by Hamilton against the "National Gazette," ii. 230.
+
+  Finances of the Revolution,
+    effect of paper money on war, i. 258, 262;
+    difficulties in paying troops, 258;
+    labors of Robert Morris, 259, 264, 312;
+    connection of Washington with, 263;
+    continued collapse, 280, 290, 312.
+
+  Financial History,
+    bad condition in 1789, ii. 105;
+    decay of credit, paper, and revenue, 106;
+    futile propositions, 106;
+    Hamilton's report on credit, 107;
+    debate over assumption of state debt, 107;
+    bargain between Hamilton and Jefferson, 108;
+    establishment of bank, 109;
+    other measures adopted, 112;
+    protection in the first Congress, 112-115;
+    the excise tax imposed, 123;
+    opposition to, 123-127;
+    "Whiskey Rebellion," 127-128.
+
+  Fishbourn, Benjamin,
+    nomination rejected by Senate, ii. 63.
+
+  Fontanes, M. de,
+    delivers funeral oration on Washington, i. 1.
+
+  Forbes, General,
+    renews attack on French in Ohio, i. 93.
+
+  Forman, Major,
+    describes impressiveness of Washington, ii. 389.
+
+  Fox, Charles James,
+    understands significance of Washington's leadership, i. 202.
+
+  France,
+    pays honors to Washington, i. I, 6;
+    war with England, see French and Indian war;
+    takes possession of Ohio, 65;
+    considers Jumonville assassinated by Washington, 74;
+    importance of alliance with foreseen by Washington, 191;
+    impressed by battle of Germantown, 200;
+    makes treaty of alliance with United States, 241;
+    sends D'Estaing, 243;
+    declines to attack Canada, 256;
+    sends army and fleet, 274, 277;
+    relations of French to Washington, 318, 319;
+    absolute necessity of their naval aid, 318, 319;
+    Revolution in, applauded by America, ii. 138, 139, 142;
+    real character understood by Washington and others, 139-142, 295;
+    debate over in America, 142;
+    question of relations with United States, 143, 144;
+    warned by Washington, 144, 145;
+    neutrality toward declared, 147;
+    tries to drive United States into alliance, 149;
+    terms of the treaty with, 169;
+    latter held to be no longer binding, 169-171;
+    abrogates it, 171;
+    demands recall of Morris, 211;
+    mission of Monroe to, 211-214;
+    makes vague promises, 212, 213;
+    Washington's fairness toward, 253;
+    tries to bully or corrupt American ministers, 284;
+    the X, Y, Z affair, 285;
+    war with not expected by Washington, 291;
+    danger of concession to, 292, 293;
+    progress of Revolution in, 294.
+
+  Franklin, Benjamin,
+    gets wagons for Braddock's expedition, i. 84;
+    remark on Howe in Philadelphia, 219;
+    national, like Washington, 252, ii. 8;
+    despairs of success of Constitutional Convention, 35;
+    his unquestioned Americanism, 309;
+    respect of Washington for, 344, 346, 364.
+
+  Frederick II., the Great,
+    his opinion of Trenton campaign, i. 183;
+    of Monmouth campaign, 239.
+
+  French and Indian war, i. 64-94;
+    inevitable conflict, 65;
+    efforts to negotiate, 66, 67;
+    hostilities begun, 72;
+    the Jumonville affair, 74;
+    defeat of Washington, 76;
+    Braddock's campaign, 82-88;
+    ravages in Virginia, 90;
+    carried to a favorable conclusion by Pitt, 93, 94.
+
+  Freneau, Philip,
+    brought to Philadelphia and given clerkship by Jefferson, ii. 227;
+    attacks Adams, Hamilton, and Washington in "National Gazette," 227;
+    makes conflicting statements as to Jefferson's share in the paper,
+  227, 228;
+    the first to attack Washington, 238.
+
+  Fry, Colonel,
+    commands a Virginia regiment against French and Indians, i. 71;
+    dies, leaving Washington in command, 75.
+
+
+  GAGE, GENERAL THOMAS,
+    conduct at Boston condemned by Washington, i. 126;
+    his treatment of prisoners protested against by Washington, 145;
+    sends an arrogant reply, 147;
+    second letter of Washington to, 147, 156.
+
+  Gallatin, Albert,
+    connection with Whiskey Rebellion, ii. 129.
+
+  Gates, Horatio,
+    visits Mt. Vernon, his character, i. 132;
+    refuses to cooperate with Washington at Trenton, 180;
+    his appointment as commander against Burgoyne urged, 208;
+    chosen by Congress, 209;
+    his part in defeating Burgoyne, 210;
+    neglects to inform Washington, 211;
+    loses his head and wishes to supplant Washington, 215;
+    forced to send troops South, 216, 217;
+    his attitude discovered by Washington, 221;
+    makes feeble efforts at opposition, 221, 223;
+    correspondence with Washington, 221, 223, 226;
+    becomes head of board of war, 221;
+    quarrels with Wilkinson, 223;
+    sent to his command, 226;
+    fears attack of British on Boston, 265;
+    sent by Congress to command in South, 268;
+    defeated at Camden, 281, 294;
+    loses support of Congress, 294.
+
+  Genet, Edmond Charles,
+    arrives as French minister, ii. 148;
+    his character, 149;
+    violates neutrality, 151;
+    his journey to Philadelphia, 151;
+    reception by Washington, 152;
+    complains of it, 153;
+    makes demands upon State Department, 153;
+    protests at seizure of privateers, 153;
+    insists on sailing of Little Sarah, 155;
+    succeeds in getting vessel away, 157;
+    his recall demanded, 158;
+    reproaches Jefferson, 158;
+    remains in America, 158;
+    threatens to appeal from Washington to Massachusetts, 159;
+    demands denial from Washington of Jay's statements, 159;
+    loses popular support, 160;
+    tries to raise a force to invade Southwest, 161;
+    prevented by state and federal authorities, 162;
+    his arrival the signal for divisions of parties, 237;
+    hurts Democratic party by his excesses, 241;
+    suggests clubs, 241.
+
+  George IV.,
+    Washington's opinion of, ii. 346.
+
+  Georgia,
+    quarrels with Creeks, asks aid of United States, ii. 90;
+    becomes dissatisfied with treaty, 91;
+    disregards treaties of the United States, 103.
+
+  Gerard, M.,
+    notifies Washington of return of D'Estaing, i. 246.
+
+  Germantown,
+    battle of, i. 199.
+
+  Gerry, Elbridge,
+    on special mission to France, ii. 284;
+    disliked by Washington, 292.
+
+  Giles, W.B.,
+    attacks Washington in Congress, ii. 251, 252.
+
+  Gist, Christopher,
+    accompanies Washington on his mission to French, i. 66;
+    wishes to shoot French Indians, 68.
+
+  Gordon,----,
+    letter of Washington to, i. 227.
+
+  Graves, Admiral,
+    sent to relieve Cornwallis, i. 312; defeated by De Grasse, 312.
+
+  Grayson, William,
+    hunts with Washington, i. 115; letter to, ii. 22.
+
+  Green Springs,
+    battle of, i. 307.
+
+  Greene, General Nathanael,
+    commands at Long Island, ill with fever, i. 164;
+    wishes forts on Hudson held, 174;
+    late in attacking at Germantown, 199;
+    conducts retreat, 200;
+    succeeds Mifflin as quartermaster-general, 232;
+    selected by Washington to command in South, 268;
+    commands army at New York in absence of Washington, 282;
+    appointed to command Southern army, 295;
+    retreats from Cornwallis, 302;
+    fights battle of Guilford Court House, 302;
+    clears Southern States of enemy, 302;
+    strong position, 304;
+    reinforced by Washington, 322;
+    letter to, 325;
+    his military capacity early recognized by Washington, ii. 334;
+    amuses Washington, 374.
+
+  Greene, Mrs.----,
+    dances three hours with Washington, ii. 380.
+
+  Grenville, Lord,
+    denies that ministry has incited Indians against United States,
+  ii. 175;
+    receives Jay, 180;
+    declines to grant United States trade with West Indies, 181.
+
+  Griffin, David,
+    commissioner to treat with Creeks, ii. 90.
+
+  Griffin,----,
+    fails to help Washington at Trenton, i. 180.
+
+  Grymes, Lucy,
+    the "Lowland Beauty," love affair of Washington with, i. 95;
+    marries Henry Lee, 96.
+
+
+  HALDIMAND, SIR FREDERICK,
+    leads Indians against colonists, i. 325.
+
+  Hale, Nathan, compared with Andre, i. 288.
+
+  Half-King,
+    kept to English alliance by Washington, i. 68;
+    his criticism of Washington's first campaign, 76.
+
+  Hamilton, Alexander,
+    forces Gates to send back troops to Washington, i. 216, 217;
+    remark on councils of war before Monmouth, 234;
+    informs Washington of Arnold's treason, 284;
+    sent to intercept Arnold, 285;
+    writes letters on government and finance, 298;
+    leads attack at Yorktown, i. 316;
+    requests release of Asgill, 329;
+    aids Washington in Congress, 333;
+    only man beside Washington and Franklin to realize American future,
+  ii. 7;
+    letters of Washington to on necessity of a strong government, 17, 18;
+    writes letters to Duane and Morris, 19;
+    speech in Federal Convention and departure, 35;
+    counseled by Washington, 39;
+    consulted by Washington as to etiquette, 54;
+    made secretary of treasury, 66;
+    his character, 67;
+    his report on the mint, 81;
+    on the public credit, 107;
+    upheld by Washington, 107, 108;
+    his arrangement with Jefferson, 108;
+    argument on the bank, 110;
+    his success largely due to Washington, 112;
+    his report on manufactures, 112, 114, 116;
+    advocates an excise, 122;
+    fails to realize its unpopularity, 123;
+    accompanies expedition to suppress Whiskey Rebellion, 128;
+    comprehends French Revolution, 139;
+    frames questions to cabinet on neutrality, 147;
+    urges decisive measures against Genet, 154;
+    argues against United States being bound by French treaty, 169;
+    selected for English mission, but withdraws, 177;
+    not likely to have done better than Jay, 183;
+    mobbed in defending Jay treaty, 187;
+    writes Camillus letters in favor of Jay treaty, 206;
+    intrigued against by Monroe, 212;
+    causes for his breach with Jefferson, 224;
+    his aristocratic tendencies, 225;
+    attacked by Jefferson and his friends, 228, 229;
+    disposes of the charges, 229;
+    retorts in newspapers with effect, 230;
+    ceases at Washington's request, 230, 234;
+    resigns from the cabinet, 234;
+    desires Washington's reelection, 235;
+    selected by Washing, ton as senior general, 286;
+    appeals to Washington against Adams's reversal of rank, 286;
+    fails to soothe Knox's anger, 288;
+    report on army organization, 290;
+    letter of Washington to, condemning Adams's French mission, 293;
+    fears anarchy from Democratic success, 295;
+    approves Alien and Sedition Acts, 296;
+    his scheme of a military academy approved by Washington, 299;
+    Washington's affection for, 317, 362;
+    his ability early recognized by Washington, 334, 335;
+    aids Washington in literary points, 340;
+    takes care of Lafayette's son, 366.
+
+  Hammond, George,
+    protests against violations of neutrality, ii. 151;
+    his arrival as British minister, 169;
+    his offensive tone, 173;
+    does not disavow Lord Dorchester's speech to Indians, 176;
+    gives Fauchet letters to Wolcott, 195;
+    intrigues with American public men, 200.
+
+  Hampden, John,
+    compared with Washington, ii. 312, 313.
+
+  Hancock, John,
+    disappointed at Washington's receiving command of army, i. 135;
+    his character, ii. 74;
+    refuses to call first on Washington as President, 75;
+    apologizes and calls, 75, 76.
+
+  Hardin, Colonel,
+    twice surprised and defeated by Indians, ii. 93.
+
+  Harmar, Colonel,
+    invades Indian country, ii. 92;
+    attacks the Miamis, 93;
+    sends out unsuccessful expeditions and retreats, 93;
+    court-martialed and resigns, 93.
