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+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12111 ***
+
+THE GLORIES
+OF
+IRELAND
+
+
+EDITED BY
+
+JOSEPH DUNN, Ph.D.,
+AND
+P.J. LENNOX. Litt.D.,
+
+
+PROFESSORS AT THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA
+
+
+1914
+
+
+TO THE IRISH RACE
+IN EVERY LAND
+
+
+      _Ireland_:
+
+      "All thy life has been a symbol; we can only read a part:
+      God will flood thee yet with sunshine for the woes that
+            drench thy heart."
+
+      JOHN BOYLE O'REILLY.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+We had at first intended that this should be a book without a
+preface, and indeed it needs none, for it speaks in no uncertain
+tones for itself; but on reconsideration we decided that it would be
+more seemly to give a short explanation of our aim, our motives, and
+our methods.
+
+As a result of innumerable inquiries which have come to us during our
+experience as educators, we have been forced to the conclusion that
+the performances of the Irish race in many fields of endeavor are
+entirely unknown to most people, and that even to the elect they are
+not nearly so well known as they deserve to be. Hence there came to
+us the thought of placing on record, in an accessible, comprehensive,
+and permanent form, an outline of the whole range of Irish
+achievement during the last two thousand years.
+
+In undertaking this task we had a twofold motive. In the first place,
+we wished to give to people of Irish birth or descent substantial
+reason for that pride of race which we know is in them, by placing in
+their hands an authoritative and unassailable array of facts as
+telling as any nation in the world can show. Our second motive was
+that henceforward he who seeks to ignore or belittle the part taken
+by men and women of Irish birth or blood in promoting the spread of
+religion, civilization, education, culture, and freedom should sin,
+not in ignorance, but against the light, and that from a thousand
+quarters at once champions armed with the panoply of knowledge should
+be able to spring to his confutation.
+
+To carry out in a satisfactory manner over a field so immense our
+lawfully ambitious aim was, as we realized at the outset, not
+possible to any two men who are primarily engaged, as we are, in
+other work of an exacting nature. Therefore, to render feasible the
+execution of our undertaking, we decided to invite the collaboration
+of many scholars and specialists, each of whom could, out of the
+fullness of information, speak with authority on some particular
+phase of the general subject. We are glad to say that the eminent
+writers to whom we addressed ourselves answered with promptitude and
+alacrity to our call, and have supplied us with such a body of
+material as to enable us to bring out a book that is absolutely
+unique.
+
+From each contributor we asked nothing but a plain verifiable
+statement of facts, and that, we think, is exactly what they have
+given us, for, while we do not make ourselves personally responsible
+for everything set down in the following pages, we believe that what
+stands written therein bears every mark of careful research and of
+absolute reliability.
+
+Although on many of our subjects little more remains to be said than
+what appears in the text, yet the treatment on the whole does not
+claim to be exhaustive, and therefore each writer has, at our
+request, appended to his contribution a short and carefully selected
+bibliography, so that those who are interested may have a guide for
+further reading. For our part, we consider these lists of works of
+reference to be a highly useful feature.
+
+It is a glorious thing for us, who are proud, one of us of his Irish
+descent and the other of his Irish birth, to think that the sons and
+daughters of mother Erin have so conspicuously distinguished
+themselves in such varied spheres of activity in every age and in so
+many lands, and that we were privileged to make public the record of
+their achievements in a form never before attempted.
+
+We have other works in contemplation, and some actually in
+preparation, which will go far to strengthen the claims put forward
+in this book. In the meantime, we trust that the reception accorded
+to it will be such as to encourage us to persevere in making still
+better known the Glories of Ireland.
+
+
+                                                JOSEPH DUNN
+                                                P.J. LENNOX
+
+      _Catholic University of America_,
+          _Washington, D.C._
+
+      November, 1914
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+THE ROMANCE OF IRISH HISTORY
+   Sir Roger Casement, C.M.G.
+
+THE ISLAND OF SAINTS AND SCHOLARS
+   Very Rev. Canon D'Alton, M.R.I.A., LL.D.
+
+IRISH MONKS IN EUROPE
+   Rev. Columba Edmonds, O.S.B.
+
+THE IRISH AND THE SEA
+   William H. Babcock, LL.B.
+
+IRISH LOVE OF LEARNING
+   Rev. P.S. Dinneen, M.A., R.U.I.
+
+IRISH MEN OF SCIENCE
+   Sir Bertram C.A. Windle, Sc.D., M.D.
+
+LAW IN IRELAND
+   Laurence Ginnell, B.L., M.P.
+
+IRISH MUSIC
+   W.H. Grattan Flood, Mus.D.
+
+IRISH METAL WORK
+   Diarmid Coffey
+
+IRISH MANUSCRIPTS
+   Louis Ely O'Carroll, B.A., B.L.
+
+THE RUINS OF IRELAND
+   Francis J. Bigger, M.R.I.A.
+
+MODERN IRISH ART
+   D.J. O'Donoghue
+
+IRELAND AT PLAY
+   Thomas E. Healy
+
+THE FIGHTING RACE
+   Joseph I.C. Clarke
+
+THE SORROWS OF IRELAND
+   John Jerome Rooney, A.M., LL.D.
+
+IRISH LEADERS
+   Shane Leslie
+
+IRISH HEROINES
+   Alice Milligan
+
+IRISH NATIONALITY
+   Lord Ashbourne
+
+FAMOUS IRISH SOCIETIES
+   John O'Dea
+
+THE IRISH IN THE UNITED STATES
+   Michael J. O'Brien
+
+THE IRISH IN CANADA
+   James J. Walsh, M.D.
+
+THE IRISH IN SOUTH AMERICA
+   Marion Mulhall
+
+THE IRISH IN AUSTRALASIA
+   Brother Leo, F.S.C., M.A.
+
+THE IRISH IN SOUTH AFRICA
+   A. Hilliard Atteridge
+
+THE IRISH LANGUAGE AND LETTERS
+   Douglas Hyde, LL.D.
+
+NATIVE IRISH POETRY
+   Georges Dottin
+
+IRISH HEROIC SAGAS
+   Eleanor Hull
+
+IRISH PRECURSORS OF DANTE
+   Sidney Gunn, M.A.
+
+IRISH INFLUENCE ON ENGLISH LITERATURE
+   Edmund C. Quiggin, M.A.
+
+IRISH FOLK LORE
+   Alfred Perceval Graves
+
+IRISH WIT AND HUMOR
+   Charles L. Graves
+
+THE IRISH THEATRE
+   Joseph Holloway
+
+IRISH JOURNALISTS
+   Michael MacDonagh
+
+THE IRISH LITERARY REVIVAL
+   Horatio S. Krans, Ph.D.
+
+IRISH WRITERS OF ENGLISH
+   P.J. Lennox, B.A., Litt. D.
+
+
+
+
+THE GLORIES OF IRELAND
+
+
+
+THE ROMANCE OF IRISH HISTORY
+
+By SIR ROGER CASEMENT, C.M.G.
+
+
+The history of Ireland remains to be written, for the purpose of
+Irishmen remains yet to be achieved.
+
+The struggle for national realization, begun so many centuries ago,
+is not ended; and if the long story offers a so frequent record of
+failure, it offers a continuous appeal to the highest motives and a
+constant exhibition of a most pathetic patriotism linked with the
+sternest courage.
+
+Irish wars, throughout all time, have been only against one enemy,
+the invader, and, ending so often in material disaster, they have
+conferred always a moral gain. Their memory uplifts the Irish heart;
+for no nation, no people, can reproach Ireland with having wronged
+them.
+
+When, at the dawn of the Christian era, we first hear of Ireland from
+external sources, we learn of it as an island harboring free men,
+whose indomitable love of freedom was hateful to the spirit of
+imperial exploitation.
+
+Agricola's advice to the empire-builders of his day was that Rome
+should "war down and take possession of Ireland, so that freedom
+might be put out of sight."
+
+It was to meet this challenge of despotism that the Scotic clans of
+Alba turned to their motherland for help, and the sea was "white with
+the hurrying oars" of the men of Erin speeding to the call of their
+Highland kinsmen, threatened with imperial servitude.
+
+The first external record we possess thus makes it clear that when
+the early Irish went forth to carry war abroad, it was not to impose
+their yoke on other peoples, or to found an empire, but to battle
+against the Empire of the World in the threatened cause they held so
+dear at home.
+
+In this early Roman reference to Ireland we get the keynote to all
+later Irish history--a warring down on the one hand, so that freedom
+might be put out of sight; an eternal resistance, on the other, so
+that it might be upheld.
+
+It was this struggle that Ireland sought to maintain against every
+form of attack, down through Danish, Norman, Tudor, Stuart, and
+Cromwellian assault, to the larger imperialism of the nineteenth
+century, when, as Thierry, the historian of the Norman Conquest,
+tells us, it still remained the one "lost cause" of history that
+refused to admit defeat. "This indomitable persistency, this faculty
+of preserving through centuries of misery the remembrance of lost
+liberty and of never despairing of a cause always defeated, always
+fatal to those who dared to defend it, is perhaps the strangest and
+noblest example ever given by any nation."
+
+The resources Ireland opposed to her invaders have been unequal to
+the founding of a great state, but have preserved a great tradition.
+The weakness of Ireland lay in the absence of a central organization,
+a state machine that could mobilize the national resources to defend
+the national life. That life had to depend for its existence, under
+the stress of prolonged invasion, on the spontaneous patriotism and
+courage of individuals. At times one clan alone, or two clans,
+maintained the struggle. Arrayed against them were all the resources
+of a mighty realm--shipping, arms, munitions of war, gold,
+statecraft, a widespread and calculating diplomacy, the prestige of a
+great Sovereign and a famous Court--and the Irish clan and its
+chieftain, by the sheer courage of its members, by their bodily
+strength and hardihood and feats of daring, for years kept the issue
+in doubt.
+
+When Hugh O'Neill, leagued with Red Hugh O'Donnell, challenged the
+might of Elizabeth, he had nothing to rely upon but the stout hearts
+and arms of the men of Tir-owen and Tir-Conail. Arms and armaments
+were far from Ulster. They could be procured only in Spain or
+elsewhere on the continent. English shipping held the sea; the
+English mint the coinage. The purse of England, compared to that of
+the Ulster princes, was inexhaustible. Yet for nine years the
+courage, the chivalry, the daring and skill of these northern
+clansmen, perhaps 20,000 men in all, held all the might of England at
+bay. Had the Spanish king at any time during the contest made good
+his promise to lend effective aid to the Irish princes, O'Neill would
+have driven Elizabeth from Ireland, and a sovereign State would today
+be the guardian of the freedom of the western seas for Europe and the
+world. It took "the best army in Europe" and a vast treasure, as Sir
+John Davies asserted, to conquer two Ulster clans three hundred years
+ago. The naked valor of the Irishman excelled the armed might of
+Tudor England; and the struggle that gave the empire of the seas to
+Britain was won not in the essay of battle, but in the assay of the
+mint.
+
+It is this aspect of the Irish fight for freedom that dignifies an
+otherwise lost cause. Ever defeated, yet undefeated, a
+long-remembering race believes that these native qualities must in
+the end prevail. The battle has been from the first one of manhood
+against might. The State Papers, the official record of English rule
+in Ireland, leave us rarely in doubt. We read in that record that,
+where the appeal was to the strength or courage of the opposing men,
+the Irish had nothing to fear from English arms.
+
+Thus the Earl of Essex, in a despatch to Elizabeth, explained the
+failure of his great expedition in 1599 against O'Neill and
+O'Donnell. "These rebels ... have (though I do unwillingly confess
+it) better bodies and perfecter use of their arms than those men whom
+your Majesty sends over." The flight of the Earls in 1607 left
+Ireland leaderless, with nothing but the bodies and hearts of the
+people to depend on. In 1613 we read, in the same records, a candid
+admission that, although the clan system had been destroyed and the
+great chiefs expropriated, converted, or driven to flight, the people
+still trusted to their own stout arms and fearless hearts:
+
+"The next rebellion, whenever it shall happen, doth threaten more
+danger to the State than any heretofore, when the cities and walled
+towns were always faithful; (1) because they have the same bodies
+they ever had and therein they had and have advantage of us; (2) from
+infancy they have been and are exercised in the use of arms; (3) the
+realm by reason of the long peace was never so full of youths; (4)
+that they are better soldiers than heretofore their continental
+employment in wars abroad assures us, and they do conceive that their
+men are better than ours."
+
+And when that "next rebellion" came, the great uprising of the
+outraged race in 1641, what do we find? Back from the continent sails
+the nephew of the great O'Neill, who had left Ireland a little boy in
+the flight of the Earls, and the dispossessed clansmen, robbed of all
+but their strength of body and heart, gathered to the summons of Owen
+Roe.
+
+Again it was the same issue: the courage and hardihood of the
+Irishman to set against the superior arms, equipment, and wealth of a
+united Britain. Irish valor won the battle; a great state
+organization won the campaign. England and Scotland combined to lay
+low a resurgent Ireland; and again the victory was not to the brave
+and skilled, but to the longer purse and the implacable mind. Perhaps
+the most vivid testimony to these innate qualities of the Irishman is
+to be found in a typically Irish challenge issued in the course of
+this ten years' war from 1641 to 1651. The document has a lasting
+interest, for it displays not only the "better body" of the Irishman,
+but something of his better heart and chivalry of soul.
+
+One Parsons, an English settler in Ireland, had written to a friend
+to say, among other things, that the head of a colonel of an Irish
+regiment then in the field against the English would not be allowed
+to stick long on its shoulders. The letter was intercepted by the
+very regiment itself, and a captain in it, Felim O'Molloy, wrote back
+to Parsons:
+
+"I will doe this, if you please. I will pick out 60 men and fight
+against 100 of your choise men, if you do but pitch your campe one
+mile out of your towne, and then, if you have the victory, you may
+threaten my colonel; otherwise do not reckon your chickens before
+they be hatched."
+
+It was this same spirit of daring, this innate belief in his own
+manhood, that for three hundred years made every Irishman the
+custodian of his country's honor.
+
+An Irish state had not been born; that battle had still to be fought;
+but the romantic effort to achieve it reveals ever an unstained
+record of personal courage. Freedom has not come to Ireland; it has
+been "warred down and kept out of sight"; but it has been kept in the
+Irish heart, from Brian Boru to Robert Emmet, by a long tale of blood
+shed always in the same cause. Freedom is kept alive in man's blood
+only by the shedding of that blood. It was this they were seeking,
+those splendid "scorners of death", the lads and young men of Mayo,
+who awaited with a fearless joy the advance of the English army fresh
+from the defeat of Humbert in 1798. Then, if ever, Irishmen might
+have run from a victorious and pitiless enemy, who having captured
+the French general and murdered, in cold blood, the hundreds of
+Killala peasants who were with his colors, were now come to Killala
+itself to wreak vengeance on the last stronghold of Irish rebellion.
+
+The ill-led and half-armed peasants, the last Irishmen in Ireland to
+stand in open, pitched fight for their country's freedom, went to
+meet the army of General Lake, as the Protestant bishop who saw them
+says, "running upon death with as little appearance of reflection or
+concern as if they were hastening to a show."
+
+The influences that begot this reverence for freedom lie in the
+island itself no less than in the remote ancestry of the people.
+Whoever looks upon Ireland cannot conceive it as the parent of any
+but freemen. Climate and soil here unite to tell man that
+brotherhood, and not domination, constitutes the only nobility for
+those who call this fair shore their motherland. The Irish struggle
+for liberty owes as much, perhaps, to the continuing influence of the
+same lakes and rivers and the same mountains as to the survival of
+any political fragments of the past. Irish history is inseparably the
+history of the land, rather than of a race; and in this it offers us
+a spectacle of a continuing national unity that long-continuing
+disaster has not been able wholly to efface or wholly to disrupt.
+
+To discover the Europe that existed before Rome we must turn to the
+East, Greece, and to the West, Ireland.
+
+Ireland alone among western lands preserves the recorded tradition,
+the native history, the continuity of mind, and, until yesterday, of
+speech and song, that connect the half of Europe with its ancestral
+past. For early Europe was very largely Celtic Europe, and nowhere
+can we trace the continuous influence of Celtic culture and idealism,
+coming down to us from a remote past, save in Ireland only.
+
+To understand the intellect of pre-Roman Gaul, of Spain, of Portugal,
+and largely of Germany, and even of Italy, we must go to Ireland.
+Whoever visits Spain or Portugal, to investigate the past of those
+countries, will find that the record stops where Rome began. Take
+England in further illustration. The first record the inhabitants of
+England have of the past of their island comes from Roman invasion.
+They know of Boadicea, of Cassivelaunus, the earliest figures in
+their history, from what a foreign destroyer tells them in an alien
+tongue.
+
+All the early life of Celtiberians and Lusitanians has passed away
+from the record of human endeavor, save only where we find it
+recorded by the Italian invaders in their own speech, and in such
+terms as imperial exploitation ever prescribes for its own
+advancement and the belittlement of those it assails. Ireland alone
+among all western nations knows her own past, from the very dawn of
+history and before the romance of Romulus began, down to the present
+day, in the tongue of her own island people and in the light of her
+own native mind. Early Irish history is not the record of the
+clan-strivings of a petty and remote population, far from the centre
+of civilization. It is the authentic story of all western
+civilization before the warm solvent of Mediterranean blood and iron
+melted and moulded it into another and rigid shape.
+
+The Irishman called O'Neill, O'Brien, O'Donnell, steps out of a past
+well-nigh co-eval with the heroisms and tragedies that uplifted
+Greece and laid Troy in ashes, and swept the Mediterranean with an
+Odyssey of romance that still gives its name to each chief island,
+cape, and promontory of the mother sea of Europe. Ireland, too, steps
+out of a story just as old. Well nigh every hill or mountain, every
+lake or river, bears the name today it bore a thousand, two thousand,
+years ago, and one recording some dramatic human or semi-divine
+event.
+
+The songs of the Munster and Connacht poets of the eighteenth and
+nineteenth centuries gave to every cottage in the land the ownership
+as well as the tale of an heroic ancestry. They linked the Ireland of
+yesterday with the Ireland of Finn and Oscar, of Diarmid and Grainne,
+of Deirdre and the Sons of Usnech, of Cuchulainn the Hound of Ulster.
+A people bred on such soul-stirring tales as these, linked by a
+language "the most expressive of any spoken on earth" in thought and
+verse and song with the very dawn of their history, wherein there
+moved, as familiar figures, men with the attributes of gods--great in
+battle, grand in danger, strong in loving, vehement in death--such a
+people could never be vulgar, could never be mean, but must repeat,
+in their own time and in their own manhood, actions and efforts thus
+ascribed as a vital part of their very origin. Hence the inspiration
+that gave the name of Fenian, in the late nineteenth century, to a
+band of men who sought to achieve by arms the freedom of Ireland. The
+law of the Fenian of the days of Marcus Aurelius was the law of the
+Fenian in the reign of Victoria--to give all--mind, body, and
+strength of purpose--to the defense of his country, "to speak truth
+and harbor no greed in his heart."
+
+Some there are who may deny to Finn and his Fenians of the second and
+third centuries corporeal existence; yet nothing is surer than that
+Ireland claims these ancestral embodiments of an heroic tradition by
+a far surer title of native record than gives to the Germans
+Arminius, to the Gauls, Ariovistus, to the British, Caractacus. This
+conception of a national life, one with the land itself, was very
+clear to the ancient Irish, just as it has been and is the foundation
+of all later national effort.
+
+"If ever the idea of nationality becomes the subject of a thorough
+and honest study, it will be seen that among all the peoples of
+antiquity, not excluding the Hellenes and the Hebrews, the Irish held
+the clearest and most conscious and constant grasp of that idea; and
+that their political divisions, instead of disproving the existence
+of the idea, in their case intensely strengthen the proof of its
+existence and emphasize its power.
+
+In the same way the remarkable absence of insular exclusiveness,
+notwithstanding their geographical position, serves to bring their
+sense of nationality into higher relief.
+
+Though pride of race is evident in the dominant Gaelic stock, their
+national sentiment centres not in the race, but altogether in the
+country, which is constantly personified and made the object of a
+sort of cult.
+
+It is worth noting that just as the Brehon Laws are the laws of
+Ireland without distinction of province or district; as the language
+of Irish literature is the language of Ireland without distinction of
+dialects; as the Dindshenchus contains the topographical legends of
+all parts of Ireland, and the Festilogies commemorate the saints of
+all Ireland; so the Irish chronicles from first to last are histories
+of the Irish nation. The true view of the Book of Invasions is that
+it is the epic of Irish Nationality." (Professor Eoin MacNeill, in a
+letter to Mrs. A.S. Green, January, 1914.)
+
+The "Book of Invasions", which Professor MacNeill here speaks of, was
+compiled a thousand years ago. To write the history of later Ireland
+is merely to prolong the "Book of Invasions", and thus bring the epic
+of Irish resistance down to our own day. All Irish valor and
+chivalry, whether of soul or of body, have been directed for a
+thousand years to this same end. It was for this that Sarsfield died
+at Landen no less than Brian at Clontarf. The monarch of Ireland at
+the head of a great Irish army driving back the leagued invaders from
+the shores of Dublin Bay in 1014, and the exiled leader in 1693,
+heading the charge that routed King William's cause in the
+Netherlands, fell on one and the same battlefield. They fought
+against the invader of Ireland.
+
+We are proudly told that the sun never sets on the British Empire.
+Wherever an Irishman has fought in the name of Ireland it has not
+been to acquire fortune, land, or fame, but to give all, even life
+itself, not to found an empire, but to strike a blow for an ancient
+land and assert the cause of a swordless people. Wherever Irishmen
+have gone, in exile or in fight, they have carried this image of
+Ireland with them. The cause of Ireland has found a hundred fields of
+foreign fame, where the dying Irishman might murmur with Sarsfield,
+"Would that this blood were shed for Ireland", and history records
+the sacrifice as made in no other cause.
+
+Ireland, too, owns an empire on which the sun never sets.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Sigerson: Bards of the Gael and Gall; O'Callaghan: History of the
+Irish Brigades; Mitchel: Life of Hugh O'Neill; Green: The Making of
+Ireland and its Undoing, Irish Nationality, The Old Irish World;
+Taylor: Life of Owen Roe O'Neill; Todhunter: Life of Patrick
+Sarsfield; Hyde: Love Songs of Connacht, Religious Songs of Connacht;
+O'Grady: Bog of Stars, Flight of the Eagle; Ferguson: Hibernian
+Nights' Entertainment; Mitchel: History of Ireland, in continuation
+of MacGeoghegan's History.
+
+
+
+THE ISLAND OF SAINTS AND SCHOLARS
+
+By CANON D'ALTON, M.R.I.A., LL.D.
+
+
+Unlike the natives of Britain and Scotland, the Irish in
+pre-Christian times were not brought into contact with Roman
+institutions or Roman culture. In consequence they created and
+developed a civilization of their own that was in some respects
+without equal. They were far advanced in the knowledge of metal-work
+and shipbuilding; they engaged in commerce; they loved music and had
+an acquaintance with letters; and when disputes arose among them,
+these were settled in duly constituted courts of justice, presided
+over by a trained lawyer, called a brehon, instead of being settled
+by the stern arbitrament of force. Druidism was their pagan creed.
+They believed in the immortality and in the transmigration of souls;
+they worshipped the sun and moon, and they venerated mountains,
+rivers, and wells; and it would be difficult to find any ministers of
+religion who were held in greater awe than the Druids.
+
+Commerce and war brought the Irish into contact with Britain and the
+continent, and thus was Christianity gradually introduced into the
+island. Though its progress at first was not rapid, there were, by
+431, several Christian churches in existence, and in that year
+Palladius, a Briton and a bishop, was sent by Pope Celestine to the
+Irish who already believed in Christ. Discouraged and a failure,
+Palladius returned to Britain after a brief stay on his mission, and
+then, in 432, the same Pope sent St. Patrick, who became the Apostle
+of Ireland.
+
+Because of the great work he did, St. Patrick is one of the prominent
+figures of history; and yet, to such an extent has the dust of time
+settled down on his life and acts that the place and year of his
+birth, the schools in which he was educated, and the year of his
+death, are all matters of dispute. There is, however, no good reason
+to depart from the traditional account, which is, that the Apostle
+was born at Dumbarton in Scotland, in the year 372; that in 388 he
+was captured by the Irish king Niall, who had gone on a plundering
+raid into Scotland; that he was brought to Ireland and sold as a
+slave, and that as such he served a pagan chief named Milcho who
+lived in what is now the county of Antrim; that from Antrim he
+escaped and went back to his own country; that he had many visions
+urging him to return to Ireland and preach the Gospel there; that,
+believing these were from God, he went to France, and there was
+educated and ordained priest, and later consecrated bishop; and then,
+accompanied by several ecclesiastics, he was sent to Ireland.
+
+From Wicklow, where he landed, he proceeded north and endeavored, but
+in vain, to convert his old pagan master Milcho; thence he proceeded
+south by Downpatrick and Dundalk to Slane in Meath, where, in sight
+of Tara, the high-king's seat, he lighted the paschal fire. At Tara
+he confounded the Druids in argument, baptized the high-king and the
+chief poet; and then, turning north and west, he crossed the Shannon
+into Connacht, where he spent seven years. From Connacht he passed
+into Donegal, and thence through Tyrone and Antrim, after which he
+entered Munster, and remained there seven years. Finally, he returned
+to Armagh, which he made his episcopal see, and died at Saul, near
+Downpatrick, in 493.
+
+St. Patrick wrote two short works, both of which have survived, his
+_Confession_ and his _Epistle to Coroticus_. In neither are there any
+graces of style, and the Latin is certainly not that of Cicero or
+Livy. But in the _Confession_ the character of the author himself is
+completely revealed--his piety, his zeal, his self-sacrifice, his
+courage in face of every danger and every trial. Not less remarkable
+was the skill with which he handled men and used pagan institutions
+for the purposes of Christianity; and equally so was the success with
+which his bloodless apostolate was crowned.
+
+One great difficulty which St. Patrick had was to provide the people
+with a native ministry. At first he selected the chief men--princes,
+brehons, bards--and these, with little training and little education,
+he ordained. Thus, slenderly equipped with knowledge, the priest,
+with his ritual, missal, and a catechism, and the bishop, with his
+crozier and bell, went forth to do battle for the Lord. This
+condition of things was soon ended. In 450 a college was founded at
+Armagh, which in a short time grew to be a famous school, and
+attracted students from afar. Other schools were founded in the fifth
+century, at Noendrum, Louth, and Kildare. In the sixth century arose
+the famous monastic schools of Clonfert, Clonard, Clonmacnois, Arran,
+and Bangor; while the seventh century saw the rise of Glendalough and
+Lismore.
+
+St. Patrick was educated in Gaul, at the monasteries of Marmoutier
+and Lerins; and, perhaps as a result, the monastic character of the
+early Irish church was one of its outstanding features; moreover it
+was to the prevalence of the monastic spirit, the desire for solitude
+and meditation, that so many of the great monastic establishments
+owed their existence. Fleeing from society and its attractions, and
+wishing only for solitude and austerity, some holy man sought out a
+lonely retreat, and there lived a life of mortification and prayer.
+Others came to share his poverty and vigils; a grant of land was then
+obtained from the ruling chief, the holy man became abbot and his
+followers his monks; and a religious community was formed destined
+soon to acquire fame. It was thus that St. Finnian established
+Clonard on the banks of the Boyne, and St. Kieran, Clonmacnois by the
+waters of the Shannon; and thus did St. Enda make the wind-swept
+Isles of Arran the home and the resting place of so many saints.
+Before the close of the sixth century, 3,000 monks followed the rule
+of St. Corngall at Bangor; and in the seventh century, St. Carthage
+made Lismore famous and St. Kevin attracted pious men from afar to
+his lonely retreat in the picturesque valley of Glendalough.
+
+And there were holy women as well as holy men in Ireland. St. Brigid
+was held in such honor that she is often called the Mary of the Gael.
+Even in St. Patrick's day, she had founded a convent at Kildare,
+beside which was a monastery of which St. Conleth was superior; and
+she founded many other convents in addition to that at Kildare. Her
+example was followed by St. Ita, St. Fanchea, and many others; and if
+at the close of the sixth century there were few districts which had
+not monasteries and monks, there were few also which had not convents
+and nuns.
+
+Nor was this all. Fired with missionary zeal, many men left Ireland
+to plant the faith in distant lands. Thus did St. Columcille settle
+in Iona, whence he converted the Picts. Under his successors, St.
+Aidan and his friends went south to Lindisfarne to convert
+Northumbria in England; and the ninth abbot of Iona was the saintly
+Adamnan, whose biography of St. Columcille has been declared by
+competent authority to be the best of its kind of which the whole
+Middle Ages can boast. Nor must it be forgotten that the monasteries
+of Luxeuil and Bobbio owed their origin to St. Columbanus; that St.
+Gall gave his name to a town and canton in Switzerland; that St.
+Fridolin labored on the Rhine and St. Fursey on the Marne; and that
+St. Cathaldus was Bishop of Tarentum, and is still venerated as the
+patron of that Italian see.
+
+And if we would know what was the character of the schools in which
+these men were trained, we have only to remember that Colgu, who had
+been educated at Clonmacnois, was the master of Alcuin; that Dicuil
+the Geographer came from the same school; that Cummian, Abbot and
+Bishop of Clonfert, combated the errors about the paschal computation
+with an extent of learning and a wealth of knowledge amazing in a
+monk of the seventh century; and that at the close of the eighth
+century two Irishmen went to the court of Charlemagne and were
+described by a monk of St. Gall as "men incomparably skilled in human
+learning". The once pagan Ireland had by that time become a citadel
+of Christianity, and was rightfully called the School of the West,
+the Island of Saints and Scholars.
+
+With this state of progress and prosperity the Danes played sad
+havoc. Animated with the fiercest pagan fanaticism, they turned with
+fury against Christianity, and especially against monks and religious
+foundations. Armagh, Clonmacnois, Bangor, Kildare, and many other
+great monastic establishments thus fell before their fury. Ignorance,
+neglect of religion, and corruption of manners followed, and from the
+eighth to the twelfth century there was a noted falling off in the
+number of Irish scholars. At home indeed were Cormac and Maelmurra,
+O'Hartigan and O'Flynn, and abroad was John Scotus Erigena, whose
+learning was so great that it excited astonishment even at Rome. The
+love of learning and zeal for religion lived on through this long
+period of accumulated disasters. After the triumph of Brian Boru at
+Clontarf, there was a distinct revival of piety and learning; and,
+when a century of turmoil followed Brian's fall and religion again
+suffered, nothing was wanted to bring the people back to a sense of
+their duty but the energy and reforming zeal of St. Malachy.
+
+Gerald Barry, the notorious Anglo-Norman, who visited Ireland towards
+the close of the twelfth century, has been convicted out of his own
+mouth when he states that Ireland was a barbarous nation when his
+people came there. He forgot that a people who could illuminate the
+Book of Kells and build Cormac's Chapel could not be called savages,
+nor could a church be lost to a sense of decency and dignity that
+numbered among its children such a man as St. Laurence O'Toole.
+Abuses there were, it is true, consequent on long continued war,
+though these abuses were increased rather than lessened by the coming
+of the Anglo-Normans, and to such an extent that for more than two
+centuries there is not a single great name among Irish scholars
+except Duns Scotus.
+
+The fame of Duns Scotus was European, and the Subtle Doctor, as he
+was called, became the great glory of the Franciscan, as his rival
+St. Thomas was the great glory of the Dominican, order. But he left
+no successor, and from his death, at the opening of the fourteenth
+century, till the seventeenth century the number of Irish scholars or
+recognized Irish saints was small. Yet, in the midst of disorders
+within, and despite oppression from without, at no time did the love
+of learning disappear in Ireland; nor was there ever in the Irish
+church either heresy or schism.
+
+The attempted reformation by Henry VIII and his daughter Elizabeth
+produced martyrs like O'Hurley and O'Hely; and there were many more
+martyrs in the time of the Stuarts, and especially under the short
+but sanguinary rule of Cromwell.
+
+Those were the days of the penal laws, when they who clung to the old
+religion suffered much. But nothing could shake their faith; neither
+the proclamations of Elizabeth and James, the massacres of Cromwell,
+nor the ferocious proscriptions of the eighteenth century. The priest
+said Mass, though his crime was punishable by death, and the people
+heard Mass, though theirs also was a criminal offence; and the
+schoolmaster, driven from the school, taught under a sheltering
+hedge. The clerical student, denied education at home, crossed the
+sea, to be educated at Louvain or Salamanca or Seville, and then,
+perhaps loaded with academic honors, he returned home to face poverty
+and persecution and even death. The Catholic masses, socially
+ostracised, degraded, and impoverished, shut out from every avenue to
+ambition or enterprise, deprived of every civil right, knowing
+nothing of law except when it oppressed them and nothing of
+government except when it struck them down, yet clung to the religion
+in which they were born. And when, in the latter half of the
+eighteenth century, the tide turned and the first dawn of toleration
+appeared on the horizon, it was found that the vast majority of the
+people were unchanged, and that, after two centuries of the most
+relentless persecution since the days of Diocletian, Ireland was, in
+faith and practice, a strongly Catholic nation still.
+
+On a soil constantly wet with the blood and tears of its children, it
+would be vain to expect that scholarship could flourish. And yet the
+period had its distinguished Irish scholars both at home and abroad.
+At Louvain, in the sixteenth century, were Lombard and Creagh, who
+both became Archbishops of Armagh, and O'Hurley who became Archbishop
+of Cashel. An even greater scholar than these was Luke Wadding, the
+eminent Franciscan who founded the convent of St. Isidore at Rome. At
+Louvain was John Colgan, a Franciscan like Wadding, a man who did
+much for Irish ecclesiastical history. And at home in Ireland, as
+parish priest of Tybrid in Tipperary, was the celebrated Dr. Geoffrey
+Keating the historian, once a student at Salamanca. John Lynch, the
+renowned opponent of Gerald Barry the Welshman, was Archdeacon of
+Tuam. And in the ruined Franciscan monastery of Donegal, the Four
+Masters, aided and encouraged by the Friars, labored long and
+patiently, and finally completed the work which we all know as the
+_Annals of the Four Masters_. This work, originally written in Irish,
+remained in manuscript in Louvain till the middle of the nineteenth
+century, when it was edited and translated into English by John
+O'Donovan, one of Ireland's greatest Irish scholars, with an ability
+and completeness quite worthy of the original.
+
+On the Anglo-Irish side there were also some great names, and
+especially in the domain of history, notably Stanyhurst and Hammer,
+Moryson and Campion and Davies, and, above all, Ussher and Ware.
+James Ware died in 1666, and though a Protestant and an official of
+the Protestant government, and living in Ireland in an intolerant age
+and in an atmosphere charged with religious rancor, he was, to his
+credit be it said, to a large extent free from bigotry. He dealt with
+history and antiquities, and wrote in no party spirit, wishing only
+to be fair and impartial, and to set out the truth as he found it.
+James Ussher, Archbishop of Armagh, was a much abler man and a much
+greater scholar than Ware. His capacity for research, his profound
+scholarship, the variety and extent of his learning raised him far
+above his co-religionists, and he has been rightly called the Great
+Luminary by the Irish Protestant church. It is regrettable that his
+fine intellect was darkened by bigotry and intolerance.
+
+Far different was the character of another Protestant bishop, the
+great Berkeley, of Cloyne, a patriot, a philosopher, and a scholar,
+who afterwards left money and books for a scholarship, which is still
+in existence, at the then infant Yale College in New England. He
+lived in the first half of the eighteenth century, when the whole
+machinery of government was ruthlessly used to crush the Catholics.
+But Berkeley had little sympathy with the penal laws; he had words of
+kindness for the Catholics, and undoubtedly wished them well. Nor
+must Swift be forgotten, for though he took little pride in being an
+Irishman, he hated and despised those who oppressed Ireland, and is
+rightly regarded as one of the greatest of her sons.
+
+The short period during which Grattan's parliament existed was one of
+great prosperity. It was then that Maynooth College was established
+for the education of the Irish priesthood. But Catholics, though free
+to set up schools, were still shut out from the honors and emoluments
+of Trinity College, the one university at that time in Ireland.
+Still, Charles O'Connor, MacGeoghegan, and O'Flaherty were great
+Catholic scholars in the latter part of the eighteenth century.
+
+In the following century, while Protestant ascendancy was still
+maintained, the Catholics had greater scope. Away back in the days of
+Queen Elizabeth, Campion found Latin widely spoken among the
+peasantry, and Father Mooney met country lads familiar with Virgil
+and Homer. In 1670, Petty had a similar story to tell, in spite of
+all the savageries of Cromwell and the ruin which necessarily
+followed. And in the eighteenth century the schoolmaster, though a
+price was set on his head, was still active. With an inherited love
+of learning, the Irish in the nineteenth century would have made
+rapid progress had they been rich. But their impoverishment by the
+penal laws made it impossible for them to set up an effective system
+of primary education, and until the national school system came into
+existence in 1831, they had to rely on the hedge-schools. Secondary
+education fared better, for the bishops, relying with confidence on
+the generosity of their flocks, were soon able to establish diocesan
+colleges. And in higher education, equally determined efforts were
+made by the establishment of the Catholic University under Cardinal
+Newman. But in this field of intellectual effort, in spite of the
+energy and zeal of the bishops, in spite of the great generosity of
+the people, so many of whom were poor, and in spite of the fame of
+Newman, it is failure rather than success which the historian has to
+record.
+
+Nor has the love of the Irish for religion, any more than their love
+of learning, been lessened or enfeebled by time. The mountain side as
+the place for Mass in the penal days gradually gave way to the rude
+stone church without steeple or bell; and when steeple and bell
+ceased to be proscribed, and the people were left free to erect
+suitable houses of sacrifice and prayer, the fine churches of the
+nineteenth century began gradually to appear. The unfettered exercise
+of freedom of religious worship, the untiring efforts of a zealous
+clergy and episcopate, the unstinted support of a people, who out of
+their poverty grudged nothing to God or to God's house, formed an
+irresistible combination, and all over the country beautiful churches
+are now to be found.
+
+In every diocese in Ireland, with scarcely an exception, there is now
+a stately cathedral to perpetuate the renown of the patron saint of
+that diocese, and even parish churches have been built not unworthy
+to be the churches of an ancient see. At Armagh, a cathedral has been
+built which does honor to Irish architecture, and worthily
+commemorates the life and labors of St. Patrick, the founder of the
+primatial see; at Thurles, a cathedral stands, the chief church of
+the southern province, statelier far than any which ever stood on the
+Rock of Cashel; at Tuam, a noble building, associated with the memory
+of John MacHale, the Lion of the Fold of Judah, perpetuates the name
+of St. Jarlath; at Queenstown, the traveller, going to America or
+returning from it to the old land, has his attention attracted to the
+splendid cathedral pile sacred to St. Colman, the patron saint of the
+diocese of Cloyne; and if we would see how splendid even a parish
+church may be, let us visit the beautiful church in Drogheda,
+dedicated to the memory of Oliver Plunkett.
+
+Nor are these things the only evidence we have that zeal for religion
+among the Irish has survived centuries of persecution. Columbanus and
+Columcille have still their successors, eager and ready as they were
+to bring the blessings of the Gospel to distant lands. In recent
+years an Irish-born Archbishop of Sydney has been succeeded by an
+Irish-born Archbishop; an Irishman rules the metropolitan see of
+Adelaide; and an Irish-born Archbishop of Melbourne has as his
+coadjutor a former president of the College of Maynooth. In South
+Africa, the work of preaching and teaching and ruling the church is
+largely the work of Irish-born men. In the great Republic of the West
+the three cardinal-archbishops at the head of the Catholic Church
+have the distinctively Irish names of Gibbons and Farley and
+O'Connell; and in every diocese throughout the United States the
+proportion of priests of Irish birth or descent is large.
+
+Nor must the poorer Irish be forgotten. How much does the Catholic
+Church, both in Ireland and in America, owe to the generosity of
+Irish-American laborers and servant girls! Out of their scanty and
+hard-earned pay they have contributed much not only towards the
+building of the plain wooden church in the rural parishes, but also
+of the stately cathedrals of American cities. And many a church in
+old Ireland owes its completion and its adornment to the dollars
+given by the poor but generous Irish exiles.
+
+And if the zeal of the Irish for religion has thus survived to the
+twentieth century, so also in an equally remarkable degree has their
+zeal for learning. We have evidence of this in the numerous primary
+schools in every parish, filled with eager pupils and presided over
+by hard working teachers; in the colleges where the sciences and the
+classics are studied with the same energy as in the ancient monastic
+schools; and in Maynooth College, which is the foremost
+ecclesiastical college in the world. And if there are now new
+universities, the National and the Queen's, sturdy and vigorous in
+their youth, this does not imply that Trinity College suffers from
+the decreptitude of age. For among those whom she sent forth in
+recent times are Dowden and Mahaffy and Lecky, to name but three, and
+these would do credit to any university in Europe.
+
+It would be difficult to find in any age of Irish history a greater
+pulpit orator than the famous Dominican, Father Tom Burke, or a more
+delightful essayist than Father Joseph Farrell; and who has depicted
+Irish clerical life more faithfully than the late Canon Sheehan,
+whose fame as a novelist has crossed continents and oceans? O'Connell
+was a great orator as well as a great political leader, and Dr. Doyle
+and Archbishop John MacHale were scholars as well as statesmen and
+bishops. We have thus an unbroken chain of great names, a series of
+Irishmen whom the succeeding ages have brought forth to enlighten and
+instruct lesser men; and Ireland, in the twentieth century, is not
+less attached to religion and learning than she was when Clonmacnois
+flourished and the saintly Carthage ruled at Lismore.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Joyce: Social History of Ancient Ireland (Dublin, 1903); Lanigan:
+Ecclesiastical History of Ireland (Dublin, 1822); Healy: Ireland's
+Ancient Schools and Scholars (Dublin, 1896), Life and Writings of St.
+Patrick (Dublin, 1905); Bury: St. Patrick and his Place in History
+(London, 1905); Ussher's Works (Dublin, 1847); Reeves: Adamnan's Life
+of St. Columba (Dublin, 1851); Worsae: The Danes in Ireland (London,
+1852); Moran: Essays on the Early Irish Church (Dublin, 1864);
+Stokes: Ireland and the Anglo-Norman Church (London, 1897); Mant:
+History of the Church of Ireland (London, 1841); Bagwell: Ireland
+under the Tudors (London, 1885-90); Moran: Persecutions under the
+Puritans (Callan, 1903); Murphy: Our Martyrs (Dublin, 1896); Meehan:
+Franciscan Monasteries of the Seventeenth Century (Dublin, 1870);
+Lecky: History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century (London, 1902);
+O'Connell's Correspondence (London, 1888); Wyse: History of the
+Catholic Association (London, 1829); Doyle: Letters on the State of
+Ireland (Dublin, 1826); O'Rorke: Irish Famine (Dublin, 1902); Gavan
+Duffy: Young Ireland (London, 1880); Plunkett: Ireland in the New
+Century (London, 1904); O'Riordan: Catholicity and Progress in
+Ireland (London, 1905); MacCaffery: History of the Church in the
+Nineteenth Century (Dublin, 1909); Healy: Centenary History of
+Maynooth College (Dublin, 1905); D'Alton: History of Ireland (London,
+1910).
+
+
+
+IRISH MONKS IN EUROPE
+
+By Rev. Columba Edmonds, O.S.B.
+
+
+St. Patrick's work in Ireland was chiefly concerned with preaching
+the faith and establishing monasteries which served as centres of
+education. The great success that attended these efforts earned for
+Ireland the double title of Island of Saints and a Second Thebaid.
+
+The monastic institutions organized by St. Patrick were characterized
+from their commencement by an apostolic zeal that knew no bounds.
+Sufficient scope was not to be found at home, so it was impatient to
+diffuse itself abroad.
+
+SCOTLAND: Hence in the year 563 St. Columcille, a Donegal native of
+royal descent, accompanied by twelve companions, crossed the sea in
+currachs of wickerwork and hides, and sought to land in Caledonia.
+They reached the desolate Isle of Iona on the day preceding
+Whitsunday.
+
+Many years before, colonies of Irishmen had settled along the western
+parts of the present Scotland. The settlement north of the Clyde
+received the name of the Kingdom of Dalriada. These Dalriadan Irish
+were Christian at least in name, but their neighbors in the Pictish
+Highlands were still pagans. Columcille's apostolate was to be among
+both these peoples. Adamnan says that Columcille came to Caledonia
+"for the love of Christ's name", and well did his after-life prove
+the truth of this statement. He had attained his forty-fourth year
+when King Conall, his kinsman, bestowed Iona upon him and his
+brethren. The island, situated between the Dalriadans and the Picts
+of the Highlands, was conveniently placed for missionary work. A
+numerous community recruited from Ireland, with Columcille as its
+Abbot, soon caused Iona to become a flourishing centre from which men
+could go forth to preach Christianity. Monasteries and hermitages
+rapidly sprang up in the adjacent islands and on the mainland. These,
+together with the Columban foundations in Ireland, formed one great
+religious federation, in which the Celtic apostles of the northern
+races were formed under the influence of the holy founder.
+
+St. Columcille recognized the need of securing permanence for his
+work by obtaining the conversion of the Pictish rulers, and thus he
+did not hesitate to approach King Brude in his castle on the banks of
+the River Ness. St. Comgall and St. Canice were Columcille's
+companions on his journey through the great glen, now famous for the
+Caledonian Canal. The royal convert Brude was baptized, and by
+degrees the people followed the example set them. Opposition,
+however, was keen and aggressive, and it came from the official
+representatives of Pictish paganism--the Druids.
+
+Success, too, attended Columcille's ministrations among the
+Dalriadans, and on the death of their king, Aidan Gabhran, who
+succeeded to the throne, sought regal consecration from the hands of
+Columcille. In 597 the saint died, but not before he had won a whole
+kingdom to Christ and covered the land with churches and monasteries.
+Today his name is held in honor not by Irishmen alone, but by the
+Catholics and non-Catholics of the land of his adoption.
+
+There are other saints who either labored in person with Columcille
+or perpetuated the work he accomplished in Caledonia; and their names
+add to the glory of Ireland, their birth-land. Thus St. Moluag (592)
+converted the people of Lismore, and afterwards died at Rosemarkie;
+St. Drostan, St. Columcille's friend and disciple, established the
+faith in Aberdeenshire and became abbot of Deer; St. Kieran (548)
+evangelized Kintyre; St. Mun (635) labored in Argyleshire; St. Buite
+(521) did the same in Pictland; St. Maelrubha (722) preached in
+Ross-shire; St. Modan and St. Machar benefited the dwellers on the
+western and eastern coasts respectively; and St. Fergus in the eighth
+century became apostle of Forfar, Buchan, and Caithness.
+
+DISTANT ISLANDS: But Irish monks were mariners as well as apostles.
+Their hide-covered currachs were often launched in the hope of
+discovering solitudes in the ocean. Adamnan records that Baitan set
+out with others in search of a desert in the sea. St. Cormac sought a
+similar retreat and arrived at the Orkneys. St. Molaise's holy isle
+guards Lamlash Bay, off Arran. The island retreats of the Bass,
+Inchkeith, May, and Inchcolm, in the Firth of Forth, are associated
+with the Irish saints Baldred, Adamnan, Adrian, and Columcille. St.
+Maccaldus, a native of Down, became bishop of the Isle of Man.
+
+Remarkable, too, is the fact that Irish monks sailed by way of the
+Faroe Islands to distant Iceland. These sailor-clerics, who settled
+on the southeast of the island, were spoken of by later Norwegians as
+"papar." After their departure--they were probably driven away by
+Norwegian pagans--these Icelandic apostles "left behind them Irish
+books, bells, and croziers, wherefrom one could understand they were
+Irishmen."
+
+But St. Brendan, the voyager, is the most wonderful of the mariner
+monks of Ireland. He accomplished apostolic work in both Wales and
+Scotland, but his seafaring instincts urged him to make missionary
+voyages to regions hitherto unknown. Some writers, not without
+reason, have actually maintained that he and his followers traveled
+as far as the American shore. Be this as it may, the tradition of the
+discoveries of this Irish monk kept in mind the possibly existing
+western land, and issued at last in the discovery of the great
+continent of America by Columbus.
+
+NORTHUMBRIA: Turn now to Northumbria. Adamnan writes that St.
+Columcille's name was honored not only in Gaul, Spain, and Italy, but
+in Rome itself. England, however, owes to it a special veneration,
+because of the widespread apostolic work accomplished within her
+borders by Columcille's Irish disciples. The facts are as follows:
+Northumbrian Christianity was well-nigh exterminated through the
+victory of Penda the pagan over Edwin the Christian, A.D. 633. St.
+Paulinus, its local Roman apostle, was driven permanently from his
+newly founded churches. Meanwhile Oswald and his brother Edwith
+sought refuge among the Irish monks of lona, and received baptism at
+their hands. Edwith died and Oswald became heir to the throne. A
+battle was fought. The day before he met the pagan army, between the
+Tyne and the Solway, Oswald beheld St. Columcille in vision saying to
+him: "Be strong and of good faith; I will be with thee." The result
+of this vision of the abbot of Iona was that a considerable part of
+England received the true faith. Oswald was victorious; he united the
+kingdoms of Deira and Bernicia, and became overlord of practically
+all England, with the exception of Kent. There was evangelization to
+be done, and St. Oswald turned to Iona. In response to his appeal,
+the Irish bishop, St. Aidan, was sent with several companions. They
+were established on the island of Lindisfarne, in sight of the royal
+residence at Bamborough. These monks labored in union with, and even
+seemed to exceed in zeal, the Roman missionaries in the south under
+St. Augustine. However great the enthusiasm they had displayed for
+conversions in Iona, they displayed still greater on the desolate
+isle of Lindisfarne. In the first instance St. Aidan and his monks
+evangelized Northumbria. Want of facility in preaching in the
+Anglo-Saxon tongue was at first an obstacle, but it was speedily
+overcome, for king Oswald himself, who knew both Gaelic and English,
+came forward and acted as interpreter.
+
+When St. Aidan died in 651, Iona sent St. Finan, another Irish
+bishop, to succeed him. Finan spread the faith beyond the borders of
+Northumbria and succeeded so well that he himself baptized Penda,
+king of the Mid-Angles, and Sigebert, king of the East Saxons. Diuma
+and Cellach, Irish monks, assisted by three Anglo-Saxon disciples of
+St. Aidan, consolidated the mission to the Mercians.
+
+ANGLIA: While Christianity was thus being restored in Northumbria,
+other Irish apostles were teaching it in East Anglia. St. Fursey,
+accompanied by his brother St. Foillan and St. Ultan and the priests
+Gobham and Dicuil, landed in England in 633, and began to labor in
+the eastern portions of Anglia. In his monastery at Burghcastle, in
+Suffolk, the convert king Sigebert made his monastic profession, and
+in the same house many heavenly visions were vouchsafed to its
+founder.
+
+The South Saxons had in Dicuil an apostle who founded the monastery
+of Bosham in Sussex, whence originated the episcopal see of
+Chichester. Another Irish monk named Maeldubh settled among the West
+Saxons and became the founder of Malmesbury Abbey and the instructor
+of the well-known St. Aldhelm.
+
+Thus did Irish monks contribute to the conversion of Great Britain
+and its many distant islands. They built up the faith by their holy
+lives, their preaching, and their enthusiasm, and wisely provided for
+its perpetuation by educating a native clergy and by the founding of
+monastic institutions.
+
+They were not yet satisfied, so they turned towards other lands to
+bring to other peoples the glad tidings of salvation.
+
+GAUL: In 590 St. Columbanus, a monk of Bangor in Ireland, accompanied
+by twelve brethren, arrived in France, having passed through Britain.
+After the example of St. Columcille in Caledonia, they traveled to
+the court of Gontram, king of Burgundy, in order to secure his help
+and protection. During the course of the journey they preached to the
+people, and all were impressed with their modesty, patience, and
+devotion. At that epoch Gaul was sadly in need of such missionaries,
+for, owing partly to the invasion of barbarians and partly to
+remissness on the part of the clergy, vice and impiety everywhere
+prevailed. Columbanus, because of his zeal, sanctity, and learning,
+was well fitted for the task that lay before him. One of his early
+works in Burgundy was the founding of the monastery of Luxeuil, which
+became the parent of many other monasteries founded either by himself
+or by his disciples. Many holy men came from Ireland to join the
+community, and so numerous did the monks of Luxeuil become that
+separate choirs were formed to keep up perpetual praise--the "laus
+perennis". But Columbanus did not remain at Luxeuil. In his strict
+uncompromising preaching he spared not even kings, and he preferred
+to leave his flourishing monastery rather than pass over in silence
+the vices of the Merovingians. He escaped from the malice of
+Brunehaut, and, being banished from Burgundy, made his way to
+Neustria, and thence to Metz. Full of zeal, he resolved to preach the
+faith to the pagans along the Rhine, and with this purpose set out
+with a few of his followers. They proceeded as far as the Lake of
+Zurich, and finally established themselves at Bregentz, on the Lake
+of Constance.
+
+By this time his disciple St. Gall had learned the Alemannian
+dialect, which enabled him to push forward the work of
+evangelization. But Columbanus felt that he was called to labor in
+other lands while vigor remained to him, so, bidding his favorite
+follower farewell, he crossed the Alps and arrived at Milan in
+northern Italy. King Agilulph and his queen, Theodelinda, gave the
+Irish abbot a reverent and kind welcome. His zeal was still unspent,
+and he worked much for the conversion of the Lombard Arians. Here he
+founded, between Milan and Genoa, the monastery of Bobbio, which as a
+centre of knowledge and piety was long the light of northern Italy.
+In this monastery he died in the year 615, but not before the arrival
+of messengers from King Clothaire, inviting him to return to Luxeuil,
+as his enemies were now no more. But he could not go; all he asked
+was protection for his dear monks at Luxeuil.
+
+It has been said most truly that Ireland never sent a greater son to
+do God's work in foreign lands than Columbanus. The fruit of his
+labors remained; and for centuries after his death his influence was
+widely felt throughout Europe, especially in France and Italy. His
+zeal for the interests of God was unbounded, and this was the secret
+of his immense power. Some of his writings have come down to us, and
+comprise his Rule for Monks, his Penitential, sixteen short sermons,
+six letters, and several poems, all in Latin. His letters are of much
+value as evidence of Ireland's ancient belief in papal supremacy.
+
+SWITZERLAND: Gall, Columbanus's disciple, remained in Switzerland. In
+a fertile valley, lying between two rivers and surrounded by hills,
+he laid the beginnings of the great abbey which afterwards bore his
+name and became one of the most famous monasteries in Christendom.
+St. Gall spent thirty years of his life in Helvetia, occupying
+himself in teaching, preaching, and prayer. He succeeded where others
+had failed, and that which was denied to Columbanus was reserved for
+Gall, his disciple, and the latter is entitled the Apostle of
+Alemannia.
+
+Other districts had their Irish missionaries and apostles. Not far
+from St. Gall, at Seckingen, near Basle, St. Fridolin was a pioneer
+in the work of evangelization.
+
+Towards the close of the seventh century St. Kilian, an Irishman,
+with his companions, Totnan and Colman, arrived in Franconia. He was
+martyred in Würtzburg, where he is honored as patron and apostle.
+
+Sigisbert, another Irish follower of St. Columbanus, spread the faith
+among the half-pagan people of eastern Helvetia, and founded the
+monastery of Dissentis in Rhaetia.
+
+St. Ursanne, a little town on the boundaries of Switzerland, took its
+origin from another disciple of St. Columbanus.
+
+OTHER APOSTLES AND FOUNDERS: Desire for solitary life drew St. Fiacre
+to a hermitage near Meaux, where he transformed wooded glades into
+gardens to provide vegetables for poor people. This charity has
+earned for Fiacre the title of patron saint of gardeners.
+
+St. Fursey, the illustrious apostle of East Anglia, crossed over to
+France, where he travelled and preached continuously. He built a
+monastery at Lagny-sur-Marne, and was about to return to East Anglia
+when he died at Mézerolles, near Doullens. St. Gobham followed his
+master's example, and like him evangelized and founded monasteries.
+St. Etto (Zé) acted in like manner. St. Foillan and St. Ultan,
+brothers of St. Fursey, became apostles in southern Brabant.
+
+The monastery of Honau, on an island near Strasburg, and that of
+Altomünster, in Bavaria, owe their foundation to the Irish monks
+Tuban and Alto, respectively.
+
+Not far from Luxeuil was the Abbey of Lure, another great Irish
+foundation, due to Deicolus (Desle, Dichuill), a brother of St. Gall
+and a disciple of St. Columbanus. So important was this house
+considered in later times that its abbot was numbered among the
+princes of the Holy Roman Empire.
+
+Rouen, in Normandy, felt the influence of the Irish monks through the
+instrumentality of St. Ouen; and the monasteries of Jouarre, Rebais,
+Jumièges, Leuconaus, and St. Vandrille were due at least indirectly
+to Columbanus or his disciples.
+
+Turning to Belgium, it is recorded that St. Romold preached the faith
+in Mechlin, and St. Livinus in Ghent. Both came from Ireland.
+
+St. Virgilius, a voluntary exile from Erin, "for the love of Christ",
+established his monastery at Salzburg, in Austria. He became bishop
+there, and died in 781.
+
+Moreover, the Celtic Rule of Columbanus was carried into Picardy by
+St. Valery, St. Omer, St. Bertin, St. Mummolin, and St. Valdelenus;
+but the Irish Caidoc and Fricor had already preceded them, their work
+resulting in the foundation of the Abbey of St. Riquier.
+
+ITALY: Something yet remains to be said of the monks of Ireland in
+Italy. Anterior to St. Columbanus's migration, his fellow countryman,
+St. Frigidian (or Fridian), had taken up his abode in Italy at Monte
+Pisana, not far from the city of Lucca, where he became famed for
+sanctity and wisdom. On the death of the bishop of Lucca, Frigidian
+was compelled to occupy the vacant see. St. Gregory the Great wrote
+of him that "he was a man of rare virtue". His teachings and holy
+life not only influenced the lives of his own flock, but brought to
+the faith many heretics and pagans. In Lucca this Celtic apostle is
+still honored under the name of St. Frediano.
+
+St. Pellegrinus is another Irish saint who sought solitude at
+Garfanana in the Apennines; and Cathaldus, a Waterford saint, in 680,
+became Bishop of Taranto, which he governed for many years with zeal
+and great wisdom. His co-worker was Donatus, his brother, who founded
+the church at Lecce in the Kingdom of Naples.
+
+Of the two learned Irishmen, Clemens and Albinus, who resided in
+France in the eighth century, Albinus was sent into Italy, where at
+Pavia he was placed at the head of the school attached to St.
+Augustine's monastery. Dungal, his compatriot, was a famous teacher
+in the same city. Lothair thus ordained concerning him: "We desire
+that at Pavia, and under the superintendence of Dungal, all students
+should assemble from Milan, Brescia, Lodi, Bergamo, Novara, Vercelli,
+Tortona, Acqui, Genoa, Asti, Como."
+
+It was this same Dungal who presented the Bangor psalter to Bobbio;
+therefore it may be reasonably conjectured that he came from the very
+monastery that produced Columbanus, Gall, and Comgall.
+
+Fiesole, in Tuscany, venerates two Irish eighth-century saints,
+Donatus and Andrew. The former was educated at Iniscaltra, and Andrew
+was his friend and disciple. After visiting Rome, they lingered at
+Fiesole. Donatus was received with great honor by clergy and people
+and was requested to fill their vacant bishopric. With much
+hesitation he took upon himself ihe burden, which he bore for many
+years. His biographer says of him that "he was liberal in almsgiving,
+sedulous in watching, devout in prayer, excellent in doctrine, ready
+in speech, holy in life." Andrew, who was his deacon, founded the
+church and monastery of St. Martin in Mensola, and is known in
+Fiesole as St. Andrew of Ireland, or St. Andrew the Scot, that is,
+the Irishman.
+
+HOSPITALIA: Thus Irish monks were to be found in France, Belgium,
+Switzerland, Germany, and Italy, and even in Bulgaria. So numerous
+were they and so frequent their travels through the different
+countries of Europe that hospices were founded to befriend them.
+These institutions were known as "Hospitalia Scottorum" ("Hospices
+for the Irish"), and their benefactors were not only pious laymen but
+the highest ecclesiastical authorities. Sometimes the hospices were
+diverted to purposes other than those originally intended, and then
+Church Councils would intervene in favor of the lawful inheritors.
+Thus in 845 we read that the Council of Meaux ordered the hospices in
+France to be restored to the dispossessed Irishmen. In the twelfth
+century Ireland still continued to send forth a constant succession
+of monk-pilgrims, renowned for faith, austerity, and piety.
+
+RATISBON: Special monasteries were erected to be peopled by the
+Irish. The most renowned of these dates from 1067, when Marianus
+Scotus ("Marianus the Irishman"), with his companions, John and
+Candidus, left his native land and arrived in Bavaria. These holy men
+were welcomed at Ratisbon by the Bishop Otto; and on the advice of
+Murcherat, an Irish recluse, took up their residence near St. Peter's
+church at the outskirts of the city. Novices flocked from Ireland to
+join them and a monastery was erected to receive the community. In a
+short time this had to be replaced by a still larger one, which was
+known to future ages as the Abbey of St. James's of the Scots (that
+is, Irish) at Ratisbon. How prolific was this parent foundation is
+evidenced from its many offshoots, the only surviving monasteries on
+the continent for many centuries intended for Irish brethren. These,
+besides St. James's at Erfurt and St. Peter's at Ratisbon, comprised
+St. James's at Würtzburg, St. Giles's at Nuremberg, St. Mary's at
+Vienna, St. James's at Constance, St. Nicholas's at Memmingen, Holy
+Cross at Eichstatt, a Priory at Kelheim and another at Oels in
+Silesia, all of which were founded during the twelfth or thirteenth
+century, and formed a Benedictine congregation approved of by Pope
+Innocent III., and presided over by the Abbot of Ratisbon. These
+Irish houses, with their long lines of Celtic abbots, in the days of
+their prosperity did much work that was excellent and civilizing, and
+rightly deserve a remembrance in the achievements of Ireland's
+ancient missionaries.
+
+Ratisbon and its dependent abbeys, as is set forth in the papal
+briefs of 1218, possessed priories in Ireland, and, from these,
+novices were usually obtained.
+
+But evil days came for the Congregation of St. James, and now it is
+extinct. The subjugation of Ireland to England, says Wattenbach,
+contributed no doubt to the rapid decline of the Scotic (that is,
+Irish) monasteries. For from Ireland they had up till then been
+continually receiving fresh supplies of strength. In this their
+fatherland the root of their vitality was to be found. Loss of
+independence involved loss of enterprise.
+
+SCHOLARSHIP AND INFLUENCE: Irish monks were not only apostles of
+souls, but also masters of intellectual life. Thus in the seventh
+century the Celtic monastery of Luxeuil became the most celebrated
+school in Christendom. Monks from other houses and sons of the
+nobility crowded to it. The latter were clearly not intended for the
+cloister, but destined for callings in the world.
+
+There were outstanding men among these missionaries from Ireland. St.
+Virgilius of Salzburg in the eighth century taught the sphericity of
+the earth and the existence of the Antipodes. It was this same
+teaching that Copernicus and later astronomers formulated into the
+system now in vogue.
+
+St. Columcille himself was a composer of Latin hymns and a penman of
+no mean order, as the Book of Kells, if written by him, sufficiently
+proves. In all the monasteries which he founded, provision was made
+for the pursuit of sacred learning and the multiplication of books by
+transcription. The students of his schools were taught classics,
+mechanical arts, law, history, and physics. They improved the methods
+of husbandry and gardening; supplied the people, whom they helped to
+civilize, with implements of labor; and taught them the use of the
+forge, an accomplishment belonging to almost every Irish monk.
+
+The writings of Adamnan, who spent most of his life outside his
+native land, show that he was familiar with the best Latin authors,
+and had a knowledge of Greek as well. His "Vita S. Columbae" ("Life
+of St. Columcille") has made his name immortal as a Latin writer. His
+book "De Locis Sanctis" ("On the Holy Places") contains information
+he received from the pilgrim bishop Arculfus, who had been driven by
+a tempest to take refuge with the monks of Iona. On account of the
+importance of the writings of Adamnan and because of his influence in
+secular and ecclesiastical affairs of importance, few will question
+his right to a distinguished place among the saintly scholars of the
+West.
+
+Irish monks, abroad as well as at home, were pre-eminently students
+and exponents of Holy Scripture. Sedulius wrote a commentary on the
+Epistles of St. Paul; John Scotus Erigena composed a work, "De
+Praedestinatione" ("Concerning Predestination"); Dungal was not only
+an astronomer, but also an excellent theologian, as is clear from his
+defence of Catholic teaching on the invocation of saints and the
+veneration of their relics. His knowledge of Sacred Scripture and of
+the Fathers is exceedingly remarkable.
+
+St. Columbanus, besides other works, is said to have composed an
+exposition of the Psalms, which is mentioned in the catalogue of St.
+Gall's library, but which cannot now be identified with certainty.
+The writings of this abbot are said to have brought about a more
+frequent use of confession both in the world and in monasteries; and
+his legislation regarding the Blessed Sacrament fostered eucharistic
+devotion.
+
+Marianus Scotus is the author of a commentary on the Psalms, so
+precious that rarely was it allowed to pass beyond the walls of the
+monastic library. His commentary on St. Paul's Epistles is regarded
+as his most famous production. Herein he shows acquaintance with
+Saints Jerome, Augustine, Gregory, and Leo, with Cassiodorus, Origen,
+Alcuin, Cassian, and Peter the Deacon. He completed the work on the
+17th May, 1079, and ends the volume by asking the reader to pray for
+the salvation of his soul.
+
+TRANSCRIPTION: In all the monasteries a vast number of scribes were
+continually employed in multiplying copies of the Sacred Scriptures.
+These masterpieces of calligraphy, written by Irish hands, have been
+scattered throughout the libraries of Europe, and many fragments
+remain to the present day. The beauty of these manuscripts is praised
+by all, and the names of the best transcribers often find mention in
+monastic annals. The work was irksome, but it was looked upon as a
+privilege and meritorious.
+
+It remains to speak of that glorious monument of the Irish monks, the
+abbey of St. Gall, in Switzerland. It was here that Celtic influence
+was most felt and endured the longest. Within its walls for centuries
+the sacred sciences were taught and classic authors studied. Many of
+its monks excelled as musicians and poets, while others were noted
+for their skill in calligraphy and the fine arts. The library was
+only in its infancy in the eighth century, but gradually it grew, and
+eventually became one of the largest and richest in the world. The
+brethren were in correspondence with all the learned houses of France
+and Italy, and there was constant mutual interchange of books, sacred
+and scientific, between them.
+
+They manufactured their own parchment from the hides of the wild
+beasts that roamed in the forests around them, and bound their books
+in boards of wood clamped with iron or ivory.
+
+Such was the monastery of St. Gall, which owes its inception to the
+journey through Europe of the great Columbanus and his
+monk-companions--men whose lives, according to Bede, procured for the
+religious habit great veneration, so that wherever they appeared they
+were received with joy, as God's own servants. "And what will be the
+reward," asks the biographer of Marianus Scotus, "of these
+pilgrim-monks who left the sweet soil of their native land, its
+mountains and hills, its valleys and its groves, its rivers and pure
+fountains, and went like the children of Abraham without hesitation
+into the land which God had pointed out to them?" He answers thus:
+"They will dwell in the house of the Lord with the angels and
+archangels of God forever; they will behold the God of gods in Sion,
+to whom be honor and glory for ever and ever."
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Lanigan: Ecclesiastical History of Ireland (Dublin, 1829);
+Montalembert: Monks of the West (Edinburgh, 1861); Moran: Irish
+Saints in Great Britain (Dublin, 1903); Dalgairns: Apostles of Europe
+(London, 1876); Healy: Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars
+(Dublin, 1890); Barrett: A Calendar of Scottish Saints (Fort
+Augustus, 1904); Stokes: Six Months in the Apennines (London, 1892),
+Three Months in the Forests of France (London, 1895); Fowler: Vita S.
+Columbae (Oxford, 1894); Wattenbach: Articles in Ulster Journal of
+Archaeology, vol. 7 (Belfast, 1859); Gougaud: Les Chrétientés
+celtiques (Paris, 1911); Hogan: Articles in Irish Ecclesiastical
+Record, 1894, 1895; Drane: Christian Schools and Scholars (London,
+1881).
+
+
+
+THE IRISH AND THE SEA
+
+By WILLIAM H. BABCOCK, LL.B.
+
+
+The beginning of Irish navigation, like the beginning of everything
+else, is hidden in the mist of antiquity. Vessels of some kind
+obviously must have borne the successive waves of immigrants or
+invaders to the island. Naturally they would remain in use afterwards
+for trade, travel, exploration, and war. Irish ships may have been
+among those of the Breton fleet that Cæsar dispersed at Vannes after
+an obstinate struggle. Two or three centuries later we find Niall of
+the Nine Hostages making nautical descents on the neighboring shores,
+especially Britain: and there is every probability that ships of the
+island conveyed some at least of the "Scots" (Irish) whom Gildas in
+the sixth century describes as joining the Picts in furiously
+storming the Roman wall.
+
+The equally adventurous but more pacific work of exploration went on
+also, if we may judge by that extraordinary series of Irish
+sea-sagas, the _Imrama_, comprising the Voyages of Bran, Maelduin,
+the Hui Corra, and St. Brendan--the last-mentioned deservedly the
+most famous. These vary in their literary merits and in the merits of
+their several parts, for they have been successively rewritten at
+different periods, receiving always something of the color, belief,
+and adornment which belonged to the writer's time; but under all may
+be dimly traced, as in a palimpsest, the remote pagan original. At
+their best they embody a lofty and touching poetry very subtle and
+significant, as when we read of Bran's summoning by a visitant of
+supernatural beauty to the isles of undying delight, where a thousand
+years are but as a day; his return with a companion who had been
+overcome by longing for Ireland and home; the man's falling to ashes
+at the first touch of the native soil, as though he had been long
+dead; and the flight of Bran and his crew from the real living world
+to the islands of the blessed. At least equally fine and stirring is
+St. Brendan's interview with the exiled spirit of Heaven, whose "sin
+was but little", so that he and his fellows were given only the
+pleasing penance of singing delightfully, in the guise of beautiful
+birds, the praises of the God who showed them mercy and grace, amid
+the charms of an earthly paradise. "Then all the birds sang evensong,
+so that it was an heavenly noise to hear."
+
+It is not very surprising that St. Brendan's legend, with such
+qualities in prose and verse, made itself at home in many lands and
+languages, and became for centuries a widespread popular favorite and
+matter of general belief, also influencing the most permanent
+literature of a high contemplative cast, which we might suppose to be
+out of touch with it altogether. Certain of its more unusual
+incidents are found even in Arab writings of romance founded on fact,
+as in Edrisi's narrative of the Magrurin explorers of Lisbon and the
+adventures of Sinbad related in the Arabian Nights; but perhaps here
+we have a case of reciprocal borrowing such as may well occur when
+ships' companies of different nations meet.
+
+The most conspicuous, insistent, and repeated feature of all these
+_Imrama_ is a belief in Atlantic islands fair enough or wonderful
+enough to tempt the shore dwellers of Ireland far away and hold them
+spell-bound for years. It is easy to ascribe these pictures to sunset
+on the ocean, or the wonders of mirage; but all the time, within long
+sailing distance, there actually were islands of delightful climate
+and exceeding beauty. These had been occasionally reached from the
+Mediterranean ever since early Carthaginian times, as classical
+authors seem to tell us; why not also from Ireland, perhaps not quite
+so distant? It is undoubted that the Canary Islands were never really
+altogether forgotten, and the same is probably true of the Madeiras
+and all three groups of Azores, though the knowledge that lingered in
+Ireland was a distorted glimmering tradition of old voyages,
+occasionally inciting to new ventures in the same field.
+
+Some have supposed, though without sufficient evidence, that Saint
+Brendan even made his way to America, and parts of that shore line in
+several different latitudes have been selected as the scene of the
+exploit. His first entry into serious geography is in the fine maps
+of Dulcert, 1339, and the Pizigani, 1367, both of which plainly label
+Madeira, Porto Santo, and Las Desertas--"The Fortunate Islands of St.
+Brandan." That there may be no possibility of misunderstanding, the
+Pizigani brothers present a full-length portrait of the holy
+navigator himself bending over these islands with hands of
+benediction. The inscription, though not the picture, was common,
+thus applied, on the maps of the next century or two, and no other
+interpretation of his voyage found any place until a later time.
+
+Of course the fourteenth century was a long way from the sixth, when
+the voyage was supposed to have been made, and we cannot take so late
+a verdict as convincing proof of any fact. But it at least exhibits
+the current interpretation of the written narrative among geographers
+and mariners, the people best able to judge; and here the interval
+was much less. The story itself seems to corroborate them in a
+general way, if read naturally. One would say that it tells of a
+voyage to the Canaries, of which one is unmistakably "the island
+under Mount Atlas", and that this was undertaken by way of the Azores
+and Madeira, with inevitable experience of great beauty in some
+islands and volcanic terrors in others. Madeira may well have been
+pitched upon by the interpreters as the suitable scene of a
+particularly long tarrying by the way. Of course magic filled out all
+gaps of real knowledge, and wonders grew with each new rewriting.
+
+Whatever Brendan did, there is no doubt that Irish mariner-monks,
+incited by the great awakening which followed St. Patrick's mission,
+covered many seas in their frail vessels during the next three or
+four centuries. They set up a flourishing religious establishment in
+Orkney, made stepping stones of the intervening islands, and reached
+Iceland some time in the eighth century, if not earlier. The
+Norsemen, following in their tracks as always, found them there, and
+the earliest Icelandic writings record their departure, leaving
+behind them books, bells, and other souvenirs on an islet off shore
+which still bears their name.
+
+Did they keep before the Norsemen to America too? At least the
+Norsemen thought so. For centuries the name Great Ireland or
+Whitemen's Land was accepted in Norse geography as meaning a region
+far west of Ireland, a parallel to Great Sweden (Russia), which lay
+far east of Sweden. The saga of Thorfinn Karlsefni, first to attempt
+colonizing America, makes it plain that his followers believed Great
+Ireland to be somewhere in that region, and it is explicitly located
+near Wineland by the twelfth century Landnamabok. Also there were
+specific tales afloat of a distinguished Icelander lost at sea, who
+was afterward found in a western region by an Irish vessel long
+driven before the storm. The version most relied on came through one
+Rafn, who had dwelt in Limerick; also through Thorfinn, earl of the
+Orkneys.
+
+Brazil, the old Irish _Breasail_, was another name for land west of
+Ireland--where there is none short of America--on very many medieval
+maps, of which perhaps a dozen are older than the year 1400, the
+earliest yet found being that of Dalorto, 1325. Usually it appears as
+a nearly circular disc of land opposite Munster, at first altogether
+too near the Irish coast, as indeed the perfectly well-known Corvo
+was drawn much too near the coast of Spain, or as even in the
+sixteenth century, when Newfoundland had been repeatedly visited,
+that island was shifted by divers mapmakers eastward towards Ireland,
+almost to the conventional station of Brazil. Also, not long
+afterwards, the maps of Nicolay and Zaltieri adopted the reverse
+treatment of transferring Brazil to Newfoundland waters, as if
+recognizing past error and restoring its proper place.
+
+The name Brazil appears not to have been adopted by the Norsemen, but
+there is one fifteenth century map, perhaps of 1480, preserved in
+Milan, which shows this large disc-form "Brazil" just below Greenland
+("Illa Verde"), in such relation that the mapmaker really must have
+known of Labrador under the former name and believed that it could be
+readily reached from that Norse colony.
+
+It seems altogether likely that "Brazil" was applied to the entire
+outjutting region of America surrounding the Gulf of St.
+Lawrence--that part of this continent which is by far the nearest
+Ireland. Besides the facts above stated, certain coincidences of real
+geography and of these old maps favor that belief, and they are quite
+unlikely to have been guessed or invented. Thus certain maps,
+beginning with 1375, while keeping the circular external outline of
+Ireland, reduce the land area to a mere ring, enclosing an expanse of
+water dotted with islands; and certain other maps show it still
+nearly circular externally, and solid, but divided into two parts by
+a curved channel nearly from north to south. The former exposition is
+possible enough to one more concerned with the nearly enclosed Gulf
+of St. Lawrence and its islands than with its two comparatively
+narrow outlets; the second was afterward repeated approximately by
+Gastoldi's map illustrating Ramusio when he was somehow moved to
+minimize the width of the Gulf, though well remembering the straits
+of Belle Isle and Cabot. There are some other coincidences, but it is
+unnecessary to dwell on them. Land west of Ireland must be either
+pure fancy or the very region in question, and it is hardly
+believable that fancy could guess so accurately as to two different
+interpretations of real though unusual geography and give them right
+latitude, with such an old Irish name (Brazil) as might naturally
+have been conferred in the early voyaging times. That an extensive
+region, chiefly mainland, should be represented as an island is no
+objection, as anyone will see by examining the maps which break up
+everything north of South America in the years next following the
+achievements of Columbus and Cabot. There was a natural tendency to
+expect nothing but islands short of Asia.
+
+It seems likely, therefore, that America was actually reached by the
+Irish even before the Norsemen and certainly long before all other
+Europeans.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Babcock: Early Norse Visits to North America, Smithsonian Publication
+2138 (1913); Baring-Gould: Curious Myths of the Middle Ages;
+Beauvois: The Discovery of the New World by the Irish; Cantwell:
+Pre-Columbian Discoveries of America; Daly: The Legend of St.
+Brandan, Celtic Review, vol. I, A Sequel to the Voyage of St.
+Brandan, Celtic Review, Jan. 13, 1909; Hardiman: The History of
+Galway; Hull: Irish Episodes of Icelandic History; Joyce: The Voyage
+of Maelduin; Nutt: The Voyage of Bran; Stokes: The Voyage of Maelduin
+(_Revue Celtique_, vol. 9), Voyage of Snedgus (_Revue Celtique_, vol.
+9), Voyage of the Hui Corra (_Revue Celtigue_, vol. 14); Moran:
+Brendaniana.
+
+
+
+IRISH LOVE OF LEARNING
+
+By REV. P.S. DINNEEN, M.A., R.U.I.
+
+
+"The distinguishing property of man," says Cicero, "is to search for
+and follow after truth. Therefore, when disengaged from our necessary
+cares and concerns, we desire to see, to hear, and to learn, and we
+esteem knowledge of things obscure or wonderful as indispensable to
+our happiness." (_De Officiis_ I., 4).
+
+I claim for the Irish race that throughout their history they have
+cut down their bodily necessities to the quick, in order to devote
+time and energy to the pursuit of knowledge; that they have engaged
+in intellectual pursuits, not infrequently of a high order, on a low
+basis of material comfort; that they have persevered in the quest of
+learning under unparalleled hardships and difficulties, even in the
+dark night of "a nation's eclipse", when a school was an unlawful
+assembly and school-teaching a crime. I claim, moreover, that, when
+circumstances were favorable, no people have shown a more adventurous
+spirit or a more chivalrous devotion in the advancement and spread of
+learning.
+
+Love of learning implies more than a natural aptitude for acquiring
+information. It connotes a zest for knowledge that is recondite and
+attainable only at the expense of ease, of leisure, of the comforts
+and luxuries of life, and a zeal for the cultivation of the mental
+faculties. It is of the soul and not of the body; it refines,
+elevates, adorns. It is allied to sensibility, to keenness of vision,
+to the close observation of mental phenomena. Its possessor becomes a
+citizen of the known world. His mind broadens; he compares,
+contrasts, conciliates; he brings together the new and the old, the
+near and the distant, the permanent and the transitory, and weaves
+from them all the web of systematized human thought.
+
+I am not here concerned with the extent of Ireland's contribution to
+the sum of human learning, nor with the career of her greatest
+scholars; I am merely describing the love of learning which is
+characteristic of the race, and which it seems best to present in a
+brief study of distinct types drawn from various periods of Irish
+history.
+
+In the pre-Christian period the Druid was the chief representative of
+the learning of the race. He was the adviser of kings and princes,
+and the instructor of their children. His knowledge was of the
+recondite order and beyond the reach of ordinary persons. The esteem
+in which he was held by all classes of the people proves their love
+for the learning for which he stood.
+
+Patrick came: and with him came a wider horizon of learning and
+greater facilities for the acquisition and diffusion of knowledge.
+Monastic schools sprang up in all directions--at Clonard, Armagh,
+Clonmacnois, Bangor, Lismore, Kildare, Innisfallen. These schools
+were celebrated throughout Europe in the earlier middle ages, and
+from the fifth to the ninth century Ireland led the nations of Europe
+in learning and deserved the title of the "Island of Saints and
+Scholars." Our type is the student in one of these monastic schools.
+He goes out from his parents and settles down to study in the
+environs of the monastery. He is not rich; he resides in a hut; his
+time is divided between study, prayer, and manual labor. He becomes a
+monk, only to increase in devotion to learning and to accentuate his
+privations. He copies and illuminates manuscripts. He memorizes the
+Psalms. He glosses the Vulgate Scriptures with vernacular notes. He
+receives ordination, and, realizing that there are benighted
+countries ten times as large as his native land beyond the seas, and,
+burning with zeal for the spread of the Gospel and the advancement of
+learning, sails for Britain, or passes into Gaul, or reaches the
+slopes of the Apennines, or the outskirts of the Black Forest. The
+rest of his life is devoted to the foundation of monasteries to which
+schools are attached, to the building of churches, and to the
+diffusion around him of every known branch of knowledge. He may have
+taken books from Ireland over seas, and, of these, relics are now to
+be found among the treasures of the ancient libraries of Europe.
+Columcille, Columbanus, Adamnan, Gall, Virgilius occur to the mind in
+dwelling on this type.
+
+The hereditary _seanchaidhe_, who treasured up the traditional lore
+of the clan and its chief, was held in high honor and enjoyed
+extraordinary privileges. He held a freehold. He was high in the
+graces of the chief, and officiated at his inauguration.
+
+An important type is the Irish ecclesiastical student abroad in the
+penal days. School teaching, unless at the sacrifice of Faith, was a
+crime in Ireland, and the training required for the priesthood had to
+be obtained on the continent. The Irish out of their poverty
+established colleges in Rome (1628), Salamanca (1593), Seville
+(1612), Alcala (1590), Lisbon (1593), Louvain (1634), Antwerp (1629),
+Douai (1577), Lille (1610), Bordeaux (1603), Toulouse (1659), Paris
+(1605), and elsewhere. As late as 1795 these colleges contained 478
+students, and some of them are still in existence. The young student
+in going abroad risked everything. He often returned watched by
+spies, with his life in danger. Yet the supply never failed; the
+colleges flourished; and those who returned diffused around them not
+only learning but the urbanity and refinement which were a striking
+fruit and mark of their studies abroad.
+
+Another type is the Irish scribe. In the days of Ireland's fame and
+prosperity and of the flood-tide of her native language, he was a
+skilled craftsman, and the extant specimens of his work are
+unsurpassed of their kind. But I prefer to look at him at a later
+period, when he became our sole substitute for the printer and when
+his diligence preserved for us all that remains of a fading
+literature. He was miserably poor. He toiled through the day at the
+spade or the plough, or guided the shuttle through the loom. At
+night, by the flare of the turf-fire or the fitful light of a
+splinter of bogwood, he made his copy of poem or tract or tale, which
+but for him would have perished. The copies are often ill-spelt and
+ill-written, but with all their faults they are as noble a monument
+to national love of learning as any nation can boast of.
+
+In our gallery of types we must not forget the character whom English
+writers contemptuously called the "hedge-schoolmaster." The
+hedge-school in its most elemental state was an open-air daily
+assemblage of youths in pursuit of knowledge. Inasmuch as the law had
+refused learning a fitting temple in which to abide and be honored,
+she was led by her votaries into the open, and there, beside the
+fragrant hedge, if you will, with the green sward for benches, and
+the canopy of heaven for dome, she was honored in Ireland, even as
+she had been honored ages before in Greece, in Palestine, and by our
+primordial Celtic ancestors themselves. The hedge-schoolmaster
+conducted the rites, and the air resounded with the sonorous
+hexameters of Virgil and the musical odes of Horace.
+
+In the Irish-speaking portions of the country the hedge-schoolmaster
+was often also a poet who wrote mellifluous songs in Irish, which
+were sung throughout the entire district and sometimes earned him
+enduring fame. Eoghan Ruadh O'Sullivan and Andrew MacGrath, called
+_An Mangaire Sugach_ or "the Jolly Pedlar," are well-known instances
+of this type.
+
+The poor scholar is another type that under varying forms and under
+various circumstances has ever trod the stage of Irish history. From
+an ancient Irish manuscript (See O'Curry, _Manners and Customs_, II,
+79, 80) we learn that Adamnan, the biographer of St. Columcille, and
+some other youths studied at Clonard and were supported by the
+neighborhood. The poor scholar more than any other type embodies the
+love of learning of the Irish race. In the schools which preceded the
+National, he appeared in a most interesting stage of development. He
+came from a distance, attracted by the reputation of a good teacher
+and the regularity of a well-conducted school. He came, avowedly
+poor. His only claim on the generosity of his teacher and of the
+public was a marked aptitude for learning and an ardent desire for
+study and cultivation of mind. He did not look for luxuries. He was
+satisfied, if his bodily wants were reasonably supplied, even with
+the inconveniences of frequent change of abode. A welcome was
+extended to him on all sides. His hosts and patrons honored his
+thirst for knowledge and tenacity of purpose. He was expected to help
+the students in the house where he found entertainment, and it may
+not have been unpleasing to him on occasion to display his talents
+before his host. When school was over, it was not unusual to find him
+surrounded by a group of school-companions, each pressing his claim
+to entertain him for the night.
+
+Despite the hospitality of his patrons, the poor scholar often felt
+the bitterness of his dependent state, but he bore it with
+equanimity, his hand ever eagerly stretched out for the prize of
+learning. What did learning bring him? Why was he so eager to bear
+for its sake
+
+                         "all the thousand aches
+      That patient merit of the unworthy takes"?
+
+Sometimes he became a priest; sometimes his life was purposeless and
+void. But he was ever urged onward by the fascination of learning and
+of the cultivation of the nobler part of his nature.
+
+As might have been expected, the Irish who have emigrated to the
+American and Australian continents have given touching proof of their
+devotion to the cause of learning. I have space only for a few
+pathetic examples.
+
+An Irish workman in the United States, seeing my name in connection
+with an Irish Dictionary, wrote to me a few years ago to ask how he
+might procure one, as, he said, an Italian in the works had asked him
+the meaning of _Erin go bragh_, and he felt ashamed to be unable to
+explain it.
+
+A man who, at the age of three, had emigrated from Clare in the
+famine time, wrote to me recently from Australia in the Irish
+language and character.
+
+An old man named John O'Regan of New Zealand, who had been twelve
+years in exile in the United States and forty-eight on the Australian
+continent, with failing eyesight, in a letter that took him from
+January to June of the year 1906 to write, endeavored to set down
+scraps of Irish lore which he had carried with him from the old
+country and which had clung to his memory to the last.
+
+"In my digging life in the quarries," he says, "books were not a part
+of our swag (prayerbook excepted). In 1871, when I had a long seat of
+work before me, I sent for McCurtin's Dictionary to Melbourne. It is
+old and wanting in the introductory part, but for all was splendid
+and I loved it as my life." (See _Gaelic Journal_, Dec., 1906.)
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Joyce: A Social History of Ancient Ireland (2 vols., 2d ed., Dublin,
+1913); Healy: Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars (Dublin, 1890),
+Maynooth College Centenary History (Dublin, 1895); O'Curry: Manners
+and Customs of the Ancient Irish, (3 vols., Dublin and London, 1873),
+Manuscript Materials of Irish History, reissue (Dublin, 1873);
+Carleton: Traits and Stories of the Irish Peasantry, especially vol.
+3, The Poor Scholar; Montalembert: The Monks of the West, authorized
+translation, (7 vols., London, 1861); Meyer: Learning in Ireland in
+the Fifth Century (Dublin, 1913); Dinneen: Poems of Eoghan Ruadh
+O'Sullivan, Introduction (Dublin, 1902), The Maigue Poets,
+Introduction (Dublin, 1906); Boyle: The Irish College in Paris
+1578-1901, with a brief sketch of the other Irish Colleges in France
+(Dublin, 1901); Irish Ecclesiastical Record, new series, vol. VIII,
+307, 465; 3rd series, vol. VII, 350, 437, 641.
+
+
+
+IRISH MEN OF SCIENCE
+
+By SIR BERTRAM C.A. WINDLE, Sc.D., M.D.,
+
+_President, University College, Cork_.
+
+
+We may divide our survey of the debt owed to Ireland by science into
+three periods: the earliest, the intermediate, and the latest.
+
+In the earliest period the names which come before us are chiefly
+those of compilers such as Augustin, a monk and an Irishman who wrote
+at Carthage, in Africa, in the seventh century, a Latin treatise on
+_The Wonderful Things of the Sacred Scripture_, still extant, in
+which, in connection with Joshua's miracle, a very full account of
+the astronomical knowledge of the period, Ptolemaic, but in many ways
+remarkably accurate, is given. There are, however, three
+distinguished names. Virgil the Geometer, _i.e._, Fergil (O'Farrell),
+was Abbot of Aghaboe, went to the continent in 741, and was
+afterwards Bishop of Salzburg. He died in 785. He is remembered by
+his controversies with St. Boniface, one of which is concerned with
+the question of the Antipodes. Virgil is supposed to have been the
+first to teach that the earth is spherical. So celebrated was he that
+it has been thought that a part of the favor in which the author of
+the _Aeneid_ was held by medieval churchmen was due to a confusion
+between his name and that of the geometer, sometimes spoken of as St.
+Virgil.
+
+Dicuil, also an Irish monk, was the author of a remarkable work on
+geography, _De Mensura Provinciarum Orbis Terrae_, which was written
+in 825, and contains interesting references to Iceland and especially
+to the navigable canal which once connected the Nile with the Red
+Sea. He wrote between 814 and 816 a work on astronomy which has never
+been published. It is probable, but not certain, that he belonged to
+Clonmacnois.
+
+Dungal, like the two others named above, was an astronomer. He
+probably belonged to Bangor, and left his native land early in the
+ninth century. In 811 he wrote a remarkable work, _Dungali Reclusi
+Epistola de duplici solis eclipsi anno 810 ad Carolum Magnum_. This
+letter, which is still extant, was written at the request of
+Charlemagne, who considered its author to be the most learned
+astronomer in existence and most likely to clear up the problem
+submitted to him.
+
+Before passing to the next period, a word should be said as to the
+medieval physicians, often if not usually belonging to families of
+medical men, such as the Leahys and O'Hickeys, and attached
+hereditarily to the greater clans. These men were chiefly compilers,
+but such works of theirs as we have throw light upon the state of
+medical knowledge in their day. Thus there is extant a treatise on
+_Materia Medica_ (1459); written by Cormac MacDuinntsleibhe
+(Dunleavy), hereditary physician to the clan of O'Donnell in Ulster.
+A more interesting work is the _Cursus Medicus_, consisting of six
+books on Physiology, three on Pathology, and four on Semeiotica,
+written in the reign of Charles I. of England by Nial O'Glacan, born
+in Donegal, and at one time physician to the king of France.
+
+O'Glacan's name introduces us to the middle period, if indeed it does
+not belong there. _Inter arma silent leges_, and it may be added,
+scientific work. The troublous state of Ireland for many long years
+fully explains the absence of men of science in any abundance until
+the end of the eighteenth century. Still there are three names which
+can never be forgotten, belonging to the period in question. Sir Hans
+Sloane was born at Killileagh, in Ulster, in 1660. He studied
+medicine abroad, went to London where he settled, and was made a
+Fellow of the Royal Society. He published a work on the West Indies,
+but his claim to undying memory is the fact that it was the bequest
+of his most valuable and extensive collections to the nation which
+was the beginning and foundation of the British Museum, perhaps the
+most celebrated institution of its kind in the world. Sloane's
+collection, it should be added, contained an immense number of
+valuable books and manuscripts, as well as of objects more usually
+associated with the idea of a museum. He died in 1753.
+
+The Hon. Robert Boyle was born at Lismore, in the county Waterford,
+in 1627, being the fourteenth child of the first Earl of Cork. On his
+tombstone he is described as "The Father of Chemistry and the Uncle
+of the Earl of Cork", and, indeed, in his _Skyptical Chimist_ (1661),
+he assailed, and for the time overthrew, the idea of the alchemists
+that there was a _materia prima_, asserting as he did that theory of
+chemical "elements" which held good until the discoveries in
+connection with radium led to a modification in chemical teaching.
+This may be said of Boyle, that his writings profoundly modified
+scientific opinion, and his name will always stand in the forefront
+amongst those of chemists. He made important improvements in the
+air-pump, was one of the earliest Fellows of the Royal Society, and
+founded the "Boyle Lectures." He died in 1691.
+
+Sir Thomas Molyneux was born in Dublin, in 1661, of a family which
+had settled in Ireland about 1560-70. He practised as a physician in
+his native city, was the first person to describe the Irish Elk and
+to demonstrate the fact that the Giant's Causeway was a natural and
+not, as had been previously supposed, an artificial production. He
+was the author of many other scientific observations. He died in
+1733.
+
+We may now turn to more recent times, and it will be convenient to
+divide our subjects according to the branch of science in which they
+were distinguished, and to commence with
+
+MATHEMATICIANS,
+
+of whom Ireland may boast of a most distinguished galaxy.
+
+Sir William Rowan Hamilton (b. in Dublin 1805, d. 1865), belonged to
+a family, long settled in Ireland, but of Scottish extraction. He was
+a most precocious child. He read Hebrew at the age of seven, and at
+twelve, had studied Latin, Greek, and four leading continental
+languages, as well as Persian, Syriac, Arabic, Sanscrit, and other
+tongues. In 1819 he wrote a letter to the Persian ambassador in that
+magnate's own language. After these linguistic contests, he early
+turned to mathematics, in which he was apparently self-taught; yet,
+in his seventeenth year he discovered an error in Laplace's
+_Mécanique Céleste_. He entered Trinity College where he won all
+kinds of distinctions, being famous not merely as a mathematician,
+but as a poet, a scholar, and a metaphysician. He was appointed
+Professor of Astronomy and Astronomer Royal whilst still an
+undergraduate. He predicted "conical refraction," afterwards
+experimentally proved by another Irishman, Humphrey Lloyd. He twice
+received the Gold Medal of the Royal Society: (i) for optical
+discoveries; (ii) for his theory of a general method of dynamics,
+which resolves an extremely, abstruse problem relative to a system of
+bodies in motion. He was the discoverer of a new calculus, that of
+Quaternions, which attracted the attention of Professor Tait of
+Edinburgh, and was by him made comprehensible to lesser
+mathematicians. It is far too abstruse for description here.
+
+Sir George Gabriel Stokes (born in Sligo 1819, d. 1903) was, if not
+the greatest mathematician, at least among the greatest, of the last
+hundred years. He was educated in Cambridge, where he spent the rest
+of his life, being appointed Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in
+1849, and celebrating the jubilee of that appointment in 1899. He was
+member of parliament for his University, and for a time occupied the
+presidential chair of the Royal Society. He devoted himself, _inter
+alia_, to optical work, and is perhaps best known by those researches
+which deal with the undulatory theory of light. It was on this
+subject that he delivered the Burnett lectures in Aberdeen
+(1883-1885).
+
+James McCullagh, the son of a poor farmer, was born in Tyrone in
+1809, d. 1847. His early death, due to his own hand in a fit of
+insanity, cut short his work, but enough remains to permit him to
+rank amongst the great mathematicians of all time, his most important
+work being his memoir on surfaces of the second order.
+
+Humphrey Lloyd (b. in Dublin 1800, d. 1881), F.R.S. His father was
+Provost of Trinity College, Dublin, a position subsequently occupied
+also by the son. Lloyd's work was chiefly concerned with optics and
+magnetism, and it was in connection with the former that he carried
+out what was probably the most important single piece of work of his
+life, namely, the experimental proof of the phenomenon of conical
+refraction which had been predicted by Sir William Hamilton. He was
+responsible for the erection of the Magnetic Observatory in Dublin,
+and the instruments used in it were constructed under his observation
+and sometimes from his designs or modifications. He was also a
+meteorologist of distinction.
+
+George Salmon (b. in Dublin 1819, d. 1904), like the last mentioned
+subject, was, at the time of his death, Provost of Trinity College,
+Dublin. Besides theological writings, he contributed much to
+mathematical science, especially in the directions of conic sections,
+analytic geometry, higher plane curves, and the geometry of three
+dimensions. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society, and received the
+Copley and Royal medals, as well as distinctions from many
+universities and learned societies.
+
+John Casey (b. Kilkenny 1820, d. 1891), F.R.S., was educated at a
+National School and became a teacher in one in later years. Entirely
+self-taught as a mathematician, he raised himself from the humble
+position which he occupied to be a university professor (in the
+Catholic University of Ireland, and afterwards in the Royal
+University), and earned the highest reputation as one of the greatest
+authorities on plane geometry. He was a correspondent of eminent
+mathematicians all over the world.
+
+Henry Hennessey (b. in Cork 1826, d. 1901), F.R.S., was also a
+professor in the Catholic University of Ireland and afterwards in the
+Royal College of Science in Dublin. He was a writer on mathematics,
+terrestrial physics, and climatology.
+
+Benjamin Williamson (b. in Cork 1827), F.R.S., is a Senior Fellow of
+Trinity College, Dublin, and a distinguished writer on mathematical
+subjects, especially on the differential, integral, and infinitesimal
+calculuses.
+
+Sir Joseph Larmor (b. in Antrim 1857), F.R.S., was educated at
+Queen's College, Belfast, and in Cambridge, in which last place he
+has spent his life as a professor. He now represents the University
+in parliament and is secretary to the Royal Society. He is well-known
+for his writings on the ether and on other physical as well as
+mathematical subjects.
+
+ASTRONOMERS.
+
+William Parsons, Earl of Rosse (b. in York 1800, d. 1867), F.R.S.,
+was a very distinguished astronomer who experimented in fluid lenses
+and made great improvements in casting specula for reflecting
+telescopes. From 1842-45 he was engaged upon the construction, in his
+park at Parsonstown, of his great reflecting telescope 58 feet long.
+This instrument, which cost £30,000, long remained the largest in the
+world. He was president of the Royal Society from 1848 to 1854.
+
+Sir Howard Grubb (b. 1844), F.R.S., is known all over the world for
+his telescopes and for the remarkable advances which he has made in
+the construction of lenses for instruments of the largest size.
+
+Sir Robert Ball (b. in Dublin 1840, d. 1913), F.R.S. Originally Lord
+Rosse's astronomer at Parsonstown, he migrated as professor to
+Trinity College, Dublin, and subsequently became Lowndean Professor
+of Astronomy at Cambridge. He was a great authority on the
+mathematical theory of screws, and his popular works on astronomy
+have made him known to a far wider circle of readers than those who
+can grapple with his purely scientific treatises.
+
+William Edward Wilson (b. Co. Westmeath 1851, d. 1908), F.R.S. A man
+of independent means, he erected, with the help of his father, an
+astronomical observatory at his residence. In this well-equipped
+building he made many photographic researches, especially into the
+nature of nebulae. He also devoted himself to solar physics, and
+wrote some remarkable papers on the sudden appearance in 1903 of the
+star Nova Persei. He was the first to call attention to the
+probability that radium plays a part in the maintenance of solar
+heat. In fact, the science of radio-activity was engaging his keenest
+interest at the time of his early death.
+
+A.A. Rambaut (b. Waterford 1859), F.R.S., formerly Astronomer Royal
+for Ireland and now Radcliffe Observer at Oxford, is one of the
+leading astronomers of the day.
+
+PHYSICISTS.
+
+Lord Kelvin, better known as Sir William Thompson (b. Belfast 1824,
+d. 1907), F.R.S. Amongst the greatest physicists who have ever lived,
+his name comes second only to that of Newton. He was educated at
+Cambridge, became professor of natural philosophy in Glasgow
+University in 1846, and celebrated the jubilee of his appointment in
+1896. To the public his greatest achievement was the electric cabling
+of the Atlantic Ocean, for which he was knighted in 1866. His
+electrometers and electric meters, his sounding apparatus, and his
+mariners' compass are all well-known and highly valued instruments.
+To his scientific fellows, however, his greatest achievements were in
+the field of pure science, especially in connection with his
+thermodynamic researches, including the doctrine of the dissipation
+or degradation of energy. To this brief statement may be added
+mention of his work in connection with hydrodynamics and his magnetic
+and electric discoveries. His papers in connection with wave and
+vortex movements are also most remarkable. He was awarded the Royal
+and Copley medals and was an original member of the Order of Merit.
+He received distinctions from many universities and learned
+societies.
+
+George Francis Fitzgerald (b. Dublin 1851, d. 1901), F.R.S., was
+fellow and professor of natural philosophy in Trinity College,
+Dublin, where he was educated. He was the first person to call the
+attention of the world to the importance of Hertz's experiment.
+Perhaps his most important work, interrupted by his labors in
+connection with education and terminated by his early death, was that
+in connection with the nature of the ether.
+
+George Johnston Stoney (b. King's Co. 1826, d. 1911), F.R.S., after
+being astronomer at Parsonstown and professor of natural philosophy
+at Galway, became secretary to the Queen's University and occupied
+that position until the dissolution of the university in 1882. He
+wrote many papers on geometrical optics and on molecular physics, but
+his great claim to remembrance is that he first suggested, "on the
+basis of Faraday's law of Electrolysis, that an absolute unit of
+quantity of electricity exists in that amount of it which attends
+each chemical bond or valency and gave the name, now generally
+adopted, of electron to this small quantity." He proposed the
+electronic theory of the origin of the complex ether vibrations which
+proceed from a molecule emitting light.
+
+John Tyndall (b. Leighlin Bridge, Co. Carlow, 1820, d. 1893), F.R.S.,
+professor at the Royal Institution and a fellow-worker in many ways
+with Huxley, especially on the subject of glaciers. He wrote also on
+heat as a mode of motion and was the author of many scientific
+papers, but will, perhaps, be best remembered as the author of a
+Presidential Address to the British Association in Belfast (1874),
+which was the highwater mark of the mid-Victorian materialism at its
+most triumphant moment.
+
+CHEMISTS.
+
+Richard Kirwan (b. Galway 1733, d. 1812), F.R.S. A man of independent
+means, he devoted himself to the study of chemistry and mineralogy
+and was awarded the Copley medal of the Royal Society. He published
+works on mineralogy and on the analysis of mineral waters, and was
+the first in Ireland to publish analyses of soils for agricultural
+purposes, a research which laid the foundation of scientific
+agriculture in Great Britain and Ireland.
+
+Maxwell Simpson (b. Armagh 1815, d. 1902), F.R.S., held the chair of
+chemistry in Queen's College, Cork, for twenty years and published a
+number of papers in connection with his subject and especially with
+the behavior of cyanides, with the study of which compounds his name
+is most associated.
+
+Cornelius O'Sullivan (b. Brandon, 1841, d. 1897), F.R.S., was for
+many years chemist to the great firm of Bass & Co., brewers at
+Burton-on-Trent, and in that capacity became one of the leading
+exponents of the chemistry of fermentation in the world.
+
+James Emerson Reynolds (b. Dublin 1844), F.R.S., professor of
+chemistry, Trinity College, Dublin, for many years, discovered the
+primary thiocarbamide and a number of other chemical substances,
+including a new class of colloids and several groups of organic and
+other compounds of the element silicon.
+
+Among others only the names of the following can be mentioned:--Sir
+Robert Kane (b. Dublin 1809, d. 1890), professor of chemistry in
+Dublin and founder and first director of the Museum of Industry, now
+the National Museum. He was president of Queen's College, Cork, as
+was William K. Sullivan (b. Cork 1822, d. 1890), formerly professor
+of chemistry in the Catholic University. Sir William O'Shaughnessy
+Brooke, F.R.S. (b. Limerick 1809, d. 1889), professor of chemistry
+and assay master in Calcutta, is better known as the introducer of
+the telegraphic system into India and its first superintendent.
+
+BIOLOGISTS.
+
+William Henry Harvey (b. Limerick 1814, d. 1866), F.R.S., was a
+botanist of very great distinction. During a lengthy residence in
+South Africa, he made a careful study of the flora of the Cape of
+Good Hope and published _The Genera of South African Plants_. After
+this he was made keeper of the Herbarium, Trinity College, Dublin,
+but, obtaining leave of absence, travelled in North and South
+America, exploring the coast from Halifax to the Keys of Florida, in
+order to collect materials for his great work, _Nereis
+Boreali-Americana_, published by the Smithsonian Institution.
+Subsequently he visited Ceylon, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, and
+the Friendly and Fiji Islands, collecting algae. The results were
+published in his _Phycologia Australis_. At the time of his death he
+was engaged on his _Flora Capensis_, and was generally considered the
+first authority on algae in the world.
+
+William Archer (b. Co. Down 1837, d. 1897), F.R.S., devoted his life
+to the microscopic examination of freshwater organisms, especially
+desmids and diatoms. He attained a very prominent place in this
+branch of work among men of science. Perhaps his most remarkable
+discovery was that of Chlamydomyxa labyrinthuloides (in 1868), "one
+of the most remarkable and enigmatical of all known microscopic
+organisms."
+
+George James Allman (b. Cork 1812, d. 1898), F.R.S., professor of
+botany in Trinity College, Dublin, and afterwarls Regius Professor of
+natural history in the University of Edinburgh, published many papers
+on botanical and zoological subjects, but his great work was that on
+the gymnoblastic Hydrozoa, "without doubt the most important
+systematic work dealing with the group of Coelenterata that has ever
+been produced."
+
+Amongst eminent living members of the class under consideration may
+be mentioned Alexander Macalister (b. Dublin 1844), F.R.S., professor
+of anatomy, first in Dublin and now in Cambridge, an eminent
+morphologist and anthropologist, and Henry Horatio Dixon (b. Dublin),
+F.R.S., professor of botany in Trinity College, an authority on
+vegetable physiology, especially problems dealing with the sap.
+
+GEOLOGISTS.
+
+Samuel Haughton (b. Carlow 1821, d. 1897), F.R.S., after earning a
+considerable reputation as a mathematician and a geologist, and
+taking Anglican orders, determined to study medicine and entered the
+school of that subject in Trinity College. After graduating he became
+the reformer, it might even be said the re-founder, of that school.
+He devoted ten years to the study of the mechanical principles of
+muscular action, and published his _Animal Mechanism_, probably his
+greatest work. He will long be remembered as the introducer of the
+"long drop" as a method of capital execution. He might have been
+placed in several of the categories which have been dealt with, but
+that of geologist has been selected, since in the later part of his
+most versatile career he was professor of geology in Trinity College,
+Dublin.
+
+Valentine Ball (b. Dublin 1843, d. 1894), F.R.S., a brother of Sir
+Robert, joined the Geological Survey of India, and in that capacity
+became an authority not only on geology but also on ornithology and
+anthropology. His best known work is _Jungle-Life in India_. In later
+life he was director of the National Museum, Dublin.
+
+MEDICAL SCIENCE.
+
+Very brief note can be taken of the many shining lights in Irish
+medical science. Robert James Graves (1796-1853), F.R.S., after whom
+is named "Graves's Disease", was one of the greatest of clinical
+physicians. His _System of Clinical Medicine_ was a standard work and
+was extolled by Trousseau, the greatest physician that France has
+ever had, in the highest terms of appreciation.
+
+William Stokes (1804-1878), Regius Professor of Medicine in Trinity
+College, and the author of a _Theory and Practice of Medicine_, known
+all over the civilized world, was equally celebrated.
+
+To these must be added Sir Dominic Corrigan (1802-1880), the first
+Catholic to occupy the position of President of the College of
+Physicians in Dublin, an authority on heart disease, and the first
+adequate describer of aortic patency, a form of ailment long called
+"Corrigan's Disease". "Colles's Fracture" is a familiar term in the
+mouths of surgeons. It derives its name from Abraham Colles
+(1773-1843), the first surgeon in the world to tie the innominate
+artery, as "Butcher's Saw", a well-known implement, does from another
+eminent surgeon; Richard Butcher, Regius Professor in Trinity College
+in the seventies of the last century.
+
+Sir Rupert Boyce (1863-1911), F.R.S., though born in London, had an
+Irish father and mother. Entering the medical profession, he was
+assistant professor of pathology at University College, London, and
+subsequently professor of pathology in University College, Liverpool,
+which he was largely instrumental in turning into the University of
+Liverpool. He was foremost in launching and directing the Liverpool
+School of Tropical Medicine, which has had such widespread results
+all over the world in elucidating the problems and checking the
+ravages of the diseases peculiar to hot countries. It was for his
+services in this direction that he was knighted in 1906.
+
+Sir Richard Quain (b. Mallow 1816, d. 1898), F.R.S., spent most of
+his life in London, where he was for years the most prominent
+physician. He wrote on many subjects, but the _Dictionary of
+Medicine_, which he edited and which bears his name, has made itself
+and its editor known all over the world.
+
+Sir Almroth Wright (b. 1861), F.R.S., is the greatest living
+authority on the important subject of vaccino-therapy, which, indeed,
+may be said to owe its origin to his researches, as do the methods
+for measuring the protective substances in the human blood. He was
+the discoverer of the anti-typhoid injection which has done so much
+to stay the ravages of that disease.
+
+ENGINEERING.
+
+Bindon Blood Stoney (1828-1909), F.R.S., made his reputation first as
+an astronomer by discovering the spiral character of the great nebula
+in Andromeda. Turning to engineering, he was responsible for the
+construction of many important works, especially in connection with
+the port of Dublin. He was brother of G. J. Stoney.
+
+Sir Charles Parsons (b. 1854), F.R.S., fourth son of the third Earl
+of Rosse, is the engineer who developed the steam turbine system and
+made it suitable for the generation of electricity, and for the
+propulsion of war and mercantile vessels. If he has revolutionized
+traffic on the water, so on the land has John Boyd Dunlop (still
+living), who discovered the pneumatic tire with such wide-spread
+results for motorcars, bicycles, and such means of locomotion.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS.
+
+Admiral Sir Leopold McClintock (b. Dundalk 1819, d. 1907), F.R.S.,
+was one of the great Arctic explorers, having spent eleven navigable
+seasons and six winters in those regions. He was the chief leader and
+organizer of the Franklin searches. From the scientific point of view
+he made a valuable collection of miocene fossils from Greenland, and
+enabled Haughton to prepare the geological map and memoir of the
+Parry Archipelago.
+
+John Ball (b. Dublin 1818, d. 1889), F.R.S., educated at Oscott,
+passed the examination for a high degree at Cambridge, but, being a
+Catholic, was excluded from the degree itself and any other honors
+which a Protestant might have attained to. He travelled widely and
+published many works on the natural history of Europe and South
+America from Panama to Tierra del Fuego. He was the first to suggest
+the utilization of the electric telegraph for meteorological purposes
+connected with storm warnings.
+
+Space ought to be found for a cursory mention of that strange person,
+Dionysius Lardner (1793-1859), who by his _Lardner's Cyclopaedia_ in
+132 vols., his _Cabinet Library_, and his _Museum of Science and
+Art_, did much to popularize science in an unscientific day.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+The principal sources of information are the National Dictionary of
+Biography; the Obituary Notices of the Royal Society (passages in
+inverted commas are from these); "Who's Who" (for living persons);
+Healy: Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars; Hyde: Literary History
+of Ireland; Joyce: Social History of Ancient Ireland; Moore: Medicine
+in the British Isles.
+
+
+
+LAW IN IRELAND
+
+By LAURENCE GINNELL, B.L., M.P.
+
+
+A DISTINCTION. Ireland having been a self-ruled country for a stretch
+of some two thousand years, then violently brought under subjection
+to foreign rule, regaining legislative independence for a brief
+period toward the close of the eighteenth century, then by violence
+and corruption deprived of that independence and again brought under
+the same foreign rule, to which it is still subject, the expression
+"Law in Ireland" comprises the native and the foreign, the laws
+devised by the Irish Nation for its own governance and the laws
+imposed upon it from without: two sets, codes, or systems proper to
+two entirely distinct social structures having no relation and but
+little resemblance to each other. Whatever may be thought of either
+as law, the former is Irish in every sense, and vastly the more
+interesting historically, archaeologically, philologically, and in
+many other ways; the latter being English law in Ireland, and not
+truly Irish in any sense.
+
+ORIGIN AND CHARACTER OF IRISH LAW. _Seanchus agus Féineachus na
+hEireann_ == _Hiberniae Antiquitates et Sanctiones Legales_--The
+Ancient Laws and Decisions of the _Féini_, of Ireland. _Sen_ or
+_sean_ (pronounced shan) == "old," differs from most Gaelic
+adjectives in preceding the noun it qualifies. It also tends to
+coalesce and become a prefix. _Seanchus_ (shanech-us) == "ancient
+law." _Féineachus_ (fainech-us) == the law of the _Féini_, who were
+the Milesian farmers, free members of the clans, the most important
+class in the ancient Irish community. Their laws were composed in
+their contemporary language, the _Bearla Féini_, a distinct form of
+Gaelic. Several nations of the Aryan race are known to have cast into
+metre or rhythmical prose their laws and such other knowledge as they
+desired to communicate, preserve, and transmit, before writing came
+into use. The Irish went further and, for greater facility in
+committing to memory and retaining there, put their laws into a kind
+of rhymed verse, of which they may have been the inventors. By this
+device, aided by the isolated geographical position of Ireland, the
+sanctity of age, and the apprehension that any change of word or
+phrase might change the law itself, these archaic laws, when
+subsequently committed to writing, were largely preserved from the
+progressive changes to which all spoken languages are subject, with
+the result that we have today, embedded in the Gaelic text and
+commentaries of the _Senchus Mór_, the _Book of Aicill_, and other
+law works, available in English translations made under a Royal
+Commission appointed by Government in 1852, and published, at
+intervals extending over forty years, in six volumes of "Ancient Laws
+and Institutions of Ireland," a mass of archaic words, phrases, law,
+literature, and information on the habits and manners of the people,
+not equalled in antiquity, quantity, or authenticity in any other
+Celtic source. In English they are commonly called Brehon Laws, from
+the genitive case singular of _Brethem_ = "judge", genitive
+_Brethemain_ (pronounced brehun), as Erin is an oblique case of Eire,
+and as Latin words are sometimes adopted in the genitive in modern
+languages which themselves have no case distinctions. It is not to be
+inferred from this name that the laws are judge-made. They are rather
+case law, in parts possibly enacted by some of the various assemblies
+at which the laws were promulgated or rehearsed, but for the most
+part simple declarations of law originating in custom and moral
+justice, and records of judgments based upon "the precedents and
+commentaries", in the sort of cases common to agricultural
+communities of the time, many of the provisions being as inapplicable
+to modern life as modern laws would be to ancient life. A reader is
+impressed by the extraordinary number and variety of cases with their
+still more numerous details and circumstances accumulated in the
+course of long ages, the manner in which the laws are inextricably
+interwoven with the interlocking clan system, and the absence of
+scientific arrangement or guiding principle except those of moral
+justice, clemency, and the good of the community. This defect in
+arrangement is natural in writings intended, as these were, for the
+use of judges and professors, experts in the subjects with which they
+deal, but makes the task of presenting a concise statement of them
+difficult and uncertain.
+
+SOCIETY LAW. The law and the social system were inseparable parts of
+a complicated whole, mutually cause and consequence of each other.
+_Tuath, clann, cinel, cine_, and _fine_ (pronounced thooah, clong,
+kinnel, kineh, and fin-yeh) were terms used to denote a tribe or set
+of relatives, in reality or by adoption, claiming descent from a
+common ancestor, forming a community occupying and owning a given
+territory. _Tuath_ in course of time came to be applied indifferently
+to the people and to their territory. _Fine_, sometimes designating a
+whole tribe, more frequently meant a part of it, occupying a distinct
+portion of the territory, a potential microcosm or nucleus of a clan,
+having limited autonomy in the conduct of its own immediate affairs.
+The constitution of this organism, whether as contemplated by the law
+or in the less perfect actual practice, is alike elusive, and
+underwent changes. For the purpose of illustration, the _fine_ may be
+said to consist, theoretically, of the "seventeen men" frequently
+mentioned throughout the laws, namely, the _flaithfine_ = chief of
+the _fine_; the _geilfine_ = his four fullgrown sons or other nearest
+male relatives; the _deirbhfine, tarfine_, and _innfine_, each
+consisting of four heads of families in wider concentric circles of
+kinship, say first, second, and third cousins of the _flaithfine_.
+The _fine_ was liable, in measure determined by those circles, for
+contracts, fines, and damages incurred by any of its members so far
+as his own property was insufficient, and was in the same degree
+entitled to share advantages of a like kind accruing. Intermarriage
+within this _fine_ was prohibited. The modern term "sept" is applied
+sometimes to this group and sometimes to a wider group united under a
+_flaith_ (flah) = "chief", elected by the _flaithfines_ and provided,
+for his public services, with free land proportionate to the area of
+the district and the number of clansmen in it. _Clann_ might mean the
+whole Irish nation, or an intermediate homogeneous group of _fines_
+having for wider purposes a _flaith_ or _ri-tuatha_ = king of one
+_tuath_, elected by the _flaiths_ and _flaithfines_, subject to
+elaborate qualifications as to person, character, and training, which
+limited their choice, and provided with a larger portion of free
+land. This was the lowest chief to whom the title _ri, righ_ (both
+pr. ree) = _rex_, or "king", was applied. A group of these kinglets
+connected by blood or territory or policy, and their _flaiths_,
+elected, from a still narrower circle of specially trained men within
+their own rank, the _ri-mor-tuatha_--king of the territory so
+composed, to whose office a still larger area of free land was
+attached. In turn, kings of this class, with their respective
+sub-kings and _flaiths_, elected from among the _riogh-dhamhna_
+(ree-uch-dhowna) = _materia principum_ or "king-timber", a royal
+_fine_ specially educated and trained, a _rì-cuighidh_ (ree
+coo-ee-hee) supreme over five _ri-mor-tuathas_--roughly, a fourth of
+Ireland. These, with their respective principal supporters, elected
+the _ard-ri_--"supreme king", of Ireland, who for ages held his court
+and national assemblies at Tara and enjoyed the kingdom of Meath for
+his mensal land. Usually the election was not direct to the kingship,
+but to the position of _tanaiste_--"second" (in authority),
+heir-apparent to the kingship. This was also the rule in the learned
+professions and "noble" arts, which were similarly endowed with free
+land. The most competent among those specially trained, whether son
+or outsider, should succeed to the position and land. All such land
+was legally indivisible and inalienable and descended in its entirety
+to the successor, who might, or might not, be a relative of the
+occupant. The beneficiaries were, however, free to retain any land
+that belonged to them as private individuals.
+
+Membership of the clan was an essential qualification for every
+position; but occasionally two clans amalgamated, or a small _fine_,
+or desirable individual, was co-opted into the clan--in other words,
+naturalized. The rules of kinship determined _eineachlann_
+(ain-yach-long)--"honor value", the assessed value of status, with
+its correlative rights, obligations, and liabilities in connection
+with all matters civil and criminal; largely supplied the place of
+contract; endowed members of the clan with birthrights; and bound
+them into a compact social, political, and mutual insurance
+copartnership, self-controlled and self-reliant. _Eineachlann_ rested
+on the two-fold basis of kinship and property, expanding as a
+clansman by acquisition of property and effluxion of time progressed
+upward from one grade to another; diminishing if he sank; vanishing
+if for crime he was expelled from the clan.
+
+FOSTERAGE. To our minds, one of the most curious customs prevalent
+among the ancient Irish was that of _iarrad_, called also _altar_ =
+"fosterage"--curious in itself and in the fact that in all the
+abundance of law and literature relating to it no logically valid
+reason is given why wealthy parents normally put out their children,
+from one year old to fifteen in the case of a daughter and to
+seventeen in the case of a son, to be reared in another family, while
+perhaps receiving and rearing children of other parents sent to them.
+As modern life does not comprise either the custom or a reason for
+it, we may assume that fosterage was a consequence of the clan
+system, and that its practice strengthened the ties of kinship and
+sympathy. This conjecture is corroborated by the numerous instances
+in history and in story of fosterage affection proving, when tested,
+stronger than the natural affection of relatives by birth. What is
+more, long after the dissolution of the clans, fosterage has
+continued stealthily in certain districts in which the old race of
+chiefs and clansmen contrived to cling together to the old sod; and
+the affection generated by it has been demonstrated, down to the
+middle of the nineteenth century. The present writer has heard it
+spoken of lovingly, in half-Irish, by simple old people, whom to
+question would be cruel and irreverent.
+
+LAND LAW. The entire territory was originally, and always continued
+to be, the absolute property of the entire clan. Not even the private
+residence of a clansman, with its _maighin digona_ = little lawn or
+precinct of sanctuary, within which himself and his family and
+property were inviolable, could be sold to an outsider. Private
+ownership, though rather favored in the administration of the law,
+was prevented from becoming general by the fundamental ownership of
+the clan and the birthright of every free-born clansman to a
+sufficiency of the land of his native territory for his subsistence.
+The land officially held as described was not, until the population
+became numerous, a serious encroachment upon this right. What
+remained outside this and the residential patches of private land was
+classified as cultivable and uncultivable. The former was the common
+property of the clansmen, but was held and used in severalty for the
+time being, subject to _gabhail-cine_ (gowal-kinneh)--clan-resumption
+and redistribution by authority of an assembly of the clan or _fine_
+at intervals of from one to three years, according to local customs
+and circumstances, for the purpose of satisfying the rights of young
+clansmen and dealing with any land left derelict by death or
+forfeiture, compensation being paid for any unexhausted improvements.
+The clansmen, being owners in this limited sense, and the only
+owners, had no rent to pay. They paid tribute for public purposes,
+such as the making of roads, to the _flaith_ as a public officer, as
+they were bound to render, or had the privilege of
+rendering--according to how they regarded it--military service when
+required, not to the _flaith_ as a feudal lord, which he was not, but
+to the clan, of which the _flaith_ was head and representative.
+
+The uncultivable, unreclaimed forest, mountain, and bog-land was
+common property in the wider sense that there was no several
+appropriation of it even temporarily by individuals. It was used
+promiscuously by the clansmen for grazing stock, procuring fuel,
+pursuing game, or any other advantage yielded by it in its natural
+state.
+
+Kings and _flaiths_ were great stock-owners, and were allowed to let
+for short terms portions of their official lands. What they more
+usually let to clansmen was cattle to graze either on private land or
+on a specified part of the official land, not measured, but
+calculated according to the number of beasts it was able to support.
+A _flaith_ whose stock for letting ran short hired some from a king
+and sublet them to his own people. A _féine, aithech_, or _ceile_
+(kailyeh), as a farmer was generally called, might hire stock in one
+of two distinct ways: _saer_-"free", which was regulated by the law,
+left his status unimpaired, could not be terminated arbitrarily or
+unjustly, under which he paid one-third of the value of the stock
+yearly for seven years, at the end of which time what remained of the
+stock became his property, and in any dispute relating to which he
+was competent to sue or defend even though the _flaith_ gave
+evidence; or _daer_--"bond", which was matter of bargain and not of
+law, was subject to onerous conditions and contingencies, including
+maintenance of kings, _flaiths_, or brehons, with their retinues, on
+visitations, of disbanded soldiers, etc., under which the stock
+always remained the property of the _flaith_, regarding which the
+_ceile_ could not give evidence against that of the _flaith_, which
+degraded the _ceile_ and his _fine_ and impaired their status; a
+bargain therefore which could not be entered into without the
+sanction of the _fine_. This prohibition was rendered operative by
+the legal provision that in case of default the _flaith_ could not
+recover from the _fine_ unless their consent had been obtained. The
+letting of stock, especially of _daer_-stock, increased the
+_flaith's_ power as a lender over borrowers, subject, however, to the
+check that his rank and _eineachlann_ depended on the number of
+independent clansmen in his district.
+
+Though workers in precious metals, as their ornaments show, the
+ancient Irish did not coin or use money. Sales were by barter. All
+payments, tribute, rent, fulfilment of contract, fine, damages,
+wages, or however else arising, were made in kind--horses, cows,
+store cattle, sheep, pigs, corn, meal, malt, bacon, salt beef, geese,
+butter, honey, wool, flax, yarn, cloth, dye-plants, leather,
+manufactured articles of use or ornament, gold, and silver--whatever
+one party could spare and the other find a use for.
+
+Tributes and rent, being alike paid in kind and to the same person,
+were easily confused. This tempted the _flaith_, as the system
+relaxed, to extend his official power in the direction of ownership;
+but never to the extent of enabling him to evict a clansman. For a
+crime a clansman might be expelled from clan and territory; but,
+apart from crime, the idea of eviction from one's homestead was
+inconceivable. Not even when a _daer-ceile_, or "unfree peasant",
+failed to make the stipulated payments could the _flaith_ do more
+than sue as for any other debt; and, if successful, he was bound, in
+seizing, to leave the family food-material and implements necessary
+for living and recovering.
+
+LAW OF DISTRAINING. _Athgabail_ ([)a]h-gowil) = "distress", was the
+universal legal mode of obtaining anything due, or justice or redress
+in any matter, whether civil or criminal, contract or tort. Every
+command or prohibition of the law, if not obeyed, was enforced by
+_athgabail_. The brehons reduced all liabilities of whatsoever origin
+to material value to be recovered by this means. Hence its great
+importance, the vast amount of space devoted to it in the laws, and
+the fact that the law of distress deals incidentally with every other
+branch of law and reveals best the customs, habits, and character of
+the people. A claimant in a civil case might either summon his debtor
+before a brehon, get a judgment, and seize the amount adjudged, or,
+by distraining first at his own risk, force the defendant either to
+pay or stop the seizure by submitting the matter in dispute to trial
+before a brehon, whom he then could choose. There was no officer
+corresponding to a sheriff to distrain and realize the amount
+adjudged; the person entitled had to do it himself, accompanied by a
+law-agent and witnesses, after, in "distress with time", elaborate
+notices at intervals of time sufficient to allow the defendant to
+consider his position and find means of satisfying the claim if he
+could. In a proper case his hands were strengthened by very explicit
+provisions of the law. "If a man who is sued evades justice, knowing
+the debt to be due of him, double the debt is payable by him." In
+urgent cases "immediate distress" was allowed. In either case the
+property seized--usually cattle--was not taken to the plaintiff's
+home, but put into a pound, and by similar easy stages became his
+property to the amount of the debt. The costs were paid out of what
+remained, and any ultimate remainder was returned. On a _fuidir_
+(foodyir) = serf or other unfree person resident in the territory
+incurring liability to a clansman, the latter might proceed against
+the _flaith_ on whose land the defendant lived, or might seize
+immediately any property the defendant owned, and if he owned none,
+might seize him and make him work off the debt in slavery.
+
+Seizure of property of a person of higher rank than the plaintiff had
+to be preceded by _troscead_ (truscah) = fasting upon him. This
+consisted in waiting at the door of the defendant's residence without
+food until the debt was paid or a pledge given. The laws contained no
+process more strongly enforced than this. A defendant who allowed a
+plaintiff properly fasting to die of hunger was held by law and by
+public opinion guilty of murder, and completely lost his
+_eineachlann_. Both text and commentary declare that whoever refuses
+to cede a just demand when fasted upon shall pay double that amount.
+If the faster, having accepted a pledge, did not in due course
+receive satisfaction of his claim, he forthwith distrained, taking
+and keeping double the amount of the debt. The law did not allow
+those whom it at first respected to trifle with justice.
+
+_Troscead_ is believed to have been of druidical origin, and it
+retained throughout, even in Christian times, a sort of supernatural
+significance. Whoever disregarded it became an outcast and incurred
+risks and dangers too grave to be lightly faced. Besides being a
+legal process, it was resorted to as a species of elaborate prayer,
+or curse,--a kind of magic for achieving some difficult purpose. This
+mysterious character enhanced its value in a legal system deficient
+in executive power.
+
+NON-CITIZENS. From what precedes it will be understood that there
+were in ancient Ireland from prehistoric times people not comprised
+in the clan organization, and therefore not enjoying its rights and
+advantages or entitled to any of its land, some of whom were
+otherwise free within certain areas, while some were serfs and some
+slaves. Those outsiders are conjectured to have originated in the
+earlier colonists subdued by the Milesians and reduced to an inferior
+condition. But the distinction did not wholly follow racial lines.
+Persons of pre-Milesian race are known to have risen to eminence,
+while Milesians are known to have sunk, from crime or other causes,
+to the lowest rank of the unfree. Here and there a _daer-tuath_ =
+"bond community", of an earlier race held together down to the Middle
+Ages in districts in which conquest had left them and to which they
+were restricted. Beyond that restriction, exclusion from the clan and
+its power, some peculiarities of dialect, dress, and manners, and a
+tradition of inferiority such as still exists in certain parishes,
+they were not molested, provided they paid tribute, which may have
+been heavy.
+
+There were also _bothachs_ = cottiers, and _sen-cleithes_ = old
+adherents of a _flaith_, accustomed to serve him and obtain benefits
+from him. If they had resided in the territory for three generations,
+and been industrious, thrifty, and orderly, on a few of them joining
+their property together to the number of one hundred head of cattle,
+they could emancipate themselves by appointing a _flaithfine_ and
+getting admitted to the clan. Till this was done, they could neither
+sue nor defend nor inherit, and the _flaith_ was answerable for their
+conduct.
+
+There being no prisons or convict settlements, any person of whatever
+race convicted of grave crime, or of cowardice on the field of
+battle, and unable to pay the fines imposed, captives taken in
+foreign wars, fugitives from other clans, and tramps, fell into the
+lowest ranks of the _fuidre_--"serfs." It was as a captive that Saint
+Patrick was brought in his youth to Ireland. The law allowed, rather
+than entitled, a _flaith_ to keep unfree people for servile
+occupations and the performance of unskilled labor for the public
+benefit. In reality they worked for his personal profit, oftentimes
+at the expense of the clan. They lived on his land, and he was
+responsible for their conduct. By analogy, the distinctions _saer_
+and _daer_ were recognized among them, according to origin,
+character, and means. Where these elements continued to be favorable
+for three generations, progress upward was made; and ultimately a
+number of them could club together, appoint a _flaithfine_, and apply
+to be admitted to the clan.
+
+A _mog_ was a slave in the strict sense, usually purchased as such
+from abroad, and legally and socially lower than the lowest _fuidir_.
+Giraldus Cambrensis, writing towards the close of the twelfth
+century, tells us that English parents then frequently sold their
+surplus children and other persons to the Irish as slaves. The Church
+repeatedly intervened for the release of captives and mitigation of
+their condition. The whole institution of slavery was strongly
+condemned as un-Christian by the Synod held in Armagh in 1171.
+
+CRIMINAL LAW. Though there are numerous laws relating to crime, to be
+found chiefly in the _Book of Aicill_, criminal law in the sense of a
+code of punishment there was none. The law took cognizance of crime
+and wrong of every description against person, character, and
+property; and its function was to prevent and restrict crime, and
+when committed to determine, according to the facts of the case and
+the respective ranks of the parties, the value of the compensation or
+reparation that should be made. It treated crime as a mode of
+incurring liability; entitled the sufferer, or, if he was murdered,
+his _fine_, to bring the matter before a brehon, who, on hearing the
+case, made the complicated calculations and adjustments rendered
+necessary by the facts proved and by the grades to which the
+respective parties belonged, arrived at and gave judgment for the
+amount of the compensation, armed with which judgment, the plaintiff
+could immediately distrain for that amount the property of the
+criminal, and, in his default, that of his _fine_. The _fine_ could
+escape part of its liability by arresting and giving up the convict,
+or by expelling him and giving substantial security against his
+future misdeeds.
+
+From the number of elements that entered into the calculation of a
+fine, it necessarily resulted that like fines by no means followed
+like crimes. Fines, like all other payments, were adjudged and paid
+in kind, being, in some cases of the destruction of property,
+generic--a quantity of that kind of property. Large fines were
+usually adjudged to be paid in three species, one-third in each, the
+plaintiff taking care to inform correctly the brehon of the kinds of
+property the defendant possessed, because he could seize only that
+named, and if the defendant did not possess it, the judgment was "a
+blind nut." Crime against the State or community, such as wilful
+disturbance of an assembly, was punished severely. These were the
+only cases to which the law attached a sentence of death or other
+corporal punishment. For nothing whatsoever between parties did the
+law recognize any duty of revenge, retaliation, or the infliction of
+personal punishment, but only the payment of compensation. Personal
+punishment was regarded as the commission of a second crime on
+account of a first. There was no duty to do this; but the right to do
+it was tacitly recognized if a criminal resisted or evaded payment of
+an adjudged compensation. Criminal were distinguished from civil
+cases only by the moral element, the sufferer's right in all cases to
+choose a brehon, the loss of _eineachlann_, partial or whole
+according to the magnitude of the crime, the elements used in
+calculating the amount of fine, and the technical terms employed.
+_Dire_ (djeereh) was a general name for a fine, and there were
+specific names for classes of fines. _Eric_ = reparation, redemption,
+was the fine for killing a human being, the amount being affected by
+the distinction between murder and manslaughter and by other
+circumstances; but in no case was a violent death, however innocent,
+allowed to pass without reparation being made. A fine was awarded out
+of the property of the convict or of his _fine_ to the _fine_ of the
+person slain, in the proportions in which they were entitled to
+inherit his property, that being also according to their degrees of
+kinship and the degrees in which they were really sufferers. This
+gave every clan and every clansman, in addition to their moral
+interest, a direct monetary interest in the prevention and
+suppression of crime. Hence the whole public feeling of the country
+was entirely in support of the law, the honor and interest of
+community and individual being involved in its maintenance. The
+injured person or _fine_, if unable to recover the fine, might, in
+capital cases, seize and enslave, or even kill, the convict. Probably
+restrained by the fact that, there being no officers of criminal law,
+they had to inflict punishment themselves, they sometimes imprisoned
+a convict in a small island, or sent him adrift on the sea in a
+_currach_ or boat of hide. Law supported by public opinion, powerful
+because so inspired, powerful because unanimous, was difficult to
+evade or resist. It so strongly armed an injured person, and so
+utterly paralyzed a criminal, that escape from justice was hardly
+possible. The only way in which it was possible was by flight,
+leaving all one's property behind, and sinking into slavery in a
+strange place; and this in effect was a severe punishment rather than
+an escape.
+
+FOREIGN LAW. The Danes and other Norsemen were the buccaneers of
+northwestern Europe from the eighth to the eleventh century. They
+conquered and settled permanently in Neustria, from them called
+Normandy, and conquered and ruled for a considerable time England and
+part of Scotland and the Isles. In Ireland they were little more than
+marauders, having permanent colonies only round the coast; always
+subject, nominally at least, to the _ard-ri_ or to the local chief;
+paying him tribute when he was strong, raiding his territory when he
+was weak, and fomenting recurrent disorder highly prejudicial to law,
+religion, and civilization. They never made any pretence of extending
+their laws to Ireland, and their attempt to conquer the country was
+finally frustrated at Clontarf in 1014.
+
+The Anglo-Norman invaders also seized the seaports. The earlier of
+them who went inland partially adopted in the second generation the
+Gaelic language, laws, and customs; as many non-Celtic Lowlanders of
+Scotland about the same period adopted the Gaelic language, laws, and
+customs of the Highlanders. Hence they did not make much impression
+on the Gaelic system, beyond the disintegrating effect of their
+imperfect adoption of it.
+
+Into the eastern parts of Ireland, however, a fresh stream of English
+adventurers continued to flow, as aggressive and covetous as their
+means and prudence permitted; calling so much of the country as they
+were able to wrench from the Irish "the English Pale", which
+fluctuated in extent with their fortunes; and, when compelled to pay
+tribute to Irish chiefs, calling it "black rent", to indicate how
+they regarded it. Their greatest difficulty was to counteract the
+tendency of the earlier colonists to become Hibernicized--a most
+unwilling tribute to the superiority of the Irish race. They, and
+still more those in England who supported them, knew nothing of the
+Irish language, laws, and institutions but that they should all be
+impartially hated, uprooted, and supplanted by English people and
+everything English as soon as means enabled this to be done. This was
+the amiable purpose of the pompously-named "Statute of Kilkenny",
+passed by about a score of these colonists in 1367. Presuming to
+speak in the name of Ireland, the statute prohibited the English
+colonists from becoming Irish in the numerous ways they were
+accustomed to do, and excluded all Irish priests from preferment in
+the Church, partly because their superior virtue would by contrast
+amount to a censure. The purpose was not completely successful even
+within the Pale. Outside that precinct, the mass of the Irish were
+wholly unconscious of the existence of the "Statute of Kilkenny." But
+expressing, as the statute did correctly, the views of fresh
+adventurers, it became, in arrogance and in the pretension to speak
+for the whole of Ireland, a model for their future legislation and
+policy.
+
+Under King Henry VI. of England, Richard, Duke of York, being Lord
+Deputy, the Parliament of the Pale, assembled in Dublin, repudiated
+the authority of the English Parliament in Ireland, established a
+mint, and assumed an attitude of almost complete independence. On the
+other hand, in 1494, under Henry VII., the Parliament of the Pale,
+assembled at Drogheda, passed Poyning's Act, extending all English
+laws to Ireland and subjecting all laws passed in Ireland to revision
+by the English Council. This, extended to the whole of Ireland as
+English power extended, remained in force until 1782. Henry VIII. was
+the first English sovereign to take practical measures for the
+pacific and diplomatic conquest of the whole of Ireland and the
+substitution of English for Irish institutions and methods. His
+daughter, Queen Elizabeth, continued and completed the conquest; but
+it was by drenching the country in blood, by more than decimating the
+Irish people, and by reducing the remnant to something like the
+condition of the ancient _fuidre_. Her policy prepared the ground for
+her successor, James I., to exterminate the Irish from large tracts,
+in which he planted Englishmen and Scotchmen, and to extend all
+English laws to Ireland and abolish all other laws. James's English
+attorney-general in Ireland, Sir John Davies, in his work, _A
+Discoverie of the True Causes, etc._, says:
+
+"For there is no nation of people under the sunne that doth love
+equall and indifferent [= impartial] justice better than the Irish;
+or will rest better satisfied with the execution thereof, although it
+bee against themselves; so as they may have the protection and
+benefit of the law, when uppon just cause they do desire it."
+
+The ancient Irish loved their laws and took pride in obeying and
+enforcing them. The different attitude of the modern Irish towards
+foreign laws and administration is amply explained by the morally
+indefensible character of those laws and that administration, to be
+read in English statutes and ordinances and in the history of English
+rule in Ireland--a subject too vast and harrowing, and in every sense
+foreign to what has gone before, to be entered upon here. Though the
+Parliament of 1782-1800 was little more than a Pale Parliament, in
+which the mass of the Irish people had no representation whatever,
+one of its Acts, to its credit be it said, was an attempt to mitigate
+the Penal Laws and emancipate the oppressed Gaelic and Catholic
+population of Ireland. With the partial exception of that brief
+interval, law in Ireland has, during the last 360 years, meant
+English laws specially enacted for the destruction of any Irish trade
+or industry that entered into competition with a corresponding
+English trade or industry. In later times those crude barbarities
+have been gradually superseded by the more defensible laws now in
+force in Ireland, all of which can be studied in statutes passed by
+the Parliament, since the Union with Scotland, called British.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Pending the desirable work of a more competent Brehon Law Commission
+and translators, the subject must be studied in the six volumes of
+_Ancient Laws of Ireland_, produced by the first Commission, from
+1865 to 1901, ignoring the long introductions and many of the notes.
+Whitley Stokes: Criticism of Atkinson's Glossary (London, 1903); R.
+Dareste: Etudes d'histoire de droit (Paris, 1889); d'Arbois de
+Jubainville and Paul Collinet: Etudes sur le droit celtique, 2 vols.
+(Paris, 1895); Joyce: Social History of Ancient Ireland, 2 vols.
+(London, 1913); Laurence Ginnell: The Brehon Laws (London, 1894).
+
+
+
+IRISH MUSIC
+
+By W.H. GRATTAN FLOOD, Mus. D., M.R.I.A., K.S.G.
+
+
+Perhaps nothing so strikingly brings home the association of Ireland
+with music as the fact that the harp is emblazoned on the national
+arms. Ireland, "the mother of sweet singers", as Pope writes;
+Ireland, "where", according to St. Columcille, "the clerics sing like
+the birds"; Ireland can proudly point to a musical history of over
+2,000 years. The Milesians, the De Dananns, and other pre-Christian
+colonists were musical. Hecataeus (B.C. 540-475) describes the Celts
+of Ireland as singing songs to the harp in praise of Apollo, and
+Aethicus of Istria, a Christian philosopher of the early fourth
+century, describes the culture of the Irish. Certain it is that, even
+before the coming of St. Patrick, the Irish were a highly cultured
+nation, and the national Apostle utilized music and song in his work
+of conversion. In the early Lives of the Irish Saints musical
+references abound, and the Irish school of music attracted foreign
+scholars from the sixth to the ninth century.
+
+Hymnologists are familiar with the hymns written by early Irish
+saints and laics, _e.g._, St. Sechnall, St. Columcille, St. Molaise,
+St. Cuchuimne, St. Columbanus, St. Ultan, St. Colman, St. Cummain,
+St. Aengus, Dungal, Sedulius, Moengal, and others. Who has not heard
+of the great music school of San Gallen, founded by St. Gall, "the
+wonder and delight of Europe," whither flocked German students? One
+of the Irish monks, Tuathal (Tutilo), composed numerous sacred
+pieces, including the famous farced Kyrie, "Fons bonitatis", included
+in the Vatican edition of the _Kyriale_ (1906). Not alone did Irish
+monks propagate sacred and secular music throughout France, Italy,
+Switzerland, Austria, Germany, and the far North, but they made their
+influence felt In Lindisfarne, Malmesbury, Glastonbury, and other
+cities in England, as also in Scotland. St. Aldhelm, one of the
+pupils of St. Maeldubh, tells us that at the close of the seventh
+century, "Ireland, synonymous with learning, literally blazed like
+the stars of the firmament with the glory of her scholars."
+
+During the ninth century we meet with twelve different forms of
+instruments in use by the Irish, namely:--the _Cruit_ and
+_Clairseach_ (small and large harp); _Timpan_ (_Rotta_ or bowed
+_cruit_); _Buinne_ (oboe or bassoon); _Bennbuabhal_ and _Corn_
+(horn); _Cuisleanna_ and _Piob_ (bagpipes); _Feadan_ (flute or fife);
+_Guthbuinne_ (bass horn); _Stoc_ and _Sturgan_ (trumpet); _Pipai_
+(single and double pipes); _Craoibh cuil_ and _Crann cuil_
+(cymbalum); _Cnamha_ (castanet); and _Fidil_ (fiddle). The so-called
+"Brian Boru's Harp" really dates from the thirteenth century, and is
+now in Trinity College, Dublin, but there are numerous sculptured
+harps of the ninth and tenth centuries on the crosses at Graig,
+Ullard, Clonmacnois, Durrow, and Monasterboice.
+
+Donnchadh, an Irish bishop of the ninth century, who died as abbot of
+St. Remigius, wrote a commentary on Martianus Capella, a well-known
+musical text book. Towering above all his fellows, John Scotus
+Erigena, in 867, wrote a tract _De Divisione Naturae_, in which he
+expounds _organum_ or discant, nearly a hundred years before the
+appearance of the _Scholia Enchiriadis_ and the _Musica Enchiriadis_.
+He also wrote a commentary on Martianus Capella, now in a Paris MS.
+of the ninth century.
+
+The eulogy of Giraldus Cambrensis, or Gerald Barry, who came to
+Ireland in 1183, on Irish harpers and minstrels is too well known to
+be repeated, but Brompton and John of Salisbury are equally
+enthusiastic. Ground bass, or pedal point, and singing in parts, as
+well as bands of harpers and pipers, were in vogue in Ireland before
+the coming of the English. Dante, quoted by Galilei, testifies to the
+fact that Italy received the harp from Ireland; and, it may be added,
+the Irish harp suggested the pianoforte. In the Anglo-Norman ballad,
+"The Entrenchment of New Ross"--in 1265--allusion is made to pipes
+and flutes, and carols and dancing. Another poem, dating from about
+1320, refers to Irish dances in a flattering manner.
+
+John Garland (1190-1264) wrote a treatise on _Organum_, and outlined
+a scheme of dividing the interval, which developed into
+ornamentation, passing notes, and grace notes. The Dublin _Troper_ of
+the thirteenth century has a number of farced Kyries and Glorias,
+also a collection of Sequences. A Dublin _Processionale_ of the
+fourteenth century contains the most elaborate form of the _Officium
+Sepulchri_, with musical notation on a four-line stave--the
+foundation of the Miracle Play of the Resurrection. Another Dublin
+_Troper_ dates from 1360 and was used in St. Patrick's Cathedral. It
+contains the hymn, "Angelus ad Virginem", alluded to by Chaucer. The
+Christ Church Psaltery, about 1370, has musical notation and is
+exquisitely illuminated. Lionel Power, an Anglo-Irishman, wrote the
+first English treatise on music in 1395. Exactly a century later, in
+1495, a music school was founded in Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin.
+
+The Irish Annals of the thirteenth to the fifteenth century have
+numerous references to distinguished harpers and singers, and there
+are still sung many beautiful airs of this period, including "The
+Coulin" and "Eibhlin a ruin." John Lawless was a famous Irish
+organ-builder of the second half of the fifteenth century, and his
+successor, James Dempsey, built many fine organs between the years
+1530 and 1565.
+
+Notwithstanding the many penal enactments against Irish minstrels,
+all the great Anglo-Irish nobles of the Pale retained an Irish harper
+and piper in their service. Under date of 1480, we find Chief Justice
+Bermingham having an Irish harper to teach his family, as also "to
+harp and to dance." A century later "Blind Cruise, the
+harper"--Richard Cruise--composed a lamentation song on the fall of
+the Baron of Slane, the air of which is still popular. It is to the
+credit of the Irishman, William Bathe (who subsequently became a
+Jesuit), that he wrote the first printed English treatise on music,
+published in 1584--thus ante-dating by thirteen years Morley's work.