+
+  Harrison, Benjamin,
+    letters of Washington to, i. 259, 261; ii. 10.
+
+  Hartley, Mrs.----,
+    admired by Washington, i. 95.
+
+  Heard, Sir Isaac,
+    Garter King at Arms, makes out a pedigree for Washington, i. 30, 31.
+
+  Heath, General,
+    checks Howe at Frog's Point, i. 173;
+    left in command at New York, 311.
+
+  Henry, Patrick,
+    his resolutions supported by Washington, i. 119;
+    accompanies him to Philadelphia, 128;
+    his tribute to Washington's influence, 130;
+    ready for war, 132;
+    letters of Conway cabal to against Washington, 222;
+    letter of Washington to, 225;
+    appealed to by Washington on behalf of Constitution, ii. 38;
+    an opponent of the Constitution, 71;
+    urged by Washington to oppose Virginia resolutions, 266-268, 293;
+    a genuine American, 309;
+    offered secretaryship of state, 324;
+    friendship of Washington for, 362.
+
+  Hertburn, Sir William de,
+    ancestor of Washington family, i. 31, 33.
+
+  Hessians,
+    in Revolution, i. 194.
+
+  Hickey, Thomas,
+    hanged for plotting to murder Washington, i. 160.
+
+  Hobby,----, a sexton,
+    Washington's earliest teacher, i. 48.
+
+  Hopkinson, Francis,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 3.
+
+  Houdon, J.A., sculptor,
+    on Washington's appearance, ii. 386.
+
+  Howe, Lord,
+    arrives at New York with power to negotiate and pardon, i. 161;
+    refuses to give Washington his title, 161;
+    tries to negotiate with Congress, 167;
+    escapes D'Estaing at Delaware, 244;
+    attacks D'Estaing off Newport, 244.
+
+  Howe, Sir William,
+    has controversy with Washington over treatment of prisoners, i. 148;
+    checked at Frog's Point, 173;
+    attacks cautiously at Chatterton Hill, 173;
+    retreats and attacks forts on Hudson, 174;
+    takes Fort Washington, 175;
+    goes into winter quarters in New York, 177, 186;
+    suspected of purpose to meet Burgoyne, 194, 195;
+    baffled in advance across New Jersey by Washington, 194;
+    goes by sea, 195;
+    arrives at Head of Elk, 196;
+    defeats Washington at Brandywine, 197;
+    camps at Germantown, 199;
+    withdraws after Germantown into Philadelphia, 201;
+    folly of his failure to meet Burgoyne, 205, 206;
+    offers battle in vain to Washington, 218;
+    replaced by Clinton, 232;
+    tries to cut off Lafayette, 233.
+
+  Huddy, Captain,
+    captured by English, hanged by Tories, i. 327.
+
+  Humphreys, Colonel,
+    letters of Washington to, ii. 13, 339;
+    at opening of Congress, 78;
+    commissioner to treat with Creeks, 90;
+    anecdote of, 375.
+
+  Huntington, Lady,
+    asks Washington's aid in Christianizing Indians, ii. 4.
+
+
+  IMPRESSMENT,
+    right of, maintained by England, ii. 181.
+
+  Independence,
+    not wished, but foreseen, by Washington, i. 131, 156;
+    declared by Congress, possibly through Washington's influence, 160.
+
+  Indians,
+    wars with in Virginia, i. 37, 38;
+    in French and Indian war, 67,68;
+    desert English, 76;
+    in Braddock's defeat, 85, 86, 88;
+    restless before Revolution, 122;
+    in War of Revolution, 266, 270;
+    punished by Sullivan, 269;
+    policy toward, early suggested by Washington, 344;
+    recommendations relative to in Washington's address to Congress,
+  ii. 82;
+    the "Indian problem" under Washington's administration, 83-105;
+    erroneous popular ideas of, 84, 85;
+    real character and military ability, 85-87;
+    understood by Washington, 87, 88;
+    a real danger in 1788, 88;
+    situation in the Northwest, 89;
+    difficulties with Cherokees and Creeks, 89, 90;
+    influence of Spanish intrigue, 90;
+    successful treaty with Creeks, 90, 91;
+    wisdom of this policy, 92;
+    warfare in the Northwest, 92;
+    defeats of Harmar and Hardin, 93;
+    causes for the failure, 93, 94;
+    intrigues of England, 92, 94, 175, 178;
+    expedition and defeat of St. Clair, 95-97;
+    results, 99;
+    expedition of Wayne, 100, 102;
+    his victory, 103;
+    success of Washington's policy toward, 104, 105.
+
+  Iredell, James,
+    appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 73.
+
+
+  JACKSON, MAJOR,
+    accompanies Washington to opening of Congress, ii. 78.
+
+  Jameson, Colonel,
+    forwards Andrews letter to Arnold, i. 284;
+    receives orders from Washington, 285.
+
+  Jay, John,
+    on opposition in Congress, to Washington, i. 222;
+    consulted by Washington as to etiquette, ii. 54;
+    appointed chief justice, 72;
+    publishes card against Genet, 159;
+    appointed on special mission to England, 177;
+    his character, 177;
+    instructions from Washington, 179;
+    his reception in England, 180;
+    difficulties in negotiating, 181;
+    concludes treaty, 182;
+    burnt in effigy while absent, 186;
+    execrated after news of treaty, 187;
+    hampered by Monroe in France, 213.
+
+  Jay treaty, ii. 180-184;
+    opposition to and debate over signing, 184-201;
+    reasons of Washington for signing, 205.
+
+  Jefferson, Thomas,
+    his flight from Cornwallis, i. 307;
+    discusses with Washington needs of government, ii. 9;
+    adopts French democratic phraseology, 27;
+    contrast with Washington, 27, 28, 69;
+    criticises Washington's manners, 56;
+    made secretary of state, 68;
+    his previous relations with Washington, 68;
+    his character, 69;
+    supposed to be a friend of the Constitution, 72;
+    his objections to President's opening Congress, 79;
+    on weights and measures, 81;
+    letter of Washington to on assumption of state debts, 107;
+    makes bargain with Hamilton, 108;
+    opposes a bank, 110;
+    asked to prepare neutrality instructions, 146;
+    upholds Genet, 153;
+    argues against him publicly, supports him privately, 154;
+    notified of French privateer Little Sarah, 155;
+    allows it to sail, 155;
+    retires to country and is censured by Washington, 156;
+    assures Washington that vessel will wait his decision, 156;
+    his un-American attitude, 157;
+    wishes to make terms of note demanding Genet's recall mild, 158;
+    argues that United States is bound by French treaty, 170, 171;
+    begs Madison to answer Hamilton's "Camillus" letters, 206;
+    his attitude upon first entering cabinet, 223;
+    causes for his breach with Hamilton, 224;
+    jealousy, incompatibility of temper, 224;
+    his democratic opinions, 225;
+    skill in creating party catch-words, 225;
+    prints "Rights of Man" with note against Adams, 226;
+    attacks him further in letter to Washington, 226;
+    brings Freneau to Philadelphia and gives him an office, 227;
+    denies any connection with Freneau's newspaper, 227;
+    his real responsibility, 228;
+    his purpose to undermine Hamilton, 228;
+    causes his friends to attack him, 229;
+    writes a letter to Washington attacking Hamilton's treasury measures,
+  229;
+    fails to produce any effect, 230;
+    winces under Hamilton's counter attacks, 230;
+    reiterates charges and asserts devotion to Constitution, 231;
+    continues attacks and resigns, 234;
+    wishes reelection of Washington, 235;
+    his charge of British sympathies resented by Washington, 252;
+    plain letter of Washington to, 259;
+    Washington's opinion of, 259;
+    suggests Logan's mission to France, 262, 265;
+    takes oath as vice-president, 276;
+    regarded as a Jacobin by Federalists, 294;
+    jealous of Washington, 306;
+    accuses him of senility, 307;
+    a genuine American, 309.
+
+  Johnson, William,
+    Tory leader in New York, i. 143.
+
+  Johnstone, Governor,
+    peace commissioner, i. 233.
+
+  Jumonville, De, French leader,
+    declared to have been assassinated by Washington, i. 74,79;
+    really a scout and spy, 75.
+
+
+  KENTUCKY RESOLUTIONS,
+    condemned by Washington, ii. 266-268.
+
+  King, Clarence,
+    his opinion that Washington was not American, ii. 308.
+
+  King, Rufus,
+    publishes card exposing Genet, ii. 159.
+
+  King's Bridge,
+    fight at, i. 170.
+
+  Kip's Landing,
+    fight at, i. 168.
+
+  Kirkland, Rev. Samuel,
+    negotiates with Six Nations, ii. 101.
+
+  Knox, Henry,
+    brings artillery to Boston from Ticonderoga, i. 152;
+    accompanies Washington to meet De Rochambeau, 283;
+    at West Point, 285;
+    sent by Washington to confer with governors of States, 295;
+    urged by Washington to establish Western posts, ii. 7;
+    letters of Washington to, 30, 39;
+    made secretary of war, 65;
+    his character, 65;
+    a Federalist, 71;
+    deals with Creeks, 91;
+    urges decisive measure against Genet, 154, 155;
+    letters of Washington to, 260;
+    selected by Washington as third major-general, 286;
+    given first place by Adams, 286;
+    angry at Hamilton's higher rank, 288;
+    refuses the office, 289;
+    his offer to serve on Washington's staff refused, 289;
+    Washington's affection for, 317, 362.
+
+
+  LAFAYETTE, Madame de,
+    aided by Washington, ii. 366;
+    letter of Washington to, 377.
+
+  Lafayette, Marquis de,
+    Washington's regard for, i. 192;
+    his opinion of Continental troops, 196;
+    sent on fruitless journey to the lakes by cabal, 222, 253;
+    encouraged by Washington, 225;
+    narrowly escapes being cut off by Clinton, 233;
+    appointed to attack British rear, 235;
+    superseded by Lee, 235;
+    urges Washington to come, 235;
+    letter of Washington to, regarding quarrel between D'Estaing and
+  Sullivan, 245;
+    regard of Washington for, 249;
+    desires to conquer Canada, 254;
+    his plan not supported in France, 256;
+    works to get a French army sent, 264;
+    brings news of French army and fleet, 274;
+    tries to get De Rochambeau to attack New York, 280;
+    accompanies Washington to meet De Rochambeau, 283;
+    told by Washington of Arnold's treachery, 285;
+    on court to try Andre, 287;
+    opinion of Continental soldiers, 293;
+    harasses Cornwallis, 307;
+    defeated at Green Springs, 307;
+    watches Cornwallis at Yorktown, 308;
+    reinforced by De Grasse, 312;
+    persuades him to remain, 315;
+    sends Washington French wolf-hounds, ii. 2;
+    letters of Washington to, 23, 26, 118, 144, 165, 222, 261;
+    his son not received by Washington, 253;
+    later taken care of, 277, 281, 366;
+    his worth, early seen by Washington, 334;
+    Washington's affection for, 365;
+    sends key of Bastile to Mt. Vernon, 365;
+    helped by Washington, 365,366.
+
+  Laurens, Henry,
+    letter of Conway cabal to, making attack on Washington, i. 222;
+    letters of Washington to, 254, 288;
+    sent to Paris to get loans, 299.
+
+  Lauzun, Duc de,
+    repulses Tarleton at Yorktown, i. 317.
+
+
+  Lear, Tobias,
+    Washington's secretary, ii. 263;
+    his account of Washington's last illness, 299-303, 385;
+    letters to, 361, 382.
+
+  Lee, Arthur,
+    example of Virginia gentleman educated abroad, i. 23.
+
+  Lee, Charles,
+    visits Mt. Vernon, his character, i. 132;
+    accompanies Washington to Boston, 136;
+    aids Washington in organizing army, 140;
+    disobeys orders and is captured, 175;
+    objects to attacking Clinton, 234;
+    first refuses, then claims command of van, 235;
+    disobeys orders and retreats, 236;
+    rebuked by Washington, 236, 237;
+    court martial of and dismissal from army, 237;
+    his witty remark on taking oath of allegiance, ii. 375.
+
+  Lee, Henry, marries Lucy Grymes,
+    Washington's "Lowland Beauty," i. 96.
+
+  Lee, Henry,
+    son of Lucy Grymes, Washington's "Lowland Beauty," i. 96; ii. 362;
+    captures Paulus Hook, i. 269;
+    letters of Washington to, ii. 23, 26, 149, 235, 239, 242, 252;
+    considered for command against Indians, 100;
+    commands troops to suppress Whiskey Rebellion, 127;
+    Washington's affection for, 362.
+
+  Lee, Richard Henry,
+    unfriendly to Washington, i. 214;
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 160.
+
+  Lewis, Lawrence,
+    at opening of Congress, ii. 78;
+    takes social duties at Mt. Vernon, 280.
+
+  Liancourt, Duc de,
+    refused reception by Washington, ii. 253.
+
+  Lincoln, Abraham,
+    compared with Washington, i. 349; ii. 308-313.
+
+  Lincoln, Benjamin,
+    sent by Washington against Burgoyne, i. 210;
+    fails to understand Washington's policy and tries to hold Charleston,
+  273, 274;
+    captured, 276;
+    commissioner to treat with Creeks, ii. 90.
+
+  Lippencott, Captain,
+    orders hanging of Huddy, i. 327;
+    acquitted by English court martial, 328.
+
+  Little Sarah,
+    the affair of, 155-157.
+
+  Livingston, Chancellor,
+    administers oath at Washington's inauguration, ii. 46.
+
+  Livingston, Edward,
+    moves call for papers relating to Jay treaty, ii. 207.
+
+  Logan, Dr. George,
+    goes on volunteer mission to France, ii. 262;
+    ridiculed by Federalists, publishes defense, 263;
+    calls upon Washington, 263;
+    mercilessly snubbed, 263-265.
+
+  Long Island,
+    battle of, i. 164,165.
+
+  London, Lord,
+    disappoints Washington by his inefficiency, i. 91.
+
+  Lovell, James,
+    follows the Adamses in opposing Washington, i. 214;
+    wishes to supplant him by Gates, 215;
+    writes hostile letters, 222.
+
+
+  MACKENZIE, CAPTAIN,
+    letter of Washington to, i. 130.
+
+  Madison, James,
+    begins to desire a stronger government, ii. 19, 29;
+    letters of Washington to, 30, 39, 53;
+    chosen for French mission, but does not go, 211.
+
+  Magaw, Colonel,
+    betrayed at Fort Washington, i. 175.
+
+  "Magnolia,"
+    Washington's pet colt, beaten in a race, i. 99, 113; ii. 381.
+
+  Marshall, John,
+    Chief Justice, on special commission to France, ii. 284;
+    tells anecdote of Washington's anger at cowardice, 392.
+
+  Maryland, the Washington family in, i.36.
+
+  Mason, George,
+    discusses political outlook with Washington, i. 119;
+    letter of Washington to, 263;
+    an opponent of the Constitution, ii. 71;
+    friendship of Washington for, 362;
+    debates with Washington the site of Pohick Church, 381.
+
+  Mason, S.T.,
+    communicates Jay treaty to Bache, ii. 185.
+
+  Massey, Rev. Lee,
+    rector of Pohick Church, i. 44.
+
+  Mathews, George,
+    letter of Washington to, i. 294.
+
+  Matthews, Edward,
+    makes raids in Virginia, i. 269.
+
+  Mawhood, General,
+    defeated at Princeton, i. 182.
+
+  McGillivray, Alexander,
+    chief of the Creeks, ii. 90;
+    his journey to New York and interview with Washington, 91.
+
+  McHenry, James,
+    at West Point, i. 284;
+    letters to, 325, ii. 22, 278, 287, 384;
+    becomes secretary of war, 246;
+    advised by Washington not to appoint Democrats, 260, 261.
+
+  McKean, Thomas, given letters to Dr. Logan, ii. 265.
+
+  McMaster, John B.,
+    calls Washington "an unknown man," i. 7, ii. 304;
+    calls him cold, 332, 352;
+    and avaricious in small ways, 352.
+
+  Meade, Colonel Richard,
+    Washington's opinion of, ii. 335.
+
+  Mercer, Hugh,
+    killed at Princeton, i. 182.
+
+  Merlin,----,
+    president of Directory, interview with Dr. Logan, ii. 265.
+
+  Mifflin, Thomas,
+    wishes to supplant Washington by Gates, i. 216;
+    member of board of war, 221;
+    put under Washington's orders, 226;
+    replies to Washington's surrender of commission, 349;
+    meets Washington on journey to inauguration, ii. 44;
+    notified of the Little Sarah, French privateer, 154;
+    orders its seizure, 155.
+
+  Militia,
+    abandon Continental army, i. 167;
+    cowardice of, 168;
+    despised by Washington, 169;
+    leave army again, 175;
+    assist in defeat of Burgoyne, 211.
+
+  Mischianza, i. 232.
+
+  Monmouth,
+    battle of, i. 235-239.
+
+  Monroe, James,
+    appointed minister to France, ii. 211;
+    his character, 212;
+    intrigues against Hamilton, 212;
+    effusively received in Paris, 212;
+    acts foolishly, 213;
+    tries to interfere with Jay, 213;
+    upheld, then condemned and recalled by Washington, 213, 214;
+    writes a vindication, 215;
+    Washington's opinion of him, 215, 216;
+    his selection one of Washington's few mistakes, 334.
+
+  Montgomery, General Richard,
+    sent by Washington to invade Canada, i. 143.
+
+  Morgan, Daniel,
+    sent against Burgoyne by Washington, i. 208;
+    at Saratoga, 210;
+    wins battle of Cowpens, joins Greene, 301.
+
+  Morris, Gouverneur,
+    letters of Washington to, i. 248, 263;
+    efforts towards financial reform, 264;
+    quotes speech of Washington at Federal convention in his eulogy,
+  ii. 31;
+    discussion as to his value as an authority, 32, note;
+    goes to England on unofficial mission, 137;
+    balked by English insolence, 137;
+    comprehends French Revolution, 139;
+    letters of Washington to, on the Revolution, 140,142,145;
+    recall demanded by France, 211;
+    letter of Washington to, 217,240, 254;
+    Washington's friendship for, 363.
+
+  Morris, Robert,
+    letter of Washington to, i. 187;
+    helps Washington to pay troops, 259;
+    efforts towards financial reform, 264;
+    difficulty in helping Washington in 1781, 309, 312;
+    considered for secretary of treasury, ii. 66;
+    his bank policy approved by Washington, 110;
+    Washington's friendship for, 363.
+
+  Moustier,
+    demands private access to Washington, ii. 59;
+    refused, 59, 60.
+
+  Murray, Vans, minister in Holland,
+    interview with Dr. Logan, ii. 264;
+    nominated for French mission by Adams, 292;
+    written to by Washington, 292.
+
+  Muse, Adjutant,
+    trains Washington in tactics and art of war, i. 65.
+
+
+  NAPOLEON,
+    orders public mourning for Washington's death, i. 1.
+
+  Nelson, General,
+    letter of Washington to, i. 257.
+
+  Newburgh,
+    addresses, ii. 335.
+
+  New England,
+    character of people, i. 138;
+    attitude toward Washington, 138, 139;
+    troops disliked by Washington, 152;
+    later praised by him, 152, 317, 344;
+    threatened by Burgoyne's invasion, 204;
+    its delegates in Congress demand appointment of Gates, 208;
+    and oppose Washington, 214;
+    welcomes Washington on tour as President, ii. 74;
+    more democratic than other colonies before Revolution, 315;
+    disliked by Washington for this reason, 316.
+
+  Newenham, Sir Edward,
+    letter of Washington to on American foreign policy, ii. 133.
+
+  New York,
+    Washington's first visit to, i. 99, 100;
+    defense of, in Revolution, 159-169;
+    abandoned by Washington, 169;
+    Howe establishes himself in, 177;
+    reoccupied by Clinton, 264;
+    Washington's journey to, ii. 44;
+    inauguration in, 46;
+    rioting in, against Jay treaty, 187.
+
+  Nicholas, John,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 259.
+
+  Nicola, Col.,
+    urges Washington to establish a despotism, i. 337.
+
+  Noailles, Vicomte de, French emigre,
+    referred to State Department, ii. 151, 253.
+
+
+  O'FLINN, CAPTAIN,
+    Washington's friendship with, ii. 318.
+
+  Organization of the national government,
+    absence of materials to work with, ii. 51;
+    debate over title of President, 52;
+    over his communications with Senate, 53;
+    over presidential etiquette, 53-56;
+    appointment of officials to cabinet offices established by Congress,
+  64-71;
+    appointment of supreme court judges, 72.
+
+  Orme,----,
+    letter of Washington to, i. 84.
+
+
+  PAINE, THOMAS,
+    his "Rights of Man" reprinted by Jefferson, ii. 226.
+
+  Parkinson, Richard,
+    says Washington was harsh to slaves, i. 105;
+    contradicts statement elsewhere, 106;
+    tells stories of Washington's pecuniary exactness, ii. 353, 354, 382;
+    his character, 355;
+    his high opinion of Washington, 356.
+
+  Parton, James,
+    considers Washington as good but commonplace, ii. 330, 374.
+
+  Peachey, Captain,
+    letter of Washington to, i. 92.
+
+  Pendleton, Edmund,
+    Virginia delegate to Continental Congress, i. 128.
+
+  Pennsylvania,
+    refuses to fight the French, i. 72,83;
+    fails to help Washington, 225;
+    remonstrates against his going into winter quarters, 229;
+    condemned by Washington, 229;
+    compromises with mutineers, 292.
+
+  Philipse, Mary,
+    brief love-affair of Washington with, i. 99, 100.
+
+  Phillips, General,
+    commands British troops in Virginia, i. 303;
+    death of, 303.
+
+  Pickering, Colonel, quiets Six Nations, ii. 94.
+
+  Pickering, Timothy,
+    letter of Washington to, on French Revolution, ii. 140;
+    on failure of Spanish negotiations, 166;
+    recalls Washington to Philadelphia to receive Fauchet letter, 195;
+    succeeds Randolph, 246;
+    letters of Washington to, on party government, 247;
+    appeals to Washington against Adams's reversal of Hamilton's rank,
+  286;
+    letters of Washington to, 292, 324;
+    criticises Washington as a commonplace person, 307.
+
+  Pinckney, Charles C.,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 90;
+    appointed to succeed Monroe as minister to France, 214;
+    refused reception, 284;
+    sent on special commission, 284;
+    named by Washington as general, 286;
+    accepts without complaint of Hamilton's higher rank, 290;
+    Washington's friendship with, 363.
+
+  Pinckney, Thomas,
+    sent on special mission to Spain, ii. 166;
+    unsuccessful at first, 166;
+    succeeds in making a good treaty, 167;
+    credit of his exploit, 168;
+    letter of Washington to, 325.
+
+  Pitt, William,
+    his conduct of French war, i. 93, 94.
+
+  Princeton,
+    battle of, i. 181-3.
+
+  Privateers,
+    sent out by Washington, i. 150.
+
+  "Protection"
+    favored in the first Congress, ii. 113-115;
+    arguments of Hamilton for, 114, 115;
+    of Washington, 116-122.
+
+  Provincialism,
+    of Americans, i. 193;
+    with regard to foreign officers, 193, 234, 250-252;
+    with regard to foreign politics, ii. 131, 132, 163, 237, 255.
+
+  Putnam, Israel,
+    escapes with difficulty from New York, i. 169;
+    fails to help Washington at Trenton, 180;
+    warned to defend the Hudson, 195;
+    tells Washington of Burgoyne's surrender, 211;
+    rebuked by Washington, 217;
+    amuses Washington, ii. 374.
+
+
+  RAHL, COLONEL,
+    defeated and killed at Trenton, i. 181.