+Bathe wrote a second musical treatise in 1587, and he was the first
+to call measures by the name of bars. He also formulated methods of
+transposition and sight reading that may still be studied with
+profit.
+
+Thomas Campion, the poet and composer, was born in Dublin in 1567,
+but spent nearly all his life in England. Other Irish composers, to
+mention only the most distinguished, were William Costello
+(madrigalist), Richard Gillie, Edward Shergold, and Walter Kennedy.
+Strange as it may seem, Queen Elizabeth retained in her service an
+Irish harper, Cormac MacDermot, from 1591 to 1603, and on the death
+of the queen he was given an annual pension of £46 10s. 10d.--nearly
+£500 a year of our present money.
+
+Shakespeare refers to eleven Irish tunes, of which the famous
+"Callino Casturame" (_Cailin og a stuir me_) is still fresh. Irish
+dances were extremely popular at the English court from 1600 to 1603
+and were introduced into the Masks. Shakespeare's "intrinsic friend,"
+John Dowland of Dublin, was one of the greatest lutenists in Europe
+from 1590 to 1626. In the dedication of a song "to my loving
+countryman, Mr. John Foster the Younger, merchant of Dublin in
+Ireland," Dowland sufficiently indicates his nationality, and his
+compositions betray all the charm and grace of Irish melody. It is of
+interest to add that the earliest printed "Irish Dance" is in
+_Parthenia Inviolata_, of which work, published in 1613-4, there is
+only one copy known--now in the New York Public Library. From
+1600-1602, Charles O'Reilly was harpist to the court of Denmark at
+200 thalers a year. His successor was Donal _Dubh_ ("the black")
+O'Cahill (1602-1610), who followed Anne of Denmark to the English
+court. Walter Quin of Dublin was music master to King James's eldest
+son, Prince Henry, from 1608 to 1611. Other noted harpers of the
+first half of the seventeenth century are: Rory _dall_ ("the blind")
+O'Cahan; Nicholas _dall_ Pierce; Tadhg MacRory; John, Rory, and Henry
+Scott; Owen MacKeenan; Owen MacDermot; Tadhg O'Coffey; and Father
+Robert Nugent, S.J. Darby Scott was harper to the Danish Court from
+1621 till his death, at Copenhagen, on December 19, 1634. Pierce
+Ferriter, a "gentleman harper", was executed at Killarney in 1652.
+Myles O'Reilly and the two Connellans were famous harpers between the
+years 1660-1680. Evelyn, the English diarist, in 1668, praises the
+excellent performance on the harp of Sir Edward Sutton, who, in the
+following year, was granted by King Charles II. the lands of Confey,
+Co. Kildare. Two beautiful harps of this period are still
+preserved--the Fitzgerald Harp and the Fogarty Harp.
+
+There are many exquisite airs of the seventeenth century, some of
+which have been incorporated in Moore's _Irish Melodies_. The titles
+of several airs of this epoch are of historical interest, _e.g._,
+"Sarsfield's Lament," "Lament for Owen Roe O'Neill," "MacAlistrum's
+March," "Ned of the Hill," "The Breach of Aughrim," "Limerick's
+Lamentation," "Lilliburlero," "Ballinamona," "The Boyne Water," and
+"The Wild Geese." Irish tunes abound in the various editions of
+Playford's _Country Dances_ from 1651 to 1720.
+
+Turlogh O'Carolan (1670-1738), who has been styled "the last of the
+Irish bards", wrote and composed innumerable songs, also Planxties,
+Plearacas, and Lamentations. It is here merely necessary to note that
+twenty-six of O'Carolan's airs are included in Moore's _Irish
+Melodies_, although his claim to them has only recently been proved
+by the present writer. Goldsmith's eulogy of O'Carolan is well known.
+
+The Jacobite period from 1710 to 1750 considerably influenced Irish
+minstrelsy, and some of the most delightful airs were adapted to
+Jacobite lyrics. "Seaghan buidhe," "An Sean duine," "Lament for
+Kilcash," "Ormonde's Lament," "Morin ni Chullenain," "All the Way to
+Galway" (the air of "Yankee Doodle"), "Caitlin ni Houlihan," "Balance
+a straw" ("The Wearing of the Green"), "St. Patrick's Day," "Plancam
+Peirbhig," are amongst the tunes in vogue at this period.
+
+As early as 1685 the Hibernian Catch Club was established and still
+flourishes. Cecilian celebrations were held from 1727 to 1732, and a
+Dublin Academy of Music was founded in 1728. The Charitable and
+Musical Society (founded in 1723) built the Fishamble Street Music
+Hall in 1741, and assisted at the first performance of _The Messiah_,
+conducted by Handel himself, on 13th April, 1742. Kitty Clive, Peg
+Woffington, and Daniel Sullivan were noted Irish singers of this
+epoch, while John Clegg, Dr. Murphy, and Burke Thumoth were famous
+instrumentalists. In 1741 Richard Pockrich invented the Musical
+Glasses, for which Gluck wrote some pieces: it was afterwards
+improved by Benjamin Franklin. On the continent, Henry Madden was
+music director of the Chapel Royal at Versailles in 1744 (in
+succession to Campra), and was also canon of St. Quentin.
+
+In 1764 the Earl of Mornington, Mus. D., was appointed first
+professor of music in Dublin University. A few years later Charles
+Clagget invented the valve-horn. Michael Kelly of Dublin was
+specially selected by Mozart to create the parts of Basilio and Don
+Curzio at the first performance of the opera of _Figaro_, on May 1st,
+1786. Kane O'Hara, Samuel Lee, Owenson, Neale, Baron Dillon, Dr.
+Doyle, T.A. Geary, Mahon, and the Earl of Westmeath were
+distinguished musicians--while the fame of Carter, Mountain,
+Moorehead, and Dr. Cogan was not confined to Ireland.
+
+Among native minstrels, Jerome Duigenan, Dominic Mongan, Denis
+Hempson, Charles Byrne, James Duncan, Arthur Victory, and Arthur
+O'Neill were celebrated as harpers. The Belfast meeting of 1792
+revived the vogue of the national instrument. Nor was the bagpipe
+neglected. Even in America, in 1778, Lord Rawdon had a band of
+pipers, with Barney Thomson as Pipe Major. At home, Sterling,
+Jackson, MacDonnell, Moorehead, Kennedy, and Macklin sustained the
+reputation of this ancient instrument.
+
+Ere the close of the eighteenth century John Field of Dublin was a
+distinguished pianist. He subsequently (1814) invented the nocturne,
+developed by Chopin. Sir John Stevenson (the arranger of the _Irish
+Melodies_), Tom Cooke, William Southwell (inventor of the damper
+action for pianofortes), Henry Mountain, Andrew Ashe (flautist),
+Barton, Rooke, and Bunting were world-famed.
+
+Among the Irish musicians of the last century the following names are
+typical: Thomas Moore, J. A. Wade, Balle (_Bohemian Girl_), Wallace
+(_Maritana_), Osborne, Sir Frederick Ouseley, Scotson Clarke, Howard
+Glover, Horncastle, J. W. Glover, Sir Robert Stewart, Augusta Holmes,
+R. M. Levey, Joseph Robinson, Forde, Lover, Kearns, Allen, Barker,
+Torrance, Molloy, Guernsey, Gilmore, Thunder, Harvey, Goodman, Sir
+Arthur Sullivan (_Pinafore, Mikado_), Miss Davis, Halliday (inventor
+of the Kent bugle), Latham, Duggan, Gaskin, Lacy, Pontet
+(Piccolomini), Hudson, Pigot, Horan, Marks, and W. C. Levey. Famous
+vocalists like Catherine Hayes, Mrs. Scott Fennell, Signer Foli
+(Foley), Barton McGuckin, Denis O'Sullivan, and William Ludwig
+deserve inclusion.
+
+In our own day, it is only necessary to mention composers like Sir
+Charles Villiers Stanford, Dr. C. Woods, Victor Herbert, Mrs.
+Needham, Dr. Sinclair, Norman O'Neill, and Arthur O'Leary; singers
+like Egan, Burke, Plunket Greene, John MacCormack, P. O'Shea, Charles
+Manners, and Joseph O'Mara; violinists like Maud McCarthy, Emily
+Keady, Arthur Darley, and Patrick Delaney; organists like Dr. Charles
+Marchant, Brendan Rogers, Dr. Jozé, and Professor Buck; writers like
+Mrs. Curwen, Dr. Annie Patterson, Mrs. Milligan Fox, Professor
+Mahaffy, A.P. Graves, Dr. Collison, and G.B. Shaw; and conductors
+like Hamilton Harty and James Glover.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Walker: Irish Bards (1786); O'Curry: Lectures (1870); Hardiman: Irish
+Mistrelsy (2 vols., 1834); The Complete Petrie Collection (3 vols.,
+1902-1904); Grattan Flood: History of Irish Music (3rd ed., 1913),
+Story of the Harp (1906), Story of the Bagpipe (1911); Mrs. Milligan
+Fox: Annals of the Irish Harpers (1911); Mason: Song Lore of Ireland
+(1910); Armstrong: Musical Instruments (2 vols., 1904-1908); O'Neill:
+Irish Folk Music (1911), Irish Minstrels and Musicians (1913).
+
+
+
+IRISH METAL WORK
+
+By DIARMID GOFFEY.
+
+
+From the earliest times in the history of western Europe Ireland has
+been renowned for her work in metal. The first metal used was copper,
+and copper weapons are found in Ireland dating from 2,000 B.C., or
+even earlier, the beautiful designs of which show that the early
+inhabitants of the country were skilled workers in metal. Fields of
+copper exist all along the southern seaboard of Ireland. Numbers of
+flat copper celts, or axes, have been found modelled on the still
+earlier stone implements. By degrees the influence of the early stone
+axe disappears and axes of a true metal type are developed. Primitive
+copper knives and awls are also abundant. The fineness of the early
+Irish copper work is seen at its best in the numerous copper halberd
+blades found in Ireland. These blades, varying from nine to sixteen
+inches in length, were fastened at right angles by rivets into wooden
+shafts. The blades show a slight sickle-like curve and are of the
+highest workmanship. Halberds somewhat similar in type have been
+found in Spain, North Germany, and Scandinavia.
+
+Between the years 2000 and 1800 B.C. the primitive metalworkers
+discovered that bronze, a mixture of tin and copper, was a more
+suitable metal than pure copper for the manufacture of weapons; and
+the first period of the bronze age may be dated from 1800 to 1500
+B.C. The bronze celts at first differed little from those made of
+copper, but gradually the type developed from the plain wedge-shaped
+celt to the beautiful socketed celt, which appears on the scene in
+the last, or fifth, division of the bronze age (900-350 B.C.). It was
+during the age of bronze that spears came into general use, as did
+the sword and rapier. The early spear-heads were simply knife-shaped
+bronze weapons riveted to the ends of shafts, but by degrees the
+graceful socketed spear-heads of the late bronze age were developed.
+
+Stone moulds for casting the early forms of weapons have been found,
+but, as the art of metalworking became perfected, the use of sand
+moulds was discovered, with the result that there are no extant
+examples of moulds for casting the more developed forms of weapons.
+The bronze weapons--celts, swords, and spear-heads--are often highly
+decorated. In these decorations can be traced the connection between
+the early Irish civilization and that of the eastern Mediterranean.
+The bronze age civilization in Europe spread westward from the
+eastern Mediterranean either by the southern route of Italy, Spain,
+France, and thence to Ireland, or, as seems more probable, up the
+river Danube, then down the Elbe, and so to Scandinavia, whence
+traders by the north of Scotland introduced the motives and patterns
+of the Aegean into Ireland. Whichever way the eastern civilization
+penetrated into Ireland, it left England practically untouched in her
+primitive barbarity.
+
+Of gold work, for which Ireland is especially famous, the principal
+feature in the bronze age was the lunula, a crescent-shaped flat gold
+ornament generally decorated at the ends of the crescent. These
+lunulae are found in profusion all over Ireland. A few have been
+found in Cornwall and Brittany, and a few in Scotland and Denmark.
+One has been found in Luxemburg and one in Hanover.
+
+Gold collars are numerous in Ireland and also date from the bronze
+age. The earliest form of collar is the "torc" of twisted gold.
+Another type, later in date than the torc, is the gold ring-shaped
+collar. Two splendid examples of this latter type were found at
+Clonmacnois, the decoration of which, in _La Tène_, or trumpet,
+pattern, shows the connection between the Irish and continental
+designs.
+
+A find of prehistoric gold ornaments in county Clare should be
+mentioned. An immense number was there discovered in 1854 hidden
+together in a cist, the value of the whole being estimated at over
+£3,000.
+
+After the bronze age comes the iron age. The introduction of iron
+wrought a great change in metalworking, but, as iron is a metal very
+subject to oxidization, comparatively few early iron remains are
+found. There are some swords of an early pattern in the National
+Museum at Dublin.
+
+It has been shown that the pre-Christian metalwork of Ireland is well
+worthy of attention, but it is to the early Christian metalworkers
+that Ireland owes her pre-eminent fame in this field. In early
+Christian Ireland metalworking was brought to a pitch rarely equalled
+and never excelled. The remains found, such as the Tara Brooch, the
+Cross of Cong, and the Ardagh Chalice, are among the most beautiful
+metalwork in the world. The wonderful interlaced patterns, which are
+typically Celtic, bewildering in their intricacy, and fascinating in
+the freedom and boldness of their execution, lend themselves readily
+to metal work.
+
+The connecting link between the metalwork of the late pagan period
+and that of early Christian times is chiefly exemplified by the
+penannular brooches, of which great numbers have been found in
+Ireland. Examples of this characteristically Celtic ornament may be
+seen in all Celtic countries.
+
+In its earliest form this brooch is simply a ring, with a gap in it,
+to which a pin is loosely attached by a smaller ring. Gradually the
+open ends of the ring, which need some enlargement in order to
+prevent the pin slipping off, became larger and ornamented. In time
+these became regular trumpet-shaped ends, generally ornamented with
+characteristic "trumpet" patterns. The next stage was to close the
+gap, leaving a ring with a crescent-shaped disc at one side. Space
+does not permit of the description of the numerous brooches found. It
+will be sufficient to describe the Tara Brooch, which is the crowning
+glory not only of the Irish but of any metalworker's art.
+
+The Tara Brooch, whose only connection with Tara is its name, was
+found near Drogheda; it is about seven inches in diameter and the pin
+about fifteen inches long. It is made of bronze covered with the most
+elaborate interlaced ornament in gold. The fineness of the interlaced
+work may be compared with, and is quite equal to, that of the best
+illuminated manuscripts; the freedom of its execution is amazing.
+Besides panels of ribbon ornament, which include spirals, plaited
+work, human heads, and animal forms, the front of the brooch is
+decorated with enamel and settings of amber and colored glass. The
+back of the brooch is, as is often the case in Irish work, decorated
+in a bolder manner than the front, and the "trumpet" pattern is there
+very marked. The head of the pin is also elaborately decorated. The
+minute and intricate style of the work is strikingly shown by the
+fact that, even after prolonged study, some patterns escaped notice
+and have only lately been discovered. Further, each of the gold lines
+is made of tiny gold balls, so small as only to be seen by means of a
+magnifying glass.
+
+With the introduction of Christianity, the attention of artificers
+was turned to the manufacture of church vessels and shrines. Of these
+perhaps the most beautiful are the Ardagh Chalice, the Cross of Cong,
+and the Shrine of St. Patrick's Bell, though great numbers of other
+sacred ornaments, such as the Shrine of St. Lactan's Arm and the
+numerous bell shrines, are also fine examples of the work of an
+unsurpassed school of metalworkers.
+
+The date of the Tara Brooch is not easy to determine, but it may
+probably be placed in the eighth century of our era. The Ardagh
+Chalice belongs probably to about the same date. It was found in a
+rath at Ardagh, county Limerick, in 1868. It measures 7 inches in
+height and 9-1/2 in diameter. Around the cup is a band of fine
+filigree interlaced ornament in the form of panels divided by half
+beads of enamel. Below this are the names of the twelve Apostles in
+faint Celtic lettering. The two handles are beautifully decorated
+with panels of interwoven ornament, and on the sides are two circular
+discs divided into ornamented panels. The under side of the foot of
+the Chalice is also very beautifully decorated.
+
+The shrines of the bells of the Irish saints are interesting examples
+of Irish metal work. As is fitting, the finest of these is the Shrine
+of St. Patrick's Bell. This was made by order of King Domnall
+O'Lachlainn between the years 1091 and 1105 to contain St. Patrick's
+Bell, a square iron bell made of two plates of sheet iron riveted
+together. The shrine is made of bronze plates, to which gold filigree
+work and stones are riveted. The top of the shrine, curved to receive
+the handle of the bell, is of silver elaborately decorated. The back
+is overlaid with a plate of silver cut in cruciform pattern. Around
+the margin of the back is engraved the following inscription in
+Irish: "A prayer for Domnall Ua Lachlainn, by whom this bell [shrine]
+was made, and for Domnall, successor of Patrick, by whom it was made,
+and for Cathalan Ua Maelchallann, the keeper of the bell, and for
+Cudulig Ua Inmainen with his sons, who fashioned it." The whole is
+executed in a very fine manner and is the most beautiful object of
+its kind in existence. Another beautiful shrine, known as the Cross
+of Cong, made to enshrine a piece of the true cross presented by the
+pope in 1123, was made for King Turlogh O'Conor at about that date.
+It is 2 feet 6 inches high and 1 foot 6-3/4 inches wide. It is made
+of oak cased with copper and enriched with ornaments of gilded
+bronze. The ornamentation is of the typical Irish type, as on the
+Ardagh Chalice and the Shrine of St. Patrick's Bell. A quartz crystal
+set in the centre of the front of the cross probably held the relic.
+
+It is clear from the succession of beautiful work executed from the
+eighth to the twelfth century, that there must have existed in
+Ireland during that period a school of workers in metal such as has
+seldom been equalled by any individual worker or guild before or
+since, and never excelled. The examples described are only the more
+famous of the remains of early Irish Christian art in metal, but they
+are surrounded by numerous examples of pins, brooches, and shrines,
+each worthy to rank with the finest productions of the metalworker.
+The Shrine of St. Moedoc (date uncertain) ought perhaps to be
+mentioned. On it are found several figures, including three nuns, men
+with books, sceptres, and swords, and a lifelike figure of a harper.
+
+Besides articles of ornament, articles of use, such as bits for
+horses and household utensils, have been found, which show that the
+Irish smiths were as well able to produce articles for every-day use
+as the artificers were to create works of art in metal.
+
+With the landing of the English in 1169 the arts and sciences in
+Ireland declined. Indeed, from that time on and for long afterwards,
+almost the only metalworkers needed were makers of arms and weapons
+of offense and defense.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+British Museum, Bronze Age Guide; Coffey: Bronze Age in Ireland;
+Allen: Celtic Art; Abercrombie: Bronze Age Pottery; Wilde: Catalogue
+of the Royal Irish Academy's Collection; Allen: Christian Symbolism;
+Stokes: Christian Art in Ireland; Petrie: Ecclesiastical Architecture
+in Ireland; Coffey: Guide to the Celtic Antiquities of the Christian
+Period perserved in the National Museum, Dublin; Kane: Industrial
+Resources of Ireland; O'Curry: Manners and Customs of the Ancient
+Irish; Coffey: New Grange and other incised Tumuli in Ireland;
+Dechelette: Manuel d'Archéologie pré-historique; Ridgeway: Origin of
+Currency and Weight Standards.
+
+
+
+IRISH MANUSCRIPTS
+
+By LOUIS ELY O'CARROLL, B.A., B.L.
+
+
+In the dark ages of Europe, whilst new civilizations were in the
+making and all was unrest, art and religion, like the lamp of the
+sanctuary, burned brightly and steadily in Ireland, and their rays
+penetrated the outer gloom. Scattered through the libraries of Europe
+are the priceless manuscripts limned by Irish scribes. The earliest
+missionaries to the continent, disciples of St. Columbanus and St.
+Gall, doubtless brought with them into exile beautiful books which
+they or their brothers of the parent monastery had wrought in a labor
+of love; or mayhap many a monk crossed the seas bearing the treasured
+volumes into hiding from the spoiling hands of the Dane. Yet,
+fortunately, in the island home where their beauty was born the most
+superb volumes still remain.
+
+From almost prehistoric times the Irish were skilled artificers in
+gold and bronze, and, at the advent of Christianity, had already
+evolved and perfected that unique system of geometrical ornament
+which is known as Celtic design. The original and essential features
+of this system consisted in the use of spirals and interlacing
+strapwork, but later on this type was developed by transforming the
+geometrical fret into a scheme of imaginary or nondescript animals,
+portions of which, such as the tails and ears, were prolonged and
+woven in exquisite fancy through the border. The artistic features of
+Celtic book decoration consist chiefly of initial letters of this
+nature embellished with color. Amongst the ancient Irish there was a
+keen knowledge of color and an exceptional appreciation of color
+values. Thus it was that in the early centuries of Christian Ireland
+the learned monks, transcribing the Gospels and longing to make the
+book beautiful, were able to bring to their task an artistic skill
+which was hereditary and almost instinctive. The colors which they
+used were mostly derived from mineral substances and the black was
+carbon, made, it is conjectured, from charred fish-bones; but with
+them was combined some gummy material which made them cling softly to
+the vellum and has held for us their lustre for more than a thousand
+years. It is noteworthy that neither gold nor silver was used for
+book decoration, and this would appear to be a deliberate avoidance
+of the glitter and glare which distinguish eastern art.
+
+_The Book of Durrow _(in the Library of Trinity College, Dublin) is
+the oldest specimen of Celtic illumination and, if not the work of
+St. Columcille, is certainly of as early a date. Each of the Gospels
+opens with a beautiful initial succeeded by letters of gradually
+diminishing size, and there are full page decorations embodying such
+subjects as the symbols of the Evangelists. The colors are rich and
+vivid and all the designs are of the purest and most Celtic
+character.
+
+_The Gospels of MacRegol _(now in the Bodleian Library, Oxford) is
+the work of an Abbot of Birr who died A.D. 820. It is a volume of
+unusually large size, copiously ornamented with masterly designs and
+containing illuminated portraits of Saints Mark, Luke, and John. The
+first part of the book with the portrait of St. Matthew is missing.
+_The Book of Kells _(in the Library of T.C.D.) is the all-surpassing
+masterpiece of Celtic illuminative art and is acknowledged to be the
+most beautiful book in the world. This copy of the four Gospels was
+long deemed to have been made by the saintly hands of Columcille,
+though it probably belongs to the eighth century. Into its pages are
+woven such a wealth of ornament, such an ecstasy of art, and such a
+miracle of design that the book is today not only one of Ireland's
+greatest glories but one of the world's wonders. After twelve
+centuries the ink is as black and lustrous and the colors are as
+fresh and soft as though but the work of yesterday. The whole range
+of colors is there--green, blue, crimson, scarlet, yellow, purple,
+violet--and the same color is at times varied in tone and depth and
+shade, thereby achieving a more exquisite combination and effect. In
+addition to the numerous decorative pages and marvellous initials,
+there are portraits of the Evangelists and full-page miniatures of
+the Temptation of Christ, His Seizure by the Jews, and the Madonna
+and Child surrounded by Angels with censers. Exceptionally beautiful
+are these angels and other angelic figures throughout the book, their
+wings shining with glowing colors amid woven patterns of graceful
+design. The portraits and miniatures and the numerous faces centred
+in initial letters are not to be adjudged by the standard of
+anatomical drawing and delineation of the human figure, but rather by
+their effect as part of a scheme of ornamentation; for the Celtic
+illuminator was imaginative rather than realistic, and aimed
+altogether at achieving beauty by means of color and design. The Book
+of Kells is the Mecca of the illuminative artist, but it is the
+despair of the copyist. The patience and skill of the olden scribe
+have baffled the imitator; for, on an examination with a magnifying
+glass, it has been found that, in a space of a quarter of an inch,
+there are no fewer than a hundred and fifty-eight interlacements of a
+ribbon pattern of white lines edged by black ones on a black ground.
+Surely this is the manuscript which was shown to Giraldus Cambrensis
+towards the close of the twelfth century and of whose illuminations
+he speaks with glowing enthusiasm; "they were," he says, "supposed to
+have been produced by the direction of an angel at the prayer of St.
+Brigid."
+
+_The Gospels of MacDurnan _(now in the Archbishop's Library at
+Lambeth) is a small and beautiful volume which was executed by an
+abbot of Armagh who died in the year 891. A full-page picture of the
+Evangelist precedes each Gospel, and a composite border frames each
+miniature in a bewildering pattern of intertwining strapwork and
+wonderful designs of imaginary beasts. Ornamental capitals and rich
+borders give a special beauty to the initial pages of the Gospels.
+
+_The Book of Armagh _(in the Library of T.C.D.) was carefully guarded
+and specially venerated through the ages in the erroneous belief that
+it was in part the handiwork of St. Patrick. It was written about the
+year 800, and would appear to have been copied from documents
+actually written by the patron saint of Ireland. The book is
+exceptionally interesting by reason of the fact that it contains St.
+Patrick's Confession, that beautiful story of how he found his
+mission, how the captive grew to love his captors, and how, after his
+escape, he came back to them bearing the lamp of Holy Faith. Although
+the ornamentation of the manuscript is infrequent, there are
+occasional beautiful examples which compare in richness with those in
+the Book of Kells.
+
+_The Liber Hymnorum _(in the Franciscan Monastery, Dublin) contains a
+number of hymns associated with the names of Irish saints. The
+ornamentation consists of colored initials, designed with a striking
+use of fanciful animal figures interlaced and twined with delightful
+freedom around the main structural body.
+
+The _Garland of Howth_ and the _Stowe Missal_ (both in Trinity
+College Library) belong to the eighth century and are beautiful
+examples of early illuminative art. The former, which is very
+incomplete, has only two ornamental pages left, each containing
+figure-representations inserted in the decorative work.
+
+The _Gospels of St. Chad_ (in the Cathedral Library at Lichfield) and
+the _Gospels of Lindisfarne_, which are "the glory of the British
+Museum", form striking examples of the influence of Celtic art. St.
+Chad was educated in Ireland in the school of St. Finian, where he
+acquired his training in book decoration. The Gospels of Lindisfarne
+were produced by the monks of Iona, where St. Columcille founded his
+great school of religion, art, and learning. This latter manuscript
+is second only to the Book of Kells in its glory of illuminative
+design, and, from its distinctive scheme of colors, the tones of
+which are light and bright and gay, it forms a contrast to the
+quieter shades and the solemn dignity of the more famous volume.
+
+_The Book of the Dun Cow, The Book of Leinster_, and the other great
+manuscripts of the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries are
+interesting as literature rather than as art, for they tell the
+history of ancient Erin and have garnered her olden legends and
+romantic tales. It is only the Gospels and other manuscripts of
+religious subjects that are illuminated. In the apparel of the
+ancient Irish, the number of colors marked the social rank: the king
+might wear seven colors, poets and learned men six; five colors were
+permitted in the clothes of chieftains, and thus grading down to the
+servant, who might wear but one. All this the scribe knew well. We
+can picture the humble servant of God, clad in a coarse robe of a
+single color, deep in his chosen labor of recording the life and
+teachings of his Master, and striving to endow this record with the
+glory of the seven colors which were rightly due to a King alone. As
+we gaze on his work today its beauty is instinct with life, and the
+patient love that gave it birth seems to cling to it still. The white
+magic of the artist's holy hands has bridged the span of a thousand
+years.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+O'Curry: Lectures on the Manuscript Materials of Ancient Irish
+History (Dublin, 1861); Brunn: An Enquiry into the Art of the
+Illuminated Manuscripts of the Middle Ages, Part I, Celtic
+Illuminated Manuscripts (Edinburgh, 1897); Robinson: Celtic
+Illuminative Art in the Gospels of Durrow, Lindisfarne, and Kells
+(Dublin, 1908); Westwood: The Book of Kells, a lecture given in
+Oxford, November, 1886 (Dublin, 1887); Gougaud: Répertoire des
+fac-similés des manuscripts irlandais (Paris, 1913).
+
+
+
+THE RUINS OF IRELAND
+
+By FRANCIS JOSEPH BIGGER, M.R.I.A.
+
+
+The ruins of Ireland are her proudest monuments. They stand as a
+lasting revelation to all mankind--a distinct and definite
+proclamation that the Irish people, century after century, were able
+to raise and adorn some of the finest buildings in stone that western
+civilization has seen or known. It is recognized the world over that
+Irish art has a beauty and distinction all its own, in its own Irish
+setting unrivalled, throned in its own land, in its own natural
+surroundings. The shrines and gospels, the reliquaries and missals,
+the crosses and bells that are still existent, many in Ireland,
+others in every country in the world, attest beyond any dispute that
+Irish art-workers held a preëminent place in the early middle ages,
+and that works of Irish art are still treasured as unique in their
+day and time. No country has been plundered and desolated as Ireland
+has been. Dane, Norman, English--each in turn swept across the fair
+face of Ireland, carrying destruction in their train, yet withal
+Ireland has her art treasures and her ruins that bear favorable
+comparison with those of other civilizations.
+
+In Dublin and in many private Irish collections can be found
+hand-written books of parchment, illuminated with glowing colors that
+time has scarce affected or the years caused to fade. On one page
+alone of the Book of Kells, ornament and writing can be seen penned
+and painted in lines too numerous even to count. They are there by
+the thousand: a magnifying glass is required to reveal even a
+fragment of them. Ireland produced these in endless number--every
+great library or collection in Europe possesses one or more examples.
+
+As with books, so with reliquaries, crosses, and bells. When the
+Island of Saints and Scholars could produce books, it could make
+shrines and everything necessary to stimulate and hand down the piety
+and the patient skill of a people steeped in art-craft and religious
+feeling. What they could do on parchment--like the Books of Kells and
+Durrow--what they could produce in bronze and precious metals--like
+the Cross of Cong, the Shrine of Saint Patrick's Bell, the Tara
+Brooch, and the Chalice of Ardagh--not to write of the numberless
+bronze and gold articles of an age centuries long preceding their
+production--they could certainly vie with in stone.
+
+Of this earlier work a word must go down. In Ireland still at the
+present day, after all the years of plunder she has undergone, more
+ancient gold art-treasures remain than in any other country, museum,
+or collection, most of them pre-Christian, and what the other
+countries do possess are largely Irish or of Celtic origin. We must
+have this borne into the minds of every one of Irish birth or origin,
+that this great treasure was battered into shape by Irish hands on
+Irish anvils, designed in Irish studios, ornamented with Irish skill
+for Irish use.
+
+With such workmen, having such instincts and training, what of the
+housing and surroundings to contain them and give them a fit and
+suitable setting? The earliest stone structures in Ireland still
+remaining are the great stone cashels or circular walls enclosing
+large spaces--walls of great thickness, unmortared, in which there
+are vast quantities of masonry. Around their summits a chariot might
+be driven, inside their spaces horse races might be run. As a few
+examples, there are Staigue, in Kerry; Dun Angus, in Aran, off
+Galway; Aileach, above the walls of Derry. Of the earliest churches,
+cyclopean in construction and primitive in character, built of stone,
+with thick sloping walls from foundation to ridge, Gallerus still
+remains, and the Skelligs, those wondrous sea-girt rocks, preserve
+both church and cell almost perfect. There are many other examples,
+some of a later date, such as Temple Cronan and Maghera and Banagher
+in Derry, St. Finan's oratory in county Cork, St. Fechin's at Fore,
+and St. Molaise's at Devenish.
+
+From the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries, there are innumerable
+examples of oratories, some with stone roofs, others with roofs not
+so permanent, but all having the common features of an altar window
+facing the east, through which the sun fell at the beginning of the
+day to tell the early missioner that his hour of devotion had
+arrived, and a west door, through which the rays of the declining sun
+fell across the altar steps, speaking of a day that was closing. A
+south window was added close to the east end, and it, too, was a
+sun-dial; it told the hour of angelus, the mid-day, when the bell was
+rung and a calm reverence fell on all within its hearing. Such
+churches can still be seen at Aran and Inismurray, on the islands of
+Lough Derg, Lough Ri, and in many other places.
+
+A few years later these oratories were too small for the growing
+faith, and larger churches were built, some using the older structure
+as chancels. Where the west door was built a circular arch was made
+and the new and old united. This can well be seen at Inis-na-ghoill
+in Lough Corrib, on the Aran Islands off Galway, at Glendalough, at
+Inis-cleraun in Lough Ri, at Clonmacnois, at Iniscaltra, and on many
+another island and promontory of the south and west.
+
+During this time, and after, we find the most elaborate carvings on
+door and arch and window, equal in skill to what is found in book or
+metal work.
+
+It must have been at this time that the Galls, or strangers, first
+invaded Ireland, bearing havoc in their train, for then it was that
+the _cloicteach_, or Round Towers, were built. It is now admitted by
+all Irish authorities of any repute, and that beyond dispute, that
+the Round Towers, the glory of Ireland, were built by Irish people as
+Christian monuments from which the bells might be rung, and as places
+of strength for the preservation of the valued articles used in
+Christian worship; here they might be safely stored. They were also
+used for the preservation of life in case of sudden attack and
+onslaught by unexpected enemies. All the towers are on ecclesiastical
+sites, many are incorporated in church buildings, such as those of
+Glendalough in Wicklow and Clonmacnois on the Shannon, The records of
+the construction of some of them in the tenth and eleventh centuries
+are still extant, and this is conclusive. There are today about
+seventy Round Towers in Ireland, and many have been destroyed.
+
+      The pillar towers of Ireland, how wondrously they stand
+      By the lakes and rushing rivers through the valleys of our land;
+      In mystic file, through the isle, they lift their heads sublime,
+      These gray old pillar temples--these conquerors of time.
+
+      Here was placed the holy chalice that held the sacred wine,
+      And the gold cross from the altar, and the relics from the shrine,
+      And the mitre shining brighter with its diamonds than the east,
+      And the crozier of the pontiff, and the vestments of the priest.
+
+                                                _D.F. MacCarthy_.
+
+This was the time when the High Crosses of Ireland were carved and
+set up. They vie with the Round Towers in interest and in the display
+of skill. What the towers have in perfection, masonry and
+construction, the crosses have in artistic carving and symbolic
+design. No two crosses are alike; they are as varied as the clouds in
+an Irish sky or the pebbles on the beach or the flowers in a garden.
+They were carved in reverence by those who knew and esteemed their
+art, and lavished all their skill and knowledge on what they most
+valued and treasured. They were not set up as grave-marks
+merely--theirs was a higher and loftier mission. They were raised in
+places where some great event or period was to be commemorated--they
+were erected where some early disciple of the Cross could stand
+beside one of them and from any panel could tell the foundation of
+the Faith, for there in stone was story after story, from the Old
+Testament and the New, that gave him his text, and so, as at the
+Cross of the Scriptures at Clonmacnois, a missioner could preach on
+every recurring holy day from Christmas to Christmas, with ever his
+text in stone before him. Many a broken and mutilated cross has been
+set up in Ireland in recent years, proving that the heart of the
+Gael, no matter how rent and broken, is still inclined to bind up the
+broken wounds of her past glories.
+
+With the religious orders there came to Ireland a widespread desire
+to add something to the older sanctuaries of the Gael, to widen their
+borders and strengthen their cords, and so the abbeys were founded.
+Here and there we find them still--by winding rivers, on rich
+meadows, in glens and glades, by the sea margin, or on the slopes of
+the rugged mountain. Their crumbling walls and broken windows can
+still be traced, their towers are still to be seen over tree tops and
+in the centre of many a slumbering town. By the shores of Donegal Bay
+the old Franciscan house, where the Four Masters compiled what is
+perhaps the most remarkable record possessed by any nation, is still
+clothed in ivy. At Kilconnell, in Galway, their old place is almost
+as they left it, but roofless, with the tears of the friars upon the
+altar steps. Clare Galway has a tower worth travelling half a
+continent to see. By the Boniet River, at Drumahaire, on the banks of
+Lough Gill, are the mason marks of the cloister builders, and the
+figure of St. Francis talking to the birds is still there. The abbey
+is roofless and empty, and so the birds of the air are his constant
+companions.
+
+Space forbids, or endless abbeys might be described. The Black Abbey
+at Kilkenny, with its long row of Butler effigies, or the Cathedral
+of Saint Canice, still perfect, with its soaring round tower beside
+it, or the mystical seven light window of the Franciscan friary by
+the Nore, with the old mill-weirs running free to this day. How long
+could we ponder by the east window of Kilcooley, with tracery like a
+spider's web, and listen to the mystical bells, or gaze at the
+beautiful oriel at Feenagh, or stand at Jerpoint, with its spacious
+cloisters and stone-groined choir, with Saint Christopher in Irish
+marble beside us.
+
+Cashel, one of the wonders of the world, grows up suddenly into sight
+on a high rock rising from level land crowned with buildings. A great
+abbey dominates; beside it clings that carved gem of a stone-roofed
+church, Cormac's Chapel. Round Tower and Cross are there, and many a
+sculptured tomb.
+
+Not far from Cashel is the Abbey of Holy Cross, with its lovely
+mitred windows, shadowed in the river passing at its feet. The
+circular pillars and arches of Boyle Abbey are splendidly
+proportioned, whilst the cloisters of Sligo display in their long,
+shadowy recesses and ornamented pillars great dignity and beauty. The
+windows and monuments of Ennis Friary, founded by the O'Briens, are
+of unusual interest, the carving of figure-subjects being equal to
+the best of their age.
+
+We have Thomastown and Callan, Dunbrody and Tintern, all having an
+individual charm and interest that not only dim the eye and make the
+blood course freely in every one of Irish stock when he looks upon
+what is and thinks of what was, but even in the coldest light give
+food for thought to every one desirous of knowing something of the
+growth and civilization of a great people.
+
+Of the many castles and stout Irish strongholds it is hard to write
+in such a short paper as this. Those on the Boyne, such as Trim, for
+strong building and extent, excel in many ways. Carlingford,
+Carrickfergus, and Dunluce have by their size and picturesque
+situations ever appealed to visitors. They are each built on rocks
+jutting into the sea, Dunluce on a great perpendicular height, the
+Atlantic dashing below. Dunamace, near Maryborough, in the O'More
+country, appears like Cashel, but is entirely military. The famed
+walled cities of Kells, in Kilkenny, and Fore, in Westmeath, are
+remarkable. Each has an abbey, many towers, gates, and stout
+bastions. The great keeps of the midland lords, the towers of
+Granuaile on the west coast, and the traders' towers on the east
+coast, especially those of Down, afford ample material for a study of
+the early colonizing efforts of different invaders, as well as
+providing incidents of heroism and romance. These square battlemented
+towers can be seen here and there in every district.
+
+Every portion of Ireland has its ruins. Earthworks, stone forts,
+prehistoric monuments, circular stone huts, early churches, abbeys,
+crosses, round towers, castles of every size and shape are to be
+found in every county, some one in every parish, all over Ireland. It
+is almost invidious to name any in particular where the number is so
+great.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Proceedings of Royal Irish Academy (Dublin); Proceedings of Society
+of Antiquaries (Dublin); Ulster Journal of Archaeology, Old Series
+and New Series, edited by F.J. Bigger, Belfast; Wakeman: Handbook of
+Irish Antiquities (Dublin, 1891); Stokes: Early Christian Art in
+Ireland (Dublin, 1887); Petrie: Round Towers and Ancient Architecture
+of Ireland (Dublin, 1845).
+
+
+
+MODERN IRISH ART
+
+By D.J. O'DONOGHUE,
+
+_Librarian, University College, Dublin_.
+
+
+It would be difficult to dispute, in view of her innumerable and
+excellent artists, that there has always been in modern times an art
+consciousness in Ireland, but it is impossible to assert that there
+has been any artistic unity in her people. She has produced no
+school, but merely a great number of brilliant painters, sculptors,
+and engravers, chiefly for export. With all our acknowledged artistic
+capacity, we have not, except in one notable instance, produced a
+cumulative art effect. The history of Irish art is almost uniformly a
+depressing narrative. During a comparatively brief period in the
+eighteenth century--significantly enough, it was while the country
+enjoyed a short spell of national life--there was something like a
+national patronage of the artist, and the result is visible in the
+noble public buildings and beautiful houses of the Irish capital,
+with their universally admired mantelpieces, doors, ceilings,
+fanlights, ironwork, and carvings. In short, while Ireland had even a
+partly unfettered control of her own concerns, the arts were
+generously encouraged by her government and by the wealthy
+individual. When other European capitals were mere congeries of
+rookeries, Dublin, the centre of Irish political life, possessed
+splendid streets, grandly planned. But there was little solidarity
+among the artistic fraternity. Various associations of artists were
+formed, which held together fairly well until the flight of the
+resident town gentry after the Union, and many admirable artists were
+trained in the schools of the Royal Dublin Society, but, since the
+opening of the nineteenth century, there has been almost no visible
+art effort in Dublin. True, there have been many fine artists, who
+have made a struggle to fix themselves in Dublin, but, as with the
+Royal Hibernian Academy, of which the best of them were members, the
+struggle has been a painful agony. Usually the artist migrated to
+London to join the large group of Irishmen working there; a few
+others went to America and obtained an honored place in her art
+annals. Those who went to England secured in many cases the highest
+rewards of the profession. Several, like Barry, Hone, Barrett, and
+Cotes, were founders or early members of the Royal Academy; one, Sir
+Martin Shee, became its President. Nevertheless, many distinguished
+artists remained in Dublin, where the arts of portrait-painting and
+engraving were carried to a high pitch of excellence.
+
+This record must necessarily be of a chronological character, and can
+only take note of those whose works have actual value and interest,
+historical or other. Edward Luttrell (1650-1710) did some excellent
+work in crayon or pastel, while Garrett Murphy (fl. 1650-1716),
+Stephen Slaughter (d. 1765), Francis Bindon (d. 1765), and James
+Latham (1696-1747), have each left us notable portraits of the great
+Irish personages of their day. To fellow countrymen in London,
+Charles Jervas (1675?-1739), Thomas Hickey (d. 1816?), and Francis
+Cotes, R.A. (1725-1770), we owe presentments of other famous people.
+George Barrett, R.A. (1728-1784), one of the greatest landscapists of
+his time; Nathaniel Hone, R.A. (1718-1784), an eccentric but gifted
+painter, with an individuality displayed in all his portraits; James
+Barry, R.A. (1741-1806), still more eccentric, with grand conceptions
+imperfectly carried out in his great historical and allegorical
+pictures:--these, with Henry Tresham, R.A. (1749?-1814), and Matthew
+Peters, R.A. (1742-1814), historical painters of considerable merit,
+upheld the Irish claim to a high place in English eighteenth century
+art. A little later, miniaturists such as Horace Hone, A.R.A.
+(1756-1825), George Chinnery (1774-1852), and Adam Buck (1759-1844),
+also worked with remarkable success in London. Among resident Irish
+artists, the highest praise can be given to the miniature painters,
+John Comerford (1770?-1832) and Charles Robertson (1760-1821), and to
+the portrait-painters, Robert Hunter (fl. 1750-1803) and (especially)
+Hugh Douglas Hamilton (1739-1808), of whose work Ireland possesses
+many distinguished examples. Some day Hamilton's pictures will appeal
+to a far wider public than his countrymen can provide. One must omit
+the names of many clever Irish artists like the Wests, Francis and
+Robert, who were the most successful teachers of perhaps any time in
+Ireland, and come at once to that branch of art in which Ireland
+stands second to none--mezzotint-engraving.
+
+One of the earliest engravers in this style was Edward Luttrell,
+already named as a painter, but it was John Brooks (fl. 1730-1756)
+who is justly considered the real founder of that remarkable group of
+Irish engravers whose work may be more correctly described as
+belonging to a school than any other of the period. For many years in
+Dublin, and afterwards in London, a succession of first-rate artists
+of Irish birth produced work which remains and always must remain one
+of the glories of Ireland. Limits of space allow only the bare
+mention of the names of James McArdell (1728?-1765), Charles Spooner
+(d. 1767), Thomas Beard (fl. 1728), Thomas Frye (1710-1762), Edward
+Fisher (1722-1785?), Michael Ford (d. 1765), John Dixon (1740?-1811),
+Richard Purcell (fl. 1746-1766), Richard Houston (1721?-1775), John
+Murphy (1748?-1820), Thomas Burke (1749-1815), Charles Exshaw (fl.
+1747-1771), and Luke Sullivan (1705-1771)--artists of whom any
+country might be proud, and whose works have in most cases outlasted
+the remembrance of the persons whose likenesses they sought to
+reproduce. Separate monographs might be justifiably written on most
+of the gifted artists here enumerated, and one can only regret not
+being able in short space to compare and estimate their various
+qualities. Thomas Chambers, A.R.A. (1724?-1784), William Nelson
+Gardiner (1766-1814), James Egan (1799-1842), and William Humphreys
+(1794-1865) are other Irish engravers who cannot be overlooked in a
+survey of the art of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth
+centuries.
+
+Contemporaneously with the remarkable development of the art of
+engraving arose a group of Irish architects. Rather earlier in point
+of time was Sir Edward Lovat Pearce (d. 1733), who was one of the
+chief architects of the Irish Parliament House, and Thomas Burgh (d.
+1730), to whom we owe the Library of Trinity College, Dublin; but
+Thomas Cooley (1740-1784), designer of the handsome Royal Exchange of
+that city; Richard Castle (d. 1751), a foreigner who settled in
+Ireland and built a number of beautiful Irish residences; Francis
+Johnston (1761-1829), an excellent architect whose chief claim to
+remembrance, however, is as founder of the Royal Hibernian Academy;
+and, above all, James Gandon (1743-1823), whose superb Custom House,
+Four Courts, and part of the Irish Parliament House will perpetuate
+his name in Dublin while that city lasts--each helped to make the
+capital, even in its decay, one of the most interesting in Europe.
+Nor should we forget Thomas Ivory (d. 1786), whose Foundling Hospital
+is another of Dublin's many graceful edifices; nor Sir Richard
+Morrison (1767-1849) and his son William (1794-1838), much of whose
+work remains to testify to their skill and ingenuity.
+
+Ecclesiastical architecture in Ireland is indebted to Patrick Byrne
+(fl. 1840), James J. McCarthy (d. 1882), J.B. Keane (d. 1859), and
+James Murray (1831-1863), for many well designed churches and chapels
+throughout Ireland; but the great names in modern Irish architecture
+are those of Benjamin Woodward (1815-1861), whose premature death was
+a serious loss to Irish art; Sir Thomas Deane (1792-1871); and his
+son, Sir Thomas Newenham Deane (1828-1899). The elder Deane was, with
+Woodward, the architect of the Oxford Museum and of the splendid
+Engineering Hall of Trinity College, Dublin, buildings which have
+elicited enthusiastic praise from John Ruskin and other eminent
+critics. Deserving of respectful mention, too, to come down to our
+own days, are Sir Thomas Drew (1838-1910) and William H. Lynn, who is
+still living.
+
+In sculpture, again, Ireland has done memorable work. In the
+eighteenth century she gave us admirable craftsmen like Edward Smyth
+(1749-1812), John Hickey (1756-1795), and Christopher Hewitson (fl.
+1772-1794), whose dignified monument of Bishop Baldwin is one of the
+most distinguished pieces of sculpture in Trinity College, Dublin.
+But it was not till the appearance of a later group of sculptors,
+including John Hogan (1800-1858), John Edward Carew (1785-1868), John
+Henry Foley, R.A. (1818-1874), and Patrick MacDowell, R.A.
+(1799-1870), that Irish sculpture obtained more than local renown.
+Fortunately, most of the best work of Hogan and Foley remains in
+Ireland; that of Carew and MacDowell is chiefly to be found in the
+Houses of Parliament and other institutions in London. The
+incomparable "Goldsmith," "Burke," "Grattan," and other statues by
+Foley, together with an almost complete collection of casts of his
+other works, are in his native country. Hogan is represented in
+Dublin by his "Thomas Davis" and his "Dead Christ," to name but two
+of his principal works. The names at least of James Heffernan
+(1785-1847), of John Edward Jones (1806-1872), of Terence Farrell
+(1798-1876), of Samuel F. Lynn (1834-1876), and perhaps of
+Christopher Moore (1790-1863), an excellent sculptor of busts, may be
+set down here. Sir Thomas Farrell (1827-1900) and the living
+sculptors, John Hughes, Oliver Sheppard, and Albert Bruce Joy, are
+responsible for some of the more admirable of the public monuments of
+Dublin. It is much to be deplored that of the work of one of the
+greatest of Dublin-born artists, Augustus Saint Gaudens, we have only
+one example--the statue of Parnell. Ireland may surely claim him as
+one of her most gifted sons. And perhaps a word might be said in this
+place of some of the other Irishmen who made their home in America:
+of Hoban the architect who designed the White House at Washington,
+modelling it after Leinster House in Dublin; of painters like Charles
+Ingham, W.G. Wall, William Magrath, the Morans, James Hamilton, and
+Thomas Hovenden; and of sculptors like John Donoghue, John Flanagan,
+Andrew O'Connor, John F. Kelly, Jerome Connor, John J. Boyle, and
+Martin Milmore. But they belong rather to the history of American art
+than to that of Ireland.
+
+Before leaving the subject of Irish sculpture, the work of the
+medallists, an allied branch of the art in which Irishmen did much
+valued work, should not be overlooked. The medals of William Mossop
+(1751-1805), of his son, William Stephen Mossop (1788-1827), and of
+John Woodhouse (1835-1892), to mention only three of its chief
+representatives in Ireland, are greatly prized by collectors.
+
+Most modern Irish art of high importance has been largely produced
+out of Ireland, which has been perforce abandoned by those artists
+who have learned how little encouragement is to be met with at home.
+One can blame neither the artist nor the Irish public for this
+unfortunate result; there is sufficient reason in the political and
+economic condition of Ireland since the Union to explain the fact.
+But for this cause men like Daniel Maclise, R.A. (1806-1870), William
+Mulready, R.A. (1786-1863), Francis Danby, A.R.A. (1793-1861), and
+Alfred Elmore, R.A. (1815-1881), might have endeavored to emulate the
+spirit of James O'Connor (1792-1841), the landscapist, Richard
+Rothwell (1800-1868), a charming subject painter, and Sir Frederic W.
+Burton (1816-1900), one of the most distinguished artists of his
+time, who at least spent some of their active working career in their
+native land. The same words apply to artists who succeeded in other
+branches of the profession, men like John Doyle (1797-1868), a
+caricaturist with all the power, without the coarseness, of his
+predecessors; his son, Richard Doyle (1824-1883), a refined and
+delicate artist; John Leech (1817-1864), the humorist, a member of an
+Irish Catholic family; Paul Gray (1842-1866), who died before his
+powers had fully matured; and Matthew James Lawless (1837-1864), who
+also died too early. William Collins, R.A. (1788-1847) and Clarkson
+Stanfield, R.A. (1793-1867), both eminent representatives of English
+art, though of Irish extraction, more properly belong to England than
+to Ireland.
+
+Not discouraged by the melancholy history of many gifted Irish
+artists, Ireland still produces men who are not unworthy of
+association with the best who have gone before. Our most recent
+losses have been heavy--notably those of Walter F. Osborne
+(1859-1903) and Patrick Vincent Duffy (1832-1909), but we still have
+artists of genius in the persons of Nathaniel Hone, a direct
+descendant of his famous namesake; John Butler Yeats; John Lavery,
+A.R.A.; and William Orpen, A.R.A. Many other names might be given,
+but already this attempt at a survey suffers by its enumeration of
+artists, who, however, could hardly be neglected in such a record.
+
+Crowded as the list may be, it is a careful selection, and it
+demonstrates that, notwithstanding all the disadvantages under which
+Ireland suffers, the country has an almost unlimited capacity for
+fine achievement, and that, with prosperity and contentment, she may
+be expected to rival the most illustrious of art centres. It is only
+within living memory that any attempt has been made to direct the
+known artistic skill of the Irish people to industrial effort. But
+the remarkable success achieved in the modern designs for Irish lace
+in the English art competitions is an instance of what might be done
+generally in the applied arts. Though they are in their infancy, the
+new carpet and stained glass industries in Ireland also hold out
+considerable hope for the future. But one can only barely indicate
+what has been and might be done in the furtherance of Irish art. If
+we only had under one roof a judiciously made collection of all the
+best work done by Irish artists of all styles and periods, it would
+more eloquently justify our claim than endless columns of praise.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Anthony Pasquin [John Williams]: History of Professors of Painting in
+Ireland (1795); T.J. Mulvany: Life of James Gandon; John O'Keeffe:
+Reminiscences, vol. I; Taft: American Sculpture; W.G. Strickland:
+Dictionary of Irish Artists (2 vols., 1913).
+
+
+
+IRELAND AT PLAY
+
+By THOMAS E. HEALY,
+
+_Editor of "Sport," Dublin_.
+
+
+On the face of the earth there is no nation in which the love of
+clean and wholesome sport is more strongly developed than in the
+Irish. Against us it cannot be urged that we take our pleasures
+sadly. We enter into them with entire self-abandon, whole-hearted
+enthusiasm, and genuine exuberance of spirit. There is nothing
+counterfeit about the Irishman in his play. His one keen desire is to
+win, be the contest what it may; and towards the achievement of that
+end he will strain nerve and muscle even to the point of utter
+exhaustion. And how the onlookers applaud at the spectacle of a
+desperately contested race, whether between horses, men, motorcars,
+bicycles, or boats, or of a match between football, hurling, or
+cricket teams! It matters not which horse, man, car, cycle, boat, or
+team is successful: the sport is the thing that counts; the
+strenuousness of the contest is what stimulates and evokes the
+rapturous applause. At such a moment it is good to be alive. Scenes
+similar to those hinted at may be witnessed on any sports-field or
+racetrack in our dear little Emerald Isle almost any day of the year.
+All is good fellowship; all is in the cause of sport.
+
+No one can question that in some departments of horse-racing Ireland
+is today supreme. The Irish devotion to the horse is of no recent
+growth. Everybody knows how, in the dim and distant days when King
+Conor macNessa ruled at Emain, the war-steeds of the Ultonians
+neighed loudly in their stalls on the first dramatic appearance of
+Cuchulainn of Muirthemne at the northern court. Cuchulainn's own two
+steeds, Liath Macha, "the Roan of Macha", and Dub Sainglenn, "Black
+Sanglan", are celebrated in story and song:
+
+      Never hoofs like them shall ring,
+      Rapid as the winds of spring.
+
+To read of the performances of Cuchulainn and his war-horses and his
+charioteer and friend, Laeg macRiangahra, at the famous battle of
+Rosnaree, and again at the last fight between the Red Branch Knights
+and the forces of Queen Medb of Connacht, does truly, in the words
+used by Sir Philip Sidney in another connection, stir the heart like
+the sound of a trumpet.
+
+As time went on, the Irish war-horse became more and more famous, and
+always carried his rider in gallant style. Stout was the steed that,
+bestridden by Godfrey O'Donnell at the battle of Credan-Kille,
+withstood the shock of Lord Maurice Fitzgerald's desperate onslaught,
+and by his steadiness enabled the Tyrconnell chieftain to strike
+senseless and unhorse his fierce Norman foe. More celebrated still
+was the high-spirited animal which Art MacMurrogh rode in 1399 to his
+ineffectual parley with King Richard the Second's representative, the
+Earl of Gloucester. The French chronicler who was a witness of that
+historic scene tells us that a horse more exquisitely beautiful, more
+marvellously fleet, he had never seen. "In coming down," he says, "it
+galloped so hard that, in my opinion, I never saw hare, deer, sheep,
+or any other animal, I declare to you for a certainty, run with such
+speed as it did." Edmund Spenser, the poet of _The Faerie Queene_,
+writing in 1596, bears this striking testimony to the Irish
+horse-soldier and inferentially to the Irish horse: "I have hearde
+some greate warriours say, that, in all the services which they had
+seene abroade in forrayne countreys, they never sawe a more comely
+horseman than the Irish man, nor that cometh on more bravely in his
+charge." The feats performed at the Battle of the Boyne, in 1690, by
+the Irish horse-soldiers under Hamilton and Berwick were really
+wonderful, and well-nigh turned disaster into victory on that
+memorable day which decided the fate of nations as well as of
+dynasties. And surely those were fleet and stout-hearted steeds that,
+on August 12, 1690, carried Sarsfield and his chosen five hundred on
+their dare-devil midnight ride from the Keeper Hills to Ballyneety,
+where in the dim morning twilight they captured and destroyed William
+of Orange's wonderful siege-train, and thereby heartened the
+defenders of beleaguered Limerick.
+
+Writing in 1809, Lawrence, in his _History and Delineation of the
+Horse_, said: "From Ireland alone we import [into England] many
+saddle horses, as many perhaps as 1,500 in a year; upwards in some
+years. The Irish are the highest and steadiest leapers in the world.
+Ireland has bred some good racers, and the generality of Irish horses
+are, it appears, warmer tempered than our own; and, to use the
+expression, sharper and more frigate-built."
+
+It is not to be wondered at therefore if in such a country there
+developed an ardent love of the noble sport of horse-racing. The
+Curragh of Kildare, the long-standing headquarters of the Irish Turf
+Club, was celebrated far back in the eighteenth century as the venue
+of some great equine contests; and to this day, with its five
+important fixtures every year, it still holds pride of place. There
+are numerous other race-courses all over the country, from
+Punchestown, Leopardstown, Phoenix Park, and Baldoyle in the east to
+Galway in the west, and from The Maze in the north to rebel Cork in
+the south. Horse-racing has not inappropriately been termed the
+national pastime of Ireland. The number of people now giving their
+attention to it has called for a notable increase in the number of
+race-meetings, and stake-money is being put up on a more generous
+scale than at any previous time in the history of the sport. For
+example, the Irish Derby, run at the Curragh, was in 1914 worth
+£2,500; and there are besides several stakes of £1,500 and £1,000.
+The result of this forward policy is that increasing numbers come to
+our race-meetings and that the turf has never been more popular than
+it is today. Men and women of wealth and position find in the
+national pastime a pleasant method of employing their leisure, and in
+expending their surplus wealth in its pursuit and in the raising of
+horses of the highest class they realize that they confer a real
+benefit on the country.
+
+It is, of course, now universally known that Ireland has an
+international reputation as a country eminently fitted for
+horse-breeding. If proof were needed, it would be found in the
+extensive purchases effected by English, French, Italian, German,
+Russian, and American buyers at the great Dublin Horse Show held in
+August every year. Horses bought in Ireland have seldom failed to
+realize their promise. The English classic races and many of the
+principal handicaps on the flat have been often won by Irish-bred
+horses, such as Galtee More, Ard Patrick, Orby, Kilwarlin,
+Barcaldine, Umpire, Master Kildare, Kilsallaghan, Bendigo, Philomel,
+The Rejected, Comedy, Winkfield's Pride, Bellevin, Royal Flush,
+Victor Wild, Bachelor's Button, Irish Ivy, and Hackler's Pride. If
+only a few of the star performers are here set down, it is not from
+lack of means to continue, but merely from a desire to avoid the
+compilation of a mere string of names. In France, too, the Irish
+racer has made his mark. It is, however, in the four-and-a-half
+miles' Liverpool Grand National Steeplechase, the greatest
+cross-country race in the world, the supreme test of the leaper,
+galloper, and stayer, that Irish-bred horses have made perhaps the
+most wonderful record. The list of winners of that great event
+demonstrates in an unmistakable manner that we are second to none in
+the art of breeding steeplechase horses. Among many other noted
+Irish-bred winners of this race there stand boldly forth the names of
+The Lamb, Empress, Woodbrook, Frigate, Come Away, Cloister, Wild Man
+from Borneo, and Manifesto. In fact, it is the exception when another
+than an Irish-bred horse annexes the blue riband of steeplechasing.
+
+Closely allied to horse-racing is fox-hunting, and fox-hunting, as
+well as the hunting of the stag and of the hare, has flourished
+exceedingly in Ireland for a long time past. A great deal of needed
+employment is one of the results. Dogs are specially bred and trained
+for each of these branches of sport. Irish foxhounds, staghounds,
+harriers, and beagles have a high reputation. More native to the
+soil, and so interwoven with the history of the country that it is
+often used as one of its symbols, is the Irish wolfhound. This is
+probably the animal to which Aurelius Symmachus, a Roman consul in
+Britain, referred when, writing to his brother in Ireland in A.D.
+391, he acknowledged the receipt of seven Irish hounds. The wolfhound
+played a sinister part in the Irish history of the eighteenth
+century, for, as Davis says in his poem, "The Penal Days":
+
+      Their dogs were taught alike to run
+      Upon the scent of wolf and friar.
+
+The Irish wolfhound is now very scarce, and a genuine specimen is a
+valued and highly coveted possession. The greyhound, too, figures
+prominently in present-day sport, and in many parts of the country
+are held coursing meetings, which frequently result in several
+spirited contests. A famous Irish greyhound was Lord Lurgan's black
+and white dog, Master McGrath. Master McGrath achieved the rare
+distinction of winning the Waterloo Cup three times, in 1868, 1869,
+and 1871. When it is remembered that the Waterloo Cup is to coursing
+what the Liverpool Grand National is to steeplechasing, or the Epsom
+Derby to flat racing, the merit of this triple performance will at
+once be apparent.
+
+Compared with the sports in which horse and hound participate, all
+other outdoor pastimes in Ireland take rather a minor place. Still,
+the Irishman's love of sport is diversified. Few there are who have
+not many inclinations, and as a nation our taste in sport is
+catholic. We take part in nearly every pastime; in many we excel. The
+prize ring has fallen from its high estate, nor is it the intention
+here to try to cast any glamour over it. The subject is introduced,
+in a passing way, for the sole purpose of showing that, in what at
+least used to be the manly art of self-defense, Ireland in days gone
+by as well as at the present time has more than held her own. The
+most conspicuous of the representatives of her race in this
+department are perhaps Heenan, Ryan, Sullivan, Corbett, Maher,
+McAuliffe, McFarland, and McGoorty. There is one other prize-fighter,
+Dan Donnelly by name, who became a sort of national hero, of whom all
+Irishmen of his day were not a little proud, because he laid the
+English champion low, and whose performance, now haloed by the
+antiquity of more than a hundred years, we may with equanimity, as
+without offense, contemplate, with perhaps a sigh for the good old
+times. The famous encounter between Donnelly and Cooper took place on
+the Curragh, and after eleven rounds of scientific boxing Donnelly
+knocked his opponent over the ropes and won the world's championship
+for the Emerald Isle. The spot where the battle came off has ever
+since been known as Donnelly's Hollow, and a neat monument there
+erected commemorates the Dublin man's pluck and skill. A ballad
+recounting the incidents of the fight and, as ballads go, not badly
+composed, had a wonderful vogue, and was sung at fair and market and
+other meeting place within the memory of men who are not now more
+than middle-aged.
+
+A search in other domains of sport will be by no means barren of
+results. Take running, for instance. Who has not heard of the
+wondrous little Thomas Conneff from the short-grass county of
+Kildare? Who does not know of his brilliant performances on the
+track? We in Ireland, who had seen him defeat Carter, the great
+Canadian, over the four-mile course at Ballsbridge one summer's eve
+now nearly twenty golden years ago, knew his worth before he crossed
+the broad Atlantic to show to thousands of admiring spectators in
+America that Ireland was the breeder of fleet-footed sons, who lacked
+neither the courage, nor the thews and sinews, nor the staying power,
+to carry them at high speed over any distance of ground. May the
+earth lie light on Conneff, for in a small body he had a great heart!
+Then there was the mighty runner, James J. Daly, a true hero from
+Galway, the idol of the crowd in his native land as well as in the
+United States. Daly was the champion long distance cross-country
+runner of his day at home, and he showed before various nationalities
+in the Greater Ireland beyond the seas that he could successfully
+compete with the best from all countries.
+
+In high jumping, Patrick Davin, P. Leahy, and Peter O'Connor were for
+long in the foremost rank; Daniel Ahearne was famous for his
+hop-step-and-jump performance; Maurice Davin, Matthew McGrath, and
+Patrick Ryan have, each in his own day, thrown the 16-pound hammer to
+record distance; in shot-putting there are Sheridan, Horgan, John
+Flanagan, and others bearing true Irish names, who are right in
+front; and before their time we had a redoubted champion in W.J.M.
+Barry. All previous performances in the shot-putting line have,
+however, been recently eclipsed by Patrick J. McDonald, of the
+Irish-American Club, who at Celtic Park, Long Island, on May 30,
+1914, made a new world's record by putting the 18-pound shot 46 feet
+2-3/4 inches. The climax of achievement was reached when T.F. Kiely
+won the all-round championship of the world at New York. The
+distinguished part taken by Irishmen or sons of Irishmen in all
+departments of the Olympic games is so recent and so well known as to
+call for no comment. Ireland is far indeed from being degenerate in
+her athletes.
+
+In international strife with England, Scotland, Wales, and France at
+Rugby football, Ireland has likewise won her spurs. She has never
+been beaten by the representatives of Gaul; and though for long
+enough she had invariably to succumb in competition with the other
+three countries, such is not the case nowadays, nor has it been for
+many years past. The Irish team has ever to be reckoned with. In
+Association football, too, Ireland is coming into her own. This
+branch of the game has developed enormously within a comparatively
+few seasons. The people flock in their thousands to witness matches
+for the principal league contests or cup ties. But the greatest
+crowds of all go to see Gaelic football, the national game; and to
+hurling, also distinctively Irish, they foregather in serried masses.
+Since the Gaelic Athletic Association was founded both football and
+hurling have prospered exceedingly. They are essentially popular
+forms of sport, and the muscular manhood of city and country finds in
+them a natural outlet for their characteristic Celtic vigor. The
+Gaelic Association has fostered and developed these sports, and has
+organized them on so sound a basis that interest in them is not
+confined to any particular district but spreads throughout the length
+and breadth of Ireland.
+
+When the America Cup was to be challenged for, into the breach
+stepped the Earl of Dunraven and flung his gage to the holders of the
+trophy. This distinguished Irish nobleman furnished a contender in
+his Valkyrie II. in the fall of 1893, and his patriotic spirit in
+doing so stirred the sport-loving Irish nation to the greatest
+enthusiasm. His lordship was not successful, but he was not
+disheartened. He tried again with Valkyrie III., but again he was
+only second best, for, though his yacht sailed to victory in home
+waters, she proved unequal to the task of lifting the cup. No
+Englishman was prepared to tempt fortune, but not so that sterling
+Irishman, Sir Thomas Lipton, who, win or lose, would not have it laid
+to the charge of Ireland that an attempt should not be made. His
+Shamrock, Shamrock II., and Shamrock III.--surely a deep sense of
+patriotism prompted nomenclature such as that--each in succession
+went down to defeat; but Sir Thomas has not done yet. Like King
+Bruce, he is going to try again, and Shamrock IV. is to do battle
+with the best that America can range against her. All honor to Lord
+Dunraven and to Sir Thomas Lipton for their persistent efforts to
+engage in generous rivalry with the yachtsmen across the sea.
+
+Lawn-tennis, cricket, and golf we play, and play well; to rowing many
+of us are enthusiastically devoted; and at handball our young
+men--and some not so young--are signally expert. The champion
+handball player has always been of Irish blood. Baseball we
+invented--and called it rounders. It is significant that the great
+American ball game is still played according to a code which is
+scarcely modified from that which may be seen in force any summer day
+on an Irish school field or village green. Perhaps something of
+hereditary instinct is to be traced in the fact that many of the best
+exponents of American baseball are the bearers of fine old Irish
+names.
+
+This brief and cursory review of Ireland at Play must now conclude.
+It is scarcely more than a glossary, and not a complete one at that.
+It may, however, serve to show that Ireland's record in sport, like
+her record in so many other things set forth in this book, is great
+and glorious enough to warrant the insertion of this short chapter
+among those which tell of old achievements and feats of high emprize.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Racing--Irish Racing Calendar: 1790-1914, 124 vols. (Dublin, Brindley
+and Son); The Racing Calendar: 1774-1914 (London, Weatherby and
+Sons). Breeding--The General Stud Book: 1908-1913, 22 vols. (London,
+Weatherby and Sons). Racing and Breeding Generally--Cox: Notes on the
+History of the Irish Horse (Dublin, 1897). Boxing and
+Athletics--Files of _Sport_ and _Freeman's Journal_.
+
+
+
+THE FIGHTING RACE
+
+By JOSEPH I.C. CLARKE,
+
+_President, American Irish Historical Society_.
+
+
+I.--THE FIGHTING RACE AT HOME.
+
+"War was the ruling passion of this people," says MacGeoghegan,
+meaning the Milesians who were the latest of the peoples that overran
+ancient Ireland up to the coming of Christ. How many races had
+preceded them remains an enigma of history not profitable to examine
+here, but whoever they were, or in what succession they arrived, they
+must, like all migrating people, have been prepared to establish
+themselves at the point of the spear and the edge of the sword. Two
+races certainly were mingled in the ancient Irish, the fair or auburn
+haired with blue eyes, and the dark haired with eyes of gray or
+brown. The Milesians appear to have reached Ireland through Spain.
+They came swiftly to power, more than a thousand years before our
+Lord, and divided the country into four provinces or kingdoms, with
+an _ard-ri_, or high-king, ruling all in a loose way as to service,
+taxes, and allegiance. The economic life was almost entirely
+pastoral. Riches were counted in herds of cattle. "Robustness of
+frame, vehemence of passion, elevated imagination," Dr. Leland says,
+signalized this people. Robust, they became athletic and vigorous and
+excelled in the use of deadly weapons; passionate, they easily went
+from litigation to blows; imaginative, they leaned toward poetry and
+song and were strong for whatever religion they practised. The latter
+was a polytheism brought close to the people through the Druids. Some
+stone weapons were doubtless still used; they had also brazen or
+bronze swords, and spears, axes, and maces of various alloys of
+copper and tin. Socially they remained tribal. Heads of tribes were
+petty kings, each with his stronghold of a primitive character, each
+with his tribal warriors, bards, harpers, and druids, and the whole
+male population more or less ready to take part in war.
+
+The great heroes whose names have come down to us, such as Finn, son
+of Cumhal, and Cuchulainn, were reared in a school of arms. Bravery
+was the sign of true manhood. A law of chivalry moderated the excess
+of combat. A trained militia, the Fianna, gave character to an era;
+the Knights of the Red Branch were the distinguishing order of
+chevaliers. The songs of the bards were songs of battle; the great
+Irish epic of antiquity was the_ Táin Bó Cúalnge_, or Cooley
+Cattle-raid, and it is full of combats and feats of strength and
+prowess. High character meant high pride, always ready to give
+account of itself and strike for its ideals: "Irritable and bold", as
+one historian has it. They were jealous and quick to anger, but
+light-hearted laughter came easily to the lips of the ancient Irish.
+They worked cheerfully, prayed fervently to their gods, loved their
+women and children devotedly, clung passionately to their clan, and
+fought at the call with alacrity.
+
+Nothing, it will be seen, could be further from the minds of such a
+people than submission to what they deemed injustice. The habit of a
+proud freedom was ingrained. Their little island of 32,000 square
+miles in the Atlantic Ocean, the outpost of Europe, lay isolated save
+for occasional forays to and from the coasts of Scotland and England.
+The Roman invasions of western Europe never reached it. England the
+Romans overran, but never Scotland or Ireland. Self-contained,
+Ireland developed a civilization peculiarly its own, the product of
+an intense, imaginative, fighting race. War was not constant among
+them by any means, and occupied only small portions of the island at
+a time, but, since the bards' best work was war songs and war
+histories, with much braggadocio doubtless intermixed, a different
+impression might prevail. Half of their kings may have been killed in
+broil or battle, and yet great wars were few. If is undoubted that
+Scotic, that is, Irish, invasion and immigration peopled the western
+shores of Scotland and gave a name to the country. In the first
+centuries of the Christian era they were the men who with the Picts
+fought the Romans at the wall of Severus. The Britons, it will be
+remembered, enervated by Roman dominance, had failed to defend their
+"border" when Rome first withdrew her legions.
+
+At this time, too, began the first appearance of Ireland as a power
+on the sea. In the fourth century the high-king, Niall of the
+Hostages, commanding a large fleet of war galleys, invaded Scotland,
+ravaged the English coasts, and conquered Armorica (Brittany),
+penetrating as far as the banks of the Loire, where, according to the
+legend, he was slain by an arrow shot by one of his own men. One of
+the captives he brought from abroad on one of his early expeditions
+was a youth named Patrick, afterwards to be the Apostle of Ireland.
+Niall's nephew, Dathi, also ard-ri, was a great sea king. He invaded
+England, crossed to Gaul, and marched as far as the Alps, where he
+was killed by lightning. He was the last pagan king of Ireland. In
+perhaps a score of years after the death of Dathi, all Ireland had
+been converted to Christianity, and its old religion of a thousand
+years buried so deep that scholars find the greatest difficulty in
+recovering anything about it. This conservative, obstinate, jealous
+people overturned its pagan altars in a night, and, ever since, has
+never put into anything else the devotion, soul and body, of its
+sacrifices for religion. Christianity profoundly modified Irish life,
+softened manners, and stimulated learning. Not that the fighting
+propensities were obliterated. There were indeed many long and
+peaceful reigns, but the historians record neat little wars,
+seductive forays and "hostings", to use the new-old word, to the
+heart's content. The Irish character remained fixed in its
+essentials, but, under the influence of religious enthusiasm, Ireland
+progressed and prospered in the arts of peace. It would undoubtedly
+have shared the full progress of western Europe from this time on,
+but for its insularity. Hitherto its protection, it was now to be its
+downfall. A hostile power was growing of which it knew nothing.
+
+The Norsemen--the hardy vikings of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark--had
+become a nation of pirates. Undaunted fighters and able mariners,
+they built their shapely long ships and galleys of the northern pine
+and oak, and swept hardily down on the coasts of England, Ireland,
+France, Spain, and Italy, and the lands of the Levant, surprising,
+massacring, plundering. In France (Normandy), in England, and lastly
+in Ireland they planted colonies. Their greatest success was in
+England, which they conquered, Canute becoming king. Their greatest
+battles and final defeat were in Ireland. From the end of the eighth
+century to the beginning of the eleventh the four shores of Erin were
+attacked in turn, and sometimes all together, by successive fleets of
+the Norsemen. The waters that had been Ireland's protection now
+became the high roads of the invaders. By the river Shannon they
+pushed their conquests into the heart of the country. Dublin Bay,
+Waterford Harbor, Belfast Lough, and the Cove of Cork offered shelter
+to their vessels. They established themselves in Dublin and raided
+the country around. Churches and monasteries were sacked and burned.
+To the end these Norsemen were robbers rather than settlers. To these
+onslaughts by the myriad wasps of the northern seas, again and again
+renewed, the Irish responded manfully. In 812 they drove off the
+invaders with great slaughter, only to find fresh hordes descending a
+year or two later. In the tenth century, Turgesius, the Danish
+leader, called himself monarch of Ireland, but he was driven out by
+the Irish king, Malachi. The great effort which really broke the
+Danish power forever in Ireland was at the battle of Clontarf, on
+Dublin Bay, Good Friday, 1014, when King Brian Boru, at the head of
+30,000 men, utterly defeated the Danes of Dublin and the Danes of
+oversea. Fragments of the Northmen remained all over Ireland, but
+henceforth they gradually merged with the Irish people, adding a
+notable element to it's blood. One of the most grievous chapters of
+Irish history, the period of Norse invasion, literally shines with
+Irish valor and tenacity, undimmed through six fighting generations.
+As Plowden says:
+
+"Ireland stands conspicuous among the nations of the universe, a
+solitary instance in which neither the destructive hand of time, nor
+the devastating arm of oppression, nor the widest variety of changes
+in the political system of government could alter or subdue, much
+less wholly extinguish, the national genius, spirit, and character of
+its inhabitants." This is true not only of the Danish wars which
+ended nine hundred years ago, but of many a dreadful century since
+and to this very day.
+
+Now followed a troubled period, Ireland weakened by loss of blood and
+treasure, its government failing of authority through the defects of
+its virtues. It was inevitable, sooner or later, that England, as it
+became consolidated after its conquest by William the Norman, should
+turn greedy eyes on the fair land across the Irish sea. It was in
+1169 that "Strongbow"--Richard, earl of Pembroke--came from England
+at the invitation of a discontented Irish chieftain and began the
+conquest of Ireland. Three years later came Henry II. with more
+troops and a Papal bull. After a campaign in Leinster, he set himself
+up as overlord of Ireland, and then returned to London. It was the
+beginning only. An English Lord Deputy ruled the "Pale", or portion
+of Ireland that England held more or less securely, and from that
+vantage ground made spasmodic war upon the rest of Ireland, and was
+forever warred on, in large attacks and small, by Irish chieftains.
+
+The Irish were the fighting race now if ever. Without hope of outside
+assistance, facing a foe ever reinforced from a stronger, richer,
+more fully organized country, nothing but their stubborn character
+and their fighting genius kept them in the field. And century out and
+century in, they stayed, holding back the foreign foe four hundred
+years. It is worthy of note that it was the Norman English, racial
+cousins, as it were, of the Norsemen, who first wrought at the
+English conquest of Ireland. When some of these were seated in Irish
+places of pride, when a Butler was made Earl of Ormond and a
+Fitzgerald, Earl of Kildare, it was soon seen that they were merging
+rapidly in the Irish mass, becoming, as it was said, "more Irish than
+the Irish themselves." Many were the individual heroic efforts to
+strike down the English power. Here and there small Irish chiefs
+accepted the English rule, offsetting the Norman Irish families who
+at times were "loyal" and at times "rebel." The state of war became
+continuous and internecine, but three-fourths of Ireland remained
+unconquered. The idea of a united Ireland against England had,
+however, been lost except in a few exalted and a few desperate
+breasts. A gleam of hope came in 1316, when, two years after the
+great defeat of England by the Scotch under Robert the Bruce at
+Bannockburn, Edward, the victor-king's brother, came at the
+invitation of the northern Irish to Ireland with 6,000 Scots, landing
+near Carrickfergus. He was proclaimed king of Ireland by the Irish
+who joined him. Battle after battle was won by the allies. Edward was
+a brilliant soldier, lacking, however, the prudence of his great
+brother, Robert. The story of his two years of fighting, ravaging,
+and slaying, is hard at this distance to reconcile with intelligible
+strategy. In the end, in 1318, the gallant Scot fell in battle near
+Dundalk, losing at the same time two-thirds of his army. For two
+years Scot and Irish had fought victoriously side by side. That is
+the fact of moment that comes out of this dark period.
+
+The following century, like that which had gone before, was full of
+fighting. In 1399, on Richard II.'s second visit to Ireland, he met
+fierce opposition from the Irish septs. MacMorrough, fighting,
+harassing the king's army from the shelter of the Wicklow woods,
+fairly drove the king to Dublin. The sanguinary "Wars of the
+Roses"--that thirty years' struggle for the crown of England between
+the royal houses of York and Lancaster, 1455 to 1485--gave Ireland a
+long opportunity, which, however, she was too weak to turn to
+advantage; but fighting between Irish and English went on just the
+same, now in one province, now in another.
+
+In the reign of Henry VIII. a revolt against England started within
+the Pale itself, when Lord Thomas Fitzgerald, known as Silken Thomas,
+went before the Council in Dublin and publicly renounced his
+allegiance. He took the field--a brave, striking figure--in protest
+against the king's bad faith in dealing with his father, the Earl of
+Kildare. At one time it looked as if the rebellion (it was the first
+real Irish rebellion) would prosper. Lord Thomas made combinations
+with Irish chieftains in the north and west, and was victor in
+several engagements. He finally surrendered with assurances of
+pardon, but, as in many similar cases, was treacherously sent a
+prisoner to London, where he was executed.
+
+Queen Mary's reign was one of comparative quiet in Ireland. Her
+policy towards the Catholics was held to be of good augury for
+Ireland. The English garrison was reduced with impunity to 500 foot
+and a few horse: but another and darker day came with Elizabeth. Her
+coming to the throne, together with her fanatic devotion to the
+Reformation and an equal hatred of the old religion and all who clung
+to it, ushered in for Ireland two and a half centuries of almost
+unbroken misfortune. You cannot make people over. Some may take their
+opinions with their interest; others prefer to die rather than
+surrender theirs, and glory in the sacrifice. The proclamations of
+Elizabeth had no persuasion in them for the Irish. Her proscriptions
+were only another English sword at Ireland's throat. The disdain of
+the Irish maddened her. During her long reign one campaign after
+another was launched against them. Always fresh soldier hordes came
+pouring in under able commanders and marched forth from the Pale,
+generally to return shattered and worn down by constant harrying,
+sometimes utterly defeated with great slaughter. So of Henry Sidney's
+campaign, and so of the ill-fated Essex. Ulster, the stronghold of
+the O'Neills and the O'Donnells, remained unconquered down to the
+last years of Elizabeth's reign, although most of the greater battles
+were fought there. In Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, and "Red" Hugh
+O'Donnell, prince of Tyrconnell, Ireland had two really great
+soldiers on her side. The bravery, generalship, prudence, and
+strategy of O'Neill were worthy of all praise, and Red Hugh fell
+little short of his great compatriot. In battle after battle for
+twenty years they defeated the English with slaughter. Ireland, if
+more and more devastated by campaigns and forays, became the grave of
+tens of thousands of English soldiers and scores of high reputations.
+Writing from Cork, the Earl of Essex, after a disastrous march
+through Leinster and Munster, says:
+
+"I am confined in Cork ... but still I have been unsuccessful; my
+undertakings have been attended with misfortune.... The Irish are
+stronger and handle their arms with more skill than our people; they
+differ from us also in point of discipline. They likewise avoid
+pitched battles where order must be observed, and prefer skirmishes
+and petty warfare ... and are obstinately opposed to the English
+government."
+
+They did not like attacking or defending fortified places, he also
+believed. It was only his experience. The campaigns of Shane O'Neill,
+a bold but ill-balanced warrior, were full of such attacks, but one
+potent cause for Irish reluctance to make sieges a strong point of
+their strategy was that the strongest fortresses were on the sea. An
+inexhaustible, powerful enemy who held the sea was not in the end to
+be denied on sea or land, but the Irish in stubborn despair or
+supreme indifference to fate fought on. Religious rancor was added to
+racial hate. Most of the English settlers, or "garrison," as they
+came to be called, had become Protestants at the royal order. Ruin
+perched upon Ireland's hills and made a wilderness of her fertile
+valleys. The Irish chieftains with their faithful followers moved
+from place to place in woods and hollows of the hills. English
+colonists were settled on confiscated lands, and were harried by
+those who had been driven from their homes. It was war among graves.
+At last O'Neill made composition with the government when all was
+lost in the field, but the passionate Irish resolve never to submit
+still stalked like a ghost, as if it could not perish.
+
+When Elizabeth died it was thought that better things were coming to
+Ireland with James I., the son of Mary, Queen of Scots. Nothing of
+the kind. That curiously minded creature at once made an ingenuous
+proclamation:
+
+"Whereas his Majesty was informed that his subjects of Ireland had
+been deceived by _a false report that his Majesty was disposed to
+allow them liberty of conscience_ and the free choice of religion,
+now, etc." Fresh "transplanting" of English and Scotch settlers on
+the lands of the Irish was the gist of his answer to the "false
+reports." So again the war of surprise, ambush, raid, and foray went
+on in a hundred places at once, but the result was that the English
+power was even more firmly seated than before.
+
+In the time of Charles I. there were terrible slaughters both of
+Protestants and Catholics. Patriotism and loyalty as moving causes
+had disappeared, but religion fiercely took their place. With
+Cromwell, the religious persecution took on an apocalyptic note of
+massacre, but the Irish were still showing that they were there with
+arms in their hands. The names of Owen Roe O'Neill and his splendid
+victory, in 1646, at Benburb over the English and Scotch, where he
+slew more than 3,000 men, and of another Hugh O'Neill, who made such
+a brilliant defense at Clonmel against Cromwell, shine brightly out
+of the darkness. But Ireland, parcelled out among the victors, was
+always the weaker after every campaign. Waves of war swept over her.
+She became mixed up in the rivalries of the English royal families,
+religion playing the most important part in the differences. It had
+armed Henry and Elizabeth, James and Charles against her. It gave
+edge to Cromwell's sword, and it led her into a great effort on
+behalf of James II. When William of Orange crossed the Boyne, all
+that followed for a century was symbolized. Athlone, Aughrim,
+Limerick, all places of great and fierce contests, were decided
+against her. French support of a kind had James, but not enough.
+Bravery and enthusiasm may win battles, but they do not carry through
+great campaigns. Once again God marched with the heaviest, best-fed,
+best-armed battalions. The great Tyrone dying in exile at Rome, Red
+Hugh O'Donnell perishing in Spain in the early days of the
+seventeenth century, were to prefigure the fighting and dying of half
+a million Irish warriors on continental soil for a hundred years
+after the fall of Limerick as the seventeenth century neared its
+close.
+
+During that period the scattered bands of the Rapparees, half
+patriots, half robbers, hiding in mountain fastnesses, dispersing,
+reassembling, descending on the English estates for rapine or the
+killing of "objectionables," represented the only armed resistance of
+the Irish. It was generally futile although picturesque.
+
+After the close of the Revolutionary War in America, Ireland received
+a new stimulation. The success of the patriots of the Irish
+parliament under Grattan, backed as they were by 100,000 volunteers
+and 130 pieces of cannon, in freeing Irish industry and commerce from
+their trammels, evoked the utmost malignity in England. Ireland
+almost at once sprang to prosperity, but it was destined to be short
+lived. A great conspiracy, which did not at first show above the
+surface, was set on foot to destroy the Irish parliament. This is not
+the place to follow the sinister machinations of the English, save to
+note that they forced both the Presbyterians and the Catholics of the
+north into preparations for revolt. The Society of United Irishmen
+was formed, and drew many of the brightest and most cultivated men in
+Ireland into its councils. It numbered over 70,000 adherents in
+Ulster alone. The government was alarmed, and began a systematic
+persecution of the peasantry all over Ireland. English regiments were
+put at "free quarters," that is, they forced themselves under order
+into the houses and cabins of the people with demands for bed and
+board. The hapless people were driven to fury. Brutal murders and
+barbarous tortures of men and women by the soldiers, savage revenges
+by the peasantry, and every form of violent crime all at once
+prevailed in the lately peaceful valleys. Prosecutions of United
+Irishmen and executions were many. It was all done deliberately to
+provoke revolt. In 1798 the revolt came. In the greater part of
+Ulster and Munster the uprising failed, but a great insurrection of
+the peasantry of Wexford shocked the country. Poorly armed, utterly
+undisciplined, without munitions of war, but 40,000 strong, they
+literally flung themselves pike in hand on the English regiments,
+sweeping everything before them for a time. Father John Murphy, a
+priest and patriot, was one of their leaders, but Beauchamp Bagenal
+Harvey was soon their commander-in-chief. At one time the "rebels"
+dominated the entire county save for a fort in the harbor and a small
+town or two, but it was natural that the commissariat should soon be
+in difficulties and their ammunition give out. The British general,
+Lake, with an army of 20,000 men and a moving column of 13,000,
+attacked the rebels on Vinegar Hill, and although the fight was
+heroic and bloody while it lasted, it was soon over and the British
+army was victorious. The rest was retreat, dispersal, and widespread
+cruelties and burnings and a long succession of murders. The "Boys of
+Wexford" funder great difficulties had given a great account of
+themselves. Dark as was that page of history, it has been a glowing
+lamp to Irish disaffection ever since. It is the soul of the effort
+that counts, and the disasters do not discredit '98 in Irish eyes.
+
+Voltaire, in his _Century of Louis XIV._, made his reflection on the
+Irish soldier out of his limited knowledge of the Williamite war in
+Ireland. He says, "The Irish, whom we have seen such good soldiers in
+France and Spain, have always fought poorly at home"! They had not
+fought poorly at home. It took four hundred years of English effort
+to complete, merely on its face, the conquest of Ireland, and all of
+that long sweep of the sword of Time was a time of battle. The Irish
+were fought with every appliance of war, backed by the riches of a
+prospering, strongly organized country, and impelled persistently by
+the greed of land and love of mastery; but there was not a mountain
+pass in Ireland, not a square mile of plain, not a river-ford, scarce
+a hill that had not been piled high with English dead in that four
+hundred years at the hands of the Irish wielders of sword and spear
+and pike.
+
+The Irish had not made their environment or their natures, and no
+power on earth could change them. Over greater England had swept the
+Romans, the Jutes, the Saxons, the Angles, the Norsemen, and the
+Normans. All found lodgment and all went to the making of England.
+Well, one might say, it had been for Ireland if she had developed
+that assimilating power which made her successive conquerors in
+process of time the feeders of her greatness, but the Irish would not
+and could not. Instead, they developed the pride of race that no
+momentary defeat could down. They became inured to battle and dreamt
+of battle when the peace of an hour was given them. When the four
+kings of Ireland were feasted in Dublin by King Richard II. of
+England, an English chronicler remarked, "Never were men of ruder
+manners"; but neither the silken array and golden glitter of
+Richard's peripatetic court nor the brave display of his thousand
+knights and thirty thousand archers filled them with longing for the
+one or fear of the other. They went back to their Irish hills and
+plains and fastnesses as obstinately Irish as ever.
+
+They fought well at home, if unfortunately, the wonder being that
+they continued to fight. The heavens and the earth seemed combined
+against them.
+
+II.--THE FIGHTING RACE ABROAD.
+
+We next see Irish soldiers fighting abroad. The blood they had shed
+so freely for the Stuarts at the Boyne, at Athlone, at Aughrim, at
+Limerick was in vain. The king of France, if he sent armies to
+Ireland, demanded Irish troops in return. The transports that brought
+the French regiments over in May, 1690, took back over five thousand
+officers and men from Ireland, who formed the first Irish Brigade in
+the service of France. This, remember, was before the battle of the
+Boyne. The men were formed on their arrival in France into three
+regiments, those of Mountcashel, O'Brien, and Dillon, named after
+their commanders, and were sent to Savoy. The French aid to James in
+Ireland helped best in giving confidence to the raw Irish levies, but
+it was more than offset by the German troops brought over by William.
+The weakness, indecision, or worse, of James before Derry, his
+chicken-hearted failure to overwhelm Schomberg when he lay at his
+mercy before the arrival of William, ruined his chances. Remember
+that the Irish army, if defeated at the Boyne, was not broken, and
+was strong enough, when pursued by William, to repulse him with 500
+killed and 1,000 wounded and to compel him to raise the siege of
+Limerick. The dash and skill of Patrick Sarsfield, Earl of Lucan,
+backed by Irish desperation, won the day. The French troops sailed
+home after William's retreat. In the next year's campaign occurred
+the crowning disasters of the war, but in any other country or with
+any other people than the English the terms of capitulation at
+Limerick, which were formulated by Ginkel and showed a soldier's
+respect for a brave and still powerful foe, would have ushered in an
+era of peace.
+
+The Irish soldiers' distrust of the conquerors was shown in the fact
+that, since the stipulations allowed the free departure of the
+garrison with honors of war, 19,059 officers and men took service
+with France, and sailed in October, 1691, on the French fleet, which
+by the irony of fate had arrived in the Shannon too late, on the very
+day after the signing of the treaty of Limerick. Never in the whole
+course of the history of nations has more hideous treachery been
+shown than in the immediate breaking of that treaty; and dearly has
+England paid for it ever since, although, for the hundred years that
+followed, Ireland sank to the very depths under the penal laws, with
+her trade ruined, her lands stolen, her religion persecuted, and all
+education and enlightenment forbidden by abominable, drastic laws.
+
+If, as has been computed, 450,000 Irish fought and died in the
+service of France between 1690 and 1745, a further 30,000 are to be
+added down to 1793. A French writer estimates the whole Irish
+contingent at 750,000, but, for a roster of seekers of glory from an
+impoverished people, the more reasonable half-million should surely
+suffice.
+
+Long would be the story to follow the fighting fortunes of the Irish
+Brigades. Officered by Irish gentlemen and drilled to perfection,
+they soon came to hold in the French service the esteem that later
+was given to Irish regiments in the service of England. King Louis
+welcomed them heartily and paid them a higher wage than his native
+soldiers. No duty was too arduous or too dangerous for the Irish
+Brigades. Seldom were they left to rust in idleness. Europe was a
+caldron of wars of high ambitions.
+
+The Irish regiments fought through the war in Flanders. At Landen,
+July 29, 1693, the French under the duke of Luxembourg defeated the
+English under William III. with a slaughter of 10,473 men, losing
+8,000 men themselves. In the retreat, Ginkel, William's general in
+the Irish campaign, was almost drowned in the river Greete. The Irish
+Royal Regiment of Footguards, that of Dorrington, was the first corps
+to break through the English intrenchments, its gallant leader,
+Colonel Barrett, falling as he headed the charge. Here also was
+stricken Lieutenant-Colonel Nugent of Sheldon's Irish Regiment. Here
+also fell--saddest loss of all--Patrick Sarsfield, Earl of Lucan,
+brave, resourceful, a true unfaltering-soldier and lover of his
+country. The legend of his life blood flowing before his eyes and his
+utterance, "Would it had been shed for Ireland", may and should be
+true, although he lived three days after the battle. Would, indeed,
+it had been shed for Ireland--after such a day!
+
+It was in 1703 that the celebrated defence of Cremona lifted Irish
+renown to great heights throughout Europe. There were but 600 Irish
+troopers all told in that long day's work, and from the break of day
+till nightfall they held at bay Prince Eugene's army of 10,000 men.
+The two battalions of Bourke and Dillon were surprised at early morn
+to learn that the Austrians--and there were Irish officers among
+them--were in the town. Major O'Mahony and his men ran from their
+beds to the gates, and neither the foes without nor the foes within
+could make them budge. Terribly they suffered under concentrated
+attacks, but a withering fire from the Irish met every assault. It
+was nightfall before relief came, and then the sons of Ireland who
+had held Cremona for the French were acclaimed by all, but of their
+600 they had lost nearly 350. Small wonder that the honor list that
+day was long. In Bourke's battalion the specially distinguished were
+Captains Wauchop, Plunkett, Donnellan, MacAuliffe, Carrin, Power,
+Nugent, and Ivers; in Dillon's, Major O'Mahony, Captains Dillon,
+Lynch, MacDonough, and Magee, and Lieutenants Dillon and Gibbon, John
+Bourke and Thomas Dillon. Major O'Mahony was sent to Paris to carry
+the news of the victory to the king, who presented him with a purse
+of 1,000 louis d'or, a pension of 1,000 livres, and the brevet of
+colonel.
+
+So the history proceeds, the Irish regiments lost in the array of the
+French forces, but showing here and there a glint of charging
+bayonets, captured trenches, and gushes of Irish blood. In 1703 the
+brigade regiments fought in Italy and Germany under the Duc de
+Vendome. We hear of the regiments of Berwick, Bourke, Dillon, Galmoy,
+and Fitzgerald vigorously engaged. In Germany the story is of
+Sheldon's Horse and two battalions of the regiments of Dorrington and
+Clare. At the first battle of Blenheim, September 20, 1703, the
+regiment of Clare lost one of its colors, rallied, charged with the
+bayonet and recovered it, taking two colors from the enemy. This was
+a French victory. Not so the great battle of Blenheim, August, 1704,
+when Marlborough and Prince Eugene severely defeated the French and
+Bavarians. Three Irish battalions shared in the disaster. In 1705 at
+Cassano in Italy an Irish regiment, finding itself badly galled by
+artillery fire from the opposite bank of the Adda, declared they
+could stand it no longer, and thereupon jumped in, swam the river,
+and captured the battery. In 1705 Colonel O'Mahony of Cremona fame
+distinguished himself in Spain. In the next year at the battle of
+Ramillies, in which Marlborough with the Dutch defeated the French
+under Villeroi, Lord Clare's regiment captured the colors of the
+English Churchill regiment and of the Scottish regiment in the Dutch
+service. In the same year and the next, the Irish Brigade fought many
+battles in Spain. One cannot pursue the details of the engagements.
+Regiments ever decimated were ever recruited by the "Wild Geese" from
+Ireland--the adventurous Catholic youth of the country who sought
+congenial outlet for their love of adventure and glory. Many Irish
+also joined the French army after deserting from the English forces
+in Flanders.
+
+It was, however, at Fontenoy, May 11, 1745, that the Irish Brigade
+rendered their most signal service to France. The English under the
+Duke of Cumberland, son of George II., with 55,000 men including a
+large German and Dutch auxiliary, met the French under Marshal Saxe,
+and in the presence of the French king Louis XV., near Tournai in
+Belgium. Saxe had 40,000 men in action and 24,000 around Tournai,
+which town was the objective of the English advance. Among the troops
+on the field were the six Irish regiments of Clare, Dillon, Bulkeley,
+Roth, Berwick, and Lally, all under Charles O'Brien, Viscount Clare,
+afterwards Marshal Thomond of France. After fierce cannonading on
+both sides and a check to the allies on their right and left, a great
+column of English veterans advanced on the French centre, breaking
+through with sheer force. They had thus reached high ground when some
+cannonading halted them. It was at this moment of gravest peril to
+the French that the Irish regiments with unshotted guns charged
+headlong up the slope on their ancient enemies, crying, "Remember
+Limerick and British Faith!" The great English column, already
+roughly handled by the cannon, broke and fled in wild disorder before
+that irresistible onslaught, and France had won a priceless victory,
+but the six Irish regiments lost one-third of their gallant men by a
+single volley as they followed their steel into the English lines.
+
+When Charles Edward, the Stuart Pretender, landed in Scotland in
+1745, he was followed by a small French force, including 500 Irishmen
+from the Brigade. Colonel John O'Sullivan was much relied on by the
+prince in his extraordinary campaign. Sir Thomas Sheridan also
+distinguished himself. There were 475 Irish at the battle of
+Culloden, that foredoomed defeat of the Stuart cause, and two days
+later a score of Irish officers were among those who surrendered at
+Inverness.
+
+In Spain at the beginning of the 18th century there were hundreds of
+Irish officers in the military service, and eight Irish regiments.
+Among the officers were thirteen Kellys, thirteen Burkes, and four
+Sheas. It seemed that Ireland had soldiers for the world. Don
+Patricio, Don Miguel, Don Carlos, Don Tadeo took the place of
+Patrick, Michael, Charles, and Thadeus. O'Hart gives a list of sixty
+descendants of the "Wild Geese" in places of honor in Spain. General
+Prim was a descendant of the Princes of Inisnage in Kilkenny. An
+O'Donnell was Duke of Tetuan and field marshal of Spain. Ambrose
+O'Higgins, born in county Meath, Ireland, was the foremost Spanish
+soldier in Chile and Peru; Admiral Patricio Lynch was one of its most
+distinguished sailors; and James McKenna its greatest military
+engineer. The son of O'Higgins was foremost among those who fought
+for Chilean independence and gained it, and one of his ablest
+lieutenants was Colonel Charles Patrick O'Madden of Maryland.
+
+In Austria the Irish soldiers were particularly welcome. They count
+forty-one field-marshals, major-generals, generals of cavalry, and
+masters of ordnance of Irish birth in the Austrian service.
+O'Callaghan relates that on March 17, 1766, His Excellency Count
+Mahony (son of the O'Mahony of Cremona), ambassador from Spain to the
+court of Vienna, gave a grand entertainment in honor of St. Patrick,
+to which he invited all persons of condition who were of Irish
+descent. Among many others, there were present Count Lacy, President
+of the Council at War, the generals O'Donnell, McGuire, O'Kelly,
+Browne, Plunkett, and MacElligot, four chiefs of the Grand Cross, two
+governors, several knights military, six staff officers, and four
+privy councillors, with the principal officers of State. All wore
+Patrick's crosses in honor of the Irish nation, as did the whole
+court that day. Emperor Francis I. said: "The more Irish officers in
+the Austrian service the better; bravery will not be wanting; our
+troops will always be well disciplined." The Austrian O'Reillys and
+Taaffes were famous. It was the dragoon regiment of Count O'Reilly
+that by a splendid charge saved the remnant of the Austrian army at
+Austerlitz.
+
+In the American war of the Revolution, General Charles Geoghegan of
+the Irish Brigade made the campaigns of Rochambeau and Lafayette. He
+received the order of the Cincinnati from Washington and was ever
+proud of it. Lieutenant General O'Moran also served in America. He
+was afterwards executed in the French Revolution, for the "Brigade"
+remained royalist to the end. General Arthur Dillon, who served in
+the Brigade, was also guillotined in 1794, crying, "_Vive le roi!_"
+At the foot of the scaffold a woman, probably Mme. Hébert, also
+condemned, stood beside him. The executioner told her to mount the
+steps. "Oh, Monsieur Dillon," she said, "pray go first." "Anything to
+oblige a lady," he answered gaily, and so faced his God.
+
+Lord Macaulay, commenting upon these things and deploring the
+policies that brought them about, says with great significance:
+
+"There were Irish Catholics of great ability, but they were to be
+found everywhere except in Ireland--at Versailles, at St. Ildefonso,
+in the armies of Frederic, in the armies of Maria Theresa. One exile
+(Lord Clare) became a marshal of France, another (General Wall)
+became Prime Minister of Spain.... Scattered all over Europe were to
+be found brave Irish generals, dexterous Irish diplomatists, Irish
+counts, Irish barons, Irish knights of St. Louis and St. Leopold, of
+the White Eagle, and of the Golden Fleece, who if they remained in
+the house of bondage, could not have been ensigns of marching
+regiments or freemen of petty corporations."
+
+The old Irish brigades ended with the French monarchy. Battalions of
+the regiments of Dillon and Walsh were with the French fleet in the
+West Indies at Grenada and St. Eustache, also at Savannah, and under
+Rochambeau at Yorktown, but, except as to the officers, the surviving
+regiments of Berwick, Dillon, and Walsh were largely French. With the
+better times under Grattan's Parliament in Ireland, the soldier
+emigration to France had all but ceased. The Irish Volunteers of 1782
+numbered 100,000 men, of whom an appreciable proportion were
+Catholics. Many Irish went into the English army and navy, but there
+was another stream of fighting emigrants, that which flocked to the
+standard of revolt against England in America, of which much was to
+be heard thereafter.
+
+In the American colonies before the Revolution there were thousands
+of descendants of the Catholic Irish who had settled in Maryland and
+Pennsylvania during the seventeenth century, as well as hardy Irish
+Presbyterians from Ulster, who came in great multitudes during the
+first half of the eighteenth century. They had suffered persecution
+in Ireland for conscience sake from their fellow-Protestants. In
+Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and the Carolinas
+they constituted entire communities. The emigration of the Catholic
+or purely Celtic Irish to America in the seventeenth and eighteenth
+centuries was often compulsory. At any rate, after the middle of the
+eighteenth century it was large and became continuous--a true drift.
+Catholics and Presbyterians alike brought hostility to the English
+government with them, and their voices fed the storm of discontent.
+The Irish schoolmasters, of whom there were hundreds, were especially
+efficient in this. They came in every ship to the colonies. They had
+no love for England, for they had experienced in Ireland the tyranny
+of English law, and they would be more than human if they did not
+imbue the minds of the American children under their care with their
+own hatred of oppression and wrong and English domination. The log
+schoolhouse of the Irish teacher became the nursery of revolution.
+They were a very important factor, therefore, in the making of the
+Revolution, and many of them took an active part as soldiers in the
+field.
+
+The Irish, both Catholics and Protestants, poured into the patriot
+ranks once the standard of revolt was raised in 1775. The
+Pennsylvania line, which General Lee called "the line of Ireland,"
+was almost entirely Irish, and the rosters of several of the Maryland
+and Virginia regiments contain a remarkably large proportion of Irish
+names, in some cases running as high as 60 per cent. It is computed
+that the Irish furnished not less than a third of the whole American
+forces. A common cause blotted out all old religious prejudices
+between Irishmen in the American service. It was John Sullivan, of
+New Hampshire, son of a Limerick schoolmaster, who began the revolt
+by seizing the fort of William and Mary and its storehouses filled
+with that powder which charged the guns at Bunker Hill in the
+following year. It was Captain Jeremiah O'Brien, with his brothers,
+who made the first sea attack on the British off Machias, Maine, in
+May, 1775, an engagement which Fenimore Cooper calls "the Lexington
+of the Seas." There were fifteen Celtic Irish names among the Minute
+Men at the Battle of Lexington. Colonel Barrett, who commanded at
+Concord, was Irish. There were 258 Celtic Irish names on the rosters
+of the American forces at the battle of Bunker Hill. John Sullivan
+had been made a major-general, thereafter to be a notable figure in
+the war at Princeton, Trenton, Newport, and in his Indian campaign.
+The Connecticut line was thick with Irish names. Around Washington
+himself was a circle of brilliant Irishmen: Adjutant-General Edward
+Hand leading his rifles, Stephen Moylan his dragoons, General Henry
+Knox and Colonel Proctor at the head of his artillery, John Dunlop
+his body-guard, Andrew Lewis his brigadier-general, Ephraim Elaine
+his quartermaster, all of Irish birth or ancestry. Commodore John
+Barry, born in Wexford in 1739 and bred to the sea, was a ship
+captain in his early twenties, trading from Philadelphia. When the
+Continental Congress met, he at once volunteered, and was given
+command of the _Lexington_, the first American ship to capture a
+British war vessel. Later, after gallant fighting on sea and land, he
+was given command of the U.S. frigate _Alliance_, in which he crossed
+the Atlantic to France, and fought and captured in a rattling battle
+two British warships, the _Atlanta_ and the _Trepasay_. He was the
+Father of the American navy, holding captain's certificate No. 1,
+signed by Washington himself--the highest rank then issued.
+
+General Richard Montgomery, the brave and able soldier who fell at
+Quebec as he charged the heights, was an Irishman. General George
+Clinton, son of an Irishman, was a brigadier-general, governor of New
+York and twice Vice-President of the United States. Fifty-seven
+officers of New York regiments in the Revolution were Irish, and a
+large number of the officers in the Southern regiments of the line,
+as well as of the militia, were native Irish or of Irish descent. The
+rosters of the enlisted Irishmen of the New York regiments run into
+the thousands. Hundreds of Irish soldiers suffered in the prison
+ships of New York, the horrors of which served so conspicuously to
+stimulate American determination to carry the war to the only
+rightful conclusion. Washington always recognized America's debt to
+the Irish. "St. Patrick" he made the watchword in the patriot lines
+the night before the English evacuated Boston forever on the
+memorable 17th of March, 1776. After the war he was made, with his
+own consent, an honorary member of the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick.
+Major-General Richard Butler and his four brothers, all officers, and
+Brigadier-Generals John Armstrong, William Irvine, William Thompson,
+James Smith, and Griffith Rutherford all fought with distinction. All
+of these officers were Irish-born. It was in truth an Irish war, so
+far as Irish sentiment and whole-hearted service could make it. The
+record of Irish soldiers' names alone would fill volumes.
+
+The thirst of the Irish race for the glory of war is shown in the
+large enlistments in the last quarter of the eighteenth century, and
+since, in the English army and navy. Grattan, in pleading for
+Ireland, claimed that a large percentage of the British forces were
+Irish. Wolfe Tone avers that there were 210 Irishmen out of 220 in
+the crew of a British frigate that overhauled his ship on its way to
+America. Bonaparte had in his armies an Irish Legion that did good
+service in Holland, Spain, Portugal, and Germany. Marshal Clarke,
+Duke of Feltre, French Minister of War in 1809, was Irish. Up and
+down the Spanish Peninsula, Irish blood was shed in abundance in the
+armies of Wellington. Never was more brilliant fighting done than
+that which stands to Irish credit from the lines of Torres Vedras to
+Badajos and Toulouse. Of the Waterloo campaign volumes have been
+written in praise of Irish valor. As Maxwell says in his _Tales of
+Waterloo_:--"The victors of Marengo and Austerlitz reeled before the
+charge of the Connaught Rangers." Wellington himself was Irish, as in
+the later wars of England Lord Gough, Lord Wolseley, Lord Roberts,
+Lord Kitchener, and General French came from Ireland. The Irish
+soldiers in the English service by a pitiful irony of fate helped
+materially to fasten the chains of English domination on the peoples
+of India in a long series of wars.
+
+In America, the War of 1812 once more gave opportunity to the
+Fighting Race. The commanding figure of the war, which opened so
+inauspiciously for the United States, was General Andrew Jackson, the
+hero of the battle of New Orleans, and afterwards twice elected
+President of the United States. "Old Hickory", as he came to be
+lovingly called, was proud of his Irish father, and sympathized with
+the national longings of the Irish people. He was a splendid soldier,
+and his defeat of the English general, Pakenham, on January 8, 1815,
+which meant the control of the mouths of the Mississippi, as well as
+safeguarding the city of New Orleans, reflected the highest credit on
+his skill and unflagging energy. The English had superior numbers,
+between 8,000 and 9,000 men, against a scant 6,000 under Jackson, and
+their force was made up of veterans of the European wars. In command
+of the left of his line Jackson placed the gallant general William
+Carroll, born in Philadelphia, but of Irish blood, who was afterwards
+twice governor of Tennessee. The British general made the mistake of
+despising the soldier value of his enemy, yet before evening of that
+day he saw his artillery silenced and his lines broken, as he died of
+a wound on the field. The battle was actually fought after the
+signing of the treaty of peace at Ghent; it annihilated British
+pretensions in this part of the world, anyway.
+
+After Commodore Perry, the victor in the battle of Lake Erie, and
+himself the son of an Irish mother, the northern naval glory of the
+War of 1812 falls to Lieutenant Thomas MacDonough, of Irish descent,
+whose victory on Lake Champlain over the British squadron was almost
+as important as Perry's. Admiral Charles L. Stewart ("Old
+Ironsides"), who commanded the frigate _Constitution_ when she
+captured the _Cyane_ and the _Levant_, fighting them by moonlight,
+was a great and renowned figure. His parents came from Ireland, and
+Charles Stewart Parnell's mother was the great sea-fighter's
+daughter. Lieutenant Stephen Cassin commanded the _Ticonderoga_ and
+fought her well. Captain Johnston Blakely, who was born in Ireland,
+captured in the _Wasp_ of 18 guns the much larger British _Reindeer_
+of 20 guns and 175 men in a splendid fight, and later sank the
+_Avon_, an 18-gun brig. After capturing a great prize, which he sent
+to Savannah, he sailed for the Spanish main and was never heard of
+more. Captain Boyle, in the privateer _Comet_ of Baltimore, fought
+the _Hibernia_, of 18 guns, and later in the _Chasseur_, known as the
+phantom ship, so fast she sailed, took eighty prizes on the high
+seas. General A.E. Maccomb, who commanded victoriously at Plattsburg,
+was of Irish descent, and Colonel Robert Carr, who distinguished
+himself in the same campaign, was born in Ireland. Major George
+Croghan of Kentucky, the hero of Fort Stephenson, was the son of an
+Irish father who had been a soldier in the Revolution. Colonel Hugh
+Brady, of the 22nd Infantry, commanded at Niagara. He remained in the
+army and fought in Mexico. William McRee, of Irish descent, was
+General Browne's chief engineer in laying out the military works of
+the American army at Niagara.
+
+Let it not be forgotten that in this memorable company brave Mrs.
+Doyle has a place. Her husband, Patrick Doyle, an Irish artilleryman,
+had been taken prisoner by the British in the affair at Queenston and
+had been refused a parole. Accordingly, when the guns were trained on
+the English lines before Fort Niagara, Mary, emulating the example of
+her countrywoman, "Molly" Pitcher, at Monmouth, determined to take
+her husband's place, and, regardless of flying British balls, tended
+a blacksmith's bellows all day, providing red-hot shot for the
+American gun battery, and sending a prayer with every shot into the
+British lines.
+
+After the Queenston affair, it is well to note, the English doctrine
+of perpetual allegiance was abated. Twenty-three Irish-born men were
+among the captives of the English in that engagement. They were
+manacled to be sent to Ireland to be tried for treason, not as
+enemies taken in the field. Winfield Scott, then lieutenant-colonel,
+was also a prisoner with them. He protested loudly against this
+infamous course. Upon his release he laid aside twenty-three British
+prisoners to be treated like the Irishmen, eye for eye and tooth for
+tooth. As a result, the Irish prisoners were exchanged.
+
+Colonel John Allen, who fell at the head of the First Regiment of
+Kentucky Riflemen at the battle of the river Raisin on January 21,
+1813, was one of the Irish Allens of Kentucky. His father and mother
+were natives of Ireland.
+
+The Mexican War (1846-48) again showed Irish valor at the front. It
+was not a great war, though brilliantly fought and rich in
+territorial accessions. The campaigning comprised the work of two
+main expeditions and a subsidiary movement in California. One column,
+under General Zachary Taylor, penetrated northern Mexico and fought
+the battles of Matamoras, Palo Alto, and Resaca de la Palma, in May,
+1846, with a force of 2,200 men; forced the evacuation of Monterey in
+September, his army swelled to 5,000; and defeated Santa Anna at
+Buena Vista in February, 1847. General Winfield Scott, with a naval
+expediton, attacked Vera Cruz from the sea in March, 1847, and took
+up the march, 13,000 strong, to Mexico City, fighting the battles of
+Cerro Gordo, Contreras, Churubusco, Molino del Rey, and Chapultepec,
+and entered Mexico City on September 14. General James Shields, born
+in Tyrone, Ireland, in 1810, was in command with his brigade under
+Scott. A brilliant soldier, he was severely wounded at Cerro Gordo
+and again at Chapultepec. He served as United States Senator after
+the war and again took the field in the Civil War, his forces
+defeating Stonewall Jackson at the first battle of Winchester in
+1862. The glamour of chivalry lights the name of Phil Kearney. Here
+was a born soldier. He was a volunteer with the French in Algiers in
+1839-40. He also commanded under Scott with brilliant bravery, and
+was brevetted major on the field for "gallant and meritorious
+conduct" at the battles of Contreras and Churubusco. In the French
+war with Austria in 1859-60, Kearney fought with the French,
+distinguishing himself at the decisive and bloody battle of
+Solferino. In the Civil War he was brigadier-general of New Jersey
+troops in 1861 and major-general in 1863, taking distinguished part
+in the battles of the Peninsula and second Bull Run, and was killed
+while reconnoitring at Chantilly. General Stephen W. Kearney, with
+the Army of the West, by dint of long marches, secured California
+among the fruits of the war. General Bennet Riley, born in Maryland
+of Irish ancestry, commanded a brigade at Contreras, making a
+wonderful charge, and also fought brilliantly at Cerro Gordo and
+Churubusco, and was brevetted brigadier-general. He attained the army
+rank in 1858. Major-General William O. Butler, under Zachary Taylor,
+was one of the heroes of Monterey. Born in Kentucky, son of Percival
+Butler of Kilkenny, who was one of the famous five Butler brothers of
+the Revolutionary War whom Washington once toasted as "The Butlers
+and their five sons," General Butler succeeded General Scott in
+command of the entire American army in Mexico in February, 1848.
+Another of clear Irish descent who fought under Zachary Taylor was
+Major-General George Croghan, whose father, born in Sligo, Ireland,
+had fought in the Revolution. He himself took part, as we have seen,
+in the War of 1812, and now was at the front before Monterey. Once,
+when a Tennessee regiment wavered under a hot converging fire,
+Croghan rushed to the front and, taking off his hat, shouted, "Men of
+Tennessee, your fathers conquered with Jackson at New Orleans. Come,
+follow me!" and they followed in a successful assault. Major-General
+Robert Paterson, who was born at Strabane, Ireland, and was the son
+of a '98 man, saw service in 1812, and became major-general of
+militia in Pennsylvania, whence he went to the Mexican War. He also
+lived to serve in the War of the States.
+
+Among Irish-named officers mentioned honorably in official despatches
+are Major Edward H. Fitzgerald, Major Patrick J. O'Brien; Captain
+Casey, chosen to lead the first storming party at Chapultepec;
+Captains Hogan, Byrne, Kane, McElvin, McGill, Burke, Barny,
+O'Sullivan, McCarthy, McGarry, and McKeon. Captain Mayne Reid, the
+novelist, a native of Ireland, was in the storming of Chapultepec.
+Theodore O'Hara, the poet, served with the Kentucky troops and was
+brevetted major for gallantry at Contreras and Churubusco, while on
+the staff of General Franklin Pierce (afterwards President of the
+United States). O'Hara's magnificent poem, "The Bivouac of the Dead,"
+has made his name immortal. It was written on the occasion of the
+interment at Frankfort, Ky., of the Kentucky dead of the Mexican War,
+where
+
+      "Glory guards with solemn round
+      The bivouac of the dead."
+
+Irwin C. McDowell, who was brevetted captain at Buena Vista,
+commanded a corps in the Civil War. George A. McCall, brevetted
+lieutenant-colonel at Palo Alto, was a major-general in the Civil
+War. Francis T. Bryan was a hero of Buena Vista. Lieutenant-Colonel
+Thomas P. Moore and Captain James Hogan both won fame in the 3rd
+Dragoons. Lieutenant Thomas Claiborn of the Mounted Rifles became a
+colonel in the Confederate Army. Lieutenant-Colonel J.W. Geary fought
+brilliantly and was to be heard from later with renown.
+
+Colonel John F. Reynolds of the 3rd Artillery lived to be
+major-general in the Civil War, and to fall gloriously at Gettysburg.
+Nor must we forget Major Folliot Lally's bravery at Cerro Gordo;
+Second Lieutenant Thomas W. Sweeny, a brigadier-general of the Civil
+War and the planner of the Fenian invasion of Canada in 1866;
+Lieutenant Henry B. Kelly of the 2nd Infantry, afterwards a
+Confederate colonel; Captain Martin Burke of the 1st Artillery,
+killed at Churubusco; nor Lieutenant William F. Barry of the 2nd
+Artillery, a brigadier-general in the Civil War. There were scores of
+other Irish named officers. In the whole American force of 30,000
+engaged, the Irish born and Irish descended troops of all arms were
+numbered by thousands.
+
+It was, however, in the Civil War that the flood of Irish valor and
+loyalty to the American Republic was at its height. The 2,800,000
+enlistments on the Northern side stood probably for 1,800,000
+individual soldiers serving during the four years of the war. Not
+less than 40 per cent, of these were Irish born or of Irish descent.
+Of the 337,800 men furnished by the State of New York, 51,206 were
+natives of Ireland out of the total of 134,178 foreign born, or 38
+per cent, of the latter, while not less than 80,000 of Irish descent
+figured among the 203,600 native born soldiers. Of the 2,261
+engagements in the war, few there were that saw no Irishmen in arms,
+and certainly, in every one of the 519 engagements that made Virginia
+a great graveyard, the Irish figured largely. Of the 1,000,516
+mustered out in 1865, not less than 150,000 were natives of Ireland,
+while those of Irish descent numbered hundreds of thousands. They
+fought well everywhere, and it would require volumes to give the
+names and deeds of those who distinguished themselves more than their
+fellows.
+
+One name, however, shines with a great blaze above them all, the name
+of Philip H. Sheridan, one of the three supreme soldiers of the
+Union, Ulysses S. Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman being the
+others. Had Ireland furnished only Sheridan to the Union cause, her
+service would be beyond reward. He was born in Albany, N.Y., in
+March, 1831, the year after his parents, John and Mary Sheridan,
+arrived there from the Co. Cavan, in Ireland. The family moved to
+Somerset, Perry Co., Ohio, the following year. There Philip began
+village life. How he gained the beginning of an education; worked in
+a grocery store; became a bookkeeper; longed for a West Point
+nomination and got it; how he worked through the Academy in 1853;
+served as lieutenant on the frontier, in Texas, California, and
+Oregon, until the outbreak of the Civil War, when he was promoted
+captain and ordered east, can be quickly told. His history until the
+fall of the Confederacy would need many long chapters. His military
+genius included all the requirements of a great captain, and his
+opportunties of exhibiting all his qualities in action came in rapid
+succession. In every service from quartermaster to army commander his
+talents shone. His tremendous vigor, incredible mental alertness, and
+genius for detail, added to his skill and outreach, continually set
+him forward. He stood 5 feet 5 inches high, but somehow looked
+taller, owing to his erect, splendid bearing. There was something in
+the full chest, the thick muscular neck, the heavy head, the dark
+blazing eyes, and the quick bodily movements that arrested attention.
+His name has come down to this generation mainly as a great cavalry
+leader, but he was a natural commander of all arms, a great
+tactician, a born strategist. His campaign of the Shenandoah Valley
+was a whirlwind of success. His great battles around Richmond were
+wonderful. General Grant's opinion of Sheridan, given thirteen years
+after the war, sums up the man. It is here quoted from J.R. Young's
+book, _Around the World with General Grant_. It runs, in part, as
+follows:
+
+"As a soldier, as a commander of troops, as a man capable of doing
+all that is possible with any number of men, there is no man living
+greater than Sheridan. He belongs to the very first rank of soldiers,
+not only of our country but of the world. I rank Sheridan with
+Napoleon and Frederick and the great commanders in history. No man
+ever had such a faculty of finding things out as Sheridan, of knowing
+all about the enemy. He was always the best informed of his command
+as to the enemy. Then he had that magnetic quality of swaying men,
+which I wish I had, a rare quality in a general. I don't think anyone
+can give Sheridan too high praise."
+
+Praise from U.S. Grant is praise indeed. A peculiar feature of the
+Civil War was the growth of the generals: Grant, Sherman, Sheridan,
+Thomas, Meade, all conspicuously experienced it. With Sheridan,
+however, one point is notable, namely, that He triumphed in every
+branch in each successive extension of the field of his duties, and
+he went from captain to major-general in three years of the regular
+army. His care for his men was constant. His troops were always the
+best fed, best clothed, best rested in the armies en either side, but
+on no troops was there more constant call for endeavor, and they were
+never found to fail him. In action he is described as severe,
+peremptory, dominating, but his determinations were mighty things,
+not to be interfered with. He wanted things done and done at once.
+His men of all grades soon conceded that he knew best what to do, and
+set about doing it accordingly. Out of action he was joyous of
+spirit, but, in fight or out of it, his alertness and his
+lightning-like decisions marked him apart from every other commander.
+His career in the Tennessee campaign was meteoric. Of his score and
+more of great conflicts, the most picturesque was his wonderful
+battle at Cedar Creek, to fight which he rode at breakneck speed
+"from Winchester twenty miles away" through the dust and debris of a
+broken army to the extreme front, rallying the scattered regiments
+and turning a defeat into a crushing victory, which recovered all
+that had been lost, taking 25 cannon and 1,200 prisoners, and driving
+for miles the lately victorious enemy under Early. Captain P.J.
+O'Keefe was one of the two who made the ride beside him. The battles
+of Waynesboro, Five Forks, and Sailor's Creek showed the same
+brilliant generalship on the part of Sheridan. His hold on the
+affection of the army and the admiration of the people continued to
+the day of his death, August 5, 1888, when he held the headship of
+the United States army as general in succession to the great Sherman.
+
+General Sheridan, towards the end of the war, had a soldier's
+difference with Major-General George G. Meade, commander of the Army
+of the Potomac, but that did not blind "Little Phil" to the real
+merit of the victor in the tremendous three days' battle of
+Gettysburg, handling an army new to his hand against Robert E. Lee.
+The Meade family is of Irish descent. George Meade, the grandfather,
+came from Dublin and was a patriot in the American Revolutionary War.
+General Meade commanded a division at Antietam and a corps at
+Fredericksburg, and held command of the Army of the Potomac to the
+end of the war. He was a fine soldier and gentleman. Of quiet manners
+at most times, he was most irascible in the hour of battle, but his
+temper did not becloud his judgment. General James Shields and
+General Irwin McDowell, both fine Irish soldiers, have already been
+mentioned.
+
+It would be hard to compass in a brief article even the names of the
+general officers of Irish blood in the Civil War. General John Logan,
+who fought with the western armies, is worthy of high and honorable
+mention, as is General Thomas Francis Meagher, a patriot in Ireland,
+a prisoner in Australia, a soldier of dash in the Civil War.
+Meagher's Irish Brigade left a record of valor unsurpassed: their
+charge at Fredericksburg up Marye's Heights alone should give them
+full meed of fame. General Michael Corcoran, a native of Ireland,
+commanded the wholly Irish 69th Regiment when it departed for the war
+in 1861, and after his exchange from a Confederate prison raised and
+organized the Corcoran Legion. Major-General McDowell McCook
+commanded brilliantly in the western campaigns. Who has not heard of
+the Fighting McCooks?--a family of splendid men and hardy warriors.
+Brigadier-General Thomas C. Devin was a superb cavalry commander, who
+led the first division of Sheridan's Shenandoah army through all its
+great operations. General James Mulligan of Illinois was of the true
+fighting breed. Colonel Timothy O'Meara led his superb Irish Legion
+from Illinois up Missionary Ridge. Brigadier-General C.C. Sullivan of
+western army fame was one of the five generals, headed by Rosecrans,
+who recommended Phil Sheridan for promotion to brigadier-general
+after the battle of Booneville as "worth his weight in gold." General
+Brannan was a gallant division commander in the Middle Tennessee
+campaign. Colonel William P. Carlin made a name at Stone River.
+General James T. Boyle, of the Army of the Ohio under Buell, was the
+brave man whose promotion to division commander left a vacancy for
+"Little Phil", that was to be an immediate stepping stone to higher
+opportunity. Brigadier-General McMillan, who commanded the second
+brigide at Cedar Creek; Colonel Thomas W. Cahill, 9th Connecticut;
+Lieutenant-Colonel Alfred Neafie of the 156th New York; Captain
+Charles McCarthy of the 175th New York; Lieutenant-Colonel Alex. J.
+Kenny of the 8th Indiana; Lieutenant Terrence Reilly of the Horse
+Artillery, all won distinction in the Shenandoah Valley. Such
+splendid fighters as General James R. O'Beirne, Colonel Guiney,
+Colonel Cavanagh, Colonel John P. Byron, Colonel Patrick Gleason,
+General Denis F. Burke, wrote their names red over a score of battle
+fields, but one cannot hope to cover more than a fraction of the
+brilliant men of Irish blood who led and bled in the long, hard, and
+strenuous struggle. The 69th New York Regiment was the mother of a
+dozen Irish regiments, including the Irish Brigade of Meagher and the
+Corcoran Legion. The 9th, 28th, and 29th regiments of Massachusetts
+were all Irish. A gallant Irishman, born at Fermoy, was
+Brigadier-General Thomas Smyth, who made a name and died in the
+battles around Richmond. There was not a regiment from the middle
+western and western States that did not hold its quota of Irishmen
+and sons of the Irish. After the names of Porter and Farragut in the
+Navy stands next highest in honor that of Vice-Admiral Stephen C.
+Rowan, born in Dublin, of the famous family that produced Hamilton
+Rowan, one of the foremost of the United Irishmen. It was the son of
+the vice-admiral, a lieutenant in the army, who carried "the message
+to Garcia" from the United States War Department to the Cuban
+commander in the eastern jungle of Cuba, before the outbreak of the
+war with Spain, and did it so well and bravely through such
+difficulties and dangers that his name will stand for "the faithful
+messenger" forever.
+
+As a consequence of their stand with the American people in the Civil
+War, the position of the whole mass of the Irish and Irish-American
+people was vastly uplifted in American eyes. The unlettered poverty
+of scores of thousands of Irish immigrants, who came in multitudes
+from 1846 on, had made an unfavorable and false impression; their red
+blood on the battle field washed it out.
+
+On the southern side as well, Irish valor shone. While the great
+flood of the mid-century Irish immigration had spread itself mainly
+north, east, and west, the larger cities of the South also received a
+share. The slave system precluded the entry of free labor into the
+cotton, corn, lumber, and sugar lands of the South, but such cities
+as New Orleans, Mobile, Charleston, Savannah, Vicksburg, and Richmond
+gave varied employment to many of the Irish who made their homes in
+the Southland, and so they came to furnish thousands of recruits to
+the local Confederate levies. The "Louisiana Tigers", who fought so
+valiantly at Gettysburg on the Southern side, included many Irish.
+The Georgia brigade, that held the Confederate line atop of Marye's
+Heights at Fredericksburg, up which the Irish brigade so heroically
+charged, had whole companies of Irish. There were scores of Irish in
+many of the regiments that made Pickett's memorable charge at
+Gettysburg. All through the Confederate armies were valiant
+descendants of the earlier Irish immigration that settled the uplands
+of the Carolinas and Virginia and the blue grass region of Kentucky.
+Most famous, most glorious of these was "Stonewall"
+Jackson--Lieutenant-General Thomas Jonathan Jackson--next to Robert
+E. Lee the greatest soldier on the southern side. No more splendid
+soldier-figure rises out of the contest. Educated at West Point,
+serving in Mexico, then a professor of philosophy--and
+artillery--next a volunteer with his State when Virginia took arms
+against the Union, his long and brilliant service included a large
+share in the victories at Bull Run, Gaines Mill, Malvern Hill, Cedar
+Mountain, Harper's Ferry, Antietam, Fredericksburg, and
+Chancellorsville, where he was accidentally wounded by his own men.
+He was once defeated by General Shields, as has been noted. The piety
+and purity of his life belie the supposed necessity for the coarser
+traits that are thought to go with the terrible trade. General
+Patrick R. Cleburne was born in 1828, near Cork, Ireland. He was in
+the English army three years, and, coming to the United States,
+became a lawyer at Helena, Ark. He enlisted in the Confederate army
+as a private, rose rapidly to the command of a brigade, and made a
+great name at Shiloh. As major-general he led divisions at
+Murfreesboro and Chickamauga, and was thanked by the Confederate
+Congress. He fell at the battle of Franklin--a soldier of commanding
+presence, skill, and daring, beloved by the whole Army of the West.
+The gallant colonel Thomas Claiborne was a striking cavalryman. It
+was Lieutenant Thomas A. Claiborne of the 1st South Carolina who,
+with Corporal B. Brannan, lashed the broken flagstaff on Fort Sumter
+in June, 1864, when, under a withering fire, the flag of the
+Confederacy had been shot away. The fighting of Major-General Gary of
+South Carolina around Richmond was desperate. He was the last to
+leave the city when it fell, as told by Captain Sullivan: "He
+galloped at night through the burning city, and at the bridge over
+the James cried out, 'We are the rear guard. It is all over; blow the
+bridge to h--l!' and went on into the night"
+
+The story of the Civil War is a mine of honor to the Irish, and
+Irishmen should set it forth at length. Here it can be merely glanced
+at.
+
+The war of 1898 with Spain--that great patriotic efflorescence--was
+brief in its campaigning. Immediately provoked by the blowing up of
+the U.S.S. _Maine_ in Havana harbor on February 15, war was declared
+on April 19. Admiral Dewey sank the Spanish fleet in Manila Harbor,
+May 1. The first troops landed on Cuban soil June 1. The first--and
+last--real land battle before Santiago occurred on July 1-2, with
+13,500 troops on the American side against an available Spanish force
+somewhat less in number, but holding strongly fortified and
+entrenched positions around the town. The advance and charges uphill
+necessary to capture El Caney and the steep heights of San Juan
+called for desperate courage. It was there, however, and the Irish in
+the army exhibited dash and persistence, as duty demanded. In the
+second day's fighting the Spanish assaults on the American positions
+were repelled, and the land fighting was over. The Americans in the
+two days lost over 10 per cent killed and wounded. The destruction of
+Cervera's fleet on its attempt to escape from Santiago on July 3
+ended the struggle. With the regiment of Rough Riders, under Theodore
+Roosevelt--who says he reckons "an O'Brien, a Redmond, and a man from
+Ulster" among his for-bears--were many gallant Irishmen--Kellys,
+Murphys, Burkes, and Doyles, for instance. His favorite captain,
+"Bucky" O'Neill of Arizona, fell at the foot of San Juan. The white
+regiments of the regular army had their quota of Irish, as had most
+of the volunteers. The 9th Massachusetts was all Irish. The 69th New
+York, all Irish, never reached the front in the war, but shared the
+fate of the 150,000 troops cantoned through the Southern States,
+their only effective enemies being dysentery, typhoid, and malaria.
+
+A little splash of Irish blood came with the Fenian dash into Canada
+on June 1, 1866. There had been active preparations for a real
+invasion by some 50,000 Irish-born or Irish-fathered soldiers who had
+served in the Civil War. The American government, using its army
+force, intervened to prevent the bellicose movement, not, however,
+before Colonel John O'Neill, who had served in the cavalry with
+Sherman on his march to the sea, with Captain Starr, one of
+Kilpatrick's cavalry, Captain O'Brien, and about 700 well-armed men,
+all Civil War veterans, had slipped across the Niagara River at Fort
+Erie. They made short work of all in sight, threw out a couple of
+hundred men who burned a bridge and tore up the railroad tracks.
+Their scouts fired on a small British detachment, which ran. On the
+morning of June 2 news came of a larger Canadian force advancing, and
+O'Neill went out to meet them. Deploying his men in a field near the
+high road at a place called Ridgway, he sent his pickets forward.
+They found heavy ground in front and about three-quarters of a mile
+away some 1,400 men of the "Queen's Own" of Toronto and the Hamilton
+Volunteers advancing rapidly in line. O'Neill, after a few rounds,
+withdrew his pickets, and the Canadians, taking the movement for
+flight, came briskly on. As soon as they were clear of cover,
+O'Neill, firing a volley, gave orders for a charge. At it they went
+with a cheer, and the whole Canadian line gave way. They ran as fast
+as their legs could carry them, leaving some fifty killed and
+wounded. After chasing them for two miles, O'Neill halted his men and
+brought them back to Fort Erie, where they intrenched. The Canadians
+did not stop until they reached Colburne, eighteen miles away. The
+Fenian loss was twenty-five. In the night O'Neill learned that no
+help was coming from the United States' side, while news reached him
+that a force of 5,000 Canadian and British regulars was advancing on
+Fort Erie. Accordingly, at 2 a.m. on June 3, he surrendered to the
+United States forces with 400 of his men, who were detained for a few
+days on the U.S.S. _Michigan_ and then let go. The balance of his
+force, about 250 men, escaped in groups across the river. There was
+another little victorious skirmish with the Canadians lower down
+under Captain Spear, who also slipped back over the border unpursued.
+What fighting took place was workmanlike and creditable.
+
+There was a flicker of Irish fighting spirit in the Boer War. Many
+thousands, no doubt, were in the English army of 250,000 men brought
+against the 30,000 Boers, but there was a small "Irish Brigade" that
+fought on the Boer side, and was notably engaged at Spion Kop, where
+the English were driven so sweepingly from their position by
+desperate charges.
+
+In the War of 1870, between France and Prussia, the good wishes of
+the Irish went with France, for the sake of the old friendship,
+largely helped, no doubt, by the fact that at the summit of army
+command was Marshal MacMahon, a descendant of a warrior of the old
+Irish Brigade. His service in Algiers; his skill and daring in the
+Crimean War before Sebastopol, where he led the division which
+stormed the Malakoff; his victories in the Italian War of 1859
+against Austria, including the great battle of Magenta, all made him
+a striking, romantic figure. He failed in 1870 against the Prussians
+at Worth, and was made prisoner with his army at Sedan, but he
+suppressed the Commune after the war and was President of France from
+1873 to 1879. The device by which 300 Irishmen took part on the
+French side in the war with Germany has a grim humor. They went as
+aides in an ambulance corps fitted out in Dublin by subscription,
+but, once on French soil, enlisted in the army. "Maybe we can kill as
+well as we can cure," said one of them. The _Compagnie irlandaise_,
+as it was called, did creditable work, and was in the last combat
+with the Prussians at Montbellard. Their captain, M.W. Kirwan, was
+offered a Cross of the Legion of Honor, but for some reason declined
+it. Dr. Constantine J. McGuire, who won the decoration for bravery
+before Paris during the siege of the Commune, did, however, accept
+it, receiving the cross from the hands of Marshal MacMahon, and, hale
+and hearty, wears the red ribbon on occasion in New York today.
+
+Even as this chronicle of daring deeds and daring doers is being
+penned, in the ranks and as commanding officers on the side of the
+allies in the far-flung battle lines of the great European war, are
+men of Irish birth, and, let it not be forgotten, not a few of the
+opposing side are the descendants of the Irish military geniuses who,
+in days gone by, fought so gallantly across the continent "from
+Dunkirk to Belgrade". They are all, every man of them, bearing
+bravely, as of yore, their own part amid the dangers and chances of
+the fray.
+
+If the inspiring story is of necessity here barely sketched in
+outline, it nevertheless clearly indicates that, as it has been for
+two thousand years of Irish history, so it will be to the end of the
+human chapter--the Irish race is the Fighting Race, and willing, even
+eager, to risk life itself for vital issues.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Keating's, MacGeoghegan's, Mitchel's Histories of Ireland; J.C.
+O'Callaghan: The Irish Brigades in the Service of France, The Green
+Book; Lossing: Field Book of the Revolution, Field Book of the War of
+1812; Several Mexican War Histories; Battles and Leaders of the Civil
+War; The Irish at Home and Abroad (New York, 1856); Canon O'Hanlon:
+Irish-American History of the United States; O'Hart; Irish Pedigrees;
+Martin I. Griffin: Life of Commodore Barry; John D. Crimmins: Irish
+Miscellany; Joseph Denieffe: Fenian Recollections; Plowden:
+Historical Review of the State of Ireland (London, 1803); Hays:
+History of the Irish (1798) Rebellion; Macaulay: History of England;
+J. R. Young: Around the World with General Grant; several valuable
+articles and records of research by Michael J. O'Brien of New York.
+
+
+
+THE SORROWS OF IRELAND
+
+By JOHN JEROME ROONEY, A.M., LL.D
+
+
+"The sorrows of Ireland"! What a vision of woe the words conjure up.
+The late Goldwin Smith, himself an Englishman and a Unionist, in his
+_Irish History and the Irish Question_, finds that "of all histories,
+the history of Ireland is the saddest. For nearly seven centuries it
+was a course of strife between races, bloodshed, massacre,
+misgovernment, civil war, oppression, and misery."
+
+The first of the great scourges of Erin was the coming of the Danes,
+the bloodthirsty and conquest-loving Vikings of the North, the
+worshipers of Thor and Odin, the gods of thunder and of strife. These
+warriors, in never-ending invasions, had for four hundred years
+overrun Britain and finally conquered the northern provinces of Gaul.
+Until the end of the eighth century Ireland had been free from the
+Scandinavian scourge. About this time the invaders made lodgments
+along the caasts, passed inward through the island, burned and looted
+religious houses and schools of learning, levied tribute upon the
+inhabitants, and at length established themselves firmly at Limerick,
+Waterford, Dublin, Wexford, and Carlingford. Fortified towns were
+built, trading communications with Britain and the continent were set
+up, and the Northman, though not in actual possession of the interior
+of the island, was apparently in substantial control of its
+destinies. Brian Borumha, or Boru, brother of the king of Munster, of
+the Dalcassian race of O'Brien, refused to submit, roused his
+brother, fought the Danes of Limerick at Sulchoid (A.D. 968), and
+captured Limerick. Brian later succeeded his brother, became
+sovereign of all Ireland (A.D. 1001), and, on Good Friday, A.D.
+1014, joined battle with the Danes upon the famous field of Clontarf.
+Here the power of the Northmen was forever broken, Brian falling at
+the moment of victory, while in his tent, by the hand of a fugitive
+Dane.
+
+With the death of Brian the united government dissolved. The
+provincial kings, or princes, resumed separate authority and a
+struggle arose among them, with varying success, for the national
+sovereignty. The central government never had been strong, as the
+nation was organized on a tribal or family basis. In this weakened
+condition Dermot MacMurrough, king of Leinster, abducted the wife of
+O'Rourke, prince of Breffni, while the latter was on a pilgrimage.
+MacMurrough was compelled to fly to England. He sought the protection
+of the Angevin English king, Henry Plantagenet. As a result of this
+appeal, a small expedition, headed by Strongbow (A.D. 1169), was sent
+to Ireland, and Waterford, Wexford, and Dublin were taken. Then came
+Henry himself, in 1171, with a fleet of 240 ships, 400 knights, and
+4,000 men, landing at Waterford. This expedition was the beginning of
+the English attempted conquest of Ireland--a proceeding that, through
+all the ruin and bloodshed of 800 years, is not yet accomplished.
+Henry's first act was to introduce the feudal system into that
+southern half of the island which he controlled; he seized great
+tracts of land, which he in turn granted to his followers under
+feudal customs; he introduced the offices of the English feudal
+system and the English laws, and placed his followers in all the
+positions of power, holding their lands and authority under the
+feudal conditions of rendering him homage and military service.
+
+This was the root of the alien "landlordism" and foreign political
+control of future times which became the chief curses of Ireland, the
+prolific source of innumerable woes. The succeeding years till the
+reign of Henry VIII. witnessed the extension, and at times the
+decline, of the Anglo-Norman rule. When Henry VII. became king of
+England the Anglo-Norman colony or "Pale" had shrunk to two counties
+and a half around Dublin, defended by a ditch. Many of the original
+Norman knights had become "more Irish than the Irish themselves."
+Such was the great family of the Geraldines or Fitzgerald--the most
+powerful, with the O'Neills of the North, in Ireland. A united attack
+at this time would most certainly have driven out the invader; for it
+must be remembered that Dublin, the "Pale"--"the Castle government"
+of later times--was the citadel of the English foreign power, and
+before a united nation would most certainly have succumbed.
+
+When Henry VIII. ascended the throne of England, the policy of peace
+in Ireland was continued during the early portion of his reign. Then
+came Henry's break with the Pope over the royal divorce. The Irish
+beyond the Pale, and many within it, were loyal to the Church of
+their fathers, to the faith of Patrick, the faith of the Roman See.
+To Henry and his daughter Elizabeth, the daughter of Anne Boleyn, who
+displaced Henry's lawful wife, this was treason. Henceforth, to the
+bitterness of race hatred and the pride of the conqueror were to be
+added the blackest of religious feuds, the most cruel of religious
+persecutions in the history of the world. Again let Goldwin Smith,
+the English Unionist, describe the result: "Of all the wars waged by
+a civilized on a barbarous _(sic)_ and despised race these wars waged
+by the English on the Irish seem to have been the most hideous. No
+quarter was given by the invader to man, woman, or child. The
+butchering of women and children is repeatedly and brutally avowed.
+Nothing can be more horrible than the cool satisfaction with which
+English commanders report their massacres." Famine was deliberately
+added to the other horrors. What was called law was more cruel than
+war: it was death without the opportunity for defense and with the
+hypocrisy of the forms of justice added.
+
+Out of this situation came the infamous Penal Code, which, by the
+period of William the Third, about 1692, became a finished system.
+This is the "Irish Code" of which Lord Brougham said: "It was so
+ingeniously contrived that an Irish Catholic could not lift his hand
+without breaking it." And Edmund Burke said: "The wit of man never
+devised a machine to disgrace a realm or destroy a kingdom so perfect
+as this." Montesquieu, the great French jurist-philosopher, the
+author of the epoch-making _Spirit of the Laws_, commented: "It must
+have been contrived by devils; it ought to have been written in
+blood; and the only place to register it is in hell." Yet for two
+hundred years this code of death, national and individual, was the
+supreme law of Ireland.
+
+Wendell Phillips, the great American orator, in his lecture on
+"Daniel O'Connell," summed up this Penal Code in words that will not
+soon be forgotten by the world. His reference to Mr. Froude is to
+James Anthony Froude, the English historian. He says:
+
+"You know that, under it, an Irish Catholic could not sit in the
+House of Commons; he could not hold any commission from the Crown,
+either civil or military; he could be a common soldier--nothing more.
+He could neither vote, nor sit on a jury, nor stand on a witness
+stand, nor bring a suit, nor be a doctor, nor be a lawyer, nor travel
+five miles from his own home without a permit from a justice of the
+peace. The nearest approach that ever was made to him was a South
+Carolina negro before the war. He had no rights that a Protestant
+needed to respect. If he was a land-holder, if all his children were
+Catholics, he was obliged to divide the land equally between them.
+This was the English plan for eliminating the Catholic tenure of the
+land and letting it slip out of their hands. Then, if any of the
+children, during their father's life, concluded to become
+Protestants, in such case they took the whole estate; or, indeed,
+they might compel the father to put his estate in trust for their
+benefit. So, if the Catholic wife would not go to an Episcopalian
+church once a month--which she deemed it a sin to do--she forfeited
+her dower. But if she went regularly, she could have all the estate.
+If a Catholic had a lease, and it rose one-quarter in value, any
+Protestant could take it from him by bringing that fact to the notice
+of a justice of the peace. Three justices of the peace might summon
+any Catholic before them, and oblige him to give up his faith, or
+quit the realm. Four justices could oblige him to abjure his faith or
+sell his estates. If a Protestant paid one dollar tax, the Catholic
+paid two. If a Protestant lost a ship, when at war with a Catholic
+power--and at the time there was only _one_ Protestant power in
+Europe, besides Great Britain; that was Holland: so that the chances
+were nine to one that, in case of war, Great Britain would be at war
+with a Catholic power--in such a case, if a Protestant lost a ship,
+he went home and assessed the value on his Catholic neighbors, and
+was reimbursed. So, of education. We fret a great deal on account of
+a class of Irishmen who come to our shores and are lacking in
+education, in culture, and refinement. But you must remember the bad
+laws, you must remember the malignant legislation, that sentenced
+them to a life of ignorance, and made education a felony in Catholic
+Ireland. If an Irishman sent his child to a Protestant schoolmaster,
+all right; but if the parent would not do so, and sent him to a
+Catholic school, the father was fined ten pounds a week; and the
+schoolmaster was fined five pounds a week; and for the third offense
+he was hung! But, if the father determined that his child should be
+educated, and sent him across the Channel to France, the boy
+forfeited his citizenship and became an alien; and, if discovered,
+the father was fined one hundred pounds; and anybody, except the
+father, who harbored him, forfeited all civil rights--that is, he
+could not sue in a court of law, nor could he vote. Indeed, a
+Catholic could not marry! If he married a Protestant, the marriage
+was void; the children were illegitimate. And, if one Catholic
+married another, it required the presence of a priest, and if a
+priest landed in Ireland for twenty minutes, it was death! To this
+ferocious 'Code', Sir Robert Peel, in our own day, added the climax,
+that no Catholic should quit his dwelling between the hours of sunset
+and sunrise, an exaggeration of the 'Curfew Law' of William the
+Conqueror. Now, you will hardly believe that this was enacted as a
+law. But Mr. Froude alludes to this code. Yes; he was very honest; he
+would paint England as black as she deserved. He said of Queen
+Elizabeth that she failed in her duty as a magistrate; she failed
+towards Ireland in her capability of being a great ruler. And then he
+proceeded, after passing sentence, to give us the history of her
+reign, and showed that, in very many cases, she could not have done
+any different. For instance--oh! it is the saddest, blackest, most
+horrible statement of all history; it makes you doubt the very
+possibility of human nature--when you read that Spenser, the poet,
+who had the most ardent, most perfect ideas in English
+poetry--Spenser sat at the council board that ordered the wholesale
+butchery of a Spanish regiment captured in Ireland, and, to execute
+the order, he chose Sir Walter Raleigh, the scholar, the gentleman,
+the poet, the author, and the most splendid Englishman of his age!