+
+  Randolph, Edmund,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 30, 39;
+    relations with Washington, 64;
+    appointed attorney-general, 64;
+    his character, 64, 65;
+    a friend of the Constitution, 71;
+    opposes a bank, 110;
+    letter of Washington to, on protective bounties, 118;
+    drafts neutrality proclamation, 147;
+    vacillates with regard to Genet, 154;
+    argues that United States is bound by French alliance, 170;
+    succeeds Jefferson as secretary of state, 184;
+    directed to prepare a remonstrance against English "provision order,"
+  185;
+    opposed to Jay treaty, 188;
+    letter of Washington to, on conditional ratification, 189, 191, 192,
+  194;
+    guilty, apparently, from Fauchet letter, of corrupt practices, 196;
+    his position not a cause for Washington's signing treaty, 196-200;
+    receives Fauchet letter, resigns, 201;
+    his personal honesty, 201;
+    his discreditable carelessness, 202;
+    fairly treated by Washington, 203, 204;
+    his complaints against Washington, 203;
+    letter of Washington to, concerning Monroe, 213;
+    at first a Federalist, 246.
+
+  Randolph, John,
+    on early disappearance of Virginia colonial society, i. 15.
+
+  Rawdon, Lord,
+    commands British forces in South, too distant to help Cornwallis,
+  i. 304.
+
+  Reed, Joseph,
+    letters of Washington to, i. 151, 260.
+
+  Revolution, War of,
+    foreseen by Washington, i. 120, 122;
+    Lexington and Concord, 133;
+    Bunker Hill, 136;
+    siege of Boston, 137-154;
+    organization of army, 139-142;
+    operations in New York, 143;
+    invasion of Canada, 143, 144;
+    question as to treatment of prisoners, 145-148;
+    causes of British defeat, 154, 155;
+    campaign near New York, 161-177;
+    causes for attempted defense of Brooklyn, 163, 164;
+    battle of Long Island, 164-165;
+    escape of Americans, 166;
+    affair at Kip's Bay, 168;
+    at King's Bridge, 170;
+    at Frog's Point, 173;
+    battle of White Plains, 173;
+    at Chatterton Hill, 174;
+    capture of Forts Washington and Lee, 174, 175;
+    pursuit of Washington into New Jersey, 175-177;
+    retirement of Howe to New York, 177;
+    battle of Trenton, 180, 181;
+    campaign of Princeton, 181-183;
+    its brilliancy, 183;
+    Philadelphia campaign, 194-202;
+    British march across New Jersey prevented by Washington, 194;
+    sea voyage to Delaware, 195;
+    battle of the Brandywine, 196-198;
+    causes for defeat, 198;
+    defeat of Wayne, 198;
+    Philadelphia taken by Howe, 199;
+    battle of Germantown, 199;
+    its significance, 200, 201;
+    Burgoyne's invasion, 203-211;
+    Washington's preparations for, 204-206;
+    Howe's error in neglecting to cooperate, 205;
+    capture of Ticonderoga, 207;
+    battles of Bennington, Oriskany, Fort Schuyler, 210;
+    battle of Saratoga, 211;
+    British repulse at Fort Mercer, 217;
+    destruction of the forts, 217;
+    fruitless skirmishing before Philadelphia, 218;
+    Valley Forge, 228-232;
+    evacuation of Philadelphia, 234;
+    battle of Monmouth, 235-239;
+    its effect, 239;
+    cruise and failure of D'Estaing at Newport, 243, 244;
+    failure of D'Estaing at Savannah, 247, 248;
+    storming of Stony Point, 268, 269;
+    Tory raids near New York, 269;
+    standstill in 1780, 272;
+    siege and capture of Charleston, 273, 274, 276;
+    operations of French and Americans near Newport, 277, 278;
+    battle of Camden, 281;
+    treason of Arnold, 281-289;
+    battle of Cowpens, 301;
+    retreat of Greene before Cornwallis, 302;
+    battle of Guilford Court House, 302;
+    successful operations of Greene, 302, 303;
+    Southern campaign planned by Washington, 304-311;
+    feints against Clinton, 306;
+    operations of Cornwallis and Lafayette in Virginia, 307;
+    naval supremacy secured by Washington, 310, 311;
+    battle of De Grasse and Graves off Chesapeake, 312;
+    transport of American army to Virginia, 311-313;
+    siege and capture of Yorktown, 315-318;
+    masterly character of campaign, 318-320;
+    petty operations before New York, 326;
+    treaty of peace, 342.
+
+  Rives,
+    on Washington's doubts of constitutionality of Bank, ii. 110.
+
+  Robinson, Beverly,
+    speaker of Virginia House of Burgesses, his compliment to Washington,
+  i. 102.
+
+  Robinson, Colonel,
+    loyalist, i. 282.
+
+  Rumsey, James,
+    the inventor, asks Washington's consideration of his steamboat, ii. 4.
+
+  Rush, Benjamin,
+    describes Washington's impressiveness, ii. 389.
+
+  Rutledge, John,
+    letter of Washington to, i. 281;
+    nomination rejected by Senate, ii. 63;
+    nominated to Supreme Court, 73.
+
+
+  ST. CLAIR, Arthur,
+    removed after loss of Ticonderoga, i. 208;
+    appointed to command against Indians, ii. 94;
+    receives instructions and begins expedition, 95;
+    defeated, 96;
+    his character, 99;
+    fair treatment by Washington, 99;
+    popular execration of, 105.
+
+  St. Pierre, M. de,
+    French governor in Ohio, i. 67.
+
+  St. Simon, Count,
+    reinforces Lafayette, i. 312.
+
+  Sandwich, Lord,
+    calls all Yankees cowards, i. 155.
+
+  Saratoga,
+    anecdote concerning, i. 202.
+
+  Savage, Edward,
+    characteristics of his portrait of Washington, i. 13.
+
+  Savannah,
+    siege of, i. 247.
+
+  Scammel, Colonel,
+    amuses Washington, ii. 374.
+
+  Schuyler, Philip,
+    accompanies Washington to Boston, i. 136;
+    appointed military head in New York, 136;
+    directed by Washington how to meet Burgoyne, 204;
+    fails to carry out directions, 207;
+    removed, 208;
+    value of his preparations, 209.
+
+  Scott, Charles, commands expedition against Indians, ii. 95.
+
+  Sea-power,
+    its necessity seen by Washington, i. 283, 303, 304, 306, 310, 318, 319.
+
+  Sectional feeling,
+    deplored by Washington, ii. 222.
+
+  Sharpe, Governor,
+    offers Washington a company, i. 80;
+    Washington's reply to, 81.
+
+  Shays's Rebellion,
+    comments of Washington and Jefferson upon, ii. 26, 27.
+
+  Sherman, Roger,
+    makes sarcastic remark about Wilkinson, i. 220.
+
+  Shirley, Governor William,
+    adjusts matter of Washington's rank, i. 91, 97.
+
+  Short, William, minister to Holland,
+    on commission regarding opening of Mississippi, ii. 166.
+
+  Six Nations,
+    make satisfactory treaties, ii. 88;
+    stirred up by English, 94;
+    but pacified, 94, 101.
+
+  Slavery,
+    in Virginia, i. 20;
+    its evil effects, 104;
+    Washington's attitude toward slaves, 105;
+    his condemnation of the system, 106, 107;
+    gradual emancipation favored, 107, 108.
+
+  Smith, Colonel,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 340.
+
+  Spain,
+    instigates Indians to hostilities, ii. 89, 94, 101;
+    blocks Mississippi, 135;
+    makes treaty with Pinckney opening Mississippi, 167, 168;
+    angered at Jay treaty, 210.
+
+  Sparks, Jared,
+    his alterations of Washington's letters, ii. 337, 338.
+
+  Spotswood, Alexander,
+    asks Washington's opinion of Alien and Sedition Acts, ii. 297.
+
+  Stamp Act,
+    Washington's opinion of, i. 119, 120.
+
+  Stark, General,
+    leads attack at Trenton, i. 181.
+
+  States, in the Revolutionary war,
+    appeals of Washington to, i. 142, 186, 204, 259, 277, 295, 306, 323,
+  324, 326, 344;
+    issue paper money, 258;
+    grow tired of the war, 290;
+    alarmed by mutinies, 294;
+    try to appease soldiers, 295, 296;
+    their selfishness condemned by Washington, 333; ii. 21, 23;
+    thwart Indian policy of Congress, 88.
+
+  Stephen, Adam,
+    late in attacking at Germantown, i. 199.
+
+  Steuben, Baron,
+    Washington's appreciation of, i. 192, 249;
+    drills the army at Valley Forge, 232;
+    annoys Washington by wishing higher command, 249;
+    sent on mission to demand surrender of Western posts, 343;
+    his worth recognized by Washington, ii. 334.
+
+  Stirling, Lord,
+    defeated and captured at Long Island, i. 165.
+
+  Stockton, Mrs.,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 349.
+
+  Stone, General,
+    tells stories of Washington's closeness, ii. 353, 354.
+
+  Stuart, David,
+    letters of Washington to, ii. 107, 221, 222, 258.
+
+  Stuart, Gilbert,
+    his portrait of Washington contrasted with Savage's, i. 13.
+
+  Sullivan, John, General,
+    surprised at Long Island, i. 165;
+    attacks at Trenton, 180;
+    surprised and crushed at Brandywine, 197, 198;
+    unites with D'Estaing to attack Newport, 243;
+    angry at D'Estaing's desertion, 244;
+    soothed by Washington, 244;
+    sent against Indians, 266, 269.
+
+  Supreme Court,
+    appointed by Washington, ii. 72.
+
+
+  TAFT,----,
+    kindness of Washington toward, ii. 367.
+
+  Talleyrand,
+    eulogistic report to Napoleon on death of Washington, i. 1, note;
+    remark on Hamilton, ii. 139;
+    refused reception by Washington, 253.
+
+  Tarleton, Sir Banastre,
+    tries to escape at Yorktown, i. 317.
+
+  Thatcher, Dr.,
+    on Washington's appearance when taking command of army, i. 137.
+
+  Thomson, Charles,
+    complimented by Washington on retiring from secretary-ship of
+  Continental Congress, ii. 350.
+
+  Tories,
+    hated by Washington, i. 156;
+    his reasons, 157;
+    active in New York, 158;
+    suppressed by Washington, 159;
+    in Philadelphia, impressed by Continental army, 196;
+    make raids on frontier, 266;
+    strong in Southern States, 267;
+    raids under Tryon, 269.
+
+  Trent, Captain,
+    his incompetence in dealing with Indians and French, i. 72.
+
+  Trenton, campaign of, i. 180-183.
+
+  Trumbull, Governor,
+    letter of Washington to, refusing to stand for a third term,
+  ii. 269-271;
+    other letters, 298.
+
+  Trumbull, John,
+    on New England army before Boston, i. 139.
+
+  Trumbull, Jonathan,
+    his message on better government praised by Washington, ii. 21;
+    letters to, 42;
+    Washington's friendship for, 363.
+
+  Tryon, Governor,
+    Tory leader in New York, i. 143;
+    his intrigues stopped by Washington, 158, 159;
+    conspires to murder Washington, 160;
+    makes raids in Connecticut, 269.
+
+
+  VALLEY FORGE,
+    Continental Army at, i. 228-232.
+
+  Van Braam, Jacob,
+    friend of Lawrence Washington, trains George in fencing, i. 65;
+    accompanies him on mission to French, 66.
+
+  Vergennes,
+    requests release of Asgill, i. 329, 330;
+    letter of Washington to, 330;
+    proposes to submit disposition of a subsidy to Washington, 332.
+
+  Virginia, society in,
+    before the Revolution, i. 15-29;
+    its entire change since then, 15, 16;
+    population, distribution, and numbers, 17, 18;
+    absence of towns, 18;
+    and town life, 19;
+    trade and travel in, 19;
+    social classes, 20-24;
+    slaves and poor whites, 20;
+    clergy, 21;
+    planters and their estates, 22;
+    their life, 22;
+    education, 23;
+    habits of governing, 24;
+    luxury and extravagance, 25;
+    apparent wealth, 26;
+    agreeableness of life, 27;
+    aristocratic ideals, 28;
+    vigor of stock, 29;
+    unwilling to fight French, 71;
+    quarrels with Dinwiddie, 71;
+    thanks Washington after his French campaign, 79;
+    terrified at Braddock's defeat, 88;
+    gives Washington command, 89;
+    fails to support him, 89, 90, 93;
+    bad economic conditions in, 104,105;
+    local government in, 117;
+    condemns Stamp Act, 119;
+    adopts non-importation, 121;
+    condemns Boston Port Bill, 123;
+    asks opinion of counties, 124;
+    chooses delegates to a congress, 127;
+    prepares for war, 132;
+    British campaign in, 307, 315-318;
+    ratifies Constitution, ii. 40;
+    evil effect of free trade upon, 116, 117;
+    nullification resolutions, 266;
+    strength of its aristocracy, 315.
+
+
+  WADE, COLONEL,
+    in command at West Point after Arnold's flight, i. 285.
+
+  Walker, Benjamin,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 257.
+
+  Warren, James,
+    letters of Washington to, i. 262, ii. 118.
+
+  Washington,
+    ancestry, i. 30-40;
+    early genealogical researches concerning, 30-32;
+    pedigree finally established, 32;
+    origin of family, 33;
+    various members during middle ages, 34;
+    on royalist side in English civil war, 34, 36;
+    character of family, 35;
+    emigration to Virginia, 35, 36;
+    career of Washingtons in Maryland, 37;
+    in Virginia history, 38;
+    their estates, 39.
+
+  Washington, Augustine, father of George Washington,
+    birth, i. 35;
+    death, 39;
+    character, 39;
+    his estate, 41;
+    ridiculous part played by in Weems's anecdotes, 44, 47.
+
+  Washington, Augustine, half brother of George Washington,
+    keeps him after his father's death, i. 48.
+
+  Washington, Bushrod,
+    refused appointment as attorney by Washington, ii. 62;
+    educated by him, 370.
+
+  Washington, George,
+    honors to his memory in France, i. 1;
+    in England, 2;
+    grief in America, 3, 4;
+    general admission of his greatness, 4;
+    its significance, 5, 6;
+    tributes from England, 6;
+    from other countries, 6, 7;
+    yet an "unknown" man, 7;
+    minuteness of knowledge concerning, 8;
+    has become subject of myths, 9;
+    development of the Weems myth about, 10, 11;
+    necessity of a new treatment of, 12;
+    significant difference of real and ideal portraits of, 13;
+    his silence regarding himself, 14;
+    underlying traits, 14.
+
+  _Early Life_.
+    Ancestry, 30-41;
+    birth, 39;
+    origin of Weems's anecdotes about, 41-44;
+    their absurdity and evil results, 45-48;
+    early schooling, 48;
+    plan to send him to sea, 49, 50;
+    studies to be a surveyor, 51;
+    his rules of behavior, 52;
+    his family connections with Fairfaxes, 54, 55;
+    his friendship with Lord Fairfax, 56;
+    surveys Fairfax's estate, 57, 58, 59;
+    made public surveyor, 60;
+    his life at the time, 60, 61;
+    influenced by Fairfax's cultivation, 62;
+    goes to West Indies with his brother, 62;
+    has the small-pox, 63;
+    observations on the voyage, 63, 64;
+    returns to Virginia, 64;
+    becomes guardian of his brother's daughter, 64.
+
+  _Service against the French and Indians_.
+    Receives military training, 65;
+    a military appointment, 66;
+    goes on expedition to treat with French, 66;
+    meets Indians, 67;
+    deals with French, 67;
+    dangers of journey, 68;
+    his impersonal account, 69, 70;
+    appointed to command force against French, 71, 72;
+    his anger at neglect of Virginia Assembly, 73;
+    attacks and defeats force of Jumonville, 74;
+    called murderer by the French, 74;
+    surrounded by French at Great Meadows, 76;
+    surrenders, 76;
+    recklessness of his expedition, 77, 78;
+    effect of experience upon, 79;
+    gains a European notoriety, 79;
+    thanked by Virginia, 79;
+    protests against Dinwiddie's organization of soldiers, 80;
+    refuses to serve when ranked by British officers, 81;
+    accepts position on Braddock's staff, 82;
+    his treatment there, 82;
+    advises Braddock, 84;
+    rebuked for warning against surprise, 85;
+    his bravery in the battle, 86;
+    conducts retreat, 86, 87;
+    effect of experience on him, 87;
+    declines to solicit command of Virginia troops, 88;
+    accepts it when offered, 88;
+    his difficulties with Assembly, 89;
+    and with troops, 90;
+    settles question of rank, 91;
+    writes freely in criticism of government, 91, 92;
+    retires for rest to Mt. Vernon, 93;
+    offers services to General Forbes, 93;
+    irritated at slowness of English, 93, 94;
+    his love affairs, 95, 96;
+    journey to Boston, 97-101;
+    at festivities in New York and Philadelphia, 99;
+    meets Martha Custis, 101;
+    his wedding, 101, 102;
+    elected to House of Burgesses, 102;
+    confused at being thanked by Assembly, 102;
+    his local position, 103;
+    tries to farm his estate, 104;
+    his management of slaves, 105, 106, 108, 109;
+    cares for interests of old soldiers, 109;
+    rebukes a coward, 110;
+    cares for education of stepson, 111;
+    his furnishing of house, 112;
+    hunting habits, 113-115;
+    punishes a poacher, 116;
+    participates in colonial and local government, 117;
+    enters into society, 117, 118.
+
+  _Congressional delegate from Virginia_.
+    His influence in Assembly, 119;
+    discusses Stamp Act with Mason, 119;
+    foresees result to be independence, 119;
+    rejoices at its repeal, but notes Declaratory Act, 120;
+    ready to use force to defend colonial rights, 120;
+    presents non-importation resolutions to Burgesses, 121;
+    abstains from English products, 121;
+    notes ominous movements among Indians, 122;
+    on good terms with royal governors, 122, 123;
+    observes fast on account of Boston Port Bill, 123;
+    has controversy with Bryan Fairfax over Parliamentary policy,
+  124, 125, 126;
+    presides at Fairfax County meeting, 126;
+    declares himself ready for action, 126;
+    at convention of counties, offers to march to relief of Boston, 127;
+    elected to Continental Congress, 127;
+    his journey, 128;
+    silent in Congress, 129;
+    writes to a British officer that independence is not
+    desired, but war is certain, 130, 131;
+    returns to Virginia, 132;
+    aids in military preparations, 132;
+    his opinion after Concord, 133;
+    at second Continental Congress, wears uniform, 134;
+    made commander-in-chief, 134;
+    his modesty and courage in accepting position, 134, 135;
+    political motives for his choice, 135;
+    his popularity, 136;
+    his journey to Boston, 136, 137;
+    receives news of Bunker Hill, 136;
+    is received by Massachusetts Provincial Assembly, 137.
+
+  _Commander of the Army_.
+    Takes command at Cambridge, 137;
+    his impression upon people, 137, 138, 139;
+    begins reorganization of army, 139;
+    secures number of troops, 140;
+    enforces discipline, his difficulties, 140, 141;
+    forced to lead Congress, 142;
+    to arrange rank of officers, 142;
+    organizes privateers, 142;
+    discovers lack of powder, 143;
+    plans campaigns in Canada and elsewhere, 143, 144;
+    his plans of attack on Boston overruled by council of war, 144;
+    writes to Gage urging that captives be treated as prisoners of war,
+  145;
+    skill of his letter, 146;
+    retorts to Gage's reply, 147;
+    continues dispute with Howe, 148;
+    annoyed by insufficiency of provisions, 149;
+    and by desertions, 149;
+    stops quarrel between Virginia and Marblehead soldiers, 149;
+    suggests admiralty committees, 150;
+    annoyed by army contractors, 150;
+    and criticism, 151;
+    letter to Joseph Reed, 151;
+    occupies Dorchester Heights, 152;
+    begins to like New England men better, 152;
+    rejoices at prospect of a fight, 153;
+    departure of British due to his leadership, 154;
+    sends troops immediately to New York, 155;
+    enters Boston, 156;
+    expects a hard war, 156;
+    urges upon Congress the necessity of preparing for a long struggle,
+  156;
+    his growing hatred of Tories, 156, 157;
+    goes to New York, 157, 158;
+    difficulties of the situation, 158;
+    suppresses Tories, 159;
+    urges Congress to declare independence, 159, 160;
+    discovers and punishes a conspiracy to assassinate, 160;
+    insists on his title in correspondence with Howe, 161;
+    justice of his position, 162;
+    quiets sectional jealousies in army, 162;
+    his military inferiority to British, 163;
+    obliged by political considerations to attempt defense of New York,
+  163, 164;
+    assumes command on Long Island, 164;
+    sees defeat of his troops, 165;
+    sees plan of British fleet to cut off retreat, 166;
+    secures retreat of army, 167;
+    explains his policy of avoiding a pitched battle, 167;
+    anger at flight of militia at Kip's Bay, 168;
+    again secures safe retreat, 169;
+    secures slight advantage in a skirmish, 170;
+    continues to urge Congress to action, 170, 171;
+    success of his letters in securing a permanent army, 171;
+    surprised by advance of British fleet, 172;
+    moves to White Plains, 173;
+    blocks British advance, 174;
+    advises abandonment of American forts, 174;
+    blames himself for their capture, 175;
+    leads diminishing army through New Jersey, 175;
+    makes vain appeals for aid, 176;
+    resolves to take the offensive, 177;
+    desperateness of his situation, 178;
+    pledges his estate and private fortune to raise men, 179;
+    orders disregarded by officers, 180;
+    crosses Delaware and captures Hessians, 180, 181;
+    has difficulty in retaining soldiers, 181;
+    repulses Cornwallis at Assunpink, 181;
+    outwits Cornwallis and wins battle at Princeton, 182;
+    excellence of his strategy, 183;
+    effect of this campaign in saving Revolution, 183, 184;
+    withdraws to Morristown, 185;
+    fluctuations in size of army, 186;
+    his determination to keep the field, 186, 187;
+    criticised by Congress for not fighting, 187;
+    hampered by Congressional interference, 188;
+    issues proclamation requiring oath of allegiance, 188;
+    attacked in Congress for so doing, 189;
+    annoyed by Congressional alterations of rank, 189;
+    and by foreign military adventurers, 191;
+    value of his services in suppressing them, 192;
+    his American feelings, 191, 193;
+    warns Congress in vain that Howe means to attack Philadelphia, 193;
+    baffles Howe's advance across New Jersey, 195;
+    learning of his sailing, marches to defend Philadelphia, 195;
+    offers battle at Brandywine, 196, 197;
+    out-generaled and beaten, 197;
+    rallies army and prepares to fight again, 198;
+    prevented by storm, 199;
+    attacks British at Germantown, 199;
+    defeated, 200;
+    exposes himself in battle, 200;
+    real success of his action, 201;
+    despised by English, 202;
+    foresees danger of Burgoyne's invasion, 203;
+    sends instructions to Schuyler, 204;