+And Norris, a captain under Sidney, in whose veins flowed the blood
+of Sir Philip, writing home to Elizabeth, begs and persuades her to
+believe in O'Neill's crimes, and asks for leave to send a hired man
+to poison him! And the Virgin Queen makes no objection! Mr. Froude
+quotes a letter from Captain Norris, in which he states that he found
+himself in an island where five hundred Irish (all women and
+children; not a man among them) had taken refuge from the war; and he
+deliberately butchered every living soul! And Queen Elizabeth, in a
+letter still extant, answers by saying: 'Tell my good servant that I
+will not forget his good services.' He tells us that 'The English
+nobility and gentry would take a gun as unhesitatingly as a fowler,
+and go out to shoot an Irishman as an Indian would a buffalo.' Then
+he tells us, with amazement, that you never could make an Irishman
+respect an Englishman! He points to some unhappy Kildare, the sole
+relic of a noble house, whose four uncles were slaughtered in cold
+blood--that is the only word for this kind of execution,
+_slaughtered_--and he, left alone, a boy, grows up characterless and
+kills an archbishop. Every impetuous, impatient act is dragged before
+the prejudiced mind. But when Mr. Froude is painting Sir Walter and
+Spenser, blind no longer, he says: 'I regret--it is very sad to
+think--that such things should ever have been!'"
+
+Such was the cup from which Ireland drank even into the days of men
+now living. Nor was this all. The rise of English manufactures
+brought a new chapter of woes to Ireland. The Irish cattle trade had
+been killed by an Act of Charles II. for the benefit of English
+farmers. The Irish then took up the raising of wool and woolen
+manufactures. A flourishing trade grew up. An English law destroyed
+it. In succession the same greed killed the cotton, the glovemaking,
+the glassmaking, and the brewing trades. These were reserved for the
+English maker and merchant. These crimes upon Irish industry
+surpassed a thousand-fold the later English attempts upon the
+industries of the American colonies.
+
+Under the Code, and through the extreme poverty produced thereby,
+substantially all the land of Ireland passed out of the hands of the
+people. They became mere serfs upon the soil. Their tribute was paid
+through a rapacious agent to a foreign landlord. The improvement of
+the land by the labor of the tenant brought increase of rent. There
+was no fixity of tenure of the land. It was held at the will of the
+agent, reflecting the rapacity of the non-resident landlord. Upon
+these holdings the principal crop was the potato. A failure of this
+crop was a failure to pay rent, eviction on the roadside, and
+starvation. The results, after the enactment of the Penal Code, and
+during the greater part of the eighteenth century, are thus described
+by Goldwin Smith: "On such a scene of misery as the abodes of the
+Irish cotters the sun has rarely looked down. Their homes were the
+most miserable hovels, chimneyless, filthy. Of decent clothing they
+were destitute. Their food was the potato; sometimes they bled their
+cattle and mixed the blood with sorrel. The old and sick were
+everywhere dying by cold and hunger, and rotting amidst filth and
+vermin. When the potato failed, as it often did, came famine, with
+disease in its train. Want and misery were in every face, the roads
+were spread with dead and dying, there was sometimes none to bear the
+dead to the grave, and they were buried in the fields and ditches
+where they perished. Fluxes and malignant fevers followed, laying
+these villages waste. 'I have seen,' says a contemporaneous witness,
+'the laborer endeavoring to work at his spade, but fainting for want
+of food and forced to quit it. I have seen the helpless orphan
+exposed on the dunghill, and none to take him in for fear of
+infection. And I have seen the hungry infant sucking at the breast of
+the already expired parent.'"
+
+All these are not only the horrors of a hundred or two hundred years
+ago; they were repeated in ten thousand forms in the awful famine
+days of 1847. In 1841 the population of Ireland was 8,796,545
+persons. In 1851, after four years of famine, the population was
+6,551,970, leaving 2,244,575 persons to be accounted for, and taking
+no account of the natural increase of the population during the ten
+years. Not less than a million and a half of these died of starvation
+and the fevers brought on by famine. The remainder emigrated to
+foreign lands.
+
+In this account of the Sorrows of Ireland nothing has been said of
+the vast emigrations, thousands upon thousands of persons in the
+seventeenth and eighteenth centuries leaving Ireland under forced
+deportations, in a practical selling into slavery. The sum total of
+this loss to Ireland cannot be less than 5,000,000 souls. The earlier
+deportations were carried out under the most atrocious circumstances.
+Families were broken up and scattered to distant and separate
+colonies, such as Barbados, the New England States, and later to the
+South Pacific.
+
+This is but a glance at some of the wrongs to Ireland's religious,
+intellectual, and material welfare, wrongs that have plunged her into
+an age-long poverty. But one of the greatest of all her sorrows has
+been the denial of her national life, the attempt to strangle her
+rightful aspirations as a free people. Her autonomy was taken from
+her; her smallest legislative act was the act of a stranger; in fine,
+every mark of political slavery was put upon her. A foreign soldiery
+was, and still is, quartered upon her soil. The control of her
+revenues, of the system of taxation, was wrested from her. These
+became the function of a hateful resident oligarchy, alien in
+everything to the Irish people, and of the English parliament, to
+which she was not admitted until the days of Daniel O'Connell. And
+then she was admitted only through fear of revolution.
+
+The dawn has come. The dark night is almost past; the heroic struggle
+of Ireland is about to close in triumph. Her loyalty to her ideals of
+freedom and religion is to meet its reward. The epitaph of Robert
+Emmet will soon be written, for at last Ireland is certain of "taking
+her place among the nations of the earth."
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+D'Alton: History of Ireland; J.P. Prendergast: Cromwellian
+Settlement; Barrington: Rise and Fall of the Irish Nation; McNevin:
+Confiscation of Ulster; R.R. Madden: History of the Penal Laws;
+Murphy: Cromwell in Ireland; T.A. Emmet: Ireland under English Rule,
+2 vols.; Mrs. J.R. Green: Irish Nationality; Walpole: A Short History
+of the Kingdom of Ireland; A.M. Sullivan: Story of Ireland; Thomas
+Moore: History of Ireland; Edmund Spenser: View of the State of
+Ireland; C. Gavan Duffy: Four Years of Irish History, 1845-49; Isaac
+Butt: Land Tenure in Ireland; Justin McCarthy: History of our own
+Times; Johnston and Spencer: Ireland's Story; MacGeoghegan's History
+of Ireland and its continuation by John Mitchel; William Sampson:
+Memoirs of an Irish Exile, 1832; John Curry: A Historical and
+Critical Review of the Civil Wars in Ireland (1775); John Boyle: The
+Battlefields of Ireland (1879); Speeches of Edmund Burke, Daniel
+O'Connell, Henry Grattan; Wendell Phillips's Speech on Daniel
+O'Connell; Father Tom Burke: Lectures on Ireland.
+
+
+
+IRISH LEADERS
+
+By SHANE LESLIE.
+
+
+Irish leaders have proved far-famed but not long-lived. Their short
+and strenuous careers have burnt out in their prime, and their ends
+have been such as attend conflagrations. More often they have left a
+pall than a light in the heavens, for the most brilliant lives in
+Irish history have led to the most tragic deaths. The Destiny which
+allotted them impossible tasks has given them immortality on the
+scenes of their glorious failure.
+
+They differ from leaders of other countries, who divide the average
+pittances of success or ill success on the road to honored
+retirement. Few of the heroes among modern nations have left such
+vivid and lasting memory as "the strong men of Ireland." During the
+nineteenth century their lore and cult have traversed the whole world
+in the wake of the great emigrations. Whether they failed or
+succeeded in wresting the independence and ideals of Ireland for a
+while from the fell clutch of circumstance, they live with their race
+forever.
+
+Under Plantagenet and Tudor rule, the Irish leaders presented a
+sullen but armed resistance. A never completed invasion was met by
+sporadic raids and successive risings. A race of military outlaws was
+fashioned, which accounts for much in Irish character today.
+Previously the Irish, like all Celtic civilization, was founded on
+the arts, on speech, and on law, rather than on war and feudalism.
+
+Even Irish militancy was crushed in the Williamite wars, and the
+race, deprived of its original subsistence as well as of its acquired
+defense, sank into the stupor of penal times. Those who should have
+been leaders of Ireland became marshals of Austria and France.
+
+Gradually it was learnt that the pen is mightier than the sword and
+the human voice more potent than the sound of cannon--and the
+constitutional struggle developed, not without relapse and reverse.
+To Dean Swift must be attributed the change in the national weapon
+and the initiation of a leadership of resistance within the law,
+which has lasted into modern times. Accident made Swift an Irishman,
+and a chance attempt to circulate debased coins in Ireland for the
+benefit of a debased but royal favorite made him a patriot. Swift
+drove out Wood's halfpence at the pen-point. He shamed the
+government, he checked the all-powerful Walpole, and he roused the
+manhood of Ireland towards independence in legislation. He never
+realized what a position history would give him. To himself he seemed
+a gloomy failure, to his contemporaries a popular pamphleteer, but to
+posterity he is the creator of public conscience in Ireland. He was
+the father of patriotic journalism, and the first to defend Ireland's
+rights through literature. Though his popularity was quenched in
+lunacy, his impress upon Irish politics remains as powerful and
+lasting as upon English literature.
+
+Within the so-called Irish parliament sprang forth the first of a
+long line of orators, Henry Flood. He was the first to study the
+Constitution for purposes of opposition. He attacked vice-regal
+government in its own audit-house. Pension and corruption he laid
+bare, and upon the people he breathed a spirit of independence.
+Unfortunately he was not content with personal prominence. He
+accepted office, hoping thereby to benefit Ireland. His voice became
+lost to the higher cause, and another man rose in his stead, Henry
+Grattan. The American war tested the rival champions of Liberty.
+Flood favored sending Irish troops, "armed negotiators" he called
+them, to deal with the revolted colonists. Grattan nobly reviled him
+for standing--"with a metaphor in his mouth and a bribe in his
+pocket, a champion against the rights of America, the only hope of
+Ireland and the only refuge of the liberties of mankind." Flood
+collapsed under his ignoble honors. He was not restored by returning
+to patriotic opposition. Grattan's leadership proved permanent
+politically and historically. His name connotes the high water-mark
+of Irish statesmanship. The parliament which he created and whose
+rights he defined became a standard, and his name a talisman and a
+challenge to succeeding generations. The comparative oratory of
+Grattan and Flood is still debated. Both after a manner were unique
+and unsurpassed. Flood possessed staying power in sheer invective and
+sustained reasoning. Grattan was fluent in epigram and most inspiring
+when condensed, and he had an immense moral advantage. The parliament
+which made him a grant was independent, but it was from one of
+subservience that Flood drew his salary. Henceforth Grattan was
+haunted by the jealous and discredited herald of himself. A great
+genius, Flood lacked the keen judgment and careless magnanimity
+without which leadership in Ireland brings misunderstanding and
+disaster. In the English House he achieved total failure. Grattan
+followed him after the Union, but retained the attention if not the
+power of Dublin days. Neither influenced English affairs, and their
+eloquence curiously was considered cold and sententious. Their
+rhapsody appeared artificial, and their exposition labored. The
+failure of these men was no stigma. What is called "Irish oratory"
+arose with the inclusion of the Celtic under strata in politics.
+
+Burke's speeches were delivered to an empty house. Though he lived
+out of Ireland and never became an Irish leader in Ireland, Burke had
+an influence in England greater than that of any Irishman before or
+since. The beauty and diction of his speech fostered future
+parliamentary speaking. Macaulay, Gladstone, Peel, and Brougham were
+suckled on him. His farthest reaching achievement was his treatment
+of the French Revolution. His single voice rolled back that storm in
+Europe. But no words could retard revolution in Ireland herself.
+Venal government made the noblest conservative thinking seem treason
+to the highest interests of the country. The temporary success of
+Grattan's parliament had been largely won by the Volunteers. They had
+been drilled, ostensibly against foreign invasion, but virtually to
+secure reforms at home. Their power became one with which England had
+to reckon, and which she never forgave. Lord Charlemont, their
+president, was an estimable country gentleman, but not a national
+leader. A more dashing figure appeared in the singular Earl of
+Bristol. Though an Irish bishop and an English peer, he set himself
+in the front rank of the movement, assuming with general consent the
+demeanor and trappings of royalty. He would not have hesitated to
+plunge Ireland into war, had he obtained Charlemont's position. But
+it was not so fated.
+
+After forcing parliamentary independence the Volunteers meekly
+disbanded, and the United Irishmen took their place. The brilliancy
+of Grattan's parliament never fulfilled national aspirations. Bristol
+was succeeded by another recruit from the aristocracy--Lord Edward
+Fitzgerald. With Wolfe Tone and Robert Emmet he has become legendary.
+All three attained popular canonization, for all three sealed their
+brief leadership with death.
+
+Lord Edward was a dreamer, an Irish Bayard, too chivalrous to
+conspire successfully and too frankly courageous to match a
+government of guile. Tone was far more dangerous. He realized that
+foreign invasion was necessary to successful rebellion, and he
+allowed no scruple or obstacle in his path. He washed his hands of
+law and politics entirely. To divert Napoleon to Ireland was his
+object and the total separation of Ireland his ambition. The United
+Irishmen favored the invasion, which the Volunteers had been formed
+to repel. The feud between moral and physical force broke out. The
+failure of the sterner policy in 1798 did not daunt Emmet from his
+ill-starred attempt in 1803. He combined Lord Edward's chivalry with
+some abilities worthy of Tone, but he failed. The failure he redeemed
+by a swan-song from the dock and a demeanor on the scaffold which
+have become part of Irish tradition.
+
+After the Union, Irish leaders sprang up in the English House, which
+Pitt had unwittingly made the cockpit of the racial struggle. Far
+from absorbing the Irish element, the Commons found themselves forced
+to resist, rally, and finally succumb.
+
+The Irish House cannot be dismissed without mention of Curran. He was
+a brilliant enemy of corruption and servility. O'Connell said "there
+was never so honest an Irishman," which may account for his greater
+success as a lawyer than a politician. To be an Irish leader and a
+successful lawyer is given to no man. For the former the sacrifice of
+a great career is needed. This sacrifice Daniel O'Connell was
+prepared to make. His place in history will never be estimated, for
+few have been so loved or hated, or for stronger reasons. Never did a
+tribune rising to power lift his people to such sudden hope and
+success. Never did a champion leave his followers at his death and
+decline to more terrible despair. Friend and foe admit his immensity.
+He was the greatest Irishman that ever lived or seemingly could live.
+In his own person he contained the whole genius of the Celt. Ireland
+could not hold his emotions, which overflowed into the world for
+expression. He rose on the crest of a religious agitation, but,
+Emancipation won, he had the foresight to associate the Irish cause
+with the advent of Reform and Liberalism throughout Europe. He
+sounded the notes of free-trade and anti-slavery. What he said in
+parliament one day, Ireland re-echoed the next. To her he was all in
+all, her hero and her prophet, her Messias and her strong deliverer.
+On the continent he roughly personified Christian Democracy.
+
+In public oratory O'Connell introduced a new style. Torrential and
+overwhelming as Flood and Grattan had never been, he proved more
+successful if less polished. The exaggerations of Gaelic speech found
+outburst in his English. Peel's smile was "the silver plate on a
+coffin", Wellington "a stunted corporal", and Disraeli "the lineal
+descendant of the impenitent thief."
+
+It sounds bombastic, but in those feudal forties it rang more
+magnificent than war. Single-voiced he overawed the host of bigots,
+dullards, and reactionaries. Unhappily, he let his people abandon
+their native tongue, while teaching them how to balance the rival
+parties in England, the latter a policy that has proved Ireland's
+fortune since. He loosed the spirit of sectarianism in the tithe war,
+and he crushed the Young Ireland movement, which bred Fenianism in
+its death agony. But he made the Catholic a citizen. Results
+stupendous as far-reaching sprang from his steps every way.
+
+The finest pen-sketch of O'Connell is by Mitchel, who says, "besides
+superhuman and subterhuman passions, yet withal, a boundless fund of
+masterly affectation and consummate histrionism, hating and loving
+heartily, outrageous in his merriment and passionate in his
+lamentation, he had the power to make other men hate or love, laugh
+or weep, at his good pleasure."
+
+Yet during his lifetime there lived others worthy of national
+leadership. O'Brien, Duffy, and Davis played their part in England as
+well as in Ireland. Father Mathew founded the Temperance, as Feargus
+O'Conor the Chartist, movement. And there was an orator who
+fascinated Gladstone--Sheil.
+
+Father Mathew succeeded in keeping many millions of men sober during
+the forties until the great Famine engulfed his work as it did
+O'Connell's. To him is due, as a feature of Irish life, the brass
+band with banners, which he originally organized as a
+counter-intoxicant.
+
+Feargus O'Conor founded Radical Socialism in England. As the Lion of
+Freedom, he enjoyed a popularity with English workmen approaching
+that of O'Connell in Ireland. He ended in lunacy, but he had the
+credit of forwarding peasant proprietorship far in advance of his
+times.
+
+Sheil was a tragic orator--"an iambic rhapsodist", O'Connell called
+him--who might have been leader, did not a greater tragedian occupy
+the stage. And Sheil was content to be O'Connell's organizer. Without
+O'Connell's voice or presence, he was his rhetorical superior,
+excelling in irony and the by-plays of speech for which O'Connell was
+too exuberant. Shell's speeches touch exquisite though not the deep
+notes of O'Connell, whom he criticized for "throwing out broods of
+sturdy young ideas upon the world without a rag to cover them." He
+discredited his master and his cause by taking office. The fruits of
+Emancipation were tempting to those who had borne the heat of the
+day, but there was a rising school of patriots who refused
+acquiescence to anything less than total freedom.
+
+The Young Irelanders reincarnated the men of "ninety-eight." They
+were neither too late nor too soon. They snatched the sacred torch of
+Liberty from the dying hands of O'Connell, who summoned in vain old
+Ireland against his young rivals. But men like Davis and Duffy
+appealed to types O'Connell never swayed. He could carry the mob, but
+poet, journalist, and idealist were enrolled with Young Ireland. For
+this reason the history of their failure is brighter in literature
+than the tale of O'Connell's triumphs. To read Duffy's "Young
+Ireland" and Mitchel's "Jail Journal", with draughts from the _Spirit
+of the Nation_. is to relive the period. Without the Young
+Irelanders, Irish Nationalism might not have survived the Famine.
+
+Mitchel, as open advocate of physical force, became father to
+Fenianism. An honest conspirator and brilliant writer, he proved that
+the pen of journalism was sharper than the Irish pike. Carlyle
+described him as "a fine elastic-spirited young fellow, whom I
+grieved to see rushing on destruction palpable, by attack of
+windmills." Destruction came surely, but coupled with immortality. He
+was transported as a felon before the insurrection, while his
+writings sprang up in angry but unarmed men.
+
+Mitchel and O'Connell both sought the liberation of Ireland, but
+their viewpoint differed. Mitchel thought only of Liberty; O'Connell
+not unnaturally considered the "Liberator." His refusal to allow a
+drop of blood to be shed caused Young Ireland to secede. Only when
+death removed his influence could the pent-up feelings of the country
+break out under Smith O'Brien. If Mitchel was an Irish Robespierre,
+O'Brien was their Lafayette. His advance from the level of dead
+aristocracy had been rapid. From defending Whigs in Parliament he
+passed to opposition and "contempt of the House." He resigned from
+the Bench from which O'Connell had been dismissed, became a Repealer,
+adding the words "no compromise," and finally gloried in his treason
+before the House. His next step brought a price upon his head.
+
+Grave and frigid, but inwardly warmhearted and passionate, O'Brien
+had little aptitude for rebellion. But the death penalty (commuted to
+transportation) which he incurred went far to redeem his forlorn
+failure. Mitchel, who shared his Australian imprisonment, left a fine
+picture of "this noblest of Irishmen, thrust in among the
+off-scourings of England's gaols, with his home desolated and his
+hopes ruined, and defeated life falling into the sere and yellow
+leaf. A man, who cannot be crushed, or bowed, or broken; anchored
+immovably upon his own brave heart within; his clear eye and soul
+open as ever to all the melodies and splendors of heaven and earth,
+and calmly waiting for the angel, Death."
+
+The Irish cause was not revived until the Fenian movement. Disgust
+with the politicians drove the noblest into their ranks. In Stephens
+they found an organizing chief, in Boyle O'Reilly a poet, and in John
+O'Leary a political thinker, men who under other conditions had
+achieved mundane success. The Fenians were defended by Isaac Butt, a
+big-hearted, broad-minded lawyer, who afterwards organized a party to
+convince Englishmen that Repeal was innocuous, when called "Home
+Rule." The people stood his patient ways patiently, but when a more
+desperate leader arrived they transferred allegiance, and Butt died
+of a broken heart.
+
+Parnell took his place and began to marshal the broken forces of
+Irish democracy against his own class. Butt had been a polite
+parliamentarian, reverencing the courtesy of debate and at heart
+loving the British Constitution. Parnell felt that his mission lay in
+breaking rather than interpreting the law. The well-bred House stared
+and protested when he defied their chosen six hundred. Parnell faced
+them with their own marble callousness. He outdid them in political
+cynicism and out-bowed them in frigid courtesy, while maintaining a
+policy before which tradition melted and a time-honored system
+collapsed. In one stormy decade he tore the cloak from the Mother of
+Parliaments, reducing her to a plain-speaking democratic machine.
+Through the breach he made, the English labor party has since
+entered.
+
+He united priest and peasant, physical and moral force, under him. He
+could lay Ireland under storm or lull at his pleasure. His
+achievement equalled his self-confidence. He reversed the Irish land
+system and threw English politics out of gear. With the balance of
+power in his hand, he made Tory and Radical outbid each other for his
+support. He was no organizer or orator, but he fascinated able men to
+conduct his schemes, as Napoleon used his marshals. On a pregnant day
+he equaled the achievement of St. Paul and converted Gladstone, who
+had once been his gaoler. Gladstone became a Home Ruler, and
+henceforth English politics knew no peace.
+
+Parnell stood for the fall and rise of many. Under his banner Irish
+peasants became human beings with human rights. He felled the feudal
+class in Ireland and undermined them in England. Incalculable forces
+were set to destroy him. A forged letter in the _Times_ classed him
+with assassins, while an legal Commission was sent to try his whole
+movement. It is history that his triumphant vindication was followed
+by a greater fall. The happiness of Ireland was sucked into the
+maelstrom of his ruin. He refused to retire from leadership at
+Gladstone's bidding, and Ireland staggered into civil war. The end is
+known--Parnell died as he had lived. Of his moral fault there is no
+palliation, but it may be said he held his country's honor dearer
+than his own, for he could not bear to see her win even independence
+by obeying the word of an Englishman.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Lecky: Leaders of Irish Opinion; Mitchel: Jail Journal; Duffy: Young
+Ireland; O'Brien: Life of Parnell; D'Alton: History of Ireland.
+
+
+
+IRISH HEROINES
+
+By Alice Milligan
+
+
+The worth and glory of a nation may well be measured and adjudged by
+the typical character of its womanhood: not so much, I would say, by
+the eminence attained to by rarely gifted, exceptionally developed
+individuals, as by the prevalence of noble types at every period, and
+amongst all classes of the community, and by their recurrence from
+age to age under varying circumstances of national fortune.
+
+Judged by such a standard, Ireland emerges triumphant and points to
+the roll of her chequered history, the story of her ancient race,
+with confidence and pride. Gaze into the farthest vistas of her
+legendary past, into the remotest eras of which tradition preserves a
+misty memory, and the figure of some fair, noble woman stands forth
+glimmering like a white statue against the gloom. At every period of
+stern endeavor, through all the generations of recorded time, the
+pages of our annals are inscribed with the names of mothers, sisters,
+wives, not unworthy to stand there beside those of the world-renowned
+heroes of the Gael.
+
+In the ancient tales of Ireland we read of great female physicians
+and distinguished female lawyers and judges. There were _ban-file_,
+or women-poets, who, like the _file_, were at the same time
+soothsayers and poetesses, and there are other evidences of the high
+esteem in which women were held. There can be no doubt, to judge by
+the elaborate descriptions of garments in the saga-texts, that the
+women were very skilful in weaving and needlework. The Irish peasant
+girls of today inherit from them not a little of their gift for
+lace-making and linen-embroidery. Ladies of the highest rank
+practiced needlework as an accomplishment and a recreation. Some of
+the scissors and shears they used have come to light in excavations.
+
+In the stories of the loves of the ancient Irish, whether immortals
+or mortals, the woman's role is the more accentuated, while in
+Teutonic tradition man plays the chief part. Again, it has often been
+remarked that the feminine interest is absent from the earlier heroic
+forms of some literatures. Not so, however, in the earliest
+saga-texts of the Irish. Many are the famous women to whom the old
+tales introduce us and who stand out and compel attention like the
+characters of the Greek drama. Everyone knows of the faithful
+Deirdre, the heroine of the touching story of the "Exile of the Sons
+of Usnech", and of her death; of the proud and selfish Medb. the
+ambitious queen of Connacht, the most warlike and most expert in the
+use of weapons of the women of the Gael--far superior in combat and
+counsel to her husband, Ailill; of Emer, the faithful wife of
+Cuchulainn; of Etain of the Horses (that was her name in Fairyland);
+and of many others too numerous to mention.
+
+It is with the introduction of Christianity into Ireland that the
+Irish woman came into her rightful place, and attained the
+preponderating influence which she, ever since, has held among the
+Celtic people. In the period which followed the evangelization of the
+island many were the "women of worth" who upheld the honor and glory
+of "Inisfail the Fair", and women were neither the less numerous nor
+the less ardent who hung upon the lips of the Apostle of Ireland.
+
+Amid the galaxy of the saints, how lustrous, how divinely fair,
+shines the star of Brigid, the shepherd maiden of Faughard, the
+disciple of Patrick the Apostle, the guardian of the holy light that
+burned beneath the oak-trees of Kildare! Over all Ireland and through
+the Hebridean Isles, she is renowned above any other. We think of
+her, moreover, not alone, but as the centre of a great company of
+cloistered maidens, the refuge and helper of the sinful and
+sorrowful, who found in the gospel that Patrick preached a message of
+consolation and deliverance. Let it be remembered that the shroud of
+Patrick is deemed to have been woven by Brigid's hand; that when she
+died, in 525, Columcille, the future apostle of Scotland, was a child
+of four. So she stands midmost of that trilogy of saints whose dust
+is said to rest in Down.
+
+Who that hears of Columcille will forget how He won that name, "dove
+of the Church", because of his early piety, and that surely bespeaks
+a mother's guiding care. Ethne, mother of Columcille, remains a vague
+but picturesque figure, seen against the background of the rugged
+heath-clad hills of Tir-Conal by the bright blue waters of Gartan's
+triple lake. Her hearth-stone or couch is shown there to this day,
+where once in slumber, before the birth of her son, she saw in a
+glorious visionary dream a symbol of his future greatness. A vast
+veil woven of sunshine and flowers seemed to float down upon her from
+heaven: an exquisitely poetic thought, which gives us warrant to
+believe that Columcille's poetic skill was inherited from his mother.
+
+Ronnat, the mother of his biographer, St. Adamnan, plays a more
+notable part in history, for, according to an ancient Gaelic text
+recently published, it was to her that the women of Ireland owed the
+royal decree which liberated them from military service. The story
+goes that once, as she walked beside the Boyne, after some sanguinary
+conflict, she came upon the bodies of two women who had fallen in
+battle. One grasped a reaping hook, the other a sword, and dreadful
+wounds disfigured them. Horrified at the sight, she brought strong
+pressure to bear upon her son, and his influence in the councils of
+the land availed to bring about the promulgation of the decree which
+freed women from war-service.
+
+Our warrior kings had noble queens to rule their households, and of
+these none stands out so distinctly after long lapse of time as
+Gormlai, the daughter of Flann Siona, and wife of Nial Glondubh. Her
+story has in it that element of romance which touches the heart and
+wins the sympathy of all who hear it.
+
+Her father was king of the Meathan branch of the Clan Nial, and
+_ard-ri_ of Ireland for thirty-seven years. Nial Glondubh was king of
+Tir-Eoghain, and heir of Flann in the high kingship, for at that era
+it was the custom for the kings of Meath and of Tyrone to hold the
+supreme power alternately. In order to knit north and south, Flann
+betrothed his beautiful daughter to Cormac macCuillenan, king of
+Cashel, an ideal husband, one would have thought, for a poetess like
+Gormlai, for Cormac was the foremost scholar of the day; but his mind
+was so set on learning and religion that he took holy orders and
+became bishop-king of Cashel, repudiating his destined bride. Gormlai
+was then given as wife to Cearbhail, king of Leinster, and war was
+waged against Cormac who was killed in the battle of Ballymoon.
+Coming home wounded, Cearbhail lay on his couch, and while tended by
+Gormlai and her ladies told the story of the battle and boasted of
+having insulted the dead body of King Cormac. Gormlai reproached him
+for his ignoble conduct in such terms that his anger and jealousy
+flamed up, and striking her with his fist he hurled her to the
+ground.
+
+Gormlai rose indignant and left his house forever, returning to the
+palace of King Flann, and on Cearbhail's death she at last found a
+true lover and worthy mate in Nial Glondubh, who brought her
+northward to rule over the famous palace of Aileach. In 916 Nial
+became high king, but the place of honor was also the place of
+danger, and soon he led the mustered hosts of the north against the
+pagan foreigners, who held Dublin and Fingal, and he fell in battle
+at Rathfarnham.
+
+A poem, preserved for us ever since, tells us that Gormlai was
+present at his burial and chanted a funeral ode. Her long widowhood
+was a period of disconsolate mourning. At length it is said she had a
+dream or vision, in which King Nial appeared to her in such life-like
+shape that she spread her arms to embrace him, and thus wounded her
+breast against the carven head-post of her couch, and of that wound
+she died.
+
+Many saintly, many noble, many hospitable and learned women lightened
+the darkness that fell over Ireland after the coming of the Normans.
+
+I pass to the time when a sovereign lady filled the throne of
+England, "the spacious days of great Elizabeth," which were also the
+period of Ireland's greatest, sternest struggle against a policy of
+extermination towards her nobles and suppression of her ancient
+faith. Amid all the heroes and leaders of that wondrous age in
+Ireland, there appears, like a reincarnation of legendary Medb, a
+warlike queen in Connacht, Grace O'Malley, "Granuaile" of the
+ballads. Instead of a chariot, she mounts to the prow of a
+swift-sailing galley, and sweeps over the wild Atlantic billows, from
+isle to isle, from coast to coast, taking tribute (or is it plunder?)
+from the clans. First an O'Flaherty is her husband, then a Norman
+Burke. In Clare Island they show her castle tower, with a hole in the
+wall, through which they say she tied a cable from her ship, ready by
+day or night for a summons from her seamen. She voyaged as far as
+London town, and stood face to face with the ruffed and hooped
+Elizabeth, meeting her offer of an English title with the assertion
+that she was a princess in her own land.
+
+The mother of Red Hugh O'Donnell, Ineen-dubh, though daughter of the
+Scottish Lord of the Isles, was none the less of the old Irish stock.
+Her character is finely sketched for us by the Franciscan chronicler
+who wrote the story of the captivity and mighty deeds of her son.
+When the clans of Tir-Conal assembled to elect the youthful
+chieftain, he writes: "It was an advantage that she came to the
+gathering, for she was the head of the advice and counsel of the
+Cinel-Conail, and, though she was slow and deliberate and much
+praised for her womanly qualities, she had the heart of a hero and
+the soul of a soldier." Her daughter, Nuala, is the "woman of the
+piercing wail" in Mangan's translation of the bard's lament for the
+death of the Ulster chieftains in Rome.
+
+Modern critics like to interpret the "Dark Rosaleen" poem as an
+expression of Red Hugh's devotion to Ireland, but I think that Rose,
+O'Doherty's daughter, wife of the peerless Owen Roe, deserves
+recognition as she whose
+
+      "Holy delicate white hands should girdle him with steel."
+
+The record has come down to us that she prompted and encouraged her
+husband to return from the low-countries and a position of dignity in
+a foreign court to command the war in Ireland, and in her first
+letter, ere she followed him over sea, she asked eagerly: "How stands
+Tir-Conal?" True daughter of Ulster was Owen's wife, so let us
+henceforth acknowledge her as the _Roisin_ dubh, "dark Rosaleen", of
+the sublimest of all patriot songs.
+
+In the Cromwellian and Williamite wars, we see the mournful mothers
+and daughters of the Gaeldom passing in sad procession to Connacht,
+or wailing on Shannon banks for the flight of the "Wild Geese." But
+what of Limerick wall, what of the valorous rush of the women of the
+beleaguered city to stem the inroads of the besiegers and rally the
+defenders to the breach? The decree of St. Adamnan was quite
+forgotten then, and when manly courage for a moment was daunted,
+woman's fortitude replaced and reinspired it.
+
+And fortitude was sorely needed through the black years that
+followed--the penal days, when Ireland, crushed in the dust, bereft
+of arms, achieved a sublimer victory than did even King Brian
+himself, champion of the Cross, against the last muster of European
+heathendom.
+
+Yes, her women have done their share in making Ireland what she is, a
+heroic land, unconquered by long centuries of wrath and wrong, a land
+that has not abandoned its Faith through stress of direst persecution
+or bartered it for the lure of worldly dominion; no--nor ever yielded
+to despair in face of repeated national disaster.
+
+It was this fidelity to principle on the part of the Irish Catholic
+people which won for them the alliance of all that were worthiest
+among the Protestants of north and south in the days of the
+Volunteers and the United Irishmen. What interesting and pathetic
+portraits of Irishwomen are added to our roll at this period! None is
+more tenderly mournful than that of Sarah Curran, the beloved of
+Robert Emmet. The graceful prose of Washington Irving, the poignant
+verses of Moore, have enshrined the memory of her, weeping for him in
+the shadow of the scaffold, dying of heart-break at last in a far-off
+land. No more need be said of her, for whom the pity of the whole
+world has been awakened by song allied to sweetest, saddest music.
+What of Anne Devlin, Emmet's faithful servant, helping in his
+preparations for insurrection, aiding his flight, shielding him in
+hiding, even when tortured, scourged, half-hanged by a brutal
+soldiery, with stern-shut lips refusing to utter a word to compromise
+her "Master Robert"?
+
+What of the sister of Henry Joy McCracken, Mary, the friend and
+fellow-worker with the Belfast United Irishmen? An independent,
+self-reliant business woman, she earned the money which she gave so
+liberally in the good cause, or to help the poor and distressed,
+through the whole period of a long life. Some still living have seen
+Mary passing along the streets of Belfast, an aged woman, clad in
+sombre gown, to whom Catholic artisans raised their caps reverently,
+remembering how in '98 she had walked hand in hand with her brother
+to the steps of the scaffold, and how, in 1803, she had aided Thomas
+Russell in his escape from the north after Emmet's failure, had
+bribed his captors after arrest, provided for his defence, and
+preserved for futurity a record of his dying words. Madden's _History
+of the United Irishmen_, as far as it tells of the north, is mainly
+the record that she kept as a sacred trust in letters, papers,
+long-treasured memories of the men who fought and died to make
+Ireland a united nation.
+
+And now a scene in America comes last to my mind. Wolfe Tone, a
+political fugitive who has served Ireland well and come through
+danger to safety, is busy laying the foundations of a happy and
+prosperous future, with a beloved wife and sister and young children
+to brighten his home. An estate near Princeton, New Jersey, has been
+all but bought, possibilities of a career in the new republic open
+before him, when a letter comes from Belfast, asking him to return to
+the post of danger, to undertake a mission to France for the sake of
+Ireland. Let his own pen describe what happened: "I handed the letter
+to my wife and sister and desired their opinion.... My wife
+especially, whose courage and whose zeal for my honor and interest
+were not in the least abated by all her past sufferings, supplicated
+me to let no consideration of her or our children stand for a moment
+in the way of my duty to our country, adding that she would answer
+for our family during my absence and that the same Providence which
+had so often, as it were, miraculously preserved us would not desert
+us now."
+
+Inspired by the fortitude of this noble woman, Tone went forth on his
+perilous mission, and similarly the Young Ireland leaders, Mitchel
+and Smith O'Brien, were sustained by the courage of their nearest and
+dearest. "Eva," the poetess of the _Nation_, gave her troth-plight to
+one who had prison and exile to face ere he could claim her hand.
+Other names recur to me--"Speranza", with her lyric fire; Ellen
+O'Leary, fervent and still patient and wise; Fanny Parnell and her
+sister.
+
+And what of the women of Ireland today? Shall they come short of the
+high ideal of the past, falter and fail, if devotion and sacrifice
+are required of them? Never: whilst they keep in memory and honor the
+illustrious ones of whom I have written. The name of Irishwoman today
+stands for steadfast virtue, for hospitality, for simple piety, for
+cheerful endurance, and in a changing world let us trust it is the
+will of God that in this there will be no change.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+On Ethne, mother of St. Columcille: The Visions, Miracles, and
+Prophecies of St. Columba (Clarendon Press Series). On Ronnat: S. Mac
+an Bhaird, Life (in Irish) of Adamnan (Letterkenny); Reeves, St.
+Adamnan's Life of St. Columba; The Mother of St. Adamnan, an old
+Gaelic text, ed. by Kuno Meyer (Berlin). On Gormlai: Thomas
+Concannon, Gormflath (in Irish; The Gaelic League, Dublin). On
+Granuaile: Elizabethan State Papers (Record Office Series); William
+O'Brien, A Queen of Men. On Ineen-Dubh: O'Clery's Life of Red Hugh
+(contemporary), ed. by Denis Murphy, S. J. (Dublin, 1894); Standish
+O'Grady, The Flight of the Eagle, or Red Hugh's Captivity. On Rose,
+wife of Owen Roe O'Neill, see references in Father Meehan's The
+Flight of the Earls, and in Sir John Gilbert's History of the
+Confederate War (Dublin, 1885). On the wife of Wolfe Tone, see Wolfe
+Tone's Autobiography, ed. by R. Barry O'Brien (London, 1894). The
+American edition has a fuller account of Tone's wife, her courage and
+devotion in educating her son, and her interviews with Napoleon, and
+life in America. The women of the United Irish period are fully dealt
+with in K. R. Madden's Lives and Times of the United Irishmen. On
+Mary McCracken, see Mrs. Milligan Fox, The Annals of the Irish
+Harpers. On the women of the Young Ireland period, see C. Gavan
+Duffy's Young Ireland (Dublin), and John O'Leary's Fenians and
+Fenianism. On the women of Limerick, see Rev. James Dowd, Limerick
+and its Sieges (Limerick, 1890). For the women under Cromwellian
+Plantation persecutions and the Penal Laws, see Prendergast's
+Cromwellian Settlement, Rev. Denis Murphy's Cromwell in Ireland, and
+R. R. Madden's History of the Penal Laws.
+
+
+
+IRISH NATIONALITY
+
+By LORD ASHBOURNE
+
+
+[NOTE.--This chapter was written by Lord Ashbourne in French, because
+he is so strong an Irishman that he objects to write in English. The
+translation has been made by the Editors.]
+
+
+To those of us who are interested in the future of our country there
+is at this very moment presented a really serious problem. The
+political struggle of the last century has been so intense that many
+of our people have come to have none but a political solution in
+view. For them the whole question is one of politics, and they will
+continue to believe that Ireland will have found salvation the moment
+we get Home Rule or something like it. Such an attitude seems natural
+enough when we remember what our people have suffered in the past.
+Nevertheless, on a little reflection, this error--for error it is,
+and an enormous one, too--will be quickly dissipated. In the first
+place, the political struggle of today is only the continuation of a
+conflict which has lasted seven hundred years, and in point of fact
+we have a right to be proud that after so many trials there still
+remains to us anything of our national inheritance. We find ourselves
+indeed on the battlefield somewhat seriously bruised, but we can
+console ourselves with the thought that our opponent is in equally
+doleful case, that he is beginning to suffer from a fatal weariness,
+and that he is anxious to make peace with us.
+
+In order to place the present political situation in its true light
+and to take into account its comparatively limited importance, we
+must not lose sight of the fundamental fact that what Home Rule
+connotes is rather a tender of peace on the part of Ireland than a
+gift which England presents us of her own free will. In fact, our
+neighbor across the Channel has as much interest as ourselves, and
+perhaps even more, in bringing the struggle to an end. Through us,
+England has already lost much prestige, and that famous British
+Constitution, which in times past everyone admired while trying in
+vain to imitate it, has lost caste considerably. I am not now
+speaking of the danger which an Ireland discontented, and even
+hostile, and having nothing to lose, would constitute for England in
+case of war. It is especially from our neighbor's point of view that
+we can cry up Home Rule or any other solution that will bring peace.
+But let us leave to Great Britain the task of getting out of trouble
+as best she may. On our side, what shall we say of it?
+
+In our conflict with the English we are not wearied; rather are we
+hardened for the fray. We have acquired the habit of fighting, and
+many of us can now scarcely regulate our conduct in a manner suitable
+to a state of peace with England. Nevertheless, as I have already
+said, we have not emerged unscathed from this war of the centuries.
+National sentiment remains with us, no doubt, and our traditions are
+not wholly lost, especially among the country people of the West. But
+our commerce is almost ruined and the national language is no longer
+spoken throughout the greater part of the country. It is true that a
+continuation of the hitherto existing state of war cannot do us much
+more harm; that for purposes of mere destruction all the advantages
+are on our side; and that on the other hand we can begin a
+reconstruction at home without waiting for a treaty of peace to be
+signed. But we have some things to do for which a home government
+would be useful to us, and further, in the absence of such a
+government, it would be difficult to imagine what means could be
+employed to turn the people away from their too exclusive absorption
+in Anglo-Irish politics.
+
+It is, then, from a practical point of view that we wish for peace.
+But, we may lawfully ask, will not this peace bring with it a special
+danger, against which we ought to take precautions? As a matter of
+fact, there is such a danger, and it lies in the fact that the people
+have been to so great an extent obsessed by the political struggle
+that they run the risk, once their end is attained, of collapsing and
+of losing interest in the national question. Let us not forget that
+that question is to save our language and our civilization; without
+that, it is all over with our nationality. Let us endeavor to turn
+our parliament to account in order to work seriously on the
+reconstruction of our national life, and it is certain that Ireland
+will find therein her salvation.
+
+We can, therefore, take advantage either of England's prolonged
+resistance or of peace. If England decides to continue the contest,
+she will suffer more from it than we. Her empire, her institutions,
+her safety, will be more and more impaired, while, as for us, there
+will result a strong growth in patriotism and in anti-British
+bitterness. What we have to do, right now, is to take our bearings in
+such a way that, no matter what happens to England, our own future
+shall be assured. We can do it if we wish it: the question is, shall
+we wish it?
+
+Here it may be objected, _Cui bono_ The English language is quite
+enough for us. We have it now and we speak it, sometimes, even better
+than the English people themselves. We are proud of using the same
+language as Sheridan, Burke, and Grattan used. Such an opinion has
+its modicum of truth, though less now than a hundred years ago.
+Formerly there was in Ireland, and especially around Dublin, a little
+colony of Anglo-Irish. The members of this colony spoke a very pure
+and classic English, and this fact is largely responsible for the
+place which Ireland at one time held in English literature. But
+during the last century the remains of this colony have been swamped
+beneath a flood of half-Anglicized people, of Irishmen from the
+country districts, who were formerly excluded, and who brought with
+them such a mixture of expressions and of phonetic tendencies derived
+from the Gaelic that the language of Grattan, Sheridan, and Burke has
+well-nigh gone out of existence. The reason of this is that since the
+date of Catholic emancipation, most careers are open to everybody.
+The result has been that the newly enfranchised majority has
+ultimately absorbed the minority, and that the atmosphere of culture,
+of which we have just spoken, has disappeared. We thus reach an
+Ireland which, in a sense, has neither culture nor language, a
+country in which the Gaelic spoken by a people humiliated and deeply
+demoralized by an anti-Catholic legislation, which was both savage
+and degrading, tended to coalesce with an English already condemned
+to death. It is from the moment when the Catholics had finally
+triumphed over persecution that we must date the beginning of that
+political struggle with which we are familiar, a struggle which has
+resulted in absorbing all the energies of a great part of the
+population. That is why this tremendous problem presents itself to
+us, at the very time when we should be justified in feeling ourselves
+elated by triumph because of our victories in parliament. And let not
+England rejoice too much at our dilemma. If we are doomed to die, she
+will die with us, for before disappearing we shall prove to be a
+great destructive force, and out of the ruins of the British power we
+shall raise such a monument that future generations will know what it
+costs to murder a nation.
+
+But, if possible, we must live and let live. The elements of
+reconstruction are always at hand. Anglo-Irish culture is indeed
+dead, but Gaelic culture is only seriously sick, and on that side
+there is always room for hope. Sooth to say, its sickness consists
+above all in the fact that the Irish language is no longer spoken in
+a great part of the country. But, on the other hand, where it is
+preserved, that same language is spoken in all its purity. By going
+there to find it all Ireland will gradually become Gaelic.
+
+But, it will be objected, what a loss of time and energy! If it is a
+question of languages, why not learn one of the more useful ones? To
+this we may reply that, while English deforms the mouth and makes it
+incapable of pronouncing any language which is not spoken from the
+tip of the lips, Gaelic, on the contrary, so exercises the organs of
+speech that it renders easy the acquisition and the practice of most
+European idioms. Let us add, by way of example, that French, which is
+usually difficult for strangers, is much more within the compass of
+Irishmen who speak Irish, no less because of certain linguistic
+customs than from the original relationship between the two
+languages.
+
+This remark brings us to another objection which is often lodged
+against our movement. It is urged that Ireland is already isolated
+enough, and that by making it a Gaelic-speaking nation, we shall make
+that state of affairs still worse. English, say the objectors, is
+spoken more or less everywhere, while Gaelic will never be able to
+claim the position of a quasi-universal language. To this line of
+reasoning it might be answered, for one thing, that no one can tell
+how far Gaelic will go, in case our movement is a success, and that
+many a language formerly "universal" is today as dead as a door-nail.
+But we must look at the question from another point of view. John
+Bull's language is spread everywhere, while he himself retains the
+most exclusive insularity. He travels to every land and there finds
+his own language and his own customs. Now it goes without saying that
+from this very universalization his language is corrupted and becomes
+vulgarized. The idiom of Shakespeare and Milton gives place gradually
+to the idiom of the seaports. Furthermore, far from isolating us,
+Gaelic will tend to put us in touch with the civilization of the
+West. As a people Anglicised, and badly Anglicised at that, we share,
+and even exaggerate, the faults which I have just described. It is
+Anglo-Saxon speech which isolates us, and we wish on this ground to
+break with it and to hold out our hand to our brothers of the
+continent.
+
+But, it may be said, what a pity to dig yet another abyss between
+Ireland and Great Britain, for it is with the latter that our
+geographical position will always link us for common defense. For,
+while it is true that history does not show us a single case of an
+empire which has not sooner or later fallen to pieces, nevertheless,
+whatever happens, the two islands will be necessarily forced to
+co-operate for the common good. Well, let us take it that things will
+so fall out, and let us suppose an Anglicised Ireland called upon to
+face such a situation. It would be a revolutionary Ireland, a
+restless Ireland, an Ireland seeking vaguely for revenge on someone,
+deprived of really national character, and, in a general way,
+suspecting England of responsibility for the disappearance from our
+country of everything that constitutes the idea of nationality. And
+let us remark that we are no longer living in those good old times
+when entire nations allowed themselves to be absorbed by their
+conquerors. The art of printing has changed all that. Today a
+"suppressed" nation is one that will sooner or later have its
+revenge. Thus let us suppose that we are destined to make political
+peace with England and to enter of our own accord into a
+Hiberno-Britannic confederation. From our point of view, what would
+be the result of that arrangement? The result would be strange. Here
+again, as in the case of Home Rule, it is rather we who offer
+advantages to England than she who offers them to us. Only, in this
+latter case, the result depends on ourselves alone. If we die, it
+will be because we have wished it. Our language is not dead; on the
+contrary, although not widely spread, it is in itself much more alive
+than English, which as a literary language is in full decay. We may
+congratulate ourselves that our idiom is intact. Our civilization is
+old, but it has not yet lived its full life. If we wish, the future
+is ours. And let us truly believe that that is worth while, for the
+race which has produced epics like those of Ossian and all that
+magnificent literature which has been preserved for us through the
+ages, the race that gave to Europe that great impulse of missionary
+activity which is associated with the names of Columcille, Brendan,
+Columbanus, and Gall, not to mention men like the famous Scotus
+Erigena--that race is certainly called upon to play an important part
+in the modern world. But--let us repeat it--it must have the wish.
+
+
+
+FAMOUS IRISH SOCIETIES
+
+By JOHN O'DEA,
+
+_National Historian, A.O.H._.
+
+
+In the social organization of no nation of antiquity were societies
+of greater influence than in pagan Ireland. During many centuries
+these societies, composed of the bards, ollamhs, brehons, druids, and
+knights, contended for precedence. In no country did the literary
+societies display greater vigor and exercise a more beneficent power
+than in pagan Ireland. Although the Hebrews and other Asiatic nations
+had societies organized from among the professions, yet in Ireland
+alone these societies seem to have been constructed with a patriotic
+purpose, and in Ireland alone they seem to have had ceremonies of
+initiation, with constitutions and laws. These societies existed from
+the earliest times until after the coming of St. Patrick. Traces of
+them are visible during all the centuries from the conversion of
+Ireland down to the Anglo-Norman epoch, and it is apparent that the
+clan system and the introduction of the feudal system by the English
+failed to eliminate completely their influence.
+
+When the Irish emigration flowed towards the American colonies in the
+eighteenth century, the social instinct early found expression in
+societies. One of the earliest of these was founded in Boston, where,
+in 1737, twenty-six "gentlemen merchants and others, natives of
+Ireland or of Irish extraction", organized the Charitable Irish
+Society. In Pennsylvania, where the Irish emigration had been larger
+than in any other colony, the Hibernian Fire Company was organized in
+1751. The Friendly Sons of St. Patrick was founded in Philadelphia in
+1771, and about that time societies bearing this name were founded in
+Boston and New York, as convivial clubs welcoming Irish emigrants to
+their festive boards. These societies were formed upon the model of
+the Friendly Brothers of St. Patrick, which had existed in Dublin and
+other Irish cities a generation before, and was well and favorably
+known throughout Ireland.
+
+The Society of the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick in Philadelphia
+contained some of the most prominent merchants and leading citizens
+of the city, and in 1780 they subscribed £103,000, or one-third of
+the sum collected, to supply the Continental army with food. Among
+its members were Commodore Barry, the Father of the American Navy;
+General Stephen Moylan; General Anthony Wayne; and the great
+merchants, Blair McClenachan, Thomas Fitzsimons, and Robert Morris.
+Washington, who was an honorary member, described it "as a society
+distinguished for the firm adherence of its members to the glorious
+cause in which we are embarked." Whether upon the field or upon the
+sea, in council or in the sacrifice of their wealth, their names are
+foremost in the crisis of the Revolution.
+
+The Hibernian Society for the Relief of Emigrants from Ireland was
+founded in Philadelphia on March 3, 1790. Other Hibernian Societies,
+with the same title and organized for the same purpose, were founded
+in other cities along the Atlantic coast in the early years of the
+nineteenth century, but the Philadelphia Hibernian Society was, from
+the character of its members, the extent of its beneficence, and the
+length of its existence, the most famous. The emigrants from Ireland
+during the eighteenth century had pushed on to the frontier, or, in
+some instances, remained in the cities and engaged successfully in
+mercantile pursuits. The emigration which came after the Revolution
+was, however, in great part composed of families almost without
+means. Unable to subsist while clearing farms in the virgin forest,
+thousands were congested in the cities. The Hibernian Society
+extended a ready and strong hand to these helpless people, and not
+only aided the emigrants with gifts of money, but also secured for
+them employment, disseminated among them useful information, and
+provided them with medical attendance. While the Hibernian Society
+was regarded as the successor of the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick,
+yet the two societies, which contained largely a membership roll
+bearing the same names, flourished, in the work of patriotism, side
+by side. The first officers of the Hibernian Society for the Relief
+of Emigrants from Ireland were: President, Chief Justice Thomas
+McKean; Vice-President, General Walter Stewart; Secretary, Matthew
+Carey, the historian; Treasurer, John Taylor. It was said that no
+other society in America contained so many men distinguished in
+civil, military, and official life as the Hibernian Society. In
+almost every city where the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick and the
+Hibernian Society for the Relief of Emigrants were found, there was a
+close and intimate connection between them, which ultimately resulted
+in amalgamation.
+
+The Ancient Order of Hibernians traces its origin to those orders
+which flourished in pagan Ireland, and which exercised so potent an
+influence upon the history of the Celtic race. The order of
+knighthood was the first of these orders to be founded. It existed
+from the earliest times, and is visible in the annals of the nation,
+until the Anglo-Normans invaded the land in the twelfth century. In
+pagan Ireland the knightly orders became provincial standing armies,
+and there are many glorious pages describing the feats of the Clanna
+Deagha of Munster, the Clanna Morna of Connacht, the Feni of
+Leinster, and the Knights of the Red Branch of Ulster. When the
+island was Christianized, these knightly orders were among the
+staunchest supporters of the missionary priests, and were consecrated
+to the service of the church in the sixth century, assuming the cross
+as their distinctive emblem, and becoming the defenders of religion.
+
+Among the names which are upon the rolls of the ancient orders of
+knighthood are those of most of the kings, bards, saints, and
+statesmen, and in the long list there was no family of greater renown
+than that of Roderick the Great, to which belonged Conall Cearnach
+and Lugaidh, who, according to MacGeoghegan and others, were the
+direct ancestors of the O'Mores of Leix. In this family the ancient
+splendor of the knightly orders was a tradition which survived for
+centuries, and they were in almost continual rebellion against the
+English, from the siege of Dublin by Roderick O'Connor until the
+rebellion against Queen Elizabeth, led by Rory Oge O'More and his son
+Owen in the latter part of the sixteenth and the early seventeenth
+century. A nephew of Rory Oge, the sagacious and statesmanlike Rory
+O'More, revived the ancient orders in the Catholic Confederation of
+Kilkenny in 1642. A grandson of Rory O'More, Patrick Sarsfield, Earl
+of Lucan, was the most distinguished commander of Irish armies who
+opposed, in Ireland, the forces of William of Orange.
+
+There is no stranger story in all history than the intimate
+connection of the O'More family with the annals of the Ancient Order
+of Hibernians. The lineage of this family furnishes the links
+connecting the ancient orders of pagan Ireland through the centuries
+with the Ancient Order in modern times. Under the names of Rapparees,
+Whiteboys, Defenders, Ribbonmen, etc., the Confederation of Kilkenny
+was carried on through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries until
+the nineteenth. At various times the duties of these organizations
+were subject to local conditions. Thus the Defenders were occupied in
+protecting themselves and their priests against the hostility of the
+Penal Laws, engaging in armed conflict with the Orangemen in the
+north, while the Whiteboys were waging war against the atrocities of
+landlordism in the south. Between these two organizations there was a
+secret code, which operated until they were combined, under the name
+of Ribbonmen, in the early nineteenth century. The contentions of the
+Whiteboys regarding Irish landlordism have since been acknowledged to
+be just, and have been enacted into statutes. The Defenders joined
+with Wolfe Tone in the formation of the United Irishmen.
+
+About 1825 the Ribbonmen changed their name to St. Patrick's
+Fraternal Society, and branches were established in England and
+Scotland under the name of the Hibernian Funeral Society. In 1836 a
+charter was received by members in New York City, and in Schuylkill
+County, Pennsylvania. The headquarters were for some years in
+Pennsylvania, but in 1851 a charter was granted to the New York
+Divisions under the name of "The Ancient Order of Hibernians." New
+York thus became the American headquarters. National conventions were
+held there until 1878, since which year they have been held in many
+other cities biennially. Many of the most distinguished leaders of
+the Irish race in America have been members of the Order, and from a
+humble beginning, with a few emigrants gathered together in a strange
+land, the membership has grown to nearly 200,000. General Thomas
+Francis Meagher, Colonel Michael Doheny, General Michael Corcoran,
+and Colonel John O'Mahony were among the members in the late '50's.
+
+Among the organizations which have sprung from the ranks of the
+A.O.H. were the powerful Fenian Brotherhood, the Emmet Monument
+Association, and scores of smaller associations in all sections of
+the United States and Canada. During the Know Nothing riots, the
+Order furnished armed defenders for the Catholic churches in New
+York, Philadelphia, and Charleston, and it has ever been foremost in
+preserving its position as the hereditary defender of the faith. In
+1894, the Ladies' Auxiliary was founded, and this body of women
+numbered in 1914 over 63,000, and had donated great sums to charity,
+education, and religion. The A.O.H. had, in 1914, assets of
+$2,230,000. It pays annually, for charity, sick and death benefits,
+and maintenance, over $1,000,000, and during its existence in America
+has donated nearly $20,000,000 to works of beneficence. One of the
+most celebrated of the gifts of the Order was the endowment of the
+Chair of Celtic in the Catholic University of America, and one of its
+greatest gifts to charity was its contribution of $40,000 to the
+sufferers from the San Francisco earthquake.
+
+The Clan-na-Gael is a society organized to secure the independence of
+Ireland by armed revolution. Its organization is secret and it is the
+successor of the Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood, called in America
+the Fenian Brotherhood, which promoted many daring raids and risings
+in Ireland in 1867. The I.R.B. was perfected by James Stephens in
+Ireland, and by John O'Mahony in America, from 1857 to 1867. An
+invasion of Canada was made in great force under the general
+direction of Colonel William R. Roberts, president of the Fenian
+Brotherhood, but was unsuccessful owing to the attitude of the United
+States Government, which declared that the Fenians were violating the
+principles of neutrality. After the disorganization of the Fenian
+Brotherhood, the idea of revolution languished until revived by the
+founding of the Clan-na-Gael by Jerome J. Collins in 1869, and the
+membership during the twenty years from 1880 to 1900 included almost
+fifty thousand of the flower of the men of Irish blood in America.
+The principle of revolution was first given organized public
+expression in America through the formation in 1848 of the Irish
+Republican Union, which was succeeded by the Emmet Monument
+Association, these societies influencing the creation of the
+Sixty-Ninth and Seventy-Fifth Regiments of the New York State
+Militia, and the Ninth Massachusetts, which became so famous for
+valor during the Civil War. Although not putting forth all its
+strength, so as to allow full scope to the parliamentary efforts to
+ameliorate the state of the Irish people, the Clan-na-Gael is as
+vigorous a section as ever of the forces organized for the service of
+patriotism.
+
+The Land League, founded in Ireland in 1879, was transplanted to
+America in 1880, when the first branch was established in New York
+City through the efforts of Patrick Ford, John Boyle O'Reilly, John
+Devoy, and others. Michael Davitt soon after came to America and
+travelled through the country founding branches of the League. In a
+few years the whole American continent was organized, and in this
+organization Michael Davitt declared that the members of the Ancient
+Order of Hibernians and the Clan-na-Gael were everywhere foremost. To
+the enormous sums collected by the League in this country, and to the
+magnificent labors of Parnell, Davitt, Redmond, Ferguson, Dillon,
+Kettle, Webb, and others in Ireland, is due in a large measure the
+present improved state of the people, resulting from the sacrifices
+made by those who supported this greatest of leagues devoted to the
+amelioration of unbearable economic conditions. A Ladies' Auxiliary
+to the Land League was established by the sisters of Parnell, and was
+for some years a brilliant vindication of the power and justice of
+feminine participation in public questions.
+
+The Land League, the name of which was changed to the Irish National
+League in the early '80's, having prepared the path to eventual
+victory, declined in potency after the political movement was divided
+into Parnellites and Anti-Parnellites in 1890. The elements composing
+these rival parties were, through the initiative of William O'Brien,
+M.P., and in commemoration of the one hundredth anniversary of the
+United Irishmen of Wolfe Tone's day, joined in 1898 under the name of
+the United Irish League, John E. Redmond becoming the first
+president, and also the chairman of the Parliamentary Party which it
+had been instrumental in uniting. This organization is now a living,
+vital force in the affairs of Ireland on both sides of the Atlantic,
+Mr. Redmond being still its head, with Michael J. Ryan, of
+Philadelphia, as president of the American Branch.
+
+The Knights of Columbus were organized in 1881 by Rev. Michael
+McGivney, in New Haven, Connecticut, and a charter was granted by the
+Connecticut Legislature on March 29,1882. At first the activity of
+the organization was confined to Connecticut, but the time was ripe
+for its mission, and it soon spread rapidly throughout New England.
+In 1896 it began to attract the attention of Catholic young men in
+other parts of the nation, and during the next few years its appeal
+was made irresistibly in almost every State. It now exists in all the
+States of the Union, the Dominion of Canada, Nova Scotia,
+Newfoundland, Panama, Porto Rico, Mexico, Cuba, and the Philippine
+Islands, with a total membership of 328,000, of whom 108,000 are
+insurance members and 220,000 associate members. Its mortuary reserve
+fund is $4,500,000, being over $1,000,000 more than is required by
+law. It is one of the most successful fraternal societies ever
+organized, and the Irish-American Catholics have given to it the full
+strength of their enthusiasm and purpose.
+
+The temperance movement among Catholics was, from the visit of Father
+Mathew in 1849, largely Irish. The societies first formed were united
+by no bond until 1871, when the Connecticut societies formed a State
+Union. Other States formed unions and a national convention in
+Baltimore in 1872 created a National Union. In 1878 there were 90,000
+priests, laymen, women, and children in the Catholic Total Abstinence
+Benevolent Union. In 1883 the Union was introduced into Canada, and
+in 1895 there were 150,000 members on the American continent. From
+the C.T.A.B.U. were formed the Knights of Father Mathew, a total
+abstinence and semi-military body, first instituted in St. Louis in
+1872.
+
+The Catholic Knights of America, with a membership chiefly
+Irish-American, were organized in Memphis, Tennessee, in 1877, and
+the advantages offered for insurance soon attracted 20,000 members.
+The decade of the '70's was prolific of Irish Catholic associations.
+The Catholic Benevolent Legion was founded in 1873, shortly followed
+by the Catholic Mutual Benevolent Association, the Catholic Order of
+Foresters (which started in Massachusetts and spread to other
+States), the Irish Catholic Benevolent Union, and the Society of the
+Holy Name, which latter, although tracing its origin to Lisbon in
+1432, is yet dominantly Irish in America.
+
+In the large industrial centres there are scores of Irish county and
+other societies composed of Irishmen and Irish-Americans, organized
+for the service of country and faith, beneficence and education, and
+all dedicated to the uplifting of humanity and to the progress of
+civilization. The ancient genius for organization has not been lost,
+the spirit of brotherhood pulsates strongly in the Irish heart, and
+through its powerful societies the race retains its place in the
+advance of mankind.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+John M. Campbell: History of the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick and
+Hibernian Society; Maguire: The Irish in America; McGee: Irish
+Settlers in America; John O'Dea: History of the Ancient Order of
+Hibernians and Ladies' Auxiliary in America; Michael Davitt: The Fall
+of Feudalism in Ireland; Cashman: Life of Michael Davitt; T.P.
+O'Connor: The Parnell Movement; Joseph Denieffe: Recollections of the
+Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood; Articles in the Catholic
+Encyclopedia; Report of the Knights of Columbus, 1914; The Tidings,
+Los Angeles, 7th annual edition.
+
+
+
+THE IRISH IN THE UNITED STATES
+
+By MICHAEL J. O'BRIEN,
+
+_Historiographer, American Irish Historical Society_.
+
+
+Students of early American history will find in the Colonial records
+abundant evidence to justify the statement of Ramsay, the historian
+of South Carolina, when he wrote in 1789, that:
+
+"The Colonies which now form the United States may be considered as
+Europe transplanted. Ireland, England, Scotland, France, Germany,
+Holland, Switzerland, Sweden, Poland, and Italy furnished the
+original stock of the present population, and are generally supposed
+to have contributed to it in the order named. For the last seventy or
+eighty years, no nation has contributed so much to the population of
+America as Ireland."
+
+It will be astonishing to one who looks into the question to find
+that, in face of all the evidence that abounds in American annals,
+showing that our people were here on this soil fighting the battles
+of the colonists, and in a later day of the infant Republic, thus
+proving our claim to the gratitude of this nation, America has
+produced men so ignoble and disingenuous as to say that the Irish who
+were here in Revolutionary days "were for the most part heartily
+loyal," that "the combatants were of the same race and blood", and
+that the great uprising became, in fact, "a contest between
+brothers"!
+
+Although many writers have made inquiries into this subject, nearly
+all have confined themselves to the period of the Revolution. We are
+of "the fighting race", and in our enthusiasm for the fighting man
+the fact seems to have been overlooked that in other noble fields of
+endeavor, and in some respects infinitely more important, men of
+Irish blood have occupied prominent places in American history, for
+which they have received but scant recognition. The pioneers before
+whose hands the primeval forests fell prostrate; the builders, by
+whose magic touch have sprung into existence flourishing towns and
+cities, where once no sounds were heard save those of nature and her
+wildest offspring; the orators who roused the colonists into activity
+and showed them the way to achieve their independence; the
+schoolmasters who imparted to the American youth their first lessons
+in intellectuality and patriotism; all have their place in history,
+and of these we can claim that Ireland furnished her full quota to
+the American colonies.
+
+It must now be accepted as an indisputable fact that a very large
+proportion of the earliest settlers in the American colonies were of
+Irish blood, for the Irish have been coming here since the beginning
+of the English colonization. It has been estimated by competent
+authorities that in the middle of the seventeenth century the
+English-speaking colonists numbered 50,000. Sir William Petty, the
+English statistician, tells us that during the decade from 1649 to
+1659 the annual emigration from Ireland to the western continent was
+upwards of 6000, thus making, in that space of time, 60,000 souls, or
+about one-half of what the whole population must have been in 1659.
+And from 1659 to 1672 there emigrated from Ireland to America the
+yearly number of 3000 (Dobbs, on Irish Trade, Dublin, 1729).
+Prendergast, another noted authority, in the _Cromwellian Settlement
+of Ireland_, furnishes ample verification of this by the statistics
+which he quotes from the English records. Richard Hakluyt, the
+chronicler of the first Virginia expeditions, in his _Voyages,
+Navigations, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the English Nation_
+(London, 1600), shows that Irishmen came with Raleigh to Virginia in
+1587 and, in fact, the ubiquitous Celts were with Sir John Hawkins in
+his voyage to the Gulf of Mexico twenty years earlier. The famous
+work of John Camden Hotten, entitled "The Original Lists of Persons
+of Quality, Emigrants, Religious Exiles, Political Rebels, Serving
+Men sold for a term of years," etc., who were brought to the Virginia
+plantations between 1600 and 1700, as well as his "List of the
+Livinge and the Dead in Virginia in 1623," contains numerous Celtic
+names, and further evidence of these continuous migrations of the
+Irish is contained in "A Booke of Entrie for Passengers passing
+beyond the Seas", in the year 1632. The Virginia records also show
+that as early as 1621 a colony of Irish people sailed from Cork in
+the _Flying Harte_ under the patronage of Sir William Newce and
+located at what is now Newport News, and some few years later Daniel
+Gookin, a merchant of Cork, transported hither "great multitudes of
+people and cattle" from England and Ireland.
+
+In the "William and Mary College Quarterly," in the transcripts of
+the original records published by the Virginia Historical Society,
+and in all County histories of Virginia, there are numerous
+references to the Irish "redemptioners" who were brought to that
+colony during the seventeenth century. But the redemptioners were not
+the only class who came, for the colonial records also contain many
+references to Irishmen of good birth and education who received
+grants of land in the colony and who, in turn, induced many of their
+countrymen to emigrate. Planters named McCarty, Lynch, O'Neill,
+Sullivan, Farrell, McDonnell, O'Brien, and others denoting an ancient
+Irish lineage appear frequently in the early records. Much that is
+romantic is found in the lives of these men and their descendants.
+Some of them served in the Council chamber and the field, their sons
+and daughters were educated to hold place, with elegance and dignity,
+with the foremost of the Cavaliers, and when in after years the great
+conflict with England began, Virginians of Irish blood were among the
+first and the most eager to answer the call. Those historians who
+claim that the South was exclusively an "Anglo-Saxon" heritage would
+be completely disillusioned were they to examine the lists of
+Colonial and Revolutionary troops of Celtic name who held the Indians
+and the British at bay, and who helped in those "troublous times" to
+lay the foundations of a great Republic.
+
+There is no portion of the Atlantic seaboard that did not profit by
+the Irish immigrations of the seventeenth century. We learn from the
+"Irish State Papers" of the year 1595 that ships were regularly
+plying between Ireland and Newfoundland, and so important was the
+trade between Ireland and the far-distant fishing banks that "all
+English ships bound out always made provisions that the convoy out
+should remain 48 hours in Cork." In some of Lord Baltimore's accounts
+of his voyages to Newfoundland he refers to his having "sailed from
+Ireland" and to his "return to Ireland," and so it is highly probable
+that he settled Irishmen on his Avalon plantations. After Baltimore's
+departure, Lord Falkland also sent out a number of Irish colonists,
+and "at a later date they were so largely reinforced by settlers from
+Ireland that the Celtic part of the population at this day is not far
+short of equality in numbers with the Saxon portion"--(Hatton and
+Harvey, _History of Newfoundland_, page 32). Pedley attributes the
+large proportion of Irishmen and the influence of the Catholics in
+Newfoundland to Lord Falkland's company, and Prowse, in his History
+(pp. 200-201), refers to "the large number of Irishmen" in that
+colony who fled from Waterford and Cork "during the troubled times"
+which preceded the Williamite war (1688). Many of these in after
+years are known to have settled in New England.
+
+But it was to Maryland and Pennsylvania that the greatest flow of
+Irish immigration directed its course. In the celebrated "Account of
+the Voyage to Maryland," written in the year 1634 by Mutius
+Vitellestis, the general of the Jesuit Order, it is related that when
+the _Arke_ and the _Dove_ arrived in the West Indies in that year,
+they found "the island of Montserrat inhabited by a colony of
+Irishmen who had been banished from Virginia on account of their
+professing the Catholic faith." It is known also that there were many
+families in Ireland of substance and good social standing who, at
+their own expense, took venture in the enterprise of Lord Baltimore
+and afterwards in that of William Penn, and who applied for and
+received grants of land, which, as the deeds on record show, were
+afterwards divided into farms bought and settled by O'Briens,
+McCarthys, O'Connors, and many others of the ancient Gaelic race, the
+descendants of those heroic men whose passion for liberty, while
+causing their ruin, inspired and impelled their sons to follow
+westward "the star of empire."
+
+After the first English colonies in Maryland were founded, we find in
+all the proclamations concerning these settlements by the proprietary
+government, that they were limited to "persons of British or Irish
+descent." The religious liberty established in Maryland was the
+magnet which attracted Irish Catholics to that Province, and so they
+came in large numbers in search of peace and comfort and freedom from
+the turmoil produced by religious animosities in their native land.
+The major part of this Irish immigration seems to have come in
+through the ports of Philadelphia and Charleston and a portion
+through Chesapeake Bay, whence they passed on to Pennsylvania and the
+southern colonies.
+
+The "Certificates of Land Grants" in Maryland show that it was
+customary for those Irish colonists to name their lands after places
+in their native country, and I find that there is hardly a town or
+city in the old Gaelic strongholds in Ireland that is not represented
+in the nomenclature of the early Maryland grants. One entire section
+of the Province, named the "County of New Ireland" by proclamation of
+Lord Baltimore in the year 1684, was occupied wholly by Irish
+families. This section is now embraced in Cecil and Harford Counties.
+New Ireland County was divided into three parts, known as New
+Connaught, New Munster, and New Leinster. New Connaught was founded
+by George Talbot from Roscommon, who was surveyor-general of the
+Province; New Munster, by Edward O'Dwyer from Tipperary; and New
+Leinster, by Bryan O'Daly from Wicklow, all of whom were in Maryland
+prior to 1683. Among the prominent men in the Province may be
+mentioned Charles O'Carroll, who was secretary to the proprietor;
+John Hart from county Cavan, who was governor of Maryland from 1714
+to 1720; Phillip Conner from Kerry, known in history as the "Last
+Commander of Old Kent"; Daniel Dulany of the O'Delaney family from
+Queen's County, one of the most famous lawyers in the American
+Colonies; Michael Tawney or Taney, ancestor of the celebrated judge,
+Roger Brooke Taney; the Courseys from Cork, one of the oldest
+families in the State; the Kings from Dublin; and many others.
+
+The only place in the State bearing a genuine Irish name which has
+reached any prominence is Baltimore. Not alone has the "Monumental
+City" received its name from Ireland, but the tract of land on which
+the city is now situate was originally named (in 1695) "Ely
+O'Carroll," after the barony of that name in King's and Tipperary
+counties, the ancient home of the Clan O'Carroll. To subdivisions of
+the tract were given such names as Dublin, Waterford, Tralee, Raphoe,
+Tramore, Mallow, Kinsale, Lurgan, Coleraine, Tipperary, Antrim,
+Belfast, Derry, Kildare, Enniskillen, Wexford, Letterkenny, Lifford,
+Birr, Galway, Limerick, and so on, all indicating the nationality of
+the patentees, as well as the places from which they came.
+
+From such sources is the evidence available of the coming of the
+Irish to Maryland in large numbers, and so it is that we are not
+surprised to find on the rosters of the Maryland Revolutionary
+regiments 4633 distinctive Irish names, exclusive of the large
+numbers who joined the navy and the militia, as well as those who
+were held to guard the frontier from Indian raids, whose names are
+not on record. However, it is not possible now to determine the
+proportion of the Revolutionary soldiers who were of Irish birth or
+descent, for where the nationality is not stated in the rosters all
+non-Irish names must be left out of the reckoning. The first census
+of Maryland (1790), published by the United States Government,
+enumerates the names of all "Heads of Families" and the number of
+persons in each family. A count of the Irish names shows
+approximately 21,000 persons. This does not take into account the
+great number of people who could not be recorded under that head, as
+it is known there were many thousand Irish "redemptioners" in
+Maryland prior to the taking of the census, and while no precise data
+exist to indicate the number of Irish immigrants who settled in
+Maryland, I estimate that the number of people of Irish descent in
+the State in 1790 was not far short of 40,000.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The Land Records and Council Journals of Georgia of the last half of
+the seventeenth and the first half of the eighteenth century afford
+like testimony to the presence of the Irish, who crossed the sea and
+colonized the waste places of that wild territory, and whose
+descendants in after years contributed much of the strength of the
+patriot forces who confronted the armed cohorts of Carleton and
+Cornwallis. From the Colonial Records of Georgia, published under the
+auspices of the State Legislature, I have extracted a long list of
+people of Irish name and blood who received grants of land in that
+colony. They came with Oglethorpe as early as 1735 and continued to
+arrive for many years. It was an Irishman named Mitchell who laid out
+the site of Atlanta, the metropolis of the South; an O'Brien founded
+the city of Augusta; and a McCormick named the city of Dublin,
+Georgia.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+From the records of the Carolinas we obtain similar data, many of an
+absorbingly interesting character, and the number of places in that
+section bearing names of a decidedly Celtic flavor is striking
+evidence of the presence of Irish people, the line of whose
+settlements across the whole State of North Carolina may be traced on
+the high roads leading from Pennsylvania and Virginia. Hawk, one of
+the historians of North Carolina, refers to the "Irish Romanists" who
+were resident in that Province as early as 1700, and Williamson says
+that "the most numerous settlers in the northwestern part of the
+Province during the first half of the eighteenth century were from
+Ireland." The manuscript records in the office of the Secretary of
+State refer to "a ship load of immigrants" who, in the year 1761,
+came to the Carolinas from Dublin. The names of the Irish pioneers in
+the Carolinas are found in every conceivable connection, in the
+parochial and court records, in the will books, in the minutes of the
+general Assembly, in the quaint old records of the Land and
+Registers' offices, in the patents granted by the colonial
+Government, and in sundry other official records. In public affairs
+they seem to have had the same adaptability for politics which, among
+other things, has in later days brought their countrymen into
+prominence. Florence O'Sullivan from Kerry was surveyor-general of
+South Carolina in 1671. James Moore, a native of Ireland and a
+descendant of the famous Irish chieftain, Rory O'More, was governor
+of South Carolina in 1700; Matthew Rowan from Carrickfergus was
+president of the North Carolina Council during the term of office of
+his townsman, Governor Arthur Dobbs (1754 to 1764); John Connor was
+attorney-general of the Province in 1730, and was succeeded in turn
+by David O'Sheall and Thomas McGuire. Cornelius Hartnett, Hugh
+Waddell, and Terence Sweeny, all Irishmen, were members of the Court,
+and among the members of the provincial assembly I find such names as
+Murphy, Leary, Kearney, McLewean, Dunn, Keenan, McManus, Ryan,
+Bourke, Logan, and others showing an Irish origin. And, in this
+connection, we must not overlook Thomas Burke, a native of "the City
+of the Tribes", distinguished as lawyer, soldier, and statesman, who
+became governor of North Carolina in 1781, as did his cousin Aedanus
+Burke, also from Galway, who was judge of the Supreme Court of South
+Carolina in 1778. John Rutledge, son of Dr. John Rutledge from
+Ireland, was governor of South Carolina in 1776 and his brother
+Edward became governor of the State in 1788.
+
+But there were Irishmen in the Carolinas long before the advent of
+these, and indeed Irish names are found occasionally as far back as
+the records of those colonies reach. They are scattered profusely
+through the will books and records of deeds as early as 1676 and down
+to the end of the century, and in a list of immigrants from Barbados
+in the year 1678, quoted by John Camden Hotten in the work already
+alluded to, we find about 120 persons of Irish name who settled in
+the Carolinas in that year. In 1719, 500 persons from Ireland
+transported themselves to Carolina to take the benefit of an Act
+passed by the Assembly by which the lands of the Yemmassee Indians
+were thrown open to settlers, and Ramsay (_History of South
+Carolina_, vol. I, page 20) says: "Of all countries none has
+furnished the Province with so many inhabitants as Ireland."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In the Pennsylvania records one is also struck with the very frequent
+mention of Irish names. William Penn had lived in Ireland for several
+years and was acquainted with the sturdy character of its people, and
+when he arrived on board _The Welcome_ in 1682 he had with him a
+number of Irishmen, who are described as "people of property and
+people of consequence." In 1699 he brought over a brilliant young
+Irishman, James Logan from Lurgan, who for nearly half a century
+occupied a leading position in the Province and for some time was its
+governor. But the first Irish immigration to Pennsylvania of any
+numerical importance came in the year 1717. They settled in Lancaster
+County. "They and their descendants," says Rupp, an impartial
+historian, "have always been justly regarded as among the most
+intelligent people in the County and their progress will be found to
+be but little behind the boasted efforts of the Colony of Plymouth."
+In 1727, as the records show, 1155 Irish people arrived in
+Philadelphia and in 1728 the number reached the high total of 5600.
+"It looks as if Ireland is to send all her inhabitants hither," wrote
+Secretary Logan to the provincial proprietors in 1729, "for last week
+not less than six ships arrived. The common fear is that if they
+continue to come they will make themselves proprietors of the
+Province" (Rupp's _History of Dauphin County_).
+
+The continuous stream of Irish immigration was viewed with so much
+alarm by the Legislature, that in 1728 a law was passed "against
+these crowds of Irish papists and convicts who are yearly powr'd upon
+us"--(the "convicts" being the political refugees who fled from the
+persecutions of the English Government!). But the operations of this
+statute were wholly nullified by the captains of the vessels landing
+their passengers at Newcastle, Del., and Burlington, N, J., and, as
+one instance of this, I find in the Philadelphia _American Weekly
+Mercury_ of August 14, 1729, a statement to this effect: "It is
+reported from Newcastle that there arrived there this last week about
+2000 Irish and an abundance more daily expected." This expectation
+was realized, for according to "An Account of Passengers and Servants
+landed in Philadelphia between December 25, 1728, and December 25,
+1729", which I find in the _New England Weekly Journal_ for March 30,
+1730, the number of Irish who came in via the Delaware river in that
+year was 5655, while the total number of all other Europeans who
+arrived during the same period was only 553. Holmes, in his _Annals
+of America_, corroborates this. The Philadelphia newspapers down to
+the year 1741 also contained many similar references, indicating that
+the flood of Irish immigration was unceasing and that it was at all
+times in excess of that from other European countries. Later issues
+of the _Mercury_ also published accounts of the number of ships from
+Ireland which arrived in the Delaware, and from these it appears that
+from 1735 to 1738 "66 vessels entered Philadelphia from Ireland and
+50 cleared thereto." And in the _New York Gazette and Weekly
+Post-Boy_ of the years 1750 to 1752, I find under the caption,
+"Vessels Registered at the Philadelphia Custom House," a total of 183
+ships destined from or to Ireland, or an average of five sailings per
+month between Irish ports and the port of Philadelphia alone. A
+careful search fails to disclose any record of the number of persons
+who came in these ships, but, from the fact that it is stated that
+all carried passengers as well as merchandise from Irish ports, we
+may safely assume that the "human freight" must have been very large.
+
+Spencer, in his _History of the United States_, says: "In the years
+1771 and 1772 the number of emigrants to America from Ireland was
+17,350, almost all of whom emigrated at their own expense. A great
+majority of them consisted of persons employed in the linen
+manufacture or farmers possessed of some property, which they
+converted into money and brought with them. Within the first
+fortnight of August, 1773, there arrived at Philadelphia 3500
+immigrants from Ireland. As most of the emigrants, particularly those
+from Ireland and Scotland, were personally discontent with their
+treatment in Europe, their accession to the colonial population, it
+might reasonably be supposed, had no tendency to diminish or
+counteract the hostile sentiments toward Britain which were daily
+gathering force in America." Marmion, in his _Ancient and Modern
+History of the Maritime Ports of Ireland_, verifies this. He says
+that the number of Irish who came during the years 1771, 1772, and
+1773 was 25,000. The bulk of these came in by way of Philadelphia and
+settled in Pennsylvania and the Virginias.
+
+The Irish were arriving in the Province in such great numbers during
+this period as to be the cause of considerable jealousy on the part
+of other settlers from continental Europe. They were a vigorous and
+aggressive element. Eager for that freedom which was denied them at
+home, large numbers of them went out on the frontier. While the
+war-whoop of the savage still echoed within the surrounding valleys
+and his council fires blazed upon the hills, those daring adventurers
+penetrated the hitherto pathless wilderness and passed through
+unexampled hardships with heroic endurance. They opened up the roads,
+bridged the streams, and cut down the forests, turning the wilderness
+into a place fit for man's abode. With their sturdy sons, they
+constituted the skirmish line of civilization, standing as a bulwark
+against Indian incursions into the more prosperous and populous
+settlements between them and the coast. From 1740 down to the period
+of the Revolution, hardly a year passed without a fresh infusion of
+Irish blood into the existing population, and, as an indication that
+they distributed themselves all over the Province, I find, in every
+Town and County history of Pennsylvania and in the land records of
+every section, Irish names in the greatest profusion. They settled in
+great numbers chiefly along the Susquehanna and its tributaries; they
+laid out many prosperous settlements in the wilderness of western
+Pennsylvania, and in these sections Irishmen are seen occupying some
+of the foremost and most coveted positions, and their sons in after
+years contributed much to the power and commercial greatness of the
+Commonwealth. They are mentioned prominently as manufacturers,
+merchants, and farmers, and in the professions they occupied a place
+second to none among the natives of the State. In several sections,
+they were numerous enough to establish their own independent
+settlements, to which they gave the names of their Irish home places,
+several of which are preserved to this day. It is not to be wondered
+at then that General Harry Lee named the Pennsylvania line of the
+Continental army, "the Line of Ireland"!
+
+Ireland gave many eminent men to the Commonwealth, among whom may be
+mentioned: John Burns, its first governor after the adoption of the
+Constitution, who was born in Dublin; George Bryan, also a native of
+Dublin, who was its governor in 1788; James O'Hara, one of the
+founders of Pittsburgh; Thomas FitzSimmons, a native of Limerick,
+member of the first Congress under the Constitution which began the
+United States Government and father of the policy of protection to
+American industries; Matthew Carey from Dublin, the famous political
+economist; and many others who were prominent as nation-builders in
+the early days of the "Keystone State."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+While the historians usually give all the credit to England and to
+Englishmen for the early colonization of New England, whose results
+have been attended with such important consequences to America and
+the civilized world, Ireland and her sons can also claim a large part
+in the development of this territory, as is evidenced by the town,
+land, church, and other colonial records, and the names of the
+pioneers, as well as the names given to several of the early
+settlements. That the Irish had been coming to New England almost
+from the beginning of the English colonization is indicated by an
+"Order" entered in the Massachusetts record under date of September
+25, 1634, granting liberty to "the Scottishe and Irishe gentlemen who
+intend to come hither, to sitt down in any place upp Merimacke
+river." This, doubtless, referred to a Scotch and Irish company
+which, about that time, had announced its intention of founding a
+settlement on the Merrimac. It comprised in all 140 passengers, who
+embarked in the _Eagle Wing_, from Carrickfergus in September, 1636,
+bringing with them a considerable quantity of equipment and
+merchandise to meet the exigencies of their settlement in the new
+country. The vessel, however, never reached its destination and was
+obliged to return to Ireland on account of the Atlantic storms, and
+there is no record of a renewal of the attempt. In the Massachusetts
+records of the year 1640 (vol. I, p. 295) is another entry relating
+to "the persons come from Ireland," and in the Town Books of Boston
+may be seen references to Irishmen who were residents of the town in
+that year.
+
+From local histories, which in many cases are but verbatim copies of
+the original entries in the Town Books, we get occasional glimpses of
+the Irish who were in the colony of Massachusetts Bay between this
+period and the end of the century. For example, between 1640 and
+1660, such names as O'Neill, Sexton, Gibbons, Lynch, Keeney, Kelly,
+and Hogan appear on the Town records of Hartford, and one of the
+first schoolmasters who taught the children of the Puritans in New
+Haven was an Irishman named William Collins, who, in the year 1640,
+came there with a number of Irish refugees from Barbados Island. An
+Irishman named Joseph Collins with his wife and family came to Lynn,
+Mass., in 1635. Richard Duffy and Matthias Curran were at Ipswich in
+1633. John Kelly came to Newbury in 1635 with the first English
+settlers of the town. David O'Killia (or O'Kelly) was a resident of
+Old Yarmouth in 1657, and I find on various records of that section a
+great number of people named Kelley, who probably were descended from
+David O'Killia. Peter O'Kelly and his family are mentioned as of
+Dorchester in 1696. At Springfield in 1656 there were families named
+Riley and O'Dea; and Richard Burke, said to be of the Mayo family of
+that name, is mentioned prominently in Middlesex County as early as
+1670. The first legal instrument of record in Hampden County was a
+deed of conveyance in the year 1683 to one Patrick Riley of lands in
+Chicopee. With a number of his countrymen, Riley located in this
+vicinity and gave the name of "Ireland Parish" to their settlement.
+John Molooney and Daniel MacGuinnes were at Woburn in 1676, and
+Michael Bacon, "an Irishman", of Woburn, fought in King Philip's war
+in 1675. John Joyce was at Lynn in 1637, and I find the names of
+Willyam Heally, William Reyle, William Barrett, and Roger Burke
+signed to a petition to the General Court of Massachusetts on August
+17, 1664. Such names as Maccarty, Gleason, Coggan, Lawler, Kelly,
+Hurley, MackQuade, and McCleary also appear on the Cambridge Church
+records down to 1690. These are but desultory instances of the first
+comers among the Irish to Massachusetts, selected from a great mass
+of similar data.
+
+In the early history of every town in Massachusetts, without
+exception, I find mention of Irish people, and while the majority
+came originally as "poor redemptioners", yet, in course of time and
+despite Puritanical prejudices, not a few of them rose to positions
+of worth and independence. Perhaps the most noted of these was
+Matthew Lyon of Vermont, known as "the Hampden of Congress," who, on
+his arrival in New York in 1765, was sold as a "redemptioner" to pay
+his passage-money. This distinguished American was a native of county
+Wicklow. Other notable examples of Irish redemptioners who attained
+eminence in America were George Taylor, a native of Dublin, one of
+Pennsylvania's signers of the Declaration of Independence; Charles
+Thompson, a native of county Tyrone, "the perennial Secretary of the
+Continental Congress", and William Killen, who became chief justice
+and chancellor of Delaware. Some of the descendants of the Irish
+redemptioners in Massachusetts are found among the prominent New
+Englanders of the past hundred years. The Puritans of Massachusetts
+extended no welcoming hand to the Irish who had the temerity to come
+among them, yet, as an historical writer has truly said, "by one of
+those strange transformations which time occasionally works, it has
+come to pass that Massachusetts today contains more people of Irish
+blood in proportion to the total population than any other State in
+the Union."
+
+So great and so continuous was Irish immigration to Massachusetts
+during the early part of the eighteenth century that on Saint
+Patrick's Day in the year 1737 a number of merchants, who described
+themselves as "of the Irish Nation residing in Boston," formed the
+Charitable Irish Society, an organization which exists even to the
+present day. It was provided that the officers should be "natives of
+Ireland or of Irish extraction," and they announced that the Society
+was organized "in an affectionate and Compassionate concern for their
+countrymen in these Parts who may be reduced by Sickness, Shipwrack,
+Old Age, and other Infirmities and unforeseen Accidents." I have
+copied from the Town Books, as reproduced by the City of Boston, 1600
+Irish names of persons who were married or had declared their
+intentions of marriage in Boston between the years 1710 and 1790,
+exclusive of 956 other Irish names which appear on the minutes
+between 1720 and 1775.
+
+In 1718, one of the largest single colonies of Irish arrived in
+Boston. It consisted of one hundred families, who settled at
+different places in Massachusetts. One contingent, headed by Edward
+Fitzgerald, located at Worcester and another at Palmer under the
+leadership of Robert Farrell, while a number went to the already
+established settlement at Londonderry, N.H. About the same time a
+colony of fishermen from the west coast of Ireland settled on the
+Cape Cod peninsula, and I find a number of them recorded on the
+marriage registers of the towns in this vicinity between 1719 and
+1743. In 1720, a number of families from county Tyrone came to
+Shrewsbury, and eight years later another large contingent came to
+Leicester County from the same neighborhood, who gave the name of
+Dublin to the section where they located. The annals of Leicester
+County are rich in Irish names. On the Town Books of various places
+in this vicinity and on the rosters of the troops enrolled for the
+Indian war, Irishmen are recorded, and we learn from the records that
+not a few of them were important and useful men, active in the
+development of the settlements, and often chosen as selectmen or
+representatives. On the minutes of the meetings of the selectmen of
+Pelham, Spencer, Sutton, Charlestown, Canton, Scituate, Stoughton,
+Salem, Amesbury, Stoneham, and other Massachusetts towns, Irish names
+are recorded many years before the Revolution. In local histories
+these people are usually called "Scotch-Irish," a racial misnomer
+that has been very much overworked by a certain class of historical
+writers who seem to be unable to understand that a non-Catholic
+native of Ireland can be an Irishman. In an exhaustive study of
+American history, I cannot find any other race where such a
+distinction is drawn as in the case of the non-Catholic, or so-called
+"Scotch," Irish. In many instances, this hybrid racial designation
+obviously springs from prejudice and a desire to withhold from
+Ireland any credit that may belong to her, although, in some cases,
+the writers are genuinely mistaken in their belief that the Scotch as
+a race are the antithesis of the Irish and that whatever commendable
+qualities the non-Catholic Irish are possessed of naturally spring
+from the Scotch.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The first recorded Irish settlement in Maine was made by families
+named Kelly and Haley from Galway, who located on the Isles of Shoals
+about the year 1653. In 1692, Roger Kelly was a representative from
+the Isles to the General Court of Massachusetts, and is described in
+local annals as "King of the Isles." The large number of islands,
+bays, and promontories on the Maine coast bearing distinctive Celtic
+names attests the presence and influence of Irish people in this
+section in colonial times. In 1720, Robert Temple from Cork brought
+to Maine five shiploads of people, mostly from the province of
+Munster. They landed at the junction of the Kennebec and Eastern
+rivers, where they established the town of Cork, which, however,
+after a precarious existence of only six years, was entirely
+destroyed by the Indians. For nearly a century the place was
+familiarly known to the residents of the locality as "Ireland." The
+records of York, Lincoln, and Cumberland counties contain references
+to large numbers of Irish people who settled in those localities
+during the early years of the eighteenth century. The Town Books of
+Georgetown, Kirtery, and Kennebunkport, of the period 1740 to 1775,
+are especially rich in Irish names, and in the Saco Valley numerous
+settlements were made by Irish immigrants, not a few of whom are
+referred to by local historians as "men of wealth and social
+standing." In the marriage and other records of Limerick, Me., as
+published by the Maine Historical and Genealogical Recorder, in the
+marriage registers of the First Congregational Church of Scarborough,
+and in other similarly unquestionable records, I find a surprisingly
+large number of Irish names at various periods during the seventeenth
+and eighteenth centuries. In fact, there is not one town in the
+Province that did not have its quota of Irish people, who came either
+direct from Ireland or migrated from other sections of New England.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The records of New Hampshire and Rhode Island are also a fruitful
+source of information on this subject, and the Provincial papers
+indicate an almost unbroken tide of Irish immigration to this
+section, beginning as early as the year 1640. One of the most noted
+of Exeter's pioneer settlers was an Irishman named Darby Field, who
+came to that place in 1631 and who has been credited by Governor
+Winthrop as "the first European who witnessed the White Mountains."
+He is also recorded as "an Irish soldier for discovery," and I find
+his name in the annals of Exeter as one of the grantees of an Indian
+deed dated April 3, 1638, as well as several other Irish names down
+to the year 1664. In examining the town registers, gazeteers, and
+genealogies, as well as the local histories of New Hampshire, in
+which are embodied copies of the original entries made by the Town
+Clerks, I find numerous references to the Irish pioneers, and in many
+instances they are written down, among others, as "the first
+settlers." Some are mentioned as selectmen, town clerks,
+representatives, or colonial soldiers, and it is indeed remarkable
+that there is not one of these authorities that I have examined, out
+of more than two hundred, that does not contain Irish names. From
+these Irish pioneers sprang many men who attained prominence in New
+Hampshire, in the legislature, the professions, the military, the
+arts and crafts, and in all departments of civil life, down to the
+present time. In the marriage registers of Portsmouth, Boscawen, New
+Boston, Antrim, Londonderry, and other New Hampshire towns, are
+recorded, in some cases as early as 1716, names of Irish persons,
+with the places of their nativity, indicating that they came from all
+parts of Ireland. At Hampton, I find Humphrey Sullivan teaching
+school in 1714, while the name of John Sullivan from Limerick,
+schoolmaster at Dover and at Berwick, Me., for upwards of fifty
+years, is one of the most honored in early New Hampshire history.
+
+This John Sullivan was surely one of the grandest characters in the
+Colony of Massachusetts Bay, and the record of his descendants serves
+as an all-sufficient reply to the anti-Irish prejudices of some
+American historians. He was the father of a governor of New Hampshire
+and of a governor of Massachusetts; of an attorney-general of New
+Hampshire and of an attorney-general of Massachusetts; of New
+Hampshire's only major-general in the Continental army; of the first
+judge appointed by Washington in New Hampshire; and of four sons who
+were officers in the Continental army. He was grandfather of an
+attorney-general of New Hampshire, of a governor of Maine, and of a
+United States Senator from New Hampshire. He was great-grandfather of
+an attorney-general of New Hampshire, and great-great-grandfather of
+an officer in the Thirteenth New Hampshire regiment in the Civil War.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In Rhode Island, Irish people are on record as far back as 1640, and
+for many years after that date they continued to come. Edward Larkin
+was an esteemed citizen of Newport in 1655. Charles McCarthy was one
+of the founders of the town of East Greenwich in 1677, while in this
+vicinity as early as 1680 are found such names as Casey, Higgins,
+Magennis, Kelley, Murphy, Reylie, Maloney, Healy, Delaney, Walsh, and
+others of Irish origin. On the rosters of the Colonial militia who
+fought in King Philip's war (1675) are found the names of 110
+soldiers of Irish birth or descent, some of whom, for their services
+at the battle of Narragansett, received grants of land in New
+Hampshire and Massachusetts. The New England Historical and
+Genealogical Register for 1848 contains some remarkable testimony of
+the sympathy of the people of Ireland for the sufferers in this cruel
+war, and the "Irish Donation," sent out from Dublin in the year 1676,
+will always stand in history to Ireland's credit and as an instance
+of her intimate familiarity with American affairs, one hundred years
+prior to that Revolution which emancipated the people of this land
+from the same tyranny under which she herself has groaned. And yet,
+what a cruel travesty on history it reads like now, when we scan the
+official records of the New England colonies and find that the Irish
+were often called "convicts", and it was thought that measures should
+be taken to prevent their landing on the soil where they and their
+sons afterwards shed their blood in the cause of their fellow
+colonists! In the minutes of the provincial Assemblies and in the
+reports rendered to the General Court, as well as in other official
+documents of the period, are found expressions of the sentiment which
+prevailed against the natives of the "Island of Sorrows." Only twenty
+years before the outbreak of King Philip's war, the government of
+England was asked to provide a law "to prevent the importation of
+Irish Papists and convicts that are yearly pow'rd upon us and to make
+provision against the growth of this pernicious evil." And the
+colonial Courts themselves, on account of what they called "the cruel
+and malignant spirit that has from time to time been manifest in the
+Irish nation against the English nation," prohibited "the bringing
+over of any Irish men, women, or children into this jurisdiction on
+the penalty of fifty pounds sterling to each inhabitant who shall buy
+of any merchant, shipmaster, or other agent any such person or
+persons so transported by them." This order was promulgated by the
+General Court of Massachusetts in October, 1654, and is given in full
+in the American Historical Review for October, 1896.
+
+With the "convicts" and the "redemptioners" came the Irish
+schoolmaster, the man then most needed in America. And the fighting
+man, he too was to the fore, for when the colonies in after years
+called for volunteers to resist the tyranny of the British, the
+descendants of the Irish "convicts" were among the first and the most
+eager to answer the call.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Although it does not appear that Irish immigrants settled in the
+Province of New York in such large numbers as in other sections, yet,
+as far back as the third quarter of the seventeenth century, Irish
+names are found on the records of the Colony. O'Callaghan, the
+eminent archivist and historian, refers to "Dr. William Hayes,
+formerly of Barry's Court, Ireland," as one of New York's physicians
+in the year 1647, and from the same authority we learn that there
+were "settlers and Indian fighters in New Netherland" named Barrett,
+Fitzgerald, Dowdall, Collins, and Quinn in 1657. In records relating
+to the war with the Esopus Indians (1663), and in fact as early as
+1658, frequent references are made to "Thomas the Irishman", whose
+name was Thomas Lewis, a refugee from Ireland to Holland after the
+Cromwellian war. Lewis is on record in 1683 as one of the wealthiest
+merchants of New York and a large owner of real estate in the present
+downtown portion of the city. Such names as Patrick Hayes, John Daly,
+John Quigly, and Dennis McKarty appear among its business men between
+1666 and 1672, and in a "Census of the City of New York of the year
+1703" we find people named Flynn, Walsh, Dooley, Gillen, Carroll,
+Kenne, Gurney, Hart, Mooney, Moran, Lynch, Kearney, and others, all
+"Freemen of the City of New York." In the "Poll List" of the city
+from 1741 to 1761, more than one hundred such names appear, while
+among the advertisers in the New York newspapers all through the
+eighteenth century I find a large number of characteristic Irish
+names.
+
+One would scarcely expect to find an Irishman in the old Dutch
+settlement of Beverwyck as early as 1645. Yet such is the case, for
+"Jan Andriessen, de Iersman van Dublingh"--(John Anderson, the
+Irishman from Dublin)--is mentioned as the owner of considerable
+landed property in the neighborhood of Albany and Catskill, and in
+every mention of this ancient pioneer he is referred to as "the
+Irishman." At Albany, between 1666 and 1690, we find people named
+Connell, Daly, Larkin, Shaw, Hogan, and Finn, all Irishmen, and in
+Jonathan Pearson's "Genealogies of the First Settlers of the Ancient
+County of Albany" and in his "Genealogies of the First Settlers of
+the Patent and City of Schenectady", I find 135 distinctive Irish
+names. These were mostly merchants, farmers, artisans, millers, and
+backwoodsmen, the pioneers, who, with their Dutch neighbors, blazed
+the trail of civilization through that section, rolled back the
+savage redman, and marked along the banks of the Hudson and Mohawk
+rivers the sites of future towns and cities. In the rate lists of
+Long Island between 1638 and 1675, I find Kelly, Dalton, Whelan,
+Condon, Barry, Powers, Quin, Kane, Sweeney, Murphy, Reilly, as well
+as Norman-Irish and Anglo-Irish names that are common to Irish
+nomenclature. Hugh O'Neale was a prominent resident of Newtown, L.I.,
+in 1655. In a "Report to the Lord President," dated September 6,
+1687, Governor Dongan recommended "that natives of Ireland be sent to
+colonize here where they may live and be very happy." Numbers of them
+evidently accepted the invitation, for many Irishmen are mentioned in
+the public documents of the Province during the succeeding twenty
+years.
+
+That the Irish continued to settle in the Province all through the
+eighteenth century may be seen from the announcements in the New York
+newspapers of the time and other authentic records. The most
+important of these, in point of numbers and character of the
+immigrants, were those made in Orange County in 1729 under the
+leadership of James Clinton from Longford, and at Cherry Valley, in
+Otsego County, twelve years later. On the Orange County assessment
+and Revolutionary rolls, and down to the year 1800, there is a very
+large number of Irish names, and in some sections they constituted
+nearly the entire population. In the northwestern part of New York,
+Irishmen are also found about the time of the Franco-English war.
+They were not only among those settlers who followed the peaceful
+pursuits of tilling and building, but they were "the men behind the
+guns" who held the marauding Indians in check and repelled the
+advances of the French through that territory. In this war, Irish
+soldiers fought on both sides, and in the "Journals of the Marquis of
+Montcalm" may be seen references to the English garrison at Oswego,
+which, in August, 1756, surrendered to that same Irish Brigade by
+which they had been defeated eleven years before on the battlefield
+of Fontenoy. In the "Manuscripts of Sir William Johnson", are also
+found some interesting items indicating that Irishmen were active
+participants in the frontier fighting about that time, and in one
+report to him, dated May 28, 1756, from the commandant of an English
+regiment, reference is made to "the great numbers of Irish Papists
+among the Delaware and Susquehanna Indians who have done a world of
+prejudice to English interests."
+
+The early records, with hardly an exception, contain Irish names,
+showing that the "Exiles from Erin" came to the Province of New York
+in considerable numbers during the eighteenth century. The baptismal
+and marriage records of the Dutch Reformed and Protestant churches of
+New York City; of the Dutch churches at Kingston, Albany,
+Schenectady, and other towns; the muster rolls of the troops enrolled
+for the French, Indian, and Revolutionary wars; the Land Grants and
+other provincial records at Albany; the newspapers; the Town, County,
+and family histories, and other early chronicles, supplemented by
+authoritative publications such as those of the New York Historical
+and Genealogical and Biographical Societies--these are the
+depositories of the evidence that thousands of Irish people settled
+in the Province of New York and constituted no inconsiderable
+proportion of the total population.
+
+The majority of the Irish residents of New York whose marriages are
+recorded in the Dutch Reformed church were, doubtless, of the
+Catholic faith, but, as it was necessary to comply with the
+established law, and also so that their offspring might be
+legitimate, they could be bound in wedlock only by a recognized
+Minister of the Gospel. As there was no Catholic church in New York
+prior to 1786, the ceremony had to be performed in the Dutch Reformed
+or Protestant church. Many of these Catholics were refugees from
+Ireland on account of the religious persecutions. Like the people of
+Ireland in all ages, they were devoted to their religion, and while,
+no doubt, they eschewed for a while association with the established
+churches, yet, as time went on, they and their children were
+gradually drawn into religious intercourse with the other sects,
+until eventually they became regular communicants of those churches.
+The variations which from time to time were wrought in their names
+brought them further and further away from what they had been; in
+their new surroundings, both social and religious, they themselves
+changed, so that their children, who in many cases married into the
+neighboring Dutch and French families, became as wholly un-Irish in
+manner and sentiment as if they had sprung from an entirely different
+race. That fact, however, does not admit of their being now included
+in the category "Anglo-Saxon."
+
+In a work entitled "Names of Persons for whom Marriage Licenses were
+issued by the Secretary of the Province of New York, previous to
+1784," compiled by Gideon J. Tucker (when Secretary of State), and
+taken from the early records of the office of the Secretary of State
+at Albany, we find ample corroboration of the church records. Page
+after page of this book looks more like some record of the Province
+of Munster than of the Province of New York. It is a quarto volume
+printed in small type in double columns, and there are eleven pages
+wholly devoted to persons whose names commence with "Mac" and three
+to the "O's." Nearly every name common to Ireland is here
+represented.
+
+New York, as a Province and as a State, is much indebted to Irish
+genius. Ireland gave the Province its most noted governor in the
+person of Thomas Dongan from Co. Kildare, and in later years Sir
+William Johnson from Co. Meath, governor of the Indians from New York
+to the Mississippi. It gave the State its first governor, George
+Clinton, son of an immigrant from Co. Longford, and to the city its
+first mayor after the Revolution, James Duane, son of Anthony Duane
+from Co. Galway. Fulton, an Irishman's son, gave America priority in
+the "conquest of the seas." Christopher Colles, a native of Cork, was
+the originator of the grand scheme which united the waters of the
+Atlantic and the Lakes--one of the greatest works of internal
+improvement ever effected in the United States--while the gigantic
+project was carried to a successful end through the influence and
+direction of Governor DeWitt Clinton, the grandson of an Irishman.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Many of the pioneer settlers of New Jersey were Irish. As early as
+1683 "a colony from Tipperary in Ireland" located at Cohansey in
+Salem County, and in the same year a number of settlers, also
+described as "from Tipperary, Ireland," located in Monmouth County.
+In the County records of New Jersey, Irish names are met with
+frequently between the years 1676 and 1698. Several of the local
+historians testify to the presence and influence of Irishmen in the
+early days of the colony, and in the voluminous "New Jersey Archives"
+may be found references to the large numbers of Irish
+"redemptioners," some of whom, after their terms of service had
+expired, received grants of land and in time became prosperous
+farmers and merchants. Perhaps the most noted Irishman in New Jersey
+in colonial days was Michael Kearney, a native of Cork and ancestor
+of General Philip Kearney of Civil War fame, who was secretary and
+treasurer of the Province in 1723.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+All through the west and southwest, Irishmen are found in the
+earliest days of authentic history. Along the Ohio, Kentucky, Wabash,
+and Tennessee rivers they were with the pioneers who first trod the
+wilderness of that vast territory. As early as 1690, an Irish trader
+named Doherty crossed the mountains into what is now Kentucky, and we
+are told by Filson, the noted French historian and explorer of
+Kentucky, that "the first white man who discovered this region"
+(1754) was one James McBride, who, in all probability, was an
+Irishman. The first white child born in Cincinnati was a son of an
+Irish settler named John Cummins; the first house built on its site
+was erected by Captain Hugh McGarry, while "the McGarrys, Dentons,
+and Hogans formed the first domestic circle in Kentucky." Prior to
+the Revolution, Indian traders from Western Pennsylvania had
+penetrated into this region, and we learn from authentic sources that
+no small percentage of those itinerant merchants of the west were
+Irishmen. Among the leading and earliest colonists of the "Blue Grass
+State" who accompanied Daniel Boone, the ubiquitous Irish were
+represented by men bearing such names as Mooney, McManus, Sullivan,
+Drennon, Logan, Casey, Fitzpatrick, Dunlevy, Cassidy, Doran,
+Dougherty, Lynch, Ryan, McNeill, McGee, Reilly, Flinn, and the noted
+McAfee brothers, all natives of Ireland or sons of Irish immigrants.
+
+Irishmen and their sons figured prominently in the field of early
+western politics. In the Kentucky legislature, I find such names as
+Connor, Cassidy, Cleary, Conway, Casey, Cavan, Dulin, Dougherty,
+Geohegan, Maher, Morrison, Moran, McMahon, McFall, McClanahan,
+O'Bannon, Powers, and a number of others evidently of Irish origin.
+On the bench we find O'Hara, Boyle, and Barry. Among the many
+distinguished men who reflected honor upon the west, Judge William T.
+Barry of Lexington ranks high for great ability and lofty virtues.
+Simon Kenton, famed in song and story, who "battled with the Indians
+in a hundred encounters and wrested Kentucky from the savage," was an
+Irishman's son, while among its famous Indian fighters were Colonels
+Andrew Hynes, William Casey, and John O'Bannon; Majors Bulger,
+McMullin, McGarry, McBride, Butler, and Cassidy; and Captains
+McMahon, Malarkie, Doyle, Phelon, and Brady. Allen, Butler, Campbell,
+Montgomery, and Rowan counties, Ky., are named after natives of
+Ireland, and Boyle, Breckinridge, Carroll, Casey, Daviess, Magoffin,
+Kenton, McCracken, Meade, Menifee, Clinton, and Fulton counties were
+named in honor of descendants of Irish settlers.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In the councils of the first territorial legislature of Missouri were
+Sullivan, Cassidy, Murphy, McDermid, McGrady, Flaugherty, McGuire,
+Dunn, and Hogan, and among the merchants, lawyers, and bankers in the
+pioneer days of St. Louis there were a number of Irishmen, the most
+noted of whom were Mullanphy, Gilhuly, O'Fallon, Connor, O'Hara,
+Dillon, Ranken, Magennis, and Walsh. In all early histories of
+Missouri towns and counties, Irish names are mentioned, and in many
+instances they are on record as "the first settlers."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+And so it was all through the west. In Ohio, Indiana, Iowa, and
+Illinois, across the rolling prairies and the mountains, beyond the
+Mississippi and the Missouri, in the earliest days of colonization of
+that vast territory, we can follow the Irish "trek" in quest of new
+homes and fortunes. They were part of that irresistible human current
+that swept beyond the ranges of Colorado and Kansas and across the
+Sierra Nevada until it reached the Pacific, and in the forefront of
+those pathfinders and pioneers we find Martin Murphy, the first to
+open a wagon trail to California from the East. The names of Don
+Timoteo Murphy, of Jasper O'Farrell, of Dolans, Burkes, Breens, and
+Hallorins are linked with the annals of the coast while that
+territory was still under Spanish rule, and when Fremont crossed the
+plains and planted the "Bear flag" beyond the Sierras, we find
+Irishmen among his trusted lieutenants. An Irishman, Captain Patrick
+Connor, first penetrated the wilderness of Utah; a descendant of an
+Irishman, Hall J. Kelly, was the explorer of Oregon; Philip Nolan and
+Thomas O'Connor were foremost among those brave spirits "whose daring
+and persistency finally added the Lone Star State to the American
+Union"; and the famous Arctic explorer, scientist, and scholar, Dr.
+Elisha Kent Kane, was a descendant of John O'Kane who came from
+Ireland to the Province of New York in 1752.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+To form any reliable estimate of the numerical strength of the Irish
+and their descendants in the United States would, I believe, be a
+hopeless task, and while several have attempted to do so, I am of the
+opinion that all such estimates should be discarded as mere
+conjecture. Indeed, there is no standard, or fixed rule or principle,
+by which a correct judgment of the racial composition of the early
+inhabitants of the United States can now be formed, and the available
+statistics on the subject are incomplete and confusing. The greatest
+obstacle in determining this question is found in the names of the
+immigrants themselves. With names such as Smith, Mason, Carpenter,
+and Taylor; White, Brown, Black, and Gray; Forrest, Wood, Mountain,
+and Vail, and other names that are similarly derived, the first
+thought is that they are of English origin. Yet we know that for
+centuries past such names have been numerous in Ireland, and there
+are many Irish families so named who are of as pure Celtic blood as
+any bearing the old Gaelic patronymics. By a law passed in the second
+year of the reign of Edward IV., natives of Ireland were forced to
+adopt English surnames. This Act was, substantially, as follows: "An
+Act that Irishmen dwelling in the Counties of, etc.... shall go
+appareled like Englishmen and wear their beards in English manner,
+swear allegiance and take English sirnames, which sirnames shall be
+of one towne, as Sutton, Chester, Trim, Skryne, Cork, Kinsale; or
+colours, as white, black, brown; or arts, or sciences, as smith or
+carpenter; or office, as cook, butler, etc., and it is enacted that
+he and his issue shall use his name under pain of forfeyting of his
+goods yearly", etc.
+
+This Act could be enforced only upon those Irish families who dwelt
+within the reach of English law, and as emigrants from those
+districts, deprived of their pure Celtic names, came to America in an
+English guise and in English vessels, they were officially recorded
+as "English." Moreover, numbers of Irish frequently crossed the
+channel and began their voyage from English ports, where they had to
+take on new names, sometimes arbitrarily, and sometimes voluntarily
+for purposes of concealment, either by transforming their original
+names into English or adopting names similar to those above referred
+to. These names were generally retained on this side of the Atlantic
+so as not to arouse the prejudice of their English neighbors. In
+complying with the statute above quoted, some Irish families accepted
+the rather doubtful privilege of translating their names into their
+English equivalents. We have examples of this in such names as
+Somers, anglicised from McGauran (presumably derived from the Gaelic
+word signifying "summer"); Smith from McGowan (meaning "the son of
+the smith"); Jackson and Johnson, a literal translation from MacShane
+(meaning "the son of John"); and Whitcomb from Kiernan (meaning,
+literally, "a white comb").
+
+In addition to this, in the case of some of those Irish immigrants
+whose family names were not changed in Ireland, their descendants
+appear in a much disguised form in the colonial records. Through the
+mistakes of clergymen, court clerks, registrars, and others who had
+difficulty in pronouncing Gaelic names, letters became inserted or
+dropped and the names were written down phonetically. In the
+mutations of time, even these names became still further changed, and
+we find that the descendants of the Irish themselves, after the lapse
+of a generation or two, deliberately changed their names, usually by
+suppressing the Milesian prefixes, "Mac" and "O". Thus we have the
+Laflin and Claflin families, who are descended from a McLaughlin, an
+Irish settler in Massachusetts in the seventeenth century; the Bryans
+from William O'Brian, a captain in Sarsfield's army, who, after the
+fall of Limerick in 1691, settled in Pasquetank County, N.C., and one
+of whose descendants is William Jennings Bryan, now Secretary of
+State; the Dunnels of Maine, from an O'Donnell who located in the
+Saco Valley; and at the Land Office at Annapolis I have found the
+descendants of Roger O'Dewe, who came to Maryland about 1665,
+recorded under the surnames of "Roger", "Dew", and "Dewey". I find
+Dennis O'Deeve or O'Deere written down on the Talbot County (Md.)
+records of the year 1667 with his name reversed, and today his
+descendants are known as "Dennis". Many such instances appear in the
+early records, and when we find a New England family rejoicing in the
+name of "Navillus" we know that the limit has been reached, and while
+we cannot admire the attempt to disguise an ancient and honorable
+name, we are amused at the obvious transposition of "Sullivan".
+
+Thus we see, that, numerous though the old Irish names are on
+American records, they do not by any means indicate the extent of the
+Celtic element which established itself in the colonies, so that
+there is really no means of determining exactly what Ireland has
+contributed to the American Commonwealth. We only know that a steady
+stream of Irish immigrants has crossed the seas to the American
+continent, beginning with the middle of the seventeenth century, and
+that many of those "Exiles from Erin", or their sons, became
+prominent as leaders in every station in life in the new country.
+
+Nor is the "First Census of the United States" any criterion in this
+regard, for the obvious reason that the enumerators made no returns
+of unmarried persons. This fact is important when we consider that
+the Irish exodus of the eighteenth century was largely comprised of
+the youth of the country. Although the First Census was made in 1790,
+the first regular record of immigration was not begun until thirty
+years later, and it is only from the records kept after that time
+that we can depend upon actual official figures. During the decade
+following 1820, Ireland contributed more than forty per cent, of the
+entire immigration to America from all European countries, and the
+Irish Emigration Statistics show that between 1830 and 1907 the
+number of people who left Ireland was 6,049,432, the majority of whom
+came to America. The _Westminster Review_ (vol. 133, p. 293), in an
+article on "The Irish-Americans", puts a series of questions as
+follows: "Is the American Republic in any way indebted to those Irish
+citizens? Have they with their large numbers, high social standing,
+great places of trust, contributed aught to her glory or added aught
+to her commercial greatness, refined her social taste or assisted in
+laying the foundations of the real happiness of her people, the real
+security of her laws, the influence of her civic virtues, which more
+than anything else give power and permanency to a naissant and mighty
+nation? The answer is unquestionably affirmative. We have only to
+look back on the past, and to scan the present state of American
+affairs, to feel certain of this." If it be further asked: "Does this
+statement stand the test of strict investigation?" the answer must
+also be in the affirmative, for in almost every line of progress the
+Irish in America have contributed their share of leaders and
+pioneers, thus proving that there are characteristics among even the
+poor Irish driven to emigration for an existence that are as capable
+of development as those possessed by any other race. When we scan the
+intellectual horizon, we see many men of great force of character:
+preachers and teachers; statesmen and scholars; philanthropists and
+founders of institutions; scientists and engineers; historians and
+journalists; artists and authors; lawyers and doctors, of Celtic race
+and blood, while, in the industrial field, as builders of steamships
+and railroads and promoters of public works, as merchants,
+manufacturers, and bankers, and in all other fields of endeavor, we
+find the American Irish controlling factors in the upbuilding of the
+Republic.
+
+Of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, Thornton, Taylor,
+and Smith were natives of Ireland; McKean, Read, and Rutledge were of
+Irish parentage; Lynch and Carroll were grandsons of Irishmen;
+Whipple and Hancock were of Irish descent on the maternal side; and
+O'Hart (_Irish Pedigrees_) declares that Robert Treat Paine was a
+great-grandson of Henry O'Neill, hereditary prince of Ulster, who
+"changed his name to that of one of his maternal ancestors so as to
+save his estates". It was an Irishman who first read the immortal
+Document to the public; an Irishman first printed it; and an Irishman
+published it for the first time with facsimiles of the signatures.
+
+At least six American Presidents had more or less of the Celtic
+strain. President Jackson, whose parents came from Co. Down, more
+than once expressed his pride in his Irish ancestry. Arthur's parents
+were from Antrim, Buchanan's from Donegal, and McKinley's
+grandparents came from the same vicinity. Theodore Roosevelt boasts
+among his ancestors two direct lines from Ireland, and the first
+American ancestor of President Polk was a Pollock from Donegal. The
+present occupant of the White House, Woodrow Wilson, is also of Irish
+descent. Among the distinguished Vice-Presidents of the United States
+were George Clinton and John C. Calhoun, sons of immigrants from
+Longford and Donegal respectively, and Calhoun's successor as
+chairman of the committee on foreign relations was John Smilie, a
+native of Newtownards, Co. Down.
+
+Among American governors since 1800, we find such names as Barry,
+Brady, Butler, Carroll, Clinton, Conway, Carney, Connolly, Curtin,
+Collins, Donaghey, Downey, Early, Fitzpatrick, Flannegan, Geary,
+Gorman, Hannegan, Kavanagh, Kearney, Logan, Lynch, Murphy, Moore,
+McKinley, McGill, Meagher, McGrath, Mahone, McCormick, O'Neal,
+O'Ferrall, Orr, Roane, Filey, Sullivan, Sharkey, Smith, Talbot, and
+Welsh, all of Irish descent. Today we have as governors of States,
+Glynn in New York, Dunne in Illinois, Walsh in Massachusetts, O'Neal
+in Alabama, Burke in North Carolina, Carey in Wyoming, McGovern in
+Wisconsin, McCreary in Kentucky, and Tener in Pennsylvania, and not
+alone is the governor of the last-mentioned State a native of
+Ireland, but so also are its junior United States Senator, the
+secretary of the Commonwealth, and its adjutant-general.
+
+In the political life of America, many of the sons of Ireland have
+risen to eminence, and in the legislative halls at the National
+Capital, the names of Kelly, Fitzpatrick, Broderick, Casserly,
+Farley, Logan, Harlan, Hannegan, Adair, Barry, Rowan, Gorman,
+Kennedy, Lyon, Fitzgerald, Fair, Sewall, Kernan, Butler, Moore,
+Regan, Mahone, Walsh, and Flannegan, are still spoken of with respect
+among the lawmakers of the nation. William Darrah Kelly served in
+Congress for fifty years, and it remained for James Shields to hold
+the unique distinction of representing three different States, at
+different times, in the Senate of the United States. Senator Shields
+was a native of Co. Tyrone.
+
+In the judiciary have been many shining lights of Irish origin. The
+Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court is Edward D. White,
+grandson of a '98 rebel, and one of his ablest associates is Joseph
+McKenna. No more erudite or profound lawyer than Charles O'Conor has
+adorned his profession and it can be said with truth that his career
+has remained unrivalled in American history. James T. Brady, Daniel
+Dougherty, Thomas Addis Emmet, and Charles O'Neill were among the
+most eminent lawyers America has known, while the names of Dennis
+O'Brien, Chief Justice of the New York Court of Appeals, John D.
+O'Neill, who occupied a like elevated place on the bench of South
+Carolina, John D. Phelan of the Alabama Supreme Court, Richard
+O'Gorman, Charles P. Daly, Hugh Rutledge, Morgan J. O'Brien, and
+others of like origin, are household words in the legal annals of
+America. There is no State in the Union where an Irish-American
+lawyer has not distinguished himself.
+
+The history of medicine in the United States is adorned with the
+names of many physicians of Irish birth or blood. Several Irish
+surgeons rendered valuable services in the army of the Revolution,
+among whom are found Drs. McDonough, McHenry, McCloskey, McCalla,
+Burke, Irvine, and Williamson. Dr. John Cochran was appointed by
+Washington surgeon-general of the army. Dr. James Lynah of
+Charleston, a native of Ireland, became surgeon-general of South
+Carolina in recognition of his valuable services to the patriot army.
+Dr. John McKinley, a native of Ireland, who was a famous physician in
+his day, became the first governor of Delaware. Dr. Ephraim McDowell
+is known in the profession as the "Father of Ovariotomy", as is Dr.
+William J. McNevin the "Father of American Chemistry". Dr. John Byrne
+of New York had a world-wide fame, and his papers on gynecology have
+been pronounced by the medical press as "the best printed in any
+language". One of the most conspicuous figures in medicine in the
+United States was Dr. Jerome Cochran of Alabama. Drs. Junius F. Lynch
+of Florida; Charles McCreery of Kentucky; Hugh McGuire and Hunter
+McGuire of Virginia; Matthew C. McGannon of Tennessee; and James
+Lynch, Charles J. O'Hagan, and James McBride of South Carolina are
+mentioned prominently in the histories of their respective localities
+as the foremost medical men of their times, while in Wisconsin the
+pioneer physician was Dr. William H. Fox, and in Oregon, Dr. John
+McLoughlin. Among New York physicians who achieved high reputations
+in their profession were Drs. Thomas Addis Emmet, Frank A. McGuire,
+Daniel E. O'Neill, Charles McBurney, Isaac H. Reiley, Alfred L.
+Carroll, Howard A. Kelly, Joseph O'Dwyer, and James J. Walsh. These
+and many others of Irish descent have been honored by medical
+societies as leaders and specialists, while it can be said that no
+surgeon of the present day has achieved such a world-wide reputation
+as Dr. John B. Murphy of Chicago. Among experts in medico-legal
+science, the names of Drs. Benjamin W. McCreedy and William J.
+O'Sullivan of New York stand out prominently, and among the most
+noted contributors to medical journals in the United States, and
+recognized as men of great professional skill and authorities in
+their respective specialties, have been Drs. F.D. Mooney of St.
+Louis; Thomas Fitzgibbon of Milwaukee; John D. Hanrahan of Rutland;
+James McCann and James H. McClelland of Pittsburgh; John A. Murphy
+and John McCurdy of Cincinnati; John Keating of Philadelphia; John H.
+Murphy of St. Paul; John W.C. O'Neal of Gettysburg; and Arthur
+O'Neill of Meadville, Pa. Indeed, it can be said that American
+medical science owes an incalculable debt to Irish genius.
+
+Theodore Vail, the presiding genius of the greatest telephone system
+in the world, is Irish, and so is Carty, its chief engineer. Morse,
+the inventor of the telegraph, was the grandson of an Irishman; Henry
+O'Reilly built the first telegraph line in the United States; and
+John W. Mackey was the president of the Commercial Cable Company.
+John P. Holland, the inventor of the submarine torpedo boat, was a
+native of Co. Clare; and McCormick, the inventor of the reaping and
+mowing machine, was an Irishman's grandson.
+
+Sons of Irishmen have stood in the front rank of American statesmen
+and diplomats who represented their country abroad. To mention but a
+few: Richard O'Brien, appointed by Jefferson American representative
+at Algiers; James Kavanagh, Minister to Portugal; and Louis McLane,
+Minister to England in 1829 and afterwards Secretary of State in
+1832. In recent years, an O'Brien has represented American interests
+in Italy and Japan; a Kerens in Austria; an Egan in Chili and another
+of the same name in Denmark; an O'Shaughnessy in Mexico; a Sullivan
+in Santo Domingo; and an O'Rear in Bolivia.
+
+Among historians were John Gilmary Shea, author of numerous
+historical works; Dr. Robert Walsh, a learned historian and
+journalist of the last century, whose literary labors were extensive;
+McMahon and McSherry, historians of Maryland; Burk, of Virginia;
+O'Callaghan, Hastings, and Murphy of New York; Ramsay of South
+Carolina; and Williamson of North Carolina, all native Irishmen or
+sons of Irish immigrants.
+
+In the field of American journalism have been many able and forcible
+writers of Irish birth or descent. Hugh Gaine, a Belfast man, founded
+the New York _Mercury_ in 1775. John Dunlap founded the first daily
+paper in Philadelphia, John Daly Burk published the first daily paper
+in Boston, and William Duane edited the _Aurora_ of Philadelphia in
+1795. All these were born in Ireland. William Coleman, founder of the
+New York _Evening Post_ in 1801, was the son of an Irish rebel of
+1798; Thomas Fitzgerald founded the Philadelphia _Item_; Thomas Gill,
+the New York _Evening Star_; Patrick Walsh, the Augusta _Chronicle_;
+Joseph Medill, the Chicago _Tribune_. Henry W. Grady edited the
+Atlanta _Constitution_; Michael Dee edited the Detroit _Evening News_
+for nearly fifty years; Richard Smith, the Cincinnati _Gazette_;
+Edward L. Godkin, the New York _Evening Post_; William Laffan, the
+New York _Sun_; and Horace Greeley, the New York _Tribune_. All of
+these were either natives of Ireland or sprung from immigrant
+Irishmen, as were Oliver of the Pittsburgh _Gazette_, O'Neill of the
+Pittsburgh _Despatch_, John Keating of Memphis, William D. O'Connor,
+and many other shining lights of American journalism during the last
+century. Fitz James O'Brien was "a bright, particular star" in the
+journalistic firmament; John MacGahan achieved fame as a war
+correspondent; Patrick Barry of Rochester, an extensive writer on
+horticultural and kindred subjects, was the recognized leader of his
+craft in the United States; and William Darby, son of Patrick and
+Mary Darby, and Michael Twomey were the ablest American geographers
+and writers on abstruse scientific subjects.
+
+In the field of poetry, we have had Theodore O'Hara, the author of
+that immortal poem, "The Bivouac of the Dead"; John Boyle O'Reilly;
+Thomas Dunn English, author of "Ben Bolt"; Father Abram Ryan, "the
+poet priest of the South"; James Whitcomb Riley; Eleanor Donnelly;
+M.F. Egan; T.A. Daly; and Joseph I.C. Clarke, president of the
+American Irish Historical Society.
+
+To recount the successful men of affairs of Irish origin it would be
+necessary to mention every branch of business and every profession.
+Recalling but a few, Daniel O'Day, Patrick Farrelly, John and William
+O'Brien, Alexander T. Stewart, John Castree, Joseph J. O'Donohue,
+William R. Grace, John McConville, Hugh O'Neill, Alexander E. Orr,
+William Constable, Daniel McCormick, and Dominick Lynch, all of New
+York, were dominant figures in the world of business. Thomas Mellon
+of Pittsburgh; John R. Walsh and the Cudahy brothers of Chicago;
+James Phelan, Peter Donahue, Joseph A. Donohoe, and John Sullivan of
+San Francisco; William A. Clark and Marcus Daly of Montana; George
+Meade, the Meases and the Nesbits, Thomas FitzSimmons and Thomas
+Dolan of Philadelphia; Columbus O'Donnell and Luke Tiernan of
+Baltimore, all these have been leading merchants in their day. Few
+American financiers occupy a more conspicuous place than Thomas F.
+Ryan, and no great industrial leader has reached the pinnacle of
+success upon which stands the commanding figure of James J. Hill,
+both sons of Irishmen. The names of Anthony N. Brady, Eugene Kelly,
+James S. Stranahan, and James A. Farrell, president of the United
+States Steel Corporation, are household words in business and
+financial circles.
+
+John Keating, the first paper manufacturer in New York (1775); Thomas
+Faye, the first to manufacture wall-paper by machinery, who won for
+this distinction the first gold medal of the American Institute; John
+and Edward McLoughlin of New York, for many years the leading
+publishers of illustrated books; and John Banigan of Providence, one
+of the largest manufacturers of rubber goods in America, were natives
+of Ireland. John O'Fallon and Bryan Mullanphy of St. Louis, and John
+McDonough of Baltimore, who amassed great wealth as merchants, were
+large contributors to charitable and educational institutions;
+William W. Corcoran, whose name is enshrined in the famous Art
+Gallery at Washington, contributed during his lifetime over five
+million dollars to various philanthropic institutions; and one of the
+most noted philanthropists in American history, and the first woman
+in America to whom a public monument was erected, was an Irishwoman,
+Margaret Haughery of New Orleans.
+
+Irishmen have shown a remarkable aptitude for the handling of large
+contracts, and in this field have been prominent John H. O'Rourke,
+James D. Leary, James Coleman, Oliver Byrne, and John D. Crimmins in
+New York; John B. McDonald, the builder of New York's subways; George
+Law, projector and promoter of public works, steamship and railroad
+builder; and John Roach, the famous ship-builder of Chester, Pa. John
+Sullivan, a noted American engineer one hundred years ago, completed
+the Middlesex Canal; and John McL. Murphy, whose ability as a
+constructing engineer was universally recognized, rendered valuable
+service to the United States during the Civil War. Among pioneer
+ship-builders in America are noted Patrick Tracy fron Wexford and
+Simon Forrester from Cork, who were both at Salem, Mass., during the
+period of the Revolution and rendered most valuable service to the
+patriot cause; and the O'Briens, Kavanaghs, and Sewalls in Maine.
+
+But it is not in the material things of life alone that the Irish
+have been in the van. Thousands of Americans have been charmed by the
+operas of Victor Herbert, a grandson of Samuel Lover, and with lovers
+of music the strains of Patrick Sarsfield Gilmore's band still linger
+as a pleasant memory. Edward A. MacDowell, America's most famous
+composer, was of Irish descent. The colossal statute of "America" on
+the dome of the National Capitol was executed by Thomas Crawford, who
+was born in New York of Irish parents in 1814; Henry Inman, one of
+the very best of portrait painters, was also born in New York of
+Irish parents; John Singleton Copley, the distinguished artist, came
+to Boston from Co. Clare in 1736; Thompson, the sculptor, was born in
+Queen's Co.; another noted sculptor was William D. O'Donovan of
+Virginia; and Augustus Saint Gaudens, one of the greatest sculptors
+of modern times, was born in Dublin. Other sculptors of Irish race
+have been elsewhere mentioned. Among America's most talented artists
+and portrait painters may be mentioned George P. Healy, William J.
+Hennessy, Thomas Moran, Henry Pelham, Henry Murray, John Neagle, and
+William Magrath, all of Irish birth or descent.
+
+Ireland has given many eminent churchmen to the United States. The
+three American Cardinals, Gibbons, Farley, and O'Connell, stand out
+prominently, as do Archbishops Carroll, Hughes, McCloskey, Kenrick,
+Ryan, Ireland, Glennon, Corrigan, and Keane, all of whom have shed
+lustre on the Church. History has given to an Irishman, Francis
+Makemie of Donegal, the credit of founding Presbyterianism in
+America, while among noted Presbyterian divines of Irish birth were
+James Waddell, known as "the blind preacher of the wilderness,"
+Thomas Smyth, John Hall, Francis Allison, William Tennant, and James
+McGrady, all men of great ability and influence in their day. Samuel
+Finley, President of Princeton College in 1761, was a native of
+Armagh, and John Blair Smith, famous as a preacher throughout the
+Shenandoah Valley and the first president of Union College (1795),
+was of Irish descent. Among the pioneer preachers of the western
+wilderness were McMahon, Dougherty, Quinn, Burke, O'Cool, Delaney,
+McGee, and many others of Irish origin.
+
+Irishmen and their sons have founded American towns and cities, and
+the capital of the State of Colorado takes its name from General
+James Denver, son of Patrick Denver, an emigrant from county Down in
+the year 1795. Sixty-five places in the United States are named after
+people bearing the Irish prefix "O" and upwards of 1000 after the
+"Macs", and there are 253 counties of the United States and
+approximately 7000 places called by Irish family or place names.
+There are 24 Dublins, 21 Waterfords, 18 Belfasts, 16 Tyrones, 10
+Limericks, 9 Antrims, 8 Sligos, 7 Derrys, 6 Corks, 5 Kildares, and so
+on.
+
+Immigrant Irishmen have also been the founders of prominent American
+families. One of the most ancient of Irish patronymics, McCarthy, is
+found in the records of Virginia as early as 1635 and in
+Massachusetts in 1675, and all down through the successive
+generations descendants of this sept were among the leading families
+of the communities where they located. In Virginia, the McCormick,
+Meade, Lewis, Preston, and Lynch families; in the Carolinas, the
+Canteys, Nealls, Bryans, and Butlers; and in Maryland, the Carrolls
+and Dulanys are all descended from successful Irish colonizers.
+
+Even from this very incomplete summary, we can see that Irish blood,
+brain, and brawn have been a valuable acquisition to the building of
+the fabric of American institutions, and that the sons of Ireland
+merit more prominent recognition than has been accorded them in the
+pages of American history. The pharisees of history may have withheld
+from Ireland the credit that is her due, but, thanks to the
+never-failing guidance of the records, we are able to show that at
+all times, whether they came as voluntary exiles or were driven from
+their homes by the persecutions of government, her sons have had an
+honorable part in every upward movement in American life. Testimony
+adduced from the sources from which this imperfect sketch is drawn
+cannot be called into question, and its perusal by those who so
+amusingly glorify the "Anglo-Saxon" as the founder of the American
+race and American institutions would have a chastening influence on
+their ignorance of early American history, and would reopen the long
+vista of the years, at the very beginning of which they would see
+Celt and Teuton, Saxon and Gaul, working side by side solidifying the
+fulcrum of the structure on which this great nation rests.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+The archives, registers, records, reports, and other official
+documents mentioned in the text; the various Town, County, and State
+Histories; the collections and publications of the following
+societies: Massachusetts Historical Society, Genealogical Society of
+Pennsylvania, New York Historical Society (34 vols.), New York
+Genealogical and Biographical Society (44 vols.), Maine Historical
+Society, Rhode Island Historical Society, Connecticut Historical
+Society, South Carolina Historical Society, and American Historical
+Society; New England Historical and Genealogical Register (67 vols.,
+Boston, 1847-1913); New England Historical and Biographical Record;
+Hakluyt: Voyages, Navigations, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the
+English Nation (London, 1607); Dobbs: The Trade and Improvement of
+Ireland (Dublin, 1729); Hutchinson: History of Massachusetts from the
+First Settlement in 1628 until 1750 (Salem, 1795); Proud: History of
+Pennsylvania, 1681-1770 (Philadelphia, 1797-1798); Savage:
+Genealogical Dictionary of the First Settlers of New England (Boston,
+1860-1862); Morris (ed.): The Makers of New York (Philadelphia,
+1895); Pope: The Pioneers of Massachusetts (Boston, 1900), The
+Pioneers of Maine and New Hampshire (Boston, 1908); Richardson:
+Side-lights on Maryland History (Baltimore, 1913); Spencer: History
+of the United States; Ramsay: History of the United States;
+Prendergast: Cromwellian Settlement of Ireland.
+
+
+
+THE IRISH IN CANADA
+
+By JAMES J. WALSH, M.D., Ph.D., Litt.D., Sc.D.
+
+
+When Wolfe captured Quebec and Canada came under British rule, some
+of the best known of his officers and several of his men were Irish.
+After the Peace was signed many of them settled in Canada, not a few
+of them marrying French wives, and as a consequence there are
+numerous Irish, Scotch, and English names among the French speaking
+inhabitants of Lower Canada. Two of Wolfe's officers, Colonel Guy
+Carleton, born at Strabane in the county Tyrone, and General Richard
+Montgomery, born only seven miles away at Convoy, in the same county,
+were destined to play an important role in the future history of
+Canada. Montgomery was in command of the Revolutionary Army from the
+Colonies, when it attempted to take Quebec, and Carleton, who had
+been a trusted friend of General Wolfe, was in command of the
+Canadian forces. The two men were the lives of their respective
+commands, and with the death of Montgomery Carleton's victory was
+assured.  Carleton was made Governor-in-Chief of Canada, and during
+the trying years of the early British rule of New France and the
+American Revolution, his tact did more than anything else to save
+Canada for the British. Bibaud, the French historian, says, "the man
+to whom the administration of the government was entrusted had known
+how to make the Canadians love him, and this contributed not a little
+to retain at least within the bounds of neutrality those among them
+who might have been able, or who believed themselves able, to
+ameliorate their lot by making common cause with the insurgent
+colonies." Shortly after being made governor, Carleton went to
+England and secured the passage of the Quebec Act through the English
+parliament, which gave the Canadian French assurance that they were
+to be ruled without oppression by the British Government.
+Subsequently, in 1786, Carleton, as Lord Dorchester, became the first
+governor-general of Canada, being given jurisdiction over Nova Scotia
+and New Brunswick as well as Upper and Lower Canada, and to him more
+than to any other is due the early loyalty to the British crown in
+the Dominion.
+
+After the army the next important source of Irish population in
+Canada were the loyalists who after the Revolution removed from the
+United States to the British Dominions in America. There were
+probably many thousands of them, more than enough to make up for the
+French who left Canada for France when the territory passed over to
+England. Among the Irish loyalists who went to Canada was the Rev.
+John Stuart, who had become very well known as a missionary in the
+Mohawk Valley before the Revolution, and who, though born a
+Presbyterian, was destined to win the title of the "Father of the
+Church of England in Upper Canada." When the first Canadian
+parliament met in December 1792, Edward O'Hara was returned for
+Gaspé, in Lower Canada, and D'Arcy McGee could boast that
+henceforward Lower Canada was never without an Irish representative
+in its legislative councils.
+
+When the question of settling Upper Canada with British colonists
+came up, Colonel Talbot, a county Dublin man, was the most important
+factor. He obtained a large grant of land near what is now London and
+attracted settlers into what was at that time a wilderness. The tract
+settled under his superintendence now comprises twenty-nine townships
+in the most prosperous part of Canada.
+
+The maritime Provinces had been under British rule before the fall of
+Quebec and contained a large element of Irish population. In
+Newfoundland in 1753 out of a total population of some thirteen
+thousand, Davin says that there were nearly five thousand Catholics,
+chiefly Irish. In 1784 a great new stimulus to Irish immigration to
+Newfoundland was given by Father O'Connell, who in 1796 was made
+Catholic bishop of the island. Newfoundland, for its verdure, the
+absence of reptiles, and its Irish inhabitants, was called at this
+time "Transatlantic Ireland", and Bonnycastle says that more than one
+half of the population was Irish.
+
+In 1749 Governor Cornwallis brought some 4,000 disbanded soldiers to
+Nova Scotia and founded Halifax. Ten years later it was described as
+divided into Halifax proper, Irishtown or the southern, and Dutchtown
+or the northern, suburbs. The inhabitants numbered 3,000, one-third
+of whom were Irish. They were among the most prominent men of the
+city and province. In the Privy Council for 1789 were Thomas Corcoran
+and Charles Morris. Morris was president of the Irish Society and
+Matthew Cahill the sheriff of Halifax in that year. A large number of
+Irish from the north of Ireland settled in Nova Scotia in 1763,
+calling their settlement Londonderry. They provided a fortunate
+refuge for the large numbers of Irish Presbyterians who were expelled
+from New England by the intolerant Puritans the following year. They
+also welcomed many loyalists who came from New York and the New
+England States after the acknowledgment of the independence of the
+American Colonies by Great Britain. Between the more eastern settlers
+around Halifax and those in the interior, the greater part of the
+population of Nova Scotia was probably Irish in origin.
+
+It was in the Maritime Provinces that the first step in political
+emancipation for Catholics under British rule was made. In 1821
+Lawrence Cavanaugh, a Roman Catholic, was returned to the Assembly of
+the Province for Cape Breton. He would not subscribe to the
+declaration on Transubstantiation in the oath of office tendered him,
+and as a consequence was refused admittance to the Assembly. But he
+was elected again and again, and six years afterwards Judge
+Haliburton, better known by his _nom de plume_ of "Sam Slick", in an
+able speech, seconded the motion to dispense with the declaration,
+and Cavanaugh was permitted to take the oath without the declaration.
+
+The War of 1812 brought over from Ireland a number of Irish soldiers
+serving in the British army, many of whom after the war settled down
+and became inhabitants of the country. They were allotted farm lands
+and added much to Canada's prosperity. A type of their descendants
+was Sir William Hingston, whose father was at this time a lieutenant
+adjutant in the Royal 100th Regiment, "the Dublins." Sir William's
+father died when his son was a mere boy, but the lad supported his
+mother, worked his way through the medical school, saved enough money
+to give himself two years in Europe, and became a great surgeon. He
+was elected three times mayor of Montreal, serving one term with
+great prestige under the most trying circumstances. He afterwards
+became a senator of the Dominion and was knighted by Queen Victoria.
+
+Prince Edward Island was settled mainly by the Scotch and French, and
+yet many Irish names are to be found among its old families. It was
+ceded to Great Britain in 1763, and the first Governor appointed was
+Captain Walter Patterson, whose niece, Elizabeth Patterson, was
+married to Jerome Bonaparte in Baltimore in 1803. Captain Patterson
+was so ardent an Irishman that through his influence he had an act
+passed by the Assembly changing the name of the island to New
+Ireland, but the home Government refused to countenance the change.
+At this time the island was known as St. John's, and the name Prince
+Edward was given to it in honor of the Duke of Kent in 1789. One of
+the most popular governors of the island was Sir Dominick Daly,
+knighted while in office. He was a member of a well known Galway
+family, and first came to America as secretary to one of the
+governors. He afterwards became provincial secretary for Lower
+Canada.
+
+Canada suffered from the aftermath of the revolutions which took
+place in Europe during the early part of the nineteenth century. The
+year 1837 saw two revolutions, one in Upper, the other in Lower,
+Canada, though neither of them amounted to more than a flash in the
+pan. As might be expected, there were not a few Irish among the
+disaffected spirits who fostered these revolutions. Their experience
+at home led them to know how little oppressed people were likely to
+obtain from the British Government except by a demonstration of
+force. There were serious abuses, especially "the Family Compact",
+the lack of anything approaching constitutional guarantees in
+government, and political disabilities on the score of religion.
+However, most of the Irish in Canada were ranged on the side of the
+government. Sir Richard Bonnycastle, writing in 1846, said "The
+Catholic Irish who have been long settled in the country are by no
+means the worst subjects in this transatlantic realm, as I can
+personally testify, having had the command of large bodies of them
+during the border troubles of 1837-8. They are all loyal and true."
+Above all Bonnycastle pledged himself for the loyalty of the Irish
+Catholic priesthood.
+
+One of the Irishmen who came into prominence in the rebellions of
+1837 was Edmund Bailey O'Callaghan, the editor of the _Vindicator_,
+the newspaper by means of which Papineau succeeded in arousing much
+feeling among the people of Lower Canada and fomented the Revdlution.
+O'Callaghan escaped to the United States and settled at Albany, where
+he became the historian of New York State. To him, more than to any
+other, we owe the preservation of the historical materials out of
+which the early history of the State can be constructed. Rare volumes
+of the Jesuit Relations, to the value of which for historical
+purposes he had called special attention, were secured from his
+library for the Canadian library at Ottawa.
+
+Towards the middle of the nineteenth century, when the population of
+Ireland reached its highest point of over 8,000,000, the pressure on
+the people caused them to emigrate in large numbers, and then the
+famine came to drive out great crowds of those who survived. In
+proportion to its population Canada received a great many more of
+these Irish emigrants than did the United States. Unfortunately the
+conditions on board the emigrant sailing vessels in those days cost
+many lives. They were often becalmed and took months to cross the
+ocean. My grandmother coming in the thirties was ninety-three days in
+crossing, landing at Quebec after seven weeks on half rations, part
+of the time living on nothing but oatmeal and water. Ship fever, the
+dreaded typhus, broke out on her vessel as on so many others, and
+more than half the passengers perished. Many, many thousands of the
+Irish emigrants thus died on ship-board or shortly after landing. In
+1912, the Ancient Order of Hibernians erected near Quebec a monument
+to the victims. In spite of the untoward conditions, emigration
+continued unabated, and in 1875, in the population of Ontario,
+Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, it was calculated that the
+Irish numbered 846,414 as compared with 706,369 English and 549,946
+Scotch (Hatton, quoted by Davin in _The Irishman In Canada_).