+    urges use of New England and New York militia, 304;
+    dreads northern advance of Howe, 205;
+    determines to hold him at all hazards, 206, 207;
+    not cast down by loss of Ticonderoga, 207;
+    urges New England to rise, 208;
+    sends all possible troops, 208;
+    refuses to appoint a commander for Northern army, 208;
+    his probable reasons, 209;
+    continues to send suggestions, 210;
+    slighted by Gates after Burgoyne's surrender, 211;
+    rise of opposition in Congress, 212;
+    arouses ill-feeling by his frankness, 212, 213;
+    distrusted by Samuel and John Adams, 214;
+    by others, 214, 215;
+    formation of a plan to supplant him by Gates, 215;
+    opposed by Gates, Mifflin, and Conway, 215, 216;
+    angers Conway by preventing his increase in rank, 216;
+    is refused troops by Gates, 217;
+    defends and loses Delaware forts, 217;
+    refuses to attack Howe, 218;
+    propriety of his action, 219;
+    becomes aware of cabal, 220;
+    alarms them by showing extent of his knowledge, 221;
+    attacked bitterly in Congress, 222;
+    insulted by Gates, 223;
+    refuses to resign, 224;
+    refuses to notice cabal publicly, 224;
+    complains privately of slight support from Pennsylvania, 225;
+    continues to push Gates for explanations, 226;
+    regains complete control after collapse of cabal, 226, 227;
+    withdraws to Valley Forge, 227;
+    desperation of his situation, 228;
+    criticised by Pennsylvania legislature for going into winter quarters,
+  229;
+    his bitter reply, 229;
+    his unbending resolution, 230;
+    continues to urge improvements in army organization, 231;
+    manages to hold army together, 232;
+    sends Lafayette to watch Philadelphia, 233;
+    determines to fight, 234;
+    checked by Lee, 234;
+    pursues Clinton, 235;
+    orders Lee to attack British rearguard, 235;
+    discovers his force retreating, 236;
+    rebukes Lee and punishes him, 236, 237;
+    takes command and stops retreat, 237;
+    repulses British and assumes offensive, 238;
+    success due to his work at Valley Forge, 239;
+    celebrates French alliance, 241;
+    has to confront difficulty of managing allies, 241, 242;
+    welcomes D'Estaing, 243;
+    obliged to quiet recrimination after Newport failure, 244;
+    his letter to Sullivan, 244;
+    to Lafayette, 245;
+    to D'Estaing, 246;
+    tact and good effect of his letters, 246;
+    offers to cooperate in an attack on New York, 247;
+    furnishes admirable suggestions to D'Estaing, 247;
+    not dazzled by French, 248;
+    objects to giving rank to foreign officers, 248, 249;
+    opposes transfer of Steuben from inspectorship to the line, 249;
+    his thoroughly American position, 250;
+    absence of provinciality, 251, 252;
+    a national leader, 252;
+    opposes invasion of Canada, 253;
+    foresees danger of its recapture by France, 254, 255;
+    his clear understanding of French motives, 255, 256;
+    rejoices in condition of patriot cause, 257;
+    foresees ruin to army in financial troubles, 258;
+    has to appease mutinies among unpaid troops, 258;
+    appeals to Congress, 259;
+    urges election of better delegates to Congress, 259;
+    angry with speculators, 260, 261;
+    futility of his efforts, 261, 262;
+    his increasing alarm at social demoralization, 263;
+    effect of his exertions, 264;
+    conceals his doubts of the French, 264;
+    watches New York, 264;
+    keeps dreading an English campaign, 265;
+    labors with Congress to form a navy, 266;
+    plans expedition to chastise Indians, 266;
+    realizes that things are at a standstill in the North, 267;
+    sees danger to lie in the South, but determines to remain himself near
+  New York, 267;
+    not consulted by Congress in naming general for Southern army, 268;
+    plans attack on Stony Point, 268;
+    hatred of ravaging methods of British warfare, 270;
+    again has great difficulties in winter quarters, 270;
+    unable to act on offensive in the spring, 270, 272;
+    unable to help South, 272;
+    advises abandonment of Charleston, 273;
+    learns of arrival of French army, 274;
+    plans a number of enterprises with it, 275, 276;
+    refuses, even after loss of Charleston, to abandon Hudson, 276;
+    welcomes Rochambeau, 277;
+    writes to Congress against too optimistic feelings, 278, 279;
+    has extreme difficulty in holding army together, 280;
+    urges French to attack New York, 280;
+    sends Maryland troops South after Camden, 281;
+    arranges meeting with Rochambeau at Hartford, 282;
+    popular enthusiasm over him, 283;
+    goes to West Point, 284;
+    surprised at Arnold's absence, 284;
+    learns of his treachery, 284, 285;
+    his cool behavior, 285;
+    his real feelings, 286;
+    his conduct toward Andre, 287;
+    its justice, 287, 288;
+    his opinion of Arnold, 288, 289;
+    his responsibility in the general breakdown of the Congress and army,
+  290;
+    obliged to quell food mutinies in army, 291, 292;
+    difficulty of situation, 292;
+    his influence the salvation of army, 293;
+    his greatness best shown in this way, 293;
+    rebukes Congress, 294;
+    appoints Greene to command Southern army, 295;
+    sends Knox to confer with state governors, 296;
+    secures temporary relief for army, 296;
+    sees the real defect is in weak government, 296;
+    urges adoption of Articles of Confederation, 297;
+    works for improvements in executive, 298,299;
+    still keeps a Southern movement in mind, 301;
+    unable to do anything through lack of naval power, 303;
+    rebukes Lund Washington for entertaining British at Mt. Vernon, 303;
+    still unable to fight, 304;
+    tries to frighten Clinton into remaining in New York, 305;
+    succeeds with aid of Rochambeau, 306;
+    explains his plan to French and to Congress, 306;
+    learns of De Grasse's approach, prepares to move South, 306;
+    writes to De Grasse to meet him in Chesapeake, 308;
+    fears a premature peace, 308;
+    pecuniary difficulties, 309;
+    absolute need of command of sea, 310;
+    persuades De Barras to join De Grasse, 311;
+    starts on march for Chesapeake, 311;
+    hampered by lack of supplies, 312;
+    and by threat of Congress to reduce army, 313;
+    passes through Mt. Vernon, 314;
+    succeeds in persuading De Grasse not to abandon him, 315;
+    besieges Cornwallis, 315;
+    sees capture of redoubts, 316;
+    receives surrender of Cornwallis, 317;
+    admirable strategy and management of campaign, 318;
+    his personal influence the cause of success, 318;
+    especially his use of the fleet, 319;
+    his management of Cornwallis through Lafayette, 319;
+    his boldness in transferring army away from New York, 320;
+    does not lose his head over victory, 321;
+    urges De Grasse to repeat success against Charleston, 322;
+    returns north, 322;
+    saddened by death of Custis, 322;
+    continues to urge Congress to action, 323;
+    writes letters to the States, 323;
+    does not expect English surrender, 324;
+    urges renewed vigor, 324;
+    points out that war actually continues, 325;
+    urges not to give up army until peace is actually secured, 325;
+    failure of his appeals, 326;
+    reduced to inactivity, 326;
+    angered at murder of Huddy, 327;
+    threatens Carleton with retaliation, 328;
+    releases Asgill at request of Vergennes and order of Congress,
+  329, 330;
+    disclaims credit, 330;
+    justification of his behavior, 330;
+    his tenderness toward the soldiers, 331;
+    jealousy of Congress toward him, 332;
+    warns Congress of danger of further neglect of army, 333, 334;
+    takes control of mutinous movement, 335;
+    his address to the soldiers, 336;
+    its effect, 336;
+    movement among soldiers to make him dictator, 337;
+    replies to revolutionary proposals, 337;
+    reality of the danger, 339;
+    causes for his behaviour, 340, 341;
+    a friend of strong government, but devoid of personal ambition, 342;
+    chafes under delay to disband army, 343;
+    tries to secure Western posts, 343;
+    makes a journey through New York, 343;
+    gives Congress excellent but futile advice, 344;
+    issues circular letter to governors, 344;
+    and farewell address to army, 345;
+    enters New York after departure of British, 345;
+    his farewell to his officers, 345;
+    adjusts his accounts, 346;
+    appears before Congress, 347;
+    French account of his action, 347;
+    makes speech resigning commission, 348, 349.
+
+  _In Retirement_.
+    Returns to Mt. Vernon, ii. I;
+    tries to resume old life, 2;
+    gives up hunting, 2;
+    pursued by lion-hunters and artists, 3;
+    overwhelmed with correspondence, 3;
+    receives letters from Europe, 4;
+    from cranks, 4;
+    from officers, 4;
+    his share in Society of Cincinnati, 4;
+    manages his estate, 5;
+    visits Western lands, 5;
+    family cares, 5, 6;
+    continues to have interest in public affairs, 6;
+    advises Congress regarding peace establishment, 6;
+    urges acquisition of Western posts, 7;
+    his broad national views, 7;
+    alone in realizing future greatness of country, 7, 8;
+    appreciates importance of the West, 8;
+    urges development of inland navigation, 9;
+    asks Jefferson's aid, 9, 10;
+    lays canal scheme before Virginia legislature, 10;
+    his arguments, 10;
+    troubled by offer of stock, 11;
+    uses it to endow two schools, 12;
+    significance of his scheme, 12, 13;
+    his political purposes in binding West to East, 13;
+    willing to leave Mississippi closed for this purpose, 14, 15, 16;
+    feels need of firmer union during Revolution, 17;
+    his arguments, 18, 19;
+    his influence starts movement for reform, 20;
+    continues to urge it during retirement, 21;
+    foresees disasters of confederation, 21;
+    urges impost scheme, 22;
+    condemns action of States, 22, 23, 25;
+    favours commercial agreement between Maryland and Virginia, 23;
+    stung by contempt of foreign powers, 24;
+    his arguments for a national government, 24;
+    points out designs of England, 25;
+    works against paper money craze in States, 26;
+    his opinion of Shays's rebellion, 26;
+    his position contrasted with Jefferson's, 27;
+    influence of his letters, 28, 29;
+    shrinks from participating in Federal convention, 29;
+    elected unanimously, 30;
+    refuses to go to a feeble convention, 30, 31;
+    finally makes up his mind, 31.
+
+  _In the Federal Convention_.
+    Speech attributed to Washington by Morris on duties of delegates,
+  31, 32;
+    chosen to preside, 33;
+    takes no part in debate, 34;
+    his influence in convention, 34, 35;
+    despairs of success, 35;
+    signs the Constitution, 36;
+    words attributed to him, 36;
+    silent as to his thoughts, 36, 37;
+    sees clearly danger of failure to ratify, 37;
+    tries at first to act indifferently, 38;
+    begins to work for ratification, 38;
+    writes letters to various people, 38, 39;
+    circulates copies of "Federalist," 40;
+    saves ratification in Virginia, 40;
+    urges election of Federalists to Congress, 41;
+    receives general request to accept presidency, 41;
+    his objections, 41, 42;
+    dreads failure and responsibility, 42;
+    elected, 42;
+    his journey to New York, 42-46;
+    speech at Alexandria, 43;
+    popular reception at all points, 44, 45;
+    his feelings, 46;
+    his inauguration, 46.
+
+  _President_.
+    His speech to Congress, 48;
+    urges no specific policy, 48, 49;
+    his solemn feelings, 49;
+    his sober view of necessities of situation, 50;
+    question of his title, 52;
+    arranges to communicate with Senate by writing, 52, 53;
+    discusses social etiquette, 53;
+    takes middle ground, 54;
+    wisdom of his action, 55;
+    criticisms by Democrats, 55, 56;
+    accused of monarchical leanings, 56, 57;
+    familiarizes himself with work already accomplished under
+  Confederation, 58;
+    his business habits, 58;
+    refuses special privileges to French minister, 59, 60;
+    skill of his reply, 60, 61;
+    solicited for office, 61;
+    his views on appointment, 62;
+    favors friends of Constitution and old soldiers, 62;
+    success of his appointments, 63;
+    selects a cabinet, 64;
+    his regard for Knox 65;
+    for Morris, 66;
+    his skill in choosing, 66;
+    his appreciation of Hamilton, 67;
+    his grounds for choosing Jefferson, 68;
+    his contrast with Jefferson, 69;
+    his choice a mistake in policy, 70;
+    his partisan characteristics, 70, 71;
+    excludes anti-Federalists, 71;
+    nominates justices of Supreme Court, 72;
+    their party character, 73;
+    illness, 73;
+    visits the Eastern States, 73;
+    his reasons, 74;
+    stirs popular enthusiasm, 74;
+    snubbed by Hancock in Massachusetts, 75;
+    accepts Hancock's apology, 75;
+    importance of his action, 76;
+    success of journey, 76;
+    opens Congress, 78, 79;
+    his speech and its recommendations, 81;
+    how far carried out, 81-83;
+    national character of the speech, 83;
+    his fitness to deal with Indians, 87;
+    his policy, 88;
+    appoints commission to treat with Creeks, 90;
+    ascribes its failure to Spanish intrigue, 90;
+    succeeds by a personal interview in making treaty, 91;
+    wisdom of his policy, 92;
+    orders an expedition against Western Indians, 93;
+    angered at its failure, 94;
+    and at conduct of frontiersmen, 94;
+    prepares St. Clair's expedition, 95;
+    warns against ambush, 95;
+    hopes for decisive results, 97;
+    learns of St. Clair's defeat, 97;
+    his self-control, 97;
+    his outburst of anger against St. Clair, 97, 98;
+    masters his feelings, 98;
+    treats St. Clair kindly, 99;
+    determines on a second campaign, 100;
+    selects Wayne and other officers, 100;
+    tries to secure peace with tribes, 101;
+    efforts prevented by English influence, 101, 102;
+    and in South by conduct of Georgia, 103;
+    general results of his Indian policy, 104;
+    popular misunderstandings and criticism, 104, 105;
+    favors assumption of state debts by the government, 107, 108;
+    satisfied with bargain between Hamilton and Jefferson, 108;
+    his respectful attitude toward Constitution, 109;
+    asks opinions of cabinet on constitutionality of bank, 110;
+    signs bill creating it, 110;
+    reasons for his decision, 111;
+    supports Hamilton's financial policy, 112;
+    supports Hamilton's views on protection, 115, 116;
+    appreciates evil economic condition of Virginia, 116, 117;
+    sees necessity for self-sufficient industries in war time, 117;
+    urges protection, 118, 119, 120;
+    his purpose to build up national feeling, 121;
+    approves national excise tax, 122, 123;
+    does not realize unpopularity of method, 123;
+    ready to modify but insists on obedience, 124, 125;
+    issues proclamation against rioters, 125;
+    since Pennsylvania frontier continues rebellious, issues second
+  proclamation threatening to use force, 127;
+    calls out the militia, 127;
+    his advice to leaders and troops, 128;
+    importance of Washington's firmness, 129;
+    his good judgment and patience, 130;
+    decides success of the central authority, 130;
+    early advocacy of separation of United States from European politics,
+  133;
+    studies situation, 134, 135;
+    sees importance of binding West with Eastern States, 135;
+    sees necessity of good relations with England, 137;
+    authorizes Morris to sound England as to exchange of ministers and a
+  commercial treaty, 137;
+    not disturbed by British bad manners, 138;
+    succeeds in establishing diplomatic relations, 138;
+    early foresees danger of excess in French Revolution, 139, 140;
+    states a policy of strict neutrality, 140, 142, 143;
+    difficulties of his situation, 142;
+    objects to action of National Assembly on tobacco and oil, 144;
+    denies reported request by United States that England mediate with
+  Indians, 145;
+    announces neutrality in case of a European war, 146;
+    instructs cabinet to prepare a neutrality proclamation, 147;
+    importance of this step not understood at time, 148, 149;
+    foresees coming difficulties, 149, 150;
+    acts cautiously toward _emigres_, 151;
+    contrast with Genet, 152;
+    greets him coldly, 152;
+    orders steps taken to prevent violations of neutrality, 153, 154;
+    retires to Mt. Vernon for rest, 154;
+    on returning finds Jefferson has allowed Little Sarah to escape, 156;
+    writes a sharp note to Jefferson, 156;
+    anger at escape, 157;
+    takes matters out of Jefferson's hands, 157;
+    determines on asking recall of Genet, 158;
+    revokes exequatur of Duplaine, French consul, 159;
+    insulted by Genet, 159, 160;
+    refuses to deny Jay's card, 160;
+    upheld by popular feeling, 160;
+    his annoyance at the episode, 160;
+    obliged to teach American people self-respect, 162, 163;
+    deals with troubles incited by Genet in the West, 162, 163;
+    sympathizes with frontiersmen, 163;
+    comprehends value of Mississippi, 164, 165;
+    sends a commission to Madrid to negotiate about free navigation, 166;
+    later sends Thomas Pinckney, 166;
+    despairs of success, 166;
+    apparent conflict between French treaties and neutrality, 169, 170;
+    value of Washington's policy to England, 171;
+    in spite of England's attitude, intends to keep peace, 177;
+    wishes to send Hamilton as envoy, 177;
+    after his refusal appoints Jay, 177;
+    fears that England intends war, 178;
+    determines to be prepared, 178;
+    urges upon Jay the absolute necessity of England's giving up Western
+  posts, 179;
+    dissatisfied with Jay treaty but willing to sign it, 184;
+    in doubt as to meaning of conditional ratification, 184;
+    protests against English "provision order" and refuses signature, 185;
+    meets uproar against treaty alone, 188;
+    determines to sign, 189;
+    answers resolutions of Boston town meeting, 190;
+    refuses to abandon his judgment to popular outcry, 190;
+    distinguishes temporary from permanent feeling, 191;
+    fears effect of excitement upon French government, 192;
+    his view of dangers of situation, 193, 194;
+    recalled to Philadelphia by cabinet, 195;
+    receives intercepted correspondence of Fauchet, 195, 196;
+    his course of action already determined, 197, 198;
+    not influenced by the Fauchet letter, 198;
+    evidence of this, 199, 200;
+    reasons for ratifying before showing letter to Randolph, 199, 200;
+    signs treaty, 201;
+    evidence that he did not sacrifice Randolph, 201, 202;
+    fairness of his action, 203;
+    refuses to reply to Randolph's attack, 204;
+    reasons for signing treaty, 205;
+    justified in course of time, 206;
+    refuses on constitutional grounds the call of representatives for
+  documents, 208;
+    insists on independence of treaty-making by executive and Senate, 209;
+    overcomes hostile majority in House, 210;
+    wishes Madison to succeed Morris at Paris, 211;
+    appoints Monroe, 216;
+    his mistake in not appointing a political supporter, 212;
+    disgusted at Monroe's behavior, 213, 214;
+    recalls Monroe and appoints C.C. Pinckney, 214;
+    angered at French policy, 214;
+    his contempt for Monroe's self-justification, 215, 216;
+    review of foreign policy, 216-219;
+    his guiding principle national independence, 216;
+    and abstention from European politics, 217;
+    desires peace and time for growth, 217, 218;
+    wishes development of the West, 218, 219;
+    wisdom of his policy, 219;
+    considers parties dangerous, 220;
+    but chooses cabinet from Federalists, 220;
+    prepared to undergo criticism, 221;
+    willingness to bear it, 221;
+    desires to learn public feeling, by travels, 221, 222;
+    feels that body of people will support national government, 222;
+    sees and deplores sectional feelings in the South, 222, 223;
+    objects to utterances of newspapers, 223;
+    attacked by "National Gazette," 227;
+    receives attacks on Hamilton from Jefferson and his friends, 228, 229;
+    sends charges to Hamilton, 229;
+    made anxious by signs of party division, 229;
+    urges both Hamilton and Jefferson to cease quarrel, 230, 231;
+    dreads an open division in cabinet, 232;
+    desirous to rule without party, 233;
+    accomplishes feat of keeping both secretaries in cabinet, 233;
+    keeps confidence in Hamilton, 234;
+    urged by all parties to accept presidency again, 235;
+    willing to be reelected, 235;
+    pleased at unanimous vote, 235;
+    his early immunity from attacks, 237;
+    later attacked by Freneau and Bache, 238;
+    regards opposition as dangerous to country, 239;
+    asserts his intention to disregard them, 240;
+    his success in Genet affair, 241;
+    disgusted at "democratic" societies, 242;
+    thinks they fomented Whiskey Rebellion, 242;
+    denounces them to Congress, 243;
+    effect of his remarks, 244;
+    accused of tyranny after Jay treaty, 244;
+    of embezzlement, 245;
+    of aristocracy, 245;
+    realizes that he must compose cabinet of sympathizers, 246;
+    reconstructs it, 246;
+    states determination to govern by party, 247;
+    slighted by House, 247;
+    refuses a third term, 248;
+    publishes Farewell Address, 248;
+    his justification for so doing, 248;
+    his wise advice, 249;
+    address Attacked by Democrats, 250, 251;
+    assailed in Congress by Giles, 251;
+    resents charge of being a British sympathizer, 252;
+    his scrupulously fair conduct toward France, 253;
+    his resentment at English policy, 254;
+    his retirement celebrated by the opposition, 255;
+    remarks of the "Aurora," 256;
+    forged letters of British circulated, 257;
+    he repudiates them, 257;
+    his view of opposition, 259.
+
+  _In Retirement_.
+    Regards Adams's administration as continuation of his own, 259;
+    understands Jefferson's attitude, 259;
+    wishes generals of provisional army to be Federalist, 260;
+    doubts fidelity of opposition as soldiers, 260;
+    dreads their poisoning mind of army, 261;
+    his condemnation of Democrats, 261, 262;
+    snubs Dr. Logan for assuming an unofficial mission to France, 263-265;
+    alarmed at Virginia and Kentucky resolutions, 266;
+    urges Henry to oppose Virginia resolutions, 267;
+    condemns the French party as unpatriotic, 267;
+    refuses request to stand again for presidency, 269;
+    comments on partisanship of Democrats, 269;
+    believes that he would be no better candidate than any other
+  Federalist, 270, 271;
+    error of statement that Washington was not a party man, 271, 272;
+    slow to relinquish non-partisan position, 272;
+    not the man to shrink from declaring his position, 273;
+    becomes a member of Federalist party, 273, 274;
+    eager for end of term of office, 275;
+    his farewell dinner, 275;
+    at Adams's inauguration, 276;
+    popular enthusiasm at Philadelphia, 276;
+    at Baltimore, 277;
+    returns to Mt. Vernon, 279;
+    describes his farm life, 278, 279;
+    burdened by necessities of hospitality, 280;
+    account of his meeting with Bernard, 281-283;
+    continued interest in politics, 284;
+    accepts command of provisional army, 285;
+    selects Hamilton, Pinckney, and Knox as major-generals, 286;
+    surprised at Adams's objection to Hamilton, 286;
+    rebukes Adams for altering order of rank of generals, 286, 287;
+    not influenced by intrigue, 287;
+    annoyed by Adams's conduct, 288;
+    tries to soothe Knox's irritation, 289;
+    fails to pacify him, 289;
+    carries out organization of army, 290;
+    does not expect actual war, 291;
+    disapproves of Gerry's conduct, 292;
+    disapproves of Adams's nomination of Vans Murray, 292;
+    his dread of French Revolution, 295;
+    distrusts Adams's attempts at peace, 296;
+    approves Alien and Sedition laws, 296;
+    his defense of them, 297;
+    distressed by dissensions among Federalists, 298;
+    predicts their defeat, 298;
+    his sudden illness, 299-302;
+    death, 303.