+
+It had become clear that Canada would prosper more if united than in
+separate provinces jealous of each other. The first move in this
+direction came from the Maritime Provinces, where the Irish element
+was so much stronger than elsewhere, and when a conference of the
+leading statesmen of these Provinces was appointed to be held at
+Charlottetown, P.E.I., September 1864, representatives of Upper and
+Lower Canada asked to be allowed to be present to bring forward a
+plan for a Federation of all the British Provinces in North America.
+The British North America Act was passed, and received the royal
+assent, the queen appointing July 1, 1867 as the formal beginning of
+the Dominion of Canada.
+
+Among the men who were most prominent in bringing about federation
+and who came to be known as the Fathers of Confederation were several
+distinguished Irishmen. Thomas D'Arcy McGee was the best known and
+probably did more than any other Canadian to make the idea of
+confederation popular by his writings and speeches. He had come to
+Canada as a stranger, edited a newspaper in Montreal, and was elected
+to the Assembly after a brief residence, in spite of the opposition
+cries of "Irish adventurer" and "stranger from abroad," was
+subsequently elected four times by acclamation, and was Minister of
+Agriculture and Education and Canadian Commissioner to the Paris
+Exposition of 1867. His letters to the Earl of Mayo, pleading for the
+betterment of conditions in Ireland, were quoted by Gladstone during
+the Home Rule movement as "a prophetic voice from the dead coming
+from beyond the Atlantic."
+
+Another of the Fathers of Confederation was the Honorable Edward
+Whalen, born in the county Mayo, who as a young man went to Prince
+Edward Island, where he gained great influence as a popular
+journalist. He was an orator as well as an editor, and came to have
+the confidence of the people of the island, and hence was able to do
+very much for federation. A third of the Fathers of Confederation
+from the Maritime Provinces was the Honorable, afterwards Sir, Edward
+Kenny, who, when the first Cabinet of the New Dominion was formed,
+was offered and accepted one of the portfolios in recognition of the
+influence which he had wielded for Canadian union.
+
+At all times in the history of Canada the Catholic hierarchy has been
+looked up to as thoroughly conservative factors for the progress and
+development of the country. After the Irish immigration most of the
+higher ecclesiastics were Irish by birth or descent, and they all
+exerted a deep influence not only on their own people but on their
+city and province. One of the Fathers of Confederation was Archbishop
+Connolly, of Halifax, of whom the most distinguished Presbyterian
+clergyman of the Lower Provinces said the day after his death: "I
+feel that I have not only lost a friend, but as if Canada had lost a
+patriot; in all his big-hearted Irish fashion he was ever at heart,
+in mind, and deed, a true Canadian." Among his colleagues of the
+hierarchy were such men as his predecessor Archbishop Walsh,
+Archbishop Lynch, the first Metropolitan of Upper Canada when Toronto
+was erected into an archbishopric, Bishop Hogan of Kingston,
+Archbishop Hannan of Halifax, Archbishop Walsh of Toronto, and
+Archbishop O'Brien of Halifax, all of whom were esteemed as faithful
+Canadians working for the benefit of their own people more
+especially, but always with the larger view of good for the whole
+commonwealth of Canada.
+
+The Irish continued to furnish great representative men to Canada.
+The first governor, Guy Carleton, was Irish, and his subsequent
+governor-generalship as Lord Dorchester did much to make Canada loyal
+to Great Britain. During the difficult times of the Civil War in the
+United States, Lord Monck, a Tipperary man, was the tactful
+governor-general, "like other Irish Governors singularly successful
+in winning golden opinions" (Davin). Probably the most popular and
+influential of Canada's governors-general was Lord Dufferin, another
+Irishman. Some of the most distinguished of Canadian jurists,
+editors, and politicians have been Irishmen, and Irishmen have been
+among her great merchants, contractors, and professional men. In our
+own time Sir William Hingston among the physicians, Sir Charles
+Fitzpatrick among the jurists, and Sir Thomas George Shaughnessy
+among the administrative financiers are fine types of Irish
+character.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Davin: The Irishman in Canada (Toronto, 1877); McGee: Works; Tracy:
+The Tercentenary History of Canada (New York, 1908); Walsh: Sir
+William Hingston, in the Amer. Catholic Quarterly (January, 1911),
+Edmund Bailey O'Callaghan, in the Records of the Amer. Catholic
+Historical Society (1907); McKenna: A Century of Catholicity in
+Canada, in the Catholic World, vol. 1, p. 229.
+
+
+
+THE IRISH IN SOUTH AMERICA
+
+By MARION MULHALL.
+
+
+I.--FROM THE SPANISH CONQUEST TO THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.
+
+South America, although comparatively little known until recent times
+to the outside world, contains much to interest the missionary, the
+scientist, the historian, the traveler, and the financier. The
+twentieth century will probably see hundreds following in the
+footsteps of their predecessors. In the meantime, the brilliant
+achievements of numerous Irish men and women in that part of the
+world are falling into oblivion, and call for a friendly hand to
+collect the fragments of historical lore connected with their
+exploits.
+
+This paper will cover three periods:--
+
+(1). From the Spanish Conquest to the War of Independence: here the
+principal actors were maritime explorers, buccaneers, and mercantile
+adventurers;
+
+(2). The War of Independence from 1810 to 1826: in this period
+Irishmen performed feats of valor worthy to rank with those in Greek
+or Roman history.
+
+(3). Since the Independence; a period of commercial and industrial
+development, in which Irishmen have played a foremost part.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It has been said that George Barlow, the companion of Sebastian
+Cabot, was an Irishman. Cabot was the first Britisher to sail up the
+Rio de la Plata, and gave it its name just thirty-five years after
+the discovery of America. Barlow was in the service of the king of
+Spain, and in that country met Cabot, who had been appointed Pilot
+Major to his Majesty in the year 1518. In 1577 we read of the famous
+Admiral Drake's expedition to the River Plate, which he reached on
+April 14, 1578. Evidently it was a successful one in the opinion of
+Queen Elizabeth, for on Drake's return to Plymouth, September 26,
+1580, she came aboard his ship and knighted him. There seem to have
+been three Irishmen on this expedition, Fenton, Merrick, and Ward.
+Fenton, who was in command of two vessels, was attacked by a Spanish
+squadron between Brazil and the River Plate, and the battle continued
+by moonlight until one of the Spaniards was sunk. The Spanish
+historian adds that Fenton might have sunk another of the enemy's
+ships, but refrained because there were several women on board.
+
+Lozana in his _History_ mentions a revolution in Paraguay in 1555,
+which was headed by an Irishman named Nicholas Colman. This
+revolution was quickly suppressed by the Spanish viceroy, Yrala, but
+Colman led a second revolution in 1570, when Captain Rigueline was
+governor of Guayra. The mutineers named Colman for their chief, put
+their treasures into canoes, and floated down the Parana until their
+boats were capsized by some rapids, probably the falls of Apipe in
+Misiones. The viceroy, on hearing of the revolt, sent troops to bring
+back the fugitives, and the latter were treated with unusual
+clemency. Lozana describes Colman as a daring, turbulent buccaneer.
+For fifteen years he seems to have played an important part in
+Guayra; his subsequent fate is unknown.
+
+In 1626 an expedition commanded by James Purcell, an Irishman,
+established itself on the island of Tocujos, in the mouth of the
+Amazon.
+
+Captain Charles O'Hara was sent by Governor Arana from Montevideo in
+March, 1761, to destroy the old landmarks of Rio Negro and Ching
+between the dominions of Portugal and Spain. The officer next under
+him was Lieutenant Charles Murphy, afterwards governor of Paraguay.
+This expedition suffered great hardships.
+
+Several of the expeditions of the privateers of the eighteenth
+century sailed from Ireland. Dampier, a skilful navigator, went on a
+cruise to intercept the Spanish galleons returning from the River
+Plate with booty supposed to be worth £600,000 sterling. He sailed
+from Kinsale in September, 1703, with two vessels, and no doubt
+amongst the crews were many Irishmen. It was on this expedition that
+Alexander Selkirk, a Scotch sailor, was put on shore at Juan
+Fernandez in 1704, where he remained until rescued by Captain Rogers,
+who commanded the _Duke_, a vessel of 320 tons, which sailed from
+Cork on September 1, 1708, touched by chance at Juan Fernandez, and
+found the original of Defoe's remarkable story, _Robinson Crusoe_,
+who presented a wild appearance dressed in his goatskins.
+
+In 1765 Captain Macnamara, with two vessels called the _Lord Clive_
+and the _Ambuscade_, mounting between them 104 guns, attempted to
+take Colonia, in front of Buenos Ayres, from the Spaniards. Having
+shelled the place for four hours, Macnamara expected every moment to
+see a white flag hoisted, when, by some mishap, the _Lord Clive_ took
+fire, and 262 persons perished. The Spaniards fired upon the poor
+fellows in the water, only 78 escaping to land. Macnamara was seen to
+sink. His sword was found a few years ago by a Colonia fisherman, who
+presented it to the British consul at Montevideo. Most of the Irish
+names still extant in the Argentine provinces, such as Sarsfield,
+Carrol, and Butler, are probably derived from these captives. Among
+the descendants of the survivors of Macnamara's expedition may be
+mentioned the ablest lawyer ever known in Buenos Ayres and for many
+years Prime Minister, the late Dr. Velez Sarsfield, and also Governor
+O'Neill.
+
+The year 1586 saw an expedition of a very different character,
+consisting of the first Jesuits sent to convert Paraguay, under the
+direction of Father Thomas Field, an Irishman, and son of a Limerick
+doctor. Their vessel fell into the hands of English privateers off
+the Brazilian coast, but the sea rovers respected their captives, and
+after sundry adventures the latter landed at Buenos Ayres, whence
+they proceeded over land to Cordoba. The year following they set out
+for Paraguay, where Father Field and his companions laid the
+foundation of the Jesuit commonwealth of Misiones, which had such
+wonderful development in the following two centuries as to cause
+Voltaire to admit that "the Jesuit establishment in Paraguay seems to
+be the triumph of humanity."
+
+Another Irish Jesuit, Father Thaddeus Ennis, appears in authority in
+Misiones shortly before the downfall. In 1756, when Spain ceded San
+Miguel and other missions to Portugal, Father Ennis was entrusted
+with the removal lower down to Parana of such tribes as refused to
+become Portuguese subjects.
+
+Yet another Jesuit, Father Falkiner, son of an Irish Protestant
+doctor in Manchester, who had himself studied medicine, was one of
+the most successful travellers and missionaries of the 18th century.
+Among his friends in London was a ship-captain who traded from the
+coast of Guinea to Brazil, carrying slaves for the company recently
+established by Queen Anne's patent, and he it doubtless was who
+prevailed on the young physician to try a seafaring life. In one of
+his voyages as ship surgeon, from Guinea to Buenos Ayres, he fell ill
+at the latter port, and, there being no hotels, he had the good
+fortune to enjoy the hospitality of the Jesuit superior, Father
+Mahony, whose name proclaims his Irish nationality. Such was the
+impression made on Falkiner by the kindness of the Jesuits that he
+shortly afterwards was received into the Church and entered as a
+novice in the College of St. Ignatius at Buenos Ayres. He spent the
+first years of his missionary career in Misiones and Tucuman. Later
+on he was despatched by his superior to Patagonia, and his success
+there during 27 years was almost equal to what has already been
+mentioned of Father Field in Paraguay. He converted many tribes, and
+traversed nearly every part of Patagonia from Rio Negro to Magellan's
+Straits, and as far inland as the Andes. He knew most of the Indian
+tongues, and by his winning manners and knowledge of medicine gained
+a great influence over the savages. When he published his life and
+travels, such was the effect of his book upon the king of Spain that
+he at once ordered surveys and settlements to be made along the
+Patagonian coast, which Father Falkiner represented as exposed to
+seizure by the first adventurer who should land there. Father
+Falkiner's book has been translated into French, German, and Spanish.
+He returned to England and died at Spetchly, Worcestershire, near the
+end of the 18th century.
+
+In 1774 the bishop of Ayachucho was Dr. James O'Phelan, who rebuilt
+the old Cathedral of Pasco. His father was an Irish officer in the
+Spanish army.
+
+II.--THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.
+
+Towards the close of the 18th century the Pitt administration lent a
+willing ear to a Venezuelan patriot, General Miranda, who proposed
+that Great Britain should aid South America to expel the Spanish
+rulers and set up a number of independent states. Spain being the
+ally of France and paying an annual subsidy to Napoleon, it became
+moreover the object of England to seize the treasure-ships
+periodically arriving from the River Plate.
+
+Hostilities having broken out in Europe in 1803, an English squadron
+under an Irish commander, Captain Moore, captured in the following
+year some Spanish galleons laden with treasure at the mouth of the
+River Plate. In June, 1806, Major General William Carr Beresford with
+a British squadron cast anchor about twelve miles from Buenos Ayres,
+and with a force of only 1635 men took possession of that city of
+60,000 inhabitants. The indignation which such a humiliation at first
+caused among the people was in large measure calmed by the manifesto
+which the conquering commander issued on the occasion. In the
+_Memoirs_ of General Belgrano we read: "It grieved me to see my
+country subjugated in this manner, but I shall always admire the
+gallantry of the brave and honorable Beresford in so daring an
+enterprise." Beresford was, however, unable to hold his ground, for
+the Spaniards got together an army of 10,000 men, and re-took the
+city. Beresford was made prisoner, but after five months' detention
+he and his brother-officers, among whom was another Irishman, Major
+Fahy, managed to escape. Thus ended the expedition of this brave
+general, who nevertheless had covered himself and his little army
+with glory, for he held Buenos Ayres as a British colony for 45 days,
+and had he been properly supported from home the result would in all
+probability have been vastly different.
+
+General Beresford was one of the most distinguished men of his time.
+He was the illegitimate son of the Marquis of Waterford, entered the
+army at 16, and served in every quarter of the globe. After his
+defeat at Buenos Ayres he captured Madeira, and was made governor of
+that island. In 1808 he successfully covered the retreat of Sir John
+Moore to Corunna, a difficult feat, for which he received a marshal's
+baton, and was made commander-in-chief in Portugal. In 1811 he
+defeated Marshal Soult at Albuera, and subsequently took part in the
+victories of Salamanca and Vittoria. For these services he was made
+Duke of Elvas, and the British government conferred on him in 1814
+the title of Baron Beresford of Albuera and Dungannon. The same year
+he was sent as minister to Brazil, and on his return was created
+viscount. He married the widow of Thomas Hope the banker, and settled
+down on his estates in Kent, where he died in 1854.
+
+The brilliancy of Beresford's achievement in capturing Buenos Ayres
+with a handful of men had dazzled the minds of English statesmen, who
+felt that 10,000 British troops were enough to subdue the whole of
+the vast continent of South America. In May, 1807, an expedition
+comprising several frigates and transports with 5,000 troops appeared
+off Montevideo from England. A month later Lieutenant-General
+Whitelock arrived with orders to assume the chief command, and among
+his officers were the gallant Irishmen, Major Vandeleur, who
+commanded a wing of the 88th Regiment, and Lieutenant-Colonel Nugent,
+of the 38th. Whitelock endeavored, but failed, to retake Buenos
+Ayres. During the siege a small detachment of Spanish troops under
+Colonel James Butler, after a terrific conflict, in which they sold
+their lives dearly, were all killed. Agreeably to Colonel Butler's
+request his remains were buried on the spot he had so valiantly
+defended, and his tombstone was visible there until 1818.
+
+It is a remarkable fact that several of the South American countries,
+Mexico, Peru, and Chile, were governed by viceroys of Irish birth in
+the critical period preceding the Independence, although Spanish law
+forbade such office to any but Spaniards born. It was in recognition
+of gallant services in Spain, in combination with the Duke of
+Wellington, that General O'Donoghue was made viceroy of Mexico in
+1821, but the elevation of the great viceroy of Peru, Ambrose
+O'Higgins, was due to the splendid talents of administration already
+displayed by him during twenty years of service in Chile. He was born
+at Summerhill, Co. Meath, about 1730. An uncle of his was one of the
+chaplains at the court of Madrid, and at his expense O'Higgins was
+educated at a college in Cadiz. He then entered the Spanish engineer
+corps, and in 1769 was given the command of the commission sent to
+Chile to strengthen the fortifications of Valdivia. He was made
+captain-general of Chile in 1788, was subsequently created marquis of
+Osorno, and in 1796 was nominated viceroy of Peru, a position which
+he held until his death in 1801.
+
+The great viceroy left only one son, Bernard O'Higgins, who succeeded
+General Carreras in the supreme command of the patriot army against
+the Spaniards in 1813. In 1817 O'Higgins took a principal part in the
+victory of Chacabuco, and was almost immediately appointed supreme
+director of Chile, with dictatorial powers. During his
+administration, which lasted six years, he gave every proof of his
+fitness for the position. But, alas! it was the misfortune of South
+America to surpass the republics of antiquity in the ingratitude
+shown towards its greatest benefactors. It is then not surprising to
+find that the Father of his Country, as O'Higgins is affectionately
+styled, was deposed by a military revolution, and obliged to take
+refuge in Peru, from which country he never returned. General Miller
+and Lord Cochrane, in their _Memoirs_, give frequent testimony to the
+honesty and zeal of Bernard O'Higgins. He was always treated as an
+honored guest in Lima, in which city he died on October 24, 1842. He
+left a son, Demetrio O'Higgins, a wealthy land-owner, who contributed
+large sums for the patriot army against Spain.
+
+Among other Irish commanders in Chile and Peru, who, during the War
+of Independence, fought their way to dignity and rank, was General
+MacKenna, the hero of Membrillar. He was born in 1771, at Clogher,
+Co. Tyrone; his mother belonged to the ancient Irish sept of
+O'Reilly, whose estates were confiscated after the fall of Limerick
+in 1691.
+
+General Thomond O'Brien, who won his spurs at the battle of
+Chacabuco, seems to have been born in the south of Ireland about
+1790. He joined the army of San Martin, and accompanied that general
+through the campaigns of Chile and Peru until the overthrow of the
+Spanish régime and the proclamation of San Martin as protector of
+Peru. On the day (July 28, 1821) when independence was declared at
+Lima, the protector took in his hand the standard of Pizarro and
+said, "This is my portion of the trophies." Then, taking the state
+canopy of Pizarro, a kind of umbrella always borne over the viceroys
+in processions, he presented it to General O'Brien, saying, "This is
+for the gallant comrade who fought so many years by my side in the
+cause of South America." The inscription on the canopy, in O'Brien's
+hand, says that it was brought to Peru on Pizarro's second journey
+from Spain. Little did the viceroys think that its last owner would
+be an Irishman.
+
+General O'Connor, one of the most distinguished soldiers of the War
+of Independence, played an important part in the final victory of
+Ayachucho. For his gallantry on that day he was promoted to the rank
+of general by the commander-in-chief, General Bolivar. After the War
+of Independence he became Minister of War in Bolivia. General
+O'Connor went to South America as an ensign in the Irish Legion under
+General Devereux. He claimed direct descent from Roderic O'Conor,
+last king of Ireland, 1186.
+
+Captain Esmonde also fought in the War of Independence. He was
+brother to the then baronet, Sir Thomas Esmonde, of Co. Wexford. In
+later years Captain Esmonde was employed by the Peruvian government
+to report on some proposed canals at Tarapaca. The vessel in which he
+embarked was never more heard of.
+
+Colonel Charles Carroll had served in Spain, but joined the Chilian
+army after independence was gained. He was one of the most popular
+officers in the army, and met with a sad fate. Being sent with too
+small a detachment against the savage Indians, their commander,
+Benavides, cut his forces in pieces and murdered all the officers in
+a most cruel manner. O'Carroll had his tongue cut out and was then
+butchered.
+
+Lieutenant Colonel Moran, who commanded the Colombian legion at the
+battle of Ayachucho, probably came out in the legion of General
+Devereux.
+
+Colonel (afterwards General) O'Leary was first aide-decamp to General
+Bolivar, the Liberator, and received his last breath. He was nephew
+to the famous Father Arthur O'Leary. Bolivar employed him on various
+missions of great trust and says "he acquitted himself with great
+ability." After the war, General O'Leary was appointed British chargé
+d'affaires at Bogota, and died in Rome in 1868. General Arthur
+Sandes, a native of Dublin, was entrusted with an important garrison
+in Peru on the close of the War of Independence.
+
+Admiral Brown, the distinguished commander and hero of the War of
+Independence, whose exploits may be ranked, like those of Nelson,
+"above all Greek, above all Roman fame," was born at Foxford, Co.
+Mayo, Ireland, on the 22nd of June, 1777. His father emigrated with
+his family to Pennsylvania. A ship captain who was about to sail from
+Philadelphia offered to take the intelligent Irish boy with him, and
+the offer was promptly accepted. During twenty years he seems to have
+voyaged to many countries; at one time we find him at Archangel.
+Brown had been in Buenos Ayres just two years when the patriot
+government offered him command of a squadron to commence hostilities
+against the Spanish navy, then mistress of all the coasts and waters
+of South America. On the memorable 8th of March, 1814, Brown sailed
+out of the port of Buenos Ayres with three ships to commence a
+campaign, which was destined to destroy the Spanish navy in this part
+of the waters of the New World. With him went his fellow-countrymen,
+Captains Seaver and Kearney. Brown's next exploits were against
+Spanish shipping in the Pacific, and his entirely successful campaign
+at sea against Brazil, in which he gained the mastery by his
+wonderful skill, courage, and perseverance, keeping at bay the great
+naval power of that country (which consisted at one time of fifty war
+vessels) with his few, small, ill-supplied, and ill-armed craft.
+After these great exploits Brown spent some months among the wild
+scenery of Mayo, so dear to him in boyhood, and, returning to Buenos
+Ayres, devoted himself to the quiet life of a country gentleman. He
+died surrounded by his family and friends on May 3, 1857, and the day
+of his funeral was one of national mourning. His widow erected a
+monument to his memory in the Recoleta cemetery, and in 1872 the
+municipality of Buenos Ayres granted a site for a public statue on
+the Pasco Julio, which so often rang with the plaudits of the people
+as they welcomed this great Irishman returning from victory.
+
+No brighter pages occur in the history of the New World than those
+which commemorate the gallantry and self-devotion of the Irish
+soldiers who aided South Americans to throw off the yoke of Spain. In
+1819 an Irish Legion of 1729 men arrived under the command of General
+Devereux, a Wexford landowner, called the Lafayette of South America,
+to fight in the campaign of General Bolivar. Devereux was
+distinguished for his great bravery. After the War of Independence he
+returned to Europe, being commissioned to form a company for mining
+operations in Colombia, which country had appointed him envoy
+extraordinary to various European courts.
+
+Colonel Ferguson and Captain Talbot were both Irishmen and among the
+last survivors of Devereux's Legion. It is computed that one-third of
+the Irish who came out under General Devereux died in hospital. It
+was this legion which won the decisive battle of Carabobo, June 26,
+1821, going into action 1100 strong and leaving 600 on that
+hard-fought field.
+
+Among the officers who composed Bolivar's Albion Rifles we find the
+Irish names of Pigott, Tallon, Peacock, Phelan, O'Connell, McNamara,
+Fetherstonhaugh, French, Reynolds, Byrne, and Haig, and the medical
+officer was Dr. O'Reilly. We find mention in General Millar's
+_Memoirs_ of Dr. Moore, an Irishman, who attended Bolivar in most of
+his campaigns and was devotedly attached to the person of the
+Liberator. Lieutenant-Colonel Hughes, Major Maurice Hogan, Lieutenant
+William Keogh, Captain Laurence McGuire, Lieutenant-Colonel S.
+Collins also served in the struggle for independence.
+
+The period of independence found a small number of Irish residents in
+Buenos Ayres, mostly patrician families, such as Dillon, MacMurrough,
+Murphy, French, O'Gorman, Orr, Butler, O'Shee, who had been exiled or
+had fled from Ireland and obtained the king of Spain's permission to
+settle in Spanish America. The descendants of these families are now
+so intermarried in the country that they have mostly forgotten the
+language and traditions of their ancestors; but they occupy high
+positions in political, legal, and commercial circles.
+
+III.--THE PERIOD AFTER THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.
+
+A remarkable influx of settlers from Ireland occurred between 1825
+and 1830, to work in the _saladeros_, or salt mines, of the Irish
+merchants, Brown, Dowdall, and Armstrong. Previous to this a few
+Irish mechanics and others had come from the United States. In 1813
+Bernard Kiernan came from New Brunswick. He seems to have devoted
+himself to science, as the papers mention his discovery of a comet in
+the Magellan clouds on March 19, 1830. His son, James Kiernan, became
+editor of the government paper, _Gaceta Mercantil_, in 1823, and held
+this post for twenty years; his death occurred in 1857. There is
+reason to believe that the first Irishman who landed in Buenos Ayres
+in the 19th century, exclusive of Beresford's soldiers, was James
+Coyle, a native of Tyrone, who came in the _Agréable_ in 1807, and
+died in 1876 at the age of 86.
+
+In 1830 some survivors of an Irish colony of 300 persons in Brazil
+made their way to Buenos Ayres. They had come out from Europe in the
+barque _Reward_ in 1829.
+
+The banker, Thomas Armstrong, who arrived in Buenos Ayres in 1817,
+occupied the foremost place for half a century in the commerce of
+that city. He was of the ancient family of Armstrong in the King's
+county, one of whose members was General Sir John Armstrong, founder
+of Woolwich arsenal. Having married into the wealthy family of
+Villanueva he became intimately connected with all the leading
+enterprises of the day, such as railways, banks, loans, etc. He took
+no part in politics, but interested himself in charities of every
+kind.
+
+In 1865 another Irishman, James P. Cahill, introduced into Peru from
+the United States the first complete machinery for sugar growing and
+refining.
+
+Still another Irishman, Peter Sheridan, was one of the chief founders
+of the sheep farming industry in Argentina. His family claimed
+descent from the same stock in Co. Cavan as Richard Brinsley
+Sheridan, the great statesman and dramatist. Sheridan died at the age
+of 52, in 1844, and was succeeded in the _estancia_ or sheep-farming
+business by his nephew, James, whose brother Dr. Hugh Sheridan had
+served under Admiral Brown.
+
+The number and wealth of the Irish _estancieros_, or sheep-farmers,
+in Argentina have never been exactly ascertained, but after the old
+Spanish families they are the most important. It would be impossible
+to give all the Irish names to be met with. Some of them own immense
+tracts of land. Men whose fathers arrived in Argentina without a
+shilling are today worth millions. Their _estancia_ houses display
+all the comforts of an American or English home; their hospitality is
+proverbial; and most of them have built on their land fine schools
+and beautiful little chapels, in which the nearest Irish priest
+officiates.
+
+Many of the _partidos_ or districts of the various provinces of
+Argentina may be compared to Irish counties, the railway stations
+being called after the owners of the land on which they are situated.
+Among the earliest families settled in Argentina in the farming
+industries, we find Duggans, Torneys, Harringtons, O'Briens,
+Dowlings, Gaynors, Murphys, Moores, Dillons, O'Rorkes, Kennys, Raths,
+Caseys, Norrises, O'Farrells, Brownes, Hams, Duffys, Ballestys,
+Gahans, and Garaghans.  Dr. Santiago O'Farrell, son of one of the
+earliest Irish pioneers, holds a foremost position among the
+distinguished lawyers of the present day. An Irish engineer, Mr. John
+Coghlan, gave Buenos Ayres its first waterworks. The British hospital
+has at present for its leading surgeon a distinguished Irishman, Dr.
+Luke O'Connor. A son of Peter Sheridan, educated in England, has left
+the finest landscapes of South America by any artist born in America.
+He died at Buenos Ayres in his 27th year, 1861. Among the public men
+of Irish descent, fifty years ago, in Buenos Ayres, are to be
+mentioned the distinguished lawyer and politician, Dalmacio Velez
+Sarsfield, and John Dillon, commissioner of immigration. Dillon was
+the first to start a brewery in Buenos Ayres, for which purpose he
+brought out workmen and machinery from Europe. All of his sons
+occupied distinguished positions. Richard O'Shee, president of the
+Chamber of Commerce in Buenos Ayres, was born at Seville of an old
+Irish family banished by William III. Among the many valuable
+citizens of Buenos Ayres who perished during the cholera of 1868 was
+Dr. Leslie, a native of Cavan, whose benevolence to the poor was
+unceasing. Henry O'Gorman, for some years chief of police in Buenos
+Ayres and afterwards governor of the penitentiary, was descended from
+an Irish family which went to Buenos Ayres in the eighteenth century.
+His brother, Canon O'Gorman, was one of the dignitaries of the
+archdiocese, and director of the boys' reformatory. General Donovan,
+son of an Irish Dr. Donovan of Buenos Ayres, had command of one of
+the sections of the new Indian frontier.
+
+The first Irish chaplain was Father Burke, a venerable friar
+mentioned by Mr. Love in 1820 as over 70 years of age and much
+esteemed. When Rivadavia suppressed the Orders in 1822, he allowed
+Father Burke to remain in the convent of Santo Domingo. After his
+death the Irish residents, in 1828, petitioned Archbishop Murray of
+Dublin for a chaplain. Accordingly the Rev. Patrick Moran was
+selected, and he arrived in Buenos Ayres in 1829. He died in the
+following year, and was succeeded by the Rev. Patrick O'Gorman from
+Dublin, who continued as chaplain during 16 years till his death in
+1847.
+
+The year 1843 is memorable for the arrival of Rev. Anthony Fahy, with
+whose name the advancement of the Irish in Argentina will be forever
+identified. This great patriarch was born at Loughrea, Co. Galway, in
+1804, and made his ecclesiastical studies at St. Clement's convent of
+Irish Dominicans at Rome. Being sent to the western states of
+America, he passed ten years in Ohio and Kentucky, after which, on
+the invitation of the Irish community of Buenos Ayres and by
+permission of the superior of his Order, he came to the river Plate
+at a time when the prospects of the country and of the Irish
+residents were far from promising. The history of the Irish community
+since that time is in some measure a recital of the labors of Father
+Fahy. He it was who helped his countrymen to choose and buy their
+lands which now are of such enormous value. Their increasing numbers
+and prosperity in the camp districts obliged him to endow each of the
+provincial _partidos_ was a resident chaplain. Most of these
+clergymen were educated in Dublin, and soon showed their zeal not
+merely in religious, but also in social spheres. Irish reading-rooms,
+libraries, and schools sprang up and laid the foundation for the
+refined Irish life of the present day in those districts. Among other
+services, Father Fahy founded the Irish convent, bringing out some
+Sisters of Mercy under Mrs. Mary Evangelist Fitzpatrick from Dublin,
+to whom he gave it in charge. Father Fahy died in harness in 1871 of
+yellow fever; he attended a poor Italian woman and on returning home
+was at once taken ill. He lasted only three days and expired
+peacefully, a martyr to his sacred calling. He died so poor that Mr.
+Armstrong had to discharge for him some small debts, and five others
+of his countrymen paid his funeral expenses. A fitting memorial of
+the deceased priest, the Fahy College for Irish orphan boys in
+Argentina, has been erected in Buenos Ayres, and a magnificent
+monument of Irish marble, carved in Ireland, also perpetuates his
+fame.
+
+The priests, still living, who were co-workers with Father Fahy and
+appointed by him to various _partidos_, are Monsignor Samuel
+O'Reilly, deservedly beloved by his parishioners, and the Rev. Father
+Flannery, whose appointment to San Pedro brought a great influx of
+Irish farmers into that district. Among those who have gone to enjoy
+their eternal reward are the brothers, Rev. Michael and Rev. John
+Leahy, both of whom were indefatigable during the yellow fever in
+Buenos Ayres. Rev. Father Mulleady, Rev. Patrick Lynch, Rev. James
+Curran, and Monsignor Curley were also among the Irish priests of
+that time.
+
+The Fahy College is entrusted to the care of the Marist Brothers, who
+are largely Irish. The community of Holy Cross of the Passionist
+Fathers, who have as provincial the distinguished North American
+scholar Father Fidelis Kent Stone, is almost entirely composed of
+Irish and Irish-Americans. They have several establishments in
+various provinces of Argentina. Irish priests are to be met with all
+over the country. In Patagonia and the Chaco we also find a number of
+Protestant missionaries sent out by the Irish branch of the South
+American Missionary Society.
+
+Archdeacon Dillon succeeded Father Fahy as Irish chaplain in Buenos
+Ayres, and, although by birth and education an Irishman, he became
+one of the principal dignitaries of the archdiocese. He was for some
+time professor of theology in the ecclesiastical seminary of Buenos
+Ayres, and accompanied Archbishop Escalada as theologian to the
+Vatican Council in 1869. He was the founder of the _Southern Cross_
+in 1874, the Irish weekly paper which is now so ably edited by the
+gifted Irishman, Mr. Gerald Foley.
+
+The first daily paper to appear in English in South America was the
+_Standard_, founded in 1861 by Michael G. Mulhall, the distinguished
+statistician, and it is still one of the leading papers in the
+country. In conducting it Michael G. Mulhall was joined by his
+brother, Edward T. Mulhall, in 1862, and for many years it was
+continuously under their care. The _Standard_ still remains in the
+Mulhall family, and has for its editor a cousin of the former
+editor's, Mr. John Mulhall, who wisely directs its course. The
+_Argentina_, an important paper in Spanish, was founded a few years
+since by Edward T. Mulhall, Jr., a brilliant son of the late Edward
+Mulhall of the _Standard_. The _Hyberno-Argentine Review_, a new
+Irish weekly, is edited by another able Irishman, James B. Sheridan.
+In Rio Janeiro the _Anglo-Brasilian Times_ was founded in 1864 by an
+Irishman, Mr. Scully, who also wrote an important book on Brazil.
+
+Ireland had also its representatives in South American diplomacy and
+the making of treaties. As early as 1809 Colonel James Burke was sent
+by Lord Strangford, British minister at Rio, on a confidential
+mission to Buenos Ayres to negotiate the establishment of a separate
+kingdom on the river Plate, with the Princess Charlotte as queen. In
+1867 Mr. Gould, an Irishman, British chargé d'affaires, endeavored to
+mediate between the allies, Brazil and Argentina, and President Lopez
+of Paraguay, but without success. Stephen H. Sullivan, British chargé
+d'affaires for Chile, signed the treaty of commerce and navigation
+between England and Chile on the 10th of May, 1852. He was afterwards
+appointed British minister at Lima, where he was murdered. The late
+Chilian ministers to Buenos Ayres and London, William Blest Gana and
+Albert Blest Gana, were the sons of an Irish Doctor Blest from Sligo,
+who settled in Chile. In 1859 George Fagan signed a treaty with
+General Guido for compensation of losses to British subjects during
+the civil wars after the Independence.
+
+The mining industry had among its pioneers brave sons of Erin. J. O.
+French went to Buenos Ayres in 1826, and after an arduous mountain
+journey arrived at the foot of the Cerro Morado, where he found
+auriferous ores. Chevalier Edmond Temple, an Irish gentleman who had
+served in Spain in a dragoon regiment, also landed in Buenos Ayres in
+1826, and started across the Pampas, then almost uninhabited, until
+he came to the mountainous country where the Potosi mines were
+situated. In one of the defiles he lost his favorite horse, and in
+his book he bids a touching farewell to the friendly steed which had
+shared with him so many toils and dangers. Temple's successor in the
+Argentine mining provinces was Major Rickard Seaver, a member of an
+old Co. Dublin family.
+
+Several books of travel in South America have been published by Irish
+writers during the last fifty years. MacCann's _Travels in the
+Argentine Provinces_, 1846-49, contains much that is valuable
+concerning the history and manners of the country. Major Rickard
+Seaver issued in 1863 an interesting narrative of his crossing the
+Andes. Consul Hutchinson, an Irishman, published in 1864 his book
+_Argentine Gleanings_, which was followed by another in 1869 called
+_South American Recollections_. Robert Crawford, an Irish engineer,
+led an expedition from Buenos Ayres in November, 1871, across the
+Indian Pampas and over the pass of the Planchon in the Andes, to
+survey an overland route to Chile, and subsequently published an
+interesting account of his journey. The first book printed and
+published in English, in South America, was the _Handbook of the
+River Plate_, written by Michael G. Mulhall and published by the
+_Standard_, in 1861. The same author also published the _Rural Code
+of Buenos Ayres_ in 1867, and the _Handbook of Brazil_ in 1877. In
+1871 he published an account of his travels among the German colonies
+in Rio Grande do Sul. Twenty years ago the writer of this sketch
+published _Between the Amazon and the Andes_ and the _Story of the
+Jesuit Missions of Paraguay_. These books derive special interest
+from the fact that she was the first foreign woman ever seen in
+Cuyaba, the capital of Matto Grosso, whither she accompanied her
+husband, 2500 miles from either the Atlantic or the Pacific seaboard.
+They arrived as far as the Diamantina Mountains, beyond Cuyaba, and
+saw the little rivers which form the sources of the mighty Amazon.
+
+Casting a glance over South America, we see in every country and
+province evidences of Irish genius employed not only in fighting but
+in the development of natural resources. To quote Consul Cowper's
+report to the Foreign Office in London: "The progress of Buenos Ayres
+is mainly due to the industrious Irish sheep farmers." No other
+nationality contributed so largely to the export trade of the
+country. At one time it was shown by the tables of Mr. Duggan and
+other wool exporters that the quantity of this staple industry yearly
+sold by Irishmen in Buenos Ayres exceeded that sold by all other
+nationalities. In later years the Irish sheep farmers in the province
+of Buenos Ayres have turned their lands into wheat lands, and the
+great industries of the country, sheep and cattle, have been moved to
+the outside camps, especially to that wonderful grazing region in the
+Andine valleys recently visited by Col. Roosevelt and his party. It
+may be interesting to mention that at the first English races ever
+held in South America, on November 6, 1826, the principal event, in
+which ten horses ran, was easily won by an Irish horse with the
+appropriate name of "Shamrock."
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Beaumont: Travels In Buenos Ayres (1828); Wilson: Travels In South
+America (1796); Pinkerton: Travels (1808), Captain Weddell: Cape Horn
+and South Atlantic Surveys; Major Gillesple: Buenos Ayres and
+Provinces; Mrs. Williams, on Humboldt's Travels (1826); Captain
+Master: At Home with the Patagonians (1891); Hadfield: Notes of
+Travel in Brazil and La plata (1863); Hinchcliff: South American
+Sketches (1862); Captain Burton: Highlands of Brazil; Ross Johnston:
+A Vacation in the Argentine Alps (1867); MacCann: Travels in the
+Argentine Provinces (1846-1849); Hutchinson: Argentine Gleanings and
+South American Recollections; Major Seaver: Crossing the Andes;
+Crawford: Across the Pampas; V. MacKenna: Life of O'Higgins; Life of
+Diego Rimagro; History of Santiago; History of Valparaiso; MacKenna:
+Archives of Spanish America, 50 vols.; Miller: Memoirs; Lives of
+Belgrano and San Martin; Mulhall; English In South America.
+
+
+
+THE IRISH IN AUSTRALASIA
+
+By BROTHER LEO, F.S.C., M.A.
+
+
+Should one be called upon to give in brief the history of the Irish
+in the land of the Southern Cross, he could do nothing more to the
+purpose than to relate the story of the "Holy House of Australia."
+The episode, indeed, is characteristic, not merely of the Irish in
+Australia, but of the Irish in every land and clime where they have
+striven and conquered.
+
+On the fourteenth of November, 1817, there landed in Sydney an Irish
+Cistercian Father, Jeremiah F. Flynn. He had heard in Rome of the
+spiritual destitution of the Irish Catholics in Australia, and he
+secured the permission of his superiors to minister to the needs of
+his compatriots in the Antipodes. Shortly after his arrival he
+celebrated Mass in the house of an Irishman named William Davis, who
+had been transported for making pikes for the insurgents in the days
+of '98, and then, on the first opportunity that presented itself, he
+sought the authorization of the colonial governor to exercise the
+functions of his sacred ministry. Far from hospitable was the
+reception accorded him by Governor Macquarie. The priest was told,
+with the bluntness characteristic of British officialdom, that the
+presence of no "popish missionary" would be tolerated in the
+settlement, and that the profession of the Protestant form of belief
+was obligatory on every person in the penal colony.
+
+With the example of the "priesthood hunted down like wolves" before
+him, Father Flynn saw but one consistent course to pursue. His fellow
+Catholics, his fellow Irishmen, were in sore need of his help; that
+help they must receive, even though the civil powers refused their
+sanction. So for several months he went about as secretly as he
+could, hearing confessions, offering the Holy Sacrifice, and breaking
+the bread of good counsel. During this trying period, Davis was his
+host and defender and friend. Eventually the presence of the priest
+was detected; he was arrested and promptly sent back to England.
+Before the ship sailed he tried repeatedly to return to the house of
+Davis where the Blessed Sacrament was preserved in a cedar
+clothes-press, but the surveillance of his captors was strict and
+unsleeping. So in the dwelling of the convict Irishman the Sacred
+Species remained. Before this unwonted repository Davis kept a light
+ever burning day and night; and day and night crept the loyal
+Irishmen of the settlement to kneel in prayer before the improvised
+shrine. The "Holy House of Australia", as the Davis dwelling came to
+be known, remained the only Catholic church in the colony until 1821,
+when two Irish priests, Father John Joseph Therry of Cork and Father
+Philip Connolly of Kildare, were permitted to attend to the spiritual
+needs of the Irish Catholics. Their coming marked the beginning of
+religious toleration in Australia and the termination of the
+sufferings and sacrifices of the Irish colonists, several of whom had
+had to pay dearly for their religious convictions. Davis himself had
+been twice flogged and once imprisoned for refusing to attend
+Protestant service.
+
+Today, on the site of the "Holy House of Australia", stands the
+church of St. Patrick. Davis gave the land and the sum of one
+thousand pounds to the church, and his fellow exiles contributed
+according to their means. This episode in the history of the Irish in
+Australia pays a touchingly eloquent tribute to the spirit of loyalty
+to God and country which has characterized the sons and daughters of
+St. Patrick everywhere whither their feet have strayed. It is the
+spirit which has embodied itself in the imposing cathedral of St.
+Patrick in Melbourne and the splendidly equipped college of St.
+Patrick in Sydney. It is the spirit which has made the Irish play so
+conspicuous a role in the civic and commercial history of
+Australasia.
+
+Originally known as New Holland, Australia became an English penal
+colony after the outbreak of the Revolutionary War in the United
+States of America. An Irish element came into the colony in the last
+decade of the eighteenth century when, during the Orange reign of
+terror, upwards of a thousand people from the west of Ireland were
+deported by the Ulster magistrates and by Lord Carhampton, the
+notorious "Satanides", who was charged with the pacification of
+Connacht. And during the first three decades of the nineteenth
+century the stream of Irish transportation flowed on. As a result of
+the Tithes agitation, the Charter and Reform movements, the
+Combination Laws and the Corn Laws, many more Irishmen were forced
+across the sea. It was not until 1868 that the convict system was
+permanently abolished.
+
+It is difficult for us of a later day to realize the meaning of that
+word, transportation. Let us form some conception of what the Irish
+exiles suffered from the graphic picture painted in colors, somber
+but not untrue, by one who knew from firsthand experience the lot of
+the political prisoner. Writes Dr. Ullathorne in _The Horrors of
+Transportation_:
+
+"Take any one of you, my dear readers; separate him from his wife,
+from his children, from all those whose conversation makes life dear
+to him; cast him on the ends of the earth; let him there fall amongst
+reprobates who are the last stain and disgrace of our common nature;
+give him those obscene-mouthed monsters for his constant companions
+and consolers; let the daily vision of their progress from infamy to
+infamy, until the demon that inspires them has exhausted invention
+and the powers of nature together, be his only example; house him, at
+night, in a bark hut on a mud floor, where he has less comfort than
+your cattle in their stalls; awake him from the troubled dreams of
+his wretched wife and outcast children, to feel how far he is from
+their help, and take him out at sunrise; work him under a burning
+sun, and a heartless overseer, and the threat of the lash until the
+night fall; give him not a penny's wages but sorrow; leave him no
+hope but the same dull, dreary round of endless drudgery for many
+years to come; let him see no opening by which to escape, but through
+a long, narrow prospect of police courts, of gaols, of triangles, of
+death cells, and of penal settlements; let him all the while be
+clothed in a dress of shame, that shows to every living soul his
+degradation; and if he dare to sell any part of that clothing, then
+flog him worse than any dog! And thus, whilst severed from all
+kindness and all love, whilst the stern harsh voice of his
+task-master is grating in incessant jars within his ear, take all
+rest out of his flesh, and plant the thorn; take all feeling out of
+his heart, and leave the withered core; take all peace out of his
+conscience, and leave the worm of remorse; and then let any one come
+and dare to tell me that the man is happy because he has bread and
+meat. Is it not here, if ever there was such a case, where the taste
+of bread is a taste of misery, and where to feed and prolong life is
+to feed and lengthen our sorrow? And in pondering these things, do
+not those strong words of Sacred Scripture bring down their load of
+truth in heavy trouble to our thoughts, that, 'Their bread is
+loathsome to their eye, and their meat unto their soul.'"
+
+But the bright side of the story of the Irish in Australia and New
+Zealand unfolds in the subsequent years. The men who had been sent
+forth from Erin with the brand of the convict upon them became the
+founders of a new commonwealth. To them were joined the numerous
+voluntary settlers who, attracted by the natural resources of the
+island-continent and especially by the gold discoveries of the
+fifties, migrated to Queensland, Victoria, and New South Wales. When
+in 1858 William E. Gladstone sought to establish a new colony to be
+known as North Australia, he opened a fresh field for Irish
+initiative. As a result of his effort there stands today, on a
+terrace overlooking Port Curtis, the city of Gladstone, the terminal
+of the Australian railway system. It was here, according to Cardinal
+Moran, that in 1606, Mass was first celebrated in Australia, when the
+Spaniards sought shelter in the "Harbor of the Holy Cross." The first
+government resident at Gladstone was Sir Maurice Charles O'Connell, a
+relative of the great Liberator; he was four times acting-governor of
+Queensland.
+
+The list of Irish pioneer settlers in Australasia is a lengthy one.
+The name of Thomas Poynton stands out prominently. He was a New
+Zealand pioneer who had married an Irish girl in Sydney. The devotion
+of Poynton and his wife to the faith of their fathers is evidenced by
+the fact that he several times made the long journey from his home to
+Sydney to interest the church authorities in the wants of the New
+Zealand Irish Catholics, and that she twice made the same arduous
+trip to have her children baptized. Thomas Mooney has the distinction
+of being the first Irish pioneer in Western Australia; and yet
+another Irishman, Cassidy by name, carried out a policy of benevolent
+assimilation by marrying the daughter of a Maori chief.
+
+Among the pioneer ecclesiastics were Father William Kelly of
+Melbourne and Father John McEncroe, a native of Tipperary and a
+Maynooth man, who for thirty years and more was a prominent figure in
+the religious and civic life of New South Wales. Father John Brady,
+another pioneer priest, became Bishop of Perth. Irish names occupy a
+conspicuous and honored place in the roster of the Australian
+episcopate. Notable on the list are Bishop Francis Murphy of
+Adelaide, who was born in Co. Meath, and Archbishop Daniel Murphy of
+Sydney, a native of Cork, the man who delivered the eulogy on the
+occasion of Daniel O'Connell's funeral at Rome. But scant reference
+can here be made to the illustrious primate of Australia, Cardinal
+Moran, archbishop of Sydney from 1884 to 1911, who was such a potent
+force in the land of his adoption, and whose masterly _History of the
+Catholic Church in Australasia_ puts him in the forefront of
+ecclesiastical historians. On his death he was succeeded in the see
+of Sydney by another Irishman, Archbishop Michael Kelly of Waterford.
+Archbishop O'Reily of Adelaide is a recognized authority on music,
+and has written several pamphlets on that subject. A Galway man, Dr.
+T. J. Carr, a great educator, is now (1914) archbishop of Melbourne,
+and a Clare man, Dr. J. P. Clune, holds sway in Perth.
+
+Irishmen in Australia have figured largely in the iron and coal
+industries, in the irrigation projects, in the manufacturing
+activities, and in the working of the gold mines. But they have
+likewise distinguished themselves in other fields of endeavor.
+Prominent on the beadroll of Australian fame stand the names of Sir
+Charles Gavan Duffy (1816-1903), founder of the _Nation_ newspaper in
+Dublin, member of the British house of commons, and afterwards
+premier of Victoria and speaker of the legislative assembly, and his
+sons, John Gavan Duffy and Frank Gavan Duffy, public-spirited
+citizens and authorities on legal matters. The Currans, father and
+son, active in the public life of Sydney, were afterwards members of
+the British parliament. Distinguished in the records of the
+Australian judiciary are Judges Quinlan, Casey, Brennan, and O'Dowd.
+The Rev. J. Milne Curran, F.G.S., is a geologist who has achieved
+more than local fame. Other Irishmen who have loomed large in
+Australasian affairs are Daniel Brophy, John Cumin, Augustus Leo
+Kenny, James Coghlan, Sir Patrick Buckley, Sir John O'Shannessy, and
+Nicholas Fitzgerald. Louis C. Brennan, C.B., who was born in Ireland
+in 1852, emigrated to Australia when a boy and while working in a
+civil engineer's office in Melbourne conceived the idea of the
+"Brennan Torpedo", which he afterwards perfected, and then in 1897
+sold the invention to the British Admiralty for £110,000. Another
+Brennan, Frank by name, is president of the Knights of Our Lady of
+the Southern Cross and has been a labor member of the federal
+parliament since 1911; a third, Christopher John, is assistant
+lecturer in modern literature in the University of Sydney; and a
+fourth, James, of the diocese of Perth, was made a Knight of St.
+Silvester by Pius X. in 1912. Young Australia and New Zealand may be
+as the world goes, but already both have much to their credit in the
+domains of music, art, and literature; and here, as usual, the Irish
+have been to the fore. In the writing of poetry, history, and fiction
+the Celtic element has been especially distinguished. Not to speak of
+the writers mentioned elsewhere in this sketch, scores of Irish men
+and women have been identified with the development of an Australian
+literature which, though delightfully redolent of the land whence it
+sprang, nevertheless possesses the universal note which makes it a
+truly human product. Many years ago one of the most gifted of
+Irish-Australian singers, "Eva"' of the _Nation_, voiced a tentative
+plaint:
+
+      "O barren land! O blank, bright sky!
+         Methinks it were a noble duty
+      To kindle in that vacant eye
+         The light of spirit--beauty--
+      To fill with airy shapes divine
+         Thy lonely plains and mountains,
+      The orange grove, the bower of vine,
+         The silvery lakes and fountains;
+      To wake the voiceless, silent air
+         To soft, melodious numbers;
+      To raise thy lifeless form so fair
+         From those deep, spell-bound slumbers.
+      Oh, whose shall be the potent hand
+         To give that touch informing,
+      And make thee rise, O Southern Land,
+         To life and poesy warming?"
+
+Mrs. O'Doherty herself, who long lived in that Queensland which she
+thus apostrophized, helped in no uncertain way to answer her own
+question. So did John Farrell, the author of the truly remarkable
+"Jubilee Ode" of 1897 and of a collection of poems which include the
+well known "How He Died." And so, long before, had the non-Catholic
+Irishman, Edward O'Shaughnessy, who went to Australia as a convict,
+but who laughed in lockstep and made music with his chains.
+
+James Francis Hogan, author and journalist, was born in Tipperary in
+1855 and shortly afterward was brought by his parents to Melbourne
+where he received his education. On his return to Ireland he was
+elected to represent his native county in parliament. He is an
+authority on Australian history and in his book on _The Gladstone
+Colony_ has given us a fine specimen of modern historical method.
+With him must be mentioned Roderick Flanagan, whose _History of New
+South Wales_ appeared in 1862.
+
+Other Irish names distinguished in Australasian literature are those
+of the New Zealand poet, Thomas Bracken; Roderick Quinn; Desmond
+Byrne; J.B. O'Hara; the eccentric convict-writer, George "Barrington"
+Waldron; Victor J. Daley; Bernard O'Dowd; Edwin J. Brady; the Rev.
+J.J. Malone; and the Rev. W. Kelly.
+
+Finally, the Irish in Australia have done more than their share in
+the work of education and social service. Under Irish auspices
+several of the Catholic teaching congregations, including the
+Christian Brothers and the Presentation Nuns, were introduced, and
+their work has borne goodly fruit. A mighty power for good is the
+Hibernian Australasian Benefit Society. The organization, which was
+founded in 1871, has spread rapidly and has a large active
+membership.
+
+Truly the land of the Southern Cross is not the dimmest jewel in the
+coronet of Ireland's glories.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Hogan: The Irish in Australia (1888), The Gladstone Colony (1898);
+Mennell: Dictionary of Australian Biography (1892); Duffy: Life in
+Two Hemispheres (1903); Kenny: The Catholic Church in Australia to
+the Year 1840; Moran: History of the Catholic Church in Australasia
+(1898); Davitt: Life and Progress in Australasia (1898); Bonwick: The
+First Twenty Years of Australia (1883); Flanagan: History of New
+South Wales (1862); Byrne: Australian Writers (1896); Wilson: The
+Church in New Zealand (1910); Hocken: A Bibliography of the
+Literature Relating to New Zealand (1909).
+
+
+
+THE IRISH IN SOUTH AFRICA
+
+By A. MILLIARD ATTERIDGE.
+
+
+The tide of emigration from Ireland has set chiefly towards America
+and Australia. In South Africa, therefore, the Irish element among
+the colonists has never been a large one. But, despite its
+comparatively small numbers, it has been an important factor in the
+life of South Africa. Here, as in so many other countries, it has
+been the glory of the sons of Erin to be a missionary people. To
+their coming is due the very existence of the Catholic Church in
+these southern lands.
+
+When Dr. Ullathorne touched at the Cape on his way to Australia in
+1832, he found at Cape Town "a single priest for the whole of South
+Africa," an English Benedictine, who soon afterwards returned to
+Europe in broken health. Few Irish immigrants had by that time found
+their way to the Cape. They began to arrive in numbers only after the
+famine year.
+
+The founder of the Catholic hierarchy in South Africa was the Irish
+Dominican, Patrick R. Griffith, who, in 1837, was sent to Cape Town
+by Gregory XVI. as the first Vicar Apostolic of Cape Colony. His
+successors at the Cape, Bishops Grimley, Leonard, and Rooney, have
+all been Irishmen, and nine in every ten of their flock have from the
+first been Irish by birth or descent. In the earlier years of Bishop
+Griffith's episcopate there was a large garrison in South Africa on
+account of the Kaffir wars. Many of these soldiers were Irishmen. At
+Grahamstown in 1844 the soldiers of an Irish regiment stationed there
+did most of the work of building St. Patrick's Church, one of the
+oldest Catholic churches in South Africa. They worked without wages
+or reward of any kind, purely out of their devotion to their Faith,
+giving up most of their leisure to this voluntary labor.
+
+Ten years after Bishop Griffith's appointment, Pius IX. separated
+Natal and the eastern districts of Cape Colony from Cape Town, and
+erected the Eastern Vicariate Apostolic. Once more an Irish prelate
+was the first Bishop--Aidan Devereux, who was consecrated by Bishop
+Griffith at Cape Town in the Christmas week of 1847. The great
+emigration from Ireland had now begun, and a stream of immigrants was
+arriving at the Cape. Bishop Devereux fixed his residence at Port
+Elizabeth, and of his four successors up to the present day three
+have been Irish. Bishop Moran, who went out to Port Elizabeth in
+1854, was consecrated at Carlow in Ireland by Archbishop (afterwards
+Cardinal) Cullen. The third Vicar Apostolic was Bishop Ricards, and
+the present bishop is another Irishman, Dr. Hugh McSherry, who
+received his consecration from the hands of Cardinal Logue in St.
+Patrick's Cathedral at Armagh.
+
+Until the discovery of the diamond deposits in what is now the
+Kimberley district, some forty years ago, the Irish immigrants had
+chiefly settled in the ports and along the coast. But among the
+crowds who went to seek their fortunes at the diamond fields were
+large numbers of adventurous Irishmen. The mission church established
+at Kimberley became the centre of a new bishopric in 1886, when the
+Vicariate of Kimberley, which for some time included the Orange Free
+State, was established, and an Irish Oblate, Father Anthony Gaughran,
+was appointed its first bishop. He was succeeded in 1901 by his
+namesake and fellow countryman, the present Bishop Matthew Gaughran.
+
+The gold discoveries on the Witwatersrand about Johannesburg produced
+another rush into the interior in the days after the first Transvaal
+war. A great city of foreign immigrants--the "Uitlanders"--grew up
+rapidly on the upland, where a few months before there had been only
+a few scattered Boer farms. Irishmen from Cape Colony and Natal, from
+Ireland itself, and from the United States formed a large element in
+the local mining and trading community. They were mostly workers. Few
+of them found their way into the controlling financier class, which
+was largely Jewish. The Irish were better out of this circle of
+international gamblers, whose intrigues finally produced the terrible
+two years' bloodshed of the great South African war. Many engineers
+of the mines were Irish-Americans. Huge consignments of mining
+machinery arrived from the United States, and many of the engineers
+who came to fit it up remained in the employ of the mining companies.
+Until after the war, the Transvaal and Johannesburg had depended
+ecclesiastically on the Vicar Apostolic of Natal, but in 1904 a
+Transvaal Vicariate was erected, and once more the first bishop was
+an Irishman, Dr. William Miller, O.M.I.
+
+We have seen how Irish the South African episcopate has been from the
+very outset. Most of the clergy belong to the same missionary race,
+as also do the nuns of the various convents, and the Christian
+Brothers, who are in charge of many of the schools. Of the white
+Catholic population of the various states of the South African Union,
+the greater part are Irish. There are about 25,000 Irish in Cape
+Colony in a total population of over two millions. There are some
+7,000 in Natal, I,500 in Kimberley, and about 2,000 in the Orange
+River Colony. In the Transvaal, chiefly in and about Johannesburg,
+there are some 12,000 Irish. A few thousand more are to be found
+scattered in Griqualand and Rhodesia.
+
+As has been already said, the total numbers are not large in
+proportion to that of the population generally, and they belong
+chiefly to the industrial and trading classes. The most notable names
+among them are those of prelates, priests, and missionaries, who have
+founded and built up the organization of the Catholic Church in South
+Africa. But there are some names of note also in civil life. Sir
+Michael Gallwey was for many years Chief Justice of Natal; the Hon.
+A. Wilmot, who has not only held high official posts, but has also
+done much to clear up the early history of South Africa, is Irish on
+the mother's side; Mr. Justice Shiel is a judge of the Cape Courts;
+Eyre and Woodbyrne are Irish names among the makers of Rhodesia; and
+amongst those who have done remarkable work in official life may also
+be named Sir Geoffrey Lagden, Sir William St. John Carr, and the Hon.
+John Daverin. Lagden was for many years British Resident in
+Basutoland, the Switzerland of South Africa, where the native tribes
+are practically independent under a British protectorate. Griffith,
+the paramount chief of the Basuto nation, has been a Catholic since
+1911. Sir Geoffrey's tactful policy and wise counsels did much to
+promote the prosperity of this native state, and during the trying
+days of the South African War, he was able to secure the neutrality
+of the tribesmen.
+
+In the Boer wars, Irishmen fought with distinction on both sides.
+General Colley, who fell at Majuba in the first Boer War, was a
+distinguished Irish soldier. Another great Irishman, General Sir
+William Butler, has written the story of Colley's life. Butler
+himself was in command of the troops at the Cape before the great
+war. If his wise counsels had been followed by the Government, the
+war would undoubtedly have been avoided. He refused to have any part
+in the war-provoking policy of Rhodes and Chamberlain, and warned the
+Home Government that an attack on the Dutch republics would be a
+serious and perilous enterprise. When the war came, England owed much
+to the enduring valor of Irish soldiers and to the leadership of
+Irish generals. One need only name General Hart, of the Irish
+Brigade; General French, who relieved Kimberley, and who is now
+(1914) Field-Marshal and Commander-in-Chief of the British army in
+France; General Mahon, who raised the siege of Mafeking; Colonel
+Moore, of the famous Connaught Rangers, now (1914) commandant and
+chief military organizer of the Irish National Volunteers; and,
+finally, Lord Roberts, who took over the chief command and saved the
+situation after the early disasters. Lord Kitchener, who acted as
+Roberts's chief-of-staff, succeeded him in the command, and brought
+the war to an end by an honorable treaty with the Boer leaders, is a
+native of Ireland, but of English descent, and he passed most of his
+boyhood in Ireland, in Co. Kerry, where his father had bought a small
+property. I used to know an Irish Franciscan lay brother who told me
+he had taught the future soldier "many games" when he was quite a
+little fellow.
+
+Of the regiments which took part in the war none won a higher fame
+than the Munster and the Dublin Fusiliers and the Connaught Rangers.
+It was in recognition of their splendid valor that the new regiment
+of Irish Guards was added to the British Army.
+
+But the majority of Irishmen sympathized with the Boer republics, and
+many of them fought under the Boer flag, of these were legally
+British subjects, but many were naturalized burghers of the
+Transvaal, and many more were United States citizens, Irish-Americans
+from the Rand gold mines. There were two small Irish brigades under
+the Boer flag, those of McBride and Lynch (the latter now a member of
+the British House of Commons), and an engineer corps commanded by
+Colonel Blake, an American. At the first battle before Ladysmith it
+was one of the Irish brigades that kept the Boer guns in action,
+bringing up ammunition under a rain of shellfire. During the Boer
+retreat and Roberts's advance on Pretoria, Blake's engineers were
+always with the Boer rearguard and successfully destroyed every mile
+of the railway as they went back. Blake had served in the United
+States cavalry, had learned mining while on duty in Nevada, and had
+then gone to seek his fortune at Johannesburg. The great leader of
+the Boer armies, now the Prime Minister of the new South Africa which
+has happily arisen out of the storm of war, has Irish connections.
+Louis Botha lived before the war in the southeast Transvaal, not far
+from Laings Nek, and near neighbors of his were a family of Irish
+settlers bearing the honored name of Emmet. The Emmets and the Bothas
+were united by ties of friendship and intermarriage, and one of the
+Emmets served with Louis Botha during the war.
+
+The Irish colonists of South Africa keep their love for faith and
+fatherland, but, as in the United States, they have thoroughly and
+loyally thrown in their lot with the new country of which they have
+become citizens. Few in number though they are, they are an important
+factor in the new Dominion, for their national tradition inspires
+them with civic patriotism, and their religion gives them a high
+standard of conduct and puts before them, as guides in the work of
+life and the solution of the problems of the day, the Christian
+principles of justice and charity.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Government Census Returns, South Africa; Catholic Directory for
+British South Africa (Cape Town, since 1904); The Catholic Magazine,
+Cape Town; Wilmot and Chase: History of Cape Colony (London, 1896);
+Theal: History of South Africa (5 vols., London, 1888-1893); for the
+war period, the _Times_ History of the South African War, and the
+British Official History.
+
+
+
+IRISH LANGUAGE AND LETTERS
+
+By DOUGLAS HYDE, LL.D., M.R.I.A.
+
+
+The Celtic languages consist of two divisions, (a) the Gaelic or
+Irish division, and (b) the Kymric or Welsh division. Between them
+they comprise (a) Irish, Scotch-Gaelic, and Manx, and (b) Welsh,
+Armorican, and Cornish. All these languages are still alive except
+Cornish, which died out about a hundred years ago.
+
+Of all these languages Irish is the best preserved, and it is
+possible to follow its written literature back into the past for some
+thirteen hundred years; while much of the most interesting matter has
+come down to us from pagan times. It has left behind it the longest,
+the most luminous, and the most consecutive literary track of any of
+the vernacular languages of Europe, except Greek alone.
+
+For centuries the Irish and their language were regarded by the
+English as something strange and foreign to Europe. It was not
+recognized that they had any relationship with the Greeks or Romans,
+the French, the Germans, or the English. The once well-known
+statesman, Lord Lyndhurst, in the British parliament denounced the
+Irish as aliens in religion, in blood, and in language. Bopp, in his
+great Comparative Grammar, refused them recognition as
+Indo-Europeans, and Pott in 1856 also denied their European
+connection. It was left for the great Bavarian scholar, John Caspar
+Zeuss, to prove to the world in his epoch-making "Grammatica Celtica"
+(published in Latin in 1853) that the Celts were really
+Indo-Europeans, and that their language was of the highest possible
+value and interest. From that day to the present it is safe to say
+that the value set upon the Irish language and literature has been
+steadily growing amongst the scholars of the world, and that in the
+domain of philology Old Irish now ranks close to Sanscrit for its
+truly marvellous and complicated scheme of word-forms and
+inflections, and its whole verbal system.
+
+The exact place which the Celtic languages (of which Irish is
+philologically far the most important) hold in the Indo-European
+group has often been discussed. It is now generally agreed upon that,
+although both the Celtic and Teutonic languages may claim a certain
+kinship with each other as being both of them Indo-European, still
+the Celtic is much more nearly related to the Greek and the Latin
+groups, especially to the Latin.
+
+All the Indo-European languages are more or less related to one
+another. We Irish must acknowledge a relationship, or rather a very
+distant connecting tie, with English. But, to trace this home, Irish
+must be followed back to the very oldest form of its words, and
+English must be followed back to Anglo-Saxon and when possible to
+Gothic. The hard mutes (p, t, c) of Celtic (and, for that matter, of
+Sanscrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, Slavonic, and Lithuanian) will be
+represented in Gothic by the corresponding soft mutes (b, d, g), and
+the soft mutes in Celtic by the corresponding, hard mutes in Gothic.
+Thus we find the Irish _dia_ (god) in the Anglo-Saxon _tiw_, the god
+of war, whose name is perpetuated for all time in Tiwes-däg, now
+"Tuesday", and we find the Irish _déad_ in the Anglo-Saxon "toth",
+now "tooth", and so on. But of all the Indo-European languages Old
+Irish possesses by far the nearest affinity to Latin, and this is
+shown in a great many ways, not in the vocabulary merely, but in the
+grammar, which for philologists is of far more importance,--as, for
+example, the _b_-future, the passive in-_r_, the genitive singular
+and nominative plural of "o stems", etc. Thus the Old Irish for
+"man", nom. _fer_, gen. _fir_, dat. _fiur_, acc. _fer n_--, plur.
+nom. _fir_, gen. _fer n_--, is derived from the older forms _viros,
+viri, viro, viron_, nom. plur. _viri_, gen. plur. _viron_, which
+everyone who knows Latin can see at a glance correspond very closely
+to the Latin inflections, _vir, viri, viro, virum_, nom. plur.
+_viri_, etc.
+
+So much for the language. When did this language begin to be used in
+literature? This question depends upon another--When did the Irish
+begin to have a knowledge of letters; when did they begin to commit
+their literature to writing; and whence did they borrow their
+knowledge of this art?
+
+The oldest alphabet used in Ireland of which remains exist appears to
+have been the Ogam, which is found in numbers of stone inscriptions
+dating from about the third century of our era on. About 300 such
+inscriptions have already been found, most of them in the southwest
+of Ireland, but some also in Scotland and Wales, and even in Devon
+and Cornwall. Wherever the Irish Gael planted a colony, he seems to
+have brought his Ogam writing with him.
+
+The Irishman who first invented the Ogam character was probably a
+pagan who obtained a knowledge of Roman letters. He brought back to
+Ireland his invention, or, as is most likely, invented it on Irish
+soil. Indeed, the fact that no certain trace of Ogam writing has been
+found upon the European continent indicates that the alphabet was
+invented in Ireland itself. An inscription at Killeen Cormac, Co.
+Kildare, survives which seems to show that the Roman alphabet was
+known in Ireland in pagan times. Ogam is an alphabet suitable enough
+for chiselling upon stones, but too cumbrous for the purposes of
+literature. For this the Roman alphabet must have been used. The Ogam
+script consists of a number of short lines straight or slanting, and
+drawn either below, above, or through one long stem-line. This
+stem-line is generally the sharp angle between two faces or sides of
+a long upright rectangular stone. Thus four cuts to the right of the
+long line stand for S; to the left of it they mean C; passing through
+it, half on one side and half on the other, they mean Z. The device
+was rude, but it was applied with considerable skill, and it was
+undoubtedly framed with much ingenuity. The vowels occurring most
+often are also the easiest to cut, being scarcely more than notches
+on the edge of the stone. The inscription generally contains the name
+of the dead warrior over whom the memorial was raised; it usually
+begins on the left corner of the stone facing the reader and is to be
+read upwards, and it is often continued down on the right hand
+angular line as well.
+
+The language of the Ogam inscriptions is very ancient and nearly the
+same forms occur as in what we know of Old Gaulish. The language, in
+fact, seems to have been an antique survival even when it was first
+engraved, in the third or fourth century. The word-forms are probably
+far older than those used in the spoken language of the time. This is
+a very important conclusion, and it must have a far-reaching bearing
+upon the history of the earliest epic literature. Because if forms of
+language much more ancient than any that were then current were
+employed on pillar-stones in the third or fourth century, it follows
+that this obsolescent language must have survived either in a written
+or a regularly recited form. This immediately raises the probability
+that the substance of Irish epic literature (which was written down
+on parchment in the sixth or seventh century) really dates from a
+period much more remote, and that all that is purely pagan in it was
+preserved for us in the same antique language as the Ogam
+inscriptions before it was translated into what we now call "Old
+Irish."
+
+The following is the Ogam alphabet as preserved on some 300 ancient
+pillars and stones, in the probably ninth-century treatise in the
+Book of Ballymote, and elsewhere:
+
+[Illustration: Ogam Alphabet]
+
+There are a great many allusions to this Ogam writing in the ancient
+epics, especially in those that are purely pagan in form and
+conception, and there can be no doubt that the knowledge of letters
+must have reached Ireland before the island became Christianized.
+With the introduction of Christianity and of Roman letters, the old
+Ogam inscriptions, which were no doubt looked upon as flavoring of
+paganism, quickly fell into disuse and disappeared, but some
+inscriptions at least are as late as the year 600 or even 800. In the
+thoroughly pagan poem, _The Voyage of Bran_, which such authorities
+as Zimmer and Kuno Meyer both consider to have been committed to
+parchment in the seventh century, we find it stated that Bran wrote
+the fifty or sixty quatrains of the poem in Ogam. Cuchulainn
+constantly used Ogam writing, which he cut upon wands and trees and
+standing stones for Queen Medb's army to read, and these were always
+brought to his friend Fergus to decipher. Cormac, king of Cashel, in
+his glossary tells us that the pagan Irish used to inscribe the wand
+they kept for measuring corpses and graves with Ogam characters, and
+that it was a source of horror to anyone even to take it in his hand.
+St. Patrick in his Confession, the authenticity of which no one
+doubts, describes how he dreamt that a man from Ireland came to him
+with innumerable letters.
+
+In Irish legend Ogma, one of the Tuatha De Danann who was skilled in
+dialects and poetry, seems to be credited with the invention of the
+Ogam alphabet, and he probably was the equivalent of the Gaulish god
+Ogmios, the god of eloquence, so interestingly described by Lucian.
+
+We may take it then that the Irish pagans knew sufficient letters to
+hand down to Irish Christians the substance of their pagan epics,
+sagas, and poems. We may take it for granted also that the greater
+Irish epics (purely pagan in character, utterly untouched in
+substance by that Christianity which so early conquered the country)
+really represent the thoughts, manners, feelings, and customs of
+pagan Ireland.
+
+The effect of this conclusion must be startling indeed to those who
+know the ancient world only through the medium of Greek and Roman
+literature. To the Greek and to his admiring master, the Roman, all
+outside races were simply barbarians, at once despised,
+misinterpreted, and misunderstood.
+
+We have no possible means of reconstructing the ancient world as it
+was lived in by the ancestors of some of the leading races in Europe,
+the Gauls, Spaniards, Britons, and the people of all those countries
+which trace themselves back to a Celtic ancestry, because these races
+have left no literature or records behind them, and the Greeks and
+Romans, who tell us about them, saw everything through the false
+medium of their own prejudices. But now since the discovery and
+publication of the Irish sagas and epics, the descendants of these
+great races no longer find it necessary to view their own past
+through the colored and distorting glasses of the Greek or the Roman,
+since there has now opened for them, where they least expected to
+find it, a window through which they can look steadily at the life of
+their race, or of one of its leading offshoots, in one of its
+strongholds, and reconstruct for themselves with tolerable accuracy
+the life of their own ancestors. It is impossible to overrate the
+importance of this for the history of Europe, because neither Teutons
+nor Slavs have preserved pictures of their own heroic past, dating
+from pagan times. It is only the Celts, and of these the Irish, who
+have handed down such pictures drawn with all the fond intimacy of
+romance, and descriptions which exhibit the life of western Europeans
+at an even earlier culture-stage in the evolution of humanity than do
+the poems of Homer.
+
+This conclusion, to which a study of the literature invites us, falls
+in exactly with that arrived at from purely archaeological sources.
+Professor Ridgeway of Cambridge University, working on archaeological
+lines, expresses himself as follows: "From this survey of the
+material remains of the _la Tern_ period found actually in Ireland,
+and from the striking correspondence between this culture and that
+depicted in the _Táin Bó Cúalnge_, and from the circumstance that the
+race who are represented in the epic as possessing this form of
+culture resemble in their physique the tall, fair-haired, grey-eyed
+Celts of Britain and the continent, we are justified in inferring (1)
+that there was an invasion (or invasions) of such peoples from Gaul
+in the centuries immediately before Christ, as is ascribed by the
+Irish traditions, and (2) that the poems themselves originally took
+shape when the _la Tène_ culture was still flourishing in Ireland.
+But as this could hardly have continued much later than A.D. 100, we
+may place the first shaping of the poems not much later than that
+date and possibly a century earlier."
+
+This conclusion would make the earliest putting together of the Irish
+epics almost contemporaneous with Augustus Cæsar.
+
+So much for the history and growth of Irish letters.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Brash: Ogam inscribed Monuments of the Gaedhil (1879); MacAlister:
+Studies in Irish Epigraphy, vol. 1 (1897), vol. 2 (1902), vol. 3
+(1907); Rhys: in Proceedings of the Scottish Society of Antiquaries
+(Edinburgh, 1892); Ridgeway: Date of the First Shaping of the
+Cuchulain Saga (1905), in Proceedings of the British Academy, vol.
+II; Joyce: Social History of Ancient Ireland, vol. I, Chap. 2;
+Preface to fac-simile edition of the Book of Ballymote.
+
+
+
+NATIVE IRISH POETRY
+
+By PROFESSOR GEORGES DOTTIN.
+
+
+[Note.--This chapter was written in French by M. Dottin, who is a
+distinguished professor and dean at the University of Renacs, France.
+The translation into English has been made by the Editors.]
+
+By the year 1200 of the Christian era, a time at which the other
+national literatures of Europe were scarcely beginning to develop,
+Ireland possessed, and had possessed for several centuries, a Gaelic
+poetry, which was either the creation of the soul of the people or
+else was the work of the courtly bards. This poetry was at first
+expressed in rhythmical verses, each containing a fixed number of
+accented syllables and hemistichs separated by a pause:
+
+
+
+
+      _Crist_ lim,    |  _Crist_ reum,   |  _Crist_ in degaid
+      _Crist_ indium  |  _Crist_ issum   |  _Crist_ úasum
+                      |  _Crist_ dessum  |  _Crist_ úasum
+
+This versification, one of the elements of which was the repetition
+of words or sounds at regular intervals, was transformed about the
+eighth century into a more learned system. Thenceforward
+alliteration, assonance, rhyme, and a fixed number of syllables
+constituted the characteristics of Irish verse:
+
+      Mésse ocus Pángur b�N
+      cechtar náthar fria sáindAN
+      bith a _ménma_ sam fri SEILGG
+      mu _ménma_ céin im sáinchEIRDD.
+
+As we see, the consonants in the rhyme-words were merely related: _l,
+r, n, ng, m, dh, gh, bh, mh, ch, th, f_ could rime together just as
+could _gg, dd, bb_. Soon the poets did not limit themselves to
+end-rhymes, which ran the risk of becoming monotonous, but introduced
+also internal rhyme, which set up what we may call a continuous chain
+of melody:
+
+      is aire caraim DOIRE
+      ar a reidhe ar a ghlOINE
+      's ar iomad a aingel fIND
+      ó 'n CIND go aoich arOILE.
+
+This harmonious versification was replaced in the seventeenth century
+by a system in which account was no longer taken of consonantal rhyme
+or of the number of syllables.
+
+The rules of Irish verse have nothing in common with classical Latin
+metres, which were based on the combination of short and long
+syllables. In Low-Latin, indeed, we find occasionally alliteration,
+rhyme, and a fixed number of syllables, but these novelties are
+obviously of foreign origin, and date from the time when the Romans
+borrowed them from the nations which they called barbarous. We cannot
+prove beyond yea or nay that they are of Celtic origin, but it is
+extremely probable that they are, for it is among the Celts both of
+Ireland and of Wales that the harmonizing of vowels and of consonants
+has been carried to the highest degree of perfection.
+
+This learned art was not acquired without long study. The training of
+a poet (_filé_) lasted twelve years, or more. The poets had a regular
+hierarchy. The highest in rank, the _ollamh_, knew 350 kinds of verse
+and could recite 250 principal and 100 secondary stories. The
+_ollamhs_ lived at the court of the kings and the nobles, who granted
+them freehold lands; their persons and their property were sacred;
+and they had established in Ireland schools in which the people might
+learn history, poetry, and law. The bards formed a numerous class, of
+a rank inferior to the _filé_; they did not enjoy the same honors and
+privileges; some of them even were slaves; according to their
+standing, different kinds of verse were assigned to them as a
+monopoly.
+
+The Danish invasions in the ninth century set back for some time the
+development of Irish poetry, but, when the Irish had driven the
+fierce and aggressive sea-rovers from their country, there was a
+literary renascence. This was in turn checked by the Anglo-Norman
+invasion in the twelfth century, and thereafter the art of
+versification was no longer so refined as it had formerly been.
+Nevertheless, the bardic schools still existed in the seventeenth
+century, more than four hundred years after the landing of Strongbow,
+and, in them, students followed the lectures of the _ollamhs_ for six
+months each year, or until the coming of spring, exercising both
+their talents for composition and their memory.
+
+A catalogue of Irish poets, which has recently been made out, shows
+that there were more than a thousand of them. We have lost many of
+the oldest poems, but the Irish scribes often modernized the texts
+which they were copying. Hence the language is not always a
+sufficient indication of date, and it is possible that, under a
+comparatively modern form, some very ancient pieces may have been
+preserved. Even if the poems attributed to Amergin do not go back to
+the tenth century B.C., as has been claimed for them, they are in any
+case old enough to be archaic, and certain poems of the mythological
+cycle are undoubtedly anterior to the Christian era.
+
+We have reason to believe that there have been preserved some genuine
+poems of Finn macCumaill (third century), a hymn by St. Patrick (d.
+461), some greatly altered verses of St. Columcille (d. 597), and
+certain hymns written by saints who lived from the seventh to the
+ninth century. The main object of the most celebrated of the ancient
+poets up to the end of the twelfth century was to render history,
+genealogy, toponomy, and lives of saints readier of access and easier
+to retain by putting them into verse-form; and it is the names of
+those scholars that have been rescued from oblivion, while lyric
+poetry, having as its basis nothing more than sentiment, has remained
+for the most part anonymous. After the Anglo-Norman invasion, the
+best poet seems to have been Donnchadh Mór O'Daly (d. 1244). Of later
+date were Teig MacDaire (1570-1652), Teig Dall O'Higinn (d. 1615),
+and Eochaidh O'Hussey, who belonged to the seventeenth and eighteenth
+centuries. The new school, which abandoned the old rules and whose
+inspiration is now personal, now patriotic, is represented by
+_caoine_ (keens or laments), _abran_ (hymns), or _aislingi_
+(visions), composed, among others, by Geoffrey Keating (d. c. 1650),
+David O'Bruadair (c. 1625-1698), Egan O'Rahilly (c. 1670-c. 1734),
+John MacDonnell (1691-1754), William O'Heffernan (fl. 1750), John
+O'Tuomy (1706-1775), and Andrew MacGrath (d. c. 1790). The greatest
+of the eighteenth century Irish poets was Owen Roe O'Sullivan (c.
+1748-1784), whose songs were sung everywhere, and who, in the opinion
+of his editor, Father Dinneen, is the literary glory of his country
+and deserves to be ranked among the few supreme lyric poets of all
+time.
+
+If, in order to study the subjects treated by the poets, we lay aside
+didactic poetry and confine ourselves to the ancient poems from the
+seventh to the eleventh century, we shall find in the latter a
+singular variety. They were at first dialogues or monologues, now
+found incorporated with the sagas, of which they may have formed the
+original nucleus. Thus, in the _Voyage of Bran_, we have the account
+of the Isles of the Blessed and the discourse of the King of the Sea;
+in the _Expedition of Loégaire MacCrimthainn_, the brilliant
+description of the fairy hosts; in _The Death of the Sons of Usnech_,
+the touching farewell of Deirdre to the land of Scotland and her
+lamentation over the dead bodies of the three warriors; and in the
+_Lay of Fothard Canann_, the strange and thrilling speech of the dead
+lover, returning after the battle to the tryst appointed by his
+sweetheart. Other poems seem never to have figured in a saga, like
+the Song of Crede, daughter of Guaire, in which she extols the memory
+of her friend Dinertach, and the affecting love-scenes between Liadin
+and Curithir; or like the bardic songs designed to distribute praise
+or blame: the funeral panegyric on King Niall, in alternate verses,
+the song of the sword of Carroll, and the satire of MacConglinne
+against the monks of Cork.
+
+Religious poetry comprised lyric fragments, which were introduced
+into the lives of the saints and there formed a kind of Christian
+saga, or else were based on Holy Writ, like the _Lamentation of Eve_;
+hymns in honor of the saints, like _The Hymn to St. Michael_, by Mael
+Isu; pieces such as the famous Hymn of St. Patrick; and philosophic
+poems like that keen analysis of the flight of thought which dates
+from the tenth century.
+
+At a time when the poets of other lands seem wholly engrossed in the
+recital of the deeds of men, one of the great and constant
+distinguishing marks of poetry in Ireland, whether we have to do with
+a short note set down by a scribe on the margin of a manuscript or
+with a religious or profane poem, is a deep, personal, and intimate
+love of nature expressed not by detailed description, but more often
+by a single picturesque and telling epithet. Thus we have the hermit
+who prays God to give him a hut in a lonely place beside a clear
+spring in the wood, with a little lark to sing overhead; or we have
+Marban, who, rich in nuts, crab-apples, sloes, watercress, and honey,
+refuses to go back to the court to which the king, his brother,
+presses him to return. Now, we have the description of the summer
+scene, in which the blackbird sings and the sun smiles; now, the song
+of the sea and of the wind, which blows tempestuously from the four
+quarters of the sky; again, the winter song, when the snow covers the
+hills, when every furrow is a streamlet and the wolves range
+restlessly abroad, while the birds, numbed to the heart, are silent;
+or yet again the recluse in his cell, humorously comparing his quest
+of ideas to the pursuit of the mice by his pet cat. This deep love of
+inanimate and animate things becomes individualized in those poems in
+which every tree, every spring, every bird is described with its own
+special features.
+
+If we remember that these original poems, which, before the twelfth
+century, expressed thoughts that were scarcely known to the
+literature of Europe before the eighteenth, are, besides, clothed in
+the rich garb of a subtle harmony, what admiration, what respect, and
+what love ought we not to show to that ancient Ireland which, in the
+darkest ages of western civilization, not only became the depositary
+of Latin knowledge and spread it over the continent, but also had
+been able to create for herself new artistic and poetic forms!
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Hyde: Love Songs of Connacht (Dublin, 1893), Irish Poetry, an Essay
+in Irish with Translation in English and a Vocabulary (Dublin, 1902),
+The Religious Songs of Connacht (London, 1906); Meyer: Ancient Gaelic
+Poetry (Glasgow, 1906), a Primer of Irish Metrics with a Glossary and
+an Appendix containing an Alphabetical List of the Poets of Ireland
+(Dublin, 1909); Dottin-Dunn: The Gaelic Literature of Ireland
+(Washington, 1906); Meyer: Selections from Ancient Irish Poetry (2d
+edition, London, 1913); Best: Bibliography of Irish Philology and of
+Printed Irish Literature (Dublin, 1913); Loth: La métrique galloise
+(Paris, 1902); Thurneysen: Mittelirische Verslehren, Irische Texte
+III.; Buile Suibhne (Dublin, 1910).
+
+
+
+IRISH HEROIC SAGAS
+
+By ELEANOR HULL.
+
+
+Ireland has the unique distinction of having preserved for mankind a
+full and vivid literary record of a period otherwise, so far as
+native memorials are concerned, clouded in obscurity. A few
+fragmentary suggestions, derived from ancient stone monuments or from
+diggings in tumuli and graves, are all that Gaul or Britain have to
+contribute to a knowledge of that important period just before and
+just after the beginning of our era, when the armies of Rome were
+overrunning western Europe and were brought, for the first time, into
+direct contact with the Celtic peoples of the West. Almost all that
+we know of the early inhabitants of these countries comes to us from
+the pens of Roman writers and soldiers--Poseidonius, Caesar,
+Diodorus, Tacitus. We may give these observers credit for a desire to
+be fair to peoples they sometimes admired and often dreaded, but
+conquerors are not always the best judges of the races they are
+engaged in subduing, especially when they are ignorant of their
+language, unversed in their lore and customs, and unused to their
+ways. Valuable as are the reports of Roman authorities, we feel at
+every point the need of checking them by native records; but the
+native records of Gaul, and in large part also those of Britain and
+Wales, have been swept away. Caesar is probably right in saying that
+the Druids, who were the learned men of their race and day, committed
+nothing to writing; if they did, whatever they wrote has been
+irrecoverably lost.
+
+But Ireland was exempt from the sweeping changes brought about
+through long periods of Roman and Saxon occupation; no great upheaval
+from without disturbed the native political and social conditions up
+to the coming of the Norse and Danes about the beginning of the ninth
+century. Agricola, standing on the western coast of Britain, looked
+across the dividing channel, and reflected upon "the beneficial
+connection that the conquest of Ireland would have formed between the
+most powerful parts of the Roman Empire," but, fortunately for the
+literature of Ireland, if not for her history, he never came. The
+early incursions of the Scotti or Irish were eastward into England,
+Wales, and Gaul, and there seem to have been few return movements
+towards the west. Ireland pursued her path of native development
+undisturbed. It is to this circumstance that she owes the
+preservation of so much of her native literature, a great body of
+material, historical, religious, poetic, romantic, showing marks of
+having originated at a very early time, and of great variety and
+interest.
+
+At what period this literature first began to be written down we do
+not know. Orosius tells us that a traveler named Aethicus spent a
+considerable time in Ireland early in the fifth century "examining
+their volumes", which tends to prove that there was writing in
+Ireland before St. Patrick. But the native bard must have made
+writing superfluous. The man who could, at a moment's notice, recite
+any one out of the 350 stories which might be called for, besides
+poetry, genealogies, and tribal records, was worth many books. Only a
+few were expert enough to read his writings, but all could enjoy his
+tales.
+
+The earliest written records that we have now existing date from the
+seventh or eighth century; but undoubtedly there is preserved for us,
+in these materials, a picture of social conditions going back to the
+very beginning of our era, and coeval with the stage of civilization
+known in archaeology as _La Tène_ or "Late Celtic".
+
+To help his memory the early "shanachie" or story-teller grouped his
+romantic story-store under different heads, such as "Táins" or
+Cattle-spoils, Feasts, Elopements, Sieges, Battles, Destructions,
+Tragical Deaths; but it is easier for us now to group them in another
+way, and to class together the series of tales referring to the
+Tuatha De Danann or ancient deities, those belonging to the Red
+Branch cycle of King Conchobar and Cuchulainn, those relating to
+Finn, and the Legends of the Kings. The hundred or more tales
+belonging to the second group are especially valuable for social
+history on account of the detailed descriptions they give of customs,
+dress, weapons, habits of life, and ethical ideas. To the historian,
+folklorist, and student of primitive civilizations they are documents
+of the highest importance.
+
+It seems likely that the Red Branch cycle of tales, including the
+epic tale of the Táin or Cattle-spoil of Cualnge, which has gathered
+round itself a number of minor tales, had some basis of historical
+fact, and arose in the period of Ulster's predominance to celebrate
+the deeds of a band of warlike champions who flourished in the north
+about the beginning of the Christian era. No one who has visited the
+raths of Emain Macha, near Armagh, where stood the traditional site
+of the ancient capital of Ulster, or has followed the well-defined
+and massive outworks of Rath Celtchair and the forts of the other
+heroes whose deeds the tales embody, could doubt that they had their
+origin in great events that once happened there. The topography of
+the tales is absolutely correct. Or again, when we cross over into
+Connacht, the remains at Rath Croghan, near the ancient palace of the
+Amazonian queen, Medb, testify to similar events. She it was who in
+her "Pillow Talk" with her husband Ailill declared that she had
+married him only because in him did she find the "strange bride-gift"
+which her imperious nature demanded, "a man without stinginess,
+without jealousy, without fear." It was in her desire to surpass her
+husband in wealth that she sent the combined armies of the south and
+west into Ulster to carry off a famous bull, the Brown Bull of
+Cooley, the only match in Ireland for one possessed by her spouse.
+This raid forms the central subject of the _Táin Bó Cúalnge_. The
+motif of the tale and the kind of life described in it alike show the
+primitive conditions out of which it had its rise. It belongs to a
+time when land was plenty for the scattered inhabitants to dwell
+upon, but stock to place upon it was scarce. The possession of herds
+was necessary, not only for food and the provisioning of troops, but
+as a standard of wealth, a proof of position, and a means of
+exchange. Everything was estimated, before the use of money, by its
+value in kine or herds. When Medb and Ailill compare their
+possessions, to find out which of them is better than the other,
+their herds of cattle, swine, and horses are driven in, their
+ornaments and jewels, their garments and vats and household
+appliances are displayed. The pursuit of the cattle of neighboring
+tribes was the prime cause of the innumerable raids which made every
+man's life one of perpetual warfare, much more so than the
+acquisition of land or the avenging of wrongs. Hence a motif that may
+seem to us insufficient and remote as the subject of a great epic
+arose out of the necessities of actual life. Cattle-driving is the
+oldest of all occupations in Ireland.
+
+The conditions we find described in these tales show us an open
+country, generally unenclosed by hedges or walls. The chariots can
+drive straight across the province. There are no towns, and the
+stopping places are the large farmers' dwellings, open inns known as
+"houses of hospitality", fortified by surrounding raths or earthen
+walls, the only private property in land, in a time when the
+tribe-land was common, that we hear of at this period. Within these
+borders lay the pleasure grounds and gardens and the cattle-sheds for
+the herds, which the great landowner or chief loaned out to the
+smaller men in return for services rendered. Here were trained in
+arts of industry and fine needlework the daughters of the chief men
+of the tribe and their foster-sisters, drawn from the humbler
+families around them. The rivers as a rule formed the boundaries of
+the provinces, and the fords were constantly guarded by champions who
+challenged every wayfarer to single combat, if he could not show
+sufficient reason for crossing the borderland. These combats were
+fought actually in the ford itself, and all wars began in a long
+series of single hand-to-hand combats between equal champions before
+the armies as a whole engaged each other.
+
+To fight was every man's prime duty, and the man who had slain the
+largest number of his fellows was acclaimed as the greatest hero. It
+was the proud boast of Conall Cernach, "the Victorious", that seldom
+had a day passed in which he had not challenged a Connachtman, and
+few nights in which a Connachtman's head had not formed his pillow.
+It shows the primitive savagery of the period that skulls of enemies
+were worn dangling from the belt, and were stored up in one of the
+palaces of Emain Macha as trophies of valor. So warlike were the
+heroes that even during friendly feasts their weapons had to be hung
+up in a separate house, lest they should spring to arms in rivalry
+with their own fellows.
+
+Yet in spite of this rude barbarism of outward life, the warriors had
+formed for themselves a high and exacting code of honor, which may be
+regarded as the first steps toward what in later times and other
+countries became known as "chivalry"; save that there is in the acts
+of the Irish heroes a simplicity and sincerity which puts them on a
+higher level than the obligatory courtesies of more artificial ages.
+Generosity between enemies was carried to an extraordinary pitch.
+Twice over in fights with different foes, Conall Cernach binds his
+right hand to his side in order that his enemy, who had lost one
+hand, may fight on equal terms with him. The two severest combats
+sustained by Cuchulainn, the youthful Ulster champion, in the long
+war of the Táin are those with Loch the Great and Ferdiad, both
+first-rate warriors, who had been forced by the wiles of Medb into
+unwilling conflict against their young antagonist. In their youth
+they had been fellow-pupils in the school of the Amazon Scathach, who
+had taught them both alike the arts of war. When Loch the Great, as a
+dying request, prays Cuchulainn to permit him to rise, "so that he
+may fall on his face and not backwards towards the men of Erin," lest
+hereafter it should be said that he fell in flight, Cuchulainn
+replies: "That will I surely, for it is a warrior's boon thou
+cravest," and he steps back to allow the wounded man to reverse his
+position in the ford. The tale of Cuchulainn's combat with Ferdiad
+has become classic; nothing more pathetic or more full of the true
+spirit of chivalry is to be found in any literature. Each warrior
+estimates nobly the prowess of the other, each sorrowfully recalls
+the memory of old friendships and expeditions made together. When
+Ferdiad falls, his ancient comrade pours out over him a passionate
+lament. Each night, when the day's combat is over, they throw their
+arms round each other's neck and embrace. Their horses are put up in
+the same paddock and their charioteers sleep beside the same fire;
+each night Cuchulainn sends to his wounded friend a share of the
+herbs that are applied to his own wounds, while to Cuchulainn Ferdiad
+sends a fair half of the pleasant delicate food supplied to him by
+the men of Erin. We may recall, too, Cuchulainn's act of compassion
+towards Queen Medb near the close of the Táin. Her army is flying in
+rout homeward across the Shannon, closely pursued by Cuchulainn. As
+he approaches the ford he finds Queen Medb lying prostrate on the
+bank, unable any longer to guard the retreat of her army. She appeals
+to her enemy to aid her; and Cuchulainn, with that lovable boyish
+delight in acts of supreme generosity which is always ascribed to
+him, undertakes to shield the retreat of the disordered host from his
+own troops and to see them safely across the river, while Medb
+reposes peacefully in a field hard by. The spirit which actuates the
+heroes is well expressed by Cuchulainn when his friends would
+restrain him from going forth to his last fight, knowing that in that
+battle he must fall: "I had rather than the whole world's gold and
+than the earth's riches that death had ere now befallen me, so would
+not this shame and testimony of reproach now stand recorded against
+me; for in every tongue this noble old saying is remembered, 'Fame
+outlives life.'"
+
+The Irish tales surpass those of the Arthurian cycle in simplicity,
+in humor, and in human interest; the characters are not mere types of
+fixed virtues and vices, they have each a strongly marked
+individuality, consistently adhered to through the multitude of
+different stories in which they play a part. This is especially the
+case with regard to the female characters. Emer, Deirdre, Etain,
+Grainne may be said to have introduced into European literature new
+types of womanhood, quite unlike, in their sprightliness and humor,
+their passionate affection and heroic qualities, to anything found
+elsewhere. Stories about women play a large part in ancient Irish
+literature; their elopements, their marriages, their griefs and
+tragedies, form the subject of a large number of tales. Among the
+list of tales that any bard might be called upon to recite, the
+"Courtships" or "Wooings" probably formed a favorite group; they are
+of great variety and beauty. The Irish, indeed, may be called the
+inventors of the love-tale for modern Europe.
+
+The gravest defect of this literature (a defect which is common to
+all early literature before coming under the chastening hand of the
+master) is undoubtedly its tendency to extravagance; though much
+depended upon the individual writer, some being stylists and some
+not, all were prone to frequent and grotesque exaggerations. The lack
+of restraint and self-criticism is everywhere apparent; the old Irish
+writer seems incapable of judging how to shape his material with a
+view to presenting it in its best form. Thus, we have the feeling,
+even with regard to the _Táin Bó Cúalnge_, that what has come down to
+us is rather the rough-shaped material of an epic than a completed
+design. The single stories and the groups of stories have been
+handled and rehandled at different times, but only occasionally, as
+in the Story of Deirdre (the "Sorrowful Tale of the Sons of Usnech"),
+or in the later versions of the "Wooing of Emer", or the Book of
+Leinster version of the "Wooing of Ferb", do we feel that a competent
+artist has so formed his story that the best possible value has been
+extracted from it. Yet, in spite of their defects, the old heroic
+sagas of Ireland have in them a stimulating force and energy, and an
+element of fine and healthy optimism, which is strangely at variance
+with the popular conception of the melancholy of Irish literature,
+and which, wherever they are known, make them the fountain-head of a
+fresh creative inspiration. This stimulating of the imagination is
+perhaps the best gift that a revived interest in the old native
+romance of Ireland has to bestow.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+The originals of many of the Tales of the Cuchulainn cycle of
+romances will be found, usually accompanied by English or German
+translations, in the volumes of _Irische Texte; Revue Celtique;
+Zeitschrift für Celt. Phil.; Eriu_; Irish Texts Society, vol. II;
+_Atlantis_; Proceed. of the R. Irish Academy (Irish MSS. Series and
+Todd Lecture Series). English translations: of the Táin Bó Cúalnge
+(LU. and Y.B.L. versions), by Miss Winifred Faraday (1904); (LL.
+version with conflate readings), by Joseph Dunn (1914); of various
+stories: E. Hull, The Cuchulain Saga in Irish Literature (1898); A.
+H. Leahy, Heroic Romances of Ireland (1905-6), the Courtship of Ferb
+(1902). French translations in Arbois de Jubainville's _Epopée
+celtique en Irlande_; German translations in Thurneysen's _Sagen aus
+dem alien Irland_ (1901); free rendering by S. O'Grady in The Coming
+of Cuchullain (1904), and in his History of Ireland, the Heroic
+Period (1878). For full bibliography, see R. I. Best's Bibliography
+of Irish Philology and Printed Literature (1913), and Joseph Dunn's
+_Táin Bó Cúalnge_, pp. xxxii-xxxvi (1914).
+
+
+
+IRISH PRECURSORS OF DANTE
+
+By SIDNEY GUNN, M.A.
+
+
+One of the supreme creations of the human mind is the _Divine Comedy_
+of Dante, and undoubtedly one of its chief sources is the literature
+of ancient Ireland. Dante himself was a native of Florence, Italy,
+and lived from 1265 to 1321. Like many great men, he incurred the
+hatred of his countrymen, and he spent, as a result, the last twenty
+years of his life in exile with a price on his head. He had been
+falsely accused of theft and treachery, and his indignation at the
+wrong thus done him and at the evil conduct of his contemporaries led
+him to write his poem, in which he visits Hell, Purgatory, and
+Paradise, and learns how God punishes bad actions, and how He rewards
+those who do His will.
+
+To the writing of his poem Dante brought all the learning of his
+time, all its science, and an art that has never been surpassed,
+perhaps never equalled. Of course, he did not know any Irish, but he
+knew Italian and the then universal tongue of the learned--Latin, in
+both of which were tales of visits to the other world; and the
+greater part of these tales, as well as those most resembling Dante's
+work in form and spirit, were Irish in origin.
+
+All peoples have traditions of persons visiting the realms of the
+dead. Homer tells of Odysseus going there; Virgil does the same of
+Aeneas; and the Oriental peoples, as well as the Germanic races, have
+similar tales; but no people have so many or such finished accounts
+of this sort as the ancient Irish. In pagan times in Ireland one of
+the commonest adventures attributed to a hero was a visit to "tír na
+m-beó," the land of the living, or to "tír na n-óg," the land of the
+young; and this supernatural world was reached in some cases by
+entering a fairy mound and going beneath the ground to it, and in
+others by sailing over the ocean.
+
+Of the literature of pagan Ireland, though much has come down to us,
+we have only a very small fraction of what once existed, and what we
+have has been transmitted and modified by persons of later times and
+different culture, who, both consciously and unconsciously, have
+changed it, so that it is very different from what it was in its
+original form; but the subject and the main outlines still remain,
+and we have many accounts of both voyages and underground journeys to
+the other world.
+
+The oldest voyage is, perhaps, that of Maelduin, which, Tennyson has
+transmuted into English under the title _The Voyage of Maeldune_.
+This is a voyage undertaken for revenge; but vengeance, as Sir Walter
+Scott has pointed out in his preface to _The Two Drovers_, springs in
+a barbarous society from a passion for justice; and it is this
+instinct for justice that inspires the Irish hero to endure and to
+achieve what he does. Christianity has preserved this legend and
+added to it its own peculiar quality of mercy; and this illustrates
+one of the characteristics of Ireland's pagan literature--it is
+imperfectly Christian and can readily be made to express the
+Christian point of view.
+
+Another voyage of pagan Irish literature is the _Voyage of Bran_. In
+this tale idealism is the inspiration that leads the hero into the
+unknown world. A woman appears who is invisible to all but Bran, and
+whose song of the beauteous supernatural land beyond the wave is
+heard by none but him; so that, after refusing to go with her the
+first time she appears, at length he steps into her boat of glass and
+sails away to view the wonders and taste the joys of the other world.
+
+In these tales we have two main elements, one real and one ideal. The
+real element is the fact that the ancient Irish unquestionably made
+voyages and visited lands which the fervid Celtic imagination and the
+lapse of time transformed into the wonderful regions of the legends.
+The stories are thus early geographies, and they show unmistakably a
+knowledge of western Europe and of the Canary Islands or some other
+tropical regions; perhaps also, some have gone so far as to claim,
+they are reminiscent of voyages to America.
+
+The ideal element is no less important as indicating achievement, for
+it shows that the Irish poets of pagan times had not only realized,
+but had succeeded in making their national traditions embody, the
+fact that love of justice and aspiration for knowledge are the
+foundations of all enduring human achievement and all perfect human
+joy. Christianity therefore found moral and spiritual ideas of a
+highly developed order in pagan Ireland, and it did not hesitate to
+adopt whatever in the literature of the country illustrated its own
+teachings, and not only were these stories of visits to the other
+world full of suggestions as to ways of enforcing Christian doctrine,
+but the Irish church and men of Irish birth were the most active in
+spreading the faith in the early centuries of its conquest of western
+Europe.
+
+For these reasons it is not strange that all the earliest Christian
+visions of the spirit-world were of Irish origin. We find the
+earliest in the _Ecclesiastical History_ of the "Venerable Bede," who
+died in 735. It is the story of how an Irishman of great sanctity,
+Furseus by name, was taken in spirit by three angels to a place from
+which he looked down and saw the four fires that are to consume the
+world: those of falsehood, avarice, discord, fraud and impiety. In
+this there is the germ of some very fundamental things in Dante's
+poem, and we know that Dante knew Bede and had probably read his
+history, for he places him in Paradise and mentions him elsewhere in
+his works.
+
+In Bede's work there is also another vision, and though in this
+second case the man who visits the spirit-world is not an Irishman,
+but a Saxon named Drithelm, yet the story came to Bede through an
+Irish monk named Haemgils; so it, too, is connected with Ireland, and
+it also contains much that is developed further in the _Divine
+Comedy_.
+
+One of the most celebrated of the works belonging to this class of
+so-called "visionary" writings is the _Fis_ or "Vision" which goes
+under the name of the famous Irish saint, Adamnan, who was poetically
+entitled the "High Scholar of the Western World." This particular
+vision, the _Fis Adamnáin_, is remarkable among other things for its
+literary quality, which is far superior to anything of the time, and
+for the fact that it represents "the highest level of the school to
+which it belonged," and that it is "the most important contribution
+made to the growth of the legend within the Christian Church prior to
+the advent of Dante."
+
+Another Irish vision of great popularity all over Europe in the
+Middle Ages is the _Voyage of Saint Brendan_. This is known as the
+Irish Odyssey, and it is similar to the pagan tales of Maelduin and
+Bran, except that instead of its hero being a dauntless warrior
+seeking vengeance or a noble youth seeking happiness, he is a
+Christian saint in quest of peace; and instead of the perils of the
+way being overcome by physical force or the favor of some capricious
+pagan deity, they are averted by the power of faith and virtue.
+
+The _Voyage of Saint Brendan_, like its pagan predecessors, has a
+real and an ideal basis; and in both respects it shows an advancement
+over its prototypes. It contains some very poetic touches, and is
+credited with being the source of some of the most effective features
+of Dante's poem. Its great popularity is shown by the fact that
+Caxton, the first English printer, published a translation of it in
+1483; so that it was among the first books printed in English, and
+for that reason must have been one of the best-known works of the
+time. Dante undoubtedly knew it, for he was a great scholar in the
+learning of his day, and especially in ecclesiastical history and the
+biography of saints.
+
+Another vision of Irish origin that Dante and other writers have
+borrowed from is that of an Irish soldier named Tundale. He is said
+to have been a very wicked and proud man, who refused to a friend who
+owed him for three horses an extension of time in which to pay for
+them. For this he was struck down by an invisible hand so that he
+remained apparently dead from Wednesday till Saturday, when he
+revived and told a story of a visit to the world of the dead that has
+many features later embodied in the _Divine Comedy_. Tundale's vision
+is said to have taken place in 1149; Dante probably wrote his poem
+between 1314 and 1321.
+
+The Irish also produced another legend of this sort that was
+enormously and universally popular, and became the chief authority on
+the nature of heaven and hell, in the story of _Saint Patrick's
+Purgatory_. Saint Patrick was said to have been granted a view of
+heaven and hell, and a certain island in Lough Derg in Donegal was
+reputed to be the spot in which he had begun his journey; and there,
+it was said, those who desired to purge themselves of their sins
+could enter as he had entered and come back to the world again,
+provided their faith was strong enough.
+
+This legend was probably known in Ireland from a very early time, but
+it had spread over all western Europe by the twelfth century. Henry
+of Saltrey, a Benedictine monk of the Abbey of that name in England,
+wrote an account in Latin of the descent of an Irish soldier named
+Owen into Saint Patrick's Purgatory in 1153; and this story soon
+became the subject of poetic treatment all over Europe. We have
+several French versions, one by the celebrated French poetess Marie
+de France, who lived about 1200; and there are others in all the
+languages of Europe, besides evidence of its wide circulation in the
+original Latin. Its importance is shown by the fact that it is
+mentioned by Matthew Paris, the chief English historian of the
+thirteenth century, and also by Froissart, the well-known French
+annalist of the fourteenth while Calderon, the great Spanish
+dramatist, has written a play based on the legend. Dante undoubtedly
+knew of Marie de France's version as well as the original of Henry of
+Saltrey and probably others besides.
+
+From what has been said it will be seen that Dante's masterpiece is
+largely based on literature of Irish origin; but there are other
+superlative exhibitions of human genius of which the same is true.
+One of these is the story of Tristan and Isolde. Tristan is the
+paragon of all knightly accomplishments, the most versatile figure in
+the entire literature of chivalry; while Isolde is an Irish princess.
+By a trick of fate these two drink a love potion inadvertently and
+become irresistibly enamored of each other, although Isolde is
+betrothed to King Mark of Cornwall, and Tristan is his nephew and
+ambassador. The story that follows is infinitely varied, intensely
+dramatic, delicately beautiful, and tenderly pathetic. It has been
+treated by several poets of great genius, among them Gottfried of
+Strassburg, the greatest German poet of his time, and Richard Wagner;
+but all the beauty and power in the works of these men existed in the
+original Celtic form of the tale, and the later writers have only
+discovered it and brought it to light.
+
+The same thing is true of the Arthurian Legend and the story of the
+Holy Grail. Dante knew of King Arthur's fame, and mentions him in the
+_Inferno_. To Dante he was a Christian hero, and the historical
+Arthur may have been a Christian; but much in the story goes back to
+the pagan Celtic religion. We can find in Irish literature many
+references that indicate a belief in a self-sustaining, miraculous
+object similar to the Holy Grail, and the fact that this object was
+developed into a symbol of some of the deepest and most beautiful
+Christian truths shows the high character of the civilization and
+literature of ancient Ireland.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Wright: St. Patrick's Purgatory (London, 1844); Krapp: The Legend of
+St. Patrick's Purgatory (Baltimore, 1900); Becker: Mediaeval Visions
+of Heaven and Hell (Baltimore, 1899); Shackford: Legends and Satires
+(Boston, 1913); Meyer and Nutt: The Voyage of Bran, edited and
+translated by K. Meyer, with an Essay on the Irish Version of the
+Happy Other World and the Celtic Doctrine of Rebirth, by A. Nutt, 2
+vols. (London, 1895); Boswell: An Irish Precursor of Dante (London,
+1908).
+
+
+
+IRISH INFLUENCE ON ENGLISH LITERATURE
+
+By E.C. QUIGGIN, M.A.
+
+
+Among the literary peoples of the west of Europe, the Irish, in late
+medieval and early modern times, were singularly little affected by
+the frequent innovations in taste and theme which influenced Romance
+and Teutonic nations alike. To such an extent is this true, that one
+is often inclined to think that far-off Iceland was to a greater
+degree in the general European current than the much more accessible
+Erin. During the age of chivalry, conditions in Ireland were not
+calculated to promote the growth of epic and lyric poetry after the
+continental manner. Some considerable time elapsed before the Norman
+barons became fully Hibernicised, previous to which their interest
+may be assumed to have turned to the compositions of the trouvères.
+In the early Norman period, the poets of Ireland might well have
+begun to imitate Romance models. But, strange to say, they did not,
+and, for this, various reasons might be assigned. The flowing verses
+of the Anglo-Norman were impossible for men who delighted in the
+trammels of the native prosody; and in the heyday of French
+influence, the patrons of letters in Ireland probably insisted on
+hearing the foreign compositions in their original dress, as these
+nobles were doubtless sufficiently versed in Norman-French to be able
+to appreciate them. But a still more potent factor was the
+conservatism of the hereditary Irish poet families. A close
+corporation, they appear to have resented every innovation, and were
+content to continue the tradition of their ancestors. The direct
+consequence of this tenacious clinging to the fashions of by-gone
+days rendered it impossible, nay almost inconceivable, that the
+literary men of Ireland should have exerted any profound or immediate
+influence upon England or western Europe. Yet, nowadays, few serious
+scholars will be prepared to deny that the island contributed in
+considerable measure to the common literary stock of the Middle Ages.
+
+We might expect to find that direct influence, as a general rule, can
+be most easily traced in the case of religious themes. Here, in the
+literature of vision, so popular in Ireland, a chord was struck which
+continued to vibrate powerfully until the time of the Reformation. In
+this branch the riotous fancy of the Celtic monk caught the medieval
+imagination from an early period. Bede has preserved for us the story
+of Fursey, an Irish hermit who died in France, A.D. 650. The greatest
+Irish composition of this class with which we are acquainted, the
+_Vision of Adamnan_, does not appear to have been known outside the
+island, but a later work of a similar nature met with striking
+success. This was the _Vision of Tundale_ (Tnudgal), written in Latin
+by an Irishman named Marcus at Regensburg, about the middle of the
+twelfth century. It seems probable that this work was known to Dante,
+and, in addition to the numerous continental versions, there is a
+rendering of the story into Middle English verse.
+
+Closely allied to the Visions are the _Imrama_ or "voyages" (Lat.
+_navigationes_). The earliest romances of this class are secular,
+_e.g., Imram Maelduin_, which provided Tennyson with the frame-work
+of his well-known poem. However, the notorious love of adventure on
+the part of the Irish monks inevitably led to the composition of
+religious romances of a similar kind. The most famous story of this
+description, the_ Voyage of St. Brendan_, found its way into every
+Christian country in Europe, and consequently figures in the South
+English Legendary, a collection of versified lives of saints made in
+the neighborhood of Gloucester towards the end of the thirteenth
+century. The episode of St. Brendan and the whale, moreover, was
+probably the ultimate source of one of Milton's best known similes in
+his description of Satan. Equally popular was the visit of Sir Owayn
+to the Purgatory of St. Patrick, which is also included in the same
+Middle English Legendary. Ireland further contributed in some measure
+to the common stock of medieval stories which were used as
+illustrations by the preachers and in works of an edifying character.
+
+When we turn to purely secular themes, we find ourselves on much less
+certain ground. Though the discussion as to the origins of the
+"romance of Uther's son", Arthur, continues with unabated vigor, many
+scholars have come think that the Celtic background of these stories
+contains much that is derived from Hibernian sources. Some writers in
+the past have argued in favor of an independent survival of common
+Celtic features, in Wales and Ireland, but now the tendency is to
+regard all such coincidences as borrowings on the part of Cymric
+craftsmen. At the beginning of the twelfth century a new impulse
+seems to have been imparted to native minstrelsy in Wales under'the
+patronage of Gruffydd ap Cynan, a prince of Gwynedd, who had spent
+many years in exile at the court of Dublin. Some of the Welsh
+rhapsodists apparently served a kind of apprenticeship with their
+Irish brethren, and many things Irish were assimilated at this time
+which, through this channel, were shortly to find their way into
+Anglo-French. Thus it may now be regarded as certain that the name of
+the "fair sword" Excalibur, by Geoffrey called Caliburnus (Welsh
+_caletfwlch_), is taken from Caladbolg, the far-famed broadsword of
+Fergus macRoig. It does not appear that the whole framework of the
+Irish sagas was taken over, but, as Windisch points out, episodes
+were borrowed as well as tricks of imagery. So, to mention but one,
+the central incident of _Syr Gawayn and the Grene Knyght_ is
+doubtless taken from the similar adventure of Cuchulainn in
+_Bricriu's Feast_. The share assigned to Irish influence in the
+_matière de Bretagne_ is likely to grow considerably with the
+progress of research.
+
+The fairy lore of Great Britain undoubtedly owes much to Celtic
+phantasy. Of this Chaucer, at any rate, had little doubt, as he
+writes:
+
+      In th' olde dayes of the King Arthour,
+      Of which that Britons speken greet honour,
+      Al was this land fulfild of fayerye;
+      The elf-queen, with hir joly companye,
+      Daunced ful ofte in many a grene med.
+
+And here again there is a reasonable probability that certain
+features were borrowed from the wealth of story current in the
+neighboring isle. Otherwise it is difficult to understand why the
+queen of fayerye should bear an Irish name (Mab, from Irish Medb),
+and curiously enough the form of the name rathef suggests that it was
+borrowed through a written medium and not by oral tradition. On the
+other hand it is incorrect to derive Puck from Irish _puca_, as the
+latter is undoubtedly borrowed from some form of Teutonic speech.
+
+So all embracing a mind as that of the greatest English dramatist
+could not fail to be interested in the gossip that must have been
+current in London at the time of the wars in Ulster. References to
+kerns and gallowglasses are fairly frequent. He had evidently heard
+of the marvellous powers with which the Irish bards were credited,
+for, in _As You Like It_, Rosalind exclaims:
+
+"I was never so be-rhymed since Pythagoras' time, that I was an Irish
+rat, which I can hardly remember."
+
+Similarly, in _King Richard III_, mention is made of the prophetic
+utterance of an Irish bard, a trait which does not appear in the
+poet's source. Any statements as to Irish influence in Shakespeare
+that go beyond this belong to the realm of conjecture. Professor
+Kittredge has attempted to show that in Syr Orfeo, upon which the
+poet drew for portions of the plot of _A Midsummer Night's Dream_,
+the Irish story of Etain and Mider was fused with the medieval form
+of the classical tale of Orpheus and Eurydice. Direct influence is
+entirely wanting, and it is difficult to see how it could have been
+otherwise.
+
+Even in the case of the Elizabethan poet who spent many years in the
+south of Ireland, there is no trace of Hibernian lore or legend.
+Spenser, indeed, tells us himself that he had caused some of the
+native poetry to be translated to him, and had found that it
+"savoured of sweet wit and good invention." But Ireland plays an
+infinitesimal part in the _Faerie Queene_. The scenery round
+Kilcolman Castle forms the background of much of the incident in Book
+V. "Marble far from Ireland brought" is mentioned in a simile in the
+second Book, where we also read:
+
+      As when a swarme of gnats at eventide
+      Out of the fennes of Allan do arise.
+
+But Ireland supplied no further inspiration.
+
+The various plantations of the seventeenth century produced an
+Anglo-Irish stock which soon asserted itself in literature. As a
+typical example, we may take the author of _The Vicar of Wakefield_.
+At his first school at Lissoy, Oliver Goldsmith came under Thomas
+Byrne, a regular shanachie, possessed of all the traditional lore,
+with a remarkable gift for versifying. It was under this man that the
+boy made his first attempts at verse, and his memory is celebrated in
+_The Deserted Village_:
+
+      There, in his noisy mansion, skilled to rule,
+      The village master taught his little school.
+      A man severe he was, and stern to view.
+
+Unfortunately Goldsmith was removed to Elphin at the age of nine, and
+although he retained an affection for Irish music all his life, his
+intimate connection with Irish Ireland apparently ceased at this
+point. "Sweet Auburn! loveliest village of the plain" is doubtless
+full of reminiscences of the poet's early years in Westmeath, but the
+sentiments, the rhythm, and the language are entirely cast in an
+English mould. We may mention, in passing, that it has been suggested
+that Swift derived the idea of the kingdom of Lilliput from the Irish
+story of the Adventures of Fergus macLeide amongst the leprechauns.
+All that can be said is that this derivation is not impossible,
+though the fact that the tale is preserved only in a single
+manuscript rather points to the conclusion that the story did not
+enjoy great popularity in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
+
+We have seen that Goldsmith was removed from an Irish atmosphere at a
+tender age, and this is not the only instance of the frowning of
+fortune upon the native literature. When the fame of the ancient
+bards of the Gael was noised from end to end of Europe, it was
+through the medium of Macpherson's forgeries. _Fingal_ caught the
+fleeting fancy of the moment in a manner never achieved by the true
+Ossianic lays of Ireland. The _Reliques of Irish Poetry_, published
+by Miss Brooke by subscription in Dublin in 1789 to vindicate the
+antiquity of the literature of Erin, never went into a second
+edition. And although some of the pieces contained in that volume
+have been reprinted in such undertakings of a learned character as
+the volumes of the Dublin Ossianic Society, J.F. Campbell's _Leabhar
+na Feinne_, and Cameron's _Reliquiae Celticae_, they have aroused
+little interest amongst those ignorant of the Irish tongue.
+
+During the nineteenth century, the number of poets who drew upon
+Ireland's past for their themes increased considerably. The most
+popular of all is unquestionably the author of the _Irish Melodies_.
+But, here again, the poet owes little or nothing to vernacular
+poetry, the mould is English, the sentiments are those of the poet's
+age. Moore's acquaintance with the native language can have been but
+of the slightest, and in the case of Mangan we are told that he had
+to rely upon literal versions of Irish pieces furnished him by
+O'Donovan or O'Curry. Of the numerous attempts to reproduce the
+overelaboration of rhyme to which Irish verse has ever been prone,
+Father Prout's _Bells of Shandon_ is perhaps the only one that is at
+all widely known. When the legendary lore of Ireland became
+accessible to men of letters, owing to the labors of O'Curry,
+O'Donovan, and Hennessy, and the publication of various ancient texts
+by the Irish Archaeological Society, it was to be expected that an
+attempt would be made by some poet of Erin to do for his native land
+what the Wizard of the North had accomplished for Scotland. The task
+was undertaken by Sir Samuel Ferguson, who met with conspicuous
+success. His most ambitious effort, _Congal_, deals in epic fashion
+with the story of the battle of Moyra. Others in similar strain treat
+the story of Conaire Mór and Deirdre, whilst others such as the
+_Tain-Quest_ are more in the nature of ballads. Ferguson did more to
+introduce the English reading public to Irish story than would have
+been accomplished by any number of bald translations. His diction is
+little affected by the originals, and he sometimes treats his
+materials with great freedom, but his achievement was a notable one,
+and he has not infrequently been acclaimed as the national poet.
+
+Is it perhaps invidious to single out any living author for special
+mention, but this brief survey cannot close without noticing the
+dramatic poems of W.B. Yeats, the latest poet who attempts to present
+the old stories in an English dress. His plays _On Baile's Strand,
+Deirdre_, and others, have become familiar to English audiences
+through the excellent acting of the members of the Abbey Theatre
+Company. The original texts are now much better known than they were
+in Ferguson's day, and Mr. Yeats consequently cannot permit himself
+the same liberties. Similarly, it is only during the last twenty-five
+years that the language of Irish poetry has been carefully studied,
+and Mr. Yeats has this advantage over his predecessors that on
+occasion, e.g., in certain passages in _The King's Threshold_, he is
+able to introduce with great effect reminiscences of the
+characteristic epithets and imagery which formed so large a part of
+the stock-in-trade of the medieval bard.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Friedel and Meyer: La Vision de Tondale (Paris, 1907); Boswell: An
+Irish Precursor of Dante (London, 1908); Cambridge History of English
+Literature, vol. I, chaps, xii and xvi; Windisch: _Das Keltische
+Brittannien_ (Leipzig, 1912), more especially chap. xxxvii;
+Dictionary of National Biography; Gwynn: Thos. Moore ("English Men of
+Letters" Series, London, 1905).
+
+
+
+IRISH FOLKLORE
+
+By ALFRED PERCEVAL GRAVES.
+
+
+Among savage peoples there is at first no distinction of a definite
+kind between good and bad spirits, and when a distinction has been
+reached, a great advance in a spiritual direction has been made. For
+the key to the religion of savages is fear, and until such terror has
+been counteracted by belief in beneficent powers, civilization will
+not follow. But the elimination of the fear of the unseen is a slow
+process; indeed, it will exist side by side with the belief in
+Christianity itself, after a modification through various stages of
+better pagan belief.
+
+Ireland still presents, in its more out-of-the-way districts,
+evidence of that strong persistence in the belief in maleficent or
+malicious influences of the pre-Christian powers of the air, which it
+seems difficult to eradicate from the Celtic imagination. In the
+celebrated poem entitled _The Breastplate of St. Patrick_, there is
+much the same attitude on the part of Patrick towards the Druids and
+their powers of concealing and changing, of paralyzing and cursing,
+as was shown by Moses towards the magicians of Egypt. Indeed, in
+Patrick's time a belief in a world of fairies existed even in the
+king's household, for "when the two daughters of King Leary of
+Ireland, Ethnea the fair and Fedelma the ruddy, came early one
+morning to the well of Clebach to wash, they found there a synod of
+holy bishops with Patrick. And they knew not whence they came, or in
+what form, or from what people, or from what country; but they
+supposed them to be _Duine Sidh_, or gods of the earth, or a
+phantasm."
+
+Colgan explains the term _Duine Sidh_ thus: "Fantastical spirits," he
+writes, "are by the Irish called men of the _Sidh_, because they are
+seen, as it were, to come out of the beautiful hills to infest men,
+and hence the vulgar belief that they reside in certain subterranean
+habitations: and sometimes the hills themselves are called, by the
+Irish, _Sidhe_ or _Siodha_."
+
+No doubt, when the princesses spoke of the gods of the earth,
+reference was made to such pagan deities as Beal; Dagda the great or
+the good god; Aine, the Moon, goddess of the water and of wisdom;
+Manannan macLir, the Irish Neptune; Crom, the Irish Ceres; and
+Iphinn, the benevolent, whose relations to the Irish Oirfidh
+resembled those of Apollo towards Orpheus; and to the allegiance they
+owed to the Elements, the Wind, and the Stars. But besides these
+pagan divinities and powers, and quite apart from them, the early
+Irish believed in two classes of fairies: in the first place, a
+hierarchy of fairy beings, well and ill disposed, not differing in
+appearance, to any great degree at any rate, from human beings--good
+spirits and demons, rarely visible during the daytime; and, in the
+second place, there was the magic race of the De Danann, who, after
+conquest by the Milesians, transformed themselves into fairies, and
+in that guise continued to inhabit the underworld of the Irish hills,
+and to issue thence in support of Irish heroes, or to give their aid
+against other fairy adversaries.
+
+There is another theory to account for the fairy race. It is that
+they are angels who revolted with Satan and were excluded from heaven
+for their unworthiness, but were not found evil enough for hell, and
+therefore were allowed to occupy that intermediate space which has
+been called "the Other World." It is still a moot point with the
+Irish peasantry, as it was with the Irish saints of old, whether,
+after being compelled to dwell without death among rocks and hills,
+lakes and seas, bushes and forest, till the day of judgment, the
+fairies then have the chance of salvation. Indeed, the fairies are
+themselves believed to have great doubts of a future existence,
+though, like many men, entertaining undefined hopes of happiness; and
+hence the enmity which some of them have for mankind, who, they
+acknowledge, will live eternally. Thus their actions are balanced
+between generosity and vindictiveness towards the human race.
+
+Mr. W.Y. Evans Wentz, A.M., of Leland Stanford University,
+California, and Jesus College, Oxford, has received an honorary
+degree from the latter university for his thesis, "The Fairy Faith in
+Celtic Countries: Its Psychical Origin and Nature", a most laborious
+as well as ingenious work, whose object is to prove "that the origin
+of the fairy faith is psychical, and that fairyland, being thought of
+as an invisible world within which the visible world is immersed as
+an island in an unexplored ocean, actually exists, and that it is
+peopled by more species of living beings than this world, because
+incomparably more vast and varied in its possibilities." This may be
+added as a fourth theory to account for the existence of fairies, and
+it may be further stated here that the Irish popular belief in ghosts
+attributes to some of their departed spirits much of the same
+violence and malice with which fairies are credited. Mr. Jeremiah
+Curtin gives striking instances of this kind in his book, the _Folk
+Lore of West Kerry_.
+
+It became necessary, therefore, for the Gaels who believed in the
+preternatural powers of the fairies for good and ill to propitiate
+them as far as possible. On May eve, accordingly, cattle were driven
+into raths and bled there, some of the blood being tasted, the rest
+poured out in sacrifice. Men and women were also bled on these
+occasions. The seekers for buried treasure, over which fairies were
+supposed to have influence, immolated a black cock or a black cat to
+propitiate them. Again, a cow, suffering from sickness believed to be
+due to fairy malice, was bled and then devoted to St. Martin. If it
+recovered, it was never sold or killed. The first new milk of a cow
+was poured out on the ground to propitiate the fairies, and
+especially on the ground within a fairy rath. The first drop of any
+drink is also thrown out by old Irish people. If a child spills milk,
+the mother says, "that's for the fairies, leave it to them and
+welcome." Slops should never be thrown out of doors without the
+warning, "Take care of water!" lest fairies should be passing
+invisibly and get soiled by the discharge. Eddies of dust upon the
+road are supposed to be caused by the fairies, and tufts of grass,
+sticks, and pebbles are thrown into the centre of the eddy to
+propitiate the unseen beings. Some fairies of life size, who live
+within the green hills or under the raths, are supposed to carry off
+healthy babes to be made fairy children, their abstractors leaving
+weak changelings in their place. Similarly, nursing mothers are
+sometimes supposed to be carried off to give the breast to fairy
+babes, and handsome young men are spirited away to become bridegrooms
+to fairy brides. Again, folk suffering from falling sickness are
+supposed to be in that condition owing to the fatigue caused by
+nocturnal rides through the air with the fairies, whose steeds are
+bewitched rushes, blades of grass, straws, fern roots, and cabbage
+stalks. The latter, to be serviceable for the purpose, should be cut
+into the rude shapes of horses before the metamorphosis can take
+place.
+
+Iron of every kind keeps away malignant fairies: thus, a horseshoe
+nailed to the bottom of the churn prevents butter from being
+bewitched. Here is a form of charm against the fairies who have
+bewitched the butter: "Every window should be barred, a great turf
+fire should be lit upon which nine irons should be placed, the
+bystanders chanting twice over in Irish, 'Come, butter, come; Peter
+stands at the gate waiting for a buttered cake.' As the irons become
+heated the witch will try to break in, asking the people to take the
+irons, which are burning her, off the fire. On their refusing, she
+will go and bring back the butter to the churn. The irons may then be
+removed from the fire and all will go well."
+
+If a neighbor or stranger should enter a cottage during the churning,
+he should put his hand to the dash, or the butter will not come. A
+small piece of iron should be sewed into an infant's clothes and kept
+there until the child is baptized, and salt should be sprinkled over
+his cradle to preserve the babe from abduction. The fairies are
+supposed to have been conquered by an iron-weaponed race, and hence
+their dread of the metal.
+
+To recover a spell-bound friend, stand on All Hallows' eve at cross
+roads or at a spot pointed out by a wise woman or fairy doctor. When
+you have rubbed fairy ointment on your eyelids, the fairies will
+become visible as the host sweeps by with its captive, whom the gazer
+will then be able to recognize. A sudden gust announces their
+approach. Stooping down, you will then throw dust or milk at the
+procession, whose members are then obliged to surrender your
+spell-bound friend. If a man leaves home after his wife's
+confinement, some of his clothes should be spread over the mother and
+infant, or the fairies may carry them off. It is good for a woman,
+but bad for a man, to dream of fairies. It betokens marriage for a
+girl, misfortune for a man, who should not undertake serious business
+for some time after such dreaming.
+
+Fairy changelings may be recognized by tricky habits, constant
+crying, and other unusual characteristics. It was customary to
+recover the true child in the following way: The changeling was
+placed upon an iron shovel over the fire, when it would go shrieking
+up the chimney, and the _bona fide_ human child would be restored. It
+was believed that fairy changelings often produced a set of small
+bagpipes from under the clothes and played dance music upon them,
+till the inmates of the cottage dropped with exhaustion from the
+effects of the step dancing they were compelled to engage in.
+
+On Samain eve, the night before the first of November, or, as it is
+now called, All Hallows' night or Hallowe'en, all the fairy hills or
+_shees_ are thrown wide open and the fairy host issues forth, as
+mortals who are bold enough to venture near may see. Naturally
+therefore people keep indoors so as not to encounter the spectral
+host. The superstition that the fairies are abroad on Samain night
+still exists in Ireland and Scotland, and there is a further belief,
+no doubt derived from it, that the graves are open on that night and
+that the spirits of the dead are abroad.
+
+Salt, as already suggested, is regarded to be so lucky that if a
+child falls, it should always be given three pinches of salt, and if
+a neighbor calls to borrow salt, it should not be refused, even
+though it be the last grain in the house.
+
+An infant born with teeth should have them drawn by the nearest
+smith, and the first teeth when shed should be thrown into the fire,
+lest the fairies should get hold of what had been part of you.
+
+Those who hear fairy music are supposed to be haunted by the melody,
+and many are believed to go mad or commit suicide in consequence.
+
+The fairies are thought to engage in warfare with one another, and in
+the year 1800 a specially sanguinary battle was believed to have been
+fought between two clans of the fairies in county Kilkenny. In the
+morning the hawthorns along the fences were found crushed to pieces
+and drenched with blood.
+
+In popular belief fairies often go hunting, and faint sounds of fairy
+horns, the baying of fairy hounds, and the cracking of fairy whips
+are supposed to be heard on these occasions, while the flight of the
+hunters is said to resemble in sound the humming of bees.
+
+Besides the life-sized fairies who are reputed to have these direct
+dealings with human beings, there are diminutive preternatural beings
+who are also supposed to come into close touch with men. Among these
+is the Luchryman (_Leithphrogan_), or brogue maker, otherwise known
+as Leprechaun. He is always found mending or making a shoe, and, if
+grasped firmly and kept constantly in view, will disclose hidden
+treasure to you, or render up his _sparan na sgillinge_, or purse of
+the (inexhaustible) shilling. He can only be bound by a plough chain
+or woolen thread. He is the symbol of industry which, if steadily
+faced, leads to fortune, but, if lost sight of, is followed by its
+forfeiture.
+
+Love in idleness is personified by another pigmy, the _Geancanach_
+(love-talker). He does not appear, like the Leprechaun, with a purse
+in one of his pockets, but with his hands in both of them, and a
+_dudeen_ (short pipe) in his mouth, as he lazily strolls through
+lonely valleys making love to the foolish country lasses and
+"gostering" with the idle "boys." To meet him meant bad luck, and
+whoever was ruined by ill-judged love was said to have been with the
+_Geancanach_.
+
+Another evil sprite was the _Clobher-ceann_, "a jolly, red-faced,
+drunken little fellow," always "found astride of a wine-butt" singing
+and drinking from a full tankard in a hard drinker's cellar, and
+bound by his appearance to bring its owner to speedy ruin.
+
+Then there were the _Leannan-sighes_, or native Muses, to be found in
+every place of note to inspire the local bard, and the _Beansighes_
+(Banshees, fairy women) attached to each of the old Irish families
+and giving warning of the death of one of its members with piteous
+lamentations.
+
+Black Joanna of the Boyne (_Siubhan Dubh na Boinne_) appeared on
+Hallowe'en in the shape of a great black fowl, bringing luck to the
+home whose _Banithee_ (woman of the house) kept the dwelling
+constantly clean and neat.
+
+The Pooka, who appeared in the shape of a horse, and whom Shakespeare
+is by many believed to have adapted as "Puck," was a goblin who
+combined "horse-play" with viciousness, but also at times helped with
+the housework.
+
+The _Dullaghan_ was a churchyard demon whose head was of a movable
+kind. Dr. Joyce writes: "You generally meet him with his head in his
+pocket, under his arm, or absent altogether; or if you have the
+fortune to light upon a number of _Dullaghans_, you may see them
+amusing themselves by flinging their heads at one another or kicking
+them for footballs."
+
+An even more terrible churchyard demon is the fascinating phantom
+that waylays the widower at his wife's very tomb, and poisons him by
+her kiss when he has yielded to her blandishments.
+
+Of monsters the Irish had, and still believe in, the _Piast_ (Latin
+_bestia_), a huge dragon or serpent confined to lakes by St. Patrick
+till the day of judgment, but still occasionally seen in their
+waters. In old Fenian times, namely, the days of Finn and his
+companion knights, the _Piasts_, however, roamed the country,
+devouring men and women and cattle in large numbers, and some of the
+early heroes are recorded to have been swallowed alive by them and
+then to have hewed their way out of their entrails.
+
+Merrows, or Mermaids, are also still believed in, and many folk tales
+exist describing their intermarriage with mortals.
+
+According to Nicholas O'Kearney, "It is the general opinion of many
+old persons versed in native traditional lore, that, before the
+introduction of Christianity, all animals possessed the faculties of
+human reason and speech; and old story-tellers will gravely inform
+you that every beast could speak before the arrival of St. Patrick,
+but that the saint having expelled the demons from the land by the
+sound of his bell, all the animals that, before that time, had
+possessed the power of foretelling future events, such as the Black
+Steed of _Binn-each-labhra_, the Royal Cat of _Cloughmagh-righ-cat_
+(Clough), and others, became mute, and many of them fled to Egypt and
+other foreign countries."
+
+Cats are said to have been appointed to guard hidden treasures; and
+there are few who have not heard old Irish people tell about strange
+meetings of cats and violent battles fought by them in the
+neighborhood. "It was believed," adds O'Kearney, "that an evil spirit
+in the shape of a cat assumed command over these animals in various
+districts, and that when those wicked beings pleased they could
+compel all the cats belonging to their division to attack those of
+some other district. The same was said of rats; and rat-expellers,
+when commanding a colony of those troublesome and destructive animals
+to emigrate to some other place, used to address their 'billet' to
+the infernal rat supposed to hold command over the rest. In a curious
+pamphlet on the power of bardic compositions to charm and expel rats,
+lately published, Mr. Eugene O'Curry states that a degraded priest,
+who was descended from an ancient family of hereditary bards, was
+enabled to expel a colony of rats by the force of satire!"
+
+Hence, of course, Shakespeare's reference to rhyming Irish rats to
+death.
+
+It will thus be seen that Irish Fairy Lore well deserves to have been
+called by Mr. Alfred Nutt, one of the leading authorities on the
+subject, "as fair and bounteous a harvest of myth and romance as ever
+flourished among any race."
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Alex. Carmichael: Carmina Gadelica; David Comyn: The Boyish Exploits
+of Finn; the Periodical, "Folklore"; Lady Gregory: Cuchulain of
+Muirthemne, Gods and Fighting Men; Miss Eleanor Hull: The Cuchulain
+Saga in Irish Literature; Douglas Hyde: Beside the Fire, (a
+collection of Irish Gaelic Folk Stories), _Leabhar Sgeulaicheachta_,
+(Folk Stories in Irish); "Irish Penny Journal"; Patrick Kennedy: The
+Fireside Stories of Ireland, Legendary Fictions of the Irish Celt;
+Standish Hayes O'Grady: Silva Gadelica; Wood-Martin: Traces of the
+Elder Faiths in Ireland, Pagan Ireland; W.Y. Wentz: The Fairy Faith
+in Celtic Countries; Lady Wilde: Charms, Incantations, etc.; Celtic
+articles in Hastings' Dictionary of Religion and Ethics.
+
+
+
+IRISH WIT AND HUMOR
+
+By Charles L. Graves.
+
+
+No record of the glories of Ireland would be complete without an
+effort, however inadequate, to analyze and illustrate her wit and
+humor. Often misunderstood, misrepresented, and misinterpreted, they
+are nevertheless universally admitted to be racial traits, and for an
+excellent reason. Other nations exhibit these qualities in their
+literature, and Ireland herself is rich in writers who have furnished
+food for mirth. But her special pre-eminence resides in the
+possession of what, to adapt a famous phrase, may be called an _anima
+naturaliter jocosa_. Irish wit and Irish humor are a national
+inheritance. They are inherent in the race as a whole, independent of
+education or culture or comfort. The best Irish sayings are the
+sayings of the people; the greatest Irish humorists are the nameless
+multitude who have never written books or found a place in national
+dictionaries of biography. None but an Irishman could have coined
+that supreme expression of contempt: "I wouldn't be seen dead with
+him at a pig-fair," or rebuked a young barrister because he did not
+"squandher his carcass" (_i.e._, gesticulate) enough. But we cannot
+trace the paternity of these sayings any more than we can that of the
+lightning retort of the man to whom one of the "quality" had given a
+glass of whisky. "That's made another man of you, Patsy," remarked
+the donor. "'Deed an' it has, sor," Patsy flashed back, "an' that
+other man would be glad of another glass." It is enough for our
+purpose to note that such sayings are typically Irish and that their
+peculiar felicity consists in their combining both wit and humor.
+
+To what element in the Irish nature are we to attribute this joyous
+and illuminating gift? No one who is not a Gaelic scholar can venture
+to dogmatize on this thorny subject. But, setting philology and
+politics aside, it is hard to avoid the conclusion that Ireland has
+gained rather than lost in this respect by the clash of races and
+languages. Gaiety, we are told, is not the predominating
+characteristic of the Celtic temperament, nor is it reflected in the
+prose and verse of the "old ancient days" that have come down to us.
+Glamour and magic and passion abound in the lays and legends of the
+ancient Gael, but there is more melancholy than mirth in these tales
+of long ago. Indeed, it is interesting to note in connection with
+this subject that the younger school of Irish writers associated with
+what is called the Celtic Renascence have, with very few exceptions,
+sedulously eschewed anything approaching to jocosity, preferring the
+paths of crepuscular mysticism or sombre realism, and openly avowing
+their distaste for what they consider to be the denationalized
+sentiment of Moore, Lever, and Lover. To say this is not to disparage
+the genius of Yeats and Synge; it is merely a statement of fact and
+an illustration of the eternal dualism of the Irish temperament,
+which Moore himself realized when he wrote of "Erin, the tear and the
+smile in thine eye."
+
+A reaction against the Donnybrook tradition was inevitable and to a
+great extent wholesome, since the stage Irishman of the transpontine
+drama or the music-halls was for the most part a gross and unlovely
+caricature, but, like all reactions, it has tended to obscure the
+real merits and services of those who showed the other side of the
+medal. Lever did not exaggerate more than Dickens, and his portraits
+of Galway fox-hunters and duellists, of soldiers of fortune, and of
+Dublin undergraduates were largely based on fact. At his best he was
+a most exhilarating companion, and his pictures of Irish life, if
+partial, were not misleading. He held no brief for the landlords, and
+in his later novels showed a keen sense of their shortcomings. The
+plain fact is that, in considering the literary glories of Ireland,
+we cannot possibly overlook the work of those Irishmen who were
+affected by English influences or wrote for an English audience.
+
+Anglo-Irish humorous literature was a comparatively late product, but
+its efflorescence was rapid and triumphant. The first great name is
+that of Goldsmith, and, though deeply influenced in technique and
+choice of subjects by his association with English men of letters and
+by his residence in England, in spirit he remained Irish to the
+end--generous, impulsive, and improvident in his life; genial, gay,
+and tender-hearted in his works. The Vicar of Wakefield was Dr.
+Primrose, but he might just as well have been called Dr. Shamrock. No
+surer proof of the pre-eminence of Irish wit and humor can be found
+than in the fact that, Shakespeare alone excepted, no writers of
+comedy have held the boards longer or more triumphantly than
+Goldsmith and his brother Irishman, Sheridan. _She Stoops to Conquer,
+The Rivals, The School for Scandal_, and _The Critic_ represent the
+sunny side of the Irish genius to perfection. They illustrate, in the
+most convincing way possible, how the debt of the world to Ireland
+has been increased by the fate which ordained that her choicest
+spirits should express themselves in a language of wider appeal than
+the ancient speech of Erin.
+
+On the other hand, English literature and the English tongue have
+gained greatly from the influence exerted by writers familiar from
+their childhood with turns of speech and modes of expression which,
+even when they are not translations from the Gaelic, are
+characteristic of the Hibernian temper. The late Dr. P.W. Joyce, in
+his admirable treatise on English as spoken in Ireland, has
+illustrated not only the essentially bilingual character of the
+Anglo-Irish dialect, but the modes of thought which it enshrines.
+There is no better known form of Irish humor than that commonly
+called the "Irish bull," which is too often set down to lax thinking
+and faulty logic. But it is the rarest thing to encounter a genuine
+Irish "bull" which is not picturesque and at the same time highly
+suggestive. Take, for example, the saying of an old Kerry doctor who,
+when conversing with a friend on the high rate of mortality,
+observed, "Bedad, there's people dyin' who never died before." Here a
+truly illuminating result was attained by the simple device of using
+the indicative for the conditional mood--as in Juvenal's famous
+comment on Cicero's second Philippic: _Antoni gladios potuit
+contemnere si sic omnia dixisset_. The Irish "bull" is a heroic and
+sometimes successful attempt to sit upon two stools at once, or, as
+an Irishman put it, "Englishmen often make 'bulls,' but the Irish
+'bull' is always pregnant."
+
+Though no names of such outstanding distinction as those of Goldsmith
+and Sheridan occur in the early decades of the nineteenth century,
+the spirit of Irish comedy was kept vigorously alive by Maria
+Edgeworth, William Maginn, Francis Mahony (Father Prout), and William
+Carleton. Sir Walter Scott's splendid tribute to the genius of Maria
+Edgeworth is regarded by some critics as extravagant, but it is
+largely confirmed in a most unexpected quarter. Turgenief, the great
+Russian novelist, proclaimed himself her disciple, and has left it on
+record that but for her example he might never have attempted to give
+literary form to his impressions of the classes in Russia
+corresponding to the poor Irish and the squireens and the squires of
+county Longford. Maginn and Mahony were both scholars--the latter
+happily called himself "an Irish potato seasoned with Attic
+salt"--wrote largely for English periodicals, and spent most of their
+lives out of Ireland. In the writings of all three an element of the
+grotesque is observable, tempered, however, in the case of Mahony,
+with a vein of tender pathos which emerges in his delightful "Bells
+of Shandon." Maginn was a wit, Mahony was the hedge-schoolmaster _in
+excelsis_, and Carleton was the first realist in Irish peasant
+fiction. But all alike drew their best inspiration from essentially
+Irish themes. The pendulum has swung back slowly but steadily since
+the days when Irish men of letters found it necessary to accommodate
+their genius to purely English literary standards. Even Lever, though
+he wrote for the English public, wrote mainly about Ireland. So, too,
+with his contemporary Le Fanu, whose reputation rests on a double
+basis. He made some wonderful excursions into the realm of the
+bizarre, the uncanny, and the gruesome. But in the collection known
+as _The Purcell Papers_ will be found three short stories which for
+exuberant drollery and "diversion" have never been excelled. That the
+same man could have written _Uncle Silas_ and _The Quare Gander_ is
+yet another proof of the strange dualism of the Irish character.
+
+The record of the last fifty years shows an uninterrupted progress in
+the invasion of English _belles lettres_ by Irish writers. Outside
+literature, perhaps the most famous sayer of good things of our times
+was a simple Irish parish priest, the late Father Healy. Of his
+humorous sayings the number is legion; his wit may be illustrated by
+a less familiar example--his comment on a very tall young lady named
+Lynch: "Nature gave her an inch and she took an ell." In the House of
+Commons today there is no greater master of irony and sardonic humor
+than his namesake, Mr. Tim Healy. On one occasion he remarked that
+Lord Rosebery was not a man to go tiger-shooting with--except at the
+Zoo. On another, being anxious to bring an indictment against the
+"Castle" _régime_ in Dublin and finding the way blocked by a debate
+on Uganda, he successfully accomplished his purpose by a judicious
+geographical transference of names, and convulsed the House by a
+speech in which the nomenclature of Central Africa was applied to the
+government of Ireland.
+
+But wit and humor are the monopoly of no class or calling in Ireland.
+They flourish alike among car-drivers and K.C.'s, publicans and
+policemen, priests and parsons, beggars and peers. It is a
+commonplace of criticism to deny these qualities in their highest
+form to women. But this is emphatically untrue of Ireland, and was
+never more conclusively disproved than by the recent literary
+achievements of her daughters. The partnership of two Irish ladies,
+Miss Edith Somerville and Miss Violet Martin, has given us, in _Some
+Experiences of an Irish R.M._ (_i.e._, Resident Magistrate), the most
+delicious comedy, and in _The Real Charlotte_ the finest
+tragi-comedy, that have come out of Great Britain in the last thirty
+years. The _R.M._, as it is familiarly called, is already a classic,
+but the Irish _comédie humaine_--to use the phrase in the sense of
+Balzac--is even more vividly portrayed in the pages of _The Real
+Charlotte_. Humor, genuine though intermittent, irradiates the
+autumnal talent of Miss Jane Barlow, and the long roll of gifted
+Irishwomen who have contributed to the gaiety of nations may be
+closed with the names of Miss Hunt, author of _Folk Tales of
+Breffny_; of Miss Purdon and Miss Winifred Letts, who in prose and
+verse, respectively, have moved us to tears and laughter by their
+studies of Leinster peasant life; and of "Moira O'Neill" (Mrs.
+Skrine), the incomparable singer of the Glens of Antrim. To give a
+full list of the living Irish writers, male and female, who are
+engaged in the benevolent work of driving dull care away would be
+impossible within the space at our command. But we cannot end without
+recognition of the exhilarating extravaganzas of "George A.
+Birmingham" (Canon Hannay), the freakish and elfin muse of James
+Stephens, and the coruscating wit of F.P. Dunne, the famous
+Irish-American humorist, whose "Mr. Dooley" is a household word on
+both sides of the Atlantic.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Goldsmith: Vicar of Wakefield, She Stoops to Conquer; Sheridan: The
+Rivals, The School for Scandal, The Critic; R. Edgeworth: Essay on
+Irish Bulls; M. Edgeworth: Castle Rackrent, The Absentee; Maginn:
+Miscellanies in Prose and Verse; Carleton: Traits and Stories of the
+Irish Peasantry; Mahony (Father Prout): Reliques of Father Prout;
+John and Michael Banim: Tales of the O'Hara Family; Lover: Legends
+and Stories of Ireland, Handy Andy; Lever: Harry Lorrequer, Charles
+O'Malley, Lord Kilgobbin; Le Fanu: The Purcell Papers; Barlow:
+Bogland Studies, Irish Idylls, Irish Neighbours; Birmingham: The
+Seething Pot, Spanish Gold, The Major's Niece, The Red Hand of
+Ulster, General John Regan; Stephens: The Crock of Gold, Here are
+Ladies; Hunt: The Folk Tales of Breffny; Purdon: The Folk of Furry
+Farm; Somerville and Ross: The Real Charlotte, Some Experiences of an
+Irish R.M., All on the Irish Shore, Dan Russel the Fox.
+
+
+
+THE IRISH THEATRE
+
+By JOSEPH HOLLOWAY.
+
+
+The Irish theatre and secular drama may be said to begin with the
+production of James Shirley's historical play, _St. Patrick for
+Ireland_, in Werburgh Street Theatre, about 1636-7; and though Dublin
+was a great school for acting, and supplied many of the best players
+to the English stage, such as Quin, Macklin, Peg Woffington, Miss
+O'Neill, and hosts of others, it never really possessed a creative
+theatre (save at the Capel Street Theatre for a few years during the
+Grattan Parliament) until the modern movement in Ireland came into
+being and the Abbey Theatre became its headquarters.
+
+Of course, innumerable plays by Irish writers were written, but most
+of them were not distinctively Irish in character; and the names of
+Goldsmith, Sheridan, O'Keeffe, Farquhar, Sheridan Knowles, Oscar
+Wilde, and dozens of others will always be remembered as great Irish
+writers for the stage. And when fine impersonators of Irish character
+like Tyrone Power, John Drew, or Barney Williams arrived, there were
+always to be found several clever writers to fit them with parts, the
+demand always creating the supply.
+
+Even before Dion Boucicault took to writing Irish dramas of a more
+palatable and less "stage-Irish" character than those of his
+immediate predecessors, some excellent plays, Irish in character and
+tone, had from time to time found their way to the stage. However,
+Boucicault sweetened our stage by the production of _The Colleen
+Bawn, Arrah-na-Pogue_, and _The Shaughraun_, and showed by his
+rollicking impersonations of Myles, Shan, and Conn, how good-humored,
+hearty, and self-sacrificing Irish boys in humble life can be. He had
+great technical knowledge of stagecraft, and that has helped to make
+his Irish plays live in the popular goodwill right up to today.
+
+A revolt against Boucicault's Irish boys, all fun and frolic, and
+charming colleens, who could do no wrong, has made our modern
+playwrights go to the other extreme; so that now we find our stage
+peopled with peasants, cruel, hard, and forbidding for the most part,
+and with colleens who are the reverse of lovable in thought or act.
+Neither picture is quite true of our people. What is really wanted is
+the happy medium, which few, if any, of our new playwrights have yet
+given us.
+
+If our great popular Irish drama has yet to come, I think the Fays
+have made it possible to say that a distinct and really fine dramatic
+school has arisen in Ireland, evolved out of their wonderful skill in
+teaching, producing, and acting; and if we are not always really
+delighted with what our playwrights give us, the almost perfect way
+in which the plays are served up by the actors invariably wholly
+satisfies. It is the actors who have made the Abbey Theatre famous,
+and not the plays. Such acting as theirs cast a spell over all who
+see them. What pleasing memories do the names of W.G. Fay, Frank J.
+Fay, Dudley Digges, Sara Allgood, Arthur Sinclair, Maire O'Neill,
+Maire ni Shuiblaigh, J.M. Kerrigan, Fred O'Donovan, Eileen O'Doherty,
+Una O'Connor, Eithne Magee, Nora Desmond, and John Connolly recall!
+
+With the production of W.B. Yeats's poetic one-act play, _The Land of
+Heart's Desire_, at the Avenue Theatre, London, on March 29, 1894,
+began the modern Irish dramatic movement. When the poet had tasted
+the joys of the footlights, he longed to see an Irish Literary
+Theatre realized in Ireland. Five years later, in the Antient Concert
+Rooms, Dublin, on May 9, 1899, his play, _The Countess Cathleen_, was
+produced, and his desire gratified. The experiment was tried for
+three years and then dropped; plays by Yeats, Edward Martyn, George
+Moore, and Alice Milligan were staged with English-trained actors in
+the casts; and a Gaelic play--the first ever presented in a theatre
+in Ireland--was also given during the third season. It was _The
+Twisting of the Rope_, by Dr. Douglas Hyde, and was played at the
+Gaiety Theatre, Dublin, on October 21, 1901, by a Gaelic Amateur
+Dramatic Society coached by W.G. Fay. The author filled the principal
+part with distinction.
+
+It was while rehearsing this play that the thought came to Fay: "Why
+not have my little company of Irish-born actors--the Ormond Dramatic
+Society--appear in plays by Irish writers instead of in the ones they
+have been giving for years?" And the thought soon ripened into
+realization. His brother, Frank, had dreamed of such a company since
+he read of the small beginnings out of which the Norwegian Theatre
+had grown; and just then, seeing some of "Æ's" (George Russell's)
+play, _Deirdre_, in the _All Ireland Review_, he asked the author if
+he would allow them to produce it, and, consent being given, the
+company put it into rehearsal at once. "Æ" got for them from Yeats
+_Kathleen-Ni-Houlihan_, to make up the programme. Thus it was that
+this company of amateurs and poets, now known as the Abbey Players,
+came into existence, and at St. Teresa's Hall, Clarendon Street,
+Dublin, gave their first performance on April 2, 1902.
+
+Shortly afterwards they took a hall at the back of a shop in Camden
+Street, where they rehearsed and gave a few public performances. On
+"Æ" declining to be their president, Frank Fay suggested the name of
+W.B. Yeats, and he was elected, and in that way came again into the
+movement in which he has figured so largely ever since.
+
+The company played occasionally in the Molesworth Hall, and produced
+there, among other pieces, Synge's _In the Shadow of the Glen_
+(October 8, 1903) and _Riders to the Sea_ (February 25, 1904);
+Yeats's _The Hour Glass_ (March 14, 1903) and _The King's Threshold_
+(October 8, 1903); Lady Gregory's _Twenty-five_ (March 14,1903); and
+Padraic Colum's _Broken Soil_ (December 3, 1903).
+
+On March 26, 1904, the company paid a flying one-day visit to the
+Royalty, London, and Miss A.E.F. Horniman, who had given Shaw, Yeats,
+and Dr. John Todhunter their first real start as playwrights at the
+Avenue, London, in March-April, 1894 (Shaw had had his first play,
+_Widowers' Houses_, played by the Independent Theatre in 1892), saw
+the performance, and was so impressed that she thought she would like
+to find a suitable home for such talent in Dublin, and fixed upon the
+old Mechanics' Institute and its surrounding buildings, and there the
+Abbey Theatre soon afterwards--on December 27, 1904--came into
+existence.
+
+In writing of this Irish dramatic movement, one must always bear in
+mind that it was Yeats who first conceived the idea of such a
+movement; the Fays who founded the school of Irish acting; and Miss
+Horniman who, like a fairy godmother, waved the wand, and gave it a
+habitation and a name--the Abbey Theatre--and endowed it for six
+years.
+
+Play followed play with great rapidity, and dramatic societies sprang
+up all over the country, playing home-made productions in Gaelic and
+English. All Ireland seemed to be play-acting and play-writing; so
+much so that Frank Fay was heard to say that "he thought everyone had
+a play in his pocket, and that anyone in the street could be picked
+up and shaped into an actor or actress with a little training,
+Ireland was so teeming with talent!"
+
+Dramatic Ireland had slumbered for a long while, and awoke with
+tremendous vigor for work. New dramatists sprang up in all parts of
+Ireland; The Ulster Literary Theatre started in Belfast; The Cork
+Dramatic Society, in Cork; The Theatre of Ireland, in Dublin; and
+others in Galway and Waterford soon followed. In Dublin at present
+more than half a dozen dramatic societies are continually producing
+new plays and discovering new acting talent. There are also two
+Gaelic dramatic societies. And nearly every town in Ireland now has
+its own dramatic class and its own dramatists. All this activity has
+come about within the last ten or twelve years, where, before, in
+many places, drama and acting were almost unknown.
+
+Many Gaelic societies throughout the country put on Gaelic plays by
+Dr. Douglas Hyde, Pierce Beasley, Thomas Haynes, Canon Peter O'Leary,
+and others; and the _Oireachtas_ (the Gaelic musical and literary
+festival) held each year in Dublin usually presents several Irish
+plays and offers prizes for new ones at each festival.
+
+Of all the Irish playwrights who have arisen in recent years, Lady
+Gregory has produced most and W.B. Yeats is the most poetic. He is
+more a lyric poet than a dramatist, and is never satisfied with his
+work for the stage, but keeps eternally chopping and changing it. His
+_Kathleen-Ni-Houlihan_, though a dream-play, always appeals to an
+audience of Irish people. Perhaps his one-act _Deirdre_ is the
+nearest approach to real drama he has done. Some of Lady Gregory's
+earlier one-act farces, such as _The Workhouse-Ward_, are very
+amusing; _The Rising of the Moon_ is a little dramatic gem, and _The
+Gaol Gate_ is touched with genuine tragedy. Synge wrote only one
+play--_Riders to the Sea_--that acts well. The others are admired by
+critics for the strangeness of their diction and the beauty of the
+nature-pictures scattered through them. His much-discussed _Playboy
+of the Western World_ has become famous for the rows it has created
+at home and abroad from its very first production on January 26,
+1907. William Boyle, who gets to the heart of those he writes about,
+has produced the most popular play of the movement in _The Eloquent
+Dempsey_, and a perfectly constructed one in _The Building Fund_.
+W.F. Casey's two plays--_The Man Who Missed the Tide_ and _The
+Suburban Groove_--are both popular and actable. Padraic Colum's
+plays--_The Land_ and _Broken Soil_ (the latter rewritten and renamed
+_The Fiddler's House_)--are almost idyllic scenes of country life.
+Lennox Robinson's plays are harsh in tone, but dramatically
+effective, and T.C. Murray's _Birthright_ and _Maurice Harte_ are
+fine dramas, well constructed and full of true knowledge of the
+people he writes about. Seumas O'Kelly has written two strong dramas
+in _The Shuiler's Child_ and _The Bribe_, and Seumas O'Brien one of
+the funniest Irish farces ever staged in _Duty_. R.J. Ray's play,
+_The Casting Out of Martin Whelan_, is the best this dramatist has as
+yet given us, and George Fitzmaurice's _The Country Dressmaker_ has
+the elements of good drama in it. St. John G. Ervine has written a
+very human drama in _Mixed Marriage_. He hails from the north of
+Ireland; but Rutherford Mayne is the best of the Northern
+playwrights, and his plays, _The Drone_ and _The Turn of the Road_,
+are splendid homely county Down comedies.
+
+Bernard Shaw's _John Bull's Other Island_, as Irish plays go, is a
+fine specimen; Canon Hannay has written two successful comedies,
+_Eleanor's Enterprise_ and _General John Regan_--the latter not
+wholly to the taste of the people of the west. James Stephens and
+Jane Barlow have also tried their hands at playwriting, with but
+moderate success. Perhaps the modern drama that made the most
+impression when first played was _The Heather Field_, by Edward
+Martyn. It gripped and remains a lasting memory with all who saw it
+in 1899. But I think I have written enough to show that the Irish
+Theatre of today is in a very alive condition, and that if the great
+National Dramatist has not yet arrived, he is sure to emerge. When
+that time comes, the actors are here ready to interpret such work to
+perfection.
+
+An article, however brief, on the Irish Theatre, would be incomplete
+without mention of the world-famous tragedians, John Edward
+MacCullough, Lawrence Patrick Barrett, and Barry Sullivan; of genial
+comedians like Charles Sullivan and Hubert O'Grady; of sterling
+actors like Shiel Barry, John Brougham, Leonard Boyne, J.D.
+Beveridge, and Thomas Nerney; or of operatic artists like Denis
+O'Sullivan and Joseph O'Mara--many of whom have passed away, but
+some, fortunately, are with us still.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+John Genest: Some Account of the English Stage from the Restoration
+to 1830 (1832; vol. 10 is devoted to the Irish Stage); Chetwood:
+General History of the Stage, more particularly of the Irish Theatre
+(Dublin, 1749); Molloy: Romance of the Irish Stage; Baker: Biographia
+Dramatica (Dublin, 1782); Hitchcock: An Historical View of the Irish
+Stage from its Earliest Period down to the Season of 1788; Doran:
+Their Majesties' Servants, or Annals of the English Stage (London,
+1865); Hughes: The Pre-Victorian Drama in Dublin; The History of the
+Theatre Royal, Dublin (Dublin, 1870); Levey and O'Rourke: Annals of
+the Theatre Royal (Dublin, 1880); O'Neill: Irish Theatrical History
+(Dublin, 1910); Brown: A Guide to Books on Ireland (Dublin, 1912);
+Lawrence: The Abbey Theatre (in the Weekly Freeman, Dublin, Dec.,
+1912), Origin of the Abbey Theatre (in Sinn Fein, Dublin, Feb. 14,
+1914); Weygandt: Irish Plays and Playwrights (London, 1913); Lady
+Gregory: Our Irish Theatre (London, 1914); Bourgeois: John M. Synge
+and the Irish Theatre (London, 1913); Moore: Hail and Farewell, 3
+vols. (London, 1911-1914); Esmore: The Ulster Literary Theatre (in
+the Lady of the House, Dublin, Nov. 15, 1913); the Reviews, Beltaine
+(1899-1900) and Samhain (1901-1903).
+
+
+
+IRISH JOURNALISTS
+
+By MICHAEL MACDONAGH.
+
+
+The most splendid testimony to the Irish genius in journalism is
+afforded by the London press of the opening decades of the twentieth
+century. One of the greatest newspaper organizers of modern times is
+Lord Northcliffe. As the principal proprietor and guiding mind of
+both the _Times_ and the _Daily Mail_, he directly influences public
+opinion, from the steps of the Throne and the door of the Cabinet, to
+the errand boy and the servant maid. T.P. O'Connor, M.P., is the most
+popular writer on current social and political topics, and so amazing
+is his versatility that every subject he touches is illumined by
+those fine qualities, vision and sincerity. The most renowned of
+political writers is J.L. Garvin of the _Pall Mall Gazette_ and the
+_Observer_. By his leading articles he has done as much as the late
+Joseph Chamberlain by his speeches to democratize and humanize the
+old Tory party of England. The authoritative special correspondent,
+studying at first hand all the problems which divide the nations of
+Europe, and knowing personally most of its rulers and statesmen, is
+E.J. Dillon of the _Daily Telegraph_. And when the quarrels of
+nations are transferred from the chancelleries to the stricken field
+there is no one among the war correspondents more enterprising and
+intrepid in his methods, or more picturesque and vivid with his pen,
+than M.H. Donohoe of the _Daily Chronicle_. All these men are Irish.
+Could there be more striking proof of the natural bent and aptitude
+of the Irish mind for journalism?
+
+Dean Swift was the mightiest journalist that ever stirred the
+sluggish soul of humanity. Were he alive today and had he at his
+command the enormous circulation of a great daily newspaper, he would
+keep millions in a perpetual mental ferment, such was the ferocious
+indignation into which he was aroused by wrong and injustice and his
+gift of savage ironical expression. Swift, as a young student in
+Trinity College, Dublin, saw the birth of the first offspring of the
+Irish mind in journalism. The _Dublin News Letter_ made its
+appearance in June, 1685, and was published every three or four days
+for the circulation of news and advertisements. Only one copy of the
+first issue of this, the earliest of Irish newspapers, is extant. It
+is included in the Thorpe collection of tracts in the Royal Dublin
+Society. Dated August 26, 1685, it consists of a single leaf of paper
+printed on both sides, and contains just one item of news, a letter
+brought by the English packet from London, and two local
+advertisements. As I reverently handled it, I was thrilled by the
+thought that from this insignificant little seed sprang the great
+national organ, the _Freeman's Journal_; the _Press_ of the United
+Irishmen; the _Nation_ of the Young Irelanders; the _United Ireland_
+of the Land League; the _Irish World_ and the _Boston Pilot_ of the
+American Irish; and the _Irish Independent_, the first half-penny
+Dublin morning paper, and the most widely circulated of Irish
+journals. If Swift did not write for the _Dublin News Letter_, he
+certainly wrote for the _Examiner_, a weekly miscellany published in
+the Irish capital from 1710 to 1713, and the first journal that
+endeavored to create public opinion in Ireland. It was at Swift's
+instigation that this paper was started, and he was doubtless
+encouraged to suggest it by the success that attended his articles in
+the contemporary London publication of the same name, the Tory
+_Examiner_, in which his journalistic genius was fully revealed. As
+it has been expressively put, he wrote his friends, Harley and St.
+John, into a firm grip of power, and thus, as in other ways,
+contributed his share to the inauguration and maintenance of that
+policy which in the last four years of Queen Anne so materially
+recast the whole European situation. About the same time there
+appeared in London the earliest forms of the periodical essay in the
+_Tatler_ and the _Spectator_, which exhibit the comprehensiveness of
+the Irish temperament in writing by affording a contrast between the
+Irish force and vehemence of Swift and the Irish play of kindly wit
+and tender pathos in the deft and dainty periods of Richard Steele.
+
+Dr. Charles Lucas was, even more than Swift perhaps, the precursor of
+that type of Irish publicist and journalist, of which there have been
+many splendid examples since then in Ireland, England, and America.
+Lucas first started the _Censor_, a weekly journal, in 1748. Within
+two years his paper was suppressed for exciting discontent with the
+government, and to avoid a prosecution he fled to England. In 1763
+the _Freeman's Journal_ was established by three Dublin merchants.
+Lucas, who had returned from a long exile and was a member of the
+Irish parliament, contributed to it, sometimes anonymously but
+generally over the signature of "A Citizen" or "Civis." The editor
+was Henry Brooks, novelist, poet, and playwright. His novel, _The
+Fool of Quality_, is still read. His tragedy, _The Earl of Essex_,
+was, wrongly, supposed to contain a precept, "Who rules o'er freemen
+should himself be free," which led to the more famous parody of Dr.
+Samuel Johnson, "Who drives fat oxen should himself be fat." The
+object of Lucas and Brooke, as journalists, was to awaken national
+sentiment, by teaching that Ireland had an individuality of her own
+independently of England. But they were more concerned with the
+assertion of the constitutional rights of the parliament of the
+Protestant colony as against the domination of England. Therefore,
+the first organ of Irish Nationality, representative of all creeds
+and classes, was the _Press_, the newspaper of the United Irishmen,
+which was started in Dublin in 1797, by Arthur O'Connor, the son of a
+rich merchant who had made his money in London. Its editor was Peter
+Finnerty, born of humble parentage at Loughrea, afterwards a famous
+parliamentary reporter for the London _Morning Chronicle_, and its
+most famous contributor was Dr. William Drennan, the poet, who first
+called Ireland "the Emerald Isle."
+
+Irishmen did not become prominently associated with American
+journalism until after the Famine and the collapse of the Young
+Ireland movement in 1848. The journalist whom I regard as having
+exercised the most fateful influence on the destinies of Ireland was
+Charles Gavan Duffy, the founder and first editor of the _Nation_, a
+newspaper of which it was truly and finely said that it brought a new
+soul into Erin. Among its contributors, who afterwards added lustre
+to the journalism of the United States, was John Mitchel. In the
+_Southern Citizen_ and the _Richmond Enquirer_ he supported the South
+against the North in the Civil War. The Rev. Abram Joseph Ryan, who
+was associated with journalism in New Orleans, not only acted as a
+Catholic chaplain with the Confederate army, but sang of its hopes
+and aspirations in tuneful verse. Serving in the army of the North
+was Charles G. Halpine, whose songs signed "Private Miles O'Reilly"
+were very popular in those days of national convulsion in the United
+States. Halpine's father had edited the Tory newspaper, the Dublin
+_Evening Mail_; and Halpine himself, after the war, edited the
+_Citizen_ of New York, famous for its advocacy of reforms in civic
+administration. Perhaps the two most renowned men in Irish-American
+journalism were John Boyle O'Reilly of the _Boston Pilot_ and Patrick
+Ford of the _Irish World_. O'Reilly was a troop-sergeant in the 10th
+Hussars (Prince of Wales's Own), and during the Fenian troubles of
+1866 had eighty of his men ready armed and mounted to take out of
+Island Bridge Barracks, Dublin, at a given signal, to aid the
+projected insurrection. Detected, he was brought to trial, summarily
+convicted, and sentenced to be shot. This sentence was commuted to
+twenty-five years' penal servitude; but O'Reilly survived it all to
+become a brilliant man of letters and make the _Boston Pilot_ one of
+the most influential Irish and Catholic newspapers in the United
+States. Ford, who had served his apprenticeship as a compositor in
+the office of William Lloyd Garrison at Boston, founded the _Irish
+World_ in 1870. This newspaper gave powerful aid to the Land League.
+A special issue of 1,650,000 copies of the _Irish World_ was printed
+on January 11, 1879, for circulation in Ireland; and money to the
+amount of $600,000 altogether was sent by Ford to the headquarters of
+the agitation in Dublin. A journalist of a totally different kind was
+Edwin Lawrence Godkin. Born in County Wicklow, the son of a
+Presbyterian clergyman, Godkin in 1865 established the _Nation_ in
+New York as an organ of independent thought; and for thirty-five
+years he filled a unique position, standing aside from all parties,
+sects, and bodies, and yet permeating them all with his sane and
+restraining philosophy.
+
+In Canada, Thomas D'Arcy Magee won fame as a journalist on the _New
+Era_ before he became even more distinguished as a parliamentarian.
+When the history of Australian journalism is written it will contain
+two outstanding Irish names: Daniel Henry Deniehy, who died in 1865,
+was called by Bulwer Lytton "the Australian Macaulay" on account of
+his brilliant writings as critic and reviewer in the press of
+Victoria. Gerald Henry Supple, another Dublin man, is also remembered
+for his contributions to the _Age_ and the _Argus_ of Melbourne. In
+India one of the first--if not the first--English newspapers was
+founded by a Limerick man, named Charles Johnstone, who had
+previously attained fame as the author of _Chrysal, or the Adventures
+of a Guinea_, and who died at Calcutta about 1800.
+
+Stirring memories of battle and adventure leap to the mind at the
+names of those renowned war correspondents, William Howard Russell,
+Edmond O'Donovan, and James J. O'Kelly. Russell, a Dublin man, was
+the first newspaper representative to accompany an army into the
+field. He saw all the mighty engagements of the Crimea--Alma,
+Balaclava, Inkerman, Sebastopol--not from a distance of 60 or 80
+miles, which is the nearest that correspondents are now allowed to
+approach the front, but at the closest quarters, riding through the
+lines on his mule, and seeing the engagements vividly, so that he was
+able to describe them in moving detail for readers of the _Times_.
+O'Donovan--son of Dr. John O'Donovan, the distinguished Irish scholar
+and archaeologist--was in the service of the London _Daily News_.
+That dashing campaigner--as his famous book, _The Merv Oasis_, shows
+him to have been--perished with Hicks Pasha's Army in the Sudan in
+November, 1883. At the same time James O'Kelly, also of the _Daily
+News_, was lost in the desert, trying to join the forces of the
+victorious Sudanese under the Madhi. Ten years before that he had
+accomplished, for the New York _Herald_, the equally daring and
+hazardous feat of joining the Cuban rebels in revolt against Spain.
+He escaped the perils of the Mambi Land and the Sudan, and survived
+to serve Ireland for many years as a Nationalist member in the
+British parliament. John Augustus O'Shea, better known, perhaps, as
+"The Irish Bohemian", also deserves remembrance for his quarter of a
+century's work as special correspondent in Europe--including Paris
+during the siege--for the London _Standard_.
+
+Indeed, no matter to what side of journalism we turn, we find
+Irishmen filling the foremost and the highest places. John Thaddeus
+Delane, under whose editorship the _Times_ became for a time the most
+influential newspaper in the world, was of Irish parentage. The first
+editor of the _Illustrated London News_ (1842)--one of the pioneers
+in the elucidation of news by means of pictures--was an Irishman,
+Frederick Bayley. Among the projectors of _Punch_, and one of its
+earliest contributors, was a King's county man, Joseph Sterling
+Coyne. The founder of the _Liverpool Daily Post_ (1855), the first
+penny daily paper in Great Britain, was Michael Joseph Whitty, a
+Wexford man. His son, Edward M. Whitty, was the originator of that
+interesting feature of English and Irish journalism, the sketch of
+personalities and proceedings in parliament. Of the editors of the
+_Athenaeum_--for many years the leading English organ of literary
+criticism--one of the most famous was Dr. John Doran, who was of
+Irish parentage. "Dod" is a familiar household word in the British
+Parliament. It is the name of the recognized guide to the careers and
+political opinions of Lords and Commons. Its founder was an Irishman,
+Charles Roger Dod, who for twenty-three years was a parliamentary
+reporter for the _Times_. And what name sheds a brighter light on the
+annals of British journalism for intellectual and imaginative force
+than that of Justin MacCarthy, novelist and historian, as well as
+newspaper writer?
+
+At home in Ireland the name of Gray is inseparably associated with
+the _Freeman's Journal_. Under the direction of Dr. John Gray this
+newspaper became in the sixties and seventies the most powerful organ
+of public opinion in Ireland; and in the eighties it was raised still
+higher in ability and influence by his son and successor, Edmund
+Dwyer Gray. In the south of Ireland the most influential daily
+newspaper is the _Cork Examiner_, which was founded in 1841 by John
+Francis Maguire, who wrote in 1868 _The Irish in America_. It is
+doubtful whether any country ever produced a more militant and able
+political journal than was _United Ireland_ in the stormy years
+during which it was edited by William O'Brien as the organ of the
+Land League.
+
+The Irish mood is gregarious, expansive, glowing, and eager to keep
+in intimate touch with the movements and affairs of humanity. That, I
+think, is the secret of its success in journalism.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Madden: Irish Periodical Literature (1867); Andrews: English
+Journalism (1855); North: Newspaper and Periodical Press of the
+United States (1884); MacDonagh: The Reporter's Gallery (1913).
+
+
+
+THE IRISH LITERARY REVIVAL
+
+By HORATIO S. KRANS, Ph.D.
+
+
+In the closing decade of the nineteenth century and in the opening
+years of the twentieth, no literary movement has awakened a livelier
+interest than the Irish Literary Revival, a movement which, by its
+singleness and solidarity of purpose, stood alone in a time of
+confused literary aims and tendencies. Movements, like individuals,
+have their ancestry, and that of the Irish Literary Revival is easily
+traced. It descends from Callanan and Walsh, and from the writers of
+'48. It is to this descent that the lines in William Butler Yeats's
+"To Ireland in Coming Times" allude:
+
+      Know that I would accounted be
+      True brother of that company,
+      Who sang to sweeten Ireland's wrong,
+      Ballad and story, rann and song.
+
+With the passing of the mid-nineteenth-century writers, the old
+movement waned, and in the field of Irish letters there was, in the
+phrase of a famous bull, nothing stirring but stagnation. A witty
+critic of the period, commenting upon this unhappy state of affairs,
+declared that, though the love of learning in Ireland might still be,
+as the saying went, indestructible, it was certainly imperceptible.
+But after the fall of Parnell a new spirit was stirring. Politics no
+longer absorbed the whole energy of the nation. Groups of men
+inspired with a love of the arts sprang up here and there. In 1890
+Yeats proved himself a real prophet when he wrote: "A true literary
+consciousness--national to the centre--seems gradually to be forming
+out of all this disguising and prettifying, this penumbra of
+half-culture. We are preparing likely enough for a new Irish literary
+movement--like that of '48--that will show itself in the first lull
+in politics."
+
+Responsive to the need of the young writers associated with Yeats,
+the National Literary Society was founded in Dublin in 1892, and a
+year later London Irishmen, among them men already distinguished in
+letters, founded in the English metropolis the Irish Literary
+Society. From the presses in Dublin, in London, and in New York as
+well, books began to appear in rapid succession--slender volumes of
+verse, novels, short stories, essays, plays, translations, and
+remakings of Irish myths and legends, all inspired by, and closely
+related to, the past or the present of Ireland, voicing an
+essentially national spirit and presenting the noblest traits of
+Irish life and character.
+
+Not content with the organization of the two literary societies,
+Yeats, with courage and relentless tenacity, cast about to realize
+his long-cherished dream of a theatre that should embody the ideals
+of the Revival. In Lady Gregory, and in Edward Martyn, an Irishman of
+large means, who with both pen and purse lent a willing hand, he
+found two ardent laborers for his vineyard. George Moore, who in the
+event proved a fish out of water in Ireland, Yeats and Martyn
+contrived to lure from his London lodgings and his cosmopolitan ways,
+and to enlist in the theatrical enterprise. The practical knowledge
+of the stage which this gifted _enfant terrible_ of literature
+contributed was doubtless of great value in the early days of the
+dramatic adventure, though Moore's free thoughts, frank speech, and
+mordant irony brought an element of discord into Dublin literary
+circles, which may well have left Yeats and his associates with a
+feeling that they had paid too dear for a piper to whose tunes they
+refused to dance. Be that as it may, in 1899 Yeats's dream was
+measurably realized, and the Irish Literary Theatre established, to
+be succeeded a little later by the Irish National Theatre Society.
+Enough, however, of the dramatic aspect of the Revival, which
+receives separate treatment elsewhere in these pages, as does also
+the dramatic work of certain of the authors considered here.
+
+From what has already been said, it should be plain that in the last
+decade of the last century the ranks of the Irish Literary
+Revivalists filled rapidly, and that the movement was really under
+way. The renascent spirit took various forms. To one group of poets
+the humor, pathos, and tragedy of peasant life deeply appealed, and
+found expression in a poetry distinctively and unmistakably national,
+from which a kind of pleasure could be drawn unlike anything else in
+other literatures. In this group Alfred Perceval Graves and Moira
+O'Neill cannot pass unmentioned. Who would ask anything racier in its
+kind than the former's "Father O'Flynn"?
+
+      Of priests we can offer a charmin' variety,
+      Far renowned for larnin' and piety,
+      Still I'd advance you without impropriety,
+      Father O'Flynn as the flower of them all.
+         Here's a health to you, Father O'Flynn,
+         Slainte,[1] and slainte, and slainte agin.
+            Powerfullest preacher,
+            And tinderest teacher,
+      And kindliest creature in Old Donegal.
+
+[Footnote 1: "Your health."]
+
+Or was the homing instinct, the homesick longing for the old sod,
+ever more truly rendered than in Moira O'Neill's song of the Irish
+laborer in England?
+
+      Over here in England I'm helpin' wi' the hay,
+      An' I wish I was in Ireland the livelong day;
+      Weary on the English, an' sorra take the wheat!
+      Och! Corrymeela an' the blue sky over it.
+
+      D'ye mind me now, the song at night is mortial hard to raise,
+      The girls are heavy-goin' here, the boys are ill to plase;
+      When ones't I'm out this workin' hive, 'tis I'll be back again--
+      Aye, Corrymeela in the same soft rain.
+
+Here, too, should be named Jane Barlow, whose poems and stories are
+faithful imaginative transcripts of the face of nature and the hearts
+of men as she knew them in Connemara. Finally there is William Butler
+Yeats, who, on the whole, is the representative man of the Revival.
+Except in the translator's sphere, his writings have given him a
+place in almost all the activities of this movement. As a lyric poet,
+he has expressed the moods of peasant and patriot, of mystic,
+symbolist, and quietist, and it is safe to say that in lyric poetry
+no one of his generation writing in English is his superior. We
+cannot resist the pleasure of quoting here from his "Innisfree",
+which won the praise of Robert Louis Stevenson, and which, if not the
+high mark of Yeats's achievement, is still a flawless thing in its
+way:
+
+      I will arise and go now, and go to Innisfree,
+         And a small cabin build there, of clay and wattles made;
+      Nine bean rows will I have there, a hive for the honey bee,
+         And live alone in the bee-loud glade.
+
+      And I shall have some peace there, for peace comes dropping slow,
+         Dropping from the veils of the morning to where the cricket sings;
+      There midnight's all a glimmer, and noon a purple glow,
+         And evening full of the linnets' wings.
+
+In this place, and for convenience sake, it may be permitted to speak
+of aspects of Yeats's work other than that by virtue of which he is
+to be classed with the group we have just considered. In his
+narrative poem, "The Wanderings of Usheen", as well as in his plays
+and lyrics, he is of the best of those--among them we may mention by
+the way Dr. John Todhunter, Nora Hopper (Mrs. W.H. Chesson), and
+William Larminie--who have revealed to our day the strange beauty of
+the ancient creations of the Gaelic imagination. In prose he has
+written short stories, a novelette, _John Sherman and Dhoya_, and
+essays that reveal a subtle critical insight, and a style of
+beautiful finish and grace, suggestive of the style of Shelley's
+_Defence of Poetry_. Yeats's plays constitute a considerable and an
+important part of his work, but these must be reserved for treatment
+elsewhere in this book. In prefaces to anthologies of prose and verse
+of his editing, in the pages of reviews, and elsewhere, he appears as
+the chief apologist of the aims of the Literary Revival, and in
+particular of the methods of the dramatists of the Revival. Whatever
+he has touched he has lifted into the realm of poetry, and this is in
+large measure true of his prose, which proceeds from the poet's point
+of view and breathes the poetic spirit. A man of rare versatility, a
+finished artist with a scrupulous artistic conscience, he has done
+work of high and sustained quality, and is certain to exert a good
+and lasting influence upon the literature of his country.
+
+In a literary movement in the "Isle of Saints", we look naturally for
+religious poetry, and we do not look in vain. This poetry, chiefly
+Catholic, has a quality of its own as distinctive as that of the
+writers of the group we have just left. Now it voices a naïve,
+devoted simplicity of Christian faith; now it attains to a high and
+keen spirituality; now it is mystic and pagan. Among the religious
+poets, Lionel Johnson easily stands first--perhaps the Irish poet of
+firmest fibre and most resonant voice of his generation. A note of
+high courage and of spiritual triumph rings through his verse, even
+from the shadow of the wings of the dark angel that gives a title to
+one of the saddest of his poems. Often he strikes a note of genuine
+religious ecstasy and exaltation rarely heard in English, as in "Te
+Martyrum Candidatus":
+
+      Ah, see the fair chivalry come, the companions of Christ!
+         White Horsemen, who ride on white horses, the Knights of God!
+      They, for their Lord and their Lover who sacrificed
+         All, save the pleasure of treading where He first trod.
+
+      These through the darkness of death, the dominion of night,
+         Swept, and they woke in white places at morning tide:
+      They saw with their eyes, and sang for joy of the sight,
+         They saw with their eyes the Eyes of the Crucified.
+
+Among the men of the Revival, no personality is stronger or more
+attractive than that of G.W. Russell--"Æ", as he is always
+called--who may be regarded as the hero of George Moore's _Hail and
+Farewell_, and who alone in that gallery of wonderful pen-portraits
+looks forth with complete amiability. He is a pantheist, a mystic,
+and a visionary, with what would seem a literal and living faith in
+many gods, though strongly prepossessed in favor of the ancient
+divinities of the Gael, now long since in exile. Impressive and
+striking by a certain spiritual integrity, so to say, "Æ" unites
+gifts and faculties seldom combined. He is a poet of rare subtlety, a
+painter in whose genius so good a judge as George Moore believed, and
+a most practical man of affairs, who, as assistant to Sir Horace
+Plunkett, held up the latter's hands in his labors on behalf of
+co-operative dairies and the like. His poems have their roots in a
+pantheism which half reveals the secrets of an indwelling spirit,
+speaking alike "from the dumb brown lips of earth" and from the
+passions of the heart of man.
+
+Of novelists, both men and women, the Irish Revival can, in the words
+of "Father O'Flynn", offer a charming variety, and among their novels
+and short stories are some books of high quality and not a few in a
+high degree interesting and entertaining. To Standish O'Grady we turn
+for tales, with a kind of bardic afflatus about them, of the hero age
+of legendary Ireland--tales which drew attention to the romantic
+Celtic past of myth and saga, and must have been an inspiration to
+more than one writer of the younger generation. In contrast to the
+broad epic sweep and remote romantic backgrounds of O'Grady, are the
+stories of Jane Barlow, whose _genre_ pictures of peasant life in the
+west of Ireland, like her poems mentioned above, show how
+sympathetically she understands the ways of thinking, feeling, and
+acting of her humble compatriots. A like minute and faithful
+knowledge is evident in the work of two story-tellers of the north,
+Seumas MacManus and Shan Bullock. The former's outlook is humorous
+and pathetic. He tells fairy and folk tales well, and is a past
+master of the dialect and idiom that combine to give his old-wives'
+yarns an honest smack of the soil. Let him who doubts it read
+_Through the Turf Smoke_ or _Donegal Fairy Stories_. If Shan Bullock
+walks the same fields as Seumas MacManus, he does so with a different
+air and with a more definite purpose. Sometimes he turns to the
+squireens, small farmers, or small country gentry, and lays bare the
+hardness and narrowness that are a part of their life. Or, again, in
+pictures whose sadness and gloom are lightened, to be sure, with
+humor or warmed with love, he studies the necessitous life of the
+poor. _The Squireen, The Barrys_, and _Irish Pastorals_ are some of
+his representative books.
+
+In the novel as in poetry the ladies have worked side by side with
+their literary brethren. Miss Hermione Templeton, in her _Darby
+O'Gill_, and elsewhere, has written pleasantly and gracefully of the
+fairies. In a very different vein are the novels of the
+collaborators, Miss Somerville and "Martin Ross" (Miss Violet
+Martin), over which English and American readers have laughed as
+heartily as their own fellow countrymen. _The Experiences of an Irish
+R.M._remains, perhaps, their best book. The work of these ladies, be
+it said by the way, is in the line of descent from that group of
+older Irish novelists who wrote in the spirit of the devil-may-care
+gentry, the novelists from Maxwell to Lover and Lever, who were ever
+questing "divilment and divarshion," and who in their moods of
+boisterous fun forgot the real Irishman, and presented in his place a
+caricature--him of the Celtic screech and the exhilarating whack of
+the shillelagh, the famous stage Irishman who has made occasional
+appearances in English literature from the time of Shakespeare's
+_Henry V._, on through the works of Fielding and the plays of
+Sheridan, to the present moment of writing.
+
+Of a very different stripe from the work of the collaborating ladies
+just mentioned are the novels of the recently deceased Canon
+Sheehan--notable among them _Luke Delmege_ and _My New
+Curate_--rambling, diffuse, and a trifle provincial from the artistic
+standpoint, but interesting as studies of manners, and for the
+pictures they afford of the priesthood of modern Ireland in the
+pleasantest light. If the stories of Miss Somerville and "Martin
+Ross" are related to the comic stories of the old novelists of the
+gentry, those of Canon Sheehan must be associated with the work of
+the older novelists who wrote more or less in the spirit of the
+peasantry, that is, with Gerald Griffin, the Banim brothers, and
+William Carleton, less famous than he deserves to be by his _Traits
+and Stories_ and a long line of novels and tales.
+
+No survey of Irish novelists, however brief, can afford to forget the
+Rev. James Owen Hannay ("George A. Birmingham"), canon of St.
+Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, whose work is as distinctively
+Protestant in its point of view as Father Sheehan's is Catholic. His
+more substantial novels are a careful transcript of the actualities
+of Irish life today, and in them one meets, incognito but easily
+recognizable, many Irishmen now prominent in literature or politics
+in Ireland. Of his numerous books may be mentioned _The Seething Pot,
+Hyacinth_, and _Northern Iron_.
+
+Finally there is George Moore, whose enlistment in the Revival was
+responsible for the novel _The Lake_ and the short stories of _The
+Unfilled Field_, and for a largely autobiographic and entirely
+indiscreet trilogy entitled _Hail and Farewell_, the separate volumes
+appearing as _Ave, Salve, Vale_, and the last of them as late as
+1914. George Moore's anti-Catholic bias is strong, but his is the pen
+of an accomplished artist. He has the story-teller's beguiling gift,
+and he bristles with ideas which his books cleverly embody and to
+which the dramatic moments of his novels give point and relief.
+
+Not the least important work of the Irish Literary Revival has been
+done by translators, who have put into English the old Gaelic
+romances and the folklore still current among the little remnant of
+Irish-speaking country folk. Dr. Douglas Hyde is in the forefront of
+this group. He it was who organized the Gaelic League, a band of
+enthusiasts zealous for the revival of the Irish language both as a
+spoken tongue and as the medium for a national literature, and eager,
+also, to breed up a race of Celtic scholars. The lyrics in his _Love
+Songs of Connacht_ are full of grace, tenderness, and fire, and
+indicate the kind of gems which he and his fellow laborers have added
+to the treasury of poetry in English. But it is Lady Gregory,
+especially in her _Cuchulain of Muirthemne_ and _Gods and Fighting
+Men_, who more than any other has found a way to stir the blood of
+readers of to-day by the romantic hero tales of Ireland. From the
+racy idiom of the dwellers on or about her own estate in Galway, she
+happily framed a style that gave her narratives freshness, novelty,
+and a flavor of the soil. Upon the work of scholars she drew heavily
+in making her own renderings, but she has justified all borrowings by
+breathing into her books the breath and the warmth of life, and her
+adaptation to epic purposes of the dialect of those who still retain
+the expiring habit of thinking in Gaelic was a real literary
+achievement. She has, indeed, in sins of commission and of omission,
+taken liberties with the old legends, but this may render them not
+less, and perhaps more, delightful to the general reader, however
+just complaints may be from the standpoint of the scholar.
+
+Even so brief a sketch as this may suffice to bring home to those not
+already aware of it a realization of the delights to be drawn from
+the creations of a living literary movement, which is perhaps the
+most notable of its generation, and which has gathered together a
+remarkable group of poets, novelists, and dramatists, who, as men and
+women, are a most interesting company--a fact to which even George
+Moore's _Hail and Farewell_, with its quick eye for defects and
+foibles and its ironic wit, bears abundant testimony.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Brooke and Rolleston: Treasury of Irish Poetry (New York and London,
+1900); Krans: William Butler Yeats and the Irish Literary Revival
+(New York and London, 1904); Yeats: Ideas of Good and Evil (London,
+1903); Moore: Hail and Farewell, 3 vols. (London and New York,
+1912-1914); Lady Gregory: Our Irish Theatre (New York and London,
+1913); Weygandt: Irish Plays and Playwrights (New York, 1913); Yeats:
+Introduction to Fairy and Folk Tales of the Irish Peasantry (London,
+1889), Representative Irish Tales (London, 1890), Book of Irish Verse
+(London, 1895). There is much of interest, though chiefly as regards
+the drama, in the reviews, Beltaine (London and Dublin, 1899-1900)
+and Samhain (London and Dublin, 1901-1903).
+
+
+
+IRISH WRITERS OF ENGLISH
+
+By P.J. LENNOX, B.A., Litt.D.
+
+
+The Gaelic literature of Ireland is not only of wonderful volume and
+priceless worth, but is also of great antiquity, whereas the English
+literature of Ireland, while also of considerable extent and high
+value, is of comparatively modern origin. The explanation of this
+fact is that for more than six centuries after the Anglo-Norman
+invasion of 1169 the Irish language continued to be both the spoken
+and, with Latin, the written organ of the great mass of the Irish
+people, and that for nearly the whole of that period those English
+settlers who did not become, as the well-known phrase has it, more
+Irish than the Irish themselves by adopting the native language,
+customs, and sentiments, were kept too busy in holding, defending,
+and extending their territory to devote themselves to literary
+pursuits. Hence we need not wonder if, leaving out of account merely
+technical works like Lionel Power's treatise on music, written in
+1395, we find that the English literature of Ireland takes its
+comparatively humble origin late in the sixteenth century. For more
+than two centuries thereafter, owing to the fact that the native
+Irish, because they were Catholics, were debarred by law from an
+education, the writing of English remained almost exclusively in the
+hands of members or descendants of the Anglo-Irish colony, who, with
+scarcely an exception, were Protestants and had as their principal
+Irish seat of learning the then essentially Protestant institution,
+Trinity College, Dublin. Alien in race and creed though these writers
+mainly were, they have nevertheless spread a halo of glory around
+their adopted country, and have won the admiration, and often the
+affection, of Irishmen of every shade of religious and political
+belief. For example, there is no Irishman who is not proud of
+Molyneux and Swift, of Goldsmith and Burke, of Grattan and Sheridan.
+From the nineteenth century onward Irish Catholics have taken their
+full share in the production of English literature. Here, however, it
+will be necessary to consider the writers of none but the sixteenth,
+seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, as in other pages of this
+volume considerable attention has been given to those of later date.
+
+I. SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+Richard Stanyhurst (1547-1618), born in Dublin but educated at
+Oxford, is the first representative of the sixteenth century with
+whom we are called upon to deal. He belonged to a family long settled
+in or near Dublin and of some note in municipal annals. Under the
+direction of the Jesuit martyr, Edmund Campion, Stanyhurst wrote a
+_Description_, as well as a portion of the _History_, of Ireland for
+Holinshed's _Chronicles_, published in 1577. He also translated
+(1582) the first four books of _Virgil his Aeneis_ into quantitative
+hexameters, on the unsound pedantic principles which Gabriel Harvey
+was at that time trying so hard to establish in English prosody; but
+the experiment, which turned out so badly in the master's hands,
+fared even worse in those of the disciple, and Stanyhurst's lines
+will always stand as a noted specimen of inept translation and
+ridiculous versification. Equally inartistic was his version of some
+of the Psalms in the same metre. In Latin he wrote a profound
+commentary on Porphyry, the Neo-Platonic mystic. Stanyhurst, who was
+uncle to James Ussher, the celebrated Protestant archbishop of
+Armagh, was himself a convert to Catholicity, and on the death of his
+second wife became a priest and wrote in Latin some edifying books of
+devotion. Two of his sons joined the Jesuit order. He died at
+Brussels in 1618. Stanyhurst viewed Ireland entirely from the English
+standpoint, and in his _Description_ and _History_ is, consciously or
+unconsciously, greatly biased against the native race.
+
+If we may take it as certain that modern investigation is correct in
+asserting that Thomas Campion was a native of Dublin, a notable
+addition will have been made to the ranks of Irish-born writers of
+English at this period. Thomas Campion (1567-1620), wherever born,
+spent most of his life in London. He was a versatile genius, for,
+after studying law, he took up medicine, and, although practising as
+a physician, he yet found time to write four masques and many lyrics
+and to compose a goodly quantity of music. Some of his songs appeared
+as early as 1591. Among his works is a treatise entitled
+_Observations in the Art of English Poesie_ (1602), in which, strange
+to say, he, a born lyrist, advocated unrhymed verse and quantitative
+measures, but fortunately his practice did not usually square with
+his theory. His masques were written for occasions, such as the
+marriage of Lord Hayes (1607), the nuptials of the Princess Elizabeth
+and the Elector Palatine (1613), and the ill-starred wedding of
+Somerset and the quondam Countess of Essex in the same year. In these
+masques are embedded some of his best songs; others of his lyrics
+appeared in several _Bookes of Ayres_ between 1601 and 1617. Many of
+them were written to music, sometimes music of his composing. Such
+dainty things as "Now hath Flora robb'd her bowers" and "Harke, all
+you ladies that do sleep" possess the charms of freshness and
+spontaneity, and his devotional poetry, especially "Awake, awake,
+thou heavy Spright" and "Never weather-beaten Saile more willing bent
+to shore", makes almost as wide an appeal.
+
+II. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+Passing by with regret the illustrious seventeenth century names of
+Philip O'Sullivan Beare, Sir James Ware, Luke Wadding, Hugh Ward,
+John Colgan, and John Lynch, because their bearers wrote in Latin,
+and those of "The Four Masters" and Geoffrey Keating, because they
+wrote in Irish, we are first brought to a pause in the seventeenth
+century by the imposing figure of him, whom, in a later day, Johnson
+justly called the "great luminary of the Irish [Protestant] church",
+none other than the archbishop of Armagh and primate of Ireland,
+James Ussher himself. James Ussher (1581-1656), born in Dublin and
+among the earliest students of the newly-founded Trinity College, was
+in intellect and scholarship one of the greatest men that Ireland has
+ever produced. Selden describes him as "learned to a miracle" (_ad
+miraculum doctus_), and Canon D'Alton in his _History of Ireland_
+says of him that "he was not unworthy to rank even with Duns Scotus,
+and when he died he left in his own Church neither an equal nor a
+second." Declining the high office of provost of Trinity, Ussher was
+made bishop of Meath and was afterwards promoted to the primatial
+see. His fine intellect was unfortunately marred by narrow religious
+views, and in many ways he displayed his animus against those of his
+countrymen who did not see eye to eye with him in matters of faith
+and doctrine. For example, it was he who in 1626 drew up the Irish
+Protestant bishops' protest against toleration for Catholics, therein
+showing a bigotry which consorted badly with his reputation as a
+scholar. On account of his well-known attitude towards Catholicism,
+he was naturally unpopular with those who professed the ancient
+creed, and hence, when the rebellion of 1641 broke out, much of his
+property was destroyed by the enraged insurgents. His person escaped
+violence, for he happened to be in England at the time engaged in the
+vain task of trying to effect an accommodation between Charles I. and
+the English parliament. He never returned to his see and died in
+London.
+
+Ussher's collected works fill seventeen stately volumes. His _magnum
+opus_ is undoubtedly the _Annales Veteris et Novi Testamenti_. It is
+written in Latin, and is a chronological compendium of the history of
+the world from the Creation to the dispersion of the Jews under
+Vespasian. Published at Leyden, London, Paris, and Oxford, it gained
+for its author a European fame. His books written in English deal
+mostly with theological or controversial subjects, and while they
+display wide reading, great acumen, and keen powers of argumentation,
+they yet do not do full justice to his genius. Those which he
+published in Dublin are _A Discourse of the Religion anciently
+professed by the Irish and British_ (1622), in which he tried to show
+that the ritual and discipline of the Church as originally
+established in the British Isles were in agreement with the Church of
+England and opposed to the Catholic Church on the matters in dispute
+between them; _An Answer to a Challenge made by a Jesuite in Ireland_
+(1624), in which his aim was to disprove the contention set forth
+earlier in the same year by a Jesuit that uniformity of doctrine had
+always been maintained by the Catholic Church; and _Immanuel, or the
+Mysterie of the Incarnation_. He published in England _The Originall
+of Bishops, A Body of Divinitie, The Principles of Christian
+Religion_, and other works. So great was Ussher's reputation that
+when he died Cromwell relaxed in his favor one of the strictest laws
+of the Puritans and allowed him to be buried with the full service of
+the Church of England, and with great pomp, in Westminster Abbey.
+
+Among Ussher's other claims to distinction, it should be noted that
+it was he who in 1621 discovered the celebrated Book of Kells, which
+had long been lost. This marvel of the illuminator's art passed with
+the remainder of his collection of books and manuscripts to Trinity
+College, Dublin, in 1661, and to this day it remains one of the most
+treasured possessions of the noble library of that institution.
+
+Sir John Denham (1615-1669), a Dublin man by birth, took an active
+part on the side of Charles I. against the parliament during the
+Civil War, and subsequently was conspicuous in the intrigues that led
+to the restoration of Charles II. In his own day he had a great
+reputation as a poet. His tragedy, _The Sophy_, and his translation
+of the Psalms are now forgotten, but he is still remembered for one
+piece, _Cooper's Hill_, in which occur the well-known lines addressed
+to the River Thames:
+
+      O could I flow like thee, and make thy stream
+      My great example, as it is my theme!
+      Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull;
+      Strong, without rage; without o'erflowing, full.
+
+Another Dublin-born man was Wentworth Dillon, Earl of Roscommon
+(1633-1684). He had the good fortune to win encomiums both from
+Dryden and from Pope. One of his merits, as pointed out by the
+latter, is that
+
+                      In all Charles's days
+      Roscommon only boasts unspotted bays.
+
+He translated from Virgil, Lucan, Horace, and Guarini; wrote
+prologues, epilogues, and other occasional verses; but is now
+principally remembered for his poetical _Essay on Translated Verse_
+(1681), in which he develops principles previously laid down by
+Cowley and Denham. To his credit be it said, he condemns indecency,
+both as want of sense and bad taste. He was honored with a funeral in
+Westminster Abbey. Johnson records that, at the moment of his death,
+Roscommon uttered with great energy and devotion the following two
+lines from his own translation of the _Dies Irae_:
+
+      My God, my Father, and my Friend,
+      Do not forsake me in my end!
+
+Robert Boyle (1627-1691), one of the founders of the Royal Society
+(1662), was son of the "great" Earl of Cork and was born at Lismore,
+Co. Waterford. He takes rank among the principal experimental
+philosophers of his age, and he certainly rendered valuable services
+to the advancement of science. Most of his writings, which are very
+voluminous, are naturally of a technical character and therefore do
+not properly belong to literature; but his _Occasional Reflections on
+Several Subjects_ (1665), a strange mixture of triviality and
+seriousness, was germinal in this sense that it led to two celebrated
+_jeux d'esprit_, namely, Butler's _Occasional Reflection on Dr.
+Charlton's feeling a Dog's Pulse at Gresham College_ and Swift's
+_Pious Meditation upon a Broomstick, in the Style of the Honourable
+Mr. Boyle_. Indeed, one of Boyle's _Reflections_, that "Upon the
+Eating of Oysters", is reputed to have rendered a still more signal
+service to literature, for in its two concluding paragraphs is
+contained the idea which, under the transforming hand of the master
+satirist, eventually took the world by storm when it appeared, fully
+developed, as _Gulliver's Travels_.
+
+His brother, Roger Boyle (1621-1679), who figures largely as a
+soldier and a statesman in Irish and English history under his title
+of Lord Broghill, was an alumnus of Trinity College, Dublin. During
+the Civil War he was a royalist until the death of Charles I., when
+he changed sides and aided Cromwell materially in his Irish campaign.
+When the Lord Protector died, Broghill made another right-about-face,
+and crossing to his native country worked so energetically and
+successfully that he made Ireland solid for the restoration of
+Charles II. For this service he was rewarded by being created Earl of
+Orrery. He was the author of six tragedies and two comedies, some of
+which when produced proved gratifyingly popular. He is noted for
+having been the first to write tragedy in rhyme, thereby setting an
+example that was followed with avidity for a time by Dryden and
+others. He also wrote poems, a romance called _Parthenissa_ (1654),
+and a _Treatise on the Art of War_ (1677). From whatever point of
+view considered, Lord Orrery was a remarkable member of a remarkable
+family. His son, John Boyle, Earl of Cork and Orrery (1707-1762), in
+virtue of his translation of Pliny's _Letters_, his _Remarks on the
+Life and Writings of Swift_, and his _Letters from Italy_, has some
+claims to recognition in the field of literature.
+
+Charles Leslie (1650-1722), a Dubliner by birth, was son of that John
+Leslie, bishop of Raphoe and Clogher, who lived through a whole
+century, from 1571 to 1671, and who was 79 years of age when Charles,
+his sixth son, was born. Educated first at Enniskillen and afterwards
+at Trinity College, Dublin, Charles Leslie studied law in London, but
+eventually abandoned that profession and entered the ministry. He was
+of a disputatious character and in particular went to great lengths
+in opposing the pro-Catholic activities of James II. Nevertheless,
+when the Revolution of 1688 came, he took the side of the deposed
+monarch, and loyally adhered to his Jacobite principles for the
+remainder of his life. He even joined the Old Pretender on the
+continent, and endeavored to convert him to Protestantism, but,
+failing therein, he returned to Ireland, where he died at Glasslough
+in county Monaghan. Many years of Leslie's life were devoted to
+disputes with Catholics, Quakers, Socinians, and Deists, and the
+seven volumes which his writings fill prove that he was an extremely
+able controversialist. His best known work is the famous treatise, _A
+Short and Easy Method with the Deists_, published in 1698.
+
+The Irish note, tone, or temper is not conspicuous in any of the
+writings so far named unless when it is conspicuous by its absence;
+but it appears plainly, for the first time, in Molyneux's _Case of
+Ireland being bound by Laws [made] in England Stated_ (1698). William
+Molyneux (1656-1698) has always ranked as an Irish patriot. His was
+one of the spirits invoked by Grattan in his great speech (1782) on
+the occasion on which he carried his celebrated Declaration of
+Independence in the Irish parliament. When the English Act of 1698,
+which was meant to destroy, and did destroy, the Irish woolen
+industry, came before the Irish house of commons for ratification,
+Molyneux's was the only voice raised against its adoption. His
+protest was followed by the publication of his _Case Stated_, which
+is a classic on the general relations between Ireland and England,
+and contained arguments so irrefutable that it drove the English
+parliament to fury and was by that body ordered to be burned by the
+common hangman. It is a remarkable coincidence that Molyneux opens
+his argument by laying down in almost identical words the principles
+which stand at the beginning of the American Declaration of
+Independence.
+
+John Toland (1669-1722) was born near Redcastle, in Co. Derry, and
+was at first a Catholic but subsequently became a free-thinker. His
+_Christianity not Mysterious_ (1696) marks an epoch in religious
+disputes, for it started the deistical controversy which was so
+distinctive a feature of the first half of the eighteenth century. It
+shared a similar fate to that of the _Case Stated_, though on very
+different grounds, and was ordered by the Irish parliament to be
+burned by the hangman. Toland wrote many other books, among which are
+_Amyntor_ (1699); _Nazarenus_ (1702); _Pantheisticon; History of the
+Druids_; and _Hypatia_. All his books show versatility and wide
+reading and are characterized by a pointed, vigorous, and aggressive
+style.
+
+George Farquhar (1678-1707), a Derry man, and Thomas Southerne
+(1660-1746), born near Dublin, were distinguished playwrights, who
+began their respective careers in the seventeenth century. Farquhar
+left Trinity College, Dublin, as an undergraduate and became an
+actor, but owing to his accidental killing of another player he left
+the stage and secured a commission in the army. He soon turned his
+attention to the writing of plays, and was responsible in all for
+eight comedies. He has left us some characters that are very humorous
+and at the same time true to life, such as Scrub the servant in _The
+Beaux' Stratagem_ and Sergeant Kite in _The Recruiting Officer_. His
+Boniface, the landlord in the former of these two plays, has become
+the type, as well as the ordinary quasi-facetious nickname, of an
+innkeeper. He was advancing in his art, for his last comedy, _The
+Beaux' Stratagem_ (1707), is undoubtedly his best, and had he lived
+longer--he died before he was thirty--he might have bequeathed to
+posterity something even more noteworthy. As Leigh Hunt says of him:
+"He was becoming gayer and gayer, when death, in the shape of a sore
+anxiety, called him away as if from a pleasant party, and left the
+house ringing with his jest."
+
+Southerne was also a student of Trinity College, Dublin. At the age
+of eighteen, however, he left his _alma mater_, and went to London to
+study law. This profession he in turn abandoned for the drama. His
+first play, _The Persian Prince, or the Loyal Brother_, had
+remarkable success when performed, and secured him an ensign's
+commission in the army (1685). Here promotion came to him rapidly and
+by 1688 he had risen to captain's rank. The Revolution of that year,
+however, cut off all further hope of advancement, and he once more
+turned his attention to the writing of plays. His productions number
+ten. His tragedies _Isabella, or the Fatal Marriage_ (1694) and
+_Oroonoko_ (1696), both founded on tales by Mrs. Aphra Behn, are
+powerful presentations of human suffering. His comedies are amusing,
+but gross. Southerne had business ability enough to make play-writing
+pay, and the amounts he received for his productions fairly staggered
+his friend Dryden. It is to this faculty that Pope alludes when he
+says that Southerne was one whom
+
+                 heaven sent down to raise
+      The price of prologues and of plays.
+
+He was apparently of amiable and estimable character, for he secured
+and retained the friendship not only of Dryden--a comparatively easy
+matter--but also that of Pope, a much more difficult task. Known as
+"the poets' Nestor", Southerne spent his declining years in peaceful
+retirement and in the enjoyment of the fortune which he had amassed
+by his pen.
+
+Nahum Tate (1652-1715), a Dubliner by birth, and Nicholas Brady
+(1659-1726), a Bandon man, have secured a certain sort of twin
+immortality by their authorized metrical version of the Psalms
+(1696), which gradually took the place of the older rendering by
+Sternhold and Hopkins. Tate became poet-laureate in 1690 in
+succession to Shadwell and was appointed historiographer-royal in
+1702. He wrote the bulk of the second part of _Absalom and
+Achitophel_ with a wonderfully close imitation of Dryden's manner,
+besides several dramatic pieces and poems. Between Tate, Shadwell,
+Eusden, and Pye lies the unenviable distinction of being the worst of
+the laureates of England. Brady was a clergyman who, after the
+pleasant fashion of that day, was a pluralist on a small scale, for
+he had the living of Richmond for thirty years from 1696, and while
+holding that held also in succession the livings of Stratford-on-Avon
+and Clapham. He added further to his income, and doubtless to his
+anxieties, by keeping a school at Richmond. He wrote a tragedy
+entitled _The Rape_, a _History of the Goths and Vandals_, a
+translation of the _Aeneid_ into blank verse, and an _Ode for St.
+Cecilia's Day_; but, unless for his share in the version of the
+Psalms, his literary reputation is well nigh as dead as the dodo.
+
+Ireland somewhat doubtfully claims to have given birth to Mrs.
+Susannah Centlivre (c. 1667-1723), who, after a rather wild youth,
+settled down to literary pursuits and domestic contentment when, in
+1706, she married Queen Anne's head-cook, Joseph Centlivre, with whom
+she lived happily ever after. Her first play, _The Provoked Husband_,
+a tragedy, was produced in 1700, and then she went on the stage as an
+actress. She wrote in all nineteen dramatic pieces, some of which had
+the honor of being translated into French and German. Her most
+original play was _A Bold Stroke for a Wife_ (1717).
+
+III. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+We have now fairly crossed the border of the eighteenth century, and,
+as we met Ussher early in the seventeenth, so we are here confronted
+with the colossal intellect and impressive personality of Swift, one
+of the greatest, most peculiar, and most original geniuses to be
+found in the whole domain of English literature. Jonathan Swift
+(1667-1745), born in Dublin, was educated at Trinity College, where
+he succeeded in graduating only by special favor. After some years
+spent in the household of Sir William Temple in England, he entered
+the ministry of the Irish Church. During the early years of the
+century he spent much time in London, and took an active part in
+bringing about that political revolution which seated the Tories
+firmly in power during the last four years of the reign of Queen
+Anne. His services in that connection on the _Examiner_ newspaper
+were so great that it would be difficult to dispute the assertion,
+which has been made, that he was one of the mightiest journalists
+that ever wielded a pen. He also stood loyally by his party in his
+great pamphlets, _The Conduct of the Allies_ (1711), _The Barrier
+Treaty_ (1712), and _The Public Spirit of the Whigs_ (1714). When the
+time came for his reward, he received not, as he had hoped, an
+English bishopric, but the deanery of St. Patrick's in Dublin. On
+resuming his residence in Ireland he was at first very unpopular, but
+his patriotic spirit as shown in the _Drapier Letters_ (1723-1724),
+written in connection with a coinage scheme known as "Wood's
+halfpence", not only caused the withdrawal of the obnoxious project
+but also made Swift the idol of all classes of his countrymen. In
+many others of his writings he showed that pro-Irish leaning which
+caused Grattan to invoke his spirit along with that of Molyneux on
+the occasion already referred to. Nothing more mordant than the irony
+contained in his _Modest Proposal_ has ever been penned. In his plea
+for native manufactures he struck a keynote that has vibrated down
+the ages when he advised Irishmen to burn everything English except
+coal!
+
+Swift's greater works are _The Battle of the Books_, his contribution
+to the controversy concerning the relative merits of the ancients and
+the moderns; the _Tale of a Tub_, in which he attacked the three
+leading forms of Christianity; and, above all, _Gulliver's Travels_.
+In this last work he let loose the full flood of his merciless satire
+and lashed the folly and vices of mankind in the most unsparing way.
+He also wrote verses which are highly characteristic and some of them
+not without considerable merit. His life was unhappy and for the last
+five years of it he was to all intents and purposes insane. His
+relations with Stella (Hester Johnson) and Vanessa (Esther
+Vanhomrigh) have never been quite satisfactorily explained. The
+weight of evidence would seem to show that he was secretly married to
+Stella, but that they never lived together as husband and wife. Many
+novels and plays have been written round those entanglements. He lies
+buried in his own cathedral, St. Patrick's, Dublin, and beside him
+lies Stella. Over his tomb there is an epitaph in Latin, written by
+himself, in which, after speaking of the _saeva indignatio_ which
+tore his heart, he bids the wayfarer go and imitate, if he can, the
+energetic defender of his native land.
+
+Contemporary with the Dean there was another Anglo-Irishman, who
+fills a large space in the history of English literature, and of whom
+his countrymen are justly proud. Sir Richard Steele (1672-1729), who
+was born in Dublin and educated at the Charterhouse in London and
+afterwards at Oxford, started the _Tatler_ in 1709, and thereby
+popularized, though he did not exactly originate, the periodical
+essay. Aided by his friend, Addison, he carried the work to
+perfection in the _Spectator_ (1711-1712) and the _Guardian_ (1713).
+Since then these essays have enlightened and amused each succeeding
+generation. Of the two, Addison's is the greater name, but Steele was
+the more innovating spirit, for it is to him, and not to Addison,
+that the conception and initiation of the plan of the celebrated
+papers is due. Steele had had a predecessor in Defoe, whose _Review_
+had been in existence since 1704, but the more airy graces which
+characterized the _Tatler_ and the _Spectator_ gave the
+"lucubrations" of "Isaac Bickerstaffe" and of "Mr. Spectator" a
+greater hold on the public than Defoe's paper was ever able to
+establish. Steele was responsible for many more periodicals, such as
+the _Englishman_, the _Lover_, the _Reader_, _Town Talk_, the
+_Tea-Table, Chit-Chat_, the _Plebeian_, and the _Theatre_, most of
+which had a rather ephemeral existence. Among his other services to
+literature he helped to purify the stage of some of its grossness,
+and he became the founder of that sentimental comedy which in the
+days of the early Georges took the place of the immoral comedy of the
+Restoration period, when, in Johnson's famous phrase,
+
+      Intrigue was plot, obscenity was wit.
+
+Steele's four comedies are _The Funeral; or Grief à la mode_ (1701);
+_The Lying Lover_ (1703); _The Tender Husband_ (1705); and _The
+Conscious Lovers_ (1722). Although he held various lucrative offices,
+Steele was never really prosperous and was frequently in debt; like
+most of the contemporary Englishmen with whom his lot was thrown, he
+was rather addicted to the bottle; but, on the whole, it may fairly
+be advanced that unnecessary stress has been laid on these aspects of
+his life by Macaulay, Thackeray, and others. After a chequered
+career, he died near Carmarthen, in Wales, on September 1, 1729.
+
+Member of a family and bearer of a name destined to secure immense
+fame in later Irish history, Thomas Parnell (1679-1718) was born in
+Dublin and educated at Trinity College. Entering the ministry in
+1700, he was rapidly promoted to be archdeacon of Clogher and some
+years later was made rector of Finglas. An accomplished scholar and a
+delightful companion, he was one of the original members of the
+famous Scriblerus Club and wrote or helped to write several of its
+papers, he contributed to the _Spectator_ and the _Guardian_, and he
+rendered sterling assistance to Pope in the translation of Homer. As
+will be inferred, he spent much of his time in England, and on one of
+his journeys to Ireland he died in his thirty-ninth year at Chester,
+where he was buried. He wrote a great deal of verse--songs, hymns,
+epistles, eclogues, translations, tales, and occasional trifles; but
+three poems, _A Hymn to Contentment_, which is fanciful and
+melodious, _A Night-piece on Death_, in which inquisitorial research
+seems to have found the first faint dawn of Romanticism, and _The
+Hermit_, which has been not inaptly styled "the apex and _chef
+d'oeuvre_ of Augustan poetry in England", constitute his chief claim
+to present remembrance.
+
+Francis Hutcheson (1694-1746), the son of a Presbyterian minister,
+was born at Armagh, and studied at Glasgow University. He opened in
+Dublin a private academy, which succeeded beyond expectation. The
+publication of his _Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty
+and Virtue_ (1720) and his _Essay on the Nature and Conduct of the
+Passions_ (1728) brought him great fame, and in 1729 he was elected
+to the professorship of moral philosophy in the University of
+Glasgow. Others of his works are a treatise on _Logic_ and _A System
+of Moral Philosophy_, the latter not published till 1755, nine years
+after his death. Hutcheson fills a large space in the history of
+philosophy, both as a metaphysician and as a moralist. He is in some
+respects a pioneer of the "Scotch school" and of "common sense"
+philosophy. He greatly developed the doctrine of "moral sense", a
+term first used by the third Earl of Shaftesbury; indeed, much of his
+whole moral system may be traced to Shaftesbury. Hutcheson's
+influence was widely felt: it is plainly perceptible in Hume, Adam
+Smith, and Reid. He was greater as a speaker even than as a writer,
+and his lectures evoked much enthusiasm.
+
+George Berkeley (1685-1753), bishop of Cloyne, was born at Dysert
+Castle, near Thomastown, Co. Kilkenny, and was educated first at
+Kilkenny school and afterwards at Trinity College, Dublin. Having
+taken Anglican orders, he visited London, where he wrote nine papers
+for the _Guardian_ and was admitted to the companionship and
+friendship of the leading literary men of the age--Swift, Pope,
+Addison, Steele, and Arbuthnot. This connection proved of great
+assistance to him, for Pope not only celebrated him as possessing
+"every virtue under heaven", but also recommended him to the Duke of
+Grafton, Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, who appointed him his chaplain
+and subsequently obtained for him the deanery of Derry. In
+furtherance of a great scheme for "converting the savage Americans to
+Christianity", Berkeley and some friends, armed with a royal charter,
+came to this country, landing at Newport in Rhode Island in January,
+1729. All went well for a while: Berkeley bought a farm and built a
+house; but when the hard-hearted prime minister refused to forward
+the £20,000 which had been promised, the project came to an end, and
+Berkeley returned to London in February, 1732. In 1734 he was
+appointed bishop of Cloyne, and later refused the see of Clogher,
+though its income was fully double that of his own diocese. In 1752
+he resigned his bishopric and settled at Oxford, where he died in
+1753.
+
+Berkeley's works are very numerous. His _Essay towards a New Theory
+of Vision_ (1709), which was long regarded in the light of a
+philosophical romance, in reality contains speculations which have
+been incorporated in modern scientific optics. In his _Three
+Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous_ (1713) he sets forth his
+famous demonstration of the immateriality of the external world, of
+the spiritual nature of the soul, and of the all-ruling and direct
+providence of God. His tenets on immateriality have always been
+rejected by "common-sense" philosophers; but it should be remembered
+that the whole work was written at a time when the English-speaking
+world was disturbed by the theories of sceptics and deists, whose
+doctrines the pious divine sought as best he could to confute. In
+1732 appeared his _Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher_, in which,
+dialogue-wise, he presents nature from a religious point of view and
+in particular gives many pleasing pictures of American scenery and
+life. These dialogues have frequently been compared to the dialogues
+of Plato. To Berkeley's credit be it said that while he ruled in
+Cloyne he devoted much thought to the amelioration of conditions in
+his native land. Many acute suggestions in that direction are found
+in the _Querist_ (1735-1737). By some extraordinary ratiocinative
+process he convinced himself that tar-water was a panacea for human
+ills, and in 1744 he set forth his views on that subject in the tract
+called _Siris_, and returned to the charge in 1752 in his _Further
+Thoughts on Tar-Water_. Whatever may be thought of the value of
+Berkeley's philosophical or practical speculations, there is only one
+opinion of his style. It is distinguished by lucidity, ease, and
+charm; it has the saving grace of humor; and it is shot through with
+imagination. Taken all in all, this eighteenth century bishop is a
+notable figure in literary annals.
+
+Charles Macklin (c. 1697-1797), whose real name was MacLaughlin, was
+a Westmeath man, who took to the stage in early life and remained on
+the boards with considerable and undiminished reputation for some
+seventy years, not retiring until 1789 when he was at least 92 years
+old. To him we are indebted for what is now the accepted presentation
+of the character of Shylock in _The Merchant of Venice_. He wrote a
+tragedy and many comedies and farces: those by which he is now best
+remembered are the farce, _Love-à-la-Mode_ (1760), and his
+masterpiece, the farcical comedy, _The Man of the World_ (1764). In
+Sir Pertinax MacSycophant, Macklin has given us one of the
+traditional burlesque characters of the English stage.
+
+Thomas Amory (1691?-1788), if not born in Ireland, was at least of
+Irish descent and was educated in Dublin. He is known in literature
+for two books. The first, with the very mixed title of _Memoirs
+containing the Lives of several Ladies of Great Britain; A History of
+Antiquities; Observations on the Christian Religion_, was published
+in 1755, and the second, _The Life of John Buncle, Esq._, came out in
+two volumes in 1756-1766. It appears to have been the author's aim in
+both works to give us a hotch-potch in which he discourses _de
+omnibus rebus et quibusdam aliis_. We have dissertations on the cause
+of earthquakes and of muscular motion, on the Athanasian Creed, on
+fluxions, on phlogiston, on the physical cause of the Deluge, on
+Irish literature, on the origin of language, on the evidences for
+Christianity, and on all other sorts of unrelated topics. Hazlitt
+thought that the soul of Rabelais had passed into Amory, while a more
+recent critic can see in his long-winded discussions naught but the
+"light-headed ramblings of delirium." If we try to read _John Buncle_
+consecutively, the result is boredom; but if we open the book at
+random, we are pretty sure to be interested and even sometimes
+agreeably entertained.
+
+The bizarre figure of Laurence Sterne (1713-1768) next claims our
+attention. The son of a captain in the British army, he was born at
+Clonmel, Co. Tipperary. Of him almost more than of any of the writers
+so far dealt with, it may be said that he was Irish only by the
+accident of birth. His parents were English on both sides, and
+practically the whole life of their son was spent out of Ireland. He
+was sent to school at Halifax, in Yorkshire, and thence went to
+Cambridge University, where he graduated in due season. Taking
+Anglican orders in 1738, he was immediately appointed to the benefice
+of Sutton-in-the-Forest, near York, and on his marriage in 1741 with
+Elizabeth Lumley he received the additional living of Stillington. He
+was also given sundry prebendal and other appointments in connection
+with the chapter of the archdiocese of York. He spent nearly twenty
+years in the discharge of his not very onerous duties and in reading,
+painting, shooting, and fiddling, without showing the least sign of
+any literary leanings. Then suddenly, in 1760, he took the world by
+storm with the first two volumes of _Tristram Shandy_. He at once
+became the lion of the hour, was fêted and dined to his heart's
+content, and had his nostrils tickled with the daily incense of
+praise from his numerous worshippers. He repeated the experiment with
+equal success the following year with two more volumes of _Tristram_,
+and so at intervals until 1767, when he published the ninth and last
+volume of this most peculiar story. In 1768 he brought out _A
+Sentimental Journey_, and within three weeks he died in his lodgings
+in London. His other publications include _Sermons_ and _Letters_.
+_Tristram Shandy_ is unique in English literature--it stands _sui
+generis_ for all time. There is scarcely any consecutive narrative,
+and what there is is used merely as a peg on which to hang endless
+digressions. But while there are many faults of taste and morals,
+there are also genuine humor and pathos, and without Walter Shandy,
+Dr. Slop, the Widow Wadman, Yorick, Uncle Toby, and Corporal Trim,
+English literature would certainly be very much the poorer.
+
+Hugh Kelly (1739-1777), born in Dublin, was the son of a publican and
+himself became a staymaker, a trade from which he developed through
+the successive stages of attorney's clerk, newspaper-writer,
+theatrical critic, and essayist, into a novelist and playwright. His
+novel, _Memoirs of a Magdalen_ (1767), was translated into French.
+His first comedy, a sentimental one entitled _False Delicacy_ (1768),
+achieved a remarkable success on the stage and was even a greater
+success in book form, 10,000 copies being sold in a year, so that its
+author was raised from poverty to comparative affluence. In addition,
+it gave him a European reputation, for it was translated into German,
+French, and Portuguese. Strange to say, his later comedies, _A Word
+to the Wise, A School for Wives_, and _The Man of Reason_, were
+practically failures, and the same is true of his tragedy,
+_Clementina_. Kelly ultimately withdrew from stage work, and for the
+last three years of his life practised as a barrister without,
+however, achieving much distinction in his new profession.
+
+Charles Coffey (d. 1745), an Irishman, was the author of several
+farces, operas, ballad operas, ballad farces, and farcical operas,
+the best known of which was _The Devil to Pay, or the Wives
+Metamorphosed_ (1731).
+
+Henry Brooke (1703?-1783), a county Cavan man and the son of a
+clergyman, was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and afterwards
+studied law in London. Becoming guardian to his cousin, a girl of
+twelve, he put her to school for two years and then secretly married
+her. Of his large family of twenty-two children, three of whom were
+born before their mother was eighteen years old, but one survived
+him. Appointed by Lord Chesterfield barrack-master at Mullingar,
+Brooke afterwards settled in Co. Kildare. It was there that he wrote
+his celebrated work, _The Fool of Quality, or the History of the Earl
+of Moreland_ (5 vols., 1766-1770), which won the commendations of men
+so widely different as John Wesley and Charles Kingsley. It is,
+indeed, a remarkable book, combining, as it does, many of the
+characteristics of Sterne, Mackenzie, Borrow, and George Meredith. It
+is not very well known nowadays, but it will always bear, and will
+well repay, perusal. Brooke also wrote a poem on _Universal Beauty_
+(1735) and the tragedies _Gustavus Vasa_ (1739), the production of
+which was forbidden in London but which was afterwards staged in
+Dublin as _The Patriot_, and _The Earl of Essex_ (1749), which was
+played both in London and in Dublin, and has been made famous by the
+parody of one line in it by Samuel Johnson. Another novel, _Juliet
+Grenville, or the History of the Human Heart_, published in 1774, was
+not nearly up to the standard of _The Fool of Quality_. Brooke was a
+busy literary man. He made a translation of part of Tasso, drafted
+plans for a History of Ireland, projected a series of old Irish
+tales, wrote one fragment in a style very like that subsequently
+adopted by Macpherson in his _Ossian_, and for a while was editor of
+the _Freeman's Journal_. In the beginning, Brooke was violently
+anti-Catholic; but, as time progressed, he became more
+liberal-minded, and advocated the relaxation of the penal laws and a
+more humane treatment of his Catholic fellow-countrymen. Like Swift
+and Steele, he fell into a state of mental debility for some years
+before his death. His daughter, Charlotte Brooke (1740-1793),
+deserves mention as a pioneer of the Irish literary revival, for she
+devoted herself to the saving of the stores of Irish literature which
+in her time were rapidly disappearing. One of the fruits of her
+labors was _The Reliques of Irish Poetry_, published in 1789. She
+also wrote _Emma, or the Foundling of the Wood_, a novel, and
+_Belisarius_, a tragedy.
+
+Charles Johnstone (c. 1719-1800), a Co. Limerick man, was educated in
+Dublin and called to the English bar, but owing to deafness was more
+successful as a chamber counsel than as a pleader. Emigrating to
+India in 1782, he became joint proprietor of a newspaper in Calcutta,
+and there he died. He wrote several satirical romances, such as
+_Chrysal, or the Adventures of a Guinea; The Reverie, or a Flight to
+the Paradise of Fools_; and _The History of Arsaces, Prince of
+Betlis_. Of these the first was the best. Samuel Johnson, who read it
+in manuscript, advised its publication, and his opinion was
+vindicated, for it proved a huge success. Sir Walter Scott afterwards
+said that the author of _Chrysal_ deserved to rank as a prose
+Juvenal. Johnstone also wrote _The Pilgrim, or a Picture of Life_ and
+a picaresque novel, _The History of John Juniper, Esquire, alias
+Juniper Jack_.
+
+Arthur Murphy (1727-1805), born at Cloonquin, Co. Roscommon, was
+educated at St. Omer. At first an actor, he afterwards studied law
+and was called to the English bar in 1762. He made a translation of
+Tacitus, and wrote several farces and comedies, among which may be
+mentioned _The Apprentice; The Spouter; The Upholsterer; The Way to
+Keep Him_; and _All in the Wrong_. He also wrote three tragedies,
+namely, _The Orphan of China; The Grecian Daughter_; and _Arminius_.
+For the last-named, which was produced in 1798, and which had a
+strongly political cast, he received a pension of £200 a year. His
+plays long held the stage.
+
+Oliver Goldsmith (1728-1774), essayist, poet, novelist, playwright,
+historian, biographer, and editor, was a many-sided genius, who, as
+Johnson said in his epitaph, left scarcely any kind of writing
+untouched, and touched none that he did not adorn. Born, probably, in
+Co. Longford, the son of a poor clergyman, he was educated at various
+country schools until, in 1744, he secured a sizarship in Trinity
+College, Dublin. There he had a somewhat stormy career, but
+eventually took his degree in 1749. He then lounged at home for a
+while in his widowed mother's cottage at Ballymahon, until he was
+persuaded to take orders, but spoiled his already sufficiently poor
+chances of ordination by appearing before the bishop of Elphin in
+scarlet breeches. After other adventures in search of a profession,
+he went to Edinburgh in 1752 to study medicine, and two years later
+transferred himself to Leyden for the same purpose. It was from
+Leyden that, with one guinea in his pocket, one shirt on his person,
+and a flute in his hand, he started on his celebrated walking tour of
+Europe, during which he gained those impressions which he was
+afterwards to embody in some of his greater works. In 1756 he arrived
+in England, where for three years he had very varied experiences--as
+a strolling player, an apothecary's journeyman, a practising
+physician, a reader for the press, an usher in an academy, and a
+hack-writer. In 1759 he published anonymously his _Enquiry into the
+Present State of Polite Learning in Europe_, which was well received
+and helped him to other literary work. _The Bee_, a volume of essays
+and verses, appeared in the same year. He was made editor of the
+_Lady's Magazine_; he published _Memoirs of Voltaire_ (1761), a
+_History of Mecklenburgh_ (1762), and a _Life of Richard Nash_
+(1762). In 1762 also he brought out his _Citizen of the World_, a
+collection of essays, which takes an extremely high rank. In 1764 his
+poem, _The Traveller, or a Prospect of Society_, made its appearance;
+and in 1766 he gave to the world his famous novel, _The Vicar of
+Wakefield_. His reputation as a writer was now established; he was
+received into Johnson's circle and was a member of the Literary Club;
+Reynolds and Burke were proud to call him friend. In 1768 he had his
+comedy, _The Good Natured Man_, produced at Covent Garden Theatre,
+where it achieved a fair measure of success and brought him in £400.
+In 1770 he repeated his triumph as a poet with _The Deserted
+Village_. He wrote a _History of Animated Nature_, a _History of
+England_, and a _History of Rome_, all compilations couched in that
+easy style of which he was master. He also wrote a _Life of Parnell_
+and a _Life of Bolingbroke_. Finally, in 1773, his great comedy, _She
+Stoops to Conquer_, was staged at Covent Garden, and met with
+wonderful success. A little more than a year later Goldsmith died of
+a nervous fever, the result of overwork and anxiety, and was buried
+in the burial ground of the Temple Church. His unfinished poem,
+_Retaliation_, a series of epigrams in epitaph form on some of his
+distinguished literary and artistic friends, was issued a few days
+after his death, and added greatly to his reputation as a wit and
+humorist, a reputation which was still further enhanced when, in
+1776, _The Haunch of Venison_ made its appearance. In the latter year
+a monument, with a medallion and Johnson's celebrated Latin epitaph
+attached, was erected to his memory in Westminster Abbey.
+
+Goldsmith's renown, great in his own day, has never since diminished.
+His essays, his novel, and his poems are still read with avidity and
+pleasure; his comedy is still acted. It is his statue that stands
+along with Burke's at the entrance gate to Trinity College, Dublin,
+the _alma mater_ seeking to commemorate in a striking manner two of
+her most distinguished sons by placing their effigies thus in the
+forefront of her possessions and in full view of all the world.
+Personally, Goldsmith was a very amiable and good-hearted man, dear
+to his own circle and dear to that "Mr. Posterity" to whom he once
+addressed a humorous dedication. He had his faults, it is true, but
+they are hidden amid his many perfections. Everyone will be disposed
+to agree with what Johnson wrote of him: "Let not his frailties be
+remembered; he was a very great man."
+
+Edmund Burke (1729-1797), born in Dublin, the son of a Protestant
+father and a Catholic mother whose name was Nagle, was educated first
+at a Quaker school in Ballitore, Co. Kildare, and afterwards at
+Trinity College, Dublin. He became a law student in London, but he
+did not eventually adopt the law as a profession. He brought out in
+1756 a _Vindication of Natural Society_, in which he so skilfully
+imitated the style and the paradoxical reasoning of Bolingbroke that
+many were deceived into the belief that the _Vindication_ was a
+posthumously published production of the viscount's pen. In the
+following year Burke published in his own name _A Philosophical
+Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful_,
+which attracted widespread attention, was translated into German and
+French, and brought its author into touch with all the leading
+literary men of London. He was instrumental with Dodsley the
+publisher in starting the _Annual Register_ in 1759, and for close on
+thirty years he continued to supply it with the "Survey of Events."
+He entered public life in 1760 by accompanying "Single-Speech"
+Hamilton to Dublin when the latter was appointed Chief Secretary for
+Ireland. In 1765 he was made private secretary to the prime minister,
+the Marquis of Rockingham, and, as member for Wendover, entered
+parliament, where he speedily made a name for himself. During Lord
+North's long tenure of office (1770-1782) Burke was one of the
+minority and opposed the splendid force of his genius to the
+corruption, extravagance, and mal-administration of the government.
+To this period belong, in addition to lesser works, his great
+speeches _On American Taxation_ (1774) and _On Conciliation with
+America_ (1775), as well as his spirited _Letter to the Sheriffs of
+Bristol_ (1777). He had been elected member of parliament for Bristol
+in 1774, but he lost his seat in 1780 because he had advocated the
+relaxation of the restrictions on the trade of Ireland with Great
+Britain and of the penal laws against Catholics. In the second
+administration of Rockingham (1782) and in that of Portland (1783) he
+was paymaster of the forces, a position which he lost on the downfall
+of the Whigs in the latter year, and he never again held public
+office. His speech on the impeachment of Warren Hastings in 1788 is
+universally and justly ranked as a masterpiece of eloquence. When the
+French Revolution broke out, he opposed it with might and main. His
+_Reflections on the French Revolution_ (1790) had an enormous
+circulation, reached an eleventh edition inside of a year, was read
+all over the continent as well as in the British Isles, and helped
+materially not only to keep England steady in the crisis, but also to
+incite the other powers to continue their resistance to French
+aggression. He continued his campaign in _Thoughts on French Affairs_
+and _Letters on a Regicide Peace_. He was given two pensions in 1794,
+and would have been raised to the peerage as Lord Beaconsfield, had
+not the succession to the title been cut off by the premature death
+of his only son. He himself died in 1797 and was buried at
+Beaconsfield, where, as far back as 1768, he had purchased a small
+estate.
+
+As an orator and a deep political thinker, Burke holds a foremost
+place among those of all time who distinguished themselves in the
+British parliament. His keen intellect, his powerful imagination, his
+sympathy with the fallen, the downtrodden, and the oppressed, and his
+matchless power of utterance of the thoughts that were in him have
+made an impression that can never be effaced. His wise and
+statesman-like views on questions affecting the colonies ought to
+endear him to all Americans, although, if his counsels had been
+hearkened to, it is probable that the separation from the mother
+country would not have occurred as soon as it did. For his native
+land he used his best endeavors when and how he could, and although,
+as her defender, he was faced by obloquy as well as by the loss of
+that parliamentary position which was as dear to him as the breath of
+his nostrils, he did not flinch or shrink from supporting her
+material and spiritual interests in his own generous, manly,
+whole-hearted way. Trinity College, Dublin, has done well in placing
+his statue at her outer gates as representing the greatest Irishman
+of his generation.
+
+A political associate of Burke's for many years was Richard Brinsley
+Sheridan (1751-1816). Of Co. Cavan descent, Sheridan was born in
+Dublin, and was educated partly in his native city and partly at
+Harrow, and the remainder of his life was spent in England. He was
+distinguished first as a playwright and afterwards as a parliamentary
+orator. In 1775 his comedy, _The Rivals_, was produced at Covent
+Garden Theatre; his farce, _St. Patrick's Day, or the Scheming
+Lieutenant_, and his comic opera, _The Duenna_, were staged in the
+same year. His greatest comedy, _The School for Scandal_, was acted
+at Drury Lane Theatre in 1777, and it was followed in 1779 by _The
+Critic_. His last dramatic composition was the tragedy, _Pizarro_,
+produced in 1799. Elected to parliament in 1780, Sheridan was made
+under-secretary for foreign affairs in the Rockingham administration
+of 1782, and in 1783 he was secretary to the treasury in the
+Coalition Ministry. He sprang into repute as a brilliant orator
+during the impeachment of Warren Hastings, 1787-1794. His speech on
+the Begums of Oude was one of the greatest ever delivered within the
+walls of the British parliament. In 1806, on the return of the Whigs
+to power, he was appointed treasurer in the navy. In 1812 his long
+parliamentary career came to a close when he was defeated for the
+borough of Westminster. He died in 1816, and was honored with a
+magnificent funeral in Westminster Abbey.
+
+To give an idea as to how Sheridan's oratorical powers impressed his
+contemporaries, it is perhaps enough to repeat what Burke said of his
+second speech against Warren Hastings, namely, that it was "the most
+astonishing effort of eloquence, argument, and wit united of which
+there is any record or tradition", and to add that when, after three
+hours of impassioned pleading, he brought his first speech against
+Hastings to an end, the effect produced was so great that it was
+agreed to adjourn the house immediately and defer the final decision
+until the members should be in a less excited mood. As a dramatist
+Sheridan is second in popularity to Shakespeare alone. _The School
+for Scandal_ and _The Rivals_ are as fresh and as eagerly welcomed
+today as they were a hundred and forty years ago. Like Burke, he was
+true to the land of his birth and his oppressed Catholic
+fellow-countrymen. Almost his last words in the house of commons were
+these: "Be just to Ireland. I will never give my vote to any
+administration that opposes the question of Catholic emancipation."
+
+Sheridan belonged to a family that was exceptionally distinguished in
+English literature. Among those who preceded him as litterateurs were
+his grandfather, the Rev. Thomas Sheridan, D.D.; his father, Thomas
+Sheridan; and his mother, Frances Sheridan. Rev. Dr. Sheridan
+(1684-1738), the friend and confidant of Dean Swift, kept a
+fashionable school in Dublin, edited the _Satires_ of Persius in
+1728, wrote a treatise on _The Art of Punning_, and figures largely
+in Swift's correspondence. Thomas Sheridan (1721-1788) was at first
+an actor of considerable reputation, both in Dublin and in London;
+was next a teacher of elocution; and finally came forward with an
+improved system of education, in which oratory was to have a
+conspicuous part. In this connection he published an elaborate _Plan
+of Education_ in 1769, but his ideas, some of which are in accord
+with modern practice, were not taken up, He also compiled a
+pronouncing _Dictionary of the English Language_, with a prosodic
+grammar, and in 1784 published an entertaining _Life of Swift_.
+Frances Sheridan (1724-1766), wife of Thomas and mother of Richard
+Brinsley, who as Frances Chamberlaine had been known as a poetess,
+wrote after her marriage two plays, _The Discovery_ and _The Dupe_,
+and two novels, _The Memoirs of Miss Sidney Biddulph_, which was a
+great success and was translated by the Abbé Prévost into French, and
+_The History of Nourjahad_, an Oriental tale. In 1775 the singular
+spectacle was presented of the son's play running at Covent Garden
+while the mother's was being acted at Drury Lane.
+
+Among Sheridan's descendants who earned a niche in the temple of
+literary fame were his grand-daughters, the Countess of Dufferin
+(1807-1867) and the Hon. Mrs. Norton, afterwards Lady Stirling
+Maxwell (1808-1877), and his great-grandson, the first Marquis of
+Dufferin and Ava (1826-1902). Lady Dufferin's _Lament of the Irish
+Emigrant_ ("I'm sittin' on the style, Mary") has moved the hearts and
+brought tears to the eyes of countless thousands since it was
+published more than fifty years ago.
+
+Sir Philip Francis (1740-1818), born in Dublin, was the son of a
+clergyman of like name who attained some literary eminence as the
+translator of Horace and as a political writer. After filling various
+important government positions, Philip Francis, the son, was in 1773
+made a member of the Council of Bengal, where his relations with the
+governor-general, Warren Hastings, were of an extremely strained
+character, amounting at times almost to a public scandal. He returned
+to England in 1781, entered parliament, made a name as a speaker,
+took part in the impeachment of Hastings, and composed numerous
+political pamphlets. He is generally supposed to have been the writer
+of the celebrated _Letters of Junius_, which appeared at intervals in
+the _Public Advertiser_ between January 21, 1769, and January 21,
+1772. These letters are distinguished for their polished style, their
+power of invective, their galling sarcasm, their knowledge of state
+secrets, and their unparalleled boldness. Every prominent man
+connected with the government was attacked: even the king himself was
+not spared. As revised by their pseudonymous writer in a reprint made
+in 1772, they number 70; a later edition, in 1812, contained 113
+more. Their authorship has been the subject of much controversy, nor
+is the question yet finally settled. In his _Essay on Warren
+Hastings_, written in 1841, Macaulay went to considerable trouble to
+prove, by the cumulative method, that Francis was the writer, and
+since then that opinion has been generally, but not universally,
+maintained.
+
+Isaac Bickerstaffe (c. 1735-c. 1812) was an Irishman, whose name,
+strange to say, had no connection with the _nom de guerre_ of the
+same style under which Swift had masqueraded in his outrageously
+satirical attacks on Partridge the almanac maker, or with the more
+celebrated imaginary Isaac Bickerstaffe under cover of whose
+personality Steele conducted the _Tatler_. The real Bickerstaffe was
+a prolific playwright. His best known pieces are _The Sultan_, _The
+Maid of the Mill_, _Lionel and Clarissa_, and _Love in a Village_. In
+the last-mentioned occurs the famous song, beginning "We all love a
+pretty girl--under the rose."
+
+William Drennan (1754-1820), who has been called the Tyrtaeus of the
+United Irishmen, was the son of a Presbyterian clergyman, was born in
+Belfast, and was educated at Glasgow and Edinburgh universities,
+taking a medical degree from the latter. He practised his profession
+in the north of Ireland. When the Irish Volunteers were established,
+Drennan entered heart and soul into the movement. Removing to Dublin
+in 1789, he associated with Tone and other revolutionary spirits, and
+became one of the founders of the Society of United Irishmen, the
+first statement of whose objects was the product of his pen. His
+_Letters of Orellana_ helped materially to enlist the men of Ulster
+in the ranks of the Society. He also wrote a series of stirring
+lyrics which, voicing as they did the general sentiment in Ireland at
+the time, became extremely popular and had a widespread effect. These
+were afterwards (1815) collected under the title of _Fugitive
+Pieces_. All his political hopes being blasted with the failure of
+the rebellion of 1798 and of Emmet's insurrection in 1803, Drennan
+returned in 1807 to Belfast and there founded the _Belfast Magazine_.
+"The Wake of William Orr", a series of noble and affecting stanzas
+commemorating the judicial murder of a young Presbyterian Irish
+patriot in 1798, is one of his best known pieces. He also celebrated
+the ill-fated brothers Sheares. His song "Erin" was considered by
+Moore to be one of the most perfect of modern songs. It was in this
+piece that he fixed upon Ireland the title of the Emerald Isle:
+
+      When Erin first rose from the dark swelling flood,
+      God bless'd the green island, and saw it was good;
+      The em'rald of Europe, it sparkled and shone--
+      In the ring of the world the most precious stone.
+
+Mary Tighe (1772-1810), whose maiden name was Blachford, was born,
+the daughter of a clergyman, in Co. Wicklow. She contracted an
+unhappy marriage with her cousin who represented Kilkenny in the
+Irish house of commons. By all accounts she was of great beauty and
+numerous accomplishments. She wrote many poems: her best, and best
+known, is _Psyche, or the Legend of Love_, an adaptation of the story
+of Cupid and Psyche from the _Golden Ass_ of Apuleius. The metre she
+employed in this piece was the Spenserian stanza, which she handled
+with great power, freedom, and melody. _Psyche_, which first appeared
+in 1795, had a wonderful vogue, running rapidly through edition after
+edition. Among others to whom it appealed and who were influenced by
+it was Keats. Mrs. Tighe's talent drew from Moore a delicate
+compliment in "Tell me the witching tale again"; and in "The Grave of
+a Poetess" and "I stood where the life of song lay low", Mrs. Hemans
+bewailed her untimely death.
+
+Edmund Malone (1741-1813), the son of an Irish judge, was born in
+Dublin and studied at Trinity College. He was called to the Irish bar
+in 1767, but coming into a fortune, he abandoned his profession and
+gave himself over to literary work. In 1790 he brought out an edition
+of Shakespeare which was deservedly praised for its learning and
+research. His critical acumen led him to doubt the genuineness of
+Chatterton's _Rowley Poems_, and he was one of the first to expose
+Ireland's Shakespearean forgeries in 1796. Among other services to
+literature he wrote a _Life of Sir Joshua Reynolds_ and edited
+Dryden. He also left a quantity of materials afterwards utilized for
+the "Variorum Shakespeare" by James Boswell the younger in 1821.
+
+John O'Keeffe (1747-1833), a Dublin man, was at first an art student,
+but soon became an actor, and then developed into a playwright. His
+pen was most prolific; he published a collection of over fifty pieces
+in 1798. His plays are mostly comic operas or farces, and some of
+them had great success. Lingo, the schoolmaster in _The Agreeable
+Surprise_, is a very amusing character. _The Positive Man, The
+Son-in-Law, Wild Oats, Love in a Camp_, and _The Poor Soldier_ are
+among his compositions. His songs are well known, such as "I am a
+friar of orders grey", and there are few schoolboys who have not
+sooner or later made the acquaintance of his "Amo, amas, I loved a
+lass". For the last fifty-two years of his life O'Keeffe was blind,
+an affliction which he bore with unfailing cheerfulness. In 1826 he
+was given a pension of one hundred guineas a year from the king's
+privy purse.
+
+George Canning (1770-1827), prime minister of England, properly
+belongs here, for, although born in London, he was a member of an
+Irish family long settled at Garvagh in Co. Derry. Entering
+parliament on the side of Pitt in 1796, he was made secretary of the
+navy in 1804 and in 1812 secretary of State for foreign affairs. He
+became prime minister in 1827, but died within six months, leaving a
+record for scarcely surpassed eloquence. In addition to his speeches,
+he is known in literature for his contributions to the _Anti-Jacobin,
+or Weekly Examiner_, which ran its satirical and energetic career for
+eight months (November, 1797-July, 1798.) Some of the best things
+that appeared in this ultra-conservative organ were from Canning's
+pen. Few there are who have not laughed at his _Loves of the
+Triangles_, in which he caricatured Erasmus Darwin's _Loves of the
+Plants_; at _The Needy Knife-Grinder_; or at the song of Rogero in
+_The Rovers_, with its comic refrain of the
+
+                          U--
+      niversity of Gottingen.
+
+Like most of the great Anglo-Irishmen of his time, Canning favored
+Catholic emancipation. It is interesting to note that it was a letter
+of Canning's that led to the formulation of the Monroe Doctrine.
+
+Henry Grattan (1746-1820), the hero of Grattan's parliament, was born
+in Dublin and studied at Trinity College. His history belongs to that
+of his country. Suffice it here to say that not only did he by great
+eloquence and real statesmanship secure a free parliament for Ireland
+In 1782, but also that he fought energetically, if unavailingly,
+against the abolition of that parliament in 1800, and that
+thenceforward he devoted his abilities to promoting the cause of
+Catholic emancipation. Dying in London, he was honored by being
+buried in Westminster Abbey. In an age of great orators he stands out
+among the very foremost. His speeches have become classics, and are
+constantly quoted.
+
+Another brilliant Irish orator, as well as an eminent wit, of this
+period, was John Philpot Curran (1750-1817), who, born at Newmarket,
+Co. Cork, and educated at Trinity College, Dublin, achieved a
+wonderful success at the Irish bar. He defended with rare insight,
+eloquence, and patriotism those who were accused of complicity in the
+rebellion of 1798. As a member of Grattan's parliament, he voiced the
+most liberal principles, and, though a Protestant himself, he worked
+hard in the Catholic cause. He held the great office of Master of the
+Rolls in Ireland from 1806 to 1814. The memory of few Irish orators,
+wits, or patriots is greener today than that of Curran. His daughter
+Sarah, whose fate is so inextricably blended with that of the
+ill-starred Robert Emmet, has been rendered immortal by Moore in his
+beautiful song, "She is far from the land where her young hero
+sleeps".
+
+Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin (1759-1797), the first advocate of the
+rights of women, though born in London, was of Irish extraction. Into
+the details of her extraordinary and chequered career it is not
+possible, or necessary, here to enter. Her published works include
+_Thoughts on the Education of Daughters_ (1787); _Answer to Burke's
+Reflections on the French Revolution_ (1791); _Vindication of the
+Rights of Women_ (1792); and an unfinished _Historical and Moral View
+of the French Revolution_ (Vol. I., 1794). Having in August, 1797,
+borne to her husband, William Godwin, a daughter who afterwards
+became Shelley's second wife, Mary Godwin died in the following
+month. Whatever her faults--and they were perhaps not greater than
+her misfortunes--she had something of the divine touch of genius,
+and, in a different environment, might easily have left some great
+literary memento which the world would not willingly let die.
+
+Maria Edgeworth (1767-1849), though born at Blackbourton in England,
+belonged to a family which had been settled in different parts of
+Ireland and finally at Edgeworthstown, Co. Longford, for nearly two
+hundred years. She was the daughter of Richard Lovell Edgeworth
+(1744-1817), who was distinguished for his inventions, for his
+eccentricity, and for his varied matrimonial experiences, and who
+himself figures in literature as the author of _Memoirs_,
+posthumously published in 1820, and as the partner with his daughter
+in _Practical Education_ (1798) and in an _Essay on Irish Bulls_
+(1802). Maria had a busy literary career and was before the public
+for fifty-two years from 1795 to 1847. She wrote _Moral Tales;
+Popular Tales; Tales from Fashionable Life_; and _Harrington_; but
+she is now best remembered for her three masterpieces dealing with
+Irish life and conditions, namely, _Castle Rackrent_ (1800); _The
+Absentee_ (1812); and _Ormond_ (1817). By these works she inspired
+Scott, as he himself tells us, to attempt for his own country
+something "of the same kind with that which she had so fortunately
+achieved for Ireland", and in a later day she inspired Turgenief to
+do similarly for Russia. She excels in wit and pathos and gives a
+true and vivid presentation of the times and conditions as she viewed
+them.
+
+Andrew Cherry (1763-1821), born in Limerick, became an actor, a
+theatrical manager, and a playwright. He wrote nine or ten plays,
+several of which were moderately successful. The one that is now
+remembered is _The Soldier's Daughter_. Some of his songs, such as
+"The Bay of Biscay", "Tom Moody, the Whipper-in", and, especially,
+"The Green Little Shamrock of Ireland", bid fair to be immortal.
+
+Other Irish song-writers were Thomas Duffet (fl. 1676), author of
+"Come all you pale lovers"; Arthur Dawson (1700?-1775), author of
+"Bumpers, Squire Jones"; George Ogle (1742-1814), author of "Molly
+Asthore"; Richard Alfred Millikin (1767-1815), author of the
+grotesque "Groves of Blarney"; Edward Lysaght (1763-1811), author of
+"Our Ireland", "The Gallant Man who led the van Of the Irish
+Volunteers", and "Kate of Garnavilla"; George Nugent Reynolds
+(1770?-1802), author of "Kathleen O'More"; Thomas Dermody
+(1775-1802), author of the collection of poems and songs known as
+_The Harp of Erin_; James Orr (1770-1816), author of "The Irishman";
+Henry Brereton Code (d. 1830), author of "The Sprig of Shillelah";
+Charles Wolfe (1791-1823), author of "If I had thought thou couldst
+have died", and of "The Burial of Sir John Moore"; and Charles Dawson
+Shanly (1811-1875), author of "Kitty of Coleraine".
+
+Theobald Wolfe Tone (1763-1798), born in Dublin, educated at Trinity
+College, and called to the Irish bar in 1789, fills a large space in
+the history of his country from 1790 to his death in 1798. Intrepid,
+daring, and resourceful, he was one of the most dangerous of the
+enemies to English domination in Ireland that arose at any time
+during the troubled relations between the two countries. Taken
+prisoner on board a French ship of the line bound for Ireland on a
+mission of freedom, he committed suicide in prison rather than submit
+to the ignominy of being hanged to which he had been condemned. He
+sleeps his last sleep in Bodenstown churchyard, in that county of
+Kildare to which he was connected by many ties. His grave is still
+the Mecca of many a pilgrimage, and the corner-stone of a statue to
+his memory has been laid for some years on a commanding site in the
+city of his birth. He is known in literature for his _Journals_ and
+his _Autobiography_, both containing sad, but inspiring, reading for
+the Irishman of today.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Here this rapid survey of Irish writers of English must close. To
+tell in any sort of appropriate detail the story of the English
+literature of Ireland in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries would
+require a separate volume--a volume which is now under way and will,
+it is hoped, be speedily forthcoming. There is all the less need to
+attempt the agreeable task here, because in other portions of this
+book much more than passing reference is made to the chief Irish
+authors who, in the last hundred and fifteen years, have
+distinguished themselves and shed lustre on their country. During
+that period Irish poets, playwrights, novelists, essayists,
+historians, biographers, humorists, critics, and scholars have fully
+held their own both in the quantity and the quality of the work
+produced, and have left an impression of power and personality, of
+graceful style and vivifying imagination, that in itself constitutes,
+and must for ever constitute, one of the distinctive Glories of
+Ireland.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Irish Literature (10 vols., New York, 1904); Chambers's Cyclopaedia
+of English Literature (3 vols., Philadelphia and London, 1902-1904);
+Dictionary of National Biography; Encyclopaedia Britannica; Cambridge
+History of English Literature; D'Alton: History of Ireland (London,
+1910); Lennox: Early Printing in Ireland (Washington, 1909), Addison
+and the Modern Essay (Washington, 1912), Lessons in English
+Literature (21st edition, Baltimore, 1913); Macaulay: Essays, History
+of England; Brown: A Reader's Guide to Irish Fiction (London, 1910),
+A Guide to Books on Ireland (Dublin, 1912).
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Glories of Ireland
+by Edited by Joseph Dunn and P.J. Lennox
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12111 ***
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+<div>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12111 ***</div>
+
+<h1>THE GLORIES<br>
+OF<br>
+IRELAND</h1>
+
+<h2>EDITED BY<br>
+JOSEPH DUNN, Ph.D.,<br>
+AND<br>
+P.J. LENNOX. Litt.D.,</h2>
+
+<h3>PROFESSORS AT THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA</h3>
+
+<h3>1914</h3>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2>TO THE IRISH RACE<br>
+IN EVERY LAND</h2>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p><i>Ireland</i>:</p>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>"All thy life has been a symbol; we can only read a part:</p>
+<p>God will flood thee yet with sunshine for the woes that drench thy heart."</p>
+</div>
+<p>JOHN BOYLE O'REILLY.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+<p>We had at first intended that this should be a book without a
+preface, and indeed it needs none, for it speaks in no uncertain tones
+for itself; but on reconsideration we decided that it would be more
+seemly to give a short explanation of our aim, our motives, and our
+methods.</p>
+
+<p>As a result of innumerable inquiries which have come to us during
+our experience as educators, we have been forced to the conclusion
+that the performances of the Irish race in many fields of endeavor are
+entirely unknown to most people, and that even to the elect they are
+not nearly so well known as they deserve to be. Hence there came to us
+the thought of placing on record, in an accessible, comprehensive, and
+permanent form, an outline of the whole range of Irish achievement
+during the last two thousand years.</p>
+
+<p>In undertaking this task we had a twofold motive. In the first
+place, we wished to give to people of Irish birth or descent
+substantial reason for that pride of race which we know is in them, by
+placing in their hands an authoritative and unassailable array of
+facts as telling as any nation in the world can show. Our second
+motive was that henceforward he who seeks to ignore or belittle the
+part taken by men and women of Irish birth or blood in promoting the
+spread of religion, civilization, education, culture, and freedom
+should sin, not in ignorance, but against the light, and that from a
+thousand quarters at once champions armed with the panoply of
+knowledge should be able to spring to his confutation.</p>
+
+<p>To carry out in a satisfactory manner over a field so immense our
+lawfully ambitious aim was, as we realized at the outset, not possible
+to any two men who are primarily engaged, as we are, in other work of
+an exacting nature. Therefore, to render feasible the execution of our
+undertaking, we decided to invite the collaboration of many scholars
+and specialists, each of whom could, out of the fullness of
+information, speak with authority on some particular phase of the
+general subject. We are glad to say that the eminent writers to whom
+we addressed ourselves answered with promptitude and alacrity to our
+call, and have supplied us with such a body of material as to enable
+us to bring out a book that is absolutely unique.</p>
+
+<p>From each contributor we asked nothing but a plain verifiable
+statement of facts, and that, we think, is exactly what they have
+given us, for, while we do not make ourselves personally responsible
+for everything set down in the following pages, we believe that what
+stands written therein bears every mark of careful research and of
+absolute reliability.</p>
+
+<p>Although on many of our subjects little more remains to be said
+than what appears in the text, yet the treatment on the whole does not
+claim to be exhaustive, and therefore each writer has, at our request,
+appended to his contribution a short and carefully selected
+bibliography, so that those who are interested may have a guide for
+further reading. For our part, we consider these lists of works of
+reference to be a highly useful feature.</p>
+
+<p>It is a glorious thing for us, who are proud, one of us of his
+Irish descent and the other of his Irish birth, to think that the sons
+and daughters of mother Erin have so conspicuously distinguished
+themselves in such varied spheres of activity in every age and in so
+many lands, and that we were privileged to make public the record of
+their achievements in a form never before attempted.</p>
+
+<p>We have other works in contemplation, and some actually in
+preparation, which will go far to strengthen the claims put forward in
+this book. In the meantime, we trust that the reception accorded to it
+will be such as to encourage us to persevere in making still better
+known the Glories of Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>JOSEPH DUNN<br>
+P.J. LENNOX</p>
+
+<p><i>Catholic University of America,<br>
+Washington, D.C.,<br>
+November, 1914.</i></p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<h3><a href="#T01">THE ROMANCE OF IRISH HISTORY</a></h3>
+<h4>Sir Roger Casement, C.M.G.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T02">THE ISLAND OF SAINTS AND SCHOLARS</a></h3>
+<h4>Very Rev. Canon D'Alton, M.R.I.A., LL.D.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T03">IRISH MONKS IN EUROPE</a></h3>
+<h4>Rev. Columba Edmonds, O.S.B.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T04">THE IRISH AND THE SEA</a></h3>
+<h4>William H. Babcock, LL.B.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T05">IRISH LOVE OF LEARNING</a></h3>
+<h4>Rev. P.S. Dinneen, M.A., R.U.I.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T06">IRISH MEN OF SCIENCE</a></h3>
+<h4>Sir Bertram C.A. Windle, Sc.D., M.D.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T07">LAW IN IRELAND</a></h3>
+<h4>Laurence Ginnell, B.L., M.P.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T08">IRISH MUSIC</a></h3>
+<h4>W.H. Grattan Flood, Mus.D.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T09">IRISH METAL WORK</a></h3>
+<h4>Diarmid Coffey</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T10">IRISH MANUSCRIPTS</a></h3>
+<h4>Louis Ely O'Carroll, B.A., B.L.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T11">THE RUINS OF IRELAND</a></h3>
+<h4>Francis J. Bigger, M.R.I.A.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T12">MODERN IRISH ART</a></h3>
+<h4>D.J. O'Donoghue</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T13">IRELAND AT PLAY</a></h3>
+<h4>Thomas E. Healy</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T14">THE FIGHTING RACE</a></h3>
+<h4>Joseph I.C. Clarke</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T15">THE SORROWS OF IRELAND</a></h3>
+<h4>John Jerome Rooney, A.M., LL.D.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T16">IRISH LEADERS</a></h3>
+<h4>Shane Leslie</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T17">IRISH HEROINES</a></h3>
+<h4>Alice Milligan</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T18">IRISH NATIONALITY</a></h3>
+<h4>Lord Ashbourne</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T19">FAMOUS IRISH SOCIETIES</a></h3>
+<h4>John O'Dea</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T20">THE IRISH IN THE UNITED STATES</a></h3>
+<h4>Michael J. O'Brien</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T21">THE IRISH IN CANADA</a></h3>
+<h4>James J. Walsh, M.D.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T22">THE IRISH IN SOUTH AMERICA</a></h3>
+<h4>Marion Mulhall</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T23">THE IRISH IN AUSTRALASIA</a></h3>
+<h4>Brother Leo, F.S.C., M.A.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T24">THE IRISH IN SOUTH AFRICA</a></h3>
+<h4>A. Hilliard Atteridge</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T25">THE IRISH LANGUAGE AND LETTERS</a></h3>
+<h4>Douglas Hyde, LL.D.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T26">NATIVE IRISH POETRY</a></h3>
+<h4>Georges Dottin</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T27">IRISH HEROIC SAGAS</a></h3>
+<h4>Eleanor Hull</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T28">IRISH PRECURSORS OF DANTE</a></h3>
+<h4>Sidney Gunn, M.A.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T29">IRISH INFLUENCE ON ENGLISH LITERATURE</a></h3>
+<h4>Edmund C. Quiggin, M.A.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T30">IRISH FOLK LORE</a></h3>
+<h4>Alfred Perceval Graves</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T31">IRISH WIT AND HUMOR</a></h3>
+<h4>Charles L. Graves</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T32">THE IRISH THEATRE</a></h3>
+<h4>Joseph Holloway</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T33">IRISH JOURNALISTS</a></h3>
+<h4>Michael MacDonagh</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T34">THE IRISH LITERARY REVIVAL</a></h3>
+<h4>Horatio S. Krans, Ph.D.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T35">IRISH WRITERS OF ENGLISH</a></h3>
+<h4>P.J. Lennox, B.A., Litt. D.</h4>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h1>THE GLORIES OF IRELAND</h1>
+
+<h2><a name="T01"></a>THE ROMANCE OF IRISH HISTORY</h2>
+<h4>By SIR ROGER CASEMENT, C.M.G.</h4>
+
+<p>The history of Ireland remains to be written, for the purpose of
+Irishmen remains yet to be achieved. </p>
+
+<p>The struggle for national realization, begun so many centuries ago,
+is not ended; and if the long story offers a so frequent record of
+failure, it offers a continuous appeal to the highest motives and a
+constant exhibition of a most pathetic patriotism linked with the
+sternest courage.</p>
+
+<p>Irish wars, throughout all time, have been only against one enemy,
+the invader, and, ending so often in material disaster, they have
+conferred always a moral gain. Their memory uplifts the Irish heart;
+for no nation, no people, can reproach Ireland with having wronged
+them.</p>
+
+<p>When, at the dawn of the Christian era, we first hear of Ireland
+from external sources, we learn of it as an island harboring free men,
+whose indomitable love of freedom was hateful to the spirit of
+imperial exploitation.</p>
+
+<p>Agricola's advice to the empire-builders of his day was that Rome
+should "war down and take possession of Ireland, so that freedom might
+be put out of sight."</p>
+
+<p>It was to meet this challenge of despotism that the Scotic clans of
+Alba turned to their motherland for help, and the sea was "white with
+the hurrying oars" of the men of Erin speeding to the call of their
+Highland kinsmen, threatened with imperial servitude.</p>
+
+<p>The first external record we possess thus makes it clear that when
+the early Irish went forth to carry war abroad, it was not to impose
+their yoke on other peoples, or to found an empire, but to battle
+against the Empire of the World in the threatened cause they held so
+dear at home.</p>
+
+<p>In this early Roman reference to Ireland we get the keynote to all
+later Irish history&mdash;a warring down on the one hand, so that
+freedom might be put out of sight; an eternal resistance, on the
+other, so that it might be upheld.</p>
+
+<p>It was this struggle that Ireland sought to maintain against every
+form of attack, down through Danish, Norman, Tudor, Stuart, and
+Cromwellian assault, to the larger imperialism of the nineteenth
+century, when, as Thierry, the historian of the Norman Conquest, tells
+us, it still remained the one "lost cause" of history that refused to
+admit defeat. "This indomitable persistency, this faculty of
+preserving through centuries of misery the remembrance of lost liberty
+and of never despairing of a cause always defeated, always fatal to
+those who dared to defend it, is perhaps the strangest and noblest
+example ever given by any nation."</p>
+
+<p>The resources Ireland opposed to her invaders have been unequal to
+the founding of a great state, but have preserved a great tradition.
+The weakness of Ireland lay in the absence of a central organization,
+a state machine that could mobilize the national resources to defend
+the national life. That life had to depend for its existence, under
+the stress of prolonged invasion, on the spontaneous patriotism and
+courage of individuals. At times one clan alone, or two clans,
+maintained the struggle. Arrayed against them were all the resources
+of a mighty realm&mdash;shipping, arms, munitions of war, gold,
+statecraft, a widespread and calculating diplomacy, the prestige of a
+great Sovereign and a famous Court&mdash;and the Irish clan and its
+chieftain, by the sheer courage of its members, by their bodily
+strength and hardihood and feats of daring, for years kept the issue
+in doubt.</p>
+
+<p>When Hugh O'Neill, leagued with Red Hugh O'Donnell, challenged the
+might of Elizabeth, he had nothing to rely upon but the stout hearts
+and arms of the men of Tir-owen and Tir-Conail. Arms and armaments
+were far from Ulster. They could be procured only in Spain or
+elsewhere on the continent. English shipping held the sea; the English
+mint the coinage. The purse of England, compared to that of the Ulster
+princes, was inexhaustible. Yet for nine years the courage, the
+chivalry, the daring and skill of these northern clansmen, perhaps
+20,000 men in all, held all the might of England at bay. Had the
+Spanish king at any time during the contest made good his promise to
+lend effective aid to the Irish princes, O'Neill would have driven
+Elizabeth from Ireland, and a sovereign State would today be the
+guardian of the freedom of the western seas for Europe and the world.
+It took "the best army in Europe" and a vast treasure, as Sir John
+Davies asserted, to conquer two Ulster clans three hundred years ago.
+The naked valor of the Irishman excelled the armed might of Tudor
+England; and the struggle that gave the empire of the seas to Britain
+was won not in the essay of battle, but in the assay of the mint.</p>
+
+<p>It is this aspect of the Irish fight for freedom that dignifies an
+otherwise lost cause. Ever defeated, yet undefeated, a
+long-remembering race believes that these native qualities must in the
+end prevail. The battle has been from the first one of manhood against
+might. The State Papers, the official record of English rule in
+Ireland, leave us rarely in doubt. We read in that record that, where
+the appeal was to the strength or courage of the opposing men, the
+Irish had nothing to fear from English arms.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the Earl of Essex, in a despatch to Elizabeth, explained the
+failure of his great expedition in 1599 against O'Neill and O'Donnell.
+"These rebels ... have (though I do unwillingly confess it) better
+bodies and perfecter use of their arms than those men whom your
+Majesty sends over." The flight of the Earls in 1607 left Ireland
+leaderless, with nothing but the bodies and hearts of the people to
+depend on. In 1613 we read, in the same records, a candid admission
+that, although the clan system had been destroyed and the great chiefs
+expropriated, converted, or driven to flight, the people still trusted
+to their own stout arms and fearless hearts:</p>
+
+<p>"The next rebellion, whenever it shall happen, doth threaten more
+danger to the State than any heretofore, when the cities and walled
+towns were always faithful; (1) because they have the same bodies they
+ever had and therein they had and have advantage of us; (2) from
+infancy they have been and are exercised in the use of arms; (3) the
+realm by reason of the long peace was never so full of youths; (4)
+that they are better soldiers than heretofore their continental
+employment in wars abroad assures us, and they do conceive that their
+men are better than ours."</p>
+
+<p>And when that "next rebellion" came, the great uprising of the
+outraged race in 1641, what do we find? Back from the continent sails
+the nephew of the great O'Neill, who had left Ireland a little boy in
+the flight of the Earls, and the dispossessed clansmen, robbed of all
+but their strength of body and heart, gathered to the summons of Owen
+Roe.</p>
+
+<p>Again it was the same issue: the courage and hardihood of the
+Irishman to set against the superior arms, equipment, and wealth of a
+united Britain. Irish valor won the battle; a great state organization
+won the campaign. England and Scotland combined to lay low a resurgent
+Ireland; and again the victory was not to the brave and skilled, but
+to the longer purse and the implacable mind. Perhaps the most vivid
+testimony to these innate qualities of the Irishman is to be found in
+a typically Irish challenge issued in the course of this ten years'
+war from 1641 to 1651. The document has a lasting interest, for it
+displays not only the "better body" of the Irishman, but something of
+his better heart and chivalry of soul.</p>
+
+<p>One Parsons, an English settler in Ireland, had written to a friend
+to say, among other things, that the head of a colonel of an Irish
+regiment then in the field against the English would not be allowed to
+stick long on its shoulders. The letter was intercepted by the very
+regiment itself, and a captain in it, Felim O'Molloy, wrote back to
+Parsons:</p>
+
+<p>"I will doe this, if you please. I will pick out 60 men and fight
+against 100 of your choise men, if you do but pitch your campe one
+mile out of your towne, and then, if you have the victory, you may
+threaten my colonel; otherwise do not reckon your chickens before they
+be hatched."</p>
+
+<p>It was this same spirit of daring, this innate belief in his own
+manhood, that for three hundred years made every Irishman the
+custodian of his country's honor.</p>
+
+<p>An Irish state had not been born; that battle had still to be
+fought; but the romantic effort to achieve it reveals ever an
+unstained record of personal courage. Freedom has not come to Ireland;
+it has been "warred down and kept out of sight"; but it has been kept
+in the Irish heart, from Brian Boru to Robert Emmet, by a long tale of
+blood shed always in the same cause. Freedom is kept alive in man's
+blood only by the shedding of that blood. It was this they were
+seeking, those splendid "scorners of death", the lads and young men of
+Mayo, who awaited with a fearless joy the advance of the English army
+fresh from the defeat of Humbert in 1798. Then, if ever, Irishmen
+might have run from a victorious and pitiless enemy, who having
+captured the French general and murdered, in cold blood, the hundreds
+of Killala peasants who were with his colors, were now come to Killala
+itself to wreak vengeance on the last stronghold of Irish
+rebellion.</p>
+
+<p>The ill-led and half-armed peasants, the last Irishmen in Ireland
+to stand in open, pitched fight for their country's freedom, went to
+meet the army of General Lake, as the Protestant bishop who saw them
+says, "running upon death with as little appearance of reflection or
+concern as if they were hastening to a show."</p>
+
+<p>The influences that begot this reverence for freedom lie in the
+island itself no less than in the remote ancestry of the people.
+Whoever looks upon Ireland cannot conceive it as the parent of any but
+freemen. Climate and soil here unite to tell man that brotherhood, and
+not domination, constitutes the only nobility for those who call this
+fair shore their motherland. The Irish struggle for liberty owes as
+much, perhaps, to the continuing influence of the same lakes and
+rivers and the same mountains as to the survival of any political
+fragments of the past. Irish history is inseparably the history of the
+land, rather than of a race; and in this it offers us a spectacle of a
+continuing national unity that long-continuing disaster has not been
+able wholly to efface or wholly to disrupt.</p>
+
+<p>To discover the Europe that existed before Rome we must turn to the
+East, Greece, and to the West, Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>Ireland alone among western lands preserves the recorded tradition,
+the native history, the continuity of mind, and, until yesterday, of
+speech and song, that connect the half of Europe with its ancestral
+past. For early Europe was very largely Celtic Europe, and nowhere can
+we trace the continuous influence of Celtic culture and idealism,
+coming down to us from a remote past, save in Ireland only.</p>
+
+<p>To understand the intellect of pre-Roman Gaul, of Spain, of
+Portugal, and largely of Germany, and even of Italy, we must go to
+Ireland. Whoever visits Spain or Portugal, to investigate the past of
+those countries, will find that the record stops where Rome began.
+Take England in further illustration. The first record the inhabitants
+of England have of the past of their island comes from Roman invasion.
+They know of Boadicea, of Cassivelaunus, the earliest figures in their
+history, from what a foreign destroyer tells them in an alien
+tongue.</p>
+
+<p>All the early life of Celtiberians and Lusitanians has passed away
+from the record of human endeavor, save only where we find it recorded
+by the Italian invaders in their own speech, and in such terms as
+imperial exploitation ever prescribes for its own advancement and the
+belittlement of those it assails. Ireland alone among all western
+nations knows her own past, from the very dawn of history and before
+the romance of Romulus began, down to the present day, in the tongue
+of her own island people and in the light of her own native mind.
+Early Irish history is not the record of the clan-strivings of a petty
+and remote population, far from the centre of civilization. It is the
+authentic story of all western civilization before the warm solvent of
+Mediterranean blood and iron melted and moulded it into another and
+rigid shape.</p>
+
+<p>The Irishman called O'Neill, O'Brien, O'Donnell, steps out of a
+past well-nigh co-eval with the heroisms and tragedies that uplifted
+Greece and laid Troy in ashes, and swept the Mediterranean with an
+Odyssey of romance that still gives its name to each chief island,
+cape, and promontory of the mother sea of Europe. Ireland, too, steps
+out of a story just as old. Well nigh every hill or mountain, every
+lake or river, bears the name today it bore a thousand, two thousand,
+years ago, and one recording some dramatic human or semi-divine
+event.</p>
+
+<p>The songs of the Munster and Connacht poets of the eighteenth and
+nineteenth centuries gave to every cottage in the land the ownership
+as well as the tale of an heroic ancestry. They linked the Ireland of
+yesterday with the Ireland of Finn and Oscar, of Diarmid and Grainne,
+of Deirdre and the Sons of Usnech, of Cuchulainn the Hound of Ulster.
+A people bred on such soul-stirring tales as these, linked by a
+language "the most expressive of any spoken on earth" in thought and
+verse and song with the very dawn of their history, wherein there
+moved, as familiar figures, men with the attributes of
+gods&mdash;great in battle, grand in danger, strong in loving,
+vehement in death&mdash;such a people could never be vulgar, could
+never be mean, but must repeat, in their own time and in their own
+manhood, actions and efforts thus ascribed as a vital part of their
+very origin. Hence the inspiration that gave the name of Fenian, in
+the late nineteenth century, to a band of men who sought to achieve by
+arms the freedom of Ireland. The law of the Fenian of the days of
+Marcus Aurelius was the law of the Fenian in the reign of
+Victoria&mdash;to give all&mdash;mind, body, and strength of
+purpose&mdash;to the defense of his country, "to speak truth and
+harbor no greed in his heart."</p>
+
+<p>Some there are who may deny to Finn and his Fenians of the second
+and third centuries corporeal existence; yet nothing is surer than
+that Ireland claims these ancestral embodiments of an heroic tradition
+by a far surer title of native record than gives to the Germans
+Arminius, to the Gauls, Ariovistus, to the British, Caractacus. This
+conception of a national life, one with the land itself, was very
+clear to the ancient Irish, just as it has been and is the foundation
+of all later national effort.</p>
+
+<p>"If ever the idea of nationality becomes the subject of a thorough
+and honest study, it will be seen that among all the peoples of
+antiquity, not excluding the Hellenes and the Hebrews, the Irish held
+the clearest and most conscious and constant grasp of that idea; and
+that their political divisions, instead of disproving the existence of
+the idea, in their case intensely strengthen the proof of its
+existence and emphasize its power.</p>
+
+<p>In the same way the remarkable absence of insular exclusiveness,
+notwithstanding their geographical position, serves to bring their
+sense of nationality into higher relief.</p>
+
+<p>Though pride of race is evident in the dominant Gaelic stock, their
+national sentiment centres not in the race, but altogether in the
+country, which is constantly personified and made the object of a sort
+of cult.</p>
+
+<p>It is worth noting that just as the Brehon Laws are the laws of
+Ireland without distinction of province or district; as the language
+of Irish literature is the language of Ireland without distinction of
+dialects; as the Dindshenchus contains the topographical legends of
+all parts of Ireland, and the Festilogies commemorate the saints of
+all Ireland; so the Irish chronicles from first to last are histories
+of the Irish nation. The true view of the Book of Invasions is that it
+is the epic of Irish Nationality." (Professor Eoin MacNeill, in a
+letter to Mrs. A.S. Green, January, 1914.)</p>
+
+<p>The "Book of Invasions", which Professor MacNeill here speaks of,
+was compiled a thousand years ago. To write the history of later
+Ireland is merely to prolong the "Book of Invasions", and thus bring
+the epic of Irish resistance down to our own day. All Irish valor and
+chivalry, whether of soul or of body, have been directed for a
+thousand years to this same end. It was for this that Sarsfield died
+at Landen no less than Brian at Clontarf. The monarch of Ireland at
+the head of a great Irish army driving back the leagued invaders from
+the shores of Dublin Bay in 1014, and the exiled leader in 1693,
+heading the charge that routed King William's cause in the
+Netherlands, fell on one and the same battlefield. They fought against
+the invader of Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>We are proudly told that the sun never sets on the British Empire.
+Wherever an Irishman has fought in the name of Ireland it has not been
+to acquire fortune, land, or fame, but to give all, even life itself,
+not to found an empire, but to strike a blow for an ancient land and
+assert the cause of a swordless people. Wherever Irishmen have gone,
+in exile or in fight, they have carried this image of Ireland with
+them. The cause of Ireland has found a hundred fields of foreign fame,
+where the dying Irishman might murmur with Sarsfield, "Would that this
+blood were shed for Ireland", and history records the sacrifice as
+made in no other cause.</p>
+
+<p>Ireland, too, owns an empire on which the sun never sets.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+<p>Sigerson: Bards of the Gael and Gall; O'Callaghan: History of the
+Irish Brigades; Mitchel: Life of Hugh O'Neill; Green: The Making of
+Ireland and its Undoing, Irish Nationality, The Old Irish World;
+Taylor: Life of Owen Roe O'Neill; Todhunter: Life of Patrick
+Sarsfield; Hyde: Love Songs of Connacht, Religious Songs of Connacht;
+O'Grady: Bog of Stars, Flight of the Eagle; Ferguson: Hibernian
+Nights' Entertainment; Mitchel: History of Ireland, in continuation of
+MacGeoghegan's History.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+<h2><a name="T02"></a>THE ISLAND OF SAINTS AND SCHOLARS</h2>
+<h4>CANON D'ALTON, M.R.I.A., LL.D.</h4>
+
+<p>Unlike the natives of Britain and Scotland, the Irish in
+pre-Christian times were not brought into contact with Roman
+institutions or Roman culture. In consequence they created and
+developed a civilization of their own that was in some respects
+without equal. They were far advanced in the knowledge of metal-work
+and shipbuilding; they engaged in commerce; they loved music and had
+an acquaintance with letters; and when disputes arose among them,
+these were settled in duly constituted courts of justice, presided
+over by a trained lawyer, called a brehon, instead of being settled by
+the stern arbitrament of force. Druidism was their pagan creed. They
+believed in the immortality and in the transmigration of souls; they
+worshipped the sun and moon, and they venerated mountains, rivers, and
+wells; and it would be difficult to find any ministers of religion who
+were held in greater awe than the Druids.</p>
+
+<p>Commerce and war brought the Irish into contact with Britain and
+the continent, and thus was Christianity gradually introduced into the
+island. Though its progress at first was not rapid, there were, by
+431, several Christian churches in existence, and in that year
+Palladius, a Briton and a bishop, was sent by Pope Celestine to the
+Irish who already believed in Christ. Discouraged and a failure,
+Palladius returned to Britain after a brief stay on his mission, and
+then, in 432, the same Pope sent St. Patrick, who became the Apostle
+of Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>Because of the great work he did, St. Patrick is one of the
+prominent figures of history; and yet, to such an extent has the dust
+of time settled down on his life and acts that the place and year of
+his birth, the schools in which he was educated, and the year of his
+death, are all matters of dispute. There is, however, no good reason
+to depart from the traditional account, which is, that the Apostle was
+born at Dumbarton in Scotland, in the year 372; that in 388 he was
+captured by the Irish king Niall, who had gone on a plundering raid
+into Scotland; that he was brought to Ireland and sold as a slave, and
+that as such he served a pagan chief named Milcho who lived in what is
+now the county of Antrim; that from Antrim he escaped and went back to
+his own country; that he had many visions urging him to return to
+Ireland and preach the Gospel there; that, believing these were from
+God, he went to France, and there was educated and ordained priest,
+and later consecrated bishop; and then, accompanied by several
+ecclesiastics, he was sent to Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>From Wicklow, where he landed, he proceeded north and endeavored,
+but in vain, to convert his old pagan master Milcho; thence he
+proceeded south by Downpatrick and Dundalk to Slane in Meath, where,
+in sight of Tara, the high-king's seat, he lighted the paschal fire.
+At Tara he confounded the Druids in argument, baptized the high-king
+and the chief poet; and then, turning north and west, he crossed the
+Shannon into Connacht, where he spent seven years. From Connacht he
+passed into Donegal, and thence through Tyrone and Antrim, after which
+he entered Munster, and remained there seven years. Finally, he
+returned to Armagh, which he made his episcopal see, and died at Saul,
+near Downpatrick, in 493.</p>
+
+<p>St. Patrick wrote two short works, both of which have survived, his
+<i>Confession</i> and his <i>Epistle to Coroticus</i>. In neither are
+there any graces of style, and the Latin is certainly not that of
+Cicero or Livy. But in the <i>Confession</i> the character of the
+author himself is completely revealed&mdash;his piety, his zeal, his
+self-sacrifice, his courage in face of every danger and every trial.
+Not less remarkable was the skill with which he handled men and used
+pagan institutions for the purposes of Christianity; and equally so
+was the success with which his bloodless apostolate was crowned.</p>
+
+<p>One great difficulty which St. Patrick had was to provide the
+people with a native ministry. At first he selected the chief
+men&mdash;princes, brehons, bards&mdash;and these, with little
+training and little education, he ordained. Thus, slenderly equipped
+with knowledge, the priest, with his ritual, missal, and a catechism,
+and the bishop, with his crozier and bell, went forth to do battle for
+the Lord. This condition of things was soon ended. In 450 a college
+was founded at Armagh, which in a short time grew to be a famous
+school, and attracted students from afar. Other schools were founded
+in the fifth century, at Noendrum, Louth, and Kildare. In the sixth
+century arose the famous monastic schools of Clonfert, Clonard,
+Clonmacnois, Arran, and Bangor; while the seventh century saw the rise
+of Glendalough and Lismore.</p>
+
+<p>St. Patrick was educated in Gaul, at the monasteries of Marmoutier
+and Lerins; and, perhaps as a result, the monastic character of the
+early Irish church was one of its outstanding features; moreover it
+was to the prevalence of the monastic spirit, the desire for solitude
+and meditation, that so many of the great monastic establishments owed
+their existence. Fleeing from society and its attractions, and wishing
+only for solitude and austerity, some holy man sought out a lonely
+retreat, and there lived a life of mortification and prayer. Others
+came to share his poverty and vigils; a grant of land was then
+obtained from the ruling chief, the holy man became abbot and his
+followers his monks; and a religious community was formed destined
+soon to acquire fame. It was thus that St. Finnian established Clonard
+on the banks of the Boyne, and St. Kieran, Clonmacnois by the waters
+of the Shannon; and thus did St. Enda make the wind-swept Isles of
+Arran the home and the resting place of so many saints. Before the
+close of the sixth century, 3,000 monks followed the rule of St.
+Corngall at Bangor; and in the seventh century, St. Carthage made
+Lismore famous and St. Kevin attracted pious men from afar to his
+lonely retreat in the picturesque valley of Glendalough.</p>
+
+<p>And there were holy women as well as holy men in Ireland. St.
+Brigid was held in such honor that she is often called the Mary of the
+Gael. Even in St. Patrick's day, she had founded a convent at Kildare,
+beside which was a monastery of which St. Conleth was superior; and
+she founded many other convents in addition to that at Kildare. Her
+example was followed by St. Ita, St. Fanchea, and many others; and if
+at the close of the sixth century there were few districts which had
+not monasteries and monks, there were few also which had not convents
+and nuns.</p>
+
+<p>Nor was this all. Fired with missionary zeal, many men left Ireland
+to plant the faith in distant lands. Thus did St. Columcille settle in
+Iona, whence he converted the Picts. Under his successors, St. Aidan
+and his friends went south to Lindisfarne to convert Northumbria in
+England; and the ninth abbot of Iona was the saintly Adamnan, whose
+biography of St. Columcille has been declared by competent authority
+to be the best of its kind of which the whole Middle Ages can boast.
+Nor must it be forgotten that the monasteries of Luxeuil and Bobbio
+owed their origin to St. Columbanus; that St. Gall gave his name to a
+town and canton in Switzerland; that St. Fridolin labored on the Rhine
+and St. Fursey on the Marne; and that St. Cathaldus was Bishop of
+Tarentum, and is still venerated as the patron of that Italian
+see.</p>
+
+<p>And if we would know what was the character of the schools in which
+these men were trained, we have only to remember that Colgu, who had
+been educated at Clonmacnois, was the master of Alcuin; that Dicuil
+the Geographer came from the same school; that Cummian, Abbot and
+Bishop of Clonfert, combated the errors about the paschal computation
+with an extent of learning and a wealth of knowledge amazing in a monk
+of the seventh century; and that at the close of the eighth century
+two Irishmen went to the court of Charlemagne and were described by a
+monk of St. Gall as "men incomparably skilled in human learning". The
+once pagan Ireland had by that time become a citadel of Christianity,
+and was rightfully called the School of the West, the Island of Saints
+and Scholars.</p>
+
+<p>With this state of progress and prosperity the Danes played sad
+havoc. Animated with the fiercest pagan fanaticism, they turned with
+fury against Christianity, and especially against monks and religious
+foundations. Armagh, Clonmacnois, Bangor, Kildare, and many other
+great monastic establishments thus fell before their fury. Ignorance,
+neglect of religion, and corruption of manners followed, and from the
+eighth to the twelfth century there was a noted falling off in the
+number of Irish scholars. At home indeed were Cormac and Maelmurra,
+O'Hartigan and O'Flynn, and abroad was John Scotus Erigena, whose
+learning was so great that it excited astonishment even at Rome. The
+love of learning and zeal for religion lived on through this long
+period of accumulated disasters. After the triumph of Brian Boru at
+Clontarf, there was a distinct revival of piety and learning; and,
+when a century of turmoil followed Brian's fall and religion again
+suffered, nothing was wanted to bring the people back to a sense of
+their duty but the energy and reforming zeal of St. Malachy.</p>
+
+<p>Gerald Barry, the notorious Anglo-Norman, who visited Ireland
+towards the close of the twelfth century, has been convicted out of
+his own mouth when he states that Ireland was a barbarous nation when
+his people came there. He forgot that a people who could illuminate
+the Book of Kells and build Cormac's Chapel could not be called
+savages, nor could a church be lost to a sense of decency and dignity
+that numbered among its children such a man as St. Laurence O'Toole.
+Abuses there were, it is true, consequent on long continued war,
+though these abuses were increased rather than lessened by the coming
+of the Anglo-Normans, and to such an extent that for more than two
+centuries there is not a single great name among Irish scholars except
+Duns Scotus.</p>
+
+<p>The fame of Duns Scotus was European, and the Subtle Doctor, as he
+was called, became the great glory of the Franciscan, as his rival St.
+Thomas was the great glory of the Dominican, order. But he left no
+successor, and from his death, at the opening of the fourteenth
+century, till the seventeenth century the number of Irish scholars or
+recognized Irish saints was small. Yet, in the midst of disorders
+within, and despite oppression from without, at no time did the love
+of learning disappear in Ireland; nor was there ever in the Irish
+church either heresy or schism.</p>
+
+<p>The attempted reformation by Henry VIII and his daughter Elizabeth
+produced martyrs like O'Hurley and O'Hely; and there were many more
+martyrs in the time of the Stuarts, and especially under the short but
+sanguinary rule of Cromwell.</p>
+
+<p>Those were the days of the penal laws, when they who clung to the
+old religion suffered much. But nothing could shake their faith;
+neither the proclamations of Elizabeth and James, the massacres of
+Cromwell, nor the ferocious proscriptions of the eighteenth century.
+The priest said Mass, though his crime was punishable by death, and
+the people heard Mass, though theirs also was a criminal offence; and
+the schoolmaster, driven from the school, taught under a sheltering
+hedge. The clerical student, denied education at home, crossed the
+sea, to be educated at Louvain or Salamanca or Seville, and then,
+perhaps loaded with academic honors, he returned home to face poverty
+and persecution and even death. The Catholic masses, socially
+ostracised, degraded, and impoverished, shut out from every avenue to
+ambition or enterprise, deprived of every civil right, knowing nothing
+of law except when it oppressed them and nothing of government except
+when it struck them down, yet clung to the religion in which they were
+born. And when, in the latter half of the eighteenth century, the tide
+turned and the first dawn of toleration appeared on the horizon, it
+was found that the vast majority of the people were unchanged, and
+that, after two centuries of the most relentless persecution since the
+days of Diocletian, Ireland was, in faith and practice, a strongly
+Catholic nation still.</p>
+
+<p>On a soil constantly wet with the blood and tears of its children,
+it would be vain to expect that scholarship could flourish. And yet
+the period had its distinguished Irish scholars both at home and
+abroad. At Louvain, in the sixteenth century, were Lombard and Creagh,
+who both became Archbishops of Armagh, and O'Hurley who became
+Archbishop of Cashel. An even greater scholar than these was Luke
+Wadding, the eminent Franciscan who founded the convent of St. Isidore
+at Rome. At Louvain was John Colgan, a Franciscan like Wadding, a man
+who did much for Irish ecclesiastical history. And at home in Ireland,
+as parish priest of Tybrid in Tipperary, was the celebrated Dr.
+Geoffrey Keating the historian, once a student at Salamanca. John
+Lynch, the renowned opponent of Gerald Barry the Welshman, was
+Archdeacon of Tuam. And in the ruined Franciscan monastery of Donegal,
+the Four Masters, aided and encouraged by the Friars, labored long and
+patiently, and finally completed the work which we all know as the
+<i>Annals of the Four Masters</i>. This work, originally written in
+Irish, remained in manuscript in Louvain till the middle of the
+nineteenth century, when it was edited and translated into English by
+John O'Donovan, one of Ireland's greatest Irish scholars, with an
+ability and completeness quite worthy of the original.</p>
+
+<p>On the Anglo-Irish side there were also some great names, and
+especially in the domain of history, notably Stanyhurst and Hammer,
+Moryson and Campion and Davies, and, above all, Ussher and Ware. James
+Ware died in 1666, and though a Protestant and an official of the
+Protestant government, and living in Ireland in an intolerant age and
+in an atmosphere charged with religious rancor, he was, to his credit
+be it said, to a large extent free from bigotry. He dealt with history
+and antiquities, and wrote in no party spirit, wishing only to be fair
+and impartial, and to set out the truth as he found it. James Ussher,
+Archbishop of Armagh, was a much abler man and a much greater scholar
+than Ware. His capacity for research, his profound scholarship, the
+variety and extent of his learning raised him far above his
+co-religionists, and he has been rightly called the Great Luminary by
+the Irish Protestant church. It is regrettable that his fine intellect
+was darkened by bigotry and intolerance.</p>
+
+<p>Far different was the character of another Protestant bishop, the
+great Berkeley, of Cloyne, a patriot, a philosopher, and a scholar,
+who afterwards left money and books for a scholarship, which is still
+in existence, at the then infant Yale College in New England. He lived
+in the first half of the eighteenth century, when the whole machinery
+of government was ruthlessly used to crush the Catholics. But Berkeley
+had little sympathy with the penal laws; he had words of kindness for
+the Catholics, and undoubtedly wished them well. Nor must Swift be
+forgotten, for though he took little pride in being an Irishman, he
+hated and despised those who oppressed Ireland, and is rightly
+regarded as one of the greatest of her sons.</p>
+
+<p>The short period during which Grattan's parliament existed was one
+of great prosperity. It was then that Maynooth College was established
+for the education of the Irish priesthood. But Catholics, though free
+to set up schools, were still shut out from the honors and emoluments
+of Trinity College, the one university at that time in Ireland. Still,
+Charles O'Connor, MacGeoghegan, and O'Flaherty were great Catholic
+scholars in the latter part of the eighteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>In the following century, while Protestant ascendancy was still
+maintained, the Catholics had greater scope. Away back in the days of
+Queen Elizabeth, Campion found Latin widely spoken among the
+peasantry, and Father Mooney met country lads familiar with Virgil and
+Homer. In 1670, Petty had a similar story to tell, in spite of all the
+savageries of Cromwell and the ruin which necessarily followed. And in
+the eighteenth century the schoolmaster, though a price was set on his
+head, was still active. With an inherited love of learning, the Irish
+in the nineteenth century would have made rapid progress had they been
+rich. But their impoverishment by the penal laws made it impossible
+for them to set up an effective system of primary education, and until
+the national school system came into existence in 1831, they had to
+rely on the hedge-schools. Secondary education fared better, for the
+bishops, relying with confidence on the generosity of their flocks,
+were soon able to establish diocesan colleges. And in higher
+education, equally determined efforts were made by the establishment
+of the Catholic University under Cardinal Newman. But in this field of
+intellectual effort, in spite of the energy and zeal of the bishops,
+in spite of the great generosity of the people, so many of whom were
+poor, and in spite of the fame of Newman, it is failure rather than
+success which the historian has to record.</p>
+
+<p>Nor has the love of the Irish for religion, any more than their
+love of learning, been lessened or enfeebled by time. The mountain
+side as the place for Mass in the penal days gradually gave way to the
+rude stone church without steeple or bell; and when steeple and bell
+ceased to be proscribed, and the people were left free to erect
+suitable houses of sacrifice and prayer, the fine churches of the
+nineteenth century began gradually to appear. The unfettered exercise
+of freedom of religious worship, the untiring efforts of a zealous
+clergy and episcopate, the unstinted support of a people, who out of
+their poverty grudged nothing to God or to God's house, formed an
+irresistible combination, and all over the country beautiful churches
+are now to be found.</p>
+
+<p>In every diocese in Ireland, with scarcely an exception, there is
+now a stately cathedral to perpetuate the renown of the patron saint
+of that diocese, and even parish churches have been built not unworthy
+to be the churches of an ancient see. At Armagh, a cathedral has been
+built which does honor to Irish architecture, and worthily
+commemorates the life and labors of St. Patrick, the founder of the
+primatial see; at Thurles, a cathedral stands, the chief church of the
+southern province, statelier far than any which ever stood on the Rock
+of Cashel; at Tuam, a noble building, associated with the memory of
+John MacHale, the Lion of the Fold of Judah, perpetuates the name of
+St. Jarlath; at Queenstown, the traveller, going to America or
+returning from it to the old land, has his attention attracted to the
+splendid cathedral pile sacred to St. Colman, the patron saint of the
+diocese of Cloyne; and if we would see how splendid even a parish
+church may be, let us visit the beautiful church in Drogheda,
+dedicated to the memory of Oliver Plunkett.</p>
+
+<p>Nor are these things the only evidence we have that zeal for
+religion among the Irish has survived centuries of persecution.