+
+  _Character_,
+    misunderstood, 304;
+    extravagantly praised, 304;
+    disliked on account of being called faultless, 305;
+    bitterly attacked in lifetime, 306;
+    sneered at by Jefferson, 306;
+    by Pickering, 307;
+    called an Englishman, not an American, 307, 308;
+    difference of his type from that of Lincoln, 310;
+    none the less American, 311, 312;
+    compared with Hampden, 312;
+    his manners those of the times elsewhere in America, 314;
+    aristocratic, but of a non-English type, 314-316;
+    less affected by Southern limitations than his neighbors, 316;
+    early dislike of New England changed to respect, 316, 317;
+    friendly with people of humble origin, 317, 318;
+    never an enemy of democracy, 318;
+    but opposes French excesses, 318;
+    his self-directed and American training, 319, 320;
+    early conception of a nation, 321;
+    works toward national government during Revolution, 321;
+    his interest in Western expansion, 321, 322;
+    national character of his Indian policy, 322;
+    of his desire to secure free Mississippi navigation, 322;
+    of his opposition to war as a danger to Union, 323;
+    his anger at accusation of foreign subservience, 323;
+    continually asserts necessity for independent American policy,
+  324, 325;
+    opposes foreign educational influences, 325, 326;
+    favors foundation of a national university, 326;
+    breadth and strength of his national feeling, 327;
+    absence of boastfulness about country, 328;
+    faith in it, 328;
+    charge that he was merely a figure-head, 329;
+    its injustice, 330;
+    charged with commonplaceness of intellect, 330;
+    incident of the deathbed explained, 330, 331;
+    falsity of the charge, 331;
+    inability of mere moral qualities to achieve what he did, 331;
+    charged with dullness and coldness, 332;
+    his seriousness, 333;
+    responsibility from early youth, 333;
+    his habits of keen observation, 333;
+    power of judging men, 334;
+    ability to use them for what they were worth, 335;
+    anecdote of advice to Hamilton and Meade, 335;
+    deceived only by Arnold, 336;
+    imperfect education, 337;
+    continual efforts to improve it, 337, 338;
+    modest regarding his literary ability, 339, 340;
+    interested in education, 339;
+    character of his writing, 340;
+    tastes in reading, 341;
+    modest but effective in conversation, 342;
+    his manner and interest described by Bernard, 343-347;
+    attractiveness of the picture, 347, 348;
+    his pleasure in society, 348;
+    power of paying compliments, letter to Mrs. Stockton, 349;
+    to Charles Thompson, 350;
+    to De Chastellux, 351;
+    his warmth of heart, 352;
+    extreme exactness in pecuniary matters, 352;
+    illustrative anecdotes, 353,354;
+    favorable opinion of teller of anecdotes, 356;
+    stern towards dishonesty or cowardice, 357;
+    treatment of Andre and Asgill, 357, 358;
+    sensitive to human suffering, 357, 358;
+    kind and courteous to poor, 359;
+    conversation with Cleaveland, 359;
+    sense of dignity in public office, 360;
+    hospitality at Mt. Vernon, 360, 361;
+    his intimate friendships, 361,362;
+    relations with Hamilton, Knox, Mason, Henry Lee, Craik, 362, 363;
+    the officers of the army, 363;
+    Trumbull, Robert and Gouverneur Morris, 363;
+    regard for and courtesy toward Franklin, 364;
+    love for Lafayette, 365;
+    care for his family, 366;
+    lasting regard for Fairfaxes, 366, 367;
+    kindness to Taft family, 367, 368;
+    destroys correspondence with his wife, 368;
+    their devoted relationship, 368;
+    care for his step-children and relatives, 369, 370;
+    charged with lack of humor, 371;
+    but never made himself ridiculous, 372;
+    not joyous in temperament, 372;
+    but had keen pleasure in sport, 373;
+    enjoyed a joke, even during Revolution, 374;
+    appreciates wit, 375;
+    writes a humorous letter, 376-378;
+    not devoid of worldly wisdom, 378, 379;
+    enjoys cards, dancing, the theatre, 380;
+    loves horses, 380;
+    thorough in small affairs as well as great, 381;
+    controversy over site of church, 381;
+    his careful domestic economy, 382;
+    love of method, 383;
+    of excellence in dress and furniture, 383, 384;
+    gives dignity to American cause, 385;
+    his personal appearance, 385;
+    statements of Houdon, 386;
+    of Ackerson, 386, 387;
+    his tremendous muscular strength, 388;
+    great personal impressiveness, 389, 390;
+    lacking in imagination, 391;
+    strong passions, 391;
+    fierce temper, 392;
+    anecdotes of outbreaks, 392;
+    his absence of self-love, 393;
+    confident in judgment of posterity, 393;
+    religious faith, 394;
+    summary and conclusion, 394, 395.
+
+  _Characteristics of_.
+    General view, ii. 304-395;
+    general admiration for, i. 1-7;
+    myths about, i. 9-12, ii. 307 ff.;
+    comparisons with Jefferson, ii. 69;
+    with Lincoln, ii. 310-312;
+    with Hampden, ii. 312, 313;
+    absence of self-seeking, i. 341;
+    affectionateness, i. 111, 285,331,345, ii. 332, 362-371;
+    agreeableness, ii. 344-347, 377;
+    Americanism, ii. 307-328;
+    aristocratic habits, ii. 314, 316;
+    business ability, i. 105, 109, ii. 5, 352, 382;
+    coldness on occasion, i. 223, 224, 263, ii. 318;
+    courage, i. 77, 78, 86, 127, 168, 292;
+    dignity, i. 81,161, ii. 52-57, 76;
+    hospitality, ii. 360;
+    impressiveness, i. 56, 83, 130, 138, 319, ii. 385;
+    indomitableness, i. 177, 181, 227;
+    judgments of men, i. 295, ii. 64, 86, 334, 335;
+    justice and sternness, i. 287, 330, ii. 203, 352-358, 389;
+    kindliness, ii. 349-356, 359;
+    lack of education, i. 62, ii. 337;
+    love of reading, i. 62, ii. 341, 342;
+    love of sport, i. 56, 98, 113-116, 118, ii. 380;
+    manners, ii. 282-283, 314;
+    military ability, i. 154, 166, 174, 183, 197, 204, 207, 239, 247,
+  265, 267, 305-320, ii. 331;
+    modesty, i. 102, 134;
+    not a figure-head, ii. 329, 330;
+    not a prig, i. 10-12, 41-47;
+    not cold and inhuman, ii. 332, 342;
+    not dull or commonplace, ii. 330, 332;
+    not superhuman and distant, i. 9, 10, 12, ii. 304, 305;
+    open-mindedness, ii. 317;
+    passionateness, i. 58, 73, 90;
+    personal appearance, i. 57, 136, 137, ii. 282, 343, 385-389;
+    religious views, i. 321, ii. 393;
+    romantic traits, i. 95-97;
+    sense of humor, ii. 371-377;
+    silence regarding self, i. 14, 69, 70, 116, 129, 285; ii. 37, 336;
+    simplicity, i. 59, 69, 348; ii. 50, 340;
+    sobriety, i. 49, 52, 134; ii. 43, 45, 333, 373;
+    tact, i. 162, 243, 244-246;
+    temper, i. 73, 92, 110, 168, 236, 237, 260; ii. 98, 392;
+    thoroughness, i. 112, 323, 341, ii. 381.
+
+  _Political Opinions_.
+    On Alien and Sedition Acts, ii. 196;
+    American nationality, i. 191, 250, 251, 255, 262, 279, ii. 7, 61,
+  133, 145, 324, 325, 327, 328;
+    Articles of Confederation, i. 297, ii. 17, 24;
+    bank, ii. 110, 111;
+    colonial rights, i. 120, 124-126, 130;
+    Constitution, i. 38-41;
+    democracy, ii. 317-319;
+    Democratic party, ii. 214, 239, 240, 258, 261, 267, 268;
+    disunion, ii. 22;
+    duties of the executive, ii. 190;
+    education, ii. 81, 326, 330;
+    Federalist party, ii. 71, 246, 247, 259, 260, 261, 269-274, 298;
+    finance, ii. 107, 108, 112, 122;
+    foreign relations, ii. 25, 134, 142, 145, 147, 179, 217-219, 323;
+    French Revolution, ii. 139, 140, 295, 318;
+    independence of colonies, i. 131, 159, 160;
+    Indian policy, ii. 82, 87, 88, 91, 92, 104, 105;
+    Jay treaty, ii. 184-205;
+    judiciary, i. 150;
+    nominations to office, ii. 62;
+    party, ii. 70, 222, 233, 249;
+    protection, ii. 116-122;
+    slavery, i. 106-108;
+    Stamp Act, i. 119;
+    strong government, i. 298, ii. 18, 24, 129, 130;
+    treaty power, ii. 190, 207-210;
+    Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, ii. 266, 267;
+    Western expansion, ii. 6, 8-16, 135, 163-165, 218, 322.
+
+  Washington, George Steptoe,
+    his sons educated by Washington, ii. 370.
+
+  Washington, John, brother of George,
+    letter of Washington, to, i. 132.
+
+  Washington, Lawrence, brother of George Washington,
+    educated in England, i. 54;
+    has military career, 54;
+    returns to Virginia and builds Mt. Vernon, 54;
+    marries into Fairfax family, 54, 55;
+    goes to West Indies for his health, 62;
+    dies, leaving George guardian of his daughter, 64;
+    chief manager of Ohio Company, 65;
+    gives George military education, 65.
+
+  Washington, Lund,
+    letter of Washington to, i. 152;
+    rebuked by Washington for entertaining British, ii. 303.
+
+  Washington, Martha, widow of Daniel P. Custis,
+    meets Washington, i. 101;
+    courtship of, and marriage, 101, 102;
+    hunts with her husband, 114;
+    joins him at Boston, 151;
+    holds levees as wife of President, ii. 54;
+    during his last illness, 300;
+    her correspondence destroyed, 368;
+    her relations with her husband, 368, 369.
+
+  Washington, Mary,
+    married to Augustine Washington, i. 39;
+    mother of George Washington, 39;
+    limited education but strong character, 40, 41;
+    wishes George to earn a living, 49;
+    opposes his going to sea, 49;
+    letters to, 88;
+    visited by her son, ii. 5.
+
+  Waters, Henry E.,
+    establishes Washington pedigree, i. 32.
+
+  Wayne, Anthony,
+    defeated after Brandywine, i. 198;
+    his opinion of Germantown, 199;
+    at Monmouth urges Washington to come, 235;
+    ready to attack Stony Point, 268;
+    his successful exploit, 269;
+    joins Lafayette in Virginia, 307;
+    appointed to command against Indians, ii. 100;
+    his character, 100;
+    organizes his force, 101;
+    his march, 102;
+    defeats the Indians, 103.
+
+  Weems, Mason L.,
+    influence of his life of Washington on popular opinion, i. 10;
+    originates idea of his priggishness, 11;
+    his character, 41, 43;
+    character of his book, 42;
+    his mythical "rectorate" of Mt. Vernon, 43, 44;
+    invents anecdotes of Washington's childhood, 44;
+    folly of cherry-tree and other stories, 46;
+    their evil influence, 47.
+
+  West, the,
+    its importance realized by Washington, ii. 7-16;
+    his influence counteracted by inertia of Congress, 8;
+    forwards inland navigation, 9;
+    desires to bind East to West, 9-11, 14;
+    formation of companies, 11-13;
+    on Mississippi navigation, 14-16, 164;
+    projects of Genet in, 162;
+    its attitude understood by Washington, 163, 164;
+    Washington wishes peace in order to develop it, 218, 219, 321.
+
+  "Whiskey Rebellion,"
+    passage of excise law, ii. 123;
+    outbreaks of violence in Pennsylvania and North Carolina, 124;
+    proclamation issued warning rioters to desist, 125;
+    renewed outbreaks in Pennsylvania, 125, 126;
+    the militia called out, 127;
+    suppression of the insurrection, 128;
+    real danger of movement, 129;
+    its suppression emphasizes national authority, 129, 130;
+    supposed by Washington to have been stirred up by Democratic clubs,
+  242.
+
+  White Plains,
+    battle at, i. 173.
+
+  Wilkinson, James,
+    brings Gates's message to Washington at Trenton, i. 180;
+    brings news of Saratoga to Congress, 220;
+    nettled at Sherman's sarcasm, discloses Conway cabal, 220;
+    quarrels with Gates, 223;
+    resigns from board of war, 223, 226;
+    leads expedition against Indians, ii. 95.
+
+  Willett, Colonel,
+    commissioner to Creeks, his success, ii. 91.
+
+  William and Mary College,
+    Washington Chancellor of, ii. 339.
+
+  Williams,
+    Washington's teacher, i. 48, 51.
+
+  Willis, Lewis,
+    story of Washington's school days, i. 95.
+
+  Wilson, James,
+    appointed to Supreme Court, ii. 72.
+
+  Wilson, James, "of England,"
+    hunts with Washington, i. 115.
+
+  Wolcott, Oliver,
+    receives Fauchet letter, ii. 195;
+    succeeds Hamilton as Secretary of Treasury, 246.
+
+  Wooster, Mrs.,
+    letter of Washington to, ii. 61.
+
+
+  YORKTOWN,
+    siege of, i. 315-318.
+
+  "Young Man's Companion,"
+    used by George Washington, origin of his rules of conduct, i. 52.
+
+
+
+
+
+End of Project Gutenberg's George Washington, Vol. I, by Henry Cabot Lodge
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