+Columbanus and Columcille have still their successors, eager and ready
+as they were to bring the blessings of the Gospel to distant lands. In
+recent years an Irish-born Archbishop of Sydney has been succeeded by
+an Irish-born Archbishop; an Irishman rules the metropolitan see of
+Adelaide; and an Irish-born Archbishop of Melbourne has as his
+coadjutor a former president of the College of Maynooth. In South
+Africa, the work of preaching and teaching and ruling the church is
+largely the work of Irish-born men. In the great Republic of the West
+the three cardinal-archbishops at the head of the Catholic Church have
+the distinctively Irish names of Gibbons and Farley and O'Connell; and
+in every diocese throughout the United States the proportion of
+priests of Irish birth or descent is large.</p>
+
+<p>Nor must the poorer Irish be forgotten. How much does the Catholic
+Church, both in Ireland and in America, owe to the generosity of
+Irish-American laborers and servant girls! Out of their scanty and
+hard-earned pay they have contributed much not only towards the
+building of the plain wooden church in the rural parishes, but also of
+the stately cathedrals of American cities. And many a church in old
+Ireland owes its completion and its adornment to the dollars given by
+the poor but generous Irish exiles.</p>
+
+<p>And if the zeal of the Irish for religion has thus survived to the
+twentieth century, so also in an equally remarkable degree has their
+zeal for learning. We have evidence of this in the numerous primary
+schools in every parish, filled with eager pupils and presided over by
+hard working teachers; in the colleges where the sciences and the
+classics are studied with the same energy as in the ancient monastic
+schools; and in Maynooth College, which is the foremost ecclesiastical
+college in the world. And if there are now new universities, the
+National and the Queen's, sturdy and vigorous in their youth, this
+does not imply that Trinity College suffers from the decreptitude of
+age. For among those whom she sent forth in recent times are Dowden
+and Mahaffy and Lecky, to name but three, and these would do credit to
+any university in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>It would be difficult to find in any age of Irish history a greater
+pulpit orator than the famous Dominican, Father Tom Burke, or a more
+delightful essayist than Father Joseph Farrell; and who has depicted
+Irish clerical life more faithfully than the late Canon Sheehan, whose
+fame as a novelist has crossed continents and oceans? O'Connell was a
+great orator as well as a great political leader, and Dr. Doyle and
+Archbishop John MacHale were scholars as well as statesmen and
+bishops. We have thus an unbroken chain of great names, a series of
+Irishmen whom the succeeding ages have brought forth to enlighten and
+instruct lesser men; and Ireland, in the twentieth century, is not
+less attached to religion and learning than she was when Clonmacnois
+flourished and the saintly Carthage ruled at Lismore.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+<p>Joyce: Social History of Ancient Ireland (Dublin, 1903); Lanigan:
+Ecclesiastical History of Ireland (Dublin, 1822); Healy: Ireland's
+Ancient Schools and Scholars (Dublin, 1896), Life and Writings of St.
+Patrick (Dublin, 1905); Bury: St. Patrick and his Place in History
+(London, 1905); Ussher's Works (Dublin, 1847); Reeves: Adamnan's Life
+of St. Columba (Dublin, 1851); Worsae: The Danes in Ireland (London,
+1852); Moran: Essays on the Early Irish Church (Dublin, 1864); Stokes:
+Ireland and the Anglo-Norman Church (London, 1897); Mant: History of
+the Church of Ireland (London, 1841); Bagwell: Ireland under the
+Tudors (London, 1885-90); Moran: Persecutions under the Puritans
+(Callan, 1903); Murphy: Our Martyrs (Dublin, 1896); Meehan: Franciscan
+Monasteries of the Seventeenth Century (Dublin, 1870); Lecky: History
+of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century (London, 1902); O'Connell's
+Correspondence (London, 1888); Wyse: History of the Catholic
+Association (London, 1829); Doyle: Letters on the State of Ireland
+(Dublin, 1826); O'Rorke: Irish Famine (Dublin, 1902); Gavan Duffy:
+Young Ireland (London, 1880); Plunkett: Ireland in the New Century
+(London, 1904); O'Riordan: Catholicity and Progress in Ireland
+(London, 1905); MacCaffery: History of the Church in the Nineteenth
+Century (Dublin, 1909); Healy: Centenary History of Maynooth College
+(Dublin, 1905); D'Alton: History of Ireland (London, 1910).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T03"></a>IRISH MONKS IN EUROPE</h2>
+<h4>By Rev. Columba Edmonds, O.S.B.</h4>
+
+<p>St. Patrick's work in Ireland was chiefly concerned with preaching
+the faith and establishing monasteries which served as centres of
+education. The great success that attended these efforts earned for
+Ireland the double title of Island of Saints and a Second Thebaid.</p>
+
+<p>The monastic institutions organized by St. Patrick were
+characterized from their commencement by an apostolic zeal that knew
+no bounds. Sufficient scope was not to be found at home, so it was
+impatient to diffuse itself abroad.</p>
+
+<p><b>SCOTLAND:</b> Hence in the year 563 St. Columcille, a Donegal
+native of royal descent, accompanied by twelve companions, crossed the
+sea in currachs of wickerwork and hides, and sought to land in
+Caledonia. They reached the desolate Isle of Iona on the day preceding
+Whitsunday.</p>
+
+<p>Many years before, colonies of Irishmen had settled along the
+western parts of the present Scotland. The settlement north of the
+Clyde received the name of the Kingdom of Dalriada. These Dalriadan
+Irish were Christian at least in name, but their neighbors in the
+Pictish Highlands were still pagans. Columcille's apostolate was to be
+among both these peoples. Adamnan says that Columcille came to
+Caledonia "for the love of Christ's name", and well did his after-life
+prove the truth of this statement. He had attained his forty-fourth
+year when King Conall, his kinsman, bestowed Iona upon him and his
+brethren. The island, situated between the Dalriadans and the Picts of
+the Highlands, was conveniently placed for missionary work. A numerous
+community recruited from Ireland, with Columcille as its Abbot, soon
+caused Iona to become a flourishing centre from which men could go
+forth to preach Christianity. Monasteries and hermitages rapidly
+sprang up in the adjacent islands and on the mainland. These, together
+with the Columban foundations in Ireland, formed one great religious
+federation, in which the Celtic apostles of the northern races were
+formed under the influence of the holy founder.</p>
+
+<p>St. Columcille recognized the need of securing permanence for his
+work by obtaining the conversion of the Pictish rulers, and thus he
+did not hesitate to approach King Brude in his castle on the banks of
+the River Ness. St. Comgall and St. Canice were Columcille's
+companions on his journey through the great glen, now famous for the
+Caledonian Canal. The royal convert Brude was baptized, and by degrees
+the people followed the example set them. Opposition, however, was
+keen and aggressive, and it came from the official representatives of
+Pictish paganism&mdash;the Druids.</p>
+
+<p>Success, too, attended Columcille's ministrations among the
+Dalriadans, and on the death of their king, Aidan Gabhran, who
+succeeded to the throne, sought regal consecration from the hands of
+Columcille. In 597 the saint died, but not before he had won a whole
+kingdom to Christ and covered the land with churches and monasteries.
+Today his name is held in honor not by Irishmen alone, but by the
+Catholics and non-Catholics of the land of his adoption.</p>
+
+<p>There are other saints who either labored in person with Columcille
+or perpetuated the work he accomplished in Caledonia; and their names
+add to the glory of Ireland, their birth-land. Thus St. Moluag (592)
+converted the people of Lismore, and afterwards died at Rosemarkie;
+St. Drostan, St. Columcille's friend and disciple, established the
+faith in Aberdeenshire and became abbot of Deer; St. Kieran (548)
+evangelized Kintyre; St. Mun (635) labored in Argyleshire; St. Buite
+(521) did the same in Pictland; St. Maelrubha (722) preached in
+Ross-shire; St. Modan and St. Machar benefited the dwellers on the
+western and eastern coasts respectively; and St. Fergus in the eighth
+century became apostle of Forfar, Buchan, and Caithness.</p>
+
+<p><b>DISTANT ISLANDS:</b> But Irish monks were mariners as well as
+apostles. Their hide-covered currachs were often launched in the hope
+of discovering solitudes in the ocean. Adamnan records that Baitan set
+out with others in search of a desert in the sea. St. Cormac sought a
+similar retreat and arrived at the Orkneys. St. Molaise's holy isle
+guards Lamlash Bay, off Arran. The island retreats of the Bass,
+Inchkeith, May, and Inchcolm, in the Firth of Forth, are associated
+with the Irish saints Baldred, Adamnan, Adrian, and Columcille. St.
+Maccaldus, a native of Down, became bishop of the Isle of Man.</p>
+
+<p>Remarkable, too, is the fact that Irish monks sailed by way of the
+Faroe Islands to distant Iceland. These sailor-clerics, who settled on
+the southeast of the island, were spoken of by later Norwegians as
+"papar." After their departure&mdash;they were probably driven away by
+Norwegian pagans&mdash;these Icelandic apostles "left behind them
+Irish books, bells, and croziers, wherefrom one could understand they
+were Irishmen."</p>
+
+<p>But St. Brendan, the voyager, is the most wonderful of the mariner
+monks of Ireland. He accomplished apostolic work in both Wales and
+Scotland, but his seafaring instincts urged him to make missionary
+voyages to regions hitherto unknown. Some writers, not without reason,
+have actually maintained that he and his followers traveled as far as
+the American shore. Be this as it may, the tradition of the
+discoveries of this Irish monk kept in mind the possibly existing
+western land, and issued at last in the discovery of the great
+continent of America by Columbus.</p>
+
+<p><b>NORTHUMBRIA:</b> Turn now to Northumbria. Adamnan writes that
+St. Columcille's name was honored not only in Gaul, Spain, and Italy,
+but in Rome itself. England, however, owes to it a special veneration,
+because of the widespread apostolic work accomplished within her
+borders by Columcille's Irish disciples. The facts are as follows:
+Northumbrian Christianity was well-nigh exterminated through the
+victory of Penda the pagan over Edwin the Christian, A.D. 633. St.
+Paulinus, its local Roman apostle, was driven permanently from his
+newly founded churches. Meanwhile Oswald and his brother Edwith sought
+refuge among the Irish monks of lona, and received baptism at their
+hands. Edwith died and Oswald became heir to the throne. A battle was
+fought. The day before he met the pagan army, between the Tyne and the
+Solway, Oswald beheld St. Columcille in vision saying to him: "Be
+strong and of good faith; I will be with thee." The result of this
+vision of the abbot of Iona was that a considerable part of England
+received the true faith. Oswald was victorious; he united the kingdoms
+of Deira and Bernicia, and became overlord of practically all England,
+with the exception of Kent. There was evangelization to be done, and
+St. Oswald turned to Iona. In response to his appeal, the Irish
+bishop, St. Aidan, was sent with several companions. They were
+established on the island of Lindisfarne, in sight of the royal
+residence at Bamborough. These monks labored in union with, and even
+seemed to exceed in zeal, the Roman missionaries in the south under
+St. Augustine. However great the enthusiasm they had displayed for
+conversions in Iona, they displayed still greater on the desolate isle
+of Lindisfarne. In the first instance St. Aidan and his monks
+evangelized Northumbria. Want of facility in preaching in the
+Anglo-Saxon tongue was at first an obstacle, but it was speedily
+overcome, for king Oswald himself, who knew both Gaelic and English,
+came forward and acted as interpreter.</p>
+
+<p>When St. Aidan died in 651, Iona sent St. Finan, another Irish
+bishop, to succeed him. Finan spread the faith beyond the borders of
+Northumbria and succeeded so well that he himself baptized Penda, king
+of the Mid-Angles, and Sigebert, king of the East Saxons. Diuma and
+Cellach, Irish monks, assisted by three Anglo-Saxon disciples of St.
+Aidan, consolidated the mission to the Mercians.</p>
+
+<p><b>ANGLIA:</b> While Christianity was thus being restored in
+Northumbria, other Irish apostles were teaching it in East Anglia. St.
+Fursey, accompanied by his brother St. Foillan and St. Ultan and the
+priests Gobham and Dicuil, landed in England in 633, and began to
+labor in the eastern portions of Anglia. In his monastery at
+Burghcastle, in Suffolk, the convert king Sigebert made his monastic
+profession, and in the same house many heavenly visions were
+vouchsafed to its founder.</p>
+
+<p>The South Saxons had in Dicuil an apostle who founded the monastery
+of Bosham in Sussex, whence originated the episcopal see of
+Chichester. Another Irish monk named Maeldubh settled among the West
+Saxons and became the founder of Malmesbury Abbey and the instructor
+of the well-known St. Aldhelm.</p>
+
+<p>Thus did Irish monks contribute to the conversion of Great Britain
+and its many distant islands. They built up the faith by their holy
+lives, their preaching, and their enthusiasm, and wisely provided for
+its perpetuation by educating a native clergy and by the founding of
+monastic institutions.</p>
+
+<p>They were not yet satisfied, so they turned towards other lands to
+bring to other peoples the glad tidings of salvation.</p>
+
+<p><b>GAUL:</b> In 590 St. Columbanus, a monk of Bangor in Ireland,
+accompanied by twelve brethren, arrived in France, having passed
+through Britain. After the example of St. Columcille in Caledonia,
+they traveled to the court of Gontram, king of Burgundy, in order to
+secure his help and protection. During the course of the journey they
+preached to the people, and all were impressed with their modesty,
+patience, and devotion. At that epoch Gaul was sadly in need of such
+missionaries, for, owing partly to the invasion of barbarians and
+partly to remissness on the part of the clergy, vice and impiety
+everywhere prevailed. Columbanus, because of his zeal, sanctity, and
+learning, was well fitted for the task that lay before him. One of his
+early works in Burgundy was the founding of the monastery of Luxeuil,
+which became the parent of many other monasteries founded either by
+himself or by his disciples. Many holy men came from Ireland to join
+the community, and so numerous did the monks of Luxeuil become that
+separate choirs were formed to keep up perpetual praise&mdash;the
+"laus perennis". But Columbanus did not remain at Luxeuil. In his
+strict uncompromising preaching he spared not even kings, and he
+preferred to leave his flourishing monastery rather than pass over in
+silence the vices of the Merovingians. He escaped from the malice of
+Brunehaut, and, being banished from Burgundy, made his way to
+Neustria, and thence to Metz. Full of zeal, he resolved to preach the
+faith to the pagans along the Rhine, and with this purpose set out
+with a few of his followers. They proceeded as far as the Lake of
+Zurich, and finally established themselves at Bregentz, on the Lake of
+Constance.</p>
+
+<p>By this time his disciple St. Gall had learned the Alemannian
+dialect, which enabled him to push forward the work of evangelization.
+But Columbanus felt that he was called to labor in other lands while
+vigor remained to him, so, bidding his favorite follower farewell, he
+crossed the Alps and arrived at Milan in northern Italy. King Agilulph
+and his queen, Theodelinda, gave the Irish abbot a reverent and kind
+welcome. His zeal was still unspent, and he worked much for the
+conversion of the Lombard Arians. Here he founded, between Milan and
+Genoa, the monastery of Bobbio, which as a centre of knowledge and
+piety was long the light of northern Italy. In this monastery he died
+in the year 615, but not before the arrival of messengers from King
+Clothaire, inviting him to return to Luxeuil, as his enemies were now
+no more. But he could not go; all he asked was protection for his dear
+monks at Luxeuil.</p>
+
+<p>It has been said most truly that Ireland never sent a greater son
+to do God's work in foreign lands than Columbanus. The fruit of his
+labors remained; and for centuries after his death his influence was
+widely felt throughout Europe, especially in France and Italy. His
+zeal for the interests of God was unbounded, and this was the secret
+of his immense power. Some of his writings have come down to us, and
+comprise his Rule for Monks, his Penitential, sixteen short sermons,
+six letters, and several poems, all in Latin. His letters are of much
+value as evidence of Ireland's ancient belief in papal supremacy.</p>
+
+<p><b>SWITZERLAND:</b> Gall, Columbanus's disciple, remained in
+Switzerland. In a fertile valley, lying between two rivers and
+surrounded by hills, he laid the beginnings of the great abbey which
+afterwards bore his name and became one of the most famous monasteries
+in Christendom. St. Gall spent thirty years of his life in Helvetia,
+occupying himself in teaching, preaching, and prayer. He succeeded
+where others had failed, and that which was denied to Columbanus was
+reserved for Gall, his disciple, and the latter is entitled the
+Apostle of Alemannia.</p>
+
+<p>Other districts had their Irish missionaries and apostles. Not far
+from St. Gall, at Seckingen, near Basle, St. Fridolin was a pioneer in
+the work of evangelization.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the seventh century St. Kilian, an Irishman,
+with his companions, Totnan and Colman, arrived in Franconia. He was
+martyred in W&uuml;rtzburg, where he is honored as patron and
+apostle.</p>
+
+<p>Sigisbert, another Irish follower of St. Columbanus, spread the
+faith among the half-pagan people of eastern Helvetia, and founded the
+monastery of Dissentis in Rhaetia.</p>
+
+<p>St. Ursanne, a little town on the boundaries of Switzerland, took
+its origin from another disciple of St. Columbanus.</p>
+
+<p><b>OTHER APOSTLES AND FOUNDERS:</b> Desire for solitary life drew
+St. Fiacre to a hermitage near Meaux, where he transformed wooded
+glades into gardens to provide vegetables for poor people. This
+charity has earned for Fiacre the title of patron saint of
+gardeners.</p>
+
+<p>St. Fursey, the illustrious apostle of East Anglia, crossed over to
+France, where he travelled and preached continuously. He built a
+monastery at Lagny-sur-Marne, and was about to return to East Anglia
+when he died at M&eacute;zerolles, near Doullens. St. Gobham followed
+his master's example, and like him evangelized and founded
+monasteries. St. Etto (Z&eacute;) acted in like manner. St. Foillan
+and St. Ultan, brothers of St. Fursey, became apostles in southern
+Brabant.</p>
+
+<p>The monastery of Honau, on an island near Strasburg, and that of
+Altom&uuml;nster, in Bavaria, owe their foundation to the Irish monks
+Tuban and Alto, respectively.</p>
+
+<p>Not far from Luxeuil was the Abbey of Lure, another great Irish
+foundation, due to Deicolus (Desle, Dichuill), a brother of St. Gall
+and a disciple of St. Columbanus. So important was this house
+considered in later times that its abbot was numbered among the
+princes of the Holy Roman Empire.</p>
+
+<p>Rouen, in Normandy, felt the influence of the Irish monks through
+the instrumentality of St. Ouen; and the monasteries of Jouarre,
+Rebais, Jumi&egrave;ges, Leuconaus, and St. Vandrille were due at
+least indirectly to Columbanus or his disciples.</p>
+
+<p>Turning to Belgium, it is recorded that St. Romold preached the
+faith in Mechlin, and St. Livinus in Ghent. Both came from
+Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>St. Virgilius, a voluntary exile from Erin, "for the love of
+Christ", established his monastery at Salzburg, in Austria. He became
+bishop there, and died in 781.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, the Celtic Rule of Columbanus was carried into Picardy by
+St. Valery, St. Omer, St. Bertin, St. Mummolin, and St. Valdelenus;
+but the Irish Caidoc and Fricor had already preceded them, their work
+resulting in the foundation of the Abbey of St. Riquier.</p>
+
+<p><b>ITALY:</b> Something yet remains to be said of the monks of
+Ireland in Italy. Anterior to St. Columbanus's migration, his fellow
+countryman, St. Frigidian (or Fridian), had taken up his abode in
+Italy at Monte Pisana, not far from the city of Lucca, where he became
+famed for sanctity and wisdom. On the death of the bishop of Lucca,
+Frigidian was compelled to occupy the vacant see. St. Gregory the
+Great wrote of him that "he was a man of rare virtue". His teachings
+and holy life not only influenced the lives of his own flock, but
+brought to the faith many heretics and pagans. In Lucca this Celtic
+apostle is still honored under the name of St. Frediano.</p>
+
+<p>St. Pellegrinus is another Irish saint who sought solitude at
+Garfanana in the Apennines; and Cathaldus, a Waterford saint, in 680,
+became Bishop of Taranto, which he governed for many years with zeal
+and great wisdom. His co-worker was Donatus, his brother, who founded
+the church at Lecce in the Kingdom of Naples.</p>
+
+<p>Of the two learned Irishmen, Clemens and Albinus, who resided in
+France in the eighth century, Albinus was sent into Italy, where at
+Pavia he was placed at the head of the school attached to St.
+Augustine's monastery. Dungal, his compatriot, was a famous teacher in
+the same city. Lothair thus ordained concerning him: "We desire that
+at Pavia, and under the superintendence of Dungal, all students should
+assemble from Milan, Brescia, Lodi, Bergamo, Novara, Vercelli,
+Tortona, Acqui, Genoa, Asti, Como."</p>
+
+<p>It was this same Dungal who presented the Bangor psalter to Bobbio;
+therefore it may be reasonably conjectured that he came from the very
+monastery that produced Columbanus, Gall, and Comgall.</p>
+
+<p>Fiesole, in Tuscany, venerates two Irish eighth-century saints,
+Donatus and Andrew. The former was educated at Iniscaltra, and Andrew
+was his friend and disciple. After visiting Rome, they lingered at
+Fiesole. Donatus was received with great honor by clergy and people
+and was requested to fill their vacant bishopric. With much hesitation
+he took upon himself ihe burden, which he bore for many years. His
+biographer says of him that "he was liberal in almsgiving, sedulous in
+watching, devout in prayer, excellent in doctrine, ready in speech,
+holy in life." Andrew, who was his deacon, founded the church and
+monastery of St. Martin in Mensola, and is known in Fiesole as St.
+Andrew of Ireland, or St. Andrew the Scot, that is, the Irishman.</p>
+
+<p><b>HOSPITALIA:</b> Thus Irish monks were to be found in France,
+Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, and Italy, and even in Bulgaria. So
+numerous were they and so frequent their travels through the different
+countries of Europe that hospices were founded to befriend them. These
+institutions were known as "Hospitalia Scottorum" ("Hospices for the
+Irish"), and their benefactors were not only pious laymen but the
+highest ecclesiastical authorities. Sometimes the hospices were
+diverted to purposes other than those originally intended, and then
+Church Councils would intervene in favor of the lawful inheritors.
+Thus in 845 we read that the Council of Meaux ordered the hospices in
+France to be restored to the dispossessed Irishmen. In the twelfth
+century Ireland still continued to send forth a constant succession of
+monk-pilgrims, renowned for faith, austerity, and piety.</p>
+
+<p><b>RATISBON:</b> Special monasteries were erected to be peopled by
+the Irish. The most renowned of these dates from 1067, when Marianus
+Scotus ("Marianus the Irishman"), with his companions, John and
+Candidus, left his native land and arrived in Bavaria. These holy men
+were welcomed at Ratisbon by the Bishop Otto; and on the advice of
+Murcherat, an Irish recluse, took up their residence near St. Peter's
+church at the outskirts of the city. Novices flocked from Ireland to
+join them and a monastery was erected to receive the community. In a
+short time this had to be replaced by a still larger one, which was
+known to future ages as the Abbey of St. James's of the Scots (that
+is, Irish) at Ratisbon. How prolific was this parent foundation is
+evidenced from its many offshoots, the only surviving monasteries on
+the continent for many centuries intended for Irish brethren. These,
+besides St. James's at Erfurt and St. Peter's at Ratisbon, comprised
+St. James's at W&uuml;rtzburg, St. Giles's at Nuremberg, St. Mary's at
+Vienna, St. James's at Constance, St. Nicholas's at Memmingen, Holy
+Cross at Eichstatt, a Priory at Kelheim and another at Oels in
+Silesia, all of which were founded during the twelfth or thirteenth
+century, and formed a Benedictine congregation approved of by Pope
+Innocent III., and presided over by the Abbot of Ratisbon. These Irish
+houses, with their long lines of Celtic abbots, in the days of their
+prosperity did much work that was excellent and civilizing, and
+rightly deserve a remembrance in the achievements of Ireland's ancient
+missionaries.</p>
+
+<p>Ratisbon and its dependent abbeys, as is set forth in the papal
+briefs of 1218, possessed priories in Ireland, and, from these,
+novices were usually obtained.</p>
+
+<p>But evil days came for the Congregation of St. James, and now it is
+extinct. The subjugation of Ireland to England, says Wattenbach,
+contributed no doubt to the rapid decline of the Scotic (that is,
+Irish) monasteries. For from Ireland they had up till then been
+continually receiving fresh supplies of strength. In this their
+fatherland the root of their vitality was to be found. Loss of
+independence involved loss of enterprise.</p>
+
+<p><b>SCHOLARSHIP AND INFLUENCE:</b> Irish monks were not only
+apostles of souls, but also masters of intellectual life. Thus in the
+seventh century the Celtic monastery of Luxeuil became the most
+celebrated school in Christendom. Monks from other houses and sons of
+the nobility crowded to it. The latter were clearly not intended for
+the cloister, but destined for callings in the world.</p>
+
+<p>There were outstanding men among these missionaries from Ireland.
+St. Virgilius of Salzburg in the eighth century taught the sphericity
+of the earth and the existence of the Antipodes. It was this same
+teaching that Copernicus and later astronomers formulated into the
+system now in vogue.</p>
+
+<p>St. Columcille himself was a composer of Latin hymns and a penman
+of no mean order, as the Book of Kells, if written by him,
+sufficiently proves. In all the monasteries which he founded,
+provision was made for the pursuit of sacred learning and the
+multiplication of books by transcription. The students of his schools
+were taught classics, mechanical arts, law, history, and physics. They
+improved the methods of husbandry and gardening; supplied the people,
+whom they helped to civilize, with implements of labor; and taught
+them the use of the forge, an accomplishment belonging to almost every
+Irish monk.</p>
+
+<p>The writings of Adamnan, who spent most of his life outside his
+native land, show that he was familiar with the best Latin authors,
+and had a knowledge of Greek as well. His "Vita S. Columbae" ("Life of
+St. Columcille") has made his name immortal as a Latin writer. His
+book "De Locis Sanctis" ("On the Holy Places") contains information he
+received from the pilgrim bishop Arculfus, who had been driven by a
+tempest to take refuge with the monks of Iona. On account of the
+importance of the writings of Adamnan and because of his influence in
+secular and ecclesiastical affairs of importance, few will question
+his right to a distinguished place among the saintly scholars of the
+West.</p>
+
+<p>Irish monks, abroad as well as at home, were pre-eminently students
+and exponents of Holy Scripture. Sedulius wrote a commentary on the
+Epistles of St. Paul; John Scotus Erigena composed a work, "De
+Praedestinatione" ("Concerning Predestination"); Dungal was not only
+an astronomer, but also an excellent theologian, as is clear from his
+defence of Catholic teaching on the invocation of saints and the
+veneration of their relics. His knowledge of Sacred Scripture and of
+the Fathers is exceedingly remarkable.</p>
+
+<p>St. Columbanus, besides other works, is said to have composed an
+exposition of the Psalms, which is mentioned in the catalogue of St.
+Gall's library, but which cannot now be identified with certainty. The
+writings of this abbot are said to have brought about a more frequent
+use of confession both in the world and in monasteries; and his
+legislation regarding the Blessed Sacrament fostered eucharistic
+devotion.</p>
+
+<p>Marianus Scotus is the author of a commentary on the Psalms, so
+precious that rarely was it allowed to pass beyond the walls of the
+monastic library. His commentary on St. Paul's Epistles is regarded as
+his most famous production. Herein he shows acquaintance with Saints
+Jerome, Augustine, Gregory, and Leo, with Cassiodorus, Origen, Alcuin,
+Cassian, and Peter the Deacon. He completed the work on the 17th May,
+1079, and ends the volume by asking the reader to pray for the
+salvation of his soul.</p>
+
+<p><b>TRANSCRIPTION:</b> In all the monasteries a vast number of
+scribes were continually employed in multiplying copies of the Sacred
+Scriptures. These masterpieces of calligraphy, written by Irish hands,
+have been scattered throughout the libraries of Europe, and many
+fragments remain to the present day. The beauty of these manuscripts
+is praised by all, and the names of the best transcribers often find
+mention in monastic annals. The work was irksome, but it was looked
+upon as a privilege and meritorious.</p>
+
+<p>It remains to speak of that glorious monument of the Irish monks,
+the abbey of St. Gall, in Switzerland. It was here that Celtic
+influence was most felt and endured the longest. Within its walls for
+centuries the sacred sciences were taught and classic authors studied.
+Many of its monks excelled as musicians and poets, while others were
+noted for their skill in calligraphy and the fine arts. The library
+was only in its infancy in the eighth century, but gradually it grew,
+and eventually became one of the largest and richest in the world. The
+brethren were in correspondence with all the learned houses of France
+and Italy, and there was constant mutual interchange of books, sacred
+and scientific, between them.</p>
+
+<p>They manufactured their own parchment from the hides of the wild
+beasts that roamed in the forests around them, and bound their books
+in boards of wood clamped with iron or ivory.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the monastery of St. Gall, which owes its inception to the
+journey through Europe of the great Columbanus and his
+monk-companions&mdash;men whose lives, according to Bede, procured for
+the religious habit great veneration, so that wherever they appeared
+they were received with joy, as God's own servants. "And what will be
+the reward," asks the biographer of Marianus Scotus, "of these
+pilgrim-monks who left the sweet soil of their native land, its
+mountains and hills, its valleys and its groves, its rivers and pure
+fountains, and went like the children of Abraham without hesitation
+into the land which God had pointed out to them?" He answers thus:
+"They will dwell in the house of the Lord with the angels and
+archangels of God forever; they will behold the God of gods in Sion,
+to whom be honor and glory for ever and ever."</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+<p>Lanigan: Ecclesiastical History of Ireland (Dublin, 1829);
+Montalembert: Monks of the West (Edinburgh, 1861); Moran: Irish Saints
+in Great Britain (Dublin, 1903); Dalgairns: Apostles of Europe
+(London, 1876); Healy: Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars (Dublin,
+1890); Barrett: A Calendar of Scottish Saints (Fort Augustus, 1904);
+Stokes: Six Months in the Apennines (London, 1892), Three Months in
+the Forests of France (London, 1895); Fowler: Vita S. Columbae
+(Oxford, 1894); Wattenbach: Articles in Ulster Journal of Archaeology,
+vol. 7 (Belfast, 1859); Gougaud: Les Chr&eacute;tient&eacute;s
+celtiques (Paris, 1911); Hogan: Articles in Irish Ecclesiastical
+Record, 1894, 1895; Drane: Christian Schools and Scholars (London,
+1881).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T04"></a>THE IRISH AND THE SEA</h2>
+<h4>By WILLIAM H. BABCOCK, LL.B.</h4>
+
+<p>The beginning of Irish navigation, like the beginning of everything
+else, is hidden in the mist of antiquity. Vessels of some kind
+obviously must have borne the successive waves of immigrants or
+invaders to the island. Naturally they would remain in use afterwards
+for trade, travel, exploration, and war. Irish ships may have been
+among those of the Breton fleet that C&aelig;sar dispersed at Vannes
+after an obstinate struggle. Two or three centuries later we find
+Niall of the Nine Hostages making nautical descents on the neighboring
+shores, especially Britain: and there is every probability that ships
+of the island conveyed some at least of the "Scots" (Irish) whom
+Gildas in the sixth century describes as joining the Picts in
+furiously storming the Roman wall.</p>
+
+<p>The equally adventurous but more pacific work of exploration went
+on also, if we may judge by that extraordinary series of Irish
+sea-sagas, the <i>Imrama</i>, comprising the Voyages of Bran,
+Maelduin, the Hui Corra, and St. Brendan&mdash;the last-mentioned
+deservedly the most famous. These vary in their literary merits and in
+the merits of their several parts, for they have been successively
+rewritten at different periods, receiving always something of the
+color, belief, and adornment which belonged to the writer's time; but
+under all may be dimly traced, as in a palimpsest, the remote pagan
+original. At their best they embody a lofty and touching poetry very
+subtle and significant, as when we read of Bran's summoning by a
+visitant of supernatural beauty to the isles of undying delight, where
+a thousand years are but as a day; his return with a companion who had
+been overcome by longing for Ireland and home; the man's falling to
+ashes at the first touch of the native soil, as though he had been
+long dead; and the flight of Bran and his crew from the real living
+world to the islands of the blessed. At least equally fine and
+stirring is St. Brendan's interview with the exiled spirit of Heaven,
+whose "sin was but little", so that he and his fellows were given only
+the pleasing penance of singing delightfully, in the guise of
+beautiful birds, the praises of the God who showed them mercy and
+grace, amid the charms of an earthly paradise. "Then all the birds
+sang evensong, so that it was an heavenly noise to hear."</p>
+
+<p>It is not very surprising that St. Brendan's legend, with such
+qualities in prose and verse, made itself at home in many lands and
+languages, and became for centuries a widespread popular favorite and
+matter of general belief, also influencing the most permanent
+literature of a high contemplative cast, which we might suppose to be
+out of touch with it altogether. Certain of its more unusual incidents
+are found even in Arab writings of romance founded on fact, as in
+Edrisi's narrative of the Magrurin explorers of Lisbon and the
+adventures of Sinbad related in the Arabian Nights; but perhaps here
+we have a case of reciprocal borrowing such as may well occur when
+ships' companies of different nations meet.</p>
+
+<p>The most conspicuous, insistent, and repeated feature of all these
+<i>Imrama</i> is a belief in Atlantic islands fair enough or wonderful
+enough to tempt the shore dwellers of Ireland far away and hold them
+spell-bound for years. It is easy to ascribe these pictures to sunset
+on the ocean, or the wonders of mirage; but all the time, within long
+sailing distance, there actually were islands of delightful climate
+and exceeding beauty. These had been occasionally reached from the
+Mediterranean ever since early Carthaginian times, as classical
+authors seem to tell us; why not also from Ireland, perhaps not quite
+so distant? It is undoubted that the Canary Islands were never really
+altogether forgotten, and the same is probably true of the Madeiras
+and all three groups of Azores, though the knowledge that lingered in
+Ireland was a distorted glimmering tradition of old voyages,
+occasionally inciting to new ventures in the same field.</p>
+
+<p>Some have supposed, though without sufficient evidence, that Saint
+Brendan even made his way to America, and parts of that shore line in
+several different latitudes have been selected as the scene of the
+exploit. His first entry into serious geography is in the fine maps of
+Dulcert, 1339, and the Pizigani, 1367, both of which plainly label
+Madeira, Porto Santo, and Las Desertas&mdash;"The Fortunate Islands of
+St. Brandan." That there may be no possibility of misunderstanding,
+the Pizigani brothers present a full-length portrait of the holy
+navigator himself bending over these islands with hands of
+benediction. The inscription, though not the picture, was common, thus
+applied, on the maps of the next century or two, and no other
+interpretation of his voyage found any place until a later time.</p>
+
+<p>Of course the fourteenth century was a long way from the sixth,
+when the voyage was supposed to have been made, and we cannot take so
+late a verdict as convincing proof of any fact. But it at least
+exhibits the current interpretation of the written narrative among
+geographers and mariners, the people best able to judge; and here the
+interval was much less. The story itself seems to corroborate them in
+a general way, if read naturally. One would say that it tells of a
+voyage to the Canaries, of which one is unmistakably "the island under
+Mount Atlas", and that this was undertaken by way of the Azores and
+Madeira, with inevitable experience of great beauty in some islands
+and volcanic terrors in others. Madeira may well have been pitched
+upon by the interpreters as the suitable scene of a particularly long
+tarrying by the way. Of course magic filled out all gaps of real
+knowledge, and wonders grew with each new rewriting.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever Brendan did, there is no doubt that Irish mariner-monks,
+incited by the great awakening which followed St. Patrick's mission,
+covered many seas in their frail vessels during the next three or four
+centuries. They set up a flourishing religious establishment in
+Orkney, made stepping stones of the intervening islands, and reached
+Iceland some time in the eighth century, if not earlier. The Norsemen,
+following in their tracks as always, found them there, and the
+earliest Icelandic writings record their departure, leaving behind
+them books, bells, and other souvenirs on an islet off shore which
+still bears their name.</p>
+
+<p>Did they keep before the Norsemen to America too? At least the
+Norsemen thought so. For centuries the name Great Ireland or
+Whitemen's Land was accepted in Norse geography as meaning a region
+far west of Ireland, a parallel to Great Sweden (Russia), which lay
+far east of Sweden. The saga of Thorfinn Karlsefni, first to attempt
+colonizing America, makes it plain that his followers believed Great
+Ireland to be somewhere in that region, and it is explicitly located
+near Wineland by the twelfth century Landnamabok. Also there were
+specific tales afloat of a distinguished Icelander lost at sea, who
+was afterward found in a western region by an Irish vessel long driven
+before the storm. The version most relied on came through one Rafn,
+who had dwelt in Limerick; also through Thorfinn, earl of the
+Orkneys.</p>
+
+<p>Brazil, the old Irish <i>Breasail</i>, was another name for land
+west of Ireland&mdash;where there is none short of America&mdash;on
+very many medieval maps, of which perhaps a dozen are older than the
+year 1400, the earliest yet found being that of Dalorto, 1325. Usually
+it appears as a nearly circular disc of land opposite Munster, at
+first altogether too near the Irish coast, as indeed the perfectly
+well-known Corvo was drawn much too near the coast of Spain, or as
+even in the sixteenth century, when Newfoundland had been repeatedly
+visited, that island was shifted by divers mapmakers eastward towards
+Ireland, almost to the conventional station of Brazil. Also, not long
+afterwards, the maps of Nicolay and Zaltieri adopted the reverse
+treatment of transferring Brazil to Newfoundland waters, as if
+recognizing past error and restoring its proper place.</p>
+
+<p>The name Brazil appears not to have been adopted by the Norsemen,
+but there is one fifteenth century map, perhaps of 1480, preserved in
+Milan, which shows this large disc-form "Brazil" just below Greenland
+("Illa Verde"), in such relation that the mapmaker really must have
+known of Labrador under the former name and believed that it could be
+readily reached from that Norse colony.</p>
+
+<p>It seems altogether likely that "Brazil" was applied to the entire
+outjutting region of America surrounding the Gulf of St.
+Lawrence&mdash;that part of this continent which is by far the nearest
+Ireland. Besides the facts above stated, certain coincidences of real
+geography and of these old maps favor that belief, and they are quite
+unlikely to have been guessed or invented. Thus certain maps,
+beginning with 1375, while keeping the circular external outline of
+Ireland, reduce the land area to a mere ring, enclosing an expanse of
+water dotted with islands; and certain other maps show it still nearly
+circular externally, and solid, but divided into two parts by a curved
+channel nearly from north to south. The former exposition is possible
+enough to one more concerned with the nearly enclosed Gulf of St.
+Lawrence and its islands than with its two comparatively narrow
+outlets; the second was afterward repeated approximately by Gastoldi's
+map illustrating Ramusio when he was somehow moved to minimize the
+width of the Gulf, though well remembering the straits of Belle Isle
+and Cabot. There are some other coincidences, but it is unnecessary to
+dwell on them. Land west of Ireland must be either pure fancy or the
+very region in question, and it is hardly believable that fancy could
+guess so accurately as to two different interpretations of real though
+unusual geography and give them right latitude, with such an old Irish
+name (Brazil) as might naturally have been conferred in the early
+voyaging times. That an extensive region, chiefly mainland, should be
+represented as an island is no objection, as anyone will see by
+examining the maps which break up everything north of South America in
+the years next following the achievements of Columbus and Cabot. There
+was a natural tendency to expect nothing but islands short of
+Asia.</p>
+
+<p>It seems likely, therefore, that America was actually reached by
+the Irish even before the Norsemen and certainly long before all other
+Europeans.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+<p>Babcock: Early Norse Visits to North America, Smithsonian
+Publication 2138 (1913); Baring-Gould: Curious Myths of the Middle
+Ages; Beauvois: The Discovery of the New World by the Irish; Cantwell:
+Pre-Columbian Discoveries of America; Daly: The Legend of St. Brandan,
+Celtic Review, vol. I, A Sequel to the Voyage of St. Brandan, Celtic
+Review, Jan. 13, 1909; Hardiman: The History of Galway; Hull: Irish
+Episodes of Icelandic History; Joyce: The Voyage of Maelduin; Nutt:
+The Voyage of Bran; Stokes: The Voyage of Maelduin (<i>Revue
+Celtique</i>, vol. 9), Voyage of Snedgus (<i>Revue Celtique</i>, vol.
+9), Voyage of the Hui Corra (<i>Revue Celtigue</i>, vol. 14); Moran:
+Brendaniana.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T05"></a>IRISH LOVE OF LEARNING</h2>
+<h4>By REV. P.S. DINNEEN, M.A., R.U.I.</h4>
+
+<p>"The distinguishing property of man," says Cicero, "is to search
+for and follow after truth. Therefore, when disengaged from our
+necessary cares and concerns, we desire to see, to hear, and to learn,
+and we esteem knowledge of things obscure or wonderful as
+indispensable to our happiness." (<i>De Officiis</i> I., 4).</p>
+
+<p>I claim for the Irish race that throughout their history they have
+cut down their bodily necessities to the quick, in order to devote
+time and energy to the pursuit of knowledge; that they have engaged in
+intellectual pursuits, not infrequently of a high order, on a low
+basis of material comfort; that they have persevered in the quest of
+learning under unparalleled hardships and difficulties, even in the
+dark night of "a nation's eclipse", when a school was an unlawful
+assembly and school-teaching a crime. I claim, moreover, that, when
+circumstances were favorable, no people have shown a more adventurous
+spirit or a more chivalrous devotion in the advancement and spread of
+learning.</p>
+
+<p>Love of learning implies more than a natural aptitude for acquiring
+information. It connotes a zest for knowledge that is recondite and
+attainable only at the expense of ease, of leisure, of the comforts
+and luxuries of life, and a zeal for the cultivation of the mental
+faculties. It is of the soul and not of the body; it refines,
+elevates, adorns. It is allied to sensibility, to keenness of vision,
+to the close observation of mental phenomena. Its possessor becomes a
+citizen of the known world. His mind broadens; he compares, contrasts,
+conciliates; he brings together the new and the old, the near and the
+distant, the permanent and the transitory, and weaves from them all
+the web of systematized human thought.</p>
+
+<p>I am not here concerned with the extent of Ireland's contribution
+to the sum of human learning, nor with the career of her greatest
+scholars; I am merely describing the love of learning which is
+characteristic of the race, and which it seems best to present in a
+brief study of distinct types drawn from various periods of Irish
+history.</p>
+
+<p>In the pre-Christian period the Druid was the chief representative
+of the learning of the race. He was the adviser of kings and princes,
+and the instructor of their children. His knowledge was of the
+recondite order and beyond the reach of ordinary persons. The esteem
+in which he was held by all classes of the people proves their love
+for the learning for which he stood.</p>
+
+<p>Patrick came: and with him came a wider horizon of learning and
+greater facilities for the acquisition and diffusion of knowledge.
+Monastic schools sprang up in all directions&mdash;at Clonard, Armagh,
+Clonmacnois, Bangor, Lismore, Kildare, Innisfallen. These schools were
+celebrated throughout Europe in the earlier middle ages, and from the
+fifth to the ninth century Ireland led the nations of Europe in
+learning and deserved the title of the "Island of Saints and
+Scholars." Our type is the student in one of these monastic schools.
+He goes out from his parents and settles down to study in the environs
+of the monastery. He is not rich; he resides in a hut; his time is
+divided between study, prayer, and manual labor. He becomes a monk,
+only to increase in devotion to learning and to accentuate his
+privations. He copies and illuminates manuscripts. He memorizes the
+Psalms. He glosses the Vulgate Scriptures with vernacular notes. He
+receives ordination, and, realizing that there are benighted countries
+ten times as large as his native land beyond the seas, and, burning
+with zeal for the spread of the Gospel and the advancement of
+learning, sails for Britain, or passes into Gaul, or reaches the
+slopes of the Apennines, or the outskirts of the Black Forest. The
+rest of his life is devoted to the foundation of monasteries to which
+schools are attached, to the building of churches, and to the
+diffusion around him of every known branch of knowledge. He may have
+taken books from Ireland over seas, and, of these, relics are now to
+be found among the treasures of the ancient libraries of Europe.
+Columcille, Columbanus, Adamnan, Gall, Virgilius occur to the mind in
+dwelling on this type.</p>
+
+<p>The hereditary <i>seanchaidhe</i>, who treasured up the traditional
+lore of the clan and its chief, was held in high honor and enjoyed
+extraordinary privileges. He held a freehold. He was high in the
+graces of the chief, and officiated at his inauguration.</p>
+
+<p>An important type is the Irish ecclesiastical student abroad in the
+penal days. School teaching, unless at the sacrifice of Faith, was a
+crime in Ireland, and the training required for the priesthood had to
+be obtained on the continent. The Irish out of their poverty
+established colleges in Rome (1628), Salamanca (1593), Seville (1612),
+Alcala (1590), Lisbon (1593), Louvain (1634), Antwerp (1629), Douai
+(1577), Lille (1610), Bordeaux (1603), Toulouse (1659), Paris (1605),
+and elsewhere. As late as 1795 these colleges contained 478 students,
+and some of them are still in existence. The young student in going
+abroad risked everything. He often returned watched by spies, with his
+life in danger. Yet the supply never failed; the colleges flourished;
+and those who returned diffused around them not only learning but the
+urbanity and refinement which were a striking fruit and mark of their
+studies abroad.</p>
+
+<p>Another type is the Irish scribe. In the days of Ireland's fame and
+prosperity and of the flood-tide of her native language, he was a
+skilled craftsman, and the extant specimens of his work are
+unsurpassed of their kind. But I prefer to look at him at a later
+period, when he became our sole substitute for the printer and when
+his diligence preserved for us all that remains of a fading
+literature. He was miserably poor. He toiled through the day at the
+spade or the plough, or guided the shuttle through the loom. At night,
+by the flare of the turf-fire or the fitful light of a splinter of
+bogwood, he made his copy of poem or tract or tale, which but for him
+would have perished. The copies are often ill-spelt and ill-written,
+but with all their faults they are as noble a monument to national
+love of learning as any nation can boast of.</p>
+
+<p>In our gallery of types we must not forget the character whom
+English writers contemptuously called the "hedge-schoolmaster." The
+hedge-school in its most elemental state was an open-air daily
+assemblage of youths in pursuit of knowledge. Inasmuch as the law had
+refused learning a fitting temple in which to abide and be honored,
+she was led by her votaries into the open, and there, beside the
+fragrant hedge, if you will, with the green sward for benches, and the
+canopy of heaven for dome, she was honored in Ireland, even as she had
+been honored ages before in Greece, in Palestine, and by our
+primordial Celtic ancestors themselves. The hedge-schoolmaster
+conducted the rites, and the air resounded with the sonorous
+hexameters of Virgil and the musical odes of Horace.</p>
+
+<p>In the Irish-speaking portions of the country the
+hedge-schoolmaster was often also a poet who wrote mellifluous songs
+in Irish, which were sung throughout the entire district and sometimes
+earned him enduring fame. Eoghan Ruadh O'Sullivan and Andrew MacGrath,
+called <i>An Mangaire Sugach</i> or "the Jolly Pedlar," are well-known
+instances of this type.</p>
+
+<p>The poor scholar is another type that under varying forms and under
+various circumstances has ever trod the stage of Irish history. From
+an ancient Irish manuscript (See O'Curry, <i>Manners and Customs</i>,
+II, 79, 80) we learn that Adamnan, the biographer of St. Columcille,
+and some other youths studied at Clonard and were supported by the
+neighborhood. The poor scholar more than any other type embodies the
+love of learning of the Irish race. In the schools which preceded the
+National, he appeared in a most interesting stage of development. He
+came from a distance, attracted by the reputation of a good teacher
+and the regularity of a well-conducted school. He came, avowedly poor.
+His only claim on the generosity of his teacher and of the public was
+a marked aptitude for learning and an ardent desire for study and
+cultivation of mind. He did not look for luxuries. He was satisfied,
+if his bodily wants were reasonably supplied, even with the
+inconveniences of frequent change of abode. A welcome was extended to
+him on all sides. His hosts and patrons honored his thirst for
+knowledge and tenacity of purpose. He was expected to help the
+students in the house where he found entertainment, and it may not
+have been unpleasing to him on occasion to display his talents before
+his host. When school was over, it was not unusual to find him
+surrounded by a group of school-companions, each pressing his claim to
+entertain him for the night.</p>
+
+<p>Despite the hospitality of his patrons, the poor scholar often felt
+the bitterness of his dependent state, but he bore it with equanimity,
+his hand ever eagerly stretched out for the prize of learning. What
+did learning bring him? Why was he so eager to bear for its sake</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p class="i10">"all the thousand aches</p>
+<p>That patient merit of the unworthy takes"?</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Sometimes he became a priest; sometimes his life was purposeless
+and void. But he was ever urged onward by the fascination of learning
+and of the cultivation of the nobler part of his nature.</p>
+
+<p>As might have been expected, the Irish who have emigrated to the
+American and Australian continents have given touching proof of their
+devotion to the cause of learning. I have space only for a few
+pathetic examples.</p>
+
+<p>An Irish workman in the United States, seeing my name in connection
+with an Irish Dictionary, wrote to me a few years ago to ask how he
+might procure one, as, he said, an Italian in the works had asked him
+the meaning of <i>Erin go bragh</i>, and he felt ashamed to be unable
+to explain it.</p>
+
+<p>A man who, at the age of three, had emigrated from Clare in the
+famine time, wrote to me recently from Australia in the Irish language
+and character.</p>
+
+<p>An old man named John O'Regan of New Zealand, who had been twelve
+years in exile in the United States and forty-eight on the Australian
+continent, with failing eyesight, in a letter that took him from
+January to June of the year 1906 to write, endeavored to set down
+scraps of Irish lore which he had carried with him from the old
+country and which had clung to his memory to the last.</p>
+
+<p>"In my digging life in the quarries," he says, "books were not a
+part of our swag (prayerbook excepted). In 1871, when I had a long
+seat of work before me, I sent for McCurtin's Dictionary to Melbourne.
+It is old and wanting in the introductory part, but for all was
+splendid and I loved it as my life." (See <i>Gaelic Journal</i>, Dec.,
+1906.)</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+<p>Joyce: A Social History of Ancient Ireland (2 vols., 2d ed.,
+Dublin, 1913); Healy: Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars (Dublin,
+1890), Maynooth College Centenary History (Dublin, 1895); O'Curry:
+Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish, (3 vols., Dublin and London,
+1873), Manuscript Materials of Irish History, reissue (Dublin, 1873);
+Carleton: Traits and Stories of the Irish Peasantry, especially vol.
+3, The Poor Scholar; Montalembert: The Monks of the West, authorized
+translation, (7 vols., London, 1861); Meyer: Learning in Ireland in
+the Fifth Century (Dublin, 1913); Dinneen: Poems of Eoghan Ruadh
+O'Sullivan, Introduction (Dublin, 1902), The Maigue Poets,
+Introduction (Dublin, 1906); Boyle: The Irish College in Paris
+1578-1901, with a brief sketch of the other Irish Colleges in France
+(Dublin, 1901); Irish Ecclesiastical Record, new series, vol. VIII,
+307, 465; 3rd series, vol. VII, 350, 437, 641.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T06"></a>IRISH MEN OF SCIENCE</h2>
+<h4>By SIR BERTRAM C.A. WINDLE, Sc.D., M.D.,<br>
+<i>President, University College, Cork</i>.</h4>
+
+<p>We may divide our survey of the debt owed to Ireland by science
+into three periods: the earliest, the intermediate, and the
+latest.</p>
+
+<p>In the earliest period the names which come before us are chiefly
+those of compilers such as Augustin, a monk and an Irishman who wrote
+at Carthage, in Africa, in the seventh century, a Latin treatise on
+<i>The Wonderful Things of the Sacred Scripture</i>, still extant, in
+which, in connection with Joshua's miracle, a very full account of the
+astronomical knowledge of the period, Ptolemaic, but in many ways
+remarkably accurate, is given. There are, however, three distinguished
+names. Virgil the Geometer, <i>i.e.</i>, Fergil (O'Farrell), was Abbot
+of Aghaboe, went to the continent in 741, and was afterwards Bishop of
+Salzburg. He died in 785. He is remembered by his controversies with
+St. Boniface, one of which is concerned with the question of the
+Antipodes. Virgil is supposed to have been the first to teach that the
+earth is spherical. So celebrated was he that it has been thought that
+a part of the favor in which the author of the <i>Aeneid</i> was held
+by medieval churchmen was due to a confusion between his name and that
+of the geometer, sometimes spoken of as St. Virgil.</p>
+
+<p>Dicuil, also an Irish monk, was the author of a remarkable work on
+geography, <i>De Mensura Provinciarum Orbis Terrae</i>, which was
+written in 825, and contains interesting references to Iceland and
+especially to the navigable canal which once connected the Nile with
+the Red Sea. He wrote between 814 and 816 a work on astronomy which
+has never been published. It is probable, but not certain, that he
+belonged to Clonmacnois.</p>
+
+<p>Dungal, like the two others named above, was an astronomer. He
+probably belonged to Bangor, and left his native land early in the
+ninth century. In 811 he wrote a remarkable work, <i>Dungali Reclusi
+Epistola de duplici solis eclipsi anno 810 ad Carolum Magnum</i>. This
+letter, which is still extant, was written at the request of
+Charlemagne, who considered its author to be the most learned
+astronomer in existence and most likely to clear up the problem
+submitted to him.</p>
+
+<p>Before passing to the next period, a word should be said as to the
+medieval physicians, often if not usually belonging to families of
+medical men, such as the Leahys and O'Hickeys, and attached
+hereditarily to the greater clans. These men were chiefly compilers,
+but such works of theirs as we have throw light upon the state of
+medical knowledge in their day. Thus there is extant a treatise on
+<i>Materia Medica</i> (1459); written by Cormac MacDuinntsleibhe
+(Dunleavy), hereditary physician to the clan of O'Donnell in Ulster. A
+more interesting work is the <i>Cursus Medicus</i>, consisting of six
+books on Physiology, three on Pathology, and four on Semeiotica,
+written in the reign of Charles I. of England by Nial O'Glacan, born
+in Donegal, and at one time physician to the king of France.</p>
+
+<p>O'Glacan's name introduces us to the middle period, if indeed it
+does not belong there. <i>Inter arma silent leges</i>, and it may be
+added, scientific work. The troublous state of Ireland for many long
+years fully explains the absence of men of science in any abundance
+until the end of the eighteenth century. Still there are three names
+which can never be forgotten, belonging to the period in question. Sir
+Hans Sloane was born at Killileagh, in Ulster, in 1660. He studied
+medicine abroad, went to London where he settled, and was made a
+Fellow of the Royal Society. He published a work on the West Indies,
+but his claim to undying memory is the fact that it was the bequest of
+his most valuable and extensive collections to the nation which was
+the beginning and foundation of the British Museum, perhaps the most
+celebrated institution of its kind in the world. Sloane's collection,
+it should be added, contained an immense number of valuable books and
+manuscripts, as well as of objects more usually associated with the
+idea of a museum. He died in 1753.</p>
+
+<p>The Hon. Robert Boyle was born at Lismore, in the county Waterford,
+in 1627, being the fourteenth child of the first Earl of Cork. On his
+tombstone he is described as "The Father of Chemistry and the Uncle of
+the Earl of Cork", and, indeed, in his <i>Skyptical Chimist</i>
+(1661), he assailed, and for the time overthrew, the idea of the
+alchemists that there was a <i>materia prima</i>, asserting as he did
+that theory of chemical "elements" which held good until the
+discoveries in connection with radium led to a modification in
+chemical teaching. This may be said of Boyle, that his writings
+profoundly modified scientific opinion, and his name will always stand
+in the forefront amongst those of chemists. He made important
+improvements in the air-pump, was one of the earliest Fellows of the
+Royal Society, and founded the "Boyle Lectures." He died in 1691.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Thomas Molyneux was born in Dublin, in 1661, of a family which
+had settled in Ireland about 1560-70. He practised as a physician in
+his native city, was the first person to describe the Irish Elk and to
+demonstrate the fact that the Giant's Causeway was a natural and not,
+as had been previously supposed, an artificial production. He was the
+author of many other scientific observations. He died in 1733.</p>
+
+<p>We may now turn to more recent times, and it will be convenient to
+divide our subjects according to the branch of science in which they
+were distinguished, and to commence with</p>
+
+<h4>MATHEMATICIANS,</h4>
+
+<p>of whom Ireland may boast of a most distinguished galaxy.</p>
+
+<p>Sir William Rowan Hamilton (b. in Dublin 1805, d. 1865), belonged
+to a family, long settled in Ireland, but of Scottish extraction. He
+was a most precocious child. He read Hebrew at the age of seven, and
+at twelve, had studied Latin, Greek, and four leading continental
+languages, as well as Persian, Syriac, Arabic, Sanscrit, and other
+tongues. In 1819 he wrote a letter to the Persian ambassador in that
+magnate's own language. After these linguistic contests, he early
+turned to mathematics, in which he was apparently self-taught; yet, in
+his seventeenth year he discovered an error in Laplace's
+<i>M&eacute;canique C&eacute;leste</i>. He entered Trinity College
+where he won all kinds of distinctions, being famous not merely as a
+mathematician, but as a poet, a scholar, and a metaphysician. He was
+appointed Professor of Astronomy and Astronomer Royal whilst still an
+undergraduate. He predicted "conical refraction," afterwards
+experimentally proved by another Irishman, Humphrey Lloyd. He twice
+received the Gold Medal of the Royal Society: (i) for optical
+discoveries; (ii) for his theory of a general method of dynamics,
+which resolves an extremely, abstruse problem relative to a system of
+bodies in motion. He was the discoverer of a new calculus, that of
+Quaternions, which attracted the attention of Professor Tait of
+Edinburgh, and was by him made comprehensible to lesser
+mathematicians. It is far too abstruse for description here.</p>
+
+<p>Sir George Gabriel Stokes (born in Sligo 1819, d. 1903) was, if not
+the greatest mathematician, at least among the greatest, of the last
+hundred years. He was educated in Cambridge, where he spent the rest
+of his life, being appointed Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in
+1849, and celebrating the jubilee of that appointment in 1899. He was
+member of parliament for his University, and for a time occupied the
+presidential chair of the Royal Society. He devoted himself, <i>inter
+alia</i>, to optical work, and is perhaps best known by those
+researches which deal with the undulatory theory of light. It was on
+this subject that he delivered the Burnett lectures in Aberdeen
+(1883-1885).</p>
+
+<p>James McCullagh, the son of a poor farmer, was born in Tyrone in
+1809, d. 1847. His early death, due to his own hand in a fit of
+insanity, cut short his work, but enough remains to permit him to rank
+amongst the great mathematicians of all time, his most important work
+being his memoir on surfaces of the second order.</p>
+
+<p>Humphrey Lloyd (b. in Dublin 1800, d. 1881), F.R.S. His father was
+Provost of Trinity College, Dublin, a position subsequently occupied
+also by the son. Lloyd's work was chiefly concerned with optics and
+magnetism, and it was in connection with the former that he carried
+out what was probably the most important single piece of work of his
+life, namely, the experimental proof of the phenomenon of conical
+refraction which had been predicted by Sir William Hamilton. He was
+responsible for the erection of the Magnetic Observatory in Dublin,
+and the instruments used in it were constructed under his observation
+and sometimes from his designs or modifications. He was also a
+meteorologist of distinction.</p>
+
+<p>George Salmon (b. in Dublin 1819, d. 1904), like the last mentioned
+subject, was, at the time of his death, Provost of Trinity College,
+Dublin. Besides theological writings, he contributed much to
+mathematical science, especially in the directions of conic sections,
+analytic geometry, higher plane curves, and the geometry of three
+dimensions. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society, and received the
+Copley and Royal medals, as well as distinctions from many
+universities and learned societies.</p>
+
+<p>John Casey (b. Kilkenny 1820, d. 1891), F.R.S., was educated at a
+National School and became a teacher in one in later years. Entirely
+self-taught as a mathematician, he raised himself from the humble
+position which he occupied to be a university professor (in the
+Catholic University of Ireland, and afterwards in the Royal
+University), and earned the highest reputation as one of the greatest
+authorities on plane geometry. He was a correspondent of eminent
+mathematicians all over the world.</p>
+
+<p>Henry Hennessey (b. in Cork 1826, d. 1901), F.R.S., was also a
+professor in the Catholic University of Ireland and afterwards in the
+Royal College of Science in Dublin. He was a writer on mathematics,
+terrestrial physics, and climatology.</p>
+
+<p>Benjamin Williamson (b. in Cork 1827), F.R.S., is a Senior Fellow
+of Trinity College, Dublin, and a distinguished writer on mathematical
+subjects, especially on the differential, integral, and infinitesimal
+calculuses.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Joseph Larmor (b. in Antrim 1857), F.R.S., was educated at
+Queen's College, Belfast, and in Cambridge, in which last place he has
+spent his life as a professor. He now represents the University in
+parliament and is secretary to the Royal Society. He is well-known for
+his writings on the ether and on other physical as well as
+mathematical subjects.</p>
+
+<h4>ASTRONOMERS.</h4>
+
+<p>William Parsons, Earl of Rosse (b. in York 1800, d. 1867), F.R.S.,
+was a very distinguished astronomer who experimented in fluid lenses
+and made great improvements in casting specula for reflecting
+telescopes. From 1842-45 he was engaged upon the construction, in his
+park at Parsonstown, of his great reflecting telescope 58 feet long.
+This instrument, which cost &pound;30,000, long remained the largest
+in the world. He was president of the Royal Society from 1848 to
+1854.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Howard Grubb (b. 1844), F.R.S., is known all over the world for
+his telescopes and for the remarkable advances which he has made in
+the construction of lenses for instruments of the largest size.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Robert Ball (b. in Dublin 1840, d. 1913), F.R.S. Originally
+Lord Rosse's astronomer at Parsonstown, he migrated as professor to
+Trinity College, Dublin, and subsequently became Lowndean Professor of
+Astronomy at Cambridge. He was a great authority on the mathematical
+theory of screws, and his popular works on astronomy have made him
+known to a far wider circle of readers than those who can grapple with
+his purely scientific treatises.</p>
+
+<p>William Edward Wilson (b. Co. Westmeath 1851, d. 1908), F.R.S. A
+man of independent means, he erected, with the help of his father, an
+astronomical observatory at his residence. In this well-equipped
+building he made many photographic researches, especially into the
+nature of nebulae. He also devoted himself to solar physics, and wrote
+some remarkable papers on the sudden appearance in 1903 of the star
+Nova Persei. He was the first to call attention to the probability
+that radium plays a part in the maintenance of solar heat. In fact,
+the science of radio-activity was engaging his keenest interest at the
+time of his early death.</p>
+
+<p>A.A. Rambaut (b. Waterford 1859), F.R.S., formerly Astronomer Royal
+for Ireland and now Radcliffe Observer at Oxford, is one of the
+leading astronomers of the day.</p>
+
+<h4>PHYSICISTS.</h4>
+
+<p>Lord Kelvin, better known as Sir William Thompson (b. Belfast 1824,
+d. 1907), F.R.S. Amongst the greatest physicists who have ever lived,
+his name comes second only to that of Newton. He was educated at
+Cambridge, became professor of natural philosophy in Glasgow
+University in 1846, and celebrated the jubilee of his appointment in
+1896. To the public his greatest achievement was the electric cabling
+of the Atlantic Ocean, for which he was knighted in 1866. His
+electrometers and electric meters, his sounding apparatus, and his
+mariners' compass are all well-known and highly valued instruments. To
+his scientific fellows, however, his greatest achievements were in the
+field of pure science, especially in connection with his thermodynamic
+researches, including the doctrine of the dissipation or degradation
+of energy. To this brief statement may be added mention of his work in
+connection with hydrodynamics and his magnetic and electric
+discoveries. His papers in connection with wave and vortex movements
+are also most remarkable. He was awarded the Royal and Copley medals
+and was an original member of the Order of Merit. He received
+distinctions from many universities and learned societies.</p>
+
+<p>George Francis Fitzgerald (b. Dublin 1851, d. 1901), F.R.S., was
+fellow and professor of natural philosophy in Trinity College, Dublin,
+where he was educated. He was the first person to call the attention
+of the world to the importance of Hertz's experiment. Perhaps his most
+important work, interrupted by his labors in connection with education
+and terminated by his early death, was that in connection with the
+nature of the ether.</p>
+
+<p>George Johnston Stoney (b. King's Co. 1826, d. 1911), F.R.S., after
+being astronomer at Parsonstown and professor of natural philosophy at
+Galway, became secretary to the Queen's University and occupied that
+position until the dissolution of the university in 1882. He wrote
+many papers on geometrical optics and on molecular physics, but his
+great claim to remembrance is that he first suggested, "on the basis
+of Faraday's law of Electrolysis, that an absolute unit of quantity of
+electricity exists in that amount of it which attends each chemical
+bond or valency and gave the name, now generally adopted, of electron
+to this small quantity." He proposed the electronic theory of the
+origin of the complex ether vibrations which proceed from a molecule
+emitting light.</p>
+
+<p>John Tyndall (b. Leighlin Bridge, Co. Carlow, 1820, d. 1893),
+F.R.S., professor at the Royal Institution and a fellow-worker in many
+ways with Huxley, especially on the subject of glaciers. He wrote also
+on heat as a mode of motion and was the author of many scientific
+papers, but will, perhaps, be best remembered as the author of a
+Presidential Address to the British Association in Belfast (1874),
+which was the highwater mark of the mid-Victorian materialism at its
+most triumphant moment.</p>
+
+<h4>CHEMISTS.</h4>
+
+<p>Richard Kirwan (b. Galway 1733, d. 1812), F.R.S. A man of
+independent means, he devoted himself to the study of chemistry and
+mineralogy and was awarded the Copley medal of the Royal Society. He
+published works on mineralogy and on the analysis of mineral waters,
+and was the first in Ireland to publish analyses of soils for
+agricultural purposes, a research which laid the foundation of
+scientific agriculture in Great Britain and Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>Maxwell Simpson (b. Armagh 1815, d. 1902), F.R.S., held the chair
+of chemistry in Queen's College, Cork, for twenty years and published
+a number of papers in connection with his subject and especially with
+the behavior of cyanides, with the study of which compounds his name
+is most associated.</p>
+
+<p>Cornelius O'Sullivan (b. Brandon, 1841, d. 1897), F.R.S., was for
+many years chemist to the great firm of Bass &amp; Co., brewers at
+Burton-on-Trent, and in that capacity became one of the leading
+exponents of the chemistry of fermentation in the world.</p>
+
+<p>James Emerson Reynolds (b. Dublin 1844), F.R.S., professor of
+chemistry, Trinity College, Dublin, for many years, discovered the
+primary thiocarbamide and a number of other chemical substances,
+including a new class of colloids and several groups of organic and
+other compounds of the element silicon.</p>
+
+<p>Among others only the names of the following can be
+mentioned:&mdash;Sir Robert Kane (b. Dublin 1809, d. 1890), professor
+of chemistry in Dublin and founder and first director of the Museum of
+Industry, now the National Museum. He was president of Queen's
+College, Cork, as was William K. Sullivan (b. Cork 1822, d. 1890),
+formerly professor of chemistry in the Catholic University. Sir
+William O'Shaughnessy Brooke, F.R.S. (b. Limerick 1809, d. 1889),
+professor of chemistry and assay master in Calcutta, is better known
+as the introducer of the telegraphic system into India and its first
+superintendent.</p>
+
+<h4>BIOLOGISTS.</h4>
+
+<p>William Henry Harvey (b. Limerick 1814, d. 1866), F.R.S., was a
+botanist of very great distinction. During a lengthy residence in
+South Africa, he made a careful study of the flora of the Cape of Good
+Hope and published <i>The Genera of South African Plants</i>. After
+this he was made keeper of the Herbarium, Trinity College, Dublin,
+but, obtaining leave of absence, travelled in North and South America,
+exploring the coast from Halifax to the Keys of Florida, in order to
+collect materials for his great work, <i>Nereis Boreali-Americana</i>,
+published by the Smithsonian Institution. Subsequently he visited
+Ceylon, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, and the Friendly and Fiji
+Islands, collecting algae. The results were published in his
+<i>Phycologia Australis</i>. At the time of his death he was engaged
+on his <i>Flora Capensis</i>, and was generally considered the first
+authority on algae in the world.</p>
+
+<p>William Archer (b. Co. Down 1837, d. 1897), F.R.S., devoted his
+life to the microscopic examination of freshwater organisms,
+especially desmids and diatoms. He attained a very prominent place in
+this branch of work among men of science. Perhaps his most remarkable
+discovery was that of Chlamydomyxa labyrinthuloides (in 1868), "one of
+the most remarkable and enigmatical of all known microscopic
+organisms."</p>
+
+<p>George James Allman (b. Cork 1812, d. 1898), F.R.S., professor of
+botany in Trinity College, Dublin, and afterwarls Regius Professor of
+natural history in the University of Edinburgh, published many papers
+on botanical and zoological subjects, but his great work was that on
+the gymnoblastic Hydrozoa, "without doubt the most important
+systematic work dealing with the group of Coelenterata that has ever
+been produced."</p>
+
+<p>Amongst eminent living members of the class under consideration may
+be mentioned Alexander Macalister (b. Dublin 1844), F.R.S., professor
+of anatomy, first in Dublin and now in Cambridge, an eminent
+morphologist and anthropologist, and Henry Horatio Dixon (b. Dublin),
+F.R.S., professor of botany in Trinity College, an authority on
+vegetable physiology, especially problems dealing with the sap.</p>
+
+<h4>GEOLOGISTS.</h4>
+
+<p>Samuel Haughton (b. Carlow 1821, d. 1897), F.R.S., after earning a
+considerable reputation as a mathematician and a geologist, and taking
+Anglican orders, determined to study medicine and entered the school
+of that subject in Trinity College. After graduating he became the
+reformer, it might even be said the re-founder, of that school. He
+devoted ten years to the study of the mechanical principles of
+muscular action, and published his <i>Animal Mechanism</i>, probably
+his greatest work. He will long be remembered as the introducer of the
+"long drop" as a method of capital execution. He might have been
+placed in several of the categories which have been dealt with, but
+that of geologist has been selected, since in the later part of his
+most versatile career he was professor of geology in Trinity College,
+Dublin.</p>
+
+<p>Valentine Ball (b. Dublin 1843, d. 1894), F.R.S., a brother of Sir
+Robert, joined the Geological Survey of India, and in that capacity
+became an authority not only on geology but also on ornithology and
+anthropology. His best known work is <i>Jungle-Life in India</i>. In
+later life he was director of the National Museum, Dublin.</p>
+
+<h4>MEDICAL SCIENCE.</h4>
+
+<p>Very brief note can be taken of the many shining lights in Irish
+medical science. Robert James Graves (1796-1853), F.R.S., after whom
+is named "Graves's Disease", was one of the greatest of clinical
+physicians. His <i>System of Clinical Medicine</i> was a standard work
+and was extolled by Trousseau, the greatest physician that France has
+ever had, in the highest terms of appreciation.</p>
+
+<p>William Stokes (1804-1878), Regius Professor of Medicine in Trinity
+College, and the author of a <i>Theory and Practice of Medicine</i>,
+known all over the civilized world, was equally celebrated.</p>
+
+<p>To these must be added Sir Dominic Corrigan (1802-1880), the first
+Catholic to occupy the position of President of the College of
+Physicians in Dublin, an authority on heart disease, and the first
+adequate describer of aortic patency, a form of ailment long called
+"Corrigan's Disease". "Colles's Fracture" is a familiar term in the
+mouths of surgeons. It derives its name from Abraham Colles
+(1773-1843), the first surgeon in the world to tie the innominate
+artery, as "Butcher's Saw", a well-known implement, does from another
+eminent surgeon; Richard Butcher, Regius Professor in Trinity College
+in the seventies of the last century.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Rupert Boyce (1863-1911), F.R.S., though born in London, had an
+Irish father and mother. Entering the medical profession, he was
+assistant professor of pathology at University College, London, and
+subsequently professor of pathology in University College, Liverpool,
+which he was largely instrumental in turning into the University of
+Liverpool. He was foremost in launching and directing the Liverpool
+School of Tropical Medicine, which has had such widespread results all
+over the world in elucidating the problems and checking the ravages of
+the diseases peculiar to hot countries. It was for his services in
+this direction that he was knighted in 1906.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Richard Quain (b. Mallow 1816, d. 1898), F.R.S., spent most of
+his life in London, where he was for years the most prominent
+physician. He wrote on many subjects, but the <i>Dictionary of
+Medicine</i>, which he edited and which bears his name, has made
+itself and its editor known all over the world.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Almroth Wright (b. 1861), F.R.S., is the greatest living
+authority on the important subject of vaccino-therapy, which, indeed,
+may be said to owe its origin to his researches, as do the methods for
+measuring the protective substances in the human blood. He was the
+discoverer of the anti-typhoid injection which has done so much to
+stay the ravages of that disease.</p>
+
+<h4>ENGINEERING.</h4>
+
+<p>Bindon Blood Stoney (1828-1909), F.R.S., made his reputation first
+as an astronomer by discovering the spiral character of the great
+nebula in Andromeda. Turning to engineering, he was responsible for
+the construction of many important works, especially in connection
+with the port of Dublin. He was brother of G. J. Stoney.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Charles Parsons (b. 1854), F.R.S., fourth son of the third Earl
+of Rosse, is the engineer who developed the steam turbine system and
+made it suitable for the generation of electricity, and for the
+propulsion of war and mercantile vessels. If he has revolutionized
+traffic on the water, so on the land has John Boyd Dunlop (still
+living), who discovered the pneumatic tire with such wide-spread
+results for motorcars, bicycles, and such means of locomotion.</p>
+
+<h4>MISCELLANEOUS.</h4>
+
+<p>Admiral Sir Leopold McClintock (b. Dundalk 1819, d. 1907), F.R.S.,
+was one of the great Arctic explorers, having spent eleven navigable
+seasons and six winters in those regions. He was the chief leader and
+organizer of the Franklin searches. From the scientific point of view
+he made a valuable collection of miocene fossils from Greenland, and
+enabled Haughton to prepare the geological map and memoir of the Parry
+Archipelago.</p>
+
+<p>John Ball (b. Dublin 1818, d. 1889), F.R.S., educated at Oscott,
+passed the examination for a high degree at Cambridge, but, being a
+Catholic, was excluded from the degree itself and any other honors
+which a Protestant might have attained to. He travelled widely and
+published many works on the natural history of Europe and South
+America from Panama to Tierra del Fuego. He was the first to suggest
+the utilization of the electric telegraph for meteorological purposes
+connected with storm warnings.</p>
+
+<p>Space ought to be found for a cursory mention of that strange
+person, Dionysius Lardner (1793-1859), who by his <i>Lardner's
+Cyclopaedia</i> in 132 vols., his <i>Cabinet Library</i>, and his
+<i>Museum of Science and Art</i>, did much to popularize science in an
+unscientific day.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>The principal sources of information are the National Dictionary of
+Biography; the Obituary Notices of the Royal Society (passages in
+inverted commas are from these); "Who's Who" (for living persons);
+Healy: Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars; Hyde: Literary History
+of Ireland; Joyce: Social History of Ancient Ireland; Moore: Medicine
+in the British Isles.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T07"></a>LAW IN IRELAND</h2>
+<h4>By LAURENCE GINNELL, B.L., M.P.</h4>
+
+<p><b>A DISTINCTION.</b> Ireland having been a self-ruled country for
+a stretch of some two thousand years, then violently brought under
+subjection to foreign rule, regaining legislative independence for a
+brief period toward the close of the eighteenth century, then by
+violence and corruption deprived of that independence and again
+brought under the same foreign rule, to which it is still subject, the
+expression "Law in Ireland" comprises the native and the foreign, the
+laws devised by the Irish Nation for its own governance and the laws
+imposed upon it from without: two sets, codes, or systems proper to
+two entirely distinct social structures having no relation and but
+little resemblance to each other. Whatever may be thought of either as
+law, the former is Irish in every sense, and vastly the more
+interesting historically, archaeologically, philologically, and in
+many other ways; the latter being English law in Ireland, and not
+truly Irish in any sense.</p>
+
+<p><b>ORIGIN AND CHARACTER OF IRISH LAW.</b> <i>Seanchus agus
+F&eacute;ineachus na hEireann</i> == <i>Hiberniae Antiquitates et
+Sanctiones Legales</i>&mdash;The Ancient Laws and Decisions of the
+<i>F&eacute;ini</i>, of Ireland. <i>Sen</i> or <i>sean</i> (pronounced
+shan) == "old," differs from most Gaelic adjectives in preceding the
+noun it qualifies. It also tends to coalesce and become a prefix.
+<i>Seanchus</i> (shanech-us) == "ancient law."
+<i>F&eacute;ineachus</i> (fainech-us) == the law of the
+<i>F&eacute;ini</i>, who were the Milesian farmers, free members of
+the clans, the most important class in the ancient Irish community.
+Their laws were composed in their contemporary language, the <i>Bearla
+F&eacute;ini</i>, a distinct form of Gaelic. Several nations of the
+Aryan race are known to have cast into metre or rhythmical prose their
+laws and such other knowledge as they desired to communicate,
+preserve, and transmit, before writing came into use. The Irish went
+further and, for greater facility in committing to memory and
+retaining there, put their laws into a kind of rhymed verse, of which
+they may have been the inventors. By this device, aided by the
+isolated geographical position of Ireland, the sanctity of age, and
+the apprehension that any change of word or phrase might change the
+law itself, these archaic laws, when subsequently committed to
+writing, were largely preserved from the progressive changes to which
+all spoken languages are subject, with the result that we have today,
+embedded in the Gaelic text and commentaries of the <i>Senchus
+M&oacute;r</i>, the <i>Book of Aicill</i>, and other law works,
+available in English translations made under a Royal Commission
+appointed by Government in 1852, and published, at intervals extending
+over forty years, in six volumes of "Ancient Laws and Institutions of
+Ireland," a mass of archaic words, phrases, law, literature, and
+information on the habits and manners of the people, not equalled in
+antiquity, quantity, or authenticity in any other Celtic source. In
+English they are commonly called Brehon Laws, from the genitive case
+singular of <i>Brethem</i> = "judge", genitive <i>Brethemain</i>
+(pronounced brehun), as Erin is an oblique case of Eire, and as Latin
+words are sometimes adopted in the genitive in modern languages which
+themselves have no case distinctions. It is not to be inferred from
+this name that the laws are judge-made. They are rather case law, in
+parts possibly enacted by some of the various assemblies at which the
+laws were promulgated or rehearsed, but for the most part simple
+declarations of law originating in custom and moral justice, and
+records of judgments based upon "the precedents and commentaries", in
+the sort of cases common to agricultural communities of the time, many
+of the provisions being as inapplicable to modern life as modern laws
+would be to ancient life. A reader is impressed by the extraordinary
+number and variety of cases with their still more numerous details and
+circumstances accumulated in the course of long ages, the manner in
+which the laws are inextricably interwoven with the interlocking clan
+system, and the absence of scientific arrangement or guiding principle
+except those of moral justice, clemency, and the good of the
+community. This defect in arrangement is natural in writings intended,
+as these were, for the use of judges and professors, experts in the
+subjects with which they deal, but makes the task of presenting a
+concise statement of them difficult and uncertain.</p>
+
+<p><b>SOCIETY LAW.</b> The law and the social system were inseparable
+parts of a complicated whole, mutually cause and consequence of each
+other. <i>Tuath, clann, cinel, cine</i>, and <i>fine</i> (pronounced
+thooah, clong, kinnel, kineh, and fin-yeh) were terms used to denote a
+tribe or set of relatives, in reality or by adoption, claiming descent
+from a common ancestor, forming a community occupying and owning a
+given territory. <i>Tuath</i> in course of time came to be applied
+indifferently to the people and to their territory. <i>Fine</i>,
+sometimes designating a whole tribe, more frequently meant a part of
+it, occupying a distinct portion of the territory, a potential
+microcosm or nucleus of a clan, having limited autonomy in the conduct
+of its own immediate affairs. The constitution of this organism,
+whether as contemplated by the law or in the less perfect actual
+practice, is alike elusive, and underwent changes. For the purpose of
+illustration, the <i>fine</i> may be said to consist, theoretically,
+of the "seventeen men" frequently mentioned throughout the laws,
+namely, the <i>flaithfine</i> = chief of the <i>fine</i>; the
+<i>geilfine</i> = his four fullgrown sons or other nearest male
+relatives; the <i>deirbhfine, tarfine</i>, and <i>innfine</i>, each
+consisting of four heads of families in wider concentric circles of
+kinship, say first, second, and third cousins of the
+<i>flaithfine</i>. The <i>fine</i> was liable, in measure determined
+by those circles, for contracts, fines, and damages incurred by any of
+its members so far as his own property was insufficient, and was in
+the same degree entitled to share advantages of a like kind accruing.
+Intermarriage within this <i>fine</i> was prohibited. The modern term
+"sept" is applied sometimes to this group and sometimes to a wider
+group united under a <i>flaith</i> (flah) = "chief", elected by the
+<i>flaithfines</i> and provided, for his public services, with free
+land proportionate to the area of the district and the number of
+clansmen in it. <i>Clann</i> might mean the whole Irish nation, or an
+intermediate homogeneous group of <i>fines</i> having for wider
+purposes a <i>flaith</i> or <i>ri-tuatha</i> = king of one
+<i>tuath</i>, elected by the <i>flaiths</i> and <i>flaithfines</i>,
+subject to elaborate qualifications as to person, character, and
+training, which limited their choice, and provided with a larger
+portion of free land. This was the lowest chief to whom the title
+<i>ri, righ</i> (both pr. ree) = <i>rex</i>, or "king", was applied. A
+group of these kinglets connected by blood or territory or policy, and
+their <i>flaiths</i>, elected, from a still narrower circle of
+specially trained men within their own rank, the
+<i>ri-mor-tuatha</i>&mdash;king of the territory so composed, to whose
+office a still larger area of free land was attached. In turn, kings
+of this class, with their respective sub-kings and <i>flaiths</i>,
+elected from among the <i>riogh-dhamhna</i> (ree-uch-dhowna)
+= <i>materia principum</i> or "king-timber", a royal <i>fine</i>
+specially educated and trained, a <i>r&igrave;-cuighidh</i> (ree
+coo-ee-hee) supreme over five <i>ri-mor-tuathas</i>&mdash;roughly, a
+fourth of Ireland. These, with their respective principal supporters,
+elected the ard-ri&mdash;"supreme king", of Ireland, who for ages held
+his court and national assemblies at Tara and enjoyed the kingdom of
+Meath for his mensal land. Usually the election was not direct to the
+kingship, but to the position of <i>tanaiste</i>&mdash;"second" (in
+authority), heir-apparent to the kingship. This was also the rule in
+the learned professions and "noble" arts, which were similarly endowed
+with free land. The most competent among those specially trained,
+whether son or outsider, should succeed to the position and land. All
+such land was legally indivisible and inalienable and descended in its
+entirety to the successor, who might, or might not, be a relative of
+the occupant. The beneficiaries were, however, free to retain any land
+that belonged to them as private individuals.</p>
+
+<p>Membership of the clan was an essential qualification for every
+position; but occasionally two clans amalgamated, or a small
+<i>fine</i>, or desirable individual, was co-opted into the
+clan&mdash;in other words, naturalized. The rules of kinship
+determined <i>eineachlann</i> (ain-yach-long)&mdash;"honor value", the
+assessed value of status, with its correlative rights, obligations,
+and liabilities in connection with all matters civil and criminal;
+largely supplied the place of contract; endowed members of the clan
+with birthrights; and bound them into a compact social, political, and
+mutual insurance copartnership, self-controlled and self-reliant.
+<i>Eineachlann</i> rested on the two-fold basis of kinship and
+property, expanding as a clansman by acquisition of property and
+effluxion of time progressed upward from one grade to another;
+diminishing if he sank; vanishing if for crime he was expelled from
+the clan.</p>
+
+<p><b>FOSTERAGE.</b> To our minds, one of the most curious customs
+prevalent among the ancient Irish was that of <i>iarrad</i>, called
+also <i>altar</i> = "fosterage"&mdash;curious in itself and in the
+fact that in all the abundance of law and literature relating to it no
+logically valid reason is given why wealthy parents normally put out
+their children, from one year old to fifteen in the case of a daughter
+and to seventeen in the case of a son, to be reared in another family,
+while perhaps receiving and rearing children of other parents sent to
+them. As modern life does not comprise either the custom or a reason
+for it, we may assume that fosterage was a consequence of the clan
+system, and that its practice strengthened the ties of kinship and
+sympathy. This conjecture is corroborated by the numerous instances in
+history and in story of fosterage affection proving, when tested,
+stronger than the natural affection of relatives by birth. What is
+more, long after the dissolution of the clans, fosterage has continued
+stealthily in certain districts in which the old race of chiefs and
+clansmen contrived to cling together to the old sod; and the affection
+generated by it has been demonstrated, down to the middle of the
+nineteenth century. The present writer has heard it spoken of
+lovingly, in half-Irish, by simple old people, whom to question would
+be cruel and irreverent.</p>
+
+<p><b>LAND LAW.</b> The entire territory was originally, and always
+continued to be, the absolute property of the entire clan. Not even
+the private residence of a clansman, with its <i>maighin digona</i> =
+little lawn or precinct of sanctuary, within which himself and his
+family and property were inviolable, could be sold to an outsider.
+Private ownership, though rather favored in the administration of the
+law, was prevented from becoming general by the fundamental ownership
+of the clan and the birthright of every free-born clansman to a
+sufficiency of the land of his native territory for his subsistence.
+The land officially held as described was not, until the population
+became numerous, a serious encroachment upon this right. What remained
+outside this and the residential patches of private land was
+classified as cultivable and uncultivable. The former was the common
+property of the clansmen, but was held and used in severalty for the
+time being, subject to <i>gabhail-cine</i>
+(gowal-kinneh)&mdash;clan-resumption and redistribution by authority
+of an assembly of the clan or <i>fine</i> at intervals of from one to
+three years, according to local customs and circumstances, for the
+purpose of satisfying the rights of young clansmen and dealing with
+any land left derelict by death or forfeiture, compensation being paid
+for any unexhausted improvements. The clansmen, being owners in this
+limited sense, and the only owners, had no rent to pay. They paid
+tribute for public purposes, such as the making of roads, to the
+<i>flaith</i> as a public officer, as they were bound to render, or
+had the privilege of rendering&mdash;according to how they regarded
+it&mdash;military service when required, not to the <i>flaith</i> as a
+feudal lord, which he was not, but to the clan, of which the
+<i>flaith</i> was head and representative.</p>
+
+<p>The uncultivable, unreclaimed forest, mountain, and bog-land was
+common property in the wider sense that there was no several
+appropriation of it even temporarily by individuals. It was used
+promiscuously by the clansmen for grazing stock, procuring fuel,
+pursuing game, or any other advantage yielded by it in its natural
+state.</p>
+
+<p>Kings and <i>flaiths</i> were great stock-owners, and were allowed
+to let for short terms portions of their official lands. What they
+more usually let to clansmen was cattle to graze either on private
+land or on a specified part of the official land, not measured, but
+calculated according to the number of beasts it was able to support. A
+<i>flaith</i> whose stock for letting ran short hired some from a king
+and sublet them to his own people. A <i>f&eacute;ine, aithech</i>, or
+<i>ceile</i> (kailyeh), as a farmer was generally called, might hire
+stock in one of two distinct ways: <i>saer</i>&mdash;"free", which was
+regulated by the law, left his status unimpaired, could not be
+terminated arbitrarily or unjustly, under which he paid one-third of
+the value of the stock yearly for seven years, at the end of which
+time what remained of the stock became his property, and in any
+dispute relating to which he was competent to sue or defend even
+though the <i>flaith</i> gave evidence; or <i>daer</i>&mdash;"bond",
+which was matter of bargain and not of law, was subject to onerous
+conditions and contingencies, including maintenance of kings,
+<i>flaiths</i>, or brehons, with their retinues, on visitations, of
+disbanded soldiers, etc., under which the stock always remained the
+property of the <i>flaith</i>, regarding which the
+<i>ceile</i> could not give evidence against that of the
+<i>flaith</i>, which degraded the <i>ceile</i> and his <i>fine</i> and
+impaired their status; a bargain therefore which could not be entered
+into without the sanction of the <i>fine</i>. This prohibition was
+rendered operative by the legal provision that in case of default the
+<i>flaith</i> could not recover from the <i>fine</i> unless their
+consent had been obtained. The letting of stock, especially of
+<i>daer</i>-stock, increased the <i>flaith's</i> power as a lender
+over borrowers, subject, however, to the check that his rank and
+<i>eineachlann</i> depended on the number of independent clansmen in
+his district.</p>
+
+<p>Though workers in precious metals, as their ornaments show, the
+ancient Irish did not coin or use money. Sales were by barter. All
+payments, tribute, rent, fulfilment of contract, fine, damages, wages,
+or however else arising, were made in kind&mdash;horses, cows, store
+cattle, sheep, pigs, corn, meal, malt, bacon, salt beef, geese,
+butter, honey, wool, flax, yarn, cloth, dye-plants, leather,
+manufactured articles of use or ornament, gold, and
+silver&mdash;whatever one party could spare and the other find a use
+for.</p>
+
+<p>Tributes and rent, being alike paid in kind and to the same person,
+were easily confused. This tempted the <i>flaith</i>, as the system
+relaxed, to extend his official power in the direction of ownership;
+but never to the extent of enabling him to evict a clansman. For a
+crime a clansman might be expelled from clan and territory; but, apart
+from crime, the idea of eviction from one's homestead was
+inconceivable. Not even when a <i>daer-ceile</i>, or "unfree peasant",
+failed to make the stipulated payments could the <i>flaith</i> do more
+than sue as for any other debt; and, if successful, he was bound, in
+seizing, to leave the family food-material and implements necessary
+for living and recovering.</p>
+
+<p><b>LAW OF DISTRAINING.</b> <i>Athgabail</i> (&#259;h-gowil) =
+"distress", was the universal legal mode of obtaining anything due, or
+justice or redress in any matter, whether civil or criminal, contract
+or tort. Every command or prohibition of the law, if not obeyed, was
+enforced by <i>athgabail</i>. The brehons reduced all liabilities of
+whatsoever origin to material value to be recovered by this means.
+Hence its great importance, the vast amount of space devoted to it in
+the laws, and the fact that the law of distress deals incidentally
+with every other branch of law and reveals best the customs, habits,
+and character of the people. A claimant in a civil case might either
+summon his debtor before a brehon, get a judgment, and seize the
+amount adjudged, or, by distraining first at his own risk, force the
+defendant either to pay or stop the seizure by submitting the matter
+in dispute to trial before a brehon, whom he then could choose. There
+was no officer corresponding to a sheriff to distrain and realize the
+amount adjudged; the person entitled had to do it himself, accompanied
+by a law-agent and witnesses, after, in "distress with time",
+elaborate notices at intervals of time sufficient to allow the
+defendant to consider his position and find means of satisfying the
+claim if he could. In a proper case his hands were strengthened by
+very explicit provisions of the law. "If a man who is sued evades
+justice, knowing the debt to be due of him, double the debt is payable
+by him." In urgent cases "immediate distress" was allowed. In either
+case the property seized&mdash;usually cattle&mdash;was not taken to
+the plaintiff's home, but put into a pound, and by similar easy stages
+became his property to the amount of the debt. The costs were paid out
+of what remained, and any ultimate remainder was returned. On a
+<i>fuidir</i> (foodyir) = serf or other unfree person resident in the
+territory incurring liability to a clansman, the latter might proceed
+against the <i>flaith</i> on whose land the defendant lived, or might
+seize immediately any property the defendant owned, and if he owned
+none, might seize him and make him work off the debt in slavery.</p>
+
+<p>Seizure of property of a person of higher rank than the plaintiff
+had to be preceded by <i>troscead</i> (truscah) = fasting upon him.
+This consisted in waiting at the door of the defendant's residence
+without food until the debt was paid or a pledge given. The laws
+contained no process more strongly enforced than this. A defendant who
+allowed a plaintiff properly fasting to die of hunger was held by law
+and by public opinion guilty of murder, and completely lost his
+<i>eineachlann</i>. Both text and commentary declare that whoever
+refuses to cede a just demand when fasted upon shall pay double that
+amount. If the faster, having accepted a pledge, did not in due course
+receive satisfaction of his claim, he forthwith distrained, taking and
+keeping double the amount of the debt. The law did not allow those
+whom it at first respected to trifle with justice.</p>
+
+<p><i>Troscead</i> is believed to have been of druidical origin, and
+it retained throughout, even in Christian times, a sort of
+supernatural significance. Whoever disregarded it became an outcast
+and incurred risks and dangers too grave to be lightly faced. Besides
+being a legal process, it was resorted to as a species of elaborate
+prayer, or curse,&mdash;a kind of magic for achieving some difficult
+purpose. This mysterious character enhanced its value in a legal
+system deficient in executive power.</p>
+
+<p><b>NON-CITIZENS.</b> From what precedes it will be understood that
+there were in ancient Ireland from prehistoric times people not
+comprised in the clan organization, and therefore not enjoying its
+rights and advantages or entitled to any of its land, some of whom
+were otherwise free within certain areas, while some were serfs and
+some slaves. Those outsiders are conjectured to have originated in the
+earlier colonists subdued by the Milesians and reduced to an inferior
+condition. But the distinction did not wholly follow racial lines.
+Persons of pre-Milesian race are known to have risen to eminence,
+while Milesians are known to have sunk, from crime or other causes, to
+the lowest rank of the unfree. Here and there a <i>daer-tuath</i> =
+"bond community", of an earlier race held together down to the Middle
+Ages in districts in which conquest had left them and to which they
+were restricted. Beyond that restriction, exclusion from the clan and
+its power, some peculiarities of dialect, dress, and manners, and a
+tradition of inferiority such as still exists in certain parishes,
+they were not molested, provided they paid tribute, which may have
+been heavy.</p>
+
+<p>There were also <i>bothachs</i> = cottiers, and <i>sen-cleithes</i>
+= old adherents of a <i>flaith</i>, accustomed to serve him and obtain
+benefits from him. If they had resided in the territory for three
+generations, and been industrious, thrifty, and orderly, on a few of
+them joining their property together to the number of one hundred head
+of cattle, they could emancipate themselves by appointing a
+<i>flaithfine</i> and getting admitted to the clan. Till this was
+done, they could neither sue nor defend nor inherit, and the
+<i>flaith</i> was answerable for their conduct.</p>
+
+<p>There being no prisons or convict settlements, any person of
+whatever race convicted of grave crime, or of cowardice on the field
+of battle, and unable to pay the fines imposed, captives taken in
+foreign wars, fugitives from other clans, and tramps, fell into the
+lowest ranks of the <i>fuidre</i>&mdash;"serfs." It was as a captive
+that Saint Patrick was brought in his youth to Ireland. The law
+allowed, rather than entitled, a <i>flaith</i> to keep unfree people
+for servile occupations and the performance of unskilled labor for the
+public benefit. In reality they worked for his personal profit,
+oftentimes at the expense of the clan. They lived on his land, and he
+was responsible for their conduct. By analogy, the distinctions
+<i>saer</i> and <i>daer</i> were recognized among them, according to
+origin, character, and means. Where these elements continued to be
+favorable for three generations, progress upward was made; and
+ultimately a number of them could club together, appoint a
+<i>flaithfine</i>, and apply to be admitted to the clan.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>mog</i> was a slave in the strict sense, usually purchased as
+such from abroad, and legally and socially lower than the lowest
+<i>fuidir</i>. Giraldus Cambrensis, writing towards the close of the
+twelfth century, tells us that English parents then frequently sold
+their surplus children and other persons to the Irish as slaves. The
+Church repeatedly intervened for the release of captives and
+mitigation of their condition. The whole institution of slavery was
+strongly condemned as un-Christian by the Synod held in Armagh in
+1171.</p>
+
+<p><b>CRIMINAL LAW.</b> Though there are numerous laws relating to
+crime, to be found chiefly in the <i>Book of Aicill</i>, criminal law
+in the sense of a code of punishment there was none. The law took
+cognizance of crime and wrong of every description against person,
+character, and property; and its function was to prevent and restrict
+crime, and when committed to determine, according to the facts of the
+case and the respective ranks of the parties, the value of the
+compensation or reparation that should be made. It treated crime as a
+mode of incurring liability; entitled the sufferer, or, if he was
+murdered, his <i>fine</i>, to bring the matter before a brehon, who,
+on hearing the case, made the complicated calculations and adjustments
+rendered necessary by the facts proved and by the grades to which the
+respective parties belonged, arrived at and gave judgment for the
+amount of the compensation, armed with which judgment, the plaintiff
+could immediately distrain for that amount the property of the
+criminal, and, in his default, that of his <i>fine</i>. The
+<i>fine</i> could escape part of its liability by arresting and giving
+up the convict, or by expelling him and giving substantial security
+against his future misdeeds.</p>
+
+<p>From the number of elements that entered into the calculation of a
+fine, it necessarily resulted that like fines by no means followed
+like crimes. Fines, like all other payments, were adjudged and paid in
+kind, being, in some cases of the destruction of property,
+generic&mdash;a quantity of that kind of property. Large fines were
+usually adjudged to be paid in three species, one-third in each, the
+plaintiff taking care to inform correctly the brehon of the kinds of
+property the defendant possessed, because he could seize only that
+named, and if the defendant did not possess it, the judgment was "a
+blind nut." Crime against the State or community, such as wilful
+disturbance of an assembly, was punished severely. These were the only
+cases to which the law attached a sentence of death or other corporal
+punishment. For nothing whatsoever between parties did the law
+recognize any duty of revenge, retaliation, or the infliction of
+personal punishment, but only the payment of compensation. Personal
+punishment was regarded as the commission of a second crime on account
+of a first. There was no duty to do this; but the right to do it was
+tacitly recognized if a criminal resisted or evaded payment of an
+adjudged compensation. Criminal were distinguished from civil cases
+only by the moral element, the sufferer's right in all cases to choose
+a brehon, the loss of <i>eineachlann</i>, partial or whole according
+to the magnitude of the crime, the elements used in calculating the
+amount of fine, and the technical terms employed. <i>Dire</i>
+(djeereh) was a general name for a fine, and there were specific names
+for classes of fines. <i>Eric</i> = reparation, redemption, was the
+fine for killing a human being, the amount being affected by the
+distinction between murder and manslaughter and by other
+circumstances; but in no case was a violent death, however innocent,
+allowed to pass without reparation being made. A fine was awarded out
+of the property of the convict or of his <i>fine</i> to the
+<i>fine</i> of the person slain, in the proportions in which they were
+entitled to inherit his property, that being also according to their
+degrees of kinship and the degrees in which they were really
+sufferers. This gave every clan and every clansman, in addition to
+their moral interest, a direct monetary interest in the prevention and
+suppression of crime. Hence the whole public feeling of the country
+was entirely in support of the law, the honor and interest of
+community and individual being involved in its maintenance. The
+injured person or <i>fine</i>, if unable to recover the fine, might,
+in capital cases, seize and enslave, or even kill, the convict.
+Probably restrained by the fact that, there being no officers of
+criminal law, they had to inflict punishment themselves, they
+sometimes imprisoned a convict in a small island, or sent him adrift
+on the sea in a <i>currach</i> or boat of hide. Law supported by
+public opinion, powerful because so inspired, powerful because
+unanimous, was difficult to evade or resist. It so strongly armed an
+injured person, and so utterly paralyzed a criminal, that escape from
+justice was hardly possible. The only way in which it was possible was
+by flight, leaving all one's property behind, and sinking into slavery
+in a strange place; and this in effect was a severe punishment rather
+than an escape.</p>
+
+<p><b>FOREIGN LAW.</b> The Danes and other Norsemen were the
+buccaneers of northwestern Europe from the eighth to the eleventh
+century. They conquered and settled permanently in Neustria, from them
+called Normandy, and conquered and ruled for a considerable time
+England and part of Scotland and the Isles. In Ireland they were
+little more than marauders, having permanent colonies only round the
+coast; always subject, nominally at least, to the <i>ard-ri</i> or to
+the local chief; paying him tribute when he was strong, raiding his
+territory when he was weak, and fomenting recurrent disorder highly
+prejudicial to law, religion, and civilization. They never made any
+pretence of extending their laws to Ireland, and their attempt to
+conquer the country was finally frustrated at Clontarf in 1014.</p>
+
+<p>The Anglo-Norman invaders also seized the seaports. The earlier of
+them who went inland partially adopted in the second generation the
+Gaelic language, laws, and customs; as many non-Celtic Lowlanders of
+Scotland about the same period adopted the Gaelic language, laws, and
+customs of the Highlanders. Hence they did not make much impression on
+the Gaelic system, beyond the disintegrating effect of their imperfect
+adoption of it.</p>
+
+<p>Into the eastern parts of Ireland, however, a fresh stream of
+English adventurers continued to flow, as aggressive and covetous as
+their means and prudence permitted; calling so much of the country as
+they were able to wrench from the Irish "the English Pale", which
+fluctuated in extent with their fortunes; and, when compelled to pay
+tribute to Irish chiefs, calling it "black rent", to indicate how they
+regarded it. Their greatest difficulty was to counteract the tendency
+of the earlier colonists to become Hibernicized&mdash;a most unwilling
+tribute to the superiority of the Irish race. They, and still more
+those in England who supported them, knew nothing of the Irish
+language, laws, and institutions but that they should all be
+impartially hated, uprooted, and supplanted by English people and
+everything English as soon as means enabled this to be done. This was
+the amiable purpose of the pompously-named "Statute of Kilkenny",
+passed by about a score of these colonists in 1367. Presuming to speak
+in the name of Ireland, the statute prohibited the English colonists
+from becoming Irish in the numerous ways they were accustomed to do,
+and excluded all Irish priests from preferment in the Church, partly
+because their superior virtue would by contrast amount to a censure.
+The purpose was not completely successful even within the Pale.
+Outside that precinct, the mass of the Irish were wholly unconscious
+of the existence of the "Statute of Kilkenny." But expressing, as the
+statute did correctly, the views of fresh adventurers, it became, in
+arrogance and in the pretension to speak for the whole of Ireland, a
+model for their future legislation and policy.</p>
+
+<p>Under King Henry VI. of England, Richard, Duke of York, being Lord
+Deputy, the Parliament of the Pale, assembled in Dublin, repudiated
+the authority of the English Parliament in Ireland, established a
+mint, and assumed an attitude of almost complete independence. On the
+other hand, in 1494, under Henry VII., the Parliament of the Pale,
+assembled at Drogheda, passed Poyning's Act, extending all English
+laws to Ireland and subjecting all laws passed in Ireland to revision
+by the English Council. This, extended to the whole of Ireland as
+English power extended, remained in force until 1782. Henry VIII. was
+the first English sovereign to take practical measures for the pacific
+and diplomatic conquest of the whole of Ireland and the substitution
+of English for Irish institutions and methods. His daughter, Queen
+Elizabeth, continued and completed the conquest; but it was by
+drenching the country in blood, by more than decimating the Irish
+people, and by reducing the remnant to something like the condition of
+the ancient <i>fuidre</i>. Her policy prepared the ground for her
+successor, James I., to exterminate the Irish from large tracts, in
+which he planted Englishmen and Scotchmen, and to extend all English
+laws to Ireland and abolish all other laws. James's English
+attorney-general in Ireland, Sir John Davies, in his work, <i>A
+Discoverie of the True Causes, etc.</i>, says:</p>
+
+<p>"For there is no nation of people under the sunne that doth love
+equall and indifferent [= impartial] justice better than the Irish; or
+will rest better satisfied with the execution thereof, although it bee
+against themselves; so as they may have the protection and benefit of
+the law, when uppon just cause they do desire it."</p>
+
+<p>The ancient Irish loved their laws and took pride in obeying and
+enforcing them. The different attitude of the modern Irish towards
+foreign laws and administration is amply explained by the morally
+indefensible character of those laws and that administration, to be
+read in English statutes and ordinances and in the history of English
+rule in Ireland&mdash;a subject too vast and harrowing, and in every
+sense foreign to what has gone before, to be entered upon here. Though
+the Parliament of 1782-1800 was little more than a Pale Parliament, in
+which the mass of the Irish people had no representation whatever, one
+of its Acts, to its credit be it said, was an attempt to mitigate the
+Penal Laws and emancipate the oppressed Gaelic and Catholic population
+of Ireland. With the partial exception of that brief interval, law in
+Ireland has, during the last 360 years, meant English laws specially
+enacted for the destruction of any Irish trade or industry that
+entered into competition with a corresponding English trade or
+industry. In later times those crude barbarities have been gradually
+superseded by the more defensible laws now in force in Ireland, all of
+which can be studied in statutes passed by the Parliament, since the
+Union with Scotland, called British.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Pending the desirable work of a more competent Brehon Law
+Commission and translators, the subject must be studied in the six
+volumes of <i>Ancient Laws of Ireland</i>, produced by the first
+Commission, from 1865 to 1901, ignoring the long introductions and
+many of the notes. Whitley Stokes: Criticism of Atkinson's Glossary
+(London, 1903); R. Dareste: Etudes d'histoire de droit (Paris, 1889);
+d'Arbois de Jubainville and Paul Collinet: Etudes sur le droit
+celtique, 2 vols. (Paris, 1895); Joyce: Social History of Ancient
+Ireland, 2 vols. (London, 1913); Laurence Ginnell: The Brehon Laws
+(London, 1894).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T08"></a>IRISH MUSIC</h2>
+<h4>By W.H. GRATTAN FLOOD, Mus. D., M.R.I.A., K.S.G.</h4>
+
+<p>Perhaps nothing so strikingly brings home the association of
+Ireland with music as the fact that the harp is emblazoned on the
+national arms. Ireland, "the mother of sweet singers", as Pope writes;
+Ireland, "where", according to St. Columcille, "the clerics sing like
+the birds"; Ireland can proudly point to a musical history of over
+2,000 years. The Milesians, the De Dananns, and other pre-Christian
+colonists were musical. Hecataeus (B.C. 540-475) describes the Celts
+of Ireland as singing songs to the harp in praise of Apollo, and
+Aethicus of Istria, a Christian philosopher of the early fourth
+century, describes the culture of the Irish. Certain it is that, even
+before the coming of St. Patrick, the Irish were a highly cultured
+nation, and the national Apostle utilized music and song in his work
+of conversion. In the early Lives of the Irish Saints musical
+references abound, and the Irish school of music attracted foreign
+scholars from the sixth to the ninth century.</p>
+
+<p>Hymnologists are familiar with the hymns written by early Irish
+saints and laics, <i>e.g.</i>, St. Sechnall, St. Columcille, St.
+Molaise, St. Cuchuimne, St. Columbanus, St. Ultan, St. Colman, St.
+Cummain, St. Aengus, Dungal, Sedulius, Moengal, and others. Who has
+not heard of the great music school of San Gallen, founded by St.
+Gall, "the wonder and delight of Europe," whither flocked German
+students? One of the Irish monks, Tuathal (Tutilo), composed numerous
+sacred pieces, including the famous farced Kyrie, "Fons bonitatis",
+included in the Vatican edition of the <i>Kyriale</i> (1906). Not
+alone did Irish monks propagate sacred and secular music throughout
+France, Italy, Switzerland, Austria, Germany, and the far North, but
+they made their influence felt In Lindisfarne, Malmesbury,
+Glastonbury, and other cities in England, as also in Scotland. St.
+Aldhelm, one of the pupils of St. Maeldubh, tells us that at the close
+of the seventh century, "Ireland, synonymous with learning, literally
+blazed like the stars of the firmament with the glory of her
+scholars."</p>
+
+<p>During the ninth century we meet with twelve different forms of
+instruments in use by the Irish, namely:&mdash;the <i>Cruit</i> and
+<i>Clairseach</i> (small and large harp); <i>Timpan</i> (<i>Rotta</i>
+or bowed <i>cruit</i>); <i>Buinne</i> (oboe or bassoon);
+<i>Bennbuabhal</i> and <i>Corn</i> (horn); <i>Cuisleanna</i> and
+<i>Piob</i> (bagpipes); <i>Feadan</i> (flute or fife);
+<i>Guthbuinne</i> (bass horn); <i>Stoc</i> and <i>Sturgan</i>
+(trumpet); <i>Pipai</i> (single and double pipes);
+<i>Craoibh cuil</i> and <i>Crann cuil</i> (cymbalum); <i>Cnamha</i>
+(castanet); and <i>Fidil</i> (fiddle). The so-called "Brian Boru's
+Harp" really dates from the thirteenth century, and is now in Trinity
+College, Dublin, but there are numerous sculptured harps of the ninth
+and tenth centuries on the crosses at Graig, Ullard, Clonmacnois,
+Durrow, and Monasterboice.</p>
+
+<p>Donnchadh, an Irish bishop of the ninth century, who died as abbot
+of St. Remigius, wrote a commentary on Martianus Capella, a well-known
+musical text book. Towering above all his fellows, John Scotus
+Erigena, in 867, wrote a tract <i>De Divisione Naturae</i>, in which
+he expounds <i>organum</i> or discant, nearly a hundred years before
+the appearance of the <i>Scholia Enchiriadis</i> and the <i>Musica
+Enchiriadis</i>. He also wrote a commentary on Martianus Capella, now
+in a Paris MS. of the ninth century.</p>
+
+<p>The eulogy of Giraldus Cambrensis, or Gerald Barry, who came to
+Ireland in 1183, on Irish harpers and minstrels is too well known to
+be repeated, but Brompton and John of Salisbury are equally
+enthusiastic. Ground bass, or pedal point, and singing in parts, as
+well as bands of harpers and pipers, were in vogue in Ireland before
+the coming of the English. Dante, quoted by Galilei, testifies to the
+fact that Italy received the harp from Ireland; and, it may be added,
+the Irish harp suggested the pianoforte. In the Anglo-Norman ballad,
+"The Entrenchment of New Ross"&mdash;in 1265&mdash;allusion is made to
+pipes and flutes, and carols and dancing. Another poem, dating from
+about 1320, refers to Irish dances in a flattering manner.</p>
+
+<p>John Garland (1190-1264) wrote a treatise on <i>Organum</i>, and
+outlined a scheme of dividing the interval, which developed into
+ornamentation, passing notes, and grace notes. The Dublin
+<i>Troper</i> of the thirteenth century has a number of farced Kyries
+and Glorias, also a collection of Sequences. A Dublin
+<i>Processionale</i> of the fourteenth century contains the most
+elaborate form of the <i>Officium Sepulchri</i>, with musical notation
+on a four-line stave&mdash;the foundation of the Miracle Play of the
+Resurrection. Another Dublin <i>Troper</i> dates from 1360 and was
+used in St. Patrick's Cathedral. It contains the hymn, "Angelus ad
+Virginem", alluded to by Chaucer. The Christ Church Psaltery, about
+1370, has musical notation and is exquisitely illuminated. Lionel
+Power, an Anglo-Irishman, wrote the first English treatise on music in
+1395. Exactly a century later, in 1495, a music school was founded in
+Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish Annals of the thirteenth to the fifteenth century have
+numerous references to distinguished harpers and singers, and there
+are still sung many beautiful airs of this period, including "The
+Coulin" and "Eibhlin a ruin." John Lawless was a famous Irish
+organ-builder of the second half of the fifteenth century, and his
+successor, James Dempsey, built many fine organs between the years
+1530 and 1565.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the many penal enactments against Irish minstrels,
+all the great Anglo-Irish nobles of the Pale retained an Irish harper
+and piper in their service. Under date of 1480, we find Chief Justice
+Bermingham having an Irish harper to teach his family, as also "to
+harp and to dance." A century later "Blind Cruise, the
+harper"&mdash;Richard Cruise&mdash;composed a lamentation song on the
+fall of the Baron of Slane, the air of which is still popular. It is
+to the credit of the Irishman, William Bathe (who subsequently became
+a Jesuit), that he wrote the first printed English treatise on music,
+published in 1584&mdash;thus ante-dating by thirteen years Morley's
+work. Bathe wrote a second musical treatise in 1587, and he was the
+first to call measures by the name of bars. He also formulated methods
+of transposition and sight reading that may still be studied with
+profit.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas Campion, the poet and composer, was born in Dublin in 1567,
+but spent nearly all his life in England. Other Irish composers, to
+mention only the most distinguished, were William Costello
+(madrigalist), Richard Gillie, Edward Shergold, and Walter Kennedy.
+Strange as it may seem, Queen Elizabeth retained in her service an
+Irish harper, Cormac MacDermot, from 1591 to 1603, and on the death of
+the queen he was given an annual pension of &pound;46 10s.
+10d.&mdash;nearly &pound;500 a year of our present money.</p>
+
+<p>Shakespeare refers to eleven Irish tunes, of which the famous
+"Callino Casturame" (<i>Cailin og a stuir me</i>) is still fresh.
+Irish dances were extremely popular at the English court from 1600 to
+1603 and were introduced into the Masks. Shakespeare's "intrinsic
+friend," John Dowland of Dublin, was one of the greatest lutenists in
+Europe from 1590 to 1626. In the dedication of a song "to my loving
+countryman, Mr. John Foster the Younger, merchant of Dublin in
+Ireland," Dowland sufficiently indicates his nationality, and his
+compositions betray all the charm and grace of Irish melody. It is of
+interest to add that the earliest printed "Irish Dance" is in
+<i>Parthenia Inviolata</i>, of which work, published in 1613-4, there
+is only one copy known&mdash;now in the New York Public Library. From
+1600-1602, Charles O'Reilly was harpist to the court of Denmark at 200
+thalers a year. His successor was Donal <i>Dubh</i> ("the black")
+O'Cahill (1602-1610), who followed Anne of Denmark to the English
+court. Walter Quin of Dublin was music master to King James's eldest
+son, Prince Henry, from 1608 to 1611. Other noted harpers of the first
+half of the seventeenth century are: Rory <i>dall</i> ("the blind")
+O'Cahan; Nicholas <i>dall</i> Pierce; Tadhg MacRory; John, Rory, and
+Henry Scott; Owen MacKeenan; Owen MacDermot; Tadhg O'Coffey; and
+Father Robert Nugent, S.J. Darby Scott was harper to the Danish Court
+from 1621 till his death, at Copenhagen, on December 19, 1634. Pierce
+Ferriter, a "gentleman harper", was executed at Killarney in 1652.
+Myles O'Reilly and the two Connellans were famous harpers between the
+years 1660-1680. Evelyn, the English diarist, in 1668, praises the
+excellent performance on the harp of Sir Edward Sutton, who, in the
+following year, was granted by King Charles II. the lands of Confey,
+Co. Kildare. Two beautiful harps of this period are still
+preserved&mdash;the Fitzgerald Harp and the Fogarty Harp.</p>
+
+<p>There are many exquisite airs of the seventeenth century, some of
+which have been incorporated in Moore's <i>Irish Melodies</i>. The
+titles of several airs of this epoch are of historical interest,
+<i>e.g.</i>, "Sarsfield's Lament," "Lament for Owen Roe O'Neill,"
+"MacAlistrum's March," "Ned of the Hill," "The Breach of Aughrim,"
+"Limerick's Lamentation," "Lilliburlero," "Ballinamona," "The Boyne
+Water," and "The Wild Geese." Irish tunes abound in the various
+editions of Playford's <i>Country Dances</i> from 1651 to 1720.</p>
+
+<p>Turlogh O'Carolan (1670-1738), who has been styled "the last of the
+Irish bards", wrote and composed innumerable songs, also Planxties,
+Plearacas, and Lamentations. It is here merely necessary to note that
+twenty-six of O'Carolan's airs are included in Moore's <i>Irish
+Melodies</i>, although his claim to them has only recently been proved
+by the present writer. Goldsmith's eulogy of O'Carolan is well
+known.</p>
+
+<p>The Jacobite period from 1710 to 1750 considerably influenced Irish
+minstrelsy, and some of the most delightful airs were adapted to
+Jacobite lyrics. "Seaghan buidhe," "An Sean duine," "Lament for
+Kilcash," "Ormonde's Lament," "Morin ni Chullenain," "All the Way to
+Galway" (the air of "Yankee Doodle"), "Caitlin ni Houlihan," "Balance
+a straw" ("The Wearing of the Green"), "St. Patrick's Day," "Plancam
+Peirbhig," are amongst the tunes in vogue at this period.</p>
+
+<p>As early as 1685 the Hibernian Catch Club was established and still
+flourishes. Cecilian celebrations were held from 1727 to 1732, and a
+Dublin Academy of Music was founded in 1728. The Charitable and
+Musical Society (founded in 1723) built the Fishamble Street Music
+Hall in 1741, and assisted at the first performance of <i>The
+Messiah</i>, conducted by Handel himself, on 13th April, 1742. Kitty
+Clive, Peg Woffington, and Daniel Sullivan were noted Irish singers of
+this epoch, while John Clegg, Dr. Murphy, and Burke Thumoth were
+famous instrumentalists. In 1741 Richard Pockrich invented the Musical
+Glasses, for which Gluck wrote some pieces: it was afterwards improved
+by Benjamin Franklin. On the continent, Henry Madden was music
+director of the Chapel Royal at Versailles in 1744 (in succession to
+Campra), and was also canon of St. Quentin.</p>
+
+<p>In 1764 the Earl of Mornington, Mus. D., was appointed first
+professor of music in Dublin University. A few years later Charles
+Clagget invented the valve-horn. Michael Kelly of Dublin was specially
+selected by Mozart to create the parts of Basilio and Don Curzio at
+the first performance of the opera of <i>Figaro</i>, on May 1st, 1786.
+Kane O'Hara, Samuel Lee, Owenson, Neale, Baron Dillon, Dr. Doyle, T.A.
+Geary, Mahon, and the Earl of Westmeath were distinguished
+musicians&mdash;while the fame of Carter, Mountain, Moorehead, and Dr.
+Cogan was not confined to Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>Among native minstrels, Jerome Duigenan, Dominic Mongan, Denis
+Hempson, Charles Byrne, James Duncan, Arthur Victory, and Arthur
+O'Neill were celebrated as harpers. The Belfast meeting of 1792
+revived the vogue of the national instrument. Nor was the bagpipe
+neglected. Even in America, in 1778, Lord Rawdon had a band of pipers,
+with Barney Thomson as Pipe Major. At home, Sterling, Jackson,
+MacDonnell, Moorehead, Kennedy, and Macklin sustained the reputation
+of this ancient instrument.</p>
+
+<p>Ere the close of the eighteenth century John Field of Dublin was a
+distinguished pianist. He subsequently (1814) invented the nocturne,
+developed by Chopin. Sir John Stevenson (the arranger of the <i>Irish
+Melodies</i>), Tom Cooke, William Southwell (inventor of the damper
+action for pianofortes), Henry Mountain, Andrew Ashe (flautist),
+Barton, Rooke, and Bunting were world-famed.</p>
+
+<p>Among the Irish musicians of the last century the following names
+are typical: Thomas Moore, J. A. Wade, Balle (<i>Bohemian Girl</i>),
+Wallace (<i>Maritana</i>), Osborne, Sir Frederick Ouseley, Scotson
+Clarke, Howard Glover, Horncastle, J. W. Glover, Sir Robert Stewart,
+Augusta Holmes, R. M. Levey, Joseph Robinson, Forde, Lover, Kearns,
+Allen, Barker, Torrance, Molloy, Guernsey, Gilmore, Thunder, Harvey,
+Goodman, Sir Arthur Sullivan (<i>Pinafore, Mikado</i>), Miss Davis,
+Halliday (inventor of the Kent bugle), Latham, Duggan, Gaskin, Lacy,
+Pontet (Piccolomini), Hudson, Pigot, Horan, Marks, and W. C. Levey.
+Famous vocalists like Catherine Hayes, Mrs. Scott Fennell, Signer Foli
+(Foley), Barton McGuckin, Denis O'Sullivan, and William Ludwig deserve
+inclusion.</p>
+
+<p>In our own day, it is only necessary to mention composers like Sir
+Charles Villiers Stanford, Dr. C. Woods, Victor Herbert, Mrs. Needham,
+Dr. Sinclair, Norman O'Neill, and Arthur O'Leary; singers like Egan,
+Burke, Plunket Greene, John MacCormack, P. O'Shea, Charles Manners,
+and Joseph O'Mara; violinists like Maud McCarthy, Emily Keady, Arthur
+Darley, and Patrick Delaney; organists like Dr. Charles Marchant,
+Brendan Rogers, Dr. Joz&eacute;, and Professor Buck; writers like Mrs.
+Curwen, Dr. Annie Patterson, Mrs. Milligan Fox, Professor Mahaffy,
+A.P. Graves, Dr. Collison, and G.B. Shaw; and conductors like Hamilton
+Harty and James Glover.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Walker: Irish Bards (1786); O'Curry: Lectures (1870); Hardiman:
+Irish Mistrelsy (2 vols., 1834); The Complete Petrie Collection (3
+vols., 1902-1904); Grattan Flood: History of Irish Music (3rd ed.,
+1913), Story of the Harp (1906), Story of the Bagpipe (1911); Mrs.
+Milligan Fox: Annals of the Irish Harpers (1911); Mason: Song Lore of
+Ireland (1910); Armstrong: Musical Instruments (2 vols., 1904-1908);
+O'Neill: Irish Folk Music (1911), Irish Minstrels and Musicians
+(1913).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T09"></a>IRISH METAL WORK</h2>
+<h4>By DIARMID GOFFEY.</h4>
+
+<p>From the earliest times in the history of western Europe Ireland
+has been renowned for her work in metal. The first metal used was
+copper, and copper weapons are found in Ireland dating from 2,000
+B.C., or even earlier, the beautiful designs of which show that the
+early inhabitants of the country were skilled workers in metal. Fields
+of copper exist all along the southern seaboard of Ireland. Numbers of
+flat copper celts, or axes, have been found modelled on the still
+earlier stone implements. By degrees the influence of the early stone
+axe disappears and axes of a true metal type are developed. Primitive
+copper knives and awls are also abundant. The fineness of the early
+Irish copper work is seen at its best in the numerous copper halberd
+blades found in Ireland. These blades, varying from nine to sixteen
+inches in length, were fastened at right angles by rivets into wooden
+shafts. The blades show a slight sickle-like curve and are of the
+highest workmanship. Halberds somewhat similar in type have been found
+in Spain, North Germany, and Scandinavia.</p>
+
+<p>Between the years 2000 and 1800 B.C. the primitive metalworkers
+discovered that bronze, a mixture of tin and copper, was a more
+suitable metal than pure copper for the manufacture of weapons; and
+the first period of the bronze age may be dated from 1800 to 1500 B.C.
+The bronze celts at first differed little from those made of copper,
+but gradually the type developed from the plain wedge-shaped celt to
+the beautiful socketed celt, which appears on the scene in the last,
+or fifth, division of the bronze age (900-350 B.C.). It was during the
+age of bronze that spears came into general use, as did the sword and
+rapier. The early spear-heads were simply knife-shaped bronze weapons
+riveted to the ends of shafts, but by degrees the graceful socketed
+spear-heads of the late bronze age were developed.</p>
+
+<p>Stone moulds for casting the early forms of weapons have been
+found, but, as the art of metalworking became perfected, the use of
+sand moulds was discovered, with the result that there are no extant
+examples of moulds for casting the more developed forms of weapons.
+The bronze weapons&mdash;celts, swords, and spear-heads&mdash;are
+often highly decorated. In these decorations can be traced the
+connection between the early Irish civilization and that of the
+eastern Mediterranean. The bronze age civilization in Europe spread
+westward from the eastern Mediterranean either by the southern route
+of Italy, Spain, France, and thence to Ireland, or, as seems more
+probable, up the river Danube, then down the Elbe, and so to
+Scandinavia, whence traders by the north of Scotland introduced the
+motives and patterns of the Aegean into Ireland. Whichever way the
+eastern civilization penetrated into Ireland, it left England
+practically untouched in her primitive barbarity.</p>
+
+<p>Of gold work, for which Ireland is especially famous, the principal
+feature in the bronze age was the lunula, a crescent-shaped flat gold
+ornament generally decorated at the ends of the crescent. These
+lunulae are found in profusion all over Ireland. A few have been found
+in Cornwall and Brittany, and a few in Scotland and Denmark. One has
+been found in Luxemburg and one in Hanover.</p>
+
+<p>Gold collars are numerous in Ireland and also date from the bronze
+age. The earliest form of collar is the "torc" of twisted gold.
+Another type, later in date than the torc, is the gold ring-shaped
+collar. Two splendid examples of this latter type were found at
+Clonmacnois, the decoration of which, in <i>La T&egrave;ne</i>, or
+trumpet, pattern, shows the connection between the Irish and
+continental designs.</p>
+
+<p>A find of prehistoric gold ornaments in county Clare should be
+mentioned. An immense number was there discovered in 1854 hidden
+together in a cist, the value of the whole being estimated at over
+&pound;3,000.</p>
+
+<p>After the bronze age comes the iron age. The introduction of iron
+wrought a great change in metalworking, but, as iron is a metal very
+subject to oxidization, comparatively few early iron remains are
+found. There are some swords of an early pattern in the National
+Museum at Dublin.</p>
+
+<p>It has been shown that the pre-Christian metalwork of Ireland is
+well worthy of attention, but it is to the early Christian
+metalworkers that Ireland owes her pre-eminent fame in this field. In
+early Christian Ireland metalworking was brought to a pitch rarely
+equalled and never excelled. The remains found, such as the Tara
+Brooch, the Cross of Cong, and the Ardagh Chalice, are among the most
+beautiful metalwork in the world. The wonderful interlaced patterns,
+which are typically Celtic, bewildering in their intricacy, and
+fascinating in the freedom and boldness of their execution, lend
+themselves readily to metal work.</p>
+
+<p>The connecting link between the metalwork of the late pagan period
+and that of early Christian times is chiefly exemplified by the
+penannular brooches, of which great numbers have been found in
+Ireland. Examples of this characteristically Celtic ornament may be
+seen in all Celtic countries.</p>
+
+<p>In its earliest form this brooch is simply a ring, with a gap in
+it, to which a pin is loosely attached by a smaller ring. Gradually
+the open ends of the ring, which need some enlargement in order to
+prevent the pin slipping off, became larger and ornamented. In time
+these became regular trumpet-shaped ends, generally ornamented with
+characteristic "trumpet" patterns. The next stage was to close the
+gap, leaving a ring with a crescent-shaped disc at one side. Space
+does not permit of the description of the numerous brooches found. It
+will be sufficient to describe the Tara Brooch, which is the crowning
+glory not only of the Irish but of any metalworker's art.</p>
+
+<p>The Tara Brooch, whose only connection with Tara is its name, was
+found near Drogheda; it is about seven inches in diameter and the pin
+about fifteen inches long. It is made of bronze covered with the most
+elaborate interlaced ornament in gold. The fineness of the interlaced
+work may be compared with, and is quite equal to, that of the best
+illuminated manuscripts; the freedom of its execution is amazing.
+Besides panels of ribbon ornament, which include spirals, plaited
+work, human heads, and animal forms, the front of the brooch is
+decorated with enamel and settings of amber and colored glass. The
+back of the brooch is, as is often the case in Irish work, decorated
+in a bolder manner than the front, and the "trumpet" pattern is there
+very marked. The head of the pin is also elaborately decorated. The
+minute and intricate style of the work is strikingly shown by the fact
+that, even after prolonged study, some patterns escaped notice and
+have only lately been discovered. Further, each of the gold lines is
+made of tiny gold balls, so small as only to be seen by means of a
+magnifying glass.</p>
+
+<p>With the introduction of Christianity, the attention of artificers
+was turned to the manufacture of church vessels and shrines. Of these
+perhaps the most beautiful are the Ardagh Chalice, the Cross of Cong,
+and the Shrine of St. Patrick's Bell, though great numbers of other
+sacred ornaments, such as the Shrine of St. Lactan's Arm and the
+numerous bell shrines, are also fine examples of the work of an
+unsurpassed school of metalworkers.</p>
+
+<p>The date of the Tara Brooch is not easy to determine, but it may
+probably be placed in the eighth century of our era. The Ardagh
+Chalice belongs probably to about the same date. It was found in a
+rath at Ardagh, county Limerick, in 1868. It measures 7 inches in
+height and 9-1/2 in diameter. Around the cup is a band of fine
+filigree interlaced ornament in the form of panels divided by half
+beads of enamel. Below this are the names of the twelve Apostles in
+faint Celtic lettering. The two handles are beautifully decorated with
+panels of interwoven ornament, and on the sides are two circular discs
+divided into ornamented panels. The under side of the foot of the
+Chalice is also very beautifully decorated.</p>
+
+<p>The shrines of the bells of the Irish saints are interesting
+examples of Irish metal work. As is fitting, the finest of these is
+the Shrine of St. Patrick's Bell. This was made by order of King
+Domnall O'Lachlainn between the years 1091 and 1105 to contain St.
+Patrick's Bell, a square iron bell made of two plates of sheet iron
+riveted together. The shrine is made of bronze plates, to which gold
+filigree work and stones are riveted. The top of the shrine, curved to
+receive the handle of the bell, is of silver elaborately decorated.
+The back is overlaid with a plate of silver cut in cruciform pattern.
+Around the margin of the back is engraved the following inscription in
+Irish: "A prayer for Domnall Ua Lachlainn, by whom this bell [shrine]
+was made, and for Domnall, successor of Patrick, by whom it was made,
+and for Cathalan Ua Maelchallann, the keeper of the bell, and for
+Cudulig Ua Inmainen with his sons, who fashioned it." The whole is
+executed in a very fine manner and is the most beautiful object of its
+kind in existence. Another beautiful shrine, known as the Cross of
+Cong, made to enshrine a piece of the true cross presented by the pope
+in 1123, was made for King Turlogh O'Conor at about that date. It is 2
+feet 6 inches high and 1 foot 6-3/4 inches wide. It is made of oak
+cased with copper and enriched with ornaments of gilded bronze. The
+ornamentation is of the typical Irish type, as on the Ardagh Chalice
+and the Shrine of St. Patrick's Bell. A quartz crystal set in the
+centre of the front of the cross probably held the relic.</p>
+
+<p>It is clear from the succession of beautiful work executed from the
+eighth to the twelfth century, that there must have existed in Ireland
+during that period a school of workers in metal such as has seldom
+been equalled by any individual worker or guild before or since, and
+never excelled. The examples described are only the more famous of the
+remains of early Irish Christian art in metal, but they are surrounded
+by numerous examples of pins, brooches, and shrines, each worthy to
+rank with the finest productions of the metalworker. The Shrine of St.
+Moedoc (date uncertain) ought perhaps to be mentioned. On it are found
+several figures, including three nuns, men with books, sceptres, and
+swords, and a lifelike figure of a harper.</p>
+
+<p>Besides articles of ornament, articles of use, such as bits for
+horses and household utensils, have been found, which show that the
+Irish smiths were as well able to produce articles for every-day use
+as the artificers were to create works of art in metal.</p>
+
+<p>With the landing of the English in 1169 the arts and sciences in
+Ireland declined. Indeed, from that time on and for long afterwards,
+almost the only metalworkers needed were makers of arms and weapons of
+offense and defense.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>British Museum, Bronze Age Guide; Coffey: Bronze Age in Ireland;
+Allen: Celtic Art; Abercrombie: Bronze Age Pottery; Wilde: Catalogue
+of the Royal Irish Academy's Collection; Allen: Christian Symbolism;
+Stokes: Christian Art in Ireland; Petrie: Ecclesiastical Architecture
+in Ireland; Coffey: Guide to the Celtic Antiquities of the Christian
+Period perserved in the National Museum, Dublin; Kane: Industrial
+Resources of Ireland; O'Curry: Manners and Customs of the Ancient
+Irish; Coffey: New Grange and other incised Tumuli in Ireland;
+Dechelette: Manuel d'Arch&eacute;ologie pr&eacute;-historique;
+Ridgeway: Origin of Currency and Weight Standards.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T10"></a>IRISH MANUSCRIPTS</h2>
+<h4>By LOUIS ELY O'CARROLL, B.A., B.L.</h4>
+
+<p>In the dark ages of Europe, whilst new civilizations were in the
+making and all was unrest, art and religion, like the lamp of the
+sanctuary, burned brightly and steadily in Ireland, and their rays
+penetrated the outer gloom. Scattered through the libraries of Europe
+are the priceless manuscripts limned by Irish scribes. The earliest
+missionaries to the continent, disciples of St. Columbanus and St.
+Gall, doubtless brought with them into exile beautiful books which
+they or their brothers of the parent monastery had wrought in a labor
+of love; or mayhap many a monk crossed the seas bearing the treasured
+volumes into hiding from the spoiling hands of the Dane. Yet,
+fortunately, in the island home where their beauty was born the most
+superb volumes still remain.</p>
+
+<p>From almost prehistoric times the Irish were skilled artificers in
+gold and bronze, and, at the advent of Christianity, had already
+evolved and perfected that unique system of geometrical ornament which
+is known as Celtic design. The original and essential features of this
+system consisted in the use of spirals and interlacing strapwork, but
+later on this type was developed by transforming the geometrical fret
+into a scheme of imaginary or nondescript animals, portions of which,
+such as the tails and ears, were prolonged and woven in exquisite
+fancy through the border. The artistic features of Celtic book
+decoration consist chiefly of initial letters of this nature
+embellished with color. Amongst the ancient Irish there was a keen
+knowledge of color and an exceptional appreciation of color values.
+Thus it was that in the early centuries of Christian Ireland the
+learned monks, transcribing the Gospels and longing to make the book
+beautiful, were able to bring to their task an artistic skill which
+was hereditary and almost instinctive. The colors which they used were
+mostly derived from mineral substances and the black was carbon, made,
+it is conjectured, from charred fish-bones; but with them was combined
+some gummy material which made them cling softly to the vellum and has
+held for us their lustre for more than a thousand years. It is
+noteworthy that neither gold nor silver was used for book decoration,
+and this would appear to be a deliberate avoidance of the glitter and
+glare which distinguish eastern art.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Book of Durrow</i>(in the Library of Trinity College,
+Dublin) is the oldest specimen of Celtic illumination and, if not the
+work of St. Columcille, is certainly of as early a date. Each of the
+Gospels opens with a beautiful initial succeeded by letters of
+gradually diminishing size, and there are full page decorations
+embodying such subjects as the symbols of the Evangelists. The colors
+are rich and vivid and all the designs are of the purest and most
+Celtic character.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Gospels of MacRegol</i>(now in the Bodleian Library, Oxford)
+is the work of an Abbot of Birr who died A.D. 820. It is a volume of
+unusually large size, copiously ornamented with masterly designs and
+containing illuminated portraits of Saints Mark, Luke, and John. The
+first part of the book with the portrait of St. Matthew is
+missing.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Book of Kells</i>(in the Library of T.C.D.) is the
+all-surpassing masterpiece of Celtic illuminative art and is
+acknowledged to be the most beautiful book in the world. This copy of
+the four Gospels was long deemed to have been made by the saintly
+hands of Columcille, though it probably belongs to the eighth century.
+Into its pages are woven such a wealth of ornament, such an ecstasy of
+art, and such a miracle of design that the book is today not only one
+of Ireland's greatest glories but one of the world's wonders. After
+twelve centuries the ink is as black and lustrous and the colors are
+as fresh and soft as though but the work of yesterday. The whole range
+of colors is there&mdash;green, blue, crimson, scarlet, yellow,
+purple, violet&mdash;and the same color is at times varied in tone and
+depth and shade, thereby achieving a more exquisite combination and
+effect. In addition to the numerous decorative pages and marvellous
+initials, there are portraits of the Evangelists and full-page
+miniatures of the Temptation of Christ, His Seizure by the Jews, and
+the Madonna and Child surrounded by Angels with censers. Exceptionally
+beautiful are these angels and other angelic figures throughout the
+book, their wings shining with glowing colors amid woven patterns of
+graceful design. The portraits and miniatures and the numerous faces
+centred in initial letters are not to be adjudged by the standard of
+anatomical drawing and delineation of the human figure, but rather by
+their effect as part of a scheme of ornamentation; for the Celtic
+illuminator was imaginative rather than realistic, and aimed
+altogether at achieving beauty by means of color and design. The Book
+of Kells is the Mecca of the illuminative artist, but it is the
+despair of the copyist. The patience and skill of the olden scribe
+have baffled the imitator; for, on an examination with a magnifying
+glass, it has been found that, in a space of a quarter of an inch,
+there are no fewer than a hundred and fifty-eight interlacements of a
+ribbon pattern of white lines edged by black ones on a black ground.
+Surely this is the manuscript which was shown to Giraldus Cambrensis
+towards the close of the twelfth century and of whose illuminations he
+speaks with glowing enthusiasm; "they were," he says, "supposed to
+have been produced by the direction of an angel at the prayer of St.
+Brigid."</p>
+
+<p><i>The Gospels of MacDurnan</i>(now in the Archbishop's Library at
+Lambeth) is a small and beautiful volume which was executed by an
+abbot of Armagh who died in the year 891. A full-page picture of the
+Evangelist precedes each Gospel, and a composite border frames each
+miniature in a bewildering pattern of intertwining strapwork and
+wonderful designs of imaginary beasts. Ornamental capitals and rich
+borders give a special beauty to the initial pages of the Gospels.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Book of Armagh</i>(in the Library of T.C.D.) was carefully
+guarded and specially venerated through the ages in the erroneous
+belief that it was in part the handiwork of St. Patrick. It was
+written about the year 800, and would appear to have been copied from
+documents actually written by the patron saint of Ireland. The book is
+exceptionally interesting by reason of the fact that it contains St.
+Patrick's Confession, that beautiful story of how he found his
+mission, how the captive grew to love his captors, and how, after his
+escape, he came back to them bearing the lamp of Holy Faith. Although
+the ornamentation of the manuscript is infrequent, there are
+occasional beautiful examples which compare in richness with those in
+the Book of Kells.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Liber Hymnorum</i>(in the Franciscan Monastery, Dublin)
+contains a number of hymns associated with the names of Irish saints.
+The ornamentation consists of colored initials, designed with a
+striking use of fanciful animal figures interlaced and twined with
+delightful freedom around the main structural body.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Garland of Howth</i> and the <i>Stowe Missal</i> (both in
+Trinity College Library) belong to the eighth century and are
+beautiful examples of early illuminative art. The former, which is
+very incomplete, has only two ornamental pages left, each containing
+figure-representations inserted in the decorative work.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Gospels of St. Chad</i> (in the Cathedral Library at
+Lichfield) and the <i>Gospels of Lindisfarne</i>, which are "the glory
+of the British Museum", form striking examples of the influence of
+Celtic art. St. Chad was educated in Ireland in the school of St.
+Finian, where he acquired his training in book decoration. The Gospels
+of Lindisfarne were produced by the monks of Iona, where St.
+Columcille founded his great school of religion, art, and learning.
+This latter manuscript is second only to the Book of Kells in its
+glory of illuminative design, and, from its distinctive scheme of
+colors, the tones of which are light and bright and gay, it forms a
+contrast to the quieter shades and the solemn dignity of the more
+famous volume.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Book of the Dun Cow, The Book of Leinster</i>, and the other
+great manuscripts of the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries
+are interesting as literature rather than as art, for they tell the
+history of ancient Erin and have garnered her olden legends and
+romantic tales. It is only the Gospels and other manuscripts of
+religious subjects that are illuminated. In the apparel of the ancient
+Irish, the number of colors marked the social rank: the king might
+wear seven colors, poets and learned men six; five colors were
+permitted in the clothes of chieftains, and thus grading down to the
+servant, who might wear but one. All this the scribe knew well. We can
+picture the humble servant of God, clad in a coarse robe of a single
+color, deep in his chosen labor of recording the life and teachings of
+his Master, and striving to endow this record with the glory of the
+seven colors which were rightly due to a King alone. As we gaze on his
+work today its beauty is instinct with life, and the patient love that
+gave it birth seems to cling to it still. The white magic of the
+artist's holy hands has bridged the span of a thousand years.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>O'Curry: Lectures on the Manuscript Materials of Ancient Irish
+History (Dublin, 1861); Brunn: An Enquiry into the Art of the
+Illuminated Manuscripts of the Middle Ages, Part I, Celtic Illuminated
+Manuscripts (Edinburgh, 1897); Robinson: Celtic Illuminative Art in
+the Gospels of Durrow, Lindisfarne, and Kells (Dublin, 1908);
+Westwood: The Book of Kells, a lecture given in Oxford, November, 1886
+(Dublin, 1887); Gougaud: R&eacute;pertoire des fac-simil&eacute;s des
+manuscripts irlandais (Paris, 1913).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T11"></a>THE RUINS OF IRELAND</h2>
+<h4>By FRANCIS JOSEPH BIGGER, M.R.I.A.</h4>
+
+<p>The ruins of Ireland are her proudest monuments. They stand as a
+lasting revelation to all mankind&mdash;a distinct and definite
+proclamation that the Irish people, century after century, were able
+to raise and adorn some of the finest buildings in stone that western
+civilization has seen or known. It is recognized the world over that
+Irish art has a beauty and distinction all its own, in its own Irish
+setting unrivalled, throned in its own land, in its own natural
+surroundings. The shrines and gospels, the reliquaries and missals,
+the crosses and bells that are still existent, many in Ireland, others
+in every country in the world, attest beyond any dispute that Irish
+art-workers held a pre&euml;minent place in the early middle ages, and
+that works of Irish art are still treasured as unique in their day and
+time. No country has been plundered and desolated as Ireland has been.
+Dane, Norman, English&mdash;each in turn swept across the fair face of
+Ireland, carrying destruction in their train, yet withal Ireland has
+her art treasures and her ruins that bear favorable comparison with
+those of other civilizations.</p>
+
+<p>In Dublin and in many private Irish collections can be found
+hand-written books of parchment, illuminated with glowing colors that
+time has scarce affected or the years caused to fade. On one page
+alone of the Book of Kells, ornament and writing can be seen penned
+and painted in lines too numerous even to count. They are there by the
+thousand: a magnifying glass is required to reveal even a fragment of
+them. Ireland produced these in endless number&mdash;every great
+library or collection in Europe possesses one or more examples.</p>
+
+<p>As with books, so with reliquaries, crosses, and bells. When the
+Island of Saints and Scholars could produce books, it could make
+shrines and everything necessary to stimulate and hand down the piety
+and the patient skill of a people steeped in art-craft and religious
+feeling. What they could do on parchment&mdash;like the Books of Kells
+and Durrow&mdash;what they could produce in bronze and precious
+metals&mdash;like the Cross of Cong, the Shrine of Saint Patrick's
+Bell, the Tara Brooch, and the Chalice of Ardagh&mdash;not to write of
+the numberless bronze and gold articles of an age centuries long
+preceding their production&mdash;they could certainly vie with in
+stone.</p>
+
+<p>Of this earlier work a word must go down. In Ireland still at the
+present day, after all the years of plunder she has undergone, more
+ancient gold art-treasures remain than in any other country, museum,
+or collection, most of them pre-Christian, and what the other
+countries do possess are largely Irish or of Celtic origin. We must
+have this borne into the minds of every one of Irish birth or origin,
+that this great treasure was battered into shape by Irish hands on
+Irish anvils, designed in Irish studios, ornamented with Irish skill
+for Irish use.</p>
+
+<p>With such workmen, having such instincts and training, what of the
+housing and surroundings to contain them and give them a fit and
+suitable setting? The earliest stone structures in Ireland still
+remaining are the great stone cashels or circular walls enclosing
+large spaces&mdash;walls of great thickness, unmortared, in which
+there are vast quantities of masonry. Around their summits a chariot
+might be driven, inside their spaces horse races might be run. As a
+few examples, there are Staigue, in Kerry; Dun Angus, in Aran, off
+Galway; Aileach, above the walls of Derry. Of the earliest churches,
+cyclopean in construction and primitive in character, built of stone,
+with thick sloping walls from foundation to ridge, Gallerus still
+remains, and the Skelligs, those wondrous sea-girt rocks, preserve
+both church and cell almost perfect. There are many other examples,
+some of a later date, such as Temple Cronan and Maghera and Banagher
+in Derry, St. Finan's oratory in county Cork, St. Fechin's at Fore,
+and St. Molaise's at Devenish.</p>
+
+<p>From the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries, there are
+innumerable examples of oratories, some with stone roofs, others with
+roofs not so permanent, but all having the common features of an altar
+window facing the east, through which the sun fell at the beginning of
+the day to tell the early missioner that his hour of devotion had
+arrived, and a west door, through which the rays of the declining sun
+fell across the altar steps, speaking of a day that was closing. A
+south window was added close to the east end, and it, too, was a
+sun-dial; it told the hour of angelus, the mid-day, when the bell was
+rung and a calm reverence fell on all within its hearing. Such
+churches can still be seen at Aran and Inismurray, on the islands of
+Lough Derg, Lough Ri, and in many other places.</p>
+
+<p>A few years later these oratories were too small for the growing
+faith, and larger churches were built, some using the older structure
+as chancels. Where the west door was built a circular arch was made
+and the new and old united. This can well be seen at Inis-na-ghoill in
+Lough Corrib, on the Aran Islands off Galway, at Glendalough, at
+Inis-cleraun in Lough Ri, at Clonmacnois, at Iniscaltra, and on many
+another island and promontory of the south and west.</p>
+
+<p>During this time, and after, we find the most elaborate carvings on
+door and arch and window, equal in skill to what is found in book or
+metal work.</p>
+
+<p>It must have been at this time that the Galls, or strangers, first
+invaded Ireland, bearing havoc in their train, for then it was that
+the <i>cloicteach</i>, or Round Towers, were built. It is now admitted
+by all Irish authorities of any repute, and that beyond dispute, that
+the Round Towers, the glory of Ireland, were built by Irish people as
+Christian monuments from which the bells might be rung, and as places
+of strength for the preservation of the valued articles used in
+Christian worship; here they might be safely stored. They were also
+used for the preservation of life in case of sudden attack and
+onslaught by unexpected enemies. All the towers are on ecclesiastical
+sites, many are incorporated in church buildings, such as those of
+Glendalough in Wicklow and Clonmacnois on the Shannon, The records of
+the construction of some of them in the tenth and eleventh centuries
+are still extant, and this is conclusive. There are today about
+seventy Round Towers in Ireland, and many have been destroyed.</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="p">The pillar towers of Ireland, how wondrously they stand</p>
+<p class="p">By the lakes and rushing rivers through the valleys of our
+land;</p>
+<p class="p">In mystic file, through the isle, they lift their heads
+sublime,</p>
+<p class="p">These gray old pillar temples&mdash;these conquerors of time.</p>
+<br>
+<p class="p">Here was placed the holy chalice that held the sacred wine,</p>
+<p class="p">And the gold cross from the altar, and the relics from the
+shrine,</p>
+<p class="p">And the mitre shining brighter with its diamonds than the
+east,</p>
+<p class="p">And the crozier of the pontiff, and the vestments of the
+priest.</p>
+</div>
+<p><i>D.F. MacCarthy</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This was the time when the High Crosses of Ireland were carved and
+set up. They vie with the Round Towers in interest and in the display
+of skill. What the towers have in perfection, masonry and
+construction, the crosses have in artistic carving and symbolic
+design. No two crosses are alike; they are as varied as the clouds in
+an Irish sky or the pebbles on the beach or the flowers in a garden.
+They were carved in reverence by those who knew and esteemed their
+art, and lavished all their skill and knowledge on what they most
+valued and treasured. They were not set up as grave-marks
+merely&mdash;theirs was a higher and loftier mission. They were raised
+in places where some great event or period was to be
+commemorated&mdash;they were erected where some early disciple of the
+Cross could stand beside one of them and from any panel could tell the
+foundation of the Faith, for there in stone was story after story,
+from the Old Testament and the New, that gave him his text, and so, as
+at the Cross of the Scriptures at Clonmacnois, a missioner could
+preach on every recurring holy day from Christmas to Christmas, with
+ever his text in stone before him. Many a broken and mutilated cross
+has been set up in Ireland in recent years, proving that the heart of
+the Gael, no matter how rent and broken, is still inclined to bind up
+the broken wounds of her past glories.</p>
+
+<p>With the religious orders there came to Ireland a widespread desire
+to add something to the older sanctuaries of the Gael, to widen their
+borders and strengthen their cords, and so the abbeys were founded.
+Here and there we find them still&mdash;by winding rivers, on rich
+meadows, in glens and glades, by the sea margin, or on the slopes of
+the rugged mountain. Their crumbling walls and broken windows can
+still be traced, their towers are still to be seen over tree tops and
+in the centre of many a slumbering town. By the shores of Donegal Bay
+the old Franciscan house, where the Four Masters compiled what is
+perhaps the most remarkable record possessed by any nation, is still
+clothed in ivy. At Kilconnell, in Galway, their old place is almost as
+they left it, but roofless, with the tears of the friars upon the
+altar steps. Clare Galway has a tower worth travelling half a
+continent to see. By the Boniet River, at Drumahaire, on the banks of
+Lough Gill, are the mason marks of the cloister builders, and the
+figure of St. Francis talking to the birds is still there. The abbey
+is roofless and empty, and so the birds of the air are his constant
+companions.</p>
+
+<p>Space forbids, or endless abbeys might be described. The Black
+Abbey at Kilkenny, with its long row of Butler effigies, or the
+Cathedral of Saint Canice, still perfect, with its soaring round tower
+beside it, or the mystical seven light window of the Franciscan friary
+by the Nore, with the old mill-weirs running free to this day. How
+long could we ponder by the east window of Kilcooley, with tracery
+like a spider's web, and listen to the mystical bells, or gaze at the
+beautiful oriel at Feenagh, or stand at Jerpoint, with its spacious
+cloisters and stone-groined choir, with Saint Christopher in Irish
+marble beside us.</p>
+
+<p>Cashel, one of the wonders of the world, grows up suddenly into
+sight on a high rock rising from level land crowned with buildings. A
+great abbey dominates; beside it clings that carved gem of a
+stone-roofed church, Cormac's Chapel. Round Tower and Cross are there,
+and many a sculptured tomb.</p>
+
+<p>Not far from Cashel is the Abbey of Holy Cross, with its lovely
+mitred windows, shadowed in the river passing at its feet. The
+circular pillars and arches of Boyle Abbey are splendidly
+proportioned, whilst the cloisters of Sligo display in their long,
+shadowy recesses and ornamented pillars great dignity and beauty. The
+windows and monuments of Ennis Friary, founded by the O'Briens, are of
+unusual interest, the carving of figure-subjects being equal to the
+best of their age.</p>
+
+<p>We have Thomastown and Callan, Dunbrody and Tintern, all having an
+individual charm and interest that not only dim the eye and make the
+blood course freely in every one of Irish stock when he looks upon
+what is and thinks of what was, but even in the coldest light give
+food for thought to every one desirous of knowing something of the
+growth and civilization of a great people.</p>
+
+<p>Of the many castles and stout Irish strongholds it is hard to write
+in such a short paper as this. Those on the Boyne, such as Trim, for
+strong building and extent, excel in many ways. Carlingford,
+Carrickfergus, and Dunluce have by their size and picturesque
+situations ever appealed to visitors. They are each built on rocks
+jutting into the sea, Dunluce on a great perpendicular height, the
+Atlantic dashing below. Dunamace, near Maryborough, in the O'More
+country, appears like Cashel, but is entirely military. The famed
+walled cities of Kells, in Kilkenny, and Fore, in Westmeath, are
+remarkable. Each has an abbey, many towers, gates, and stout bastions.
+The great keeps of the midland lords, the towers of Granuaile on the
+west coast, and the traders' towers on the east coast, especially
+those of Down, afford ample material for a study of the early
+colonizing efforts of different invaders, as well as providing
+incidents of heroism and romance. These square battlemented towers can
+be seen here and there in every district.</p>
+
+<p>Every portion of Ireland has its ruins. Earthworks, stone forts,
+prehistoric monuments, circular stone huts, early churches, abbeys,
+crosses, round towers, castles of every size and shape are to be found
+in every county, some one in every parish, all over Ireland. It is
+almost invidious to name any in particular where the number is so
+great.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Proceedings of Royal Irish Academy (Dublin); Proceedings of Society
+of Antiquaries (Dublin); Ulster Journal of Archaeology, Old Series and
+New Series, edited by F.J. Bigger, Belfast; Wakeman: Handbook of Irish
+Antiquities (Dublin, 1891); Stokes: Early Christian Art in Ireland
+(Dublin, 1887); Petrie: Round Towers and Ancient Architecture of
+Ireland (Dublin, 1845).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T12"></a>MODERN IRISH ART</h2>
+<h4>By D.J. O'DONOGHUE,<br>
+<i>Librarian, University College, Dublin</i>.</h4>
+
+<p>It would be difficult to dispute, in view of her innumerable and
+excellent artists, that there has always been in modern times an art
+consciousness in Ireland, but it is impossible to assert that there
+has been any artistic unity in her people. She has produced no school,
+but merely a great number of brilliant painters, sculptors, and
+engravers, chiefly for export. With all our acknowledged artistic
+capacity, we have not, except in one notable instance, produced a
+cumulative art effect. The history of Irish art is almost uniformly a
+depressing narrative. During a comparatively brief period in the
+eighteenth century&mdash;significantly enough, it was while the
+country enjoyed a short spell of national life&mdash;there was
+something like a national patronage of the artist, and the result is
+visible in the noble public buildings and beautiful houses of the
+Irish capital, with their universally admired mantelpieces, doors,
+ceilings, fanlights, ironwork, and carvings. In short, while Ireland
+had even a partly unfettered control of her own concerns, the arts
+were generously encouraged by her government and by the wealthy
+individual. When other European capitals were mere congeries of
+rookeries, Dublin, the centre of Irish political life, possessed
+splendid streets, grandly planned. But there was little solidarity
+among the artistic fraternity. Various associations of artists were
+formed, which held together fairly well until the flight of the
+resident town gentry after the Union, and many admirable artists were
+trained in the schools of the Royal Dublin Society, but, since the
+opening of the nineteenth century, there has been almost no visible
+art effort in Dublin. True, there have been many fine artists, who
+have made a struggle to fix themselves in Dublin, but, as with the
+Royal Hibernian Academy, of which the best of them were members, the
+struggle has been a painful agony. Usually the artist migrated to
+London to join the large group of Irishmen working there; a few others
+went to America and obtained an honored place in her art annals. Those
+who went to England secured in many cases the highest rewards of the
+profession. Several, like Barry, Hone, Barrett, and Cotes, were
+founders or early members of the Royal Academy; one, Sir Martin Shee,
+became its President. Nevertheless, many distinguished artists
+remained in Dublin, where the arts of portrait-painting and engraving
+were carried to a high pitch of excellence.</p>
+
+<p>This record must necessarily be of a chronological character, and
+can only take note of those whose works have actual value and
+interest, historical or other. Edward Luttrell (1650-1710) did some
+excellent work in crayon or pastel, while Garrett Murphy (fl.
+1650-1716), Stephen Slaughter (d. 1765), Francis Bindon (d. 1765), and
+James Latham (1696-1747), have each left us notable portraits of the
+great Irish personages of their day. To fellow countrymen in London,
+Charles Jervas (1675?-1739), Thomas Hickey (d. 1816?), and Francis
+Cotes, R.A. (1725-1770), we owe presentments of other famous people.
+George Barrett, R.A. (1728-1784), one of the greatest landscapists of
+his time; Nathaniel Hone, R.A. (1718-1784), an eccentric but gifted
+painter, with an individuality displayed in all his portraits; James
+Barry, R.A. (1741-1806), still more eccentric, with grand conceptions
+imperfectly carried out in his great historical and allegorical
+pictures:&mdash;these, with Henry Tresham, R.A. (1749?-1814), and
+Matthew Peters, R.A. (1742-1814), historical painters of considerable
+merit, upheld the Irish claim to a high place in English eighteenth
+century art. A little later, miniaturists such as Horace Hone, A.R.A.
+(1756-1825), George Chinnery (1774-1852), and Adam Buck (1759-1844),
+also worked with remarkable success in London. Among resident Irish
+artists, the highest praise can be given to the miniature painters,
+John Comerford (1770?-1832) and Charles Robertson (1760-1821), and to
+the portrait-painters, Robert Hunter (fl. 1750-1803) and (especially)
+Hugh Douglas Hamilton (1739-1808), of whose work Ireland possesses
+many distinguished examples. Some day Hamilton's pictures will appeal
+to a far wider public than his countrymen can provide. One must omit
+the names of many clever Irish artists like the Wests, Francis and
+Robert, who were the most successful teachers of perhaps any time in
+Ireland, and come at once to that branch of art in which Ireland
+stands second to none&mdash;mezzotint-engraving.</p>
+
+<p>One of the earliest engravers in this style was Edward Luttrell,
+already named as a painter, but it was John Brooks (fl. 1730-1756) who
+is justly considered the real founder of that remarkable group of
+Irish engravers whose work may be more correctly described as
+belonging to a school than any other of the period. For many years in
+Dublin, and afterwards in London, a succession of first-rate artists
+of Irish birth produced work which remains and always must remain one
+of the glories of Ireland. Limits of space allow only the bare mention
+of the names of James McArdell (1728?-1765), Charles Spooner (d.
+1767), Thomas Beard (fl. 1728), Thomas Frye (1710-1762), Edward Fisher
+(1722-1785?), Michael Ford (d. 1765), John Dixon (1740?-1811), Richard
+Purcell (fl. 1746-1766), Richard Houston (1721?-1775), John Murphy
+(1748?-1820), Thomas Burke (1749-1815), Charles Exshaw (fl.
+1747-1771), and Luke Sullivan (1705-1771)&mdash;artists of whom any
+country might be proud, and whose works have in most cases outlasted
+the remembrance of the persons whose likenesses they sought to
+reproduce. Separate monographs might be justifiably written on most of
+the gifted artists here enumerated, and one can only regret not being
+able in short space to compare and estimate their various qualities.
+Thomas Chambers, A.R.A. (1724?-1784), William Nelson Gardiner
+(1766-1814), James Egan (1799-1842), and William Humphreys (1794-1865)
+are other Irish engravers who cannot be overlooked in a survey of the
+art of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.</p>
+
+<p>Contemporaneously with the remarkable development of the art of
+engraving arose a group of Irish architects. Rather earlier in point
+of time was Sir Edward Lovat Pearce (d. 1733), who was one of the
+chief architects of the Irish Parliament House, and Thomas Burgh (d.
+1730), to whom we owe the Library of Trinity College, Dublin; but
+Thomas Cooley (1740-1784), designer of the handsome Royal Exchange of
+that city; Richard Castle (d. 1751), a foreigner who settled in
+Ireland and built a number of beautiful Irish residences; Francis
+Johnston (1761-1829), an excellent architect whose chief claim to
+remembrance, however, is as founder of the Royal Hibernian Academy;
+and, above all, James Gandon (1743-1823), whose superb Custom House,
+Four Courts, and part of the Irish Parliament House will perpetuate
+his name in Dublin while that city lasts&mdash;each helped to make the
+capital, even in its decay, one of the most interesting in Europe. Nor
+should we forget Thomas Ivory (d. 1786), whose Foundling Hospital is
+another of Dublin's many graceful edifices; nor Sir Richard Morrison
+(1767-1849) and his son William (1794-1838), much of whose work
+remains to testify to their skill and ingenuity.</p>
+
+<p>Ecclesiastical architecture in Ireland is indebted to Patrick Byrne
+(fl. 1840), James J. McCarthy (d. 1882), J.B. Keane (d. 1859), and
+James Murray (1831-1863), for many well designed churches and chapels
+throughout Ireland; but the great names in modern Irish architecture
+are those of Benjamin Woodward (1815-1861), whose premature death was
+a serious loss to Irish art; Sir Thomas Deane (1792-1871); and his
+son, Sir Thomas Newenham Deane (1828-1899). The elder Deane was, with
+Woodward, the architect of the Oxford Museum and of the splendid
+Engineering Hall of Trinity College, Dublin, buildings which have
+elicited enthusiastic praise from John Ruskin and other eminent
+critics. Deserving of respectful mention, too, to come down to our own
+days, are Sir Thomas Drew (1838-1910) and William H. Lynn, who is
+still living.</p>
+
+<p>In sculpture, again, Ireland has done memorable work. In the
+eighteenth century she gave us admirable craftsmen like Edward Smyth
+(1749-1812), John Hickey (1756-1795), and Christopher Hewitson (fl.
+1772-1794), whose dignified monument of Bishop Baldwin is one of the
+most distinguished pieces of sculpture in Trinity College, Dublin. But
+it was not till the appearance of a later group of sculptors,
+including John Hogan (1800-1858), John Edward Carew (1785-1868), John
+Henry Foley, R.A. (1818-1874), and Patrick MacDowell, R.A.
+(1799-1870), that Irish sculpture obtained more than local renown.
+Fortunately, most of the best work of Hogan and Foley remains in
+Ireland; that of Carew and MacDowell is chiefly to be found in the
+Houses of Parliament and other institutions in London. The
+incomparable "Goldsmith," "Burke," "Grattan," and other statues by
+Foley, together with an almost complete collection of casts of his
+other works, are in his native country. Hogan is represented in Dublin
+by his "Thomas Davis" and his "Dead Christ," to name but two of his
+principal works. The names at least of James Heffernan (1785-1847), of
+John Edward Jones (1806-1872), of Terence Farrell (1798-1876), of
+Samuel F. Lynn (1834-1876), and perhaps of Christopher Moore
+(1790-1863), an excellent sculptor of busts, may be set down here. Sir
+Thomas Farrell (1827-1900) and the living sculptors, John Hughes,
+Oliver Sheppard, and Albert Bruce Joy, are responsible for some of the
+more admirable of the public monuments of Dublin. It is much to be
+deplored that of the work of one of the greatest of Dublin-born
+artists, Augustus Saint Gaudens, we have only one example&mdash;the
+statue of Parnell. Ireland may surely claim him as one of her most
+gifted sons. And perhaps a word might be said in this place of some of
+the other Irishmen who made their home in America: of Hoban the
+architect who designed the White House at Washington, modelling it
+after Leinster House in Dublin; of painters like Charles Ingham, W.G.
+Wall, William Magrath, the Morans, James Hamilton, and Thomas
+Hovenden; and of sculptors like John Donoghue, John Flanagan, Andrew
+O'Connor, John F. Kelly, Jerome Connor, John J. Boyle, and Martin
+Milmore. But they belong rather to the history of American art than to
+that of Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>Before leaving the subject of Irish sculpture, the work of the
+medallists, an allied branch of the art in which Irishmen did much
+valued work, should not be overlooked. The medals of William Mossop
+(1751-1805), of his son, William Stephen Mossop (1788-1827), and of
+John Woodhouse (1835-1892), to mention only three of its chief
+representatives in Ireland, are greatly prized by collectors.</p>
+
+<p>Most modern Irish art of high importance has been largely produced
+out of Ireland, which has been perforce abandoned by those artists who
+have learned how little encouragement is to be met with at home. One
+can blame neither the artist nor the Irish public for this unfortunate
+result; there is sufficient reason in the political and economic
+condition of Ireland since the Union to explain the fact. But for this
+cause men like Daniel Maclise, R.A. (1806-1870), William Mulready,
+R.A. (1786-1863), Francis Danby, A.R.A. (1793-1861), and Alfred
+Elmore, R.A. (1815-1881), might have endeavored to emulate the spirit
+of James O'Connor (1792-1841), the landscapist, Richard Rothwell
+(1800-1868), a charming subject painter, and Sir Frederic W. Burton
+(1816-1900), one of the most distinguished artists of his time, who at
+least spent some of their active working career in their native land.
+The same words apply to artists who succeeded in other branches of the
+profession, men like John Doyle (1797-1868), a caricaturist with all
+the power, without the coarseness, of his predecessors; his son,
+Richard Doyle (1824-1883), a refined and delicate artist; John Leech
+(1817-1864), the humorist, a member of an Irish Catholic family; Paul
+Gray (1842-1866), who died before his powers had fully matured; and
+Matthew James Lawless (1837-1864), who also died too early. William
+Collins, R.A. (1788-1847) and Clarkson Stanfield, R.A. (1793-1867),
+both eminent representatives of English art, though of Irish
+extraction, more properly belong to England than to Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>Not discouraged by the melancholy history of many gifted Irish
+artists, Ireland still produces men who are not unworthy of
+association with the best who have gone before. Our most recent losses
+have been heavy&mdash;notably those of Walter F. Osborne (1859-1903)
+and Patrick Vincent Duffy (1832-1909), but we still have artists of
+genius in the persons of Nathaniel Hone, a direct descendant of his
+famous namesake; John Butler Yeats; John Lavery, A.R.A.; and William
+Orpen, A.R.A. Many other names might be given, but already this
+attempt at a survey suffers by its enumeration of artists, who,
+however, could hardly be neglected in such a record.</p>
+
+<p>Crowded as the list may be, it is a careful selection, and it
+demonstrates that, notwithstanding all the disadvantages under which
+Ireland suffers, the country has an almost unlimited capacity for fine
+achievement, and that, with prosperity and contentment, she may be
+expected to rival the most illustrious of art centres. It is only
+within living memory that any attempt has been made to direct the
+known artistic skill of the Irish people to industrial effort. But the
+remarkable success achieved in the modern designs for Irish lace in
+the English art competitions is an instance of what might be done
+generally in the applied arts. Though they are in their infancy, the
+new carpet and stained glass industries in Ireland also hold out
+considerable hope for the future. But one can only barely indicate
+what has been and might be done in the furtherance of Irish art. If we
+only had under one roof a judiciously made collection of all the best
+work done by Irish artists of all styles and periods, it would more
+eloquently justify our claim than endless columns of praise.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Anthony Pasquin [John Williams]: History of Professors of Painting
+in Ireland (1795); T.J. Mulvany: Life of James Gandon; John O'Keeffe:
+Reminiscences, vol. I; Taft: American Sculpture; W.G. Strickland:
+Dictionary of Irish Artists (2 vols., 1913).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T13"></a>IRELAND AT PLAY</h2>
+<h4>By THOMAS E. HEALY,<br>
+<i>Editor of "Sport," Dublin</i>.</h4>
+
+<p>On the face of the earth there is no nation in which the love of
+clean and wholesome sport is more strongly developed than in the
+Irish. Against us it cannot be urged that we take our pleasures sadly.
+We enter into them with entire self-abandon, whole-hearted enthusiasm,
+and genuine exuberance of spirit. There is nothing counterfeit about
+the Irishman in his play. His one keen desire is to win, be the
+contest what it may; and towards the achievement of that end he will
+strain nerve and muscle even to the point of utter exhaustion. And how
+the onlookers applaud at the spectacle of a desperately contested
+race, whether between horses, men, motorcars, bicycles, or boats, or
+of a match between football, hurling, or cricket teams! It matters not
+which horse, man, car, cycle, boat, or team is successful: the sport
+is the thing that counts; the strenuousness of the contest is what
+stimulates and evokes the rapturous applause. At such a moment it is
+good to be alive. Scenes similar to those hinted at may be witnessed
+on any sports-field or racetrack in our dear little Emerald Isle
+almost any day of the year. All is good fellowship; all is in the
+cause of sport.</p>
+
+<p>No one can question that in some departments of horse-racing
+Ireland is today supreme. The Irish devotion to the horse is of no
+recent growth. Everybody knows how, in the dim and distant days when
+King Conor macNessa ruled at Emain, the war-steeds of the Ultonians
+neighed loudly in their stalls on the first dramatic appearance of
+Cuchulainn of Muirthemne at the northern court. Cuchulainn's own two
+steeds, Liath Macha, "the Roan of Macha", and Dub Sainglenn, "Black
+Sanglan", are celebrated in story and song:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>Never hoofs like them shall ring,</p>
+<p>Rapid as the winds of spring.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>To read of the performances of Cuchulainn and his war-horses and
+his charioteer and friend, Laeg macRiangahra, at the famous battle of
+Rosnaree, and again at the last fight between the Red Branch Knights
+and the forces of Queen Medb of Connacht, does truly, in the words
+used by Sir Philip Sidney in another connection, stir the heart like
+the sound of a trumpet.</p>
+
+<p>As time went on, the Irish war-horse became more and more famous,
+and always carried his rider in gallant style. Stout was the steed
+that, bestridden by Godfrey O'Donnell at the battle of Credan-Kille,
+withstood the shock of Lord Maurice Fitzgerald's desperate onslaught,
+and by his steadiness enabled the Tyrconnell chieftain to strike
+senseless and unhorse his fierce Norman foe. More celebrated still was
+the high-spirited animal which Art MacMurrogh rode in 1399 to his
+ineffectual parley with King Richard the Second's representative, the
+Earl of Gloucester. The French chronicler who was a witness of that
+historic scene tells us that a horse more exquisitely beautiful, more
+marvellously fleet, he had never seen. "In coming down," he says, "it
+galloped so hard that, in my opinion, I never saw hare, deer, sheep,
+or any other animal, I declare to you for a certainty, run with such
+speed as it did." Edmund Spenser, the poet of <i>The Faerie
+Queene</i>, writing in 1596, bears this striking testimony to the
+Irish horse-soldier and inferentially to the Irish horse: "I have
+hearde some greate warriours say, that, in all the services which they
+had seene abroade in forrayne countreys, they never sawe a more comely
+horseman than the Irish man, nor that cometh on more bravely in his
+charge." The feats performed at the Battle of the Boyne, in 1690, by
+the Irish horse-soldiers under Hamilton and Berwick were really
+wonderful, and well-nigh turned disaster into victory on that
+memorable day which decided the fate of nations as well as of
+dynasties. And surely those were fleet and stout-hearted steeds that,
+on August 12, 1690, carried Sarsfield and his chosen five hundred on
+their dare-devil midnight ride from the Keeper Hills to Ballyneety,
+where in the dim morning twilight they captured and destroyed William
+of Orange's wonderful siege-train, and thereby heartened the defenders
+of beleaguered Limerick.</p>
+
+<p>Writing in 1809, Lawrence, in his <i>History and Delineation of the
+Horse</i>, said: "From Ireland alone we import [into England] many
+saddle horses, as many perhaps as 1,500 in a year; upwards in some
+years. The Irish are the highest and steadiest leapers in the world.
+Ireland has bred some good racers, and the generality of Irish horses
+are, it appears, warmer tempered than our own; and, to use the
+expression, sharper and more frigate-built."</p>
+
+<p>It is not to be wondered at therefore if in such a country there
+developed an ardent love of the noble sport of horse-racing. The
+Curragh of Kildare, the long-standing headquarters of the Irish Turf
+Club, was celebrated far back in the eighteenth century as the venue
+of some great equine contests; and to this day, with its five
+important fixtures every year, it still holds pride of place. There
+are numerous other race-courses all over the country, from
+Punchestown, Leopardstown, Phoenix Park, and Baldoyle in the east to
+Galway in the west, and from The Maze in the north to rebel Cork in
+the south. Horse-racing has not inappropriately been termed the
+national pastime of Ireland. The number of people now giving their
+attention to it has called for a notable increase in the number of
+race-meetings, and stake-money is being put up on a more generous
+scale than at any previous time in the history of the sport. For
+example, the Irish Derby, run at the Curragh, was in 1914 worth
+&pound;2,500; and there are besides several stakes of &pound;1,500 and
+&pound;1,000. The result of this forward policy is that increasing
+numbers come to our race-meetings and that the turf has never been
+more popular than it is today. Men and women of wealth and position
+find in the national pastime a pleasant method of employing their
+leisure, and in expending their surplus wealth in its pursuit and in
+the raising of horses of the highest class they realize that they
+confer a real benefit on the country.</p>
+
+<p>It is, of course, now universally known that Ireland has an
+international reputation as a country eminently fitted for
+horse-breeding. If proof were needed, it would be found in the
+extensive purchases effected by English, French, Italian, German,
+Russian, and American buyers at the great Dublin Horse Show held in
+August every year. Horses bought in Ireland have seldom failed to
+realize their promise. The English classic races and many of the
+principal handicaps on the flat have been often won by Irish-bred
+horses, such as Galtee More, Ard Patrick, Orby, Kilwarlin, Barcaldine,
+Umpire, Master Kildare, Kilsallaghan, Bendigo, Philomel, The Rejected,
+Comedy, Winkfield's Pride, Bellevin, Royal Flush, Victor Wild,
+Bachelor's Button, Irish Ivy, and Hackler's Pride. If only a few of
+the star performers are here set down, it is not from lack of means to
+continue, but merely from a desire to avoid the compilation of a mere
+string of names. In France, too, the Irish racer has made his mark. It
+is, however, in the four-and-a-half miles' Liverpool Grand National
+Steeplechase, the greatest cross-country race in the world, the
+supreme test of the leaper, galloper, and stayer, that Irish-bred
+horses have made perhaps the most wonderful record. The list of
+winners of that great event demonstrates in an unmistakable manner
+that we are second to none in the art of breeding steeplechase horses.
+Among many other noted Irish-bred winners of this race there stand
+boldly forth the names of The Lamb, Empress, Woodbrook, Frigate, Come
+Away, Cloister, Wild Man from Borneo, and Manifesto. In fact, it is
+the exception when another than an Irish-bred horse annexes the blue
+riband of steeplechasing.</p>
+
+<p>Closely allied to horse-racing is fox-hunting, and fox-hunting, as
+well as the hunting of the stag and of the hare, has flourished
+exceedingly in Ireland for a long time past. A great deal of needed
+employment is one of the results. Dogs are specially bred and trained
+for each of these branches of sport. Irish foxhounds, staghounds,
+harriers, and beagles have a high reputation. More native to the soil,
+and so interwoven with the history of the country that it is often
+used as one of its symbols, is the Irish wolfhound. This is probably
+the animal to which Aurelius Symmachus, a Roman consul in Britain,
+referred when, writing to his brother in Ireland in A.D. 391, he
+acknowledged the receipt of seven Irish hounds. The wolfhound played a
+sinister part in the Irish history of the eighteenth century, for, as
+Davis says in his poem, "The Penal Days":</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p class="p">Their dogs were taught alike to run</p>
+<p class="p">Upon the scent of wolf and friar.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Irish wolfhound is now very scarce, and a genuine specimen is a
+valued and highly coveted possession. The greyhound, too, figures
+prominently in present-day sport, and in many parts of the country are
+held coursing meetings, which frequently result in several spirited
+contests. A famous Irish greyhound was Lord Lurgan's black and white
+dog, Master McGrath. Master McGrath achieved the rare distinction of
+winning the Waterloo Cup three times, in 1868, 1869, and 1871. When it
+is remembered that the Waterloo Cup is to coursing what the Liverpool
+Grand National is to steeplechasing, or the Epsom Derby to flat
+racing, the merit of this triple performance will at once be
+apparent.</p>
+
+<p>Compared with the sports in which horse and hound participate, all
+other outdoor pastimes in Ireland take rather a minor place. Still,
+the Irishman's love of sport is diversified. Few there are who have
+not many inclinations, and as a nation our taste in sport is catholic.
+We take part in nearly every pastime; in many we excel. The prize ring
+has fallen from its high estate, nor is it the intention here to try
+to cast any glamour over it. The subject is introduced, in a passing
+way, for the sole purpose of showing that, in what at least used to be
+the manly art of self-defense, Ireland in days gone by as well as at
+the present time has more than held her own. The most conspicuous of
+the representatives of her race in this department are perhaps Heenan,
+Ryan, Sullivan, Corbett, Maher, McAuliffe, McFarland, and McGoorty.
+There is one other prize-fighter, Dan Donnelly by name, who became a
+sort of national hero, of whom all Irishmen of his day were not a
+little proud, because he laid the English champion low, and whose
+performance, now haloed by the antiquity of more than a hundred years,
+we may with equanimity, as without offense, contemplate, with perhaps
+a sigh for the good old times. The famous encounter between Donnelly
+and Cooper took place on the Curragh, and after eleven rounds of
+scientific boxing Donnelly knocked his opponent over the ropes and won
+the world's championship for the Emerald Isle. The spot where the
+battle came off has ever since been known as Donnelly's Hollow, and a
+neat monument there erected commemorates the Dublin man's pluck and
+skill. A ballad recounting the incidents of the fight and, as ballads
+go, not badly composed, had a wonderful vogue, and was sung at fair
+and market and other meeting place within the memory of men who are
+not now more than middle-aged.</p>
+
+<p>A search in other domains of sport will be by no means barren of
+results. Take running, for instance. Who has not heard of the wondrous
+little Thomas Conneff from the short-grass county of Kildare? Who does
+not know of his brilliant performances on the track? We in Ireland,
+who had seen him defeat Carter, the great Canadian, over the four-mile
+course at Ballsbridge one summer's eve now nearly twenty golden years
+ago, knew his worth before he crossed the broad Atlantic to show to
+thousands of admiring spectators in America that Ireland was the
+breeder of fleet-footed sons, who lacked neither the courage, nor the
+thews and sinews, nor the staying power, to carry them at high speed
+over any distance of ground. May the earth lie light on Conneff, for
+in a small body he had a great heart! Then there was the mighty
+runner, James J. Daly, a true hero from Galway, the idol of the crowd
+in his native land as well as in the United States. Daly was the
+champion long distance cross-country runner of his day at home, and he
+showed before various nationalities in the Greater Ireland beyond the
+seas that he could successfully compete with the best from all
+countries.</p>
+
+<p>In high jumping, Patrick Davin, P. Leahy, and Peter O'Connor were
+for long in the foremost rank; Daniel Ahearne was famous for his
+hop-step-and-jump performance; Maurice Davin, Matthew McGrath, and
+Patrick Ryan have, each in his own day, thrown the 16-pound hammer to
+record distance; in shot-putting there are Sheridan, Horgan, John
+Flanagan, and others bearing true Irish names, who are right in front;
+and before their time we had a redoubted champion in W.J.M. Barry. All
+previous performances in the shot-putting line have, however, been
+recently eclipsed by Patrick J. McDonald, of the Irish-American Club,
+who at Celtic Park, Long Island, on May 30, 1914, made a new world's
+record by putting the 18-pound shot 46 feet 2-3/4 inches. The climax
+of achievement was reached when T.F. Kiely won the all-round
+championship of the world at New York. The distinguished part taken by
+Irishmen or sons of Irishmen in all departments of the Olympic games
+is so recent and so well known as to call for no comment. Ireland is
+far indeed from being degenerate in her athletes.</p>
+
+<p>In international strife with England, Scotland, Wales, and France
+at Rugby football, Ireland has likewise won her spurs. She has never
+been beaten by the representatives of Gaul; and though for long enough
+she had invariably to succumb in competition with the other three
+countries, such is not the case nowadays, nor has it been for many
+years past. The Irish team has ever to be reckoned with. In
+Association football, too, Ireland is coming into her own. This branch
+of the game has developed enormously within a comparatively few
+seasons. The people flock in their thousands to witness matches for
+the principal league contests or cup ties. But the greatest crowds of
+all go to see Gaelic football, the national game; and to hurling, also
+distinctively Irish, they foregather in serried masses. Since the
+Gaelic Athletic Association was founded both football and hurling have
+prospered exceedingly. They are essentially popular forms of sport,
+and the muscular manhood of city and country finds in them a natural
+outlet for their characteristic Celtic vigor. The Gaelic Association
+has fostered and developed these sports, and has organized them on so
+sound a basis that interest in them is not confined to any particular
+district but spreads throughout the length and breadth of Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>When the America Cup was to be challenged for, into the breach
+stepped the Earl of Dunraven and flung his gage to the holders of the
+trophy. This distinguished Irish nobleman furnished a contender in his
+Valkyrie II. in the fall of 1893, and his patriotic spirit in doing so
+stirred the sport-loving Irish nation to the greatest enthusiasm. His
+lordship was not successful, but he was not disheartened. He tried
+again with Valkyrie III., but again he was only second best, for,
+though his yacht sailed to victory in home waters, she proved unequal
+to the task of lifting the cup. No Englishman was prepared to tempt
+fortune, but not so that sterling Irishman, Sir Thomas Lipton, who,
+win or lose, would not have it laid to the charge of Ireland that an
+attempt should not be made. His Shamrock, Shamrock II., and Shamrock
+III.&mdash;surely a deep sense of patriotism prompted nomenclature
+such as that&mdash;each in succession went down to defeat; but Sir
+Thomas has not done yet. Like King Bruce, he is going to try again,
+and Shamrock IV. is to do battle with the best that America can range
+against her. All honor to Lord Dunraven and to Sir Thomas Lipton for
+their persistent efforts to engage in generous rivalry with the
+yachtsmen across the sea.</p>
+
+<p>Lawn-tennis, cricket, and golf we play, and play well; to rowing
+many of us are enthusiastically devoted; and at handball our young
+men&mdash;and some not so young&mdash;are signally expert. The
+champion handball player has always been of Irish blood. Baseball we
+invented&mdash;and called it rounders. It is significant that the
+great American ball game is still played according to a code which is
+scarcely modified from that which may be seen in force any summer day
+on an Irish school field or village green. Perhaps something of
+hereditary instinct is to be traced in the fact that many of the best
+exponents of American baseball are the bearers of fine old Irish
+names.</p>
+
+<p>This brief and cursory review of Ireland at Play must now conclude.
+It is scarcely more than a glossary, and not a complete one at that.
+It may, however, serve to show that Ireland's record in sport, like
+her record in so many other things set forth in this book, is great
+and glorious enough to warrant the insertion of this short chapter
+among those which tell of old achievements and feats of high
+emprize.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Racing&mdash;Irish Racing Calendar: 1790-1914, 124 vols. (Dublin,
+Brindley and Son); The Racing Calendar: 1774-1914 (London, Weatherby
+and Sons). Breeding&mdash;The General Stud Book: 1908-1913, 22 vols.
+(London, Weatherby and Sons). Racing and Breeding Generally&mdash;Cox:
+Notes on the History of the Irish Horse (Dublin, 1897). Boxing and
+Athletics&mdash;Files of <i>Sport</i> and <i>Freeman's Journal</i>.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T14"></a>THE FIGHTING RACE</h2>
+<h4>By JOSEPH I.C. CLARKE,<br>
+<i>President, American Irish Historical Society</i>.</h4>
+
+<h4>I.&mdash;THE FIGHTING RACE AT HOME.</h4>
+
+<p>"War was the ruling passion of this people," says MacGeoghegan,
+meaning the Milesians who were the latest of the peoples that overran
+ancient Ireland up to the coming of Christ. How many races had
+preceded them remains an enigma of history not profitable to examine
+here, but whoever they were, or in what succession they arrived, they
+must, like all migrating people, have been prepared to establish
+themselves at the point of the spear and the edge of the sword. Two
+races certainly were mingled in the ancient Irish, the fair or auburn
+haired with blue eyes, and the dark haired with eyes of gray or brown.
+The Milesians appear to have reached Ireland through Spain. They came
+swiftly to power, more than a thousand years before our Lord, and
+divided the country into four provinces or kingdoms, with an
+<i>ard-ri</i>, or high-king, ruling all in a loose way as to service,
+taxes, and allegiance. The economic life was almost entirely pastoral.
+Riches were counted in herds of cattle. "Robustness of frame,
+vehemence of passion, elevated imagination," Dr. Leland says,
+signalized this people. Robust, they became athletic and vigorous and
+excelled in the use of deadly weapons; passionate, they easily went
+from litigation to blows; imaginative, they leaned toward poetry and
+song and were strong for whatever religion they practised. The latter
+was a polytheism brought close to the people through the Druids. Some
+stone weapons were doubtless still used; they had also brazen or
+bronze swords, and spears, axes, and maces of various alloys of copper
+and tin. Socially they remained tribal. Heads of tribes were petty
+kings, each with his stronghold of a primitive character, each with
+his tribal warriors, bards, harpers, and druids, and the whole male
+population more or less ready to take part in war.</p>
+
+<p>The great heroes whose names have come down to us, such as Finn,
+son of Cumhal, and Cuchulainn, were reared in a school of arms.
+Bravery was the sign of true manhood. A law of chivalry moderated the
+excess of combat. A trained militia, the Fianna, gave character to an
+era; the Knights of the Red Branch were the distinguishing order of
+chevaliers. The songs of the bards were songs of battle; the great
+Irish epic of antiquity was the T&aacute;in B&oacute; C&uacute;alnge,
+or Cooley Cattle-raid, and it is full of combats and feats of strength
+and prowess. High character meant high pride, always ready to give
+account of itself and strike for its ideals: "Irritable and bold", as
+one historian has it. They were jealous and quick to anger, but
+light-hearted laughter came easily to the lips of the ancient Irish.
+They worked cheerfully, prayed fervently to their gods, loved their
+women and children devotedly, clung passionately to their clan, and
+fought at the call with alacrity.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing, it will be seen, could be further from the minds of such a
+people than submission to what they deemed injustice. The habit of a
+proud freedom was ingrained. Their little island of 32,000 square
+miles in the Atlantic Ocean, the outpost of Europe, lay isolated save
+for occasional forays to and from the coasts of Scotland and England.
+The Roman invasions of western Europe never reached it. England the
+Romans overran, but never Scotland or Ireland. Self-contained, Ireland
+developed a civilization peculiarly its own, the product of an
+intense, imaginative, fighting race. War was not constant among them
+by any means, and occupied only small portions of the island at a
+time, but, since the bards' best work was war songs and war histories,
+with much braggadocio doubtless intermixed, a different impression
+might prevail. Half of their kings may have been killed in broil or
+battle, and yet great wars were few. If is undoubted that Scotic, that
+is, Irish, invasion and immigration peopled the western shores of
+Scotland and gave a name to the country. In the first centuries of the
+Christian era they were the men who with the Picts fought the Romans
+at the wall of Severus. The Britons, it will be remembered, enervated
+by Roman dominance, had failed to defend their "border" when Rome
+first withdrew her legions.</p>
+
+<p>At this time, too, began the first appearance of Ireland as a power
+on the sea. In the fourth century the high-king, Niall of the
+Hostages, commanding a large fleet of war galleys, invaded Scotland,
+ravaged the English coasts, and conquered Armorica (Brittany),
+penetrating as far as the banks of the Loire, where, according to the
+legend, he was slain by an arrow shot by one of his own men. One of
+the captives he brought from abroad on one of his early expeditions
+was a youth named Patrick, afterwards to be the Apostle of Ireland.
+Niall's nephew, Dathi, also ard-ri, was a great sea king. He invaded
+England, crossed to Gaul, and marched as far as the Alps, where he was
+killed by lightning. He was the last pagan king of Ireland. In perhaps
+a score of years after the death of Dathi, all Ireland had been
+converted to Christianity, and its old religion of a thousand years
+buried so deep that scholars find the greatest difficulty in
+recovering anything about it. This conservative, obstinate, jealous
+people overturned its pagan altars in a night, and, ever since, has
+never put into anything else the devotion, soul and body, of its
+sacrifices for religion. Christianity profoundly modified Irish life,
+softened manners, and stimulated learning. Not that the fighting
+propensities were obliterated. There were indeed many long and
+peaceful reigns, but the historians record neat little wars, seductive
+forays and "hostings", to use the new-old word, to the heart's
+content. The Irish character remained fixed in its essentials, but,
+under the influence of religious enthusiasm, Ireland progressed and
+prospered in the arts of peace. It would undoubtedly have shared the
+full progress of western Europe from this time on, but for its
+insularity. Hitherto its protection, it was now to be its downfall. A
+hostile power was growing of which it knew nothing.</p>
+
+<p>The Norsemen&mdash;the hardy vikings of Norway, Sweden, and
+Denmark&mdash;had become a nation of pirates. Undaunted fighters and
+able mariners, they built their shapely long ships and galleys of the
+northern pine and oak, and swept hardily down on the coasts of
+England, Ireland, France, Spain, and Italy, and the lands of the
+Levant, surprising, massacring, plundering. In France (Normandy), in
+England, and lastly in Ireland they planted colonies. Their greatest
+success was in England, which they conquered, Canute becoming king.
+Their greatest battles and final defeat were in Ireland. From the end
+of the eighth century to the beginning of the eleventh the four shores
+of Erin were attacked in turn, and sometimes all together, by
+successive fleets of the Norsemen. The waters that had been Ireland's
+protection now became the high roads of the invaders. By the river
+Shannon they pushed their conquests into the heart of the country.
+Dublin Bay, Waterford Harbor, Belfast Lough, and the Cove of Cork
+offered shelter to their vessels. They established themselves in
+Dublin and raided the country around. Churches and monasteries were
+sacked and burned. To the end these Norsemen were robbers rather than
+settlers. To these onslaughts by the myriad wasps of the northern
+seas, again and again renewed, the Irish responded manfully. In 812
+they drove off the invaders with great slaughter, only to find fresh
+hordes descending a year or two later. In the tenth century,
+Turgesius, the Danish leader, called himself monarch of Ireland, but
+he was driven out by the Irish king, Malachi. The great effort which
+really broke the Danish power forever in Ireland was at the battle of
+Clontarf, on Dublin Bay, Good Friday, 1014, when King Brian Boru, at
+the head of 30,000 men, utterly defeated the Danes of Dublin and the
+Danes of oversea. Fragments of the Northmen remained all over Ireland,
+but henceforth they gradually merged with the Irish people, adding a
+notable element to it's blood. One of the most grievous chapters of
+Irish history, the period of Norse invasion, literally shines with
+Irish valor and tenacity, undimmed through six fighting generations.
+As Plowden says:</p>
+
+<p>"Ireland stands conspicuous among the nations of the universe, a
+solitary instance in which neither the destructive hand of time, nor
+the devastating arm of oppression, nor the widest variety of changes
+in the political system of government could alter or subdue, much less
+wholly extinguish, the national genius, spirit, and character of its
+inhabitants." This is true not only of the Danish wars which ended
+nine hundred years ago, but of many a dreadful century since and to
+this very day.</p>
+
+<p>Now followed a troubled period, Ireland weakened by loss of blood
+and treasure, its government failing of authority through the defects
+of its virtues. It was inevitable, sooner or later, that England, as
+it became consolidated after its conquest by William the Norman,
+should turn greedy eyes on the fair land across the Irish sea. It was
+in 1169 that "Strongbow"&mdash;Richard, earl of Pembroke&mdash;came
+from England at the invitation of a discontented Irish chieftain and
+began the conquest of Ireland. Three years later came Henry II. with
+more troops and a Papal bull. After a campaign in Leinster, he set
+himself up as overlord of Ireland, and then returned to London. It was
+the beginning only. An English Lord Deputy ruled the "Pale", or
+portion of Ireland that England held more or less securely, and from
+that vantage ground made spasmodic war upon the rest of Ireland, and
+was forever warred on, in large attacks and small, by Irish
+chieftains.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish were the fighting race now if ever. Without hope of
+outside assistance, facing a foe ever reinforced from a stronger,
+richer, more fully organized country, nothing but their stubborn
+character and their fighting genius kept them in the field. And
+century out and century in, they stayed, holding back the foreign foe
+four hundred years. It is worthy of note that it was the Norman
+English, racial cousins, as it were, of the Norsemen, who first
+wrought at the English conquest of Ireland. When some of these were
+seated in Irish places of pride, when a Butler was made Earl of Ormond
+and a Fitzgerald, Earl of Kildare, it was soon seen that they were
+merging rapidly in the Irish mass, becoming, as it was said, "more
+Irish than the Irish themselves." Many were the individual heroic
+efforts to strike down the English power. Here and there small Irish
+chiefs accepted the English rule, offsetting the Norman Irish families
+who at times were "loyal" and at times "rebel." The state of war
+became continuous and internecine, but three-fourths of Ireland
+remained unconquered. The idea of a united Ireland against England
+had, however, been lost except in a few exalted and a few desperate
+breasts. A gleam of hope came in 1316, when, two years after the great
+defeat of England by the Scotch under Robert the Bruce at Bannockburn,
+Edward, the victor-king's brother, came at the invitation of the
+northern Irish to Ireland with 6,000 Scots, landing near
+Carrickfergus. He was proclaimed king of Ireland by the Irish who
+joined him. Battle after battle was won by the allies. Edward was a
+brilliant soldier, lacking, however, the prudence of his great
+brother, Robert. The story of his two years of fighting, ravaging, and
+slaying, is hard at this distance to reconcile with intelligible
+strategy. In the end, in 1318, the gallant Scot fell in battle near
+Dundalk, losing at the same time two-thirds of his army. For two years
+Scot and Irish had fought victoriously side by side. That is the fact
+of moment that comes out of this dark period.</p>
+
+<p>The following century, like that which had gone before, was full of
+fighting. In 1399, on Richard II.'s second visit to Ireland, he met
+fierce opposition from the Irish septs. MacMorrough, fighting,
+harassing the king's army from the shelter of the Wicklow woods,
+fairly drove the king to Dublin. The sanguinary "Wars of the
+Roses"&mdash;that thirty years' struggle for the crown of England
+between the royal houses of York and Lancaster, 1455 to
+1485&mdash;gave Ireland a long opportunity, which, however, she was
+too weak to turn to advantage; but fighting between Irish and English
+went on just the same, now in one province, now in another.</p>
+
+<p>In the reign of Henry VIII. a revolt against England started within
+the Pale itself, when Lord Thomas Fitzgerald, known as Silken Thomas,
+went before the Council in Dublin and publicly renounced his
+allegiance. He took the field&mdash;a brave, striking figure&mdash;in
+protest against the king's bad faith in dealing with his father, the
+Earl of Kildare. At one time it looked as if the rebellion (it was the
+first real Irish rebellion) would prosper. Lord Thomas made
+combinations with Irish chieftains in the north and west, and was
+victor in several engagements. He finally surrendered with assurances
+of pardon, but, as in many similar cases, was treacherously sent a
+prisoner to London, where he was executed.</p>
+
+<p>Queen Mary's reign was one of comparative quiet in Ireland. Her
+policy towards the Catholics was held to be of good augury for
+Ireland. The English garrison was reduced with impunity to 500 foot
+and a few horse: but another and darker day came with Elizabeth. Her
+coming to the throne, together with her fanatic devotion to the
+Reformation and an equal hatred of the old religion and all who clung
+to it, ushered in for Ireland two and a half centuries of almost
+unbroken misfortune. You cannot make people over. Some may take their
+opinions with their interest; others prefer to die rather than
+surrender theirs, and glory in the sacrifice. The proclamations of
+Elizabeth had no persuasion in them for the Irish. Her proscriptions
+were only another English sword at Ireland's throat. The disdain of
+the Irish maddened her. During her long reign one campaign after
+another was launched against them. Always fresh soldier hordes came
+pouring in under able commanders and marched forth from the Pale,
+generally to return shattered and worn down by constant harrying,
+sometimes utterly defeated with great slaughter. So of Henry Sidney's
+campaign, and so of the ill-fated Essex. Ulster, the stronghold of the
+O'Neills and the O'Donnells, remained unconquered down to the last
+years of Elizabeth's reign, although most of the greater battles were
+fought there. In Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, and "Red" Hugh
+O'Donnell, prince of Tyrconnell, Ireland had two really great soldiers
+on her side. The bravery, generalship, prudence, and strategy of
+O'Neill were worthy of all praise, and Red Hugh fell little short of
+his great compatriot. In battle after battle for twenty years they
+defeated the English with slaughter. Ireland, if more and more
+devastated by campaigns and forays, became the grave of tens of
+thousands of English soldiers and scores of high reputations. Writing
+from Cork, the Earl of Essex, after a disastrous march through
+Leinster and Munster, says:</p>
+
+<p>"I am confined in Cork ... but still I have been unsuccessful; my
+undertakings have been attended with misfortune.... The Irish are
+stronger and handle their arms with more skill than our people; they
+differ from us also in point of discipline. They likewise avoid
+pitched battles where order must be observed, and prefer skirmishes
+and petty warfare ... and are obstinately opposed to the English
+government."</p>
+
+<p>They did not like attacking or defending fortified places, he also
+believed. It was only his experience. The campaigns of Shane O'Neill,
+a bold but ill-balanced warrior, were full of such attacks, but one
+potent cause for Irish reluctance to make sieges a strong point of
+their strategy was that the strongest fortresses were on the sea. An
+inexhaustible, powerful enemy who held the sea was not in the end to
+be denied on sea or land, but the Irish in stubborn despair or supreme
+indifference to fate fought on. Religious rancor was added to racial
+hate. Most of the English settlers, or "garrison," as they came to be
+called, had become Protestants at the royal order. Ruin perched upon
+Ireland's hills and made a wilderness of her fertile valleys. The
+Irish chieftains with their faithful followers moved from place to
+place in woods and hollows of the hills. English colonists were
+settled on confiscated lands, and were harried by those who had been
+driven from their homes. It was war among graves. At last O'Neill made
+composition with the government when all was lost in the field, but
+the passionate Irish resolve never to submit still stalked like a
+ghost, as if it could not perish.</p>
+
+<p>When Elizabeth died it was thought that better things were coming
+to Ireland with James I., the son of Mary, Queen of Scots. Nothing of
+the kind. That curiously minded creature at once made an ingenuous
+proclamation:</p>
+
+<p>"Whereas his Majesty was informed that his subjects of Ireland had
+been deceived by <i>a false report that his Majesty was disposed to
+allow them liberty of conscience</i> and the free choice of religion,
+now, etc." Fresh "transplanting" of English and Scotch settlers on the
+lands of the Irish was the gist of his answer to the "false reports."
+So again the war of surprise, ambush, raid, and foray went on in a
+hundred places at once, but the result was that the English power was
+even more firmly seated than before.</p>
+
+<p>In the time of Charles I. there were terrible slaughters both of
+Protestants and Catholics. Patriotism and loyalty as moving causes had
+disappeared, but religion fiercely took their place. With Cromwell,
+the religious persecution took on an apocalyptic note of massacre, but
+the Irish were still showing that they were there with arms in their
+hands. The names of Owen Roe O'Neill and his splendid victory, in
+1646, at Benburb over the English and Scotch, where he slew more than
+3,000 men, and of another Hugh O'Neill, who made such a brilliant
+defense at Clonmel against Cromwell, shine brightly out of the
+darkness. But Ireland, parcelled out among the victors, was always the
+weaker after every campaign. Waves of war swept over her. She became
+mixed up in the rivalries of the English royal families, religion
+playing the most important part in the differences. It had armed Henry
+and Elizabeth, James and Charles against her. It gave edge to
+Cromwell's sword, and it led her into a great effort on behalf of
+James II. When William of Orange crossed the Boyne, all that followed
+for a century was symbolized. Athlone, Aughrim, Limerick, all places
+of great and fierce contests, were decided against her. French support
+of a kind had James, but not enough. Bravery and enthusiasm may win
+battles, but they do not carry through great campaigns. Once again God
+marched with the heaviest, best-fed, best-armed battalions. The great
+Tyrone dying in exile at Rome, Red Hugh O'Donnell perishing in Spain
+in the early days of the seventeenth century, were to prefigure the
+fighting and dying of half a million Irish warriors on continental
+soil for a hundred years after the fall of Limerick as the seventeenth
+century neared its close.</p>
+
+<p>During that period the scattered bands of the Rapparees, half
+patriots, half robbers, hiding in mountain fastnesses, dispersing,
+reassembling, descending on the English estates for rapine or the
+killing of "objectionables," represented the only armed resistance of
+the Irish. It was generally futile although picturesque.</p>
+
+<p>After the close of the Revolutionary War in America, Ireland
+received a new stimulation. The success of the patriots of the Irish
+parliament under Grattan, backed as they were by 100,000 volunteers
+and 130 pieces of cannon, in freeing Irish industry and commerce from
+their trammels, evoked the utmost malignity in England. Ireland almost
+at once sprang to prosperity, but it was destined to be short lived. A
+great conspiracy, which did not at first show above the surface, was
+set on foot to destroy the Irish parliament. This is not the place to
+follow the sinister machinations of the English, save to note that
+they forced both the Presbyterians and the Catholics of the north into
+preparations for revolt. The Society of United Irishmen was formed,
+and drew many of the brightest and most cultivated men in Ireland into
+its councils. It numbered over 70,000 adherents in Ulster alone. The
+government was alarmed, and began a systematic persecution of the
+peasantry all over Ireland. English regiments were put at "free
+quarters," that is, they forced themselves under order into the houses
+and cabins of the people with demands for bed and board. The hapless
+people were driven to fury. Brutal murders and barbarous tortures of
+men and women by the soldiers, savage revenges by the peasantry, and
+every form of violent crime all at once prevailed in the lately
+peaceful valleys. Prosecutions of United Irishmen and executions were
+many. It was all done deliberately to provoke revolt. In 1798 the
+revolt came. In the greater part of Ulster and Munster the uprising
+failed, but a great insurrection of the peasantry of Wexford shocked
+the country. Poorly armed, utterly undisciplined, without munitions of
+war, but 40,000 strong, they literally flung themselves pike in hand
+on the English regiments, sweeping everything before them for a time.
+Father John Murphy, a priest and patriot, was one of their leaders,
+but Beauchamp Bagenal Harvey was soon their commander-in-chief. At one
+time the "rebels" dominated the entire county save for a fort in the
+harbor and a small town or two, but it was natural that the
+commissariat should soon be in difficulties and their ammunition give
+out. The British general, Lake, with an army of 20,000 men and a
+moving column of 13,000, attacked the rebels on Vinegar Hill, and
+although the fight was heroic and bloody while it lasted, it was soon
+over and the British army was victorious. The rest was retreat,
+dispersal, and widespread cruelties and burnings and a long succession
+of murders. The "Boys of Wexford" funder great difficulties had given
+a great account of themselves. Dark as was that page of history, it
+has been a glowing lamp to Irish disaffection ever since. It is the
+soul of the effort that counts, and the disasters do not discredit '98
+in Irish eyes.</p>
+
+<p>Voltaire, in his <i>Century of Louis XIV.</i>, made his reflection
+on the Irish soldier out of his limited knowledge of the Williamite
+war in Ireland. He says, "The Irish, whom we have seen such good
+soldiers in France and Spain, have always fought poorly at home"! They
+had not fought poorly at home. It took four hundred years of English
+effort to complete, merely on its face, the conquest of Ireland, and
+all of that long sweep of the sword of Time was a time of battle. The
+Irish were fought with every appliance of war, backed by the riches of
+a prospering, strongly organized country, and impelled persistently by
+the greed of land and love of mastery; but there was not a mountain
+pass in Ireland, not a square mile of plain, not a river-ford, scarce
+a hill that had not been piled high with English dead in that four
+hundred years at the hands of the Irish wielders of sword and spear
+and pike.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish had not made their environment or their natures, and no
+power on earth could change them. Over greater England had swept the
+Romans, the Jutes, the Saxons, the Angles, the Norsemen, and the
+Normans. All found lodgment and all went to the making of England.
+Well, one might say, it had been for Ireland if she had developed that
+assimilating power which made her successive conquerors in process of
+time the feeders of her greatness, but the Irish would not and could
+not. Instead, they developed the pride of race that no momentary
+defeat could down. They became inured to battle and dreamt of battle
+when the peace of an hour was given them. When the four kings of
+Ireland were feasted in Dublin by King Richard II. of England, an
+English chronicler remarked, "Never were men of ruder manners"; but
+neither the silken array and golden glitter of Richard's peripatetic
+court nor the brave display of his thousand knights and thirty
+thousand archers filled them with longing for the one or fear of the
+other. They went back to their Irish hills and plains and fastnesses
+as obstinately Irish as ever.</p>
+
+<p>They fought well at home, if unfortunately, the wonder being that
+they continued to fight. The heavens and the earth seemed combined
+against them.</p>
+
+<h4>II.&mdash;THE FIGHTING RACE ABROAD.</h4>
+
+<p>We next see Irish soldiers fighting abroad. The blood they had shed
+so freely for the Stuarts at the Boyne, at Athlone, at Aughrim, at
+Limerick was in vain. The king of France, if he sent armies to
+Ireland, demanded Irish troops in return. The transports that brought
+the French regiments over in May, 1690, took back over five thousand
+officers and men from Ireland, who formed the first Irish Brigade in
+the service of France. This, remember, was before the battle of the
+Boyne. The men were formed on their arrival in France into three
+regiments, those of Mountcashel, O'Brien, and Dillon, named after
+their commanders, and were sent to Savoy. The French aid to James in
+Ireland helped best in giving confidence to the raw Irish levies, but
+it was more than offset by the German troops brought over by William.
+The weakness, indecision, or worse, of James before Derry, his
+chicken-hearted failure to overwhelm Schomberg when he lay at his
+mercy before the arrival of William, ruined his chances. Remember that
+the Irish army, if defeated at the Boyne, was not broken, and was
+strong enough, when pursued by William, to repulse him with 500 killed
+and 1,000 wounded and to compel him to raise the siege of Limerick.
+The dash and skill of Patrick Sarsfield, Earl of Lucan, backed by
+Irish desperation, won the day. The French troops sailed home after
+William's retreat. In the next year's campaign occurred the crowning
+disasters of the war, but in any other country or with any other
+people than the English the terms of capitulation at Limerick, which
+were formulated by Ginkel and showed a soldier's respect for a brave
+and still powerful foe, would have ushered in an era of peace.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish soldiers' distrust of the conquerors was shown in the
+fact that, since the stipulations allowed the free departure of the
+garrison with honors of war, 19,059 officers and men took service with
+France, and sailed in October, 1691, on the French fleet, which by the
+irony of fate had arrived in the Shannon too late, on the very day
+after the signing of the treaty of Limerick. Never in the whole course
+of the history of nations has more hideous treachery been shown than
+in the immediate breaking of that treaty; and dearly has England paid
+for it ever since, although, for the hundred years that followed,
+Ireland sank to the very depths under the penal laws, with her trade
+ruined, her lands stolen, her religion persecuted, and all education
+and enlightenment forbidden by abominable, drastic laws.</p>
+
+<p>If, as has been computed, 450,000 Irish fought and died in the
+service of France between 1690 and 1745, a further 30,000 are to be
+added down to 1793. A French writer estimates the whole Irish
+contingent at 750,000, but, for a roster of seekers of glory from an
+impoverished people, the more reasonable half-million should surely
+suffice.</p>
+
+<p>Long would be the story to follow the fighting fortunes of the
+Irish Brigades. Officered by Irish gentlemen and drilled to
+perfection, they soon came to hold in the French service the esteem
+that later was given to Irish regiments in the service of England.
+King Louis welcomed them heartily and paid them a higher wage than his
+native soldiers. No duty was too arduous or too dangerous for the
+Irish Brigades. Seldom were they left to rust in idleness. Europe was
+a caldron of wars of high ambitions.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish regiments fought through the war in Flanders. At Landen,
+July 29, 1693, the French under the duke of Luxembourg defeated the
+English under William III. with a slaughter of 10,473 men, losing
+8,000 men themselves. In the retreat, Ginkel, William's general in the
+Irish campaign, was almost drowned in the river Greete. The Irish
+Royal Regiment of Footguards, that of Dorrington, was the first corps
+to break through the English intrenchments, its gallant leader,
+Colonel Barrett, falling as he headed the charge. Here also was
+stricken Lieutenant-Colonel Nugent of Sheldon's Irish Regiment. Here
+also fell&mdash;saddest loss of all&mdash;Patrick Sarsfield, Earl of
+Lucan, brave, resourceful, a true unfaltering-soldier and lover of his
+country. The legend of his life blood flowing before his eyes and his
+utterance, "Would it had been shed for Ireland", may and should be
+true, although he lived three days after the battle. Would, indeed, it
+had been shed for Ireland&mdash;after such a day!</p>
+
+<p>It was in 1703 that the celebrated defence of Cremona lifted Irish
+renown to great heights throughout Europe. There were but 600 Irish
+troopers all told in that long day's work, and from the break of day
+till nightfall they held at bay Prince Eugene's army of 10,000 men.
+The two battalions of Bourke and Dillon were surprised at early morn
+to learn that the Austrians&mdash;and there were Irish officers among
+them&mdash;were in the town. Major O'Mahony and his men ran from their
+beds to the gates, and neither the foes without nor the foes within
+could make them budge. Terribly they suffered under concentrated
+attacks, but a withering fire from the Irish met every assault. It was
+nightfall before relief came, and then the sons of Ireland who had
+held Cremona for the French were acclaimed by all, but of their 600
+they had lost nearly 350. Small wonder that the honor list that day
+was long. In Bourke's battalion the specially distinguished were
+Captains Wauchop, Plunkett, Donnellan, MacAuliffe, Carrin, Power,
+Nugent, and Ivers; in Dillon's, Major O'Mahony, Captains Dillon,
+Lynch, MacDonough, and Magee, and Lieutenants Dillon and Gibbon, John
+Bourke and Thomas Dillon. Major O'Mahony was sent to Paris to carry
+the news of the victory to the king, who presented him with a purse of
+1,000 louis d'or, a pension of 1,000 livres, and the brevet of
+colonel.</p>
+
+<p>So the history proceeds, the Irish regiments lost in the array of
+the French forces, but showing here and there a glint of charging
+bayonets, captured trenches, and gushes of Irish blood. In 1703 the
+brigade regiments fought in Italy and Germany under the Duc de
+Vendome. We hear of the regiments of Berwick, Bourke, Dillon, Galmoy,
+and Fitzgerald vigorously engaged. In Germany the story is of
+Sheldon's Horse and two battalions of the regiments of Dorrington and
+Clare. At the first battle of Blenheim, September 20, 1703, the
+regiment of Clare lost one of its colors, rallied, charged with the
+bayonet and recovered it, taking two colors from the enemy. This was a
+French victory. Not so the great battle of Blenheim, August, 1704,
+when Marlborough and Prince Eugene severely defeated the French and
+Bavarians. Three Irish battalions shared in the disaster. In 1705 at
+Cassano in Italy an Irish regiment, finding itself badly galled by
+artillery fire from the opposite bank of the Adda, declared they could
+stand it no longer, and thereupon jumped in, swam the river, and
+captured the battery. In 1705 Colonel O'Mahony of Cremona fame
+distinguished himself in Spain. In the next year at the battle of
+Ramillies, in which Marlborough with the Dutch defeated the French
+under Villeroi, Lord Clare's regiment captured the colors of the
+English Churchill regiment and of the Scottish regiment in the Dutch
+service. In the same year and the next, the Irish Brigade fought many
+battles in Spain. One cannot pursue the details of the engagements.
+Regiments ever decimated were ever recruited by the "Wild Geese" from
+Ireland&mdash;the adventurous Catholic youth of the country who sought
+congenial outlet for their love of adventure and glory. Many Irish
+also joined the French army after deserting from the English forces in
+Flanders.</p>
+
+<p>It was, however, at Fontenoy, May 11, 1745, that the Irish Brigade
+rendered their most signal service to France. The English under the
+Duke of Cumberland, son of George II., with 55,000 men including a
+large German and Dutch auxiliary, met the French under Marshal Saxe,
+and in the presence of the French king Louis XV., near Tournai in
+Belgium. Saxe had 40,000 men in action and 24,000 around Tournai,
+which town was the objective of the English advance. Among the troops
+on the field were the six Irish regiments of Clare, Dillon, Bulkeley,
+Roth, Berwick, and Lally, all under Charles O'Brien, Viscount Clare,
+afterwards Marshal Thomond of France. After fierce cannonading on both
+sides and a check to the allies on their right and left, a great
+column of English veterans advanced on the French centre, breaking
+through with sheer force. They had thus reached high ground when some
+cannonading halted them. It was at this moment of gravest peril to the
+French that the Irish regiments with unshotted guns charged headlong
+up the slope on their ancient enemies, crying, "Remember Limerick and
+British Faith!" The great English column, already roughly handled by
+the cannon, broke and fled in wild disorder before that irresistible
+onslaught, and France had won a priceless victory, but the six Irish
+regiments lost one-third of their gallant men by a single volley as
+they followed their steel into the English lines.</p>
+
+<p>When Charles Edward, the Stuart Pretender, landed in Scotland in
+1745, he was followed by a small French force, including 500 Irishmen
+from the Brigade. Colonel John O'Sullivan was much relied on by the
+prince in his extraordinary campaign. Sir Thomas Sheridan also
+distinguished himself. There were 475 Irish at the battle of Culloden,
+that foredoomed defeat of the Stuart cause, and two days later a score
+of Irish officers were among those who surrendered at Inverness.</p>
+
+<p>In Spain at the beginning of the 18th century there were hundreds
+of Irish officers in the military service, and eight Irish regiments.
+Among the officers were thirteen Kellys, thirteen Burkes, and four
+Sheas. It seemed that Ireland had soldiers for the world. Don
+Patricio, Don Miguel, Don Carlos, Don Tadeo took the place of Patrick,
+Michael, Charles, and Thadeus. O'Hart gives a list of sixty
+descendants of the "Wild Geese" in places of honor in Spain. General
+Prim was a descendant of the Princes of Inisnage in Kilkenny. An
+O'Donnell was Duke of Tetuan and field marshal of Spain. Ambrose
+O'Higgins, born in county Meath, Ireland, was the foremost Spanish
+soldier in Chile and Peru; Admiral Patricio Lynch was one of its most
+distinguished sailors; and James McKenna its greatest military
+engineer. The son of O'Higgins was foremost among those who fought for
+Chilean independence and gained it, and one of his ablest lieutenants
+was Colonel Charles Patrick O'Madden of Maryland.</p>
+
+<p>In Austria the Irish soldiers were particularly welcome. They count
+forty-one field-marshals, major-generals, generals of cavalry, and
+masters of ordnance of Irish birth in the Austrian service.
+O'Callaghan relates that on March 17, 1766, His Excellency Count
+Mahony (son of the O'Mahony of Cremona), ambassador from Spain to the
+court of Vienna, gave a grand entertainment in honor of St. Patrick,
+to which he invited all persons of condition who were of Irish
+descent. Among many others, there were present Count Lacy, President
+of the Council at War, the generals O'Donnell, McGuire, O'Kelly,
+Browne, Plunkett, and MacElligot, four chiefs of the Grand Cross, two
+governors, several knights military, six staff officers, and four
+privy councillors, with the principal officers of State. All wore
+Patrick's crosses in honor of the Irish nation, as did the whole court
+that day. Emperor Francis I. said: "The more Irish officers in the
+Austrian service the better; bravery will not be wanting; our troops
+will always be well disciplined." The Austrian O'Reillys and Taaffes
+were famous. It was the dragoon regiment of Count O'Reilly that by a
+splendid charge saved the remnant of the Austrian army at
+Austerlitz.</p>
+
+<p>In the American war of the Revolution, General Charles Geoghegan of
+the Irish Brigade made the campaigns of Rochambeau and Lafayette. He
+received the order of the Cincinnati from Washington and was ever
+proud of it. Lieutenant General O'Moran also served in America. He was
+afterwards executed in the French Revolution, for the "Brigade"
+remained royalist to the end. General Arthur Dillon, who served in the
+Brigade, was also guillotined in 1794, crying, "Vive le roi!" At the
+foot of the scaffold a woman, probably Mme. H&eacute;bert, also
+condemned, stood beside him. The executioner told her to mount the
+steps. "Oh, Monsieur Dillon," she said, "pray go first." "Anything to
+oblige a lady," he answered gaily, and so faced his God.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Macaulay, commenting upon these things and deploring the
+policies that brought them about, says with great significance:</p>
+
+<p>"There were Irish Catholics of great ability, but they were to be
+found everywhere except in Ireland&mdash;at Versailles, at St.
+Ildefonso, in the armies of Frederic, in the armies of Maria Theresa.
+One exile (Lord Clare) became a marshal of France, another (General
+Wall) became Prime Minister of Spain.... Scattered all over Europe
+were to be found brave Irish generals, dexterous Irish diplomatists,
+Irish counts, Irish barons, Irish knights of St. Louis and St.
+Leopold, of the White Eagle, and of the Golden Fleece, who if they
+remained in the house of bondage, could not have been ensigns of
+marching regiments or freemen of petty corporations."</p>
+
+<p>The old Irish brigades ended with the French monarchy. Battalions
+of the regiments of Dillon and Walsh were with the French fleet in the
+West Indies at Grenada and St. Eustache, also at Savannah, and under
+Rochambeau at Yorktown, but, except as to the officers, the surviving
+regiments of Berwick, Dillon, and Walsh were largely French. With the
+better times under Grattan's Parliament in Ireland, the soldier
+emigration to France had all but ceased. The Irish Volunteers of 1782
+numbered 100,000 men, of whom an appreciable proportion were
+Catholics. Many Irish went into the English army and navy, but there
+was another stream of fighting emigrants, that which flocked to the
+standard of revolt against England in America, of which much was to be
+heard thereafter.</p>
+
+<p>In the American colonies before the Revolution there were thousands
+of descendants of the Catholic Irish who had settled in Maryland and
+Pennsylvania during the seventeenth century, as well as hardy Irish
+Presbyterians from Ulster, who came in great multitudes during the
+first half of the eighteenth century. They had suffered persecution in
+Ireland for conscience sake from their fellow-Protestants. In Maine,
+New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and the Carolinas they
+constituted entire communities. The emigration of the Catholic or
+purely Celtic Irish to America in the seventeenth and eighteenth
+centuries was often compulsory. At any rate, after the middle of the
+eighteenth century it was large and became continuous&mdash;a true
+drift. Catholics and Presbyterians alike brought hostility to the
+English government with them, and their voices fed the storm of
+discontent. The Irish schoolmasters, of whom there were hundreds, were
+especially efficient in this. They came in every ship to the colonies.
+They had no love for England, for they had experienced in Ireland the
+tyranny of English law, and they would be more than human if they did
+not imbue the minds of the American children under their care with
+their own hatred of oppression and wrong and English domination. The
+log schoolhouse of the Irish teacher became the nursery of revolution.
+They were a very important factor, therefore, in the making of the
+Revolution, and many of them took an active part as soldiers in the
+field.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish, both Catholics and Protestants, poured into the patriot
+ranks once the standard of revolt was raised in 1775. The Pennsylvania
+line, which General Lee called "the line of Ireland," was almost
+entirely Irish, and the rosters of several of the Maryland and
+Virginia regiments contain a remarkably large proportion of Irish
+names, in some cases running as high as 60 per cent. It is computed
+that the Irish furnished not less than a third of the whole American
+forces. A common cause blotted out all old religious prejudices
+between Irishmen in the American service. It was John Sullivan, of New
+Hampshire, son of a Limerick schoolmaster, who began the revolt by
+seizing the fort of William and Mary and its storehouses filled with
+that powder which charged the guns at Bunker Hill in the following
+year. It was Captain Jeremiah O'Brien, with his brothers, who made the
+first sea attack on the British off Machias, Maine, in May, 1775, an
+engagement which Fenimore Cooper calls "the Lexington of the Seas."
+There were fifteen Celtic Irish names among the Minute Men at the
+Battle of Lexington. Colonel Barrett, who commanded at Concord, was
+Irish. There were 258 Celtic Irish names on the rosters of the
+American forces at the battle of Bunker Hill. John Sullivan had been
+made a major-general, thereafter to be a notable figure in the war at
+Princeton, Trenton, Newport, and in his Indian campaign. The
+Connecticut line was thick with Irish names. Around Washington himself
+was a circle of brilliant Irishmen: Adjutant-General Edward Hand
+leading his rifles, Stephen Moylan his dragoons, General Henry Knox
+and Colonel Proctor at the head of his artillery, John Dunlop his
+body-guard, Andrew Lewis his brigadier-general, Ephraim Elaine his
+quartermaster, all of Irish birth or ancestry. Commodore John Barry,
+born in Wexford in 1739 and bred to the sea, was a ship captain in his
+early twenties, trading from Philadelphia. When the Continental
+Congress met, he at once volunteered, and was given command of the
+<i>Lexington</i>, the first American ship to capture a British war
+vessel. Later, after gallant fighting on sea and land, he was given
+command of the U.S. frigate <i>Alliance</i>, in which he crossed the
+Atlantic to France, and fought and captured in a rattling battle two
+British warships, the <i>Atlanta</i> and the <i>Trepasay</i>. He was
+the Father of the American navy, holding captain's certificate No. 1,
+signed by Washington himself&mdash;the highest rank then issued.</p>
+
+<p>General Richard Montgomery, the brave and able soldier who fell at
+Quebec as he charged the heights, was an Irishman. General George
+Clinton, son of an Irishman, was a brigadier-general, governor of New
+York and twice Vice-President of the United States. Fifty-seven
+officers of New York regiments in the Revolution were Irish, and a
+large number of the officers in the Southern regiments of the line, as
+well as of the militia, were native Irish or of Irish descent. The
+rosters of the enlisted Irishmen of the New York regiments run into
+the thousands. Hundreds of Irish soldiers suffered in the prison ships
+of New York, the horrors of which served so conspicuously to stimulate
+American determination to carry the war to the only rightful
+conclusion. Washington always recognized America's debt to the Irish.
+"St. Patrick" he made the watchword in the patriot lines the night
+before the English evacuated Boston forever on the memorable 17th of
+March, 1776. After the war he was made, with his own consent, an
+honorary member of the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick. Major-General
+Richard Butler and his four brothers, all officers, and
+Brigadier-Generals John Armstrong, William Irvine, William Thompson,
+James Smith, and Griffith Rutherford all fought with distinction. All
+of these officers were Irish-born. It was in truth an Irish war, so
+far as Irish sentiment and whole-hearted service could make it. The
+record of Irish soldiers' names alone would fill volumes.</p>
+
+<p>The thirst of the Irish race for the glory of war is shown in the
+large enlistments in the last quarter of the eighteenth century, and
+since, in the English army and navy. Grattan, in pleading for Ireland,
+claimed that a large percentage of the British forces were Irish.
+Wolfe Tone avers that there were 210 Irishmen out of 220 in the crew
+of a British frigate that overhauled his ship on its way to America.
+Bonaparte had in his armies an Irish Legion that did good service in
+Holland, Spain, Portugal, and Germany. Marshal Clarke, Duke of Feltre,
+French Minister of War in 1809, was Irish. Up and down the Spanish
+Peninsula, Irish blood was shed in abundance in the armies of
+Wellington. Never was more brilliant fighting done than that which
+stands to Irish credit from the lines of Torres Vedras to Badajos and
+Toulouse. Of the Waterloo campaign volumes have been written in praise
+of Irish valor. As Maxwell says in his <i>Tales of
+Waterloo</i>:&mdash;"The victors of Marengo and Austerlitz reeled
+before the charge of the Connaught Rangers." Wellington himself was
+Irish, as in the later wars of England Lord Gough, Lord Wolseley, Lord
+Roberts, Lord Kitchener, and General French came from Ireland. The
+Irish soldiers in the English service by a pitiful irony of fate
+helped materially to fasten the chains of English domination on the
+peoples of India in a long series of wars.</p>
+
+<p>In America, the War of 1812 once more gave opportunity to the
+Fighting Race. The commanding figure of the war, which opened so
+inauspiciously for the United States, was General Andrew Jackson, the
+hero of the battle of New Orleans, and afterwards twice elected
+President of the United States. "Old Hickory", as he came to be
+lovingly called, was proud of his Irish father, and sympathized with
+the national longings of the Irish people. He was a splendid soldier,
+and his defeat of the English general, Pakenham, on January 8, 1815,
+which meant the control of the mouths of the Mississippi, as well as
+safeguarding the city of New Orleans, reflected the highest credit on
+his skill and unflagging energy. The English had superior numbers,
+between 8,000 and 9,000 men, against a scant 6,000 under Jackson, and
+their force was made up of veterans of the European wars. In command
+of the left of his line Jackson placed the gallant general William
+Carroll, born in Philadelphia, but of Irish blood, who was afterwards
+twice governor of Tennessee. The British general made the mistake of
+despising the soldier value of his enemy, yet before evening of that
+day he saw his artillery silenced and his lines broken, as he died of
+a wound on the field. The battle was actually fought after the signing
+of the treaty of peace at Ghent; it annihilated British pretensions in
+this part of the world, anyway.</p>
+
+<p>After Commodore Perry, the victor in the battle of Lake Erie, and
+himself the son of an Irish mother, the northern naval glory of the
+War of 1812 falls to Lieutenant Thomas MacDonough, of Irish descent,
+whose victory on Lake Champlain over the British squadron was almost
+as important as Perry's. Admiral Charles L. Stewart ("Old Ironsides"),
+who commanded the frigate <i>Constitution</i> when she captured the
+<i>Cyane</i> and the <i>Levant</i>, fighting them by moonlight, was a
+great and renowned figure. His parents came from Ireland, and Charles
+Stewart Parnell's mother was the great sea-fighter's daughter.
+Lieutenant Stephen Cassin commanded the <i>Ticonderoga</i> and fought
+her well. Captain Johnston Blakely, who was born in Ireland, captured
+in the <i>Wasp</i> of 18 guns the much larger British <i>Reindeer</i>
+of 20 guns and 175 men in a splendid fight, and later sank the
+<i>Avon</i>, an 18-gun brig. After capturing a great prize, which he
+sent to Savannah, he sailed for the Spanish main and was never heard
+of more. Captain Boyle, in the privateer <i>Comet</i> of Baltimore,
+fought the <i>Hibernia</i>, of 18 guns, and later in the
+<i>Chasseur</i>, known as the phantom ship, so fast she sailed, took
+eighty prizes on the high seas. General A.E. Maccomb, who commanded
+victoriously at Plattsburg, was of Irish descent, and Colonel Robert
+Carr, who distinguished himself in the same campaign, was born in
+Ireland. Major George Croghan of Kentucky, the hero of Fort
+Stephenson, was the son of an Irish father who had been a soldier in
+the Revolution. Colonel Hugh Brady, of the 22nd Infantry, commanded at
+Niagara. He remained in the army and fought in Mexico. William McRee,
+of Irish descent, was General Browne's chief engineer in laying out
+the military works of the American army at Niagara.</p>
+
+<p>Let it not be forgotten that in this memorable company brave Mrs.
+Doyle has a place. Her husband, Patrick Doyle, an Irish artilleryman,
+had been taken prisoner by the British in the affair at Queenston and
+had been refused a parole. Accordingly, when the guns were trained on
+the English lines before Fort Niagara, Mary, emulating the example of
+her countrywoman, "Molly" Pitcher, at Monmouth, determined to take her
+husband's place, and, regardless of flying British balls, tended a
+blacksmith's bellows all day, providing red-hot shot for the American
+gun battery, and sending a prayer with every shot into the British
+lines.</p>
+
+<p>After the Queenston affair, it is well to note, the English
+doctrine of perpetual allegiance was abated. Twenty-three Irish-born
+men were among the captives of the English in that engagement. They
+were manacled to be sent to Ireland to be tried for treason, not as
+enemies taken in the field. Winfield Scott, then lieutenant-colonel,
+was also a prisoner with them. He protested loudly against this
+infamous course. Upon his release he laid aside twenty-three British
+prisoners to be treated like the Irishmen, eye for eye and tooth for
+tooth. As a result, the Irish prisoners were exchanged.</p>
+
+<p>Colonel John Allen, who fell at the head of the First Regiment of
+Kentucky Riflemen at the battle of the river Raisin on January 21,
+1813, was one of the Irish Allens of Kentucky. His father and mother
+were natives of Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>The Mexican War (1846-48) again showed Irish valor at the front. It
+was not a great war, though brilliantly fought and rich in territorial
+accessions. The campaigning comprised the work of two main expeditions
+and a subsidiary movement in California. One column, under General
+Zachary Taylor, penetrated northern Mexico and fought the battles of
+Matamoras, Palo Alto, and Resaca de la Palma, in May, 1846, with a
+force of 2,200 men; forced the evacuation of Monterey in September,
+his army swelled to 5,000; and defeated Santa Anna at Buena Vista in
+February, 1847. General Winfield Scott, with a naval expediton,
+attacked Vera Cruz from the sea in March, 1847, and took up the march,
+13,000 strong, to Mexico City, fighting the battles of Cerro Gordo,
+Contreras, Churubusco, Molino del Rey, and Chapultepec, and entered
+Mexico City on September 14. General James Shields, born in Tyrone,
+Ireland, in 1810, was in command with his brigade under Scott. A
+brilliant soldier, he was severely wounded at Cerro Gordo and again at
+Chapultepec. He served as United States Senator after the war and
+again took the field in the Civil War, his forces defeating Stonewall
+Jackson at the first battle of Winchester in 1862. The glamour of
+chivalry lights the name of Phil Kearney. Here was a born soldier. He
+was a volunteer with the French in Algiers in 1839-40. He also
+commanded under Scott with brilliant bravery, and was brevetted major
+on the field for "gallant and meritorious conduct" at the battles of
+Contreras and Churubusco. In the French war with Austria in 1859-60,
+Kearney fought with the French, distinguishing himself at the decisive
+and bloody battle of Solferino. In the Civil War he was
+brigadier-general of New Jersey troops in 1861 and major-general in
+1863, taking distinguished part in the battles of the Peninsula and
+second Bull Run, and was killed while reconnoitring at Chantilly.
+General Stephen W. Kearney, with the Army of the West, by dint of long
+marches, secured California among the fruits of the war. General
+Bennet Riley, born in Maryland of Irish ancestry, commanded a brigade
+at Contreras, making a wonderful charge, and also fought brilliantly
+at Cerro Gordo and Churubusco, and was brevetted brigadier-general. He
+attained the army rank in 1858. Major-General William O. Butler, under
+Zachary Taylor, was one of the heroes of Monterey. Born in Kentucky,
+son of Percival Butler of Kilkenny, who was one of the famous five
+Butler brothers of the Revolutionary War whom Washington once toasted
+as "The Butlers and their five sons," General Butler succeeded General
+Scott in command of the entire American army in Mexico in February,
+1848. Another of clear Irish descent who fought under Zachary Taylor
+was Major-General George Croghan, whose father, born in Sligo,
+Ireland, had fought in the Revolution. He himself took part, as we
+have seen, in the War of 1812, and now was at the front before
+Monterey. Once, when a Tennessee regiment wavered under a hot
+converging fire, Croghan rushed to the front and, taking off his hat,
+shouted, "Men of Tennessee, your fathers conquered with Jackson at New
+Orleans. Come, follow me!" and they followed in a successful assault.
+Major-General Robert Paterson, who was born at Strabane, Ireland, and
+was the son of a '98 man, saw service in 1812, and became
+major-general of militia in Pennsylvania, whence he went to the
+Mexican War. He also lived to serve in the War of the States.</p>
+
+<p>Among Irish-named officers mentioned honorably in official
+despatches are Major Edward H. Fitzgerald, Major Patrick J. O'Brien;
+Captain Casey, chosen to lead the first storming party at Chapultepec;
+Captains Hogan, Byrne, Kane, McElvin, McGill, Burke, Barny,
+O'Sullivan, McCarthy, McGarry, and McKeon. Captain Mayne Reid, the
+novelist, a native of Ireland, was in the storming of Chapultepec.
+Theodore O'Hara, the poet, served with the Kentucky troops and was
+brevetted major for gallantry at Contreras and Churubusco, while on
+the staff of General Franklin Pierce (afterwards President of the
+United States). O'Hara's magnificent poem, "The Bivouac of the Dead,"
+has made his name immortal. It was written on the occasion of the
+interment at Frankfort, Ky., of the Kentucky dead of the Mexican War,
+where</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p class="p">"Glory guards with solemn round</p>
+<p class="p">The bivouac of the dead."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Irwin C. McDowell, who was brevetted captain at Buena Vista,
+commanded a corps in the Civil War. George A. McCall, brevetted
+lieutenant-colonel at Palo Alto, was a major-general in the Civil War.
+Francis T. Bryan was a hero of Buena Vista. Lieutenant-Colonel Thomas
+P. Moore and Captain James Hogan both won fame in the 3rd Dragoons.
+Lieutenant Thomas Claiborn of the Mounted Rifles became a colonel in
+the Confederate Army. Lieutenant-Colonel J.W. Geary fought brilliantly
+and was to be heard from later with renown.</p>
+
+<p>Colonel John F. Reynolds of the 3rd Artillery lived to be
+major-general in the Civil War, and to fall gloriously at Gettysburg.
+Nor must we forget Major Folliot Lally's bravery at Cerro Gordo;
+Second Lieutenant Thomas W. Sweeny, a brigadier-general of the Civil
+War and the planner of the Fenian invasion of Canada in 1866;
+Lieutenant Henry B. Kelly of the 2nd Infantry, afterwards a
+Confederate colonel; Captain Martin Burke of the 1st Artillery, killed
+at Churubusco; nor Lieutenant William F. Barry of the 2nd Artillery, a
+brigadier-general in the Civil War. There were scores of other Irish
+named officers. In the whole American force of 30,000 engaged, the
+Irish born and Irish descended troops of all arms were numbered by
+thousands.</p>
+
+<p>It was, however, in the Civil War that the flood of Irish valor and
+loyalty to the American Republic was at its height. The 2,800,000
+enlistments on the Northern side stood probably for 1,800,000
+individual soldiers serving during the four years of the war. Not less
+than 40 per cent, of these were Irish born or of Irish descent. Of the
+337,800 men furnished by the State of New York, 51,206 were natives of
+Ireland out of the total of 134,178 foreign born, or 38 per cent, of
+the latter, while not less than 80,000 of Irish descent figured among
+the 203,600 native born soldiers. Of the 2,261 engagements in the war,
+few there were that saw no Irishmen in arms, and certainly, in every
+one of the 519 engagements that made Virginia a great graveyard, the
+Irish figured largely. Of the 1,000,516 mustered out in 1865, not less
+than 150,000 were natives of Ireland, while those of Irish descent
+numbered hundreds of thousands. They fought well everywhere, and it
+would require volumes to give the names and deeds of those who
+distinguished themselves more than their fellows.</p>
+
+<p>One name, however, shines with a great blaze above them all, the
+name of Philip H. Sheridan, one of the three supreme soldiers of the
+Union, Ulysses S. Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman being the others.
+Had Ireland furnished only Sheridan to the Union cause, her service
+would be beyond reward. He was born in Albany, N.Y., in March, 1831,
+the year after his parents, John and Mary Sheridan, arrived there from
+the Co. Cavan, in Ireland. The family moved to Somerset, Perry Co.,
+Ohio, the following year. There Philip began village life. How he
+gained the beginning of an education; worked in a grocery store;
+became a bookkeeper; longed for a West Point nomination and got it;
+how he worked through the Academy in 1853; served as lieutenant on the
+frontier, in Texas, California, and Oregon, until the outbreak of the
+Civil War, when he was promoted captain and ordered east, can be
+quickly told. His history until the fall of the Confederacy would need
+many long chapters. His military genius included all the requirements
+of a great captain, and his opportunties of exhibiting all his
+qualities in action came in rapid succession. In every service from
+quartermaster to army commander his talents shone. His tremendous
+vigor, incredible mental alertness, and genius for detail, added to
+his skill and outreach, continually set him forward. He stood 5 feet 5
+inches high, but somehow looked taller, owing to his erect, splendid
+bearing. There was something in the full chest, the thick muscular
+neck, the heavy head, the dark blazing eyes, and the quick bodily
+movements that arrested attention. His name has come down to this
+generation mainly as a great cavalry leader, but he was a natural
+commander of all arms, a great tactician, a born strategist. His
+campaign of the Shenandoah Valley was a whirlwind of success. His
+great battles around Richmond were wonderful. General Grant's opinion
+of Sheridan, given thirteen years after the war, sums up the man. It
+is here quoted from J.R. Young's book, <i>Around the World with
+General Grant</i>. It runs, in part, as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"As a soldier, as a commander of troops, as a man capable of doing
+all that is possible with any number of men, there is no man living
+greater than Sheridan. He belongs to the very first rank of soldiers,
+not only of our country but of the world. I rank Sheridan with
+Napoleon and Frederick and the great commanders in history. No man
+ever had such a faculty of finding things out as Sheridan, of knowing
+all about the enemy. He was always the best informed of his command as
+to the enemy. Then he had that magnetic quality of swaying men, which
+I wish I had, a rare quality in a general. I don't think anyone can
+give Sheridan too high praise."</p>
+
+<p>Praise from U.S. Grant is praise indeed. A peculiar feature of the
+Civil War was the growth of the generals: Grant, Sherman, Sheridan,
+Thomas, Meade, all conspicuously experienced it. With Sheridan,
+however, one point is notable, namely, that He triumphed in every
+branch in each successive extension of the field of his duties, and he
+went from captain to major-general in three years of the regular army.
+His care for his men was constant. His troops were always the best
+fed, best clothed, best rested in the armies en either side, but on no
+troops was there more constant call for endeavor, and they were never
+found to fail him. In action he is described as severe, peremptory,
+dominating, but his determinations were mighty things, not to be
+interfered with. He wanted things done and done at once. His men of
+all grades soon conceded that he knew best what to do, and set about
+doing it accordingly. Out of action he was joyous of spirit, but, in
+fight or out of it, his alertness and his lightning-like decisions
+marked him apart from every other commander. His career in the
+Tennessee campaign was meteoric. Of his score and more of great
+conflicts, the most picturesque was his wonderful battle at Cedar
+Creek, to fight which he rode at breakneck speed "from Winchester
+twenty miles away" through the dust and debris of a broken army to the
+extreme front, rallying the scattered regiments and turning a defeat
+into a crushing victory, which recovered all that had been lost,
+taking 25 cannon and 1,200 prisoners, and driving for miles the lately
+victorious enemy under Early. Captain P.J. O'Keefe was one of the two
+who made the ride beside him. The battles of Waynesboro, Five Forks,
+and Sailor's Creek showed the same brilliant generalship on the part
+of Sheridan. His hold on the affection of the army and the admiration
+of the people continued to the day of his death, August 5, 1888, when
+he held the headship of the United States army as general in
+succession to the great Sherman.</p>
+
+<p>General Sheridan, towards the end of the war, had a soldier's
+difference with Major-General George G. Meade, commander of the Army
+of the Potomac, but that did not blind "Little Phil" to the real merit
+of the victor in the tremendous three days' battle of Gettysburg,
+handling an army new to his hand against Robert E. Lee. The Meade
+family is of Irish descent. George Meade, the grandfather, came from
+Dublin and was a patriot in the American Revolutionary War. General
+Meade commanded a division at Antietam and a corps at Fredericksburg,
+and held command of the Army of the Potomac to the end of the war. He
+was a fine soldier and gentleman. Of quiet manners at most times, he
+was most irascible in the hour of battle, but his temper did not
+becloud his judgment. General James Shields and General Irwin
+McDowell, both fine Irish soldiers, have already been mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>It would be hard to compass in a brief article even the names of
+the general officers of Irish blood in the Civil War. General John
+Logan, who fought with the western armies, is worthy of high and
+honorable mention, as is General Thomas Francis Meagher, a patriot in
+Ireland, a prisoner in Australia, a soldier of dash in the Civil War.
+Meagher's Irish Brigade left a record of valor unsurpassed: their
+charge at Fredericksburg up Marye's Heights alone should give them
+full meed of fame. General Michael Corcoran, a native of Ireland,
+commanded the wholly Irish 69th Regiment when it departed for the war
+in 1861, and after his exchange from a Confederate prison raised and
+organized the Corcoran Legion. Major-General McDowell McCook commanded
+brilliantly in the western campaigns. Who has not heard of the
+Fighting McCooks?&mdash;a family of splendid men and hardy warriors.
+Brigadier-General Thomas C. Devin was a superb cavalry commander, who
+led the first division of Sheridan's Shenandoah army through all its
+great operations. General James Mulligan of Illinois was of the true
+fighting breed. Colonel Timothy O'Meara led his superb Irish Legion
+from Illinois up Missionary Ridge. Brigadier-General C.C. Sullivan of
+western army fame was one of the five generals, headed by Rosecrans,
+who recommended Phil Sheridan for promotion to brigadier-general after
+the battle of Booneville as "worth his weight in gold." General
+Brannan was a gallant division commander in the Middle Tennessee
+campaign. Colonel William P. Carlin made a name at Stone River.
+General James T. Boyle, of the Army of the Ohio under Buell, was the
+brave man whose promotion to division commander left a vacancy for
+"Little Phil", that was to be an immediate stepping stone to higher
+opportunity. Brigadier-General McMillan, who commanded the second
+brigide at Cedar Creek; Colonel Thomas W. Cahill, 9th Connecticut;
+Lieutenant-Colonel Alfred Neafie of the 156th New York; Captain
+Charles McCarthy of the 175th New York; Lieutenant-Colonel Alex. J.
+Kenny of the 8th Indiana; Lieutenant Terrence Reilly of the Horse
+Artillery, all won distinction in the Shenandoah Valley. Such splendid
+fighters as General James R. O'Beirne, Colonel Guiney, Colonel
+Cavanagh, Colonel John P. Byron, Colonel Patrick Gleason, General
+Denis F. Burke, wrote their names red over a score of battle fields,
+but one cannot hope to cover more than a fraction of the brilliant men
+of Irish blood who led and bled in the long, hard, and strenuous
+struggle. The 69th New York Regiment was the mother of a dozen Irish
+regiments, including the Irish Brigade of Meagher and the Corcoran
+Legion. The 9th, 28th, and 29th regiments of Massachusetts were all
+Irish. A gallant Irishman, born at Fermoy, was Brigadier-General
+Thomas Smyth, who made a name and died in the battles around Richmond.
+There was not a regiment from the middle western and western States
+that did not hold its quota of Irishmen and sons of the Irish. After
+the names of Porter and Farragut in the Navy stands next highest in
+honor that of Vice-Admiral Stephen C. Rowan, born in Dublin, of the
+famous family that produced Hamilton Rowan, one of the foremost of the
+United Irishmen. It was the son of the vice-admiral, a lieutenant in
+the army, who carried "the message to Garcia" from the United States
+War Department to the Cuban commander in the eastern jungle of Cuba,
+before the outbreak of the war with Spain, and did it so well and
+bravely through such difficulties and dangers that his name will stand
+for "the faithful messenger" forever.</p>
+
+<p>As a consequence of their stand with the American people in the
+Civil War, the position of the whole mass of the Irish and
+Irish-American people was vastly uplifted in American eyes. The
+unlettered poverty of scores of thousands of Irish immigrants, who
+came in multitudes from 1846 on, had made an unfavorable and false
+impression; their red blood on the battle field washed it out.</p>
+
+<p>On the southern side as well, Irish valor shone. While the great
+flood of the mid-century Irish immigration had spread itself mainly
+north, east, and west, the larger cities of the South also received a
+share. The slave system precluded the entry of free labor into the
+cotton, corn, lumber, and sugar lands of the South, but such cities as
+New Orleans, Mobile, Charleston, Savannah, Vicksburg, and Richmond
+gave varied employment to many of the Irish who made their homes in
+the Southland, and so they came to furnish thousands of recruits to
+the local Confederate levies. The "Louisiana Tigers", who fought so
+valiantly at Gettysburg on the Southern side, included many Irish. The
+Georgia brigade, that held the Confederate line atop of Marye's
+Heights at Fredericksburg, up which the Irish brigade so heroically
+charged, had whole companies of Irish. There were scores of Irish in
+many of the regiments that made Pickett's memorable charge at
+Gettysburg. All through the Confederate armies were valiant
+descendants of the earlier Irish immigration that settled the uplands
+of the Carolinas and Virginia and the blue grass region of Kentucky.
+Most famous, most glorious of these was "Stonewall"
+Jackson&mdash;Lieutenant-General Thomas Jonathan Jackson&mdash;next to
+Robert E. Lee the greatest soldier on the southern side. No more
+splendid soldier-figure rises out of the contest. Educated at West
+Point, serving in Mexico, then a professor of philosophy&mdash;and
+artillery&mdash;next a volunteer with his State when Virginia took
+arms against the Union, his long and brilliant service included a
+large share in the victories at Bull Run, Gaines Mill, Malvern Hill,
+Cedar Mountain, Harper's Ferry, Antietam, Fredericksburg, and
+Chancellorsville, where he was accidentally wounded by his own men. He
+was once defeated by General Shields, as has been noted. The piety and
+purity of his life belie the supposed necessity for the coarser traits
+that are thought to go with the terrible trade. General Patrick R.
+Cleburne was born in 1828, near Cork, Ireland. He was in the English
+army three years, and, coming to the United States, became a lawyer at
+Helena, Ark. He enlisted in the Confederate army as a private, rose
+rapidly to the command of a brigade, and made a great name at Shiloh.
+As major-general he led divisions at Murfreesboro and Chickamauga, and
+was thanked by the Confederate Congress. He fell at the battle of
+Franklin&mdash;a soldier of commanding presence, skill, and daring,
+beloved by the whole Army of the West. The gallant colonel Thomas
+Claiborne was a striking cavalryman. It was Lieutenant Thomas A.
+Claiborne of the 1st South Carolina who, with Corporal B. Brannan,
+lashed the broken flagstaff on Fort Sumter in June, 1864, when, under
+a withering fire, the flag of the Confederacy had been shot away. The
+fighting of Major-General Gary of South Carolina around Richmond was
+desperate. He was the last to leave the city when it fell, as told by
+Captain Sullivan: "He galloped at night through the burning city, and
+at the bridge over the James cried out, 'We are the rear guard. It is
+all over; blow the bridge to h&mdash;l!' and went on into the
+night"</p>
+
+<p>The story of the Civil War is a mine of honor to the Irish, and
+Irishmen should set it forth at length. Here it can be merely glanced
+at.</p>
+
+<p>The war of 1898 with Spain&mdash;that great patriotic
+efflorescence&mdash;was brief in its campaigning. Immediately provoked
+by the blowing up of the U.S.S. <i>Maine</i> in Havana harbor on
+February 15, war was declared on April 19. Admiral Dewey sank the
+Spanish fleet in Manila Harbor, May 1. The first troops landed on
+Cuban soil June 1. The first&mdash;and last&mdash;real land battle
+before Santiago occurred on July 1-2, with 13,500 troops on the
+American side against an available Spanish force somewhat less in
+number, but holding strongly fortified and entrenched positions around
+the town. The advance and charges uphill necessary to capture El Caney
+and the steep heights of San Juan called for desperate courage. It was
+there, however, and the Irish in the army exhibited dash and
+persistence, as duty demanded. In the second day's fighting the
+Spanish assaults on the American positions were repelled, and the land
+fighting was over. The Americans in the two days lost over 10 per cent
+killed and wounded. The destruction of Cervera's fleet on its attempt
+to escape from Santiago on July 3 ended the struggle. With the
+regiment of Rough Riders, under Theodore Roosevelt&mdash;who says he
+reckons "an O'Brien, a Redmond, and a man from Ulster" among his
+for-bears&mdash;were many gallant Irishmen&mdash;Kellys, Murphys,
+Burkes, and Doyles, for instance. His favorite captain, "Bucky"
+O'Neill of Arizona, fell at the foot of San Juan. The white regiments
+of the regular army had their quota of Irish, as had most of the
+volunteers. The 9th Massachusetts was all Irish. The 69th New York,
+all Irish, never reached the front in the war, but shared the fate of
+the 150,000 troops cantoned through the Southern States, their only
+effective enemies being dysentery, typhoid, and malaria.</p>
+
+<p>A little splash of Irish blood came with the Fenian dash into
+Canada on June 1, 1866. There had been active preparations for a real
+invasion by some 50,000 Irish-born or Irish-fathered soldiers who had
+served in the Civil War. The American government, using its army
+force, intervened to prevent the bellicose movement, not, however,
+before Colonel John O'Neill, who had served in the cavalry with
+Sherman on his march to the sea, with Captain Starr, one of
+Kilpatrick's cavalry, Captain O'Brien, and about 700 well-armed men,
+all Civil War veterans, had slipped across the Niagara River at Fort
+Erie. They made short work of all in sight, threw out a couple of
+hundred men who burned a bridge and tore up the railroad tracks. Their
+scouts fired on a small British detachment, which ran. On the morning
+of June 2 news came of a larger Canadian force advancing, and O'Neill
+went out to meet them. Deploying his men in a field near the high road
+at a place called Ridgway, he sent his pickets forward. They found
+heavy ground in front and about three-quarters of a mile away some
+1,400 men of the "Queen's Own" of Toronto and the Hamilton Volunteers
+advancing rapidly in line. O'Neill, after a few rounds, withdrew his
+pickets, and the Canadians, taking the movement for flight, came
+briskly on. As soon as they were clear of cover, O'Neill, firing a
+volley, gave orders for a charge. At it they went with a cheer, and
+the whole Canadian line gave way. They ran as fast as their legs could
+carry them, leaving some fifty killed and wounded. After chasing them
+for two miles, O'Neill halted his men and brought them back to Fort
+Erie, where they intrenched. The Canadians did not stop until they
+reached Colburne, eighteen miles away. The Fenian loss was
+twenty-five. In the night O'Neill learned that no help was coming from
+the United States' side, while news reached him that a force of 5,000
+Canadian and British regulars was advancing on Fort Erie. Accordingly,
+at 2 a.m. on June 3, he surrendered to the United States forces with
+400 of his men, who were detained for a few days on the U.S.S.
+<i>Michigan</i> and then let go. The balance of his force, about 250
+men, escaped in groups across the river. There was another little
+victorious skirmish with the Canadians lower down under Captain Spear,
+who also slipped back over the border unpursued. What fighting took
+place was workmanlike and creditable.</p>
+
+<p>There was a flicker of Irish fighting spirit in the Boer War. Many
+thousands, no doubt, were in the English army of 250,000 men brought
+against the 30,000 Boers, but there was a small "Irish Brigade" that
+fought on the Boer side, and was notably engaged at Spion Kop, where
+the English were driven so sweepingly from their position by desperate
+charges.</p>
+
+<p>In the War of 1870, between France and Prussia, the good wishes of
+the Irish went with France, for the sake of the old friendship,
+largely helped, no doubt, by the fact that at the summit of army
+command was Marshal MacMahon, a descendant of a warrior of the old
+Irish Brigade. His service in Algiers; his skill and daring in the
+Crimean War before Sebastopol, where he led the division which stormed
+the Malakoff; his victories in the Italian War of 1859 against
+Austria, including the great battle of Magenta, all made him a
+striking, romantic figure. He failed in 1870 against the Prussians at
+Worth, and was made prisoner with his army at Sedan, but he suppressed
+the Commune after the war and was President of France from 1873 to
+1879. The device by which 300 Irishmen took part on the French side in
+the war with Germany has a grim humor. They went as aides in an
+ambulance corps fitted out in Dublin by subscription, but, once on
+French soil, enlisted in the army. "Maybe we can kill as well as we
+can cure," said one of them. The <i>Compagnie irlandaise</i>, as it
+was called, did creditable work, and was in the last combat with the
+Prussians at Montbellard. Their captain, M.W. Kirwan, was offered a
+Cross of the Legion of Honor, but for some reason declined it. Dr.
+Constantine J. McGuire, who won the decoration for bravery before
+Paris during the siege of the Commune, did, however, accept it,
+receiving the cross from the hands of Marshal MacMahon, and, hale and
+hearty, wears the red ribbon on occasion in New York today.</p>
+
+<p>Even as this chronicle of daring deeds and daring doers is being
+penned, in the ranks and as commanding officers on the side of the
+allies in the far-flung battle lines of the great European war, are
+men of Irish birth, and, let it not be forgotten, not a few of the
+opposing side are the descendants of the Irish military geniuses who,
+in days gone by, fought so gallantly across the continent "from
+Dunkirk to Belgrade". They are all, every man of them, bearing
+bravely, as of yore, their own part amid the dangers and chances of
+the fray.</p>
+
+<p>If the inspiring story is of necessity here barely sketched in
+outline, it nevertheless clearly indicates that, as it has been for
+two thousand years of Irish history, so it will be to the end of the
+human chapter&mdash;the Irish race is the Fighting Race, and willing,
+even eager, to risk life itself for vital issues.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Keating's, MacGeoghegan's, Mitchel's Histories of Ireland; J.C.
+O'Callaghan: The Irish Brigades in the Service of France, The Green
+Book; Lossing: Field Book of the Revolution, Field Book of the War of
+1812; Several Mexican War Histories; Battles and Leaders of the Civil
+War; The Irish at Home and Abroad (New York, 1856); Canon O'Hanlon:
+Irish-American History of the United States; O'Hart; Irish Pedigrees;
+Martin I. Griffin: Life of Commodore Barry; John D. Crimmins: Irish
+Miscellany; Joseph Denieffe: Fenian Recollections; Plowden: Historical
+Review of the State of Ireland (London, 1803); Hays: History of the
+Irish (1798) Rebellion; Macaulay: History of England; J. R. Young:
+Around the World with General Grant; several valuable articles and
+records of research by Michael J. O'Brien of New York.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T15"></a>THE SORROWS OF IRELAND</h2>
+<h4>By JOHN JEROME ROONEY, A.M., LL.D.</h4>
+
+<p>"The sorrows of Ireland"! What a vision of woe the words conjure
+up. The late Goldwin Smith, himself an Englishman and a Unionist, in
+his <i>Irish History and the Irish Question</i>, finds that "of all
+histories, the history of Ireland is the saddest. For nearly seven
+centuries it was a course of strife between races, bloodshed,
+massacre, misgovernment, civil war, oppression, and misery."</p>
+
+<p>The first of the great scourges of Erin was the coming of the
+Danes, the bloodthirsty and conquest-loving Vikings of the North, the
+worshipers of Thor and Odin, the gods of thunder and of strife. These
+warriors, in never-ending invasions, had for four hundred years
+overrun Britain and finally conquered the northern provinces of Gaul.
+Until the end of the eighth century Ireland had been free from the
+Scandinavian scourge. About this time the invaders made lodgments
+along the caasts, passed inward through the island, burned and looted
+religious houses and schools of learning, levied tribute upon the
+inhabitants, and at length established themselves firmly at Limerick,
+Waterford, Dublin, Wexford, and Carlingford. Fortified towns were
+built, trading communications with Britain and the continent were set
+up, and the Northman, though not in actual possession of the interior
+of the island, was apparently in substantial control of its destinies.
+Brian Borumha, or Boru, brother of the king of Munster, of the
+Dalcassian race of O'Brien, refused to submit, roused his brother,
+fought the Danes of Limerick at Sulchoid (A.D. 968), and captured
+Limerick. Brian later succeeded his brother, became sovereign of all
+Ireland (A.D. 1001), and, on Good Friday, A.D. 1014, joined battle
+with the Danes upon the famous field of Clontarf. Here the power of
+the Northmen was forever broken, Brian falling at the moment of
+victory, while in his tent, by the hand of a fugitive Dane.</p>
+
+<p>With the death of Brian the united government dissolved. The
+provincial kings, or princes, resumed separate authority and a
+struggle arose among them, with varying success, for the national
+sovereignty. The central government never had been strong, as the
+nation was organized on a tribal or family basis. In this weakened
+condition Dermot MacMurrough, king of Leinster, abducted the wife of
+O'Rourke, prince of Breffni, while the latter was on a pilgrimage.
+MacMurrough was compelled to fly to England. He sought the protection
+of the Angevin English king, Henry Plantagenet. As a result of this
+appeal, a small expedition, headed by Strongbow (A.D. 1169), was sent
+to Ireland, and Waterford, Wexford, and Dublin were taken. Then came
+Henry himself, in 1171, with a fleet of 240 ships, 400 knights, and
+4,000 men, landing at Waterford. This expedition was the beginning of
+the English attempted conquest of Ireland&mdash;a proceeding that,
+through all the ruin and bloodshed of 800 years, is not yet
+accomplished. Henry's first act was to introduce the feudal system
+into that southern half of the island which he controlled; he seized
+great tracts of land, which he in turn granted to his followers under
+feudal customs; he introduced the offices of the English feudal system
+and the English laws, and placed his followers in all the positions of
+power, holding their lands and authority under the feudal conditions
+of rendering him homage and military service.</p>
+
+<p>This was the root of the alien "landlordism" and foreign political
+control of future times which became the chief curses of Ireland, the
+prolific source of innumerable woes. The succeeding years till the
+reign of Henry VIII. witnessed the extension, and at times the
+decline, of the Anglo-Norman rule. When Henry VII. became king of
+England the Anglo-Norman colony or "Pale" had shrunk to two counties
+and a half around Dublin, defended by a ditch. Many of the original
+Norman knights had become "more Irish than the Irish themselves." Such
+was the great family of the Geraldines or Fitzgerald&mdash;the most
+powerful, with the O'Neills of the North, in Ireland. A united attack
+at this time would most certainly have driven out the invader; for it
+must be remembered that Dublin, the "Pale"&mdash;"the Castle
+government" of later times&mdash;was the citadel of the English
+foreign power, and before a united nation would most certainly have
+succumbed.</p>
+
+<p>When Henry VIII. ascended the throne of England, the policy of
+peace in Ireland was continued during the early portion of his reign.
+Then came Henry's break with the Pope over the royal divorce. The
+Irish beyond the Pale, and many within it, were loyal to the Church of
+their fathers, to the faith of Patrick, the faith of the Roman See. To
+Henry and his daughter Elizabeth, the daughter of Anne Boleyn, who
+displaced Henry's lawful wife, this was treason. Henceforth, to the
+bitterness of race hatred and the pride of the conqueror were to be
+added the blackest of religious feuds, the most cruel of religious
+persecutions in the history of the world. Again let Goldwin Smith, the
+English Unionist, describe the result: "Of all the wars waged by a
+civilized on a barbarous <i>(sic)</i> and despised race these wars
+waged by the English on the Irish seem to have been the most hideous.
+No quarter was given by the invader to man, woman, or child. The
+butchering of women and children is repeatedly and brutally avowed.
+Nothing can be more horrible than the cool satisfaction with which
+English commanders report their massacres." Famine was deliberately
+added to the other horrors. What was called law was more cruel than
+war: it was death without the opportunity for defense and with the
+hypocrisy of the forms of justice added.</p>
+
+<p>Out of this situation came the infamous Penal Code, which, by the
+period of William the Third, about 1692, became a finished system.
+This is the "Irish Code" of which Lord Brougham said: "It was so
+ingeniously contrived that an Irish Catholic could not lift his hand
+without breaking it." And Edmund Burke said: "The wit of man never
+devised a machine to disgrace a realm or destroy a kingdom so perfect
+as this." Montesquieu, the great French jurist-philosopher, the author
+of the epoch-making <i>Spirit of the Laws</i>, commented: "It must
+have been contrived by devils; it ought to have been written in blood;
+and the only place to register it is in hell." Yet for two hundred
+years this code of death, national and individual, was the supreme law
+of Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>Wendell Phillips, the great American orator, in his lecture on
+"Daniel O'Connell," summed up this Penal Code in words that will not
+soon be forgotten by the world. His reference to Mr. Froude is to
+James Anthony Froude, the English historian. He says:</p>
+
+<p>"You know that, under it, an Irish Catholic could not sit in the
+House of Commons; he could not hold any commission from the Crown,
+either civil or military; he could be a common soldier&mdash;nothing
+more. He could neither vote, nor sit on a jury, nor stand on a witness
+stand, nor bring a suit, nor be a doctor, nor be a lawyer, nor travel
+five miles from his own home without a permit from a justice of the
+peace. The nearest approach that ever was made to him was a South
+Carolina negro before the war. He had no rights that a Protestant
+needed to respect. If he was a land-holder, if all his children were
+Catholics, he was obliged to divide the land equally between them.
+This was the English plan for eliminating the Catholic tenure of the
+land and letting it slip out of their hands. Then, if any of the
+children, during their father's life, concluded to become Protestants,
+in such case they took the whole estate; or, indeed, they might compel
+the father to put his estate in trust for their benefit. So, if the
+Catholic wife would not go to an Episcopalian church once a
+month&mdash;which she deemed it a sin to do&mdash;she forfeited her
+dower. But if she went regularly, she could have all the estate. If a
+Catholic had a lease, and it rose one-quarter in value, any Protestant
+could take it from him by bringing that fact to the notice of a
+justice of the peace. Three justices of the peace might summon any
+Catholic before them, and oblige him to give up his faith, or quit the
+realm. Four justices could oblige him to abjure his faith or sell his
+estates. If a Protestant paid one dollar tax, the Catholic paid two.
+If a Protestant lost a ship, when at war with a Catholic
+power&mdash;and at the time there was only <i>one</i> Protestant power
+in Europe, besides Great Britain; that was Holland: so that the
+chances were nine to one that, in case of war, Great Britain would be
+at war with a Catholic power&mdash;in such a case, if a Protestant
+lost a ship, he went home and assessed the value on his Catholic
+neighbors, and was reimbursed. So, of education. We fret a great deal
+on account of a class of Irishmen who come to our shores and are
+lacking in education, in culture, and refinement. But you must
+remember the bad laws, you must remember the malignant legislation,
+that sentenced them to a life of ignorance, and made education a
+felony in Catholic Ireland. If an Irishman sent his child to a
+Protestant schoolmaster, all right; but if the parent would not do so,
+and sent him to a Catholic school, the father was fined ten pounds a
+week; and the schoolmaster was fined five pounds a week; and for the
+third offense he was hung! But, if the father determined that his
+child should be educated, and sent him across the Channel to France,
+the boy forfeited his citizenship and became an alien; and, if
+discovered, the father was fined one hundred pounds; and anybody,
+except the father, who harbored him, forfeited all civil
+rights&mdash;that is, he could not sue in a court of law, nor could he
+vote. Indeed, a Catholic could not marry! If he married a Protestant,
+the marriage was void; the children were illegitimate. And, if one
+Catholic married another, it required the presence of a priest, and if
+a priest landed in Ireland for twenty minutes, it was death! To this
+ferocious 'Code', Sir Robert Peel, in our own day, added the climax,
+that no Catholic should quit his dwelling between the hours of sunset
+and sunrise, an exaggeration of the 'Curfew Law' of William the
+Conqueror. Now, you will hardly believe that this was enacted as a
+law. But Mr. Froude alludes to this code. Yes; he was very honest; he
+would paint England as black as she deserved. He said of Queen
+Elizabeth that she failed in her duty as a magistrate; she failed
+towards Ireland in her capability of being a great ruler. And then he
+proceeded, after passing sentence, to give us the history of her
+reign, and showed that, in very many cases, she could not have done
+any different. For instance&mdash;oh! it is the saddest, blackest,
+most horrible statement of all history; it makes you doubt the very
+possibility of human nature&mdash;when you read that Spenser, the
+poet, who had the most ardent, most perfect ideas in English
+poetry&mdash;Spenser sat at the council board that ordered the
+wholesale butchery of a Spanish regiment captured in Ireland, and, to
+execute the order, he chose Sir Walter Raleigh, the scholar, the
+gentleman, the poet, the author, and the most splendid Englishman of
+his age! And Norris, a captain under Sidney, in whose veins flowed the
+blood of Sir Philip, writing home to Elizabeth, begs and persuades her
+to believe in O'Neill's crimes, and asks for leave to send a hired man
+to poison him! And the Virgin Queen makes no objection! Mr. Froude
+quotes a letter from Captain Norris, in which he states that he found
+himself in an island where five hundred Irish (all women and children;
+not a man among them) had taken refuge from the war; and he
+deliberately butchered every living soul! And Queen Elizabeth, in a
+letter still extant, answers by saying: 'Tell my good servant that I
+will not forget his good services.' He tells us that 'The English
+nobility and gentry would take a gun as unhesitatingly as a fowler,
+and go out to shoot an Irishman as an Indian would a buffalo.' Then he
+tells us, with amazement, that you never could make an Irishman
+respect an Englishman! He points to some unhappy Kildare, the sole
+relic of a noble house, whose four uncles were slaughtered in cold
+blood&mdash;that is the only word for this kind of execution,
+<i>slaughtered</i>&mdash;and he, left alone, a boy, grows up
+characterless and kills an archbishop. Every impetuous, impatient act
+is dragged before the prejudiced mind. But when Mr. Froude is painting
+Sir Walter and Spenser, blind no longer, he says: 'I regret&mdash;it
+is very sad to think&mdash;that such things should ever have
+been!'"</p>
+
+<p>Such was the cup from which Ireland drank even into the days of men
+now living. Nor was this all. The rise of English manufactures brought
+a new chapter of woes to Ireland. The Irish cattle trade had been
+killed by an Act of Charles II. for the benefit of English farmers.
+The Irish then took up the raising of wool and woolen manufactures. A
+flourishing trade grew up. An English law destroyed it. In succession
+the same greed killed the cotton, the glovemaking, the glassmaking,
+and the brewing trades. These were reserved for the English maker and
+merchant. These crimes upon Irish industry surpassed a thousand-fold
+the later English attempts upon the industries of the American
+colonies.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Code, and through the extreme poverty produced thereby,
+substantially all the land of Ireland passed out of the hands of the
+people. They became mere serfs upon the soil. Their tribute was paid
+through a rapacious agent to a foreign landlord. The improvement of
+the land by the labor of the tenant brought increase of rent. There
+was no fixity of tenure of the land. It was held at the will of the
+agent, reflecting the rapacity of the non-resident landlord. Upon
+these holdings the principal crop was the potato. A failure of this
+crop was a failure to pay rent, eviction on the roadside, and
+starvation. The results, after the enactment of the Penal Code, and
+during the greater part of the eighteenth century, are thus described
+by Goldwin Smith: "On such a scene of misery as the abodes of the
+Irish cotters the sun has rarely looked down. Their homes were the
+most miserable hovels, chimneyless, filthy. Of decent clothing they
+were destitute. Their food was the potato; sometimes they bled their
+cattle and mixed the blood with sorrel. The old and sick were
+everywhere dying by cold and hunger, and rotting amidst filth and
+vermin. When the potato failed, as it often did, came famine, with
+disease in its train. Want and misery were in every face, the roads
+were spread with dead and dying, there was sometimes none to bear the
+dead to the grave, and they were buried in the fields and ditches
+where they perished. Fluxes and malignant fevers followed, laying
+these villages waste. 'I have seen,' says a contemporaneous witness,
+'the laborer endeavoring to work at his spade, but fainting for want
+of food and forced to quit it. I have seen the helpless orphan exposed
+on the dunghill, and none to take him in for fear of infection. And I
+have seen the hungry infant sucking at the breast of the already
+expired parent.'"</p>
+
+<p>All these are not only the horrors of a hundred or two hundred
+years ago; they were repeated in ten thousand forms in the awful
+famine days of 1847. In 1841 the population of Ireland was 8,796,545
+persons. In 1851, after four years of famine, the population was
+6,551,970, leaving 2,244,575 persons to be accounted for, and taking
+no account of the natural increase of the population during the ten
+years. Not less than a million and a half of these died of starvation
+and the fevers brought on by famine. The remainder emigrated to
+foreign lands.</p>
+
+<p>In this account of the Sorrows of Ireland nothing has been said of
+the vast emigrations, thousands upon thousands of persons in the
+seventeenth and eighteenth centuries leaving Ireland under forced
+deportations, in a practical selling into slavery. The sum total of
+this loss to Ireland cannot be less than 5,000,000 souls. The earlier
+deportations were carried out under the most atrocious circumstances.
+Families were broken up and scattered to distant and separate
+colonies, such as Barbados, the New England States, and later to the
+South Pacific.</p>
+
+<p>This is but a glance at some of the wrongs to Ireland's religious,
+intellectual, and material welfare, wrongs that have plunged her into
+an age-long poverty. But one of the greatest of all her sorrows has
+been the denial of her national life, the attempt to strangle her
+rightful aspirations as a free people. Her autonomy was taken from
+her; her smallest legislative act was the act of a stranger; in fine,
+every mark of political slavery was put upon her. A foreign soldiery
+was, and still is, quartered upon her soil. The control of her
+revenues, of the system of taxation, was wrested from her. These
+became the function of a hateful resident oligarchy, alien in
+everything to the Irish people, and of the English parliament, to
+which she was not admitted until the days of Daniel O'Connell. And
+then she was admitted only through fear of revolution.</p>
+
+<p>The dawn has come. The dark night is almost past; the heroic
+struggle of Ireland is about to close in triumph. Her loyalty to her
+ideals of freedom and religion is to meet its reward. The epitaph of
+Robert Emmet will soon be written, for at last Ireland is certain of
+"taking her place among the nations of the earth."</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>D'Alton: History of Ireland; J.P. Prendergast: Cromwellian
+Settlement; Barrington: Rise and Fall of the Irish Nation; McNevin:
+Confiscation of Ulster; R.R. Madden: History of the Penal Laws;
+Murphy: Cromwell in Ireland; T.A. Emmet: Ireland under English Rule, 2
+vols.; Mrs. J.R. Green: Irish Nationality; Walpole: A Short History of
+the Kingdom of Ireland; A.M. Sullivan: Story of Ireland; Thomas Moore:
+History of Ireland; Edmund Spenser: View of the State of Ireland; C.
+Gavan Duffy: Four Years of Irish History, 1845-49; Isaac Butt: Land
+Tenure in Ireland; Justin McCarthy: History of our own Times; Johnston
+and Spencer: Ireland's Story; MacGeoghegan's History of Ireland and
+its continuation by John Mitchel; William Sampson: Memoirs of an Irish
+Exile, 1832; John Curry: A Historical and Critical Review of the Civil
+Wars in Ireland (1775); John Boyle: The Battlefields of Ireland
+(1879); Speeches of Edmund Burke, Daniel O'Connell, Henry Grattan;
+Wendell Phillips's Speech on Daniel O'Connell; Father Tom Burke:
+Lectures on Ireland.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T16"></a>IRISH LEADERS</h2>
+<h4>By SHANE LESLIE.</h4>
+
+<p>Irish leaders have proved far-famed but not long-lived. Their short
+and strenuous careers have burnt out in their prime, and their ends
+have been such as attend conflagrations. More often they have left a
+pall than a light in the heavens, for the most brilliant lives in
+Irish history have led to the most tragic deaths. The Destiny which
+allotted them impossible tasks has given them immortality on the
+scenes of their glorious failure.</p>
+
+<p>They differ from leaders of other countries, who divide the average
+pittances of success or ill success on the road to honored retirement.
+Few of the heroes among modern nations have left such vivid and
+lasting memory as "the strong men of Ireland." During the nineteenth
+century their lore and cult have traversed the whole world in the wake
+of the great emigrations. Whether they failed or succeeded in wresting
+the independence and ideals of Ireland for a while from the fell
+clutch of circumstance, they live with their race forever.</p>
+
+<p>Under Plantagenet and Tudor rule, the Irish leaders presented a
+sullen but armed resistance. A never completed invasion was met by
+sporadic raids and successive risings. A race of military outlaws was
+fashioned, which accounts for much in Irish character today.
+Previously the Irish, like all Celtic civilization, was founded on the
+arts, on speech, and on law, rather than on war and feudalism.</p>
+
+<p>Even Irish militancy was crushed in the Williamite wars, and the
+race, deprived of its original subsistence as well as of its acquired
+defense, sank into the stupor of penal times. Those who should have
+been leaders of Ireland became marshals of Austria and France.</p>
+
+<p>Gradually it was learnt that the pen is mightier than the sword and
+the human voice more potent than the sound of cannon&mdash;and the
+constitutional struggle developed, not without relapse and reverse. To
+Dean Swift must be attributed the change in the national weapon and
+the initiation of a leadership of resistance within the law, which has
+lasted into modern times. Accident made Swift an Irishman, and a
+chance attempt to circulate debased coins in Ireland for the benefit
+of a debased but royal favorite made him a patriot. Swift drove out
+Wood's halfpence at the pen-point. He shamed the government, he
+checked the all-powerful Walpole, and he roused the manhood of Ireland
+towards independence in legislation. He never realized what a position
+history would give him. To himself he seemed a gloomy failure, to his
+contemporaries a popular pamphleteer, but to posterity he is the
+creator of public conscience in Ireland. He was the father of
+patriotic journalism, and the first to defend Ireland's rights through
+literature. Though his popularity was quenched in lunacy, his impress
+upon Irish politics remains as powerful and lasting as upon English
+literature.</p>
+
+<p>Within the so-called Irish parliament sprang forth the first of a
+long line of orators, Henry Flood. He was the first to study the
+Constitution for purposes of opposition. He attacked vice-regal
+government in its own audit-house. Pension and corruption he laid
+bare, and upon the people he breathed a spirit of independence.
+Unfortunately he was not content with personal prominence. He accepted
+office, hoping thereby to benefit Ireland. His voice became lost to
+the higher cause, and another man rose in his stead, Henry Grattan.
+The American war tested the rival champions of Liberty. Flood favored
+sending Irish troops, "armed negotiators" he called them, to deal with
+the revolted colonists. Grattan nobly reviled him for
+standing&mdash;"with a metaphor in his mouth and a bribe in his
+pocket, a champion against the rights of America, the only hope of
+Ireland and the only refuge of the liberties of mankind." Flood
+collapsed under his ignoble honors. He was not restored by returning
+to patriotic opposition. Grattan's leadership proved permanent
+politically and historically. His name connotes the high water-mark of
+Irish statesmanship. The parliament which he created and whose rights
+he defined became a standard, and his name a talisman and a challenge
+to succeeding generations. The comparative oratory of Grattan and
+Flood is still debated. Both after a manner were unique and
+unsurpassed. Flood possessed staying power in sheer invective and
+sustained reasoning. Grattan was fluent in epigram and most inspiring
+when condensed, and he had an immense moral advantage. The parliament
+which made him a grant was independent, but it was from one of
+subservience that Flood drew his salary. Henceforth Grattan was
+haunted by the jealous and discredited herald of himself. A great
+genius, Flood lacked the keen judgment and careless magnanimity
+without which leadership in Ireland brings misunderstanding and
+disaster. In the English House he achieved total failure. Grattan
+followed him after the Union, but retained the attention if not the
+power of Dublin days. Neither influenced English affairs, and their
+eloquence curiously was considered cold and sententious. Their
+rhapsody appeared artificial, and their exposition labored. The
+failure of these men was no stigma. What is called "Irish oratory"
+arose with the inclusion of the Celtic under strata in politics.</p>
+
+<p>Burke's speeches were delivered to an empty house. Though he lived
+out of Ireland and never became an Irish leader in Ireland, Burke had
+an influence in England greater than that of any Irishman before or
+since. The beauty and diction of his speech fostered future
+parliamentary speaking. Macaulay, Gladstone, Peel, and Brougham were
+suckled on him. His farthest reaching achievement was his treatment of
+the French Revolution. His single voice rolled back that storm in
+Europe. But no words could retard revolution in Ireland herself. Venal
+government made the noblest conservative thinking seem treason to the
+highest interests of the country. The temporary success of Grattan's
+parliament had been largely won by the Volunteers. They had been
+drilled, ostensibly against foreign invasion, but virtually to secure
+reforms at home. Their power became one with which England had to
+reckon, and which she never forgave. Lord Charlemont, their president,
+was an estimable country gentleman, but not a national leader. A more
+dashing figure appeared in the singular Earl of Bristol. Though an
+Irish bishop and an English peer, he set himself in the front rank of
+the movement, assuming with general consent the demeanor and trappings
+of royalty. He would not have hesitated to plunge Ireland into war,
+had he obtained Charlemont's position. But it was not so fated.</p>
+
+<p>After forcing parliamentary independence the Volunteers meekly
+disbanded, and the United Irishmen took their place. The brilliancy of
+Grattan's parliament never fulfilled national aspirations. Bristol was
+succeeded by another recruit from the aristocracy&mdash;Lord Edward
+Fitzgerald. With Wolfe Tone and Robert Emmet he has become legendary.
+All three attained popular canonization, for all three sealed their
+brief leadership with death.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Edward was a dreamer, an Irish Bayard, too chivalrous to
+conspire successfully and too frankly courageous to match a government
+of guile. Tone was far more dangerous. He realized that foreign
+invasion was necessary to successful rebellion, and he allowed no
+scruple or obstacle in his path. He washed his hands of law and
+politics entirely. To divert Napoleon to Ireland was his object and
+the total separation of Ireland his ambition. The United Irishmen
+favored the invasion, which the Volunteers had been formed to repel.
+The feud between moral and physical force broke out. The failure of
+the sterner policy in 1798 did not daunt Emmet from his ill-starred
+attempt in 1803. He combined Lord Edward's chivalry with some
+abilities worthy of Tone, but he failed. The failure he redeemed by a
+swan-song from the dock and a demeanor on the scaffold which have
+become part of Irish tradition.</p>
+
+<p>After the Union, Irish leaders sprang up in the English House,
+which Pitt had unwittingly made the cockpit of the racial struggle.
+Far from absorbing the Irish element, the Commons found themselves
+forced to resist, rally, and finally succumb.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish House cannot be dismissed without mention of Curran. He
+was a brilliant enemy of corruption and servility. O'Connell said
+"there was never so honest an Irishman," which may account for his
+greater success as a lawyer than a politician. To be an Irish leader
+and a successful lawyer is given to no man. For the former the
+sacrifice of a great career is needed. This sacrifice Daniel O'Connell
+was prepared to make. His place in history will never be estimated,
+for few have been so loved or hated, or for stronger reasons. Never
+did a tribune rising to power lift his people to such sudden hope and
+success. Never did a champion leave his followers at his death and
+decline to more terrible despair. Friend and foe admit his immensity.
+He was the greatest Irishman that ever lived or seemingly could live.
+In his own person he contained the whole genius of the Celt. Ireland
+could not hold his emotions, which overflowed into the world for
+expression. He rose on the crest of a religious agitation, but,
+Emancipation won, he had the foresight to associate the Irish cause
+with the advent of Reform and Liberalism throughout Europe. He sounded
+the notes of free-trade and anti-slavery. What he said in parliament
+one day, Ireland re-echoed the next. To her he was all in all, her
+hero and her prophet, her Messias and her strong deliverer. On the
+continent he roughly personified Christian Democracy.</p>
+
+<p>In public oratory O'Connell introduced a new style. Torrential and
+overwhelming as Flood and Grattan had never been, he proved more
+successful if less polished. The exaggerations of Gaelic speech found
+outburst in his English. Peel's smile was "the silver plate on a
+coffin", Wellington "a stunted corporal", and Disraeli "the lineal
+descendant of the impenitent thief."</p>
+
+<p>It sounds bombastic, but in those feudal forties it rang more
+magnificent than war. Single-voiced he overawed the host of bigots,
+dullards, and reactionaries. Unhappily, he let his people abandon
+their native tongue, while teaching them how to balance the rival
+parties in England, the latter a policy that has proved Ireland's
+fortune since. He loosed the spirit of sectarianism in the tithe war,
+and he crushed the Young Ireland movement, which bred Fenianism in its
+death agony. But he made the Catholic a citizen. Results stupendous as
+far-reaching sprang from his steps every way.</p>
+
+<p>The finest pen-sketch of O'Connell is by Mitchel, who says,
+"besides superhuman and subterhuman passions, yet withal, a boundless
+fund of masterly affectation and consummate histrionism, hating and
+loving heartily, outrageous in his merriment and passionate in his
+lamentation, he had the power to make other men hate or love, laugh or
+weep, at his good pleasure."</p>
+
+<p>Yet during his lifetime there lived others worthy of national
+leadership. O'Brien, Duffy, and Davis played their part in England as
+well as in Ireland. Father Mathew founded the Temperance, as Feargus
+O'Conor the Chartist, movement. And there was an orator who fascinated
+Gladstone&mdash;Sheil.</p>
+
+<p>Father Mathew succeeded in keeping many millions of men sober
+during the forties until the great Famine engulfed his work as it did
+O'Connell's. To him is due, as a feature of Irish life, the brass band
+with banners, which he originally organized as a
+counter-intoxicant.</p>
+
+<p>Feargus O'Conor founded Radical Socialism in England. As the Lion
+of Freedom, he enjoyed a popularity with English workmen approaching
+that of O'Connell in Ireland. He ended in lunacy, but he had the
+credit of forwarding peasant proprietorship far in advance of his
+times.</p>
+
+<p>Sheil was a tragic orator&mdash;"an iambic rhapsodist", O'Connell
+called him&mdash;who might have been leader, did not a greater
+tragedian occupy the stage. And Sheil was content to be O'Connell's
+organizer. Without O'Connell's voice or presence, he was his
+rhetorical superior, excelling in irony and the by-plays of speech for
+which O'Connell was too exuberant. Shell's speeches touch exquisite
+though not the deep notes of O'Connell, whom he criticized for
+"throwing out broods of sturdy young ideas upon the world without a
+rag to cover them." He discredited his master and his cause by taking
+office. The fruits of Emancipation were tempting to those who had
+borne the heat of the day, but there was a rising school of patriots
+who refused acquiescence to anything less than total freedom.</p>
+
+<p>The Young Irelanders reincarnated the men of "ninety-eight." They
+were neither too late nor too soon. They snatched the sacred torch of
+Liberty from the dying hands of O'Connell, who summoned in vain old
+Ireland against his young rivals. But men like Davis and Duffy
+appealed to types O'Connell never swayed. He could carry the mob, but
+poet, journalist, and idealist were enrolled with Young Ireland. For
+this reason the history of their failure is brighter in literature
+than the tale of O'Connell's triumphs. To read Duffy's "Young Ireland"
+and Mitchel's "Jail Journal", with draughts from the <i>Spirit of the
+Nation</i>. is to relive the period. Without the Young Irelanders,
+Irish Nationalism might not have survived the Famine.</p>
+
+<p>Mitchel, as open advocate of physical force, became father to
+Fenianism. An honest conspirator and brilliant writer, he proved that
+the pen of journalism was sharper than the Irish pike. Carlyle
+described him as "a fine elastic-spirited young fellow, whom I grieved
+to see rushing on destruction palpable, by attack of windmills."
+Destruction came surely, but coupled with immortality. He was
+transported as a felon before the insurrection, while his writings
+sprang up in angry but unarmed men.</p>
+
+<p>Mitchel and O'Connell both sought the liberation of Ireland, but
+their viewpoint differed. Mitchel thought only of Liberty; O'Connell
+not unnaturally considered the "Liberator." His refusal to allow a
+drop of blood to be shed caused Young Ireland to secede. Only when
+death removed his influence could the pent-up feelings of the country
+break out under Smith O'Brien. If Mitchel was an Irish Robespierre,
+O'Brien was their Lafayette. His advance from the level of dead
+aristocracy had been rapid. From defending Whigs in Parliament he
+passed to opposition and "contempt of the House." He resigned from the
+Bench from which O'Connell had been dismissed, became a Repealer,
+adding the words "no compromise," and finally gloried in his treason
+before the House. His next step brought a price upon his head.</p>
+
+<p>Grave and frigid, but inwardly warmhearted and passionate, O'Brien
+had little aptitude for rebellion. But the death penalty (commuted to
+transportation) which he incurred went far to redeem his forlorn
+failure. Mitchel, who shared his Australian imprisonment, left a fine
+picture of "this noblest of Irishmen, thrust in among the
+off-scourings of England's gaols, with his home desolated and his
+hopes ruined, and defeated life falling into the sere and yellow leaf.
+A man, who cannot be crushed, or bowed, or broken; anchored immovably
+upon his own brave heart within; his clear eye and soul open as ever
+to all the melodies and splendors of heaven and earth, and calmly
+waiting for the angel, Death."</p>
+
+<p>The Irish cause was not revived until the Fenian movement. Disgust
+with the politicians drove the noblest into their ranks. In Stephens
+they found an organizing chief, in Boyle O'Reilly a poet, and in John
+O'Leary a political thinker, men who under other conditions had
+achieved mundane success. The Fenians were defended by Isaac Butt, a
+big-hearted, broad-minded lawyer, who afterwards organized a party to
+convince Englishmen that Repeal was innocuous, when called "Home
+Rule." The people stood his patient ways patiently, but when a more
+desperate leader arrived they transferred allegiance, and Butt died of
+a broken heart.</p>
+
+<p>Parnell took his place and began to marshal the broken forces of
+Irish democracy against his own class. Butt had been a polite
+parliamentarian, reverencing the courtesy of debate and at heart
+loving the British Constitution. Parnell felt that his mission lay in
+breaking rather than interpreting the law. The well-bred House stared
+and protested when he defied their chosen six hundred. Parnell faced
+them with their own marble callousness. He outdid them in political
+cynicism and out-bowed them in frigid courtesy, while maintaining a
+policy before which tradition melted and a time-honored system
+collapsed. In one stormy decade he tore the cloak from the Mother of
+Parliaments, reducing her to a plain-speaking democratic machine.
+Through the breach he made, the English labor party has since
+entered.</p>
+
+<p>He united priest and peasant, physical and moral force, under him.
+He could lay Ireland under storm or lull at his pleasure. His
+achievement equalled his self-confidence. He reversed the Irish land
+system and threw English politics out of gear. With the balance of
+power in his hand, he made Tory and Radical outbid each other for his
+support. He was no organizer or orator, but he fascinated able men to
+conduct his schemes, as Napoleon used his marshals. On a pregnant day
+he equaled the achievement of St. Paul and converted Gladstone, who
+had once been his gaoler. Gladstone became a Home Ruler, and
+henceforth English politics knew no peace.</p>
+
+<p>Parnell stood for the fall and rise of many. Under his banner Irish
+peasants became human beings with human rights. He felled the feudal
+class in Ireland and undermined them in England. Incalculable forces
+were set to destroy him. A forged letter in the <i>Times</i> classed
+him with assassins, while an legal Commission was sent to try his
+whole movement. It is history that his triumphant vindication was
+followed by a greater fall. The happiness of Ireland was sucked into
+the maelstrom of his ruin. He refused to retire from leadership at
+Gladstone's bidding, and Ireland staggered into civil war. The end is
+known&mdash;Parnell died as he had lived. Of his moral fault there is
+no palliation, but it may be said he held his country's honor dearer
+than his own, for he could not bear to see her win even independence
+by obeying the word of an Englishman.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Lecky: Leaders of Irish Opinion; Mitchel: Jail Journal; Duffy:
+Young Ireland; O'Brien: Life of Parnell; D'Alton: History of
+Ireland.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T17"></a>IRISH HEROINES</h2>
+<h4>By ALICE MILLIGAN</h4>
+
+<p>The worth and glory of a nation may well be measured and adjudged
+by the typical character of its womanhood: not so much, I would say,
+by the eminence attained to by rarely gifted, exceptionally developed
+individuals, as by the prevalence of noble types at every period, and
+amongst all classes of the community, and by their recurrence from age
+to age under varying circumstances of national fortune.</p>
+
+<p>Judged by such a standard, Ireland emerges triumphant and points to
+the roll of her chequered history, the story of her ancient race, with
+confidence and pride. Gaze into the farthest vistas of her legendary
+past, into the remotest eras of which tradition preserves a misty
+memory, and the figure of some fair, noble woman stands forth
+glimmering like a white statue against the gloom. At every period of
+stern endeavor, through all the generations of recorded time, the
+pages of our annals are inscribed with the names of mothers, sisters,
+wives, not unworthy to stand there beside those of the world-renowned
+heroes of the Gael.</p>
+
+<p>In the ancient tales of Ireland we read of great female physicians
+and distinguished female lawyers and judges. There were
+<i>ban-file</i>, or women-poets, who, like the <i>file</i>, were at
+the same time soothsayers and poetesses, and there are other evidences
+of the high esteem in which women were held. There can be no doubt, to
+judge by the elaborate descriptions of garments in the saga-texts,
+that the women were very skilful in weaving and needlework. The Irish
+peasant girls of today inherit from them not a little of their gift
+for lace-making and linen-embroidery. Ladies of the highest rank
+practiced needlework as an accomplishment and a recreation. Some of
+the scissors and shears they used have come to light in
+excavations.</p>
+
+<p>In the stories of the loves of the ancient Irish, whether immortals
+or mortals, the woman's role is the more accentuated, while in
+Teutonic tradition man plays the chief part. Again, it has often been
+remarked that the feminine interest is absent from the earlier heroic
+forms of some literatures. Not so, however, in the earliest saga-texts
+of the Irish. Many are the famous women to whom the old tales
+introduce us and who stand out and compel attention like the
+characters of the Greek drama. Everyone knows of the faithful Deirdre,
+the heroine of the touching story of the "Exile of the Sons of
+Usnech", and of her death; of the proud and selfish Medb. the
+ambitious queen of Connacht, the most warlike and most expert in the
+use of weapons of the women of the Gael&mdash;far superior in combat
+and counsel to her husband, Ailill; of Emer, the faithful wife of
+Cuchulainn; of Etain of the Horses (that was her name in Fairyland);
+and of many others too numerous to mention.</p>
+
+<p>It is with the introduction of Christianity into Ireland that the
+Irish woman came into her rightful place, and attained the
+preponderating influence which she, ever since, has held among the
+Celtic people. In the period which followed the evangelization of the
+island many were the "women of worth" who upheld the honor and glory
+of "Inisfail the Fair", and women were neither the less numerous nor
+the less ardent who hung upon the lips of the Apostle of Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>Amid the galaxy of the saints, how lustrous, how divinely fair,
+shines the star of Brigid, the shepherd maiden of Faughard, the
+disciple of Patrick the Apostle, the guardian of the holy light that
+burned beneath the oak-trees of Kildare! Over all Ireland and through
+the Hebridean Isles, she is renowned above any other. We think of her,
+moreover, not alone, but as the centre of a great company of
+cloistered maidens, the refuge and helper of the sinful and sorrowful,
+who found in the gospel that Patrick preached a message of consolation
+and deliverance. Let it be remembered that the shroud of Patrick is
+deemed to have been woven by Brigid's hand; that when she died, in
+525, Columcille, the future apostle of Scotland, was a child of four.
+So she stands midmost of that trilogy of saints whose dust is said to
+rest in Down.</p>
+
+<p>Who that hears of Columcille will forget how He won that name,
+"dove of the Church", because of his early piety, and that surely
+bespeaks a mother's guiding care. Ethne, mother of Columcille, remains
+a vague but picturesque figure, seen against the background of the
+rugged heath-clad hills of Tir-Conal by the bright blue waters of
+Gartan's triple lake. Her hearth-stone or couch is shown there to this
+day, where once in slumber, before the birth of her son, she saw in a
+glorious visionary dream a symbol of his future greatness. A vast veil
+woven of sunshine and flowers seemed to float down upon her from
+heaven: an exquisitely poetic thought, which gives us warrant to
+believe that Columcille's poetic skill was inherited from his
+mother.</p>
+
+<p>Ronnat, the mother of his biographer, St. Adamnan, plays a more
+notable part in history, for, according to an ancient Gaelic text
+recently published, it was to her that the women of Ireland owed the
+royal decree which liberated them from military service. The story
+goes that once, as she walked beside the Boyne, after some sanguinary
+conflict, she came upon the bodies of two women who had fallen in
+battle. One grasped a reaping hook, the other a sword, and dreadful
+wounds disfigured them. Horrified at the sight, she brought strong
+pressure to bear upon her son, and his influence in the councils of
+the land availed to bring about the promulgation of the decree which
+freed women from war-service.</p>
+
+<p>Our warrior kings had noble queens to rule their households, and of
+these none stands out so distinctly after long lapse of time as
+Gormlai, the daughter of Flann Siona, and wife of Nial Glondubh. Her
+story has in it that element of romance which touches the heart and
+wins the sympathy of all who hear it.</p>
+
+<p>Her father was king of the Meathan branch of the Clan Nial, and
+<i>ard-ri</i> of Ireland for thirty-seven years. Nial Glondubh was
+king of Tir-Eoghain, and heir of Flann in the high kingship, for at
+that era it was the custom for the kings of Meath and of Tyrone to
+hold the supreme power alternately. In order to knit north and south,
+Flann betrothed his beautiful daughter to Cormac macCuillenan, king of
+Cashel, an ideal husband, one would have thought, for a poetess like
+Gormlai, for Cormac was the foremost scholar of the day; but his mind
+was so set on learning and religion that he took holy orders and
+became bishop-king of Cashel, repudiating his destined bride. Gormlai
+was then given as wife to Cearbhail, king of Leinster, and war was
+waged against Cormac who was killed in the battle of Ballymoon. Coming
+home wounded, Cearbhail lay on his couch, and while tended by Gormlai
+and her ladies told the story of the battle and boasted of having
+insulted the dead body of King Cormac. Gormlai reproached him for his
+ignoble conduct in such terms that his anger and jealousy flamed up,
+and striking her with his fist he hurled her to the ground.</p>
+
+<p>Gormlai rose indignant and left his house forever, returning to the
+palace of King Flann, and on Cearbhail's death she at last found a
+true lover and worthy mate in Nial Glondubh, who brought her northward
+to rule over the famous palace of Aileach. In 916 Nial became high
+king, but the place of honor was also the place of danger, and soon he
+led the mustered hosts of the north against the pagan foreigners, who
+held Dublin and Fingal, and he fell in battle at Rathfarnham.</p>
+
+<p>A poem, preserved for us ever since, tells us that Gormlai was
+present at his burial and chanted a funeral ode. Her long widowhood
+was a period of disconsolate mourning. At length it is said she had a
+dream or vision, in which King Nial appeared to her in such life-like
+shape that she spread her arms to embrace him, and thus wounded her
+breast against the carven head-post of her couch, and of that wound
+she died.</p>
+
+<p>Many saintly, many noble, many hospitable and learned women
+lightened the darkness that fell over Ireland after the coming of the
+Normans.</p>
+
+<p>I pass to the time when a sovereign lady filled the throne of
+England, "the spacious days of great Elizabeth," which were also the
+period of Ireland's greatest, sternest struggle against a policy of
+extermination towards her nobles and suppression of her ancient faith.
+Amid all the heroes and leaders of that wondrous age in Ireland, there
+appears, like a reincarnation of legendary Medb, a warlike queen in
+Connacht, Grace O'Malley, "Granuaile" of the ballads. Instead of a
+chariot, she mounts to the prow of a swift-sailing galley, and sweeps
+over the wild Atlantic billows, from isle to isle, from coast to
+coast, taking tribute (or is it plunder?) from the clans. First an
+O'Flaherty is her husband, then a Norman Burke. In Clare Island they
+show her castle tower, with a hole in the wall, through which they say
+she tied a cable from her ship, ready by day or night for a summons
+from her seamen. She voyaged as far as London town, and stood face to
+face with the ruffed and hooped Elizabeth, meeting her offer of an
+English title with the assertion that she was a princess in her own
+land.</p>
+
+<p>The mother of Red Hugh O'Donnell, Ineen-dubh, though daughter of
+the Scottish Lord of the Isles, was none the less of the old Irish
+stock. Her character is finely sketched for us by the Franciscan
+chronicler who wrote the story of the captivity and mighty deeds of
+her son. When the clans of Tir-Conal assembled to elect the youthful
+chieftain, he writes: "It was an advantage that she came to the
+gathering, for she was the head of the advice and counsel of the
+Cinel-Conail, and, though she was slow and deliberate and much praised
+for her womanly qualities, she had the heart of a hero and the soul of
+a soldier." Her daughter, Nuala, is the "woman of the piercing wail"
+in Mangan's translation of the bard's lament for the death of the
+Ulster chieftains in Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Modern critics like to interpret the "Dark Rosaleen" poem as an
+expression of Red Hugh's devotion to Ireland, but I think that Rose,
+O'Doherty's daughter, wife of the peerless Owen Roe, deserves
+recognition as she whose</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p class="p">"Holy delicate white hands should girdle him with steel."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The record has come down to us that she prompted and encouraged her
+husband to return from the low-countries and a position of dignity in
+a foreign court to command the war in Ireland, and in her first
+letter, ere she followed him over sea, she asked eagerly: "How stands
+Tir-Conal?" True daughter of Ulster was Owen's wife, so let us
+henceforth acknowledge her as the <i>Roisin</i> dubh, "dark Rosaleen",
+of the sublimest of all patriot songs.</p>
+
+<p>In the Cromwellian and Williamite wars, we see the mournful mothers
+and daughters of the Gaeldom passing in sad procession to Connacht, or
+wailing on Shannon banks for the flight of the "Wild Geese." But what
+of Limerick wall, what of the valorous rush of the women of the
+beleaguered city to stem the inroads of the besiegers and rally the
+defenders to the breach? The decree of St. Adamnan was quite forgotten
+then, and when manly courage for a moment was daunted, woman's
+fortitude replaced and reinspired it.</p>
+
+<p>And fortitude was sorely needed through the black years that
+followed&mdash;the penal days, when Ireland, crushed in the dust,
+bereft of arms, achieved a sublimer victory than did even King Brian
+himself, champion of the Cross, against the last muster of European
+heathendom.</p>
+
+<p>Yes, her women have done their share in making Ireland what she is,
+a heroic land, unconquered by long centuries of wrath and wrong, a
+land that has not abandoned its Faith through stress of direst
+persecution or bartered it for the lure of worldly dominion;
+no&mdash;nor ever yielded to despair in face of repeated national
+disaster.</p>
+
+<p>It was this fidelity to principle on the part of the Irish Catholic
+people which won for them the alliance of all that were worthiest
+among the Protestants of north and south in the days of the Volunteers
+and the United Irishmen. What interesting and pathetic portraits of
+Irishwomen are added to our roll at this period! None is more tenderly
+mournful than that of Sarah Curran, the beloved of Robert Emmet. The
+graceful prose of Washington Irving, the poignant verses of Moore,
+have enshrined the memory of her, weeping for him in the shadow of the
+scaffold, dying of heart-break at last in a far-off land. No more need
+be said of her, for whom the pity of the whole world has been awakened
+by song allied to sweetest, saddest music. What of Anne Devlin,
+Emmet's faithful servant, helping in his preparations for
+insurrection, aiding his flight, shielding him in hiding, even when
+tortured, scourged, half-hanged by a brutal soldiery, with stern-shut
+lips refusing to utter a word to compromise her "Master Robert"?</p>
+
+<p>What of the sister of Henry Joy McCracken, Mary, the friend and
+fellow-worker with the Belfast United Irishmen? An independent,
+self-reliant business woman, she earned the money which she gave so
+liberally in the good cause, or to help the poor and distressed,
+through the whole period of a long life. Some still living have seen
+Mary passing along the streets of Belfast, an aged woman, clad in
+sombre gown, to whom Catholic artisans raised their caps reverently,
+remembering how in '98 she had walked hand in hand with her brother to
+the steps of the scaffold, and how, in 1803, she had aided Thomas
+Russell in his escape from the north after Emmet's failure, had bribed
+his captors after arrest, provided for his defence, and preserved for
+futurity a record of his dying words. Madden's <i>History of the
+United Irishmen</i>, as far as it tells of the north, is mainly the
+record that she kept as a sacred trust in letters, papers,
+long-treasured memories of the men who fought and died to make Ireland
+a united nation.</p>
+
+<p>And now a scene in America comes last to my mind. Wolfe Tone, a
+political fugitive who has served Ireland well and come through danger
+to safety, is busy laying the foundations of a happy and prosperous
+future, with a beloved wife and sister and young children to brighten
+his home. An estate near Princeton, New Jersey, has been all but
+bought, possibilities of a career in the new republic open before him,
+when a letter comes from Belfast, asking him to return to the post of
+danger, to undertake a mission to France for the sake of Ireland. Let
+his own pen describe what happened: "I handed the letter to my wife
+and sister and desired their opinion.... My wife especially, whose
+courage and whose zeal for my honor and interest were not in the least
+abated by all her past sufferings, supplicated me to let no
+consideration of her or our children stand for a moment in the way of
+my duty to our country, adding that she would answer for our family
+during my absence and that the same Providence which had so often, as
+it were, miraculously preserved us would not desert us now."</p>
+
+<p>Inspired by the fortitude of this noble woman, Tone went forth on
+his perilous mission, and similarly the Young Ireland leaders, Mitchel
+and Smith O'Brien, were sustained by the courage of their nearest and
+dearest. "Eva," the poetess of the <i>Nation</i>, gave her
+troth-plight to one who had prison and exile to face ere he could
+claim her hand. Other names recur to me&mdash;"Speranza", with her
+lyric fire; Ellen O'Leary, fervent and still patient and wise; Fanny
+Parnell and her sister.</p>
+
+<p>And what of the women of Ireland today? Shall they come short of
+the high ideal of the past, falter and fail, if devotion and sacrifice
+are required of them? Never: whilst they keep in memory and honor the
+illustrious ones of whom I have written. The name of Irishwoman today
+stands for steadfast virtue, for hospitality, for simple piety, for
+cheerful endurance, and in a changing world let us trust it is the
+will of God that in this there will be no change.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>On Ethne, mother of St. Columcille: The Visions, Miracles, and
+Prophecies of St. Columba (Clarendon Press Series). On Ronnat: S. Mac
+an Bhaird, Life (in Irish) of Adamnan (Letterkenny); Reeves, St.
+Adamnan's Life of St. Columba; The Mother of St. Adamnan, an old
+Gaelic text, ed. by Kuno Meyer (Berlin). On Gormlai: Thomas Concannon,
+Gormflath (in Irish; The Gaelic League, Dublin). On Granuaile:
+Elizabethan State Papers (Record Office Series); William O'Brien, A
+Queen of Men. On Ineen-Dubh: O'Clery's Life of Red Hugh
+(contemporary), ed. by Denis Murphy, S. J. (Dublin, 1894); Standish
+O'Grady, The Flight of the Eagle, or Red Hugh's Captivity. On Rose,
+wife of Owen Roe O'Neill, see references in Father Meehan's The Flight
+of the Earls, and in Sir John Gilbert's History of the Confederate War
+(Dublin, 1885). On the wife of Wolfe Tone, see Wolfe Tone's
+Autobiography, ed. by R. Barry O'Brien (London, 1894). The American
+edition has a fuller account of Tone's wife, her courage and devotion
+in educating her son, and her interviews with Napoleon, and life in
+America. The women of the United Irish period are fully dealt with in
+K. R. Madden's Lives and Times of the United Irishmen. On Mary
+McCracken, see Mrs. Milligan Fox, The Annals of the Irish Harpers. On
+the women of the Young Ireland period, see C. Gavan Duffy's Young
+Ireland (Dublin), and John O'Leary's Fenians and Fenianism. On the
+women of Limerick, see Rev. James Dowd, Limerick and its Sieges
+(Limerick, 1890). For the women under Cromwellian Plantation
+persecutions and the Penal Laws, see Prendergast's Cromwellian
+Settlement, Rev. Denis Murphy's Cromwell in Ireland, and R. R.
+Madden's History of the Penal Laws.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T18"></a>IRISH NATIONALITY</h2>
+<h4>By LORD ASHBOURNE</h4>
+
+<p> [NOTE.&mdash;This chapter was written by Lord Ashbourne in French,
+because he is so strong an Irishman that he objects to write in
+English. The translation has been made by the Editors.]</p>
+
+<p>To those of us who are interested in the future of our country
+there is at this very moment presented a really serious problem. The
+political struggle of the last century has been so intense that many
+of our people have come to have none but a political solution in view.
+For them the whole question is one of politics, and they will continue
+to believe that Ireland will have found salvation the moment we get
+Home Rule or something like it. Such an attitude seems natural enough
+when we remember what our people have suffered in the past.
+Nevertheless, on a little reflection, this error&mdash;for error it
+is, and an enormous one, too&mdash;will be quickly dissipated. In the
+first place, the political struggle of today is only the continuation
+of a conflict which has lasted seven hundred years, and in point of
+fact we have a right to be proud that after so many trials there still
+remains to us anything of our national inheritance. We find ourselves
+indeed on the battlefield somewhat seriously bruised, but we can
+console ourselves with the thought that our opponent is in equally
+doleful case, that he is beginning to suffer from a fatal weariness,
+and that he is anxious to make peace with us.</p>
+
+<p>In order to place the present political situation in its true light
+and to take into account its comparatively limited importance, we must
+not lose sight of the fundamental fact that what Home Rule connotes is
+rather a tender of peace on the part of Ireland than a gift which
+England presents us of her own free will. In fact, our neighbor across
+the Channel has as much interest as ourselves, and perhaps even more,
+in bringing the struggle to an end. Through us, England has already
+lost much prestige, and that famous British Constitution, which in
+times past everyone admired while trying in vain to imitate it, has
+lost caste considerably. I am not now speaking of the danger which an
+Ireland discontented, and even hostile, and having nothing to lose,
+would constitute for England in case of war. It is especially from our
+neighbor's point of view that we can cry up Home Rule or any other
+solution that will bring peace. But let us leave to Great Britain the
+task of getting out of trouble as best she may. On our side, what
+shall we say of it?</p>
+
+<p>In our conflict with the English we are not wearied; rather are we
+hardened for the fray. We have acquired the habit of fighting, and
+many of us can now scarcely regulate our conduct in a manner suitable
+to a state of peace with England. Nevertheless, as I have already
+said, we have not emerged unscathed from this war of the centuries.
+National sentiment remains with us, no doubt, and our traditions are
+not wholly lost, especially among the country people of the West. But
+our commerce is almost ruined and the national language is no longer
+spoken throughout the greater part of the country. It is true that a
+continuation of the hitherto existing state of war cannot do us much
+more harm; that for purposes of mere destruction all the advantages
+are on our side; and that on the other hand we can begin a
+reconstruction at home without waiting for a treaty of peace to be
+signed. But we have some things to do for which a home government
+would be useful to us, and further, in the absence of such a
+government, it would be difficult to imagine what means could be
+employed to turn the people away from their too exclusive absorption
+in Anglo-Irish politics.</p>
+
+<p>It is, then, from a practical point of view that we wish for peace.
+But, we may lawfully ask, will not this peace bring with it a special
+danger, against which we ought to take precautions? As a matter of
+fact, there is such a danger, and it lies in the fact that the people
+have been to so great an extent obsessed by the political struggle
+that they run the risk, once their end is attained, of collapsing and
+of losing interest in the national question. Let us not forget that
+that question is to save our language and our civilization; without
+that, it is all over with our nationality. Let us endeavor to turn our
+parliament to account in order to work seriously on the reconstruction
+of our national life, and it is certain that Ireland will find therein
+her salvation.</p>
+
+<p>We can, therefore, take advantage either of England's prolonged
+resistance or of peace. If England decides to continue the contest,
+she will suffer more from it than we. Her empire, her institutions,
+her safety, will be more and more impaired, while, as for us, there
+will result a strong growth in patriotism and in anti-British
+bitterness. What we have to do, right now, is to take our bearings in
+such a way that, no matter what happens to England, our own future
+shall be assured. We can do it if we wish it: the question is, shall
+we wish it?</p>
+
+<p>Here it may be objected, <i>Cui bono</i> The English language is
+quite enough for us. We have it now and we speak it, sometimes, even
+better than the English people themselves. We are proud of using the
+same language as Sheridan, Burke, and Grattan used. Such an opinion
+has its modicum of truth, though less now than a hundred years ago.
+Formerly there was in Ireland, and especially around Dublin, a little
+colony of Anglo-Irish. The members of this colony spoke a very pure
+and classic English, and this fact is largely responsible for the
+place which Ireland at one time held in English literature. But during
+the last century the remains of this colony have been swamped beneath
+a flood of half-Anglicized people, of Irishmen from the country
+districts, who were formerly excluded, and who brought with them such
+a mixture of expressions and of phonetic tendencies derived from the
+Gaelic that the language of Grattan, Sheridan, and Burke has well-nigh
+gone out of existence. The reason of this is that since the date of
+Catholic emancipation, most careers are open to everybody. The result
+has been that the newly enfranchised majority has ultimately absorbed
+the minority, and that the atmosphere of culture, of which we have
+just spoken, has disappeared. We thus reach an Ireland which, in a
+sense, has neither culture nor language, a country in which the Gaelic
+spoken by a people humiliated and deeply demoralized by an
+anti-Catholic legislation, which was both savage and degrading, tended
+to coalesce with an English already condemned to death. It is from the
+moment when the Catholics had finally triumphed over persecution that
+we must date the beginning of that political struggle with which we
+are familiar, a struggle which has resulted in absorbing all the
+energies of a great part of the population. That is why this
+tremendous problem presents itself to us, at the very time when we
+should be justified in feeling ourselves elated by triumph because of
+our victories in parliament. And let not England rejoice too much at
+our dilemma. If we are doomed to die, she will die with us, for before
+disappearing we shall prove to be a great destructive force, and out
+of the ruins of the British power we shall raise such a monument that
+future generations will know what it costs to murder a nation.</p>
+
+<p>But, if possible, we must live and let live. The elements of
+reconstruction are always at hand. Anglo-Irish culture is indeed dead,
+but Gaelic culture is only seriously sick, and on that side there is
+always room for hope. Sooth to say, its sickness consists above all in
+the fact that the Irish language is no longer spoken in a great part
+of the country. But, on the other hand, where it is preserved, that
+same language is spoken in all its purity. By going there to find it
+all Ireland will gradually become Gaelic.</p>
+
+<p>But, it will be objected, what a loss of time and energy! If it is
+a question of languages, why not learn one of the more useful ones? To
+this we may reply that, while English deforms the mouth and makes it
+incapable of pronouncing any language which is not spoken from the tip
+of the lips, Gaelic, on the contrary, so exercises the organs of
+speech that it renders easy the acquisition and the practice of most
+European idioms. Let us add, by way of example, that French, which is
+usually difficult for strangers, is much more within the compass of
+Irishmen who speak Irish, no less because of certain linguistic
+customs than from the original relationship between the two
+languages.</p>
+
+<p>This remark brings us to another objection which is often lodged
+against our movement. It is urged that Ireland is already isolated
+enough, and that by making it a Gaelic-speaking nation, we shall make
+that state of affairs still worse. English, say the objectors, is
+spoken more or less everywhere, while Gaelic will never be able to
+claim the position of a quasi-universal language. To this line of
+reasoning it might be answered, for one thing, that no one can tell
+how far Gaelic will go, in case our movement is a success, and that
+many a language formerly "universal" is today as dead as a door-nail.
+But we must look at the question from another point of view. John
+Bull's language is spread everywhere, while he himself retains the
+most exclusive insularity. He travels to every land and there finds
+his own language and his own customs. Now it goes without saying that
+from this very universalization his language is corrupted and becomes
+vulgarized. The idiom of Shakespeare and Milton gives place gradually
+to the idiom of the seaports. Furthermore, far from isolating us,
+Gaelic will tend to put us in touch with the civilization of the West.
+As a people Anglicised, and badly Anglicised at that, we share, and
+even exaggerate, the faults which I have just described. It is
+Anglo-Saxon speech which isolates us, and we wish on this ground to
+break with it and to hold out our hand to our brothers of the
+continent.</p>
+
+<p>But, it may be said, what a pity to dig yet another abyss between
+Ireland and Great Britain, for it is with the latter that our
+geographical position will always link us for common defense. For,
+while it is true that history does not show us a single case of an
+empire which has not sooner or later fallen to pieces, nevertheless,
+whatever happens, the two islands will be necessarily forced to
+co-operate for the common good. Well, let us take it that things will
+so fall out, and let us suppose an Anglicised Ireland called upon to
+face such a situation. It would be a revolutionary Ireland, a restless
+Ireland, an Ireland seeking vaguely for revenge on someone, deprived
+of really national character, and, in a general way, suspecting
+England of responsibility for the disappearance from our country of
+everything that constitutes the idea of nationality. And let us remark
+that we are no longer living in those good old times when entire
+nations allowed themselves to be absorbed by their conquerors. The art
+of printing has changed all that. Today a "suppressed" nation is one
+that will sooner or later have its revenge. Thus let us suppose that
+we are destined to make political peace with England and to enter of
+our own accord into a Hiberno-Britannic confederation. From our point
+of view, what would be the result of that arrangement? The result
+would be strange. Here again, as in the case of Home Rule, it is
+rather we who offer advantages to England than she who offers them to
+us. Only, in this latter case, the result depends on ourselves alone.
+If we die, it will be because we have wished it. Our language is not
+dead; on the contrary, although not widely spread, it is in itself
+much more alive than English, which as a literary language is in full
+decay. We may congratulate ourselves that our idiom is intact. Our
+civilization is old, but it has not yet lived its full life. If we
+wish, the future is ours. And let us truly believe that that is worth
+while, for the race which has produced epics like those of Ossian and
+all that magnificent literature which has been preserved for us
+through the ages, the race that gave to Europe that great impulse of
+missionary activity which is associated with the names of Columcille,
+Brendan, Columbanus, and Gall, not to mention men like the famous
+Scotus Erigena&mdash;that race is certainly called upon to play an
+important part in the modern world. But&mdash;let us repeat
+it&mdash;it must have the wish.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T19"></a>FAMOUS IRISH SOCIETIES</h2>
+<h4>By JOHN O'DEA,<br>
+<i>National Historian, A.O.H.</i></h4>
+
+<p>In the social organization of no nation of antiquity were societies
+of greater influence than in pagan Ireland. During many centuries
+these societies, composed of the bards, ollamhs, brehons, druids, and
+knights, contended for precedence. In no country did the literary
+societies display greater vigor and exercise a more beneficent power
+than in pagan Ireland. Although the Hebrews and other Asiatic nations
+had societies organized from among the professions, yet in Ireland
+alone these societies seem to have been constructed with a patriotic
+purpose, and in Ireland alone they seem to have had ceremonies of
+initiation, with constitutions and laws. These societies existed from
+the earliest times until after the coming of St. Patrick. Traces of
+them are visible during all the centuries from the conversion of
+Ireland down to the Anglo-Norman epoch, and it is apparent that the
+clan system and the introduction of the feudal system by the English
+failed to eliminate completely their influence.</p>
+
+<p>When the Irish emigration flowed towards the American colonies in
+the eighteenth century, the social instinct early found expression in
+societies. One of the earliest of these was founded in Boston, where,
+in 1737, twenty-six "gentlemen merchants and others, natives of
+Ireland or of Irish extraction", organized the Charitable Irish
+Society. In Pennsylvania, where the Irish emigration had been larger
+than in any other colony, the Hibernian Fire Company was organized in
+1751. The Friendly Sons of St. Patrick was founded in Philadelphia in
+1771, and about that time societies bearing this name were founded in
+Boston and New York, as convivial clubs welcoming Irish emigrants to
+their festive boards. These societies were formed upon the model of
+the Friendly Brothers of St. Patrick, which had existed in Dublin and
+other Irish cities a generation before, and was well and favorably
+known throughout Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>The Society of the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick in Philadelphia
+contained some of the most prominent merchants and leading citizens of
+the city, and in 1780 they subscribed &pound;103,000, or one-third of
+the sum collected, to supply the Continental army with food. Among its
+members were Commodore Barry, the Father of the American Navy; General
+Stephen Moylan; General Anthony Wayne; and the great merchants, Blair
+McClenachan, Thomas Fitzsimons, and Robert Morris. Washington, who was
+an honorary member, described it "as a society distinguished for the
+firm adherence of its members to the glorious cause in which we are
+embarked." Whether upon the field or upon the sea, in council or in
+the sacrifice of their wealth, their names are foremost in the crisis
+of the Revolution.</p>
+
+<p>The Hibernian Society for the Relief of Emigrants from Ireland was
+founded in Philadelphia on March 3, 1790. Other Hibernian Societies,
+with the same title and organized for the same purpose, were founded
+in other cities along the Atlantic coast in the early years of the
+nineteenth century, but the Philadelphia Hibernian Society was, from
+the character of its members, the extent of its beneficence, and the
+length of its existence, the most famous. The emigrants from Ireland
+during the eighteenth century had pushed on to the frontier, or, in
+some instances, remained in the cities and engaged successfully in
+mercantile pursuits. The emigration which came after the Revolution
+was, however, in great part composed of families almost without means.
+Unable to subsist while clearing farms in the virgin forest, thousands
+were congested in the cities. The Hibernian Society extended a ready
+and strong hand to these helpless people, and not only aided the
+emigrants with gifts of money, but also secured for them employment,
+disseminated among them useful information, and provided them with
+medical attendance. While the Hibernian Society was regarded as the
+successor of the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick, yet the two societies,
+which contained largely a membership roll bearing the same names,
+flourished, in the work of patriotism, side by side. The first
+officers of the Hibernian Society for the Relief of Emigrants from
+Ireland were: President, Chief Justice Thomas McKean; Vice-President,
+General Walter Stewart; Secretary, Matthew Carey, the historian;
+Treasurer, John Taylor. It was said that no other society in America
+contained so many men distinguished in civil, military, and official
+life as the Hibernian Society. In almost every city where the Friendly
+Sons of St. Patrick and the Hibernian Society for the Relief of
+Emigrants were found, there was a close and intimate connection
+between them, which ultimately resulted in amalgamation.</p>
+
+<p>The Ancient Order of Hibernians traces its origin to those orders
+which flourished in pagan Ireland, and which exercised so potent an
+influence upon the history of the Celtic race. The order of knighthood
+was the first of these orders to be founded. It existed from the
+earliest times, and is visible in the annals of the nation, until the
+Anglo-Normans invaded the land in the twelfth century. In pagan
+Ireland the knightly orders became provincial standing armies, and
+there are many glorious pages describing the feats of the Clanna
+Deagha of Munster, the Clanna Morna of Connacht, the Feni of Leinster,
+and the Knights of the Red Branch of Ulster. When the island was
+Christianized, these knightly orders were among the staunchest
+supporters of the missionary priests, and were consecrated to the
+service of the church in the sixth century, assuming the cross as
+their distinctive emblem, and becoming the defenders of religion.</p>
+
+<p>Among the names which are upon the rolls of the ancient orders of
+knighthood are those of most of the kings, bards, saints, and
+statesmen, and in the long list there was no family of greater renown
+than that of Roderick the Great, to which belonged Conall Cearnach and
+Lugaidh, who, according to MacGeoghegan and others, were the direct
+ancestors of the O'Mores of Leix. In this family the ancient splendor
+of the knightly orders was a tradition which survived for centuries,
+and they were in almost continual rebellion against the English, from
+the siege of Dublin by Roderick O'Connor until the rebellion against
+Queen Elizabeth, led by Rory Oge O'More and his son Owen in the latter
+part of the sixteenth and the early seventeenth century. A nephew of
+Rory Oge, the sagacious and statesmanlike Rory O'More, revived the
+ancient orders in the Catholic Confederation of Kilkenny in 1642. A
+grandson of Rory O'More, Patrick Sarsfield, Earl of Lucan, was the
+most distinguished commander of Irish armies who opposed, in Ireland,
+the forces of William of Orange.</p>
+
+<p>There is no stranger story in all history than the intimate
+connection of the O'More family with the annals of the Ancient Order
+of Hibernians. The lineage of this family furnishes the links
+connecting the ancient orders of pagan Ireland through the centuries
+with the Ancient Order in modern times. Under the names of Rapparees,
+Whiteboys, Defenders, Ribbonmen, etc., the Confederation of Kilkenny
+was carried on through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries until
+the nineteenth. At various times the duties of these organizations
+were subject to local conditions. Thus the Defenders were occupied in
+protecting themselves and their priests against the hostility of the
+Penal Laws, engaging in armed conflict with the Orangemen in the
+north, while the Whiteboys were waging war against the atrocities of
+landlordism in the south. Between these two organizations there was a
+secret code, which operated until they were combined, under the name
+of Ribbonmen, in the early nineteenth century. The contentions of the
+Whiteboys regarding Irish landlordism have since been acknowledged to
+be just, and have been enacted into statutes. The Defenders joined
+with Wolfe Tone in the formation of the United Irishmen.</p>
+
+<p>About 1825 the Ribbonmen changed their name to St. Patrick's
+Fraternal Society, and branches were established in England and
+Scotland under the name of the Hibernian Funeral Society. In 1836 a
+charter was received by members in New York City, and in Schuylkill
+County, Pennsylvania. The headquarters were for some years in
+Pennsylvania, but in 1851 a charter was granted to the New York
+Divisions under the name of "The Ancient Order of Hibernians." New
+York thus became the American headquarters. National conventions were
+held there until 1878, since which year they have been held in many
+other cities biennially. Many of the most distinguished leaders of the
+Irish race in America have been members of the Order, and from a
+humble beginning, with a few emigrants gathered together in a strange
+land, the membership has grown to nearly 200,000. General Thomas
+Francis Meagher, Colonel Michael Doheny, General Michael Corcoran, and
+Colonel John O'Mahony were among the members in the late '50's.</p>
+
+<p>Among the organizations which have sprung from the ranks of the
+A.O.H. were the powerful Fenian Brotherhood, the Emmet Monument
+Association, and scores of smaller associations in all sections of the
+United States and Canada. During the Know Nothing riots, the Order
+furnished armed defenders for the Catholic churches in New York,
+Philadelphia, and Charleston, and it has ever been foremost in
+preserving its position as the hereditary defender of the faith. In
+1894, the Ladies' Auxiliary was founded, and this body of women
+numbered in 1914 over 63,000, and had donated great sums to charity,
+education, and religion. The A.O.H. had, in 1914, assets of
+$2,230,000. It pays annually, for charity, sick and death benefits,
+and maintenance, over $1,000,000, and during its existence in America
+has donated nearly $20,000,000 to works of beneficence. One of the
+most celebrated of the gifts of the Order was the endowment of the
+Chair of Celtic in the Catholic University of America, and one of its
+greatest gifts to charity was its contribution of $40,000 to the
+sufferers from the San Francisco earthquake.</p>
+
+<p>The Clan-na-Gael is a society organized to secure the independence
+of Ireland by armed revolution. Its organization is secret and it is
+the successor of the Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood, called in
+America the Fenian Brotherhood, which promoted many daring raids and
+risings in Ireland in 1867. The I.R.B. was perfected by James Stephens
+in Ireland, and by John O'Mahony in America, from 1857 to 1867. An
+invasion of Canada was made in great force under the general direction
+of Colonel William R. Roberts, president of the Fenian Brotherhood,
+but was unsuccessful owing to the attitude of the United States
+Government, which declared that the Fenians were violating the
+principles of neutrality. After the disorganization of the Fenian
+Brotherhood, the idea of revolution languished until revived by the
+founding of the Clan-na-Gael by Jerome J. Collins in 1869, and the
+membership during the twenty years from 1880 to 1900 included almost
+fifty thousand of the flower of the men of Irish blood in America. The
+principle of revolution was first given organized public expression in
+America through the formation in 1848 of the Irish Republican Union,
+which was succeeded by the Emmet Monument Association, these societies
+influencing the creation of the Sixty-Ninth and Seventy-Fifth
+Regiments of the New York State Militia, and the Ninth Massachusetts,
+which became so famous for valor during the Civil War. Although not
+putting forth all its strength, so as to allow full scope to the
+parliamentary efforts to ameliorate the state of the Irish people, the
+Clan-na-Gael is as vigorous a section as ever of the forces organized
+for the service of patriotism.</p>
+
+<p>The Land League, founded in Ireland in 1879, was transplanted to
+America in 1880, when the first branch was established in New York
+City through the efforts of Patrick Ford, John Boyle O'Reilly, John
+Devoy, and others. Michael Davitt soon after came to America and
+travelled through the country founding branches of the League. In a
+few years the whole American continent was organized, and in this
+organization Michael Davitt declared that the members of the Ancient
+Order of Hibernians and the Clan-na-Gael were everywhere foremost. To
+the enormous sums collected by the League in this country, and to the
+magnificent labors of Parnell, Davitt, Redmond, Ferguson, Dillon,
+Kettle, Webb, and others in Ireland, is due in a large measure the
+present improved state of the people, resulting from the sacrifices
+made by those who supported this greatest of leagues devoted to the
+amelioration of unbearable economic conditions. A Ladies' Auxiliary to
+the Land League was established by the sisters of Parnell, and was for
+some years a brilliant vindication of the power and justice of
+feminine participation in public questions.</p>
+
+<p>The Land League, the name of which was changed to the Irish
+National League in the early '80's, having prepared the path to
+eventual victory, declined in potency after the political movement was
+divided into Parnellites and Anti-Parnellites in 1890. The elements
+composing these rival parties were, through the initiative of William
+O'Brien, M.P., and in commemoration of the one hundredth anniversary
+of the United Irishmen of Wolfe Tone's day, joined in 1898 under the
+name of the United Irish League, John E. Redmond becoming the first
+president, and also the chairman of the Parliamentary Party which it
+had been instrumental in uniting. This organization is now a living,
+vital force in the affairs of Ireland on both sides of the Atlantic,
+Mr. Redmond being still its head, with Michael J. Ryan, of
+Philadelphia, as president of the American Branch.</p>
+
+<p>The Knights of Columbus were organized in 1881 by Rev. Michael
+McGivney, in New Haven, Connecticut, and a charter was granted by the
+Connecticut Legislature on March 29,1882. At first the activity of the
+organization was confined to Connecticut, but the time was ripe for
+its mission, and it soon spread rapidly throughout New England. In
+1896 it began to attract the attention of Catholic young men in other
+parts of the nation, and during the next few years its appeal was made
+irresistibly in almost every State. It now exists in all the States of
+the Union, the Dominion of Canada, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, Panama,
+Porto Rico, Mexico, Cuba, and the Philippine Islands, with a total
+membership of 328,000, of whom 108,000 are insurance members and
+220,000 associate members. Its mortuary reserve fund is $4,500,000,
+being over $1,000,000 more than is required by law. It is one of the
+most successful fraternal societies ever organized, and the
+Irish-American Catholics have given to it the full strength of their
+enthusiasm and purpose.</p>
+
+<p>The temperance movement among Catholics was, from the visit of
+Father Mathew in 1849, largely Irish. The societies first formed were
+united by no bond until 1871, when the Connecticut societies formed a
+State Union. Other States formed unions and a national convention in
+Baltimore in 1872 created a National Union. In 1878 there were 90,000
+priests, laymen, women, and children in the Catholic Total Abstinence
+Benevolent Union. In 1883 the Union was introduced into Canada, and in
+1895 there were 150,000 members on the American continent. From the
+C.T.A.B.U. were formed the Knights of Father Mathew, a total
+abstinence and semi-military body, first instituted in St. Louis in
+1872.</p>
+
+<p>The Catholic Knights of America, with a membership chiefly
+Irish-American, were organized in Memphis, Tennessee, in 1877, and the
+advantages offered for insurance soon attracted 20,000 members. The
+decade of the '70's was prolific of Irish Catholic associations. The
+Catholic Benevolent Legion was founded in 1873, shortly followed by
+the Catholic Mutual Benevolent Association, the Catholic Order of
+Foresters (which started in Massachusetts and spread to other States),
+the Irish Catholic Benevolent Union, and the Society of the Holy Name,
+which latter, although tracing its origin to Lisbon in 1432, is yet
+dominantly Irish in America.</p>
+
+<p>In the large industrial centres there are scores of Irish county
+and other societies composed of Irishmen and Irish-Americans,
+organized for the service of country and faith, beneficence and
+education, and all dedicated to the uplifting of humanity and to the
+progress of civilization. The ancient genius for organization has not
+been lost, the spirit of brotherhood pulsates strongly in the Irish
+heart, and through its powerful societies the race retains its place
+in the advance of mankind.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>John M. Campbell: History of the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick and
+Hibernian Society; Maguire: The Irish in America; McGee: Irish
+Settlers in America; John O'Dea: History of the Ancient Order of
+Hibernians and Ladies' Auxiliary in America; Michael Davitt: The Fall
+of Feudalism in Ireland; Cashman: Life of Michael Davitt; T.P.
+O'Connor: The Parnell Movement; Joseph Denieffe: Recollections of the
+Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood; Articles in the Catholic
+Encyclopedia; Report of the Knights of Columbus, 1914; The Tidings,
+Los Angeles, 7th annual edition.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T20"></a>THE IRISH IN THE UNITED STATES</h2>
+<h4>By MICHAEL J. O'BRIEN,<br>
+<i>Historiographer, American Irish Historical Society</i>.</h4>
+
+<p>Students of early American history will find in the Colonial
+records abundant evidence to justify the statement of Ramsay, the
+historian of South Carolina, when he wrote in 1789, that:</p>
+
+<p>"The Colonies which now form the United States may be considered as
+Europe transplanted. Ireland, England, Scotland, France, Germany,
+Holland, Switzerland, Sweden, Poland, and Italy furnished the original
+stock of the present population, and are generally supposed to have
+contributed to it in the order named. For the last seventy or eighty
+years, no nation has contributed so much to the population of America
+as Ireland."</p>
+
+<p>It will be astonishing to one who looks into the question to find
+that, in face of all the evidence that abounds in American annals,
+showing that our people were here on this soil fighting the battles of
+the colonists, and in a later day of the infant Republic, thus proving
+our claim to the gratitude of this nation, America has produced men so
+ignoble and disingenuous as to say that the Irish who were here in
+Revolutionary days "were for the most part heartily loyal," that "the
+combatants were of the same race and blood", and that the great
+uprising became, in fact, "a contest between brothers"!</p>
+
+<p>Although many writers have made inquiries into this subject, nearly
+all have confined themselves to the period of the Revolution. We are
+of "the fighting race", and in our enthusiasm for the fighting man the
+fact seems to have been overlooked that in other noble fields of
+endeavor, and in some respects infinitely more important, men of Irish
+blood have occupied prominent places in American history, for which
+they have received but scant recognition. The pioneers before whose
+hands the primeval forests fell prostrate; the builders, by whose
+magic touch have sprung into existence flourishing towns and cities,
+where once no sounds were heard save those of nature and her wildest
+offspring; the orators who roused the colonists into activity and
+showed them the way to achieve their independence; the schoolmasters
+who imparted to the American youth their first lessons in
+intellectuality and patriotism; all have their place in history, and
+of these we can claim that Ireland furnished her full quota to the
+American colonies.</p>
+
+<p>It must now be accepted as an indisputable fact that a very large
+proportion of the earliest settlers in the American colonies were of
+Irish blood, for the Irish have been coming here since the beginning
+of the English colonization. It has been estimated by competent
+authorities that in the middle of the seventeenth century the
+English-speaking colonists numbered 50,000. Sir William Petty, the
+English statistician, tells us that during the decade from 1649 to
+1659 the annual emigration from Ireland to the western continent was
+upwards of 6000, thus making, in that space of time, 60,000 souls, or
+about one-half of what the whole population must have been in 1659.
+And from 1659 to 1672 there emigrated from Ireland to America the
+yearly number of 3000 (Dobbs, on Irish Trade, Dublin, 1729).
+Prendergast, another noted authority, in the <i>Cromwellian Settlement
+of Ireland</i>, furnishes ample verification of this by the statistics
+which he quotes from the English records. Richard Hakluyt, the
+chronicler of the first Virginia expeditions, in his <i>Voyages,
+Navigations, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the English Nation</i>
+(London, 1600), shows that Irishmen came with Raleigh to Virginia in
+1587 and, in fact, the ubiquitous Celts were with Sir John Hawkins in
+his voyage to the Gulf of Mexico twenty years earlier. The famous work
+of John Camden Hotten, entitled "The Original Lists of Persons of
+Quality, Emigrants, Religious Exiles, Political Rebels, Serving Men
+sold for a term of years," etc., who were brought to the Virginia
+plantations between 1600 and 1700, as well as his "List of the Livinge
+and the Dead in Virginia in 1623," contains numerous Celtic names, and
+further evidence of these continuous migrations of the Irish is
+contained in "A Booke of Entrie for Passengers passing beyond the
+Seas", in the year 1632. The Virginia records also show that as early
+as 1621 a colony of Irish people sailed from Cork in the
+<i>Flying Harte</i> under the patronage of Sir William Newce and
+located at what is now Newport News, and some few years later Daniel
+Gookin, a merchant of Cork, transported hither "great multitudes of
+people and cattle" from England and Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>In the "William and Mary College Quarterly," in the transcripts of
+the original records published by the Virginia Historical Society, and
+in all County histories of Virginia, there are numerous references to
+the Irish "redemptioners" who were brought to that colony during the
+seventeenth century. But the redemptioners were not the only class who
+came, for the colonial records also contain many references to
+Irishmen of good birth and education who received grants of land in
+the colony and who, in turn, induced many of their countrymen to
+emigrate. Planters named McCarty, Lynch, O'Neill, Sullivan, Farrell,
+McDonnell, O'Brien, and others denoting an ancient Irish lineage
+appear frequently in the early records. Much that is romantic is found
+in the lives of these men and their descendants. Some of them served
+in the Council chamber and the field, their sons and daughters were
+educated to hold place, with elegance and dignity, with the foremost
+of the Cavaliers, and when in after years the great conflict with
+England began, Virginians of Irish blood were among the first and the
+most eager to answer the call. Those historians who claim that the
+South was exclusively an "Anglo-Saxon" heritage would be completely
+disillusioned were they to examine the lists of Colonial and
+Revolutionary troops of Celtic name who held the Indians and the
+British at bay, and who helped in those "troublous times" to lay the
+foundations of a great Republic.</p>
+
+<p>There is no portion of the Atlantic seaboard that did not profit by
+the Irish immigrations of the seventeenth century. We learn from the
+"Irish State Papers" of the year 1595 that ships were regularly plying
+between Ireland and Newfoundland, and so important was the trade
+between Ireland and the far-distant fishing banks that "all English
+ships bound out always made provisions that the convoy out should
+remain 48 hours in Cork." In some of Lord Baltimore's accounts of his
+voyages to Newfoundland he refers to his having "sailed from Ireland"
+and to his "return to Ireland," and so it is highly probable that he
+settled Irishmen on his Avalon plantations. After Baltimore's
+departure, Lord Falkland also sent out a number of Irish colonists,
+and "at a later date they were so largely reinforced by settlers from
+Ireland that the Celtic part of the population at this day is not far
+short of equality in numbers with the Saxon portion"&mdash;(Hatton and
+Harvey, <i>History of Newfoundland</i>, page 32). Pedley attributes
+the large proportion of Irishmen and the influence of the Catholics in
+Newfoundland to Lord Falkland's company, and Prowse, in his History
+(pp. 200-201), refers to "the large number of Irishmen" in that colony
+who fled from Waterford and Cork "during the troubled times" which
+preceded the Williamite war (1688). Many of these in after years are
+known to have settled in New England.</p>
+
+<p>But it was to Maryland and Pennsylvania that the greatest flow of
+Irish immigration directed its course. In the celebrated "Account of
+the Voyage to Maryland," written in the year 1634 by Mutius
+Vitellestis, the general of the Jesuit Order, it is related that when
+the <i>Arke</i> and the <i>Dove</i> arrived in the West Indies in that
+year, they found "the island of Montserrat inhabited by a colony of
+Irishmen who had been banished from Virginia on account of their
+professing the Catholic faith." It is known also that there were many
+families in Ireland of substance and good social standing who, at
+their own expense, took venture in the enterprise of Lord Baltimore
+and afterwards in that of William Penn, and who applied for and
+received grants of land, which, as the deeds on record show, were
+afterwards divided into farms bought and settled by O'Briens,
+McCarthys, O'Connors, and many others of the ancient Gaelic race, the
+descendants of those heroic men whose passion for liberty, while
+causing their ruin, inspired and impelled their sons to follow
+westward "the star of empire."</p>
+
+<p>After the first English colonies in Maryland were founded, we find
+in all the proclamations concerning these settlements by the
+proprietary government, that they were limited to "persons of British
+or Irish descent." The religious liberty established in Maryland was
+the magnet which attracted Irish Catholics to that Province, and so
+they came in large numbers in search of peace and comfort and freedom
+from the turmoil produced by religious animosities in their native
+land. The major part of this Irish immigration seems to have come in
+through the ports of Philadelphia and Charleston and a portion through
+Chesapeake Bay, whence they passed on to Pennsylvania and the southern
+colonies.</p>
+
+<p>The "Certificates of Land Grants" in Maryland show that it was
+customary for those Irish colonists to name their lands after places
+in their native country, and I find that there is hardly a town or
+city in the old Gaelic strongholds in Ireland that is not represented
+in the nomenclature of the early Maryland grants. One entire section
+of the Province, named the "County of New Ireland" by proclamation of
+Lord Baltimore in the year 1684, was occupied wholly by Irish
+families. This section is now embraced in Cecil and Harford Counties.
+New Ireland County was divided into three parts, known as New
+Connaught, New Munster, and New Leinster. New Connaught was founded by
+George Talbot from Roscommon, who was surveyor-general of the
+Province; New Munster, by Edward O'Dwyer from Tipperary; and New
+Leinster, by Bryan O'Daly from Wicklow, all of whom were in Maryland
+prior to 1683. Among the prominent men in the Province may be
+mentioned Charles O'Carroll, who was secretary to the proprietor; John
+Hart from county Cavan, who was governor of Maryland from 1714 to
+1720; Phillip Conner from Kerry, known in history as the "Last
+Commander of Old Kent"; Daniel Dulany of the O'Delaney family from
+Queen's County, one of the most famous lawyers in the American
+Colonies; Michael Tawney or Taney, ancestor of the celebrated judge,
+Roger Brooke Taney; the Courseys from Cork, one of the oldest families
+in the State; the Kings from Dublin; and many others.</p>
+
+<p>The only place in the State bearing a genuine Irish name which has
+reached any prominence is Baltimore. Not alone has the "Monumental
+City" received its name from Ireland, but the tract of land on which
+the city is now situate was originally named (in 1695) "Ely
+O'Carroll," after the barony of that name in King's and Tipperary
+counties, the ancient home of the Clan O'Carroll. To subdivisions of
+the tract were given such names as Dublin, Waterford, Tralee, Raphoe,
+Tramore, Mallow, Kinsale, Lurgan, Coleraine, Tipperary, Antrim,
+Belfast, Derry, Kildare, Enniskillen, Wexford, Letterkenny, Lifford,
+Birr, Galway, Limerick, and so on, all indicating the nationality of
+the patentees, as well as the places from which they came.</p>
+
+<p>From such sources is the evidence available of the coming of the
+Irish to Maryland in large numbers, and so it is that we are not
+surprised to find on the rosters of the Maryland Revolutionary
+regiments 4633 distinctive Irish names, exclusive of the large numbers
+who joined the navy and the militia, as well as those who were held to
+guard the frontier from Indian raids, whose names are not on record.
+However, it is not possible now to determine the proportion of the
+Revolutionary soldiers who were of Irish birth or descent, for where
+the nationality is not stated in the rosters all non-Irish names must
+be left out of the reckoning. The first census of Maryland (1790),
+published by the United States Government, enumerates the names of all
+"Heads of Families" and the number of persons in each family. A count
+of the Irish names shows approximately 21,000 persons. This does not
+take into account the great number of people who could not be recorded
+under that head, as it is known there were many thousand Irish
+"redemptioners" in Maryland prior to the taking of the census, and
+while no precise data exist to indicate the number of Irish immigrants
+who settled in Maryland, I estimate that the number of people of Irish
+descent in the State in 1790 was not far short of 40,000.</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+<p>The Land Records and Council Journals of Georgia of the last half
+of the seventeenth and the first half of the eighteenth century afford
+like testimony to the presence of the Irish, who crossed the sea and
+colonized the waste places of that wild territory, and whose
+descendants in after years contributed much of the strength of the
+patriot forces who confronted the armed cohorts of Carleton and
+Cornwallis. From the Colonial Records of Georgia, published under the
+auspices of the State Legislature, I have extracted a long list of
+people of Irish name and blood who received grants of land in that
+colony. They came with Oglethorpe as early as 1735 and continued to
+arrive for many years. It was an Irishman named Mitchell who laid out
+the site of Atlanta, the metropolis of the South; an O'Brien founded
+the city of Augusta; and a McCormick named the city of Dublin,
+Georgia.</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+<p>From the records of the Carolinas we obtain similar data, many of
+an absorbingly interesting character, and the number of places in that
+section bearing names of a decidedly Celtic flavor is striking
+evidence of the presence of Irish people, the line of whose
+settlements across the whole State of North Carolina may be traced on
+the high roads leading from Pennsylvania and Virginia. Hawk, one of
+the historians of North Carolina, refers to the "Irish Romanists" who
+were resident in that Province as early as 1700, and Williamson says
+that "the most numerous settlers in the northwestern part of the
+Province during the first half of the eighteenth century were from
+Ireland." The manuscript records in the office of the Secretary of
+State refer to "a ship load of immigrants" who, in the year 1761, came
+to the Carolinas from Dublin. The names of the Irish pioneers in the
+Carolinas are found in every conceivable connection, in the parochial
+and court records, in the will books, in the minutes of the general
+Assembly, in the quaint old records of the Land and Registers'
+offices, in the patents granted by the colonial Government, and in
+sundry other official records. In public affairs they seem to have had
+the same adaptability for politics which, among other things, has in
+later days brought their countrymen into prominence. Florence
+O'Sullivan from Kerry was surveyor-general of South Carolina in 1671.
+James Moore, a native of Ireland and a descendant of the famous Irish
+chieftain, Rory O'More, was governor of South Carolina in 1700;
+Matthew Rowan from Carrickfergus was president of the North Carolina
+Council during the term of office of his townsman, Governor Arthur
+Dobbs (1754 to 1764); John Connor was attorney-general of the Province
+in 1730, and was succeeded in turn by David O'Sheall and Thomas
+McGuire. Cornelius Hartnett, Hugh Waddell, and Terence Sweeny, all
+Irishmen, were members of the Court, and among the members of the
+provincial assembly I find such names as Murphy, Leary, Kearney,
+McLewean, Dunn, Keenan, McManus, Ryan, Bourke, Logan, and others
+showing an Irish origin. And, in this connection, we must not overlook
+Thomas Burke, a native of "the City of the Tribes", distinguished as
+lawyer, soldier, and statesman, who became governor of North Carolina
+in 1781, as did his cousin Aedanus Burke, also from Galway, who was
+judge of the Supreme Court of South Carolina in 1778. John Rutledge,
+son of Dr. John Rutledge from Ireland, was governor of South Carolina
+in 1776 and his brother Edward became governor of the State in
+1788.</p>
+
+<p>But there were Irishmen in the Carolinas long before the advent of
+these, and indeed Irish names are found occasionally as far back as
+the records of those colonies reach. They are scattered profusely
+through the will books and records of deeds as early as 1676 and down
+to the end of the century, and in a list of immigrants from Barbados
+in the year 1678, quoted by John Camden Hotten in the work already
+alluded to, we find about 120 persons of Irish name who settled in the
+Carolinas in that year. In 1719, 500 persons from Ireland transported
+themselves to Carolina to take the benefit of an Act passed by the
+Assembly by which the lands of the Yemmassee Indians were thrown open
+to settlers, and Ramsay (<i>History of South Carolina</i>, vol. I,
+page 20) says: "Of all countries none has furnished the Province with
+so many inhabitants as Ireland."</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+<p>In the Pennsylvania records one is also struck with the very
+frequent mention of Irish names. William Penn had lived in Ireland for
+several years and was acquainted with the sturdy character of its
+people, and when he arrived on board <i>The Welcome</i> in 1682 he had
+with him a number of Irishmen, who are described as "people of
+property and people of consequence." In 1699 he brought over a
+brilliant young Irishman, James Logan from Lurgan, who for nearly half
+a century occupied a leading position in the Province and for some
+time was its governor. But the first Irish immigration to Pennsylvania
+of any numerical importance came in the year 1717. They settled in
+Lancaster County. "They and their descendants," says Rupp, an
+impartial historian, "have always been justly regarded as among the
+most intelligent people in the County and their progress will be found
+to be but little behind the boasted efforts of the Colony of
+Plymouth." In 1727, as the records show, 1155 Irish people arrived in
+Philadelphia and in 1728 the number reached the high total of 5600.
+"It looks as if Ireland is to send all her inhabitants hither," wrote
+Secretary Logan to the provincial proprietors in 1729, "for last week
+not less than six ships arrived. The common fear is that if they
+continue to come they will make themselves proprietors of the
+Province" (Rupp's <i>History of Dauphin County</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The continuous stream of Irish immigration was viewed with so much
+alarm by the Legislature, that in 1728 a law was passed "against these
+crowds of Irish papists and convicts who are yearly powr'd upon
+us"&mdash;(the "convicts" being the political refugees who fled from
+the persecutions of the English Government!). But the operations of
+this statute were wholly nullified by the captains of the vessels
+landing their passengers at Newcastle, Del., and Burlington, N, J.,
+and, as one instance of this, I find in the Philadelphia <i>American
+Weekly Mercury</i> of August 14, 1729, a statement to this effect: "It
+is reported from Newcastle that there arrived there this last week
+about 2000 Irish and an abundance more daily expected." This
+expectation was realized, for according to "An Account of Passengers
+and Servants landed in Philadelphia between December 25, 1728, and
+December 25, 1729", which I find in the <i>New England Weekly
+Journal</i> for March 30, 1730, the number of Irish who came in via
+the Delaware river in that year was 5655, while the total number of
+all other Europeans who arrived during the same period was only 553.
+Holmes, in his <i>Annals of America</i>, corroborates this. The
+Philadelphia newspapers down to the year 1741 also contained many
+similar references, indicating that the flood of Irish immigration was
+unceasing and that it was at all times in excess of that from other
+European countries. Later issues of the <i>Mercury</i> also published
+accounts of the number of ships from Ireland which arrived in the
+Delaware, and from these it appears that from 1735 to 1738 "66 vessels
+entered Philadelphia from Ireland and 50 cleared thereto." And in the
+<i>New York Gazette and Weekly Post-Boy</i> of the years 1750 to 1752,
+I find under the caption, "Vessels Registered at the Philadelphia
+Custom House," a total of 183 ships destined from or to Ireland, or an
+average of five sailings per month between Irish ports and the port of
+Philadelphia alone. A careful search fails to disclose any record of
+the number of persons who came in these ships, but, from the fact that
+it is stated that all carried passengers as well as merchandise from
+Irish ports, we may safely assume that the "human freight" must have
+been very large.</p>
+
+<p>Spencer, in his <i>History of the United States</i>, says: "In the
+years 1771 and 1772 the number of emigrants to America from Ireland
+was 17,350, almost all of whom emigrated at their own expense. A great
+majority of them consisted of persons employed in the linen
+manufacture or farmers possessed of some property, which they
+converted into money and brought with them. Within the first fortnight
+of August, 1773, there arrived at Philadelphia 3500 immigrants from
+Ireland. As most of the emigrants, particularly those from Ireland and
+Scotland, were personally discontent with their treatment in Europe,
+their accession to the colonial population, it might reasonably be
+supposed, had no tendency to diminish or counteract the hostile
+sentiments toward Britain which were daily gathering force in
+America." Marmion, in his <i>Ancient and Modern History of the
+Maritime Ports of Ireland</i>, verifies this. He says that the number
+of Irish who came during the years 1771, 1772, and 1773 was 25,000.
+The bulk of these came in by way of Philadelphia and settled in
+Pennsylvania and the Virginias.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish were arriving in the Province in such great numbers
+during this period as to be the cause of considerable jealousy on the
+part of other settlers from continental Europe. They were a vigorous
+and aggressive element. Eager for that freedom which was denied them
+at home, large numbers of them went out on the frontier. While the
+war-whoop of the savage still echoed within the surrounding valleys
+and his council fires blazed upon the hills, those daring adventurers
+penetrated the hitherto pathless wilderness and passed through
+unexampled hardships with heroic endurance. They opened up the roads,
+bridged the streams, and cut down the forests, turning the wilderness
+into a place fit for man's abode. With their sturdy sons, they
+constituted the skirmish line of civilization, standing as a bulwark
+against Indian incursions into the more prosperous and populous
+settlements between them and the coast. From 1740 down to the period
+of the Revolution, hardly a year passed without a fresh infusion of
+Irish blood into the existing population, and, as an indication that
+they distributed themselves all over the Province, I find, in every
+Town and County history of Pennsylvania and in the land records of
+every section, Irish names in the greatest profusion. They settled in
+great numbers chiefly along the Susquehanna and its tributaries; they
+laid out many prosperous settlements in the wilderness of western
+Pennsylvania, and in these sections Irishmen are seen occupying some
+of the foremost and most coveted positions, and their sons in after
+years contributed much to the power and commercial greatness of the
+Commonwealth. They are mentioned prominently as manufacturers,
+merchants, and farmers, and in the professions they occupied a place
+second to none among the natives of the State. In several sections,
+they were numerous enough to establish their own independent
+settlements, to which they gave the names of their Irish home places,
+several of which are preserved to this day. It is not to be wondered
+at then that General Harry Lee named the Pennsylvania line of the
+Continental army, "the Line of Ireland"!</p>
+
+<p>Ireland gave many eminent men to the Commonwealth, among whom may
+be mentioned: John Burns, its first governor after the adoption of the
+Constitution, who was born in Dublin; George Bryan, also a native of
+Dublin, who was its governor in 1788; James O'Hara, one of the
+founders of Pittsburgh; Thomas FitzSimmons, a native of Limerick,
+member of the first Congress under the Constitution which began the
+United States Government and father of the policy of protection to
+American industries; Matthew Carey from Dublin, the famous political
+economist; and many others who were prominent as nation-builders in
+the early days of the "Keystone State."</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+<p>While the historians usually give all the credit to England and to
+Englishmen for the early colonization of New England, whose results
+have been attended with such important consequences to America and the
+civilized world, Ireland and her sons can also claim a large part in
+the development of this territory, as is evidenced by the town, land,
+church, and other colonial records, and the names of the pioneers, as
+well as the names given to several of the early settlements. That the
+Irish had been coming to New England almost from the beginning of the
+English colonization is indicated by an "Order" entered in the
+Massachusetts record under date of September 25, 1634, granting
+liberty to "the Scottishe and Irishe gentlemen who intend to come
+hither, to sitt down in any place upp Merimacke river." This,
+doubtless, referred to a Scotch and Irish company which, about that
+time, had announced its intention of founding a settlement on the
+Merrimac. It comprised in all 140 passengers, who embarked in the
+<i>Eagle Wing</i>, from Carrickfergus in September, 1636, bringing
+with them a considerable quantity of equipment and merchandise to meet
+the exigencies of their settlement in the new country. The vessel,
+however, never reached its destination and was obliged to return to
+Ireland on account of the Atlantic storms, and there is no record of a
+renewal of the attempt. In the Massachusetts records of the year 1640
+(vol. I, p. 295) is another entry relating to "the persons come from
+Ireland," and in the Town Books of Boston may be seen references to
+Irishmen who were residents of the town in that year.</p>
+
+<p>From local histories, which in many cases are but verbatim copies
+of the original entries in the Town Books, we get occasional glimpses
+of the Irish who were in the colony of Massachusetts Bay between this
+period and the end of the century. For example, between 1640 and 1660,
+such names as O'Neill, Sexton, Gibbons, Lynch, Keeney, Kelly, and
+Hogan appear on the Town records of Hartford, and one of the first
+schoolmasters who taught the children of the Puritans in New Haven was
+an Irishman named William Collins, who, in the year 1640, came there
+with a number of Irish refugees from Barbados Island. An Irishman
+named Joseph Collins with his wife and family came to Lynn, Mass., in
+1635. Richard Duffy and Matthias Curran were at Ipswich in 1633. John
+Kelly came to Newbury in 1635 with the first English settlers of the
+town. David O'Killia (or O'Kelly) was a resident of Old Yarmouth in
+1657, and I find on various records of that section a great number of
+people named Kelley, who probably were descended from David O'Killia.
+Peter O'Kelly and his family are mentioned as of Dorchester in 1696.
+At Springfield in 1656 there were families named Riley and O'Dea; and
+Richard Burke, said to be of the Mayo family of that name, is
+mentioned prominently in Middlesex County as early as 1670. The first
+legal instrument of record in Hampden County was a deed of conveyance
+in the year 1683 to one Patrick Riley of lands in Chicopee. With a
+number of his countrymen, Riley located in this vicinity and gave the
+name of "Ireland Parish" to their settlement. John Molooney and Daniel
+MacGuinnes were at Woburn in 1676, and Michael Bacon, "an Irishman",
+of Woburn, fought in King Philip's war in 1675. John Joyce was at Lynn
+in 1637, and I find the names of Willyam Heally, William Reyle,
+William Barrett, and Roger Burke signed to a petition to the General
+Court of Massachusetts on August 17, 1664. Such names as Maccarty,
+Gleason, Coggan, Lawler, Kelly, Hurley, MackQuade, and McCleary also
+appear on the Cambridge Church records down to 1690. These are but
+desultory instances of the first comers among the Irish to
+Massachusetts, selected from a great mass of similar data.</p>
+
+<p>In the early history of every town in Massachusetts, without
+exception, I find mention of Irish people, and while the majority came
+originally as "poor redemptioners", yet, in course of time and despite
+Puritanical prejudices, not a few of them rose to positions of worth
+and independence. Perhaps the most noted of these was Matthew Lyon of
+Vermont, known as "the Hampden of Congress," who, on his arrival in
+New York in 1765, was sold as a "redemptioner" to pay his
+passage-money. This distinguished American was a native of county
+Wicklow. Other notable examples of Irish redemptioners who attained
+eminence in America were George Taylor, a native of Dublin, one of
+Pennsylvania's signers of the Declaration of Independence; Charles
+Thompson, a native of county Tyrone, "the perennial Secretary of the
+Continental Congress", and William Killen, who became chief justice
+and chancellor of Delaware. Some of the descendants of the Irish
+redemptioners in Massachusetts are found among the prominent New
+Englanders of the past hundred years. The Puritans of Massachusetts
+extended no welcoming hand to the Irish who had the temerity to come
+among them, yet, as an historical writer has truly said, "by one of
+those strange transformations which time occasionally works, it has
+come to pass that Massachusetts today contains more people of Irish
+blood in proportion to the total population than any other State in
+the Union."</p>
+
+<p>So great and so continuous was Irish immigration to Massachusetts
+during the early part of the eighteenth century that on Saint
+Patrick's Day in the year 1737 a number of merchants, who described
+themselves as "of the Irish Nation residing in Boston," formed the
+Charitable Irish Society, an organization which exists even to the
+present day. It was provided that the officers should be "natives of
+Ireland or of Irish extraction," and they announced that the Society
+was organized "in an affectionate and Compassionate concern for their
+countrymen in these Parts who may be reduced by Sickness, Shipwrack,
+Old Age, and other Infirmities and unforeseen Accidents." I have
+copied from the Town Books, as reproduced by the City of Boston, 1600
+Irish names of persons who were married or had declared their
+intentions of marriage in Boston between the years 1710 and 1790,
+exclusive of 956 other Irish names which appear on the minutes between
+1720 and 1775.</p>
+
+<p>In 1718, one of the largest single colonies of Irish arrived in
+Boston. It consisted of one hundred families, who settled at different
+places in Massachusetts. One contingent, headed by Edward Fitzgerald,
+located at Worcester and another at Palmer under the leadership of
+Robert Farrell, while a number went to the already established
+settlement at Londonderry, N.H. About the same time a colony of
+fishermen from the west coast of Ireland settled on the Cape Cod
+peninsula, and I find a number of them recorded on the marriage
+registers of the towns in this vicinity between 1719 and 1743. In
+1720, a number of families from county Tyrone came to Shrewsbury, and
+eight years later another large contingent came to Leicester County
+from the same neighborhood, who gave the name of Dublin to the section
+where they located. The annals of Leicester County are rich in Irish
+names. On the Town Books of various places in this vicinity and on the
+rosters of the troops enrolled for the Indian war, Irishmen are
+recorded, and we learn from the records that not a few of them were
+important and useful men, active in the development of the
+settlements, and often chosen as selectmen or representatives. On the
+minutes of the meetings of the selectmen of Pelham, Spencer, Sutton,
+Charlestown, Canton, Scituate, Stoughton, Salem, Amesbury, Stoneham,
+and other Massachusetts towns, Irish names are recorded many years
+before the Revolution. In local histories these people are usually
+called "Scotch-Irish," a racial misnomer that has been very much
+overworked by a certain class of historical writers who seem to be
+unable to understand that a non-Catholic native of Ireland can be an
+Irishman. In an exhaustive study of American history, I cannot find
+any other race where such a distinction is drawn as in the case of the
+non-Catholic, or so-called "Scotch," Irish. In many instances, this
+hybrid racial designation obviously springs from prejudice and a
+desire to withhold from Ireland any credit that may belong to her,
+although, in some cases, the writers are genuinely mistaken in their
+belief that the Scotch as a race are the antithesis of the Irish and
+that whatever commendable qualities the non-Catholic Irish are
+possessed of naturally spring from the Scotch.</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+<p>The first recorded Irish settlement in Maine was made by families
+named Kelly and Haley from Galway, who located on the Isles of Shoals
+about the year 1653. In 1692, Roger Kelly was a representative from
+the Isles to the General Court of Massachusetts, and is described in
+local annals as "King of the Isles." The large number of islands,
+bays, and promontories on the Maine coast bearing distinctive Celtic
+names attests the presence and influence of Irish people in this
+section in colonial times. In 1720, Robert Temple from Cork brought to
+Maine five shiploads of people, mostly from the province of Munster.
+They landed at the junction of the Kennebec and Eastern rivers, where
+they established the town of Cork, which, however, after a precarious
+existence of only six years, was entirely destroyed by the Indians.
+For nearly a century the place was familiarly known to the residents
+of the locality as "Ireland." The records of York, Lincoln, and
+Cumberland counties contain references to large numbers of Irish
+people who settled in those localities during the early years of the
+eighteenth century. The Town Books of Georgetown, Kirtery, and
+Kennebunkport, of the period 1740 to 1775, are especially rich in
+Irish names, and in the Saco Valley numerous settlements were made by
+Irish immigrants, not a few of whom are referred to by local
+historians as "men of wealth and social standing." In the marriage and
+other records of Limerick, Me., as published by the Maine Historical
+and Genealogical Recorder, in the marriage registers of the First
+Congregational Church of Scarborough, and in other similarly
+unquestionable records, I find a surprisingly large number of Irish
+names at various periods during the seventeenth and eighteenth
+centuries. In fact, there is not one town in the Province that did not
+have its quota of Irish people, who came either direct from Ireland or
+migrated from other sections of New England.</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+<p>The records of New Hampshire and Rhode Island are also a fruitful
+source of information on this subject, and the Provincial papers
+indicate an almost unbroken tide of Irish immigration to this section,
+beginning as early as the year 1640. One of the most noted of Exeter's
+pioneer settlers was an Irishman named Darby Field, who came to that
+place in 1631 and who has been credited by Governor Winthrop as "the
+first European who witnessed the White Mountains." He is also recorded
+as "an Irish soldier for discovery," and I find his name in the annals
+of Exeter as one of the grantees of an Indian deed dated April 3,
+1638, as well as several other Irish names down to the year 1664. In
+examining the town registers, gazeteers, and genealogies, as well as
+the local histories of New Hampshire, in which are embodied copies of
+the original entries made by the Town Clerks, I find numerous
+references to the Irish pioneers, and in many instances they are
+written down, among others, as "the first settlers." Some are
+mentioned as selectmen, town clerks, representatives, or colonial
+soldiers, and it is indeed remarkable that there is not one of these
+authorities that I have examined, out of more than two hundred, that
+does not contain Irish names. From these Irish pioneers sprang many
+men who attained prominence in New Hampshire, in the legislature, the
+professions, the military, the arts and crafts, and in all departments
+of civil life, down to the present time. In the marriage registers of
+Portsmouth, Boscawen, New Boston, Antrim, Londonderry, and other New
+Hampshire towns, are recorded, in some cases as early as 1716, names
+of Irish persons, with the places of their nativity, indicating that
+they came from all parts of Ireland. At Hampton, I find Humphrey
+Sullivan teaching school in 1714, while the name of John Sullivan from
+Limerick, schoolmaster at Dover and at Berwick, Me., for upwards of
+fifty years, is one of the most honored in early New Hampshire
+history.</p>
+
+<p>This John Sullivan was surely one of the grandest characters in the
+Colony of Massachusetts Bay, and the record of his descendants serves
+as an all-sufficient reply to the anti-Irish prejudices of some
+American historians. He was the father of a governor of New Hampshire
+and of a governor of Massachusetts; of an attorney-general of New
+Hampshire and of an attorney-general of Massachusetts; of New
+Hampshire's only major-general in the Continental army; of the first
+judge appointed by Washington in New Hampshire; and of four sons who
+were officers in the Continental army. He was grandfather of an
+attorney-general of New Hampshire, of a governor of Maine, and of a
+United States Senator from New Hampshire. He was great-grandfather of
+an attorney-general of New Hampshire, and great-great-grandfather of
+an officer in the Thirteenth New Hampshire regiment in the Civil
+War.</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+<p>In Rhode Island, Irish people are on record as far back as 1640,
+and for many years after that date they continued to come. Edward
+Larkin was an esteemed citizen of Newport in 1655. Charles McCarthy
+was one of the founders of the town of East Greenwich in 1677, while
+in this vicinity as early as 1680 are found such names as Casey,
+Higgins, Magennis, Kelley, Murphy, Reylie, Maloney, Healy, Delaney,
+Walsh, and others of Irish origin. On the rosters of the Colonial
+militia who fought in King Philip's war (1675) are found the names of
+110 soldiers of Irish birth or descent, some of whom, for their
+services at the battle of Narragansett, received grants of land in New
+Hampshire and Massachusetts. The New England Historical and
+Genealogical Register for 1848 contains some remarkable testimony of
+the sympathy of the people of Ireland for the sufferers in this cruel
+war, and the "Irish Donation," sent out from Dublin in the year 1676,
+will always stand in history to Ireland's credit and as an instance of
+her intimate familiarity with American affairs, one hundred years
+prior to that Revolution which emancipated the people of this land
+from the same tyranny under which she herself has groaned. And yet,
+what a cruel travesty on history it reads like now, when we scan the
+official records of the New England colonies and find that the Irish
+were often called "convicts", and it was thought that measures should
+be taken to prevent their landing on the soil where they and their
+sons afterwards shed their blood in the cause of their fellow
+colonists! In the minutes of the provincial Assemblies and in the
+reports rendered to the General Court, as well as in other official
+documents of the period, are found expressions of the sentiment which
+prevailed against the natives of the "Island of Sorrows." Only twenty
+years before the outbreak of King Philip's war, the government of
+England was asked to provide a law "to prevent the importation of
+Irish Papists and convicts that are yearly pow'rd upon us and to make
+provision against the growth of this pernicious evil." And the
+colonial Courts themselves, on account of what they called "the cruel
+and malignant spirit that has from time to time been manifest in the
+Irish nation against the English nation," prohibited "the bringing
+over of any Irish men, women, or children into this jurisdiction on
+the penalty of fifty pounds sterling to each inhabitant who shall buy
+of any merchant, shipmaster, or other agent any such person or persons
+so transported by them." This order was promulgated by the General
+Court of Massachusetts in October, 1654, and is given in full in the
+American Historical Review for October, 1896.</p>
+
+<p>With the "convicts" and the "redemptioners" came the Irish
+schoolmaster, the man then most needed in America. And the fighting
+man, he too was to the fore, for when the colonies in after years
+called for volunteers to resist the tyranny of the British, the
+descendants of the Irish "convicts" were among the first and the most
+eager to answer the call.</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+<p>Although it does not appear that Irish immigrants settled in the
+Province of New York in such large numbers as in other sections, yet,
+as far back as the third quarter of the seventeenth century, Irish
+names are found on the records of the Colony. O'Callaghan, the eminent
+archivist and historian, refers to "Dr. William Hayes, formerly of
+Barry's Court, Ireland," as one of New York's physicians in the year
+1647, and from the same authority we learn that there were "settlers
+and Indian fighters in New Netherland" named Barrett, Fitzgerald,
+Dowdall, Collins, and Quinn in 1657. In records relating to the war
+with the Esopus Indians (1663), and in fact as early as 1658, frequent
+references are made to "Thomas the Irishman", whose name was Thomas
+Lewis, a refugee from Ireland to Holland after the Cromwellian war.
+Lewis is on record in 1683 as one of the wealthiest merchants of New
+York and a large owner of real estate in the present downtown portion
+of the city. Such names as Patrick Hayes, John Daly, John Quigly, and
+Dennis McKarty appear among its business men between 1666 and 1672,
+and in a "Census of the City of New York of the year 1703" we find
+people named Flynn, Walsh, Dooley, Gillen, Carroll, Kenne, Gurney,
+Hart, Mooney, Moran, Lynch, Kearney, and others, all "Freemen of the
+City of New York." In the "Poll List" of the city from 1741 to 1761,
+more than one hundred such names appear, while among the advertisers
+in the New York newspapers all through the eighteenth century I find a
+large number of characteristic Irish names.</p>
+
+<p>One would scarcely expect to find an Irishman in the old Dutch
+settlement of Beverwyck as early as 1645. Yet such is the case, for
+"Jan Andriessen, de Iersman van Dublingh"&mdash;(John Anderson, the
+Irishman from Dublin)&mdash;is mentioned as the owner of considerable
+landed property in the neighborhood of Albany and Catskill, and in
+every mention of this ancient pioneer he is referred to as "the
+Irishman." At Albany, between 1666 and 1690, we find people named
+Connell, Daly, Larkin, Shaw, Hogan, and Finn, all Irishmen, and in
+Jonathan Pearson's "Genealogies of the First Settlers of the Ancient
+County of Albany" and in his "Genealogies of the First Settlers of the
+Patent and City of Schenectady", I find 135 distinctive Irish names.
+These were mostly merchants, farmers, artisans, millers, and
+backwoodsmen, the pioneers, who, with their Dutch neighbors, blazed
+the trail of civilization through that section, rolled back the savage
+redman, and marked along the banks of the Hudson and Mohawk rivers the
+sites of future towns and cities. In the rate lists of Long Island
+between 1638 and 1675, I find Kelly, Dalton, Whelan, Condon, Barry,
+Powers, Quin, Kane, Sweeney, Murphy, Reilly, as well as Norman-Irish
+and Anglo-Irish names that are common to Irish nomenclature. Hugh
+O'Neale was a prominent resident of Newtown, L.I., in 1655. In a
+"Report to the Lord President," dated September 6, 1687, Governor
+Dongan recommended "that natives of Ireland be sent to colonize here
+where they may live and be very happy." Numbers of them evidently
+accepted the invitation, for many Irishmen are mentioned in the public
+documents of the Province during the succeeding twenty years.</p>
+
+<p>That the Irish continued to settle in the Province all through the
+eighteenth century may be seen from the announcements in the New York
+newspapers of the time and other authentic records. The most important
+of these, in point of numbers and character of the immigrants, were
+those made in Orange County in 1729 under the leadership of James
+Clinton from Longford, and at Cherry Valley, in Otsego County, twelve
+years later. On the Orange County assessment and Revolutionary rolls,
+and down to the year 1800, there is a very large number of Irish
+names, and in some sections they constituted nearly the entire
+population. In the northwestern part of New York, Irishmen are also
+found about the time of the Franco-English war. They were not only
+among those settlers who followed the peaceful pursuits of tilling and
+building, but they were "the men behind the guns" who held the
+marauding Indians in check and repelled the advances of the French
+through that territory. In this war, Irish soldiers fought on both
+sides, and in the "Journals of the Marquis of Montcalm" may be seen
+references to the English garrison at Oswego, which, in August, 1756,
+surrendered to that same Irish Brigade by which they had been defeated
+eleven years before on the battlefield of Fontenoy. In the
+"Manuscripts of Sir William Johnson", are also found some interesting
+items indicating that Irishmen were active participants in the
+frontier fighting about that time, and in one report to him, dated May
+28, 1756, from the commandant of an English regiment, reference is
+made to "the great numbers of Irish Papists among the Delaware and
+Susquehanna Indians who have done a world of prejudice to English
+interests."</p>
+
+<p>The early records, with hardly an exception, contain Irish names,
+showing that the "Exiles from Erin" came to the Province of New York
+in considerable numbers during the eighteenth century. The baptismal
+and marriage records of the Dutch Reformed and Protestant churches of
+New York City; of the Dutch churches at Kingston, Albany, Schenectady,
+and other towns; the muster rolls of the troops enrolled for the
+French, Indian, and Revolutionary wars; the Land Grants and other
+provincial records at Albany; the newspapers; the Town, County, and
+family histories, and other early chronicles, supplemented by
+authoritative publications such as those of the New York Historical
+and Genealogical and Biographical Societies&mdash;these are the
+depositories of the evidence that thousands of Irish people settled in
+the Province of New York and constituted no inconsiderable proportion
+of the total population.</p>
+
+<p>The majority of the Irish residents of New York whose marriages are
+recorded in the Dutch Reformed church were, doubtless, of the Catholic
+faith, but, as it was necessary to comply with the established law,
+and also so that their offspring might be legitimate, they could be
+bound in wedlock only by a recognized Minister of the Gospel. As there
+was no Catholic church in New York prior to 1786, the ceremony had to
+be performed in the Dutch Reformed or Protestant church. Many of these
+Catholics were refugees from Ireland on account of the religious
+persecutions. Like the people of Ireland in all ages, they were
+devoted to their religion, and while, no doubt, they eschewed for a
+while association with the established churches, yet, as time went on,
+they and their children were gradually drawn into religious
+intercourse with the other sects, until eventually they became regular
+communicants of those churches. The variations which from time to time
+were wrought in their names brought them further and further away from
+what they had been; in their new surroundings, both social and
+religious, they themselves changed, so that their children, who in
+many cases married into the neighboring Dutch and French families,
+became as wholly un-Irish in manner and sentiment as if they had
+sprung from an entirely different race. That fact, however, does not
+admit of their being now included in the category "Anglo-Saxon."</p>
+
+<p>In a work entitled "Names of Persons for whom Marriage Licenses
+were issued by the Secretary of the Province of New York, previous to
+1784," compiled by Gideon J. Tucker (when Secretary of State), and
+taken from the early records of the office of the Secretary of State
+at Albany, we find ample corroboration of the church records. Page
+after page of this book looks more like some record of the Province of
+Munster than of the Province of New York. It is a quarto volume
+printed in small type in double columns, and there are eleven pages
+wholly devoted to persons whose names commence with "Mac" and three to
+the "O's." Nearly every name common to Ireland is here
+represented.</p>
+
+<p>New York, as a Province and as a State, is much indebted to Irish
+genius. Ireland gave the Province its most noted governor in the
+person of Thomas Dongan from Co. Kildare, and in later years Sir
+William Johnson from Co. Meath, governor of the Indians from New York
+to the Mississippi. It gave the State its first governor, George
+Clinton, son of an immigrant from Co. Longford, and to the city its
+first mayor after the Revolution, James Duane, son of Anthony Duane
+from Co. Galway. Fulton, an Irishman's son, gave America priority in
+the "conquest of the seas." Christopher Colles, a native of Cork, was
+the originator of the grand scheme which united the waters of the
+Atlantic and the Lakes&mdash;one of the greatest works of internal
+improvement ever effected in the United States&mdash;while the
+gigantic project was carried to a successful end through the influence
+and direction of Governor DeWitt Clinton, the grandson of an
+Irishman.</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+<p>Many of the pioneer settlers of New Jersey were Irish. As early as
+1683 "a colony from Tipperary in Ireland" located at Cohansey in Salem
+County, and in the same year a number of settlers, also described as
+"from Tipperary, Ireland," located in Monmouth County. In the County
+records of New Jersey, Irish names are met with frequently between the
+years 1676 and 1698. Several of the local historians testify to the
+presence and influence of Irishmen in the early days of the colony,
+and in the voluminous "New Jersey Archives" may be found references to
+the large numbers of Irish "redemptioners," some of whom, after their
+terms of service had expired, received grants of land and in time
+became prosperous farmers and merchants. Perhaps the most noted
+Irishman in New Jersey in colonial days was Michael Kearney, a native
+of Cork and ancestor of General Philip Kearney of Civil War fame, who
+was secretary and treasurer of the Province in 1723.</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+<p>All through the west and southwest, Irishmen are found in the
+earliest days of authentic history. Along the Ohio, Kentucky, Wabash,
+and Tennessee rivers they were with the pioneers who first trod the
+wilderness of that vast territory. As early as 1690, an Irish trader
+named Doherty crossed the mountains into what is now Kentucky, and we
+are told by Filson, the noted French historian and explorer of
+Kentucky, that "the first white man who discovered this region" (1754)
+was one James McBride, who, in all probability, was an Irishman. The
+first white child born in Cincinnati was a son of an Irish settler
+named John Cummins; the first house built on its site was erected by
+Captain Hugh McGarry, while "the McGarrys, Dentons, and Hogans formed
+the first domestic circle in Kentucky." Prior to the Revolution,
+Indian traders from Western Pennsylvania had penetrated into this
+region, and we learn from authentic sources that no small percentage
+of those itinerant merchants of the west were Irishmen. Among the
+leading and earliest colonists of the "Blue Grass State" who
+accompanied Daniel Boone, the ubiquitous Irish were represented by men
+bearing such names as Mooney, McManus, Sullivan, Drennon, Logan,
+Casey, Fitzpatrick, Dunlevy, Cassidy, Doran, Dougherty, Lynch, Ryan,
+McNeill, McGee, Reilly, Flinn, and the noted McAfee brothers, all
+natives of Ireland or sons of Irish immigrants.</p>
+
+<p>Irishmen and their sons figured prominently in the field of early
+western politics. In the Kentucky legislature, I find such names as
+Connor, Cassidy, Cleary, Conway, Casey, Cavan, Dulin, Dougherty,
+Geohegan, Maher, Morrison, Moran, McMahon, McFall, McClanahan,
+O'Bannon, Powers, and a number of others evidently of Irish origin. On
+the bench we find O'Hara, Boyle, and Barry. Among the many
+distinguished men who reflected honor upon the west, Judge William T.
+Barry of Lexington ranks high for great ability and lofty virtues.
+Simon Kenton, famed in song and story, who "battled with the Indians
+in a hundred encounters and wrested Kentucky from the savage," was an
+Irishman's son, while among its famous Indian fighters were Colonels
+Andrew Hynes, William Casey, and John O'Bannon; Majors Bulger,
+McMullin, McGarry, McBride, Butler, and Cassidy; and Captains McMahon,
+Malarkie, Doyle, Phelon, and Brady. Allen, Butler, Campbell,
+Montgomery, and Rowan counties, Ky., are named after natives of
+Ireland, and Boyle, Breckinridge, Carroll, Casey, Daviess, Magoffin,
+Kenton, McCracken, Meade, Menifee, Clinton, and Fulton counties were
+named in honor of descendants of Irish settlers.</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+<p>In the councils of the first territorial legislature of Missouri
+were Sullivan, Cassidy, Murphy, McDermid, McGrady, Flaugherty,
+McGuire, Dunn, and Hogan, and among the merchants, lawyers, and
+bankers in the pioneer days of St. Louis there were a number of
+Irishmen, the most noted of whom were Mullanphy, Gilhuly, O'Fallon,
+Connor, O'Hara, Dillon, Ranken, Magennis, and Walsh. In all early
+histories of Missouri towns and counties, Irish names are mentioned,
+and in many instances they are on record as "the first settlers."</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+<p>And so it was all through the west. In Ohio, Indiana, Iowa, and
+Illinois, across the rolling prairies and the mountains, beyond the
+Mississippi and the Missouri, in the earliest days of colonization of
+that vast territory, we can follow the Irish "trek" in quest of new
+homes and fortunes. They were part of that irresistible human current
+that swept beyond the ranges of Colorado and Kansas and across the
+Sierra Nevada until it reached the Pacific, and in the forefront of
+those pathfinders and pioneers we find Martin Murphy, the first to
+open a wagon trail to California from the East. The names of Don
+Timoteo Murphy, of Jasper O'Farrell, of Dolans, Burkes, Breens, and
+Hallorins are linked with the annals of the coast while that territory
+was still under Spanish rule, and when Fremont crossed the plains and
+planted the "Bear flag" beyond the Sierras, we find Irishmen among his
+trusted lieutenants. An Irishman, Captain Patrick Connor, first
+penetrated the wilderness of Utah; a descendant of an Irishman, Hall
+J. Kelly, was the explorer of Oregon; Philip Nolan and Thomas O'Connor
+were foremost among those brave spirits "whose daring and persistency
+finally added the Lone Star State to the American Union"; and the
+famous Arctic explorer, scientist, and scholar, Dr. Elisha Kent Kane,
+was a descendant of John O'Kane who came from Ireland to the Province
+of New York in 1752.</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+<p>To form any reliable estimate of the numerical strength of the
+Irish and their descendants in the United States would, I believe, be
+a hopeless task, and while several have attempted to do so, I am of
+the opinion that all such estimates should be discarded as mere
+conjecture. Indeed, there is no standard, or fixed rule or principle,
+by which a correct judgment of the racial composition of the early
+inhabitants of the United States can now be formed, and the available
+statistics on the subject are incomplete and confusing. The greatest
+obstacle in determining this question is found in the names of the
+immigrants themselves. With names such as Smith, Mason, Carpenter, and
+Taylor; White, Brown, Black, and Gray; Forrest, Wood, Mountain, and
+Vail, and other names that are similarly derived, the first thought is
+that they are of English origin. Yet we know that for centuries past
+such names have been numerous in Ireland, and there are many Irish
+families so named who are of as pure Celtic blood as any bearing the
+old Gaelic patronymics. By a law passed in the second year of the
+reign of Edward IV., natives of Ireland were forced to adopt English
+surnames. This Act was, substantially, as follows: "An Act that
+Irishmen dwelling in the Counties of, etc.... shall go appareled like
+Englishmen and wear their beards in English manner, swear allegiance
+and take English sirnames, which sirnames shall be of one towne, as
+Sutton, Chester, Trim, Skryne, Cork, Kinsale; or colours, as white,
+black, brown; or arts, or sciences, as smith or carpenter; or office,
+as cook, butler, etc., and it is enacted that he and his issue shall
+use his name under pain of forfeyting of his goods yearly", etc.</p>
+
+<p>This Act could be enforced only upon those Irish families who dwelt
+within the reach of English law, and as emigrants from those
+districts, deprived of their pure Celtic names, came to America in an
+English guise and in English vessels, they were officially recorded as
+"English." Moreover, numbers of Irish frequently crossed the channel
+and began their voyage from English ports, where they had to take on
+new names, sometimes arbitrarily, and sometimes voluntarily for
+purposes of concealment, either by transforming their original names
+into English or adopting names similar to those above referred to.
+These names were generally retained on this side of the Atlantic so as
+not to arouse the prejudice of their English neighbors. In complying
+with the statute above quoted, some Irish families accepted the rather
+doubtful privilege of translating their names into their English
+equivalents. We have examples of this in such names as Somers,
+anglicised from McGauran (presumably derived from the Gaelic word
+signifying "summer"); Smith from McGowan (meaning "the son of the
+smith"); Jackson and Johnson, a literal translation from MacShane
+(meaning "the son of John"); and Whitcomb from Kiernan (meaning,
+literally, "a white comb").</p>
+
+<p>In addition to this, in the case of some of those Irish immigrants
+whose family names were not changed in Ireland, their descendants
+appear in a much disguised form in the colonial records. Through the
+mistakes of clergymen, court clerks, registrars, and others who had
+difficulty in pronouncing Gaelic names, letters became inserted or
+dropped and the names were written down phonetically. In the mutations
+of time, even these names became still further changed, and we find
+that the descendants of the Irish themselves, after the lapse of a
+generation or two, deliberately changed their names, usually by
+suppressing the Milesian prefixes, "Mac" and "O". Thus we have the
+Laflin and Claflin families, who are descended from a McLaughlin, an
+Irish settler in Massachusetts in the seventeenth century; the Bryans
+from William O'Brian, a captain in Sarsfield's army, who, after the
+fall of Limerick in 1691, settled in Pasquetank County, N.C., and one
+of whose descendants is William Jennings Bryan, now Secretary of
+State; the Dunnels of Maine, from an O'Donnell who located in the Saco
+Valley; and at the Land Office at Annapolis I have found the
+descendants of Roger O'Dewe, who came to Maryland about 1665, recorded
+under the surnames of "Roger", "Dew", and "Dewey". I find Dennis
+O'Deeve or O'Deere written down on the Talbot County (Md.) records of
+the year 1667 with his name reversed, and today his descendants are
+known as "Dennis". Many such instances appear in the early records,
+and when we find a New England family rejoicing in the name of
+"Navillus" we know that the limit has been reached, and while we
+cannot admire the attempt to disguise an ancient and honorable name,
+we are amused at the obvious transposition of "Sullivan".</p>
+
+<p>Thus we see, that, numerous though the old Irish names are on
+American records, they do not by any means indicate the extent of the
+Celtic element which established itself in the colonies, so that there
+is really no means of determining exactly what Ireland has contributed
+to the American Commonwealth. We only know that a steady stream of
+Irish immigrants has crossed the seas to the American continent,
+beginning with the middle of the seventeenth century, and that many of
+those "Exiles from Erin", or their sons, became prominent as leaders
+in every station in life in the new country.</p>
+
+<p>Nor is the "First Census of the United States" any criterion in
+this regard, for the obvious reason that the enumerators made no
+returns of unmarried persons. This fact is important when we consider
+that the Irish exodus of the eighteenth century was largely comprised
+of the youth of the country. Although the First Census was made in
+1790, the first regular record of immigration was not begun until
+thirty years later, and it is only from the records kept after that
+time that we can depend upon actual official figures. During the
+decade following 1820, Ireland contributed more than forty per cent,
+of the entire immigration to America from all European countries, and
+the Irish Emigration Statistics show that between 1830 and 1907 the
+number of people who left Ireland was 6,049,432, the majority of whom
+came to America. The <i>Westminster Review</i> (vol. 133, p. 293), in
+an article on "The Irish-Americans", puts a series of questions as
+follows: "Is the American Republic in any way indebted to those Irish
+citizens? Have they with their large numbers, high social standing,
+great places of trust, contributed aught to her glory or added aught
+to her commercial greatness, refined her social taste or assisted in
+laying the foundations of the real happiness of her people, the real
+security of her laws, the influence of her civic virtues, which more
+than anything else give power and permanency to a naissant and mighty
+nation? The answer is unquestionably affirmative. We have only to look
+back on the past, and to scan the present state of American affairs,
+to feel certain of this." If it be further asked: "Does this statement
+stand the test of strict investigation?" the answer must also be in
+the affirmative, for in almost every line of progress the Irish in
+America have contributed their share of leaders and pioneers, thus
+proving that there are characteristics among even the poor Irish
+driven to emigration for an existence that are as capable of
+development as those possessed by any other race. When we scan the
+intellectual horizon, we see many men of great force of character:
+preachers and teachers; statesmen and scholars; philanthropists and
+founders of institutions; scientists and engineers; historians and
+journalists; artists and authors; lawyers and doctors, of Celtic race
+and blood, while, in the industrial field, as builders of steamships
+and railroads and promoters of public works, as merchants,
+manufacturers, and bankers, and in all other fields of endeavor, we
+find the American Irish controlling factors in the upbuilding of the
+Republic.</p>
+
+<p>Of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, Thornton,
+Taylor, and Smith were natives of Ireland; McKean, Read, and Rutledge
+were of Irish parentage; Lynch and Carroll were grandsons of Irishmen;
+Whipple and Hancock were of Irish descent on the maternal side; and
+O'Hart (<i>Irish Pedigrees</i>) declares that Robert Treat Paine was a
+great-grandson of Henry O'Neill, hereditary prince of Ulster, who
+"changed his name to that of one of his maternal ancestors so as to
+save his estates". It was an Irishman who first read the immortal
+Document to the public; an Irishman first printed it; and an Irishman
+published it for the first time with facsimiles of the signatures.</p>
+
+<p>At least six American Presidents had more or less of the Celtic
+strain. President Jackson, whose parents came from Co. Down, more than
+once expressed his pride in his Irish ancestry. Arthur's parents were
+from Antrim, Buchanan's from Donegal, and McKinley's grandparents came
+from the same vicinity. Theodore Roosevelt boasts among his ancestors
+two direct lines from Ireland, and the first American ancestor of
+President Polk was a Pollock from Donegal. The present occupant of the
+White House, Woodrow Wilson, is also of Irish descent. Among the
+distinguished Vice-Presidents of the United States were George Clinton
+and John C. Calhoun, sons of immigrants from Longford and Donegal
+respectively, and Calhoun's successor as chairman of the committee on
+foreign relations was John Smilie, a native of Newtownards, Co.
+Down.</p>
+
+<p>Among American governors since 1800, we find such names as Barry,
+Brady, Butler, Carroll, Clinton, Conway, Carney, Connolly, Curtin,
+Collins, Donaghey, Downey, Early, Fitzpatrick, Flannegan, Geary,
+Gorman, Hannegan, Kavanagh, Kearney, Logan, Lynch, Murphy, Moore,
+McKinley, McGill, Meagher, McGrath, Mahone, McCormick, O'Neal,
+O'Ferrall, Orr, Roane, Filey, Sullivan, Sharkey, Smith, Talbot, and
+Welsh, all of Irish descent. Today we have as governors of States,
+Glynn in New York, Dunne in Illinois, Walsh in Massachusetts, O'Neal
+in Alabama, Burke in North Carolina, Carey in Wyoming, McGovern in
+Wisconsin, McCreary in Kentucky, and Tener in Pennsylvania, and not
+alone is the governor of the last-mentioned State a native of Ireland,
+but so also are its junior United States Senator, the secretary of the
+Commonwealth, and its adjutant-general.</p>
+
+<p>In the political life of America, many of the sons of Ireland have
+risen to eminence, and in the legislative halls at the National
+Capital, the names of Kelly, Fitzpatrick, Broderick, Casserly, Farley,
+Logan, Harlan, Hannegan, Adair, Barry, Rowan, Gorman, Kennedy, Lyon,
+Fitzgerald, Fair, Sewall, Kernan, Butler, Moore, Regan, Mahone, Walsh,
+and Flannegan, are still spoken of with respect among the lawmakers of
+the nation. William Darrah Kelly served in Congress for fifty years,
+and it remained for James Shields to hold the unique distinction of
+representing three different States, at different times, in the Senate
+of the United States. Senator Shields was a native of Co. Tyrone.</p>
+
+<p>In the judiciary have been many shining lights of Irish origin. The
+Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court is Edward D. White,
+grandson of a '98 rebel, and one of his ablest associates is Joseph
+McKenna. No more erudite or profound lawyer than Charles O'Conor has
+adorned his profession and it can be said with truth that his career
+has remained unrivalled in American history. James T. Brady, Daniel
+Dougherty, Thomas Addis Emmet, and Charles O'Neill were among the most
+eminent lawyers America has known, while the names of Dennis O'Brien,
+Chief Justice of the New York Court of Appeals, John D. O'Neill, who
+occupied a like elevated place on the bench of South Carolina, John D.
+Phelan of the Alabama Supreme Court, Richard O'Gorman, Charles P.
+Daly, Hugh Rutledge, Morgan J. O'Brien, and others of like origin, are
+household words in the legal annals of America. There is no State in
+the Union where an Irish-American lawyer has not distinguished
+himself.</p>
+
+<p>The history of medicine in the United States is adorned with the
+names of many physicians of Irish birth or blood. Several Irish
+surgeons rendered valuable services in the army of the Revolution,
+among whom are found Drs. McDonough, McHenry, McCloskey, McCalla,
+Burke, Irvine, and Williamson. Dr. John Cochran was appointed by
+Washington surgeon-general of the army. Dr. James Lynah of Charleston,
+a native of Ireland, became surgeon-general of South Carolina in
+recognition of his valuable services to the patriot army. Dr. John
+McKinley, a native of Ireland, who was a famous physician in his day,
+became the first governor of Delaware. Dr. Ephraim McDowell is known
+in the profession as the "Father of Ovariotomy", as is Dr. William J.
+McNevin the "Father of American Chemistry". Dr. John Byrne of New York
+had a world-wide fame, and his papers on gynecology have been
+pronounced by the medical press as "the best printed in any language".
+One of the most conspicuous figures in medicine in the United States
+was Dr. Jerome Cochran of Alabama. Drs. Junius F. Lynch of Florida;
+Charles McCreery of Kentucky; Hugh McGuire and Hunter McGuire of
+Virginia; Matthew C. McGannon of Tennessee; and James Lynch, Charles
+J. O'Hagan, and James McBride of South Carolina are mentioned
+prominently in the histories of their respective localities as the
+foremost medical men of their times, while in Wisconsin the pioneer
+physician was Dr. William H. Fox, and in Oregon, Dr. John McLoughlin.
+Among New York physicians who achieved high reputations in their
+profession were Drs. Thomas Addis Emmet, Frank A. McGuire, Daniel E.
+O'Neill, Charles McBurney, Isaac H. Reiley, Alfred L. Carroll, Howard
+A. Kelly, Joseph O'Dwyer, and James J. Walsh. These and many others of
+Irish descent have been honored by medical societies as leaders and
+specialists, while it can be said that no surgeon of the present day
+has achieved such a world-wide reputation as Dr. John B. Murphy of
+Chicago. Among experts in medico-legal science, the names of Drs.
+Benjamin W. McCreedy and William J. O'Sullivan of New York stand out
+prominently, and among the most noted contributors to medical journals
+in the United States, and recognized as men of great professional
+skill and authorities in their respective specialties, have been Drs.
+F.D. Mooney of St. Louis; Thomas Fitzgibbon of Milwaukee; John D.
+Hanrahan of Rutland; James McCann and James H. McClelland of
+Pittsburgh; John A. Murphy and John McCurdy of Cincinnati; John
+Keating of Philadelphia; John H. Murphy of St. Paul; John W.C. O'Neal
+of Gettysburg; and Arthur O'Neill of Meadville, Pa. Indeed, it can be
+said that American medical science owes an incalculable debt to Irish
+genius.</p>
+
+<p>Theodore Vail, the presiding genius of the greatest telephone
+system in the world, is Irish, and so is Carty, its chief engineer.
+Morse, the inventor of the telegraph, was the grandson of an Irishman;
+Henry O'Reilly built the first telegraph line in the United States;
+and John W. Mackey was the president of the Commercial Cable Company.
+John P. Holland, the inventor of the submarine torpedo boat, was a
+native of Co. Clare; and McCormick, the inventor of the reaping and
+mowing machine, was an Irishman's grandson.</p>
+
+<p>Sons of Irishmen have stood in the front rank of American statesmen
+and diplomats who represented their country abroad. To mention but a
+few: Richard O'Brien, appointed by Jefferson American representative
+at Algiers; James Kavanagh, Minister to Portugal; and Louis McLane,
+Minister to England in 1829 and afterwards Secretary of State in 1832.
+In recent years, an O'Brien has represented American interests in
+Italy and Japan; a Kerens in Austria; an Egan in Chili and another of
+the same name in Denmark; an O'Shaughnessy in Mexico; a Sullivan in
+Santo Domingo; and an O'Rear in Bolivia.</p>
+
+<p>Among historians were John Gilmary Shea, author of numerous
+historical works; Dr. Robert Walsh, a learned historian and journalist
+of the last century, whose literary labors were extensive; McMahon and
+McSherry, historians of Maryland; Burk, of Virginia; O'Callaghan,
+Hastings, and Murphy of New York; Ramsay of South Carolina; and
+Williamson of North Carolina, all native Irishmen or sons of Irish
+immigrants.</p>
+
+<p>In the field of American journalism have been many able and
+forcible writers of Irish birth or descent. Hugh Gaine, a Belfast man,
+founded the New York <i>Mercury</i> in 1775. John Dunlap founded the
+first daily paper in Philadelphia, John Daly Burk published the first
+daily paper in Boston, and William Duane edited the <i>Aurora</i> of
+Philadelphia in 1795. All these were born in Ireland. William Coleman,
+founder of the New York <i>Evening Post</i> in 1801, was the son of an
+Irish rebel of 1798; Thomas Fitzgerald founded the Philadelphia
+<i>Item</i>; Thomas Gill, the New York <i>Evening Star</i>; Patrick
+Walsh, the Augusta <i>Chronicle</i>; Joseph Medill, the Chicago
+<i>Tribune</i>. Henry W. Grady edited the Atlanta <i>Constitution</i>;
+Michael Dee edited the Detroit <i>Evening News</i> for nearly fifty
+years; Richard Smith, the Cincinnati <i>Gazette</i>; Edward L. Godkin,
+the New York <i>Evening Post</i>; William Laffan, the New York
+<i>Sun</i>; and Horace Greeley, the New York <i>Tribune</i>. All of
+these were either natives of Ireland or sprung from immigrant
+Irishmen, as were Oliver of the Pittsburgh <i>Gazette</i>, O'Neill of
+the Pittsburgh <i>Despatch</i>, John Keating of Memphis, William D.
+O'Connor, and many other shining lights of American journalism during
+the last century. Fitz James O'Brien was "a bright, particular star"
+in the journalistic firmament; John MacGahan achieved fame as a war
+correspondent; Patrick Barry of Rochester, an extensive writer on
+horticultural and kindred subjects, was the recognized leader of his
+craft in the United States; and William Darby, son of Patrick and Mary
+Darby, and Michael Twomey were the ablest American geographers and
+writers on abstruse scientific subjects.</p>
+
+<p>In the field of poetry, we have had Theodore O'Hara, the author of
+that immortal poem, "The Bivouac of the Dead"; John Boyle O'Reilly;
+Thomas Dunn English, author of "Ben Bolt"; Father Abram Ryan, "the
+poet priest of the South"; James Whitcomb Riley; Eleanor Donnelly;
+M.F. Egan; T.A. Daly; and Joseph I.C. Clarke, president of the
+American Irish Historical Society.</p>
+
+<p>To recount the successful men of affairs of Irish origin it would
+be necessary to mention every branch of business and every profession.
+Recalling but a few, Daniel O'Day, Patrick Farrelly, John and William
+O'Brien, Alexander T. Stewart, John Castree, Joseph J. O'Donohue,
+William R. Grace, John McConville, Hugh O'Neill, Alexander E. Orr,
+William Constable, Daniel McCormick, and Dominick Lynch, all of New
+York, were dominant figures in the world of business. Thomas Mellon of
+Pittsburgh; John R. Walsh and the Cudahy brothers of Chicago; James
+Phelan, Peter Donahue, Joseph A. Donohoe, and John Sullivan of San
+Francisco; William A. Clark and Marcus Daly of Montana; George Meade,
+the Meases and the Nesbits, Thomas FitzSimmons and Thomas Dolan of
+Philadelphia; Columbus O'Donnell and Luke Tiernan of Baltimore, all
+these have been leading merchants in their day. Few American
+financiers occupy a more conspicuous place than Thomas F. Ryan, and no
+great industrial leader has reached the pinnacle of success upon which
+stands the commanding figure of James J. Hill, both sons of Irishmen.
+The names of Anthony N. Brady, Eugene Kelly, James S. Stranahan, and
+James A. Farrell, president of the United States Steel Corporation,
+are household words in business and financial circles.</p>
+
+<p>John Keating, the first paper manufacturer in New York (1775);
+Thomas Faye, the first to manufacture wall-paper by machinery, who won
+for this distinction the first gold medal of the American Institute;
+John and Edward McLoughlin of New York, for many years the leading
+publishers of illustrated books; and John Banigan of Providence, one
+of the largest manufacturers of rubber goods in America, were natives
+of Ireland. John O'Fallon and Bryan Mullanphy of St. Louis, and John
+McDonough of Baltimore, who amassed great wealth as merchants, were
+large contributors to charitable and educational institutions; William
+W. Corcoran, whose name is enshrined in the famous Art Gallery at
+Washington, contributed during his lifetime over five million dollars
+to various philanthropic institutions; and one of the most noted
+philanthropists in American history, and the first woman in America to
+whom a public monument was erected, was an Irishwoman, Margaret
+Haughery of New Orleans.</p>
+
+<p>Irishmen have shown a remarkable aptitude for the handling of large
+contracts, and in this field have been prominent John H. O'Rourke,
+James D. Leary, James Coleman, Oliver Byrne, and John D. Crimmins in
+New York; John B. McDonald, the builder of New York's subways; George
+Law, projector and promoter of public works, steamship and railroad
+builder; and John Roach, the famous ship-builder of Chester, Pa. John
+Sullivan, a noted American engineer one hundred years ago, completed
+the Middlesex Canal; and John McL. Murphy, whose ability as a
+constructing engineer was universally recognized, rendered valuable
+service to the United States during the Civil War. Among pioneer
+ship-builders in America are noted Patrick Tracy fron Wexford and
+Simon Forrester from Cork, who were both at Salem, Mass., during the
+period of the Revolution and rendered most valuable service to the
+patriot cause; and the O'Briens, Kavanaghs, and Sewalls in Maine.</p>
+
+<p>But it is not in the material things of life alone that the Irish
+have been in the van. Thousands of Americans have been charmed by the
+operas of Victor Herbert, a grandson of Samuel Lover, and with lovers
+of music the strains of Patrick Sarsfield Gilmore's band still linger
+as a pleasant memory. Edward A. MacDowell, America's most famous
+composer, was of Irish descent. The colossal statute of "America" on
+the dome of the National Capitol was executed by Thomas Crawford, who
+was born in New York of Irish parents in 1814; Henry Inman, one of the
+very best of portrait painters, was also born in New York of Irish
+parents; John Singleton Copley, the distinguished artist, came to
+Boston from Co. Clare in 1736; Thompson, the sculptor, was born in
+Queen's Co.; another noted sculptor was William D. O'Donovan of
+Virginia; and Augustus Saint Gaudens, one of the greatest sculptors of
+modern times, was born in Dublin. Other sculptors of Irish race have
+been elsewhere mentioned. Among America's most talented artists and
+portrait painters may be mentioned George P. Healy, William J.
+Hennessy, Thomas Moran, Henry Pelham, Henry Murray, John Neagle, and
+William Magrath, all of Irish birth or descent.</p>
+
+<p>Ireland has given many eminent churchmen to the United States. The
+three American Cardinals, Gibbons, Farley, and O'Connell, stand out
+prominently, as do Archbishops Carroll, Hughes, McCloskey, Kenrick,
+Ryan, Ireland, Glennon, Corrigan, and Keane, all of whom have shed
+lustre on the Church. History has given to an Irishman, Francis
+Makemie of Donegal, the credit of founding Presbyterianism in America,
+while among noted Presbyterian divines of Irish birth were James
+Waddell, known as "the blind preacher of the wilderness," Thomas
+Smyth, John Hall, Francis Allison, William Tennant, and James McGrady,
+all men of great ability and influence in their day. Samuel Finley,
+President of Princeton College in 1761, was a native of Armagh, and
+John Blair Smith, famous as a preacher throughout the Shenandoah
+Valley and the first president of Union College (1795), was of Irish
+descent. Among the pioneer preachers of the western wilderness were
+McMahon, Dougherty, Quinn, Burke, O'Cool, Delaney, McGee, and many
+others of Irish origin.</p>
+
+<p>Irishmen and their sons have founded American towns and cities, and
+the capital of the State of Colorado takes its name from General James
+Denver, son of Patrick Denver, an emigrant from county Down in the
+year 1795. Sixty-five places in the United States are named after
+people bearing the Irish prefix "O" and upwards of 1000 after the
+"Macs", and there are 253 counties of the United States and
+approximately 7000 places called by Irish family or place names. There
+are 24 Dublins, 21 Waterfords, 18 Belfasts, 16 Tyrones, 10 Limericks,
+9 Antrims, 8 Sligos, 7 Derrys, 6 Corks, 5 Kildares, and so on.</p>
+
+<p>Immigrant Irishmen have also been the founders of prominent
+American families. One of the most ancient of Irish patronymics,
+McCarthy, is found in the records of Virginia as early as 1635 and in
+Massachusetts in 1675, and all down through the successive generations
+descendants of this sept were among the leading families of the
+communities where they located. In Virginia, the McCormick, Meade,
+Lewis, Preston, and Lynch families; in the Carolinas, the Canteys,
+Nealls, Bryans, and Butlers; and in Maryland, the Carrolls and Dulanys
+are all descended from successful Irish colonizers.</p>
+
+<p>Even from this very incomplete summary, we can see that Irish
+blood, brain, and brawn have been a valuable acquisition to the
+building of the fabric of American institutions, and that the sons of
+Ireland merit more prominent recognition than has been accorded them
+in the pages of American history. The pharisees of history may have
+withheld from Ireland the credit that is her due, but, thanks to the
+never-failing guidance of the records, we are able to show that at all
+times, whether they came as voluntary exiles or were driven from their
+homes by the persecutions of government, her sons have had an
+honorable part in every upward movement in American life. Testimony
+adduced from the sources from which this imperfect sketch is drawn
+cannot be called into question, and its perusal by those who so
+amusingly glorify the "Anglo-Saxon" as the founder of the American
+race and American institutions would have a chastening influence on
+their ignorance of early American history, and would reopen the long
+vista of the years, at the very beginning of which they would see Celt
+and Teuton, Saxon and Gaul, working side by side solidifying the
+fulcrum of the structure on which this great nation rests.</p>
+
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>The archives, registers, records, reports, and other official
+documents mentioned in the text; the various Town, County, and State
+Histories; the collections and publications of the following
+societies: Massachusetts Historical Society, Genealogical Society of
+Pennsylvania, New York Historical Society (34 vols.), New York
+Genealogical and Biographical Society (44 vols.), Maine Historical
+Society, Rhode Island Historical Society, Connecticut Historical
+Society, South Carolina Historical Society, and American Historical
+Society; New England Historical and Genealogical Register (67 vols.,
+Boston, 1847-1913); New England Historical and Biographical Record;
+Hakluyt: Voyages, Navigations, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the
+English Nation (London, 1607); Dobbs: The Trade and Improvement of
+Ireland (Dublin, 1729); Hutchinson: History of Massachusetts from the
+First Settlement in 1628 until 1750 (Salem, 1795); Proud: History of
+Pennsylvania, 1681-1770 (Philadelphia, 1797-1798); Savage:
+Genealogical Dictionary of the First Settlers of New England (Boston,
+1860-1862); Morris (ed.): The Makers of New York (Philadelphia, 1895);
+Pope: The Pioneers of Massachusetts (Boston, 1900), The Pioneers of
+Maine and New Hampshire (Boston, 1908); Richardson: Side-lights on
+Maryland History (Baltimore, 1913); Spencer: History of the United
+States; Ramsay: History of the United States; Prendergast: Cromwellian
+Settlement of Ireland.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T21"></a>THE IRISH IN CANADA</h2>
+<h4>By JAMES J. WALSH, M.D., Ph.D., Litt.D., Sc.D.</h4>
+
+<p>When Wolfe captured Quebec and Canada came under British rule, some
+of the best known of his officers and several of his men were Irish.
+After the Peace was signed many of them settled in Canada, not a few
+of them marrying French wives, and as a consequence there are numerous
+Irish, Scotch, and English names among the French speaking inhabitants
+of Lower Canada. Two of Wolfe's officers, Colonel Guy Carleton, born
+at Strabane in the county Tyrone, and General Richard Montgomery, born
+only seven miles away at Convoy, in the same county, were destined to
+play an important role in the future history of Canada. Montgomery was
+in command of the Revolutionary Army from the Colonies, when it
+attempted to take Quebec, and Carleton, who had been a trusted friend
+of General Wolfe, was in command of the Canadian forces. The two men
+were the lives of their respective commands, and with the death of
+Montgomery Carleton's victory was assured.</p>
+
+<p>Carleton was made Governor-in-Chief of Canada, and during the
+trying years of the early British rule of New France and the American
+Revolution, his tact did more than anything else to save Canada for
+the British. Bibaud, the French historian, says, "the man to whom the
+administration of the government was entrusted had known how to make
+the Canadians love him, and this contributed not a little to retain at
+least within the bounds of neutrality those among them who might have
+been able, or who believed themselves able, to ameliorate their lot by
+making common cause with the insurgent colonies." Shortly after being
+made governor, Carleton went to England and secured the passage of the
+Quebec Act through the English parliament, which gave the Canadian
+French assurance that they were to be ruled without oppression by the
+British Government. Subsequently, in 1786, Carleton, as Lord
+Dorchester, became the first governor-general of Canada, being given
+jurisdiction over Nova Scotia and New Brunswick as well as Upper and
+Lower Canada, and to him more than to any other is due the early
+loyalty to the British crown in the Dominion.</p>
+
+<p>After the army the next important source of Irish population in
+Canada were the loyalists who after the Revolution removed from the
+United States to the British Dominions in America. There were probably
+many thousands of them, more than enough to make up for the French who
+left Canada for France when the territory passed over to England.
+Among the Irish loyalists who went to Canada was the Rev. John Stuart,
+who had become very well known as a missionary in the Mohawk Valley
+before the Revolution, and who, though born a Presbyterian, was
+destined to win the title of the "Father of the Church of England in
+Upper Canada." When the first Canadian parliament met in December
+1792, Edward O'Hara was returned for Gasp&eacute;, in Lower Canada,
+and D'Arcy McGee could boast that henceforward Lower Canada was never
+without an Irish representative in its legislative councils.</p>
+
+<p>When the question of settling Upper Canada with British colonists
+came up, Colonel Talbot, a county Dublin man, was the most important
+factor. He obtained a large grant of land near what is now London and
+attracted settlers into what was at that time a wilderness. The tract
+settled under his superintendence now comprises twenty-nine townships
+in the most prosperous part of Canada.</p>
+
+<p>The maritime Provinces had been under British rule before the fall
+of Quebec and contained a large element of Irish population. In
+Newfoundland in 1753 out of a total population of some thirteen
+thousand, Davin says that there were nearly five thousand Catholics,
+chiefly Irish. In 1784 a great new stimulus to Irish immigration to
+Newfoundland was given by Father O'Connell, who in 1796 was made
+Catholic bishop of the island. Newfoundland, for its verdure, the
+absence of reptiles, and its Irish inhabitants, was called at this
+time "Transatlantic Ireland", and Bonnycastle says that more than one
+half of the population was Irish.</p>
+
+<p>In 1749 Governor Cornwallis brought some 4,000 disbanded soldiers
+to Nova Scotia and founded Halifax. Ten years later it was described
+as divided into Halifax proper, Irishtown or the southern, and
+Dutchtown or the northern, suburbs. The inhabitants numbered 3,000,
+one-third of whom were Irish. They were among the most prominent men
+of the city and province. In the Privy Council for 1789 were Thomas
+Corcoran and Charles Morris. Morris was president of the Irish Society
+and Matthew Cahill the sheriff of Halifax in that year. A large number
+of Irish from the north of Ireland settled in Nova Scotia in 1763,
+calling their settlement Londonderry. They provided a fortunate refuge
+for the large numbers of Irish Presbyterians who were expelled from
+New England by the intolerant Puritans the following year. They also
+welcomed many loyalists who came from New York and the New England
+States after the acknowledgment of the independence of the American
+Colonies by Great Britain. Between the more eastern settlers around
+Halifax and those in the interior, the greater part of the population
+of Nova Scotia was probably Irish in origin.</p>
+
+<p>It was in the Maritime Provinces that the first step in political
+emancipation for Catholics under British rule was made. In 1821
+Lawrence Cavanaugh, a Roman Catholic, was returned to the Assembly of
+the Province for Cape Breton. He would not subscribe to the
+declaration on Transubstantiation in the oath of office tendered him,
+and as a consequence was refused admittance to the Assembly. But he
+was elected again and again, and six years afterwards Judge
+Haliburton, better known by his <i>nom de plume</i> of "Sam Slick", in
+an able speech, seconded the motion to dispense with the declaration,
+and Cavanaugh was permitted to take the oath without the
+declaration.</p>
+
+<p>The War of 1812 brought over from Ireland a number of Irish
+soldiers serving in the British army, many of whom after the war
+settled down and became inhabitants of the country. They were allotted
+farm lands and added much to Canada's prosperity. A type of their
+descendants was Sir William Hingston, whose father was at this time a
+lieutenant adjutant in the Royal 100th Regiment, "the Dublins." Sir
+William's father died when his son was a mere boy, but the lad
+supported his mother, worked his way through the medical school, saved
+enough money to give himself two years in Europe, and became a great
+surgeon. He was elected three times mayor of Montreal, serving one
+term with great prestige under the most trying circumstances. He
+afterwards became a senator of the Dominion and was knighted by Queen
+Victoria.</p>
+
+<p>Prince Edward Island was settled mainly by the Scotch and French,
+and yet many Irish names are to be found among its old families. It
+was ceded to Great Britain in 1763, and the first Governor appointed
+was Captain Walter Patterson, whose niece, Elizabeth Patterson, was
+married to Jerome Bonaparte in Baltimore in 1803. Captain Patterson
+was so ardent an Irishman that through his influence he had an act
+passed by the Assembly changing the name of the island to New Ireland,
+but the home Government refused to countenance the change. At this
+time the island was known as St. John's, and the name Prince Edward
+was given to it in honor of the Duke of Kent in 1789. One of the most
+popular governors of the island was Sir Dominick Daly, knighted while
+in office. He was a member of a well known Galway family, and first
+came to America as secretary to one of the governors. He afterwards
+became provincial secretary for Lower Canada.</p>
+
+<p>Canada suffered from the aftermath of the revolutions which took
+place in Europe during the early part of the nineteenth century. The
+year 1837 saw two revolutions, one in Upper, the other in Lower,
+Canada, though neither of them amounted to more than a flash in the
+pan. As might be expected, there were not a few Irish among the
+disaffected spirits who fostered these revolutions. Their experience
+at home led them to know how little oppressed people were likely to
+obtain from the British Government except by a demonstration of force.
+There were serious abuses, especially "the Family Compact", the lack
+of anything approaching constitutional guarantees in government, and
+political disabilities on the score of religion. However, most of the
+Irish in Canada were ranged on the side of the government. Sir Richard
+Bonnycastle, writing in 1846, said "The Catholic Irish who have been
+long settled in the country are by no means the worst subjects in this
+transatlantic realm, as I can personally testify, having had the
+command of large bodies of them during the border troubles of 1837-8.
+They are all loyal and true." Above all Bonnycastle pledged himself
+for the loyalty of the Irish Catholic priesthood.</p>
+
+<p>One of the Irishmen who came into prominence in the rebellions of
+1837 was Edmund Bailey O'Callaghan, the editor of the
+<i>Vindicator</i>, the newspaper by means of which Papineau succeeded
+in arousing much feeling among the people of Lower Canada and fomented
+the Revdlution. O'Callaghan escaped to the United States and settled
+at Albany, where he became the historian of New York State. To him,
+more than to any other, we owe the preservation of the historical
+materials out of which the early history of the State can be
+constructed. Rare volumes of the Jesuit Relations, to the value of
+which for historical purposes he had called special attention, were
+secured from his library for the Canadian library at Ottawa.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the middle of the nineteenth century, when the population
+of Ireland reached its highest point of over 8,000,000, the pressure
+on the people caused them to emigrate in large numbers, and then the
+famine came to drive out great crowds of those who survived. In
+proportion to its population Canada received a great many more of
+these Irish emigrants than did the United States. Unfortunately the
+conditions on board the emigrant sailing vessels in those days cost
+many lives. They were often becalmed and took months to cross the
+ocean. My grandmother coming in the thirties was ninety-three days in
+crossing, landing at Quebec after seven weeks on half rations, part of
+the time living on nothing but oatmeal and water. Ship fever, the
+dreaded typhus, broke out on her vessel as on so many others, and more
+than half the passengers perished. Many, many thousands of the Irish
+emigrants thus died on ship-board or shortly after landing. In 1912,
+the Ancient Order of Hibernians erected near Quebec a monument to the
+victims. In spite of the untoward conditions, emigration continued
+unabated, and in 1875, in the population of Ontario, Quebec, New
+Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, it was calculated that the Irish numbered
+846,414 as compared with 706,369 English and 549,946 Scotch (Hatton,
+quoted by Davin in <i>The Irishman In Canada</i>).</p>
+
+<p>It had become clear that Canada would prosper more if united than
+in separate provinces jealous of each other. The first move in this
+direction came from the Maritime Provinces, where the Irish element
+was so much stronger than elsewhere, and when a conference of the
+leading statesmen of these Provinces was appointed to be held at
+Charlottetown, P.E.I., September 1864, representatives of Upper and
+Lower Canada asked to be allowed to be present to bring forward a plan
+for a Federation of all the British Provinces in North America. The
+British North America Act was passed, and received the royal assent,
+the queen appointing July 1, 1867 as the formal beginning of the
+Dominion of Canada.</p>
+
+<p>Among the men who were most prominent in bringing about federation
+and who came to be known as the Fathers of Confederation were several
+distinguished Irishmen. Thomas D'Arcy McGee was the best known and
+probably did more than any other Canadian to make the idea of
+confederation popular by his writings and speeches. He had come to
+Canada as a stranger, edited a newspaper in Montreal, and was elected
+to the Assembly after a brief residence, in spite of the opposition
+cries of "Irish adventurer" and "stranger from abroad," was
+subsequently elected four times by acclamation, and was Minister of
+Agriculture and Education and Canadian Commissioner to the Paris
+Exposition of 1867. His letters to the Earl of Mayo, pleading for the
+betterment of conditions in Ireland, were quoted by Gladstone during
+the Home Rule movement as "a prophetic voice from the dead coming from
+beyond the Atlantic."</p>
+
+<p>Another of the Fathers of Confederation was the Honorable Edward
+Whalen, born in the county Mayo, who as a young man went to Prince
+Edward Island, where he gained great influence as a popular
+journalist. He was an orator as well as an editor, and came to have
+the confidence of the people of the island, and hence was able to do
+very much for federation. A third of the Fathers of Confederation from
+the Maritime Provinces was the Honorable, afterwards Sir, Edward
+Kenny, who, when the first Cabinet of the New Dominion was formed, was
+offered and accepted one of the portfolios in recognition of the
+influence which he had wielded for Canadian union.</p>
+
+<p>At all times in the history of Canada the Catholic hierarchy has
+been looked up to as thoroughly conservative factors for the progress
+and development of the country. After the Irish immigration most of
+the higher ecclesiastics were Irish by birth or descent, and they all
+exerted a deep influence not only on their own people but on their
+city and province. One of the Fathers of Confederation was Archbishop
+Connolly, of Halifax, of whom the most distinguished Presbyterian
+clergyman of the Lower Provinces said the day after his death: "I feel
+that I have not only lost a friend, but as if Canada had lost a
+patriot; in all his big-hearted Irish fashion he was ever at heart, in
+mind, and deed, a true Canadian." Among his colleagues of the
+hierarchy were such men as his predecessor Archbishop Walsh,
+Archbishop Lynch, the first Metropolitan of Upper Canada when Toronto
+was erected into an archbishopric, Bishop Hogan of Kingston,
+Archbishop Hannan of Halifax, Archbishop Walsh of Toronto, and
+Archbishop O'Brien of Halifax, all of whom were esteemed as faithful
+Canadians working for the benefit of their own people more especially,
+but always with the larger view of good for the whole commonwealth of
+Canada.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish continued to furnish great representative men to Canada.
+The first governor, Guy Carleton, was Irish, and his subsequent
+governor-generalship as Lord Dorchester did much to make Canada loyal
+to Great Britain. During the difficult times of the Civil War in the
+United States, Lord Monck, a Tipperary man, was the tactful
+governor-general, "like other Irish Governors singularly successful in
+winning golden opinions" (Davin). Probably the most popular and
+influential of Canada's governors-general was Lord Dufferin, another
+Irishman. Some of the most distinguished of Canadian jurists, editors,
+and politicians have been Irishmen, and Irishmen have been among her
+great merchants, contractors, and professional men. In our own time
+Sir William Hingston among the physicians, Sir Charles Fitzpatrick
+among the jurists, and Sir Thomas George Shaughnessy among the
+administrative financiers are fine types of Irish character.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Davin: The Irishman in Canada (Toronto, 1877); McGee: Works; Tracy:
+The Tercentenary History of Canada (New York, 1908); Walsh: Sir
+William Hingston, in the Amer. Catholic Quarterly (January, 1911),
+Edmund Bailey O'Callaghan, in the Records of the Amer. Catholic
+Historical Society (1907); McKenna: A Century of Catholicity in
+Canada, in the Catholic World, vol. 1, p. 229.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T22"></a>THE IRISH IN SOUTH AMERICA</h2>
+<h4>By MARION MULHALL.</h4>
+
+<h4>I.&mdash;FROM THE SPANISH CONQUEST TO THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.</h4>
+
+<p>South America, although comparatively little known until recent
+times to the outside world, contains much to interest the missionary,
+the scientist, the historian, the traveler, and the financier. The
+twentieth century will probably see hundreds following in the
+footsteps of their predecessors. In the meantime, the brilliant
+achievements of numerous Irish men and women in that part of the world
+are falling into oblivion, and call for a friendly hand to collect the
+fragments of historical lore connected with their exploits.</p>
+
+<p>This paper will cover three periods:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1). From the Spanish Conquest to the War of Independence: here the
+principal actors were maritime explorers, buccaneers, and mercantile
+adventurers;</p>
+
+<p>(2). The War of Independence from 1810 to 1826: in this period
+Irishmen performed feats of valor worthy to rank with those in Greek
+or Roman history.</p>
+
+<p>(3). Since the Independence; a period of commercial and industrial
+development, in which Irishmen have played a foremost part.</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+
+<p>It has been said that George Barlow, the companion of Sebastian
+Cabot, was an Irishman. Cabot was the first Britisher to sail up the
+Rio de la Plata, and gave it its name just thirty-five years after the
+discovery of America. Barlow was in the service of the king of Spain,
+and in that country met Cabot, who had been appointed Pilot Major to
+his Majesty in the year 1518. In 1577 we read of the famous Admiral
+Drake's expedition to the River Plate, which he reached on April 14,
+1578. Evidently it was a successful one in the opinion of Queen
+Elizabeth, for on Drake's return to Plymouth, September 26, 1580, she
+came aboard his ship and knighted him. There seem to have been three
+Irishmen on this expedition, Fenton, Merrick, and Ward. Fenton, who
+was in command of two vessels, was attacked by a Spanish squadron
+between Brazil and the River Plate, and the battle continued by
+moonlight until one of the Spaniards was sunk. The Spanish historian
+adds that Fenton might have sunk another of the enemy's ships, but
+refrained because there were several women on board.</p>
+
+<p>Lozana in his <i>History</i> mentions a revolution in Paraguay in
+1555, which was headed by an Irishman named Nicholas Colman. This
+revolution was quickly suppressed by the Spanish viceroy, Yrala, but
+Colman led a second revolution in 1570, when Captain Rigueline was
+governor of Guayra. The mutineers named Colman for their chief, put
+their treasures into canoes, and floated down the Parana until their
+boats were capsized by some rapids, probably the falls of Apipe in
+Misiones. The viceroy, on hearing of the revolt, sent troops to bring
+back the fugitives, and the latter were treated with unusual clemency.
+Lozana describes Colman as a daring, turbulent buccaneer. For fifteen
+years he seems to have played an important part in Guayra; his
+subsequent fate is unknown.</p>
+
+<p>In 1626 an expedition commanded by James Purcell, an Irishman,
+established itself on the island of Tocujos, in the mouth of the
+Amazon.</p>
+
+<p>Captain Charles O'Hara was sent by Governor Arana from Montevideo
+in March, 1761, to destroy the old landmarks of Rio Negro and Ching
+between the dominions of Portugal and Spain. The officer next under
+him was Lieutenant Charles Murphy, afterwards governor of Paraguay.
+This expedition suffered great hardships.</p>
+
+<p>Several of the expeditions of the privateers of the eighteenth
+century sailed from Ireland. Dampier, a skilful navigator, went on a
+cruise to intercept the Spanish galleons returning from the River
+Plate with booty supposed to be worth &pound;600,000 sterling. He
+sailed from Kinsale in September, 1703, with two vessels, and no doubt
+amongst the crews were many Irishmen. It was on this expedition that
+Alexander Selkirk, a Scotch sailor, was put on shore at Juan Fernandez
+in 1704, where he remained until rescued by Captain Rogers, who
+commanded the <i>Duke</i>, a vessel of 320 tons, which sailed from
+Cork on September 1, 1708, touched by chance at Juan Fernandez, and
+found the original of Defoe's remarkable story, <i>Robinson
+Crusoe</i>, who presented a wild appearance dressed in his
+goatskins.</p>
+
+<p>In 1765 Captain Macnamara, with two vessels called the <i>Lord
+Clive</i> and the <i>Ambuscade</i>, mounting between them 104 guns,
+attempted to take Colonia, in front of Buenos Ayres, from the
+Spaniards. Having shelled the place for four hours, Macnamara expected
+every moment to see a white flag hoisted, when, by some mishap, the
+<i>Lord Clive</i> took fire, and 262 persons perished. The Spaniards
+fired upon the poor fellows in the water, only 78 escaping to land.
+Macnamara was seen to sink. His sword was found a few years ago by a
+Colonia fisherman, who presented it to the British consul at
+Montevideo. Most of the Irish names still extant in the Argentine
+provinces, such as Sarsfield, Carrol, and Butler, are probably derived
+from these captives. Among the descendants of the survivors of
+Macnamara's expedition may be mentioned the ablest lawyer ever known
+in Buenos Ayres and for many years Prime Minister, the late Dr. Velez
+Sarsfield, and also Governor O'Neill.</p>
+
+<p>The year 1586 saw an expedition of a very different character,
+consisting of the first Jesuits sent to convert Paraguay, under the
+direction of Father Thomas Field, an Irishman, and son of a Limerick
+doctor. Their vessel fell into the hands of English privateers off the
+Brazilian coast, but the sea rovers respected their captives, and
+after sundry adventures the latter landed at Buenos Ayres, whence they
+proceeded over land to Cordoba. The year following they set out for
+Paraguay, where Father Field and his companions laid the foundation of
+the Jesuit commonwealth of Misiones, which had such wonderful
+development in the following two centuries as to cause Voltaire to
+admit that "the Jesuit establishment in Paraguay seems to be the
+triumph of humanity."</p>
+
+<p>Another Irish Jesuit, Father Thaddeus Ennis, appears in authority
+in Misiones shortly before the downfall. In 1756, when Spain ceded San
+Miguel and other missions to Portugal, Father Ennis was entrusted with
+the removal lower down to Parana of such tribes as refused to become
+Portuguese subjects.</p>
+
+<p>Yet another Jesuit, Father Falkiner, son of an Irish Protestant
+doctor in Manchester, who had himself studied medicine, was one of the
+most successful travellers and missionaries of the 18th century. Among
+his friends in London was a ship-captain who traded from the coast of
+Guinea to Brazil, carrying slaves for the company recently established
+by Queen Anne's patent, and he it doubtless was who prevailed on the
+young physician to try a seafaring life. In one of his voyages as ship
+surgeon, from Guinea to Buenos Ayres, he fell ill at the latter port,
+and, there being no hotels, he had the good fortune to enjoy the
+hospitality of the Jesuit superior, Father Mahony, whose name
+proclaims his Irish nationality. Such was the impression made on
+Falkiner by the kindness of the Jesuits that he shortly afterwards was
+received into the Church and entered as a novice in the College of St.
+Ignatius at Buenos Ayres. He spent the first years of his missionary
+career in Misiones and Tucuman. Later on he was despatched by his
+superior to Patagonia, and his success there during 27 years was
+almost equal to what has already been mentioned of Father Field in
+Paraguay. He converted many tribes, and traversed nearly every part of
+Patagonia from Rio Negro to Magellan's Straits, and as far inland as
+the Andes. He knew most of the Indian tongues, and by his winning
+manners and knowledge of medicine gained a great influence over the
+savages. When he published his life and travels, such was the effect
+of his book upon the king of Spain that he at once ordered surveys and
+settlements to be made along the Patagonian coast, which Father
+Falkiner represented as exposed to seizure by the first adventurer who
+should land there. Father Falkiner's book has been translated into
+French, German, and Spanish. He returned to England and died at
+Spetchly, Worcestershire, near the end of the 18th century.</p>
+
+<p>In 1774 the bishop of Ayachucho was Dr. James O'Phelan, who rebuilt
+the old Cathedral of Pasco. His father was an Irish officer in the
+Spanish army.</p>
+
+<h4>II.&mdash;THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.</h4>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the 18th century the Pitt administration lent
+a willing ear to a Venezuelan patriot, General Miranda, who proposed
+that Great Britain should aid South America to expel the Spanish
+rulers and set up a number of independent states. Spain being the ally
+of France and paying an annual subsidy to Napoleon, it became moreover
+the object of England to seize the treasure-ships periodically
+arriving from the River Plate.</p>
+
+<p>Hostilities having broken out in Europe in 1803, an English
+squadron under an Irish commander, Captain Moore, captured in the
+following year some Spanish galleons laden with treasure at the mouth
+of the River Plate. In June, 1806, Major General William Carr
+Beresford with a British squadron cast anchor about twelve miles from
+Buenos Ayres, and with a force of only 1635 men took possession of
+that city of 60,000 inhabitants. The indignation which such a
+humiliation at first caused among the people was in large measure
+calmed by the manifesto which the conquering commander issued on the
+occasion. In the <i>Memoirs</i> of General Belgrano we read: "It
+grieved me to see my country subjugated in this manner, but I shall
+always admire the gallantry of the brave and honorable Beresford in so
+daring an enterprise." Beresford was, however, unable to hold his
+ground, for the Spaniards got together an army of 10,000 men, and
+re-took the city. Beresford was made prisoner, but after five months'
+detention he and his brother-officers, among whom was another
+Irishman, Major Fahy, managed to escape. Thus ended the expedition of
+this brave general, who nevertheless had covered himself and his
+little army with glory, for he held Buenos Ayres as a British colony
+for 45 days, and had he been properly supported from home the result
+would in all probability have been vastly different.</p>
+
+<p>General Beresford was one of the most distinguished men of his
+time. He was the illegitimate son of the Marquis of Waterford, entered
+the army at 16, and served in every quarter of the globe. After his
+defeat at Buenos Ayres he captured Madeira, and was made governor of
+that island. In 1808 he successfully covered the retreat of Sir John
+Moore to Corunna, a difficult feat, for which he received a marshal's
+baton, and was made commander-in-chief in Portugal. In 1811 he
+defeated Marshal Soult at Albuera, and subsequently took part in the
+victories of Salamanca and Vittoria. For these services he was made
+Duke of Elvas, and the British government conferred on him in 1814 the
+title of Baron Beresford of Albuera and Dungannon. The same year he
+was sent as minister to Brazil, and on his return was created
+viscount. He married the widow of Thomas Hope the banker, and settled
+down on his estates in Kent, where he died in 1854.</p>
+
+<p>The brilliancy of Beresford's achievement in capturing Buenos Ayres
+with a handful of men had dazzled the minds of English statesmen, who
+felt that 10,000 British troops were enough to subdue the whole of the
+vast continent of South America. In May, 1807, an expedition
+comprising several frigates and transports with 5,000 troops appeared
+off Montevideo from England. A month later Lieutenant-General
+Whitelock arrived with orders to assume the chief command, and among
+his officers were the gallant Irishmen, Major Vandeleur, who commanded
+a wing of the 88th Regiment, and Lieutenant-Colonel Nugent, of the
+38th. Whitelock endeavored, but failed, to retake Buenos Ayres. During
+the siege a small detachment of Spanish troops under Colonel James
+Butler, after a terrific conflict, in which they sold their lives
+dearly, were all killed. Agreeably to Colonel Butler's request his
+remains were buried on the spot he had so valiantly defended, and his
+tombstone was visible there until 1818.</p>
+
+<p>It is a remarkable fact that several of the South American
+countries, Mexico, Peru, and Chile, were governed by viceroys of Irish
+birth in the critical period preceding the Independence, although
+Spanish law forbade such office to any but Spaniards born. It was in
+recognition of gallant services in Spain, in combination with the Duke
+of Wellington, that General O'Donoghue was made viceroy of Mexico in
+1821, but the elevation of the great viceroy of Peru, Ambrose
+O'Higgins, was due to the splendid talents of administration already
+displayed by him during twenty years of service in Chile. He was born
+at Summerhill, Co. Meath, about 1730. An uncle of his was one of the
+chaplains at the court of Madrid, and at his expense O'Higgins was
+educated at a college in Cadiz. He then entered the Spanish engineer
+corps, and in 1769 was given the command of the commission sent to
+Chile to strengthen the fortifications of Valdivia. He was made
+captain-general of Chile in 1788, was subsequently created marquis of
+Osorno, and in 1796 was nominated viceroy of Peru, a position which he
+held until his death in 1801.</p>
+
+<p>The great viceroy left only one son, Bernard O'Higgins, who
+succeeded General Carreras in the supreme command of the patriot army
+against the Spaniards in 1813. In 1817 O'Higgins took a principal part
+in the victory of Chacabuco, and was almost immediately appointed
+supreme director of Chile, with dictatorial powers. During his
+administration, which lasted six years, he gave every proof of his
+fitness for the position. But, alas! it was the misfortune of South
+America to surpass the republics of antiquity in the ingratitude shown
+towards its greatest benefactors. It is then not surprising to find
+that the Father of his Country, as O'Higgins is affectionately styled,
+was deposed by a military revolution, and obliged to take refuge in
+Peru, from which country he never returned. General Miller and Lord
+Cochrane, in their <i>Memoirs</i>, give frequent testimony to the
+honesty and zeal of Bernard O'Higgins. He was always treated as an
+honored guest in Lima, in which city he died on October 24, 1842. He
+left a son, Demetrio O'Higgins, a wealthy land-owner, who contributed
+large sums for the patriot army against Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Among other Irish commanders in Chile and Peru, who, during the War
+of Independence, fought their way to dignity and rank, was General
+MacKenna, the hero of Membrillar. He was born in 1771, at Clogher, Co.
+Tyrone; his mother belonged to the ancient Irish sept of O'Reilly,
+whose estates were confiscated after the fall of Limerick in 1691.</p>
+
+<p>General Thomond O'Brien, who won his spurs at the battle of
+Chacabuco, seems to have been born in the south of Ireland about 1790.
+He joined the army of San Martin, and accompanied that general through
+the campaigns of Chile and Peru until the overthrow of the Spanish
+r&eacute;gime and the proclamation of San Martin as protector of Peru.
+On the day (July 28, 1821) when independence was declared at Lima, the
+protector took in his hand the standard of Pizarro and said, "This is
+my portion of the trophies." Then, taking the state canopy of Pizarro,
+a kind of umbrella always borne over the viceroys in processions, he
+presented it to General O'Brien, saying, "This is for the gallant
+comrade who fought so many years by my side in the cause of South
+America." The inscription on the canopy, in O'Brien's hand, says that
+it was brought to Peru on Pizarro's second journey from Spain. Little
+did the viceroys think that its last owner would be an Irishman.</p>
+
+<p>General O'Connor, one of the most distinguished soldiers of the War
+of Independence, played an important part in the final victory of
+Ayachucho. For his gallantry on that day he was promoted to the rank
+of general by the commander-in-chief, General Bolivar. After the War
+of Independence he became Minister of War in Bolivia. General O'Connor
+went to South America as an ensign in the Irish Legion under General
+Devereux. He claimed direct descent from Roderic O'Conor, last king of
+Ireland, 1186.</p>
+
+<p>Captain Esmonde also fought in the War of Independence. He was
+brother to the then baronet, Sir Thomas Esmonde, of Co. Wexford. In
+later years Captain Esmonde was employed by the Peruvian government to
+report on some proposed canals at Tarapaca. The vessel in which he
+embarked was never more heard of.</p>
+
+<p>Colonel Charles Carroll had served in Spain, but joined the Chilian
+army after independence was gained. He was one of the most popular
+officers in the army, and met with a sad fate. Being sent with too
+small a detachment against the savage Indians, their commander,
+Benavides, cut his forces in pieces and murdered all the officers in a
+most cruel manner. O'Carroll had his tongue cut out and was then
+butchered.</p>
+
+<p>Lieutenant Colonel Moran, who commanded the Colombian legion at the
+battle of Ayachucho, probably came out in the legion of General
+Devereux.</p>
+
+<p>Colonel (afterwards General) O'Leary was first aide-decamp to
+General Bolivar, the Liberator, and received his last breath. He was
+nephew to the famous Father Arthur O'Leary. Bolivar employed him on
+various missions of great trust and says "he acquitted himself with
+great ability." After the war, General O'Leary was appointed British
+charg&eacute; d'affaires at Bogota, and died in Rome in 1868. General
+Arthur Sandes, a native of Dublin, was entrusted with an important
+garrison in Peru on the close of the War of Independence.</p>
+
+<p>Admiral Brown, the distinguished commander and hero of the War of
+Independence, whose exploits may be ranked, like those of Nelson,
+"above all Greek, above all Roman fame," was born at Foxford, Co.
+Mayo, Ireland, on the 22nd of June, 1777. His father emigrated with
+his family to Pennsylvania. A ship captain who was about to sail from
+Philadelphia offered to take the intelligent Irish boy with him, and
+the offer was promptly accepted. During twenty years he seems to have
+voyaged to many countries; at one time we find him at Archangel. Brown
+had been in Buenos Ayres just two years when the patriot government
+offered him command of a squadron to commence hostilities against the
+Spanish navy, then mistress of all the coasts and waters of South
+America. On the memorable 8th of March, 1814, Brown sailed out of the
+port of Buenos Ayres with three ships to commence a campaign, which
+was destined to destroy the Spanish navy in this part of the waters of
+the New World. With him went his fellow-countrymen, Captains Seaver
+and Kearney. Brown's next exploits were against Spanish shipping in
+the Pacific, and his entirely successful campaign at sea against
+Brazil, in which he gained the mastery by his wonderful skill,
+courage, and perseverance, keeping at bay the great naval power of
+that country (which consisted at one time of fifty war vessels) with
+his few, small, ill-supplied, and ill-armed craft. After these great
+exploits Brown spent some months among the wild scenery of Mayo, so
+dear to him in boyhood, and, returning to Buenos Ayres, devoted
+himself to the quiet life of a country gentleman. He died surrounded
+by his family and friends on May 3, 1857, and the day of his funeral
+was one of national mourning. His widow erected a monument to his
+memory in the Recoleta cemetery, and in 1872 the municipality of
+Buenos Ayres granted a site for a public statue on the Pasco Julio,
+which so often rang with the plaudits of the people as they welcomed
+this great Irishman returning from victory.</p>
+
+<p>No brighter pages occur in the history of the New World than those
+which commemorate the gallantry and self-devotion of the Irish
+soldiers who aided South Americans to throw off the yoke of Spain. In
+1819 an Irish Legion of 1729 men arrived under the command of General
+Devereux, a Wexford landowner, called the Lafayette of South America,
+to fight in the campaign of General Bolivar. Devereux was
+distinguished for his great bravery. After the War of Independence he
+returned to Europe, being commissioned to form a company for mining
+operations in Colombia, which country had appointed him envoy
+extraordinary to various European courts.</p>
+
+<p>Colonel Ferguson and Captain Talbot were both Irishmen and among
+the last survivors of Devereux's Legion. It is computed that one-third
+of the Irish who came out under General Devereux died in hospital. It
+was this legion which won the decisive battle of Carabobo, June 26,
+1821, going into action 1100 strong and leaving 600 on that
+hard-fought field.</p>
+
+<p>Among the officers who composed Bolivar's Albion Rifles we find the
+Irish names of Pigott, Tallon, Peacock, Phelan, O'Connell, McNamara,
+Fetherstonhaugh, French, Reynolds, Byrne, and Haig, and the medical
+officer was Dr. O'Reilly. We find mention in General Millar's
+<i>Memoirs</i> of Dr. Moore, an Irishman, who attended Bolivar in most
+of his campaigns and was devotedly attached to the person of the
+Liberator. Lieutenant-Colonel Hughes, Major Maurice Hogan, Lieutenant
+William Keogh, Captain Laurence McGuire, Lieutenant-Colonel S. Collins
+also served in the struggle for independence.</p>
+
+<p>The period of independence found a small number of Irish residents
+in Buenos Ayres, mostly patrician families, such as Dillon,
+MacMurrough, Murphy, French, O'Gorman, Orr, Butler, O'Shee, who had
+been exiled or had fled from Ireland and obtained the king of Spain's
+permission to settle in Spanish America. The descendants of these
+families are now so intermarried in the country that they have mostly
+forgotten the language and traditions of their ancestors; but they
+occupy high positions in political, legal, and commercial circles.</p>
+
+<h4>III.&mdash;THE PERIOD AFTER THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.</h4>
+
+<p>A remarkable influx of settlers from Ireland occurred between 1825
+and 1830, to work in the <i>saladeros</i>, or salt mines, of the Irish
+merchants, Brown, Dowdall, and Armstrong. Previous to this a few Irish
+mechanics and others had come from the United States. In 1813 Bernard
+Kiernan came from New Brunswick. He seems to have devoted himself to
+science, as the papers mention his discovery of a comet in the
+Magellan clouds on March 19, 1830. His son, James Kiernan, became
+editor of the government paper, <i>Gaceta Mercantil</i>, in 1823, and
+held this post for twenty years; his death occurred in 1857. There is
+reason to believe that the first Irishman who landed in Buenos Ayres
+in the 19th century, exclusive of Beresford's soldiers, was James
+Coyle, a native of Tyrone, who came in the <i>Agr&eacute;able</i> in
+1807, and died in 1876 at the age of 86.</p>
+
+<p>In 1830 some survivors of an Irish colony of 300 persons in Brazil
+made their way to Buenos Ayres. They had come out from Europe in the
+barque <i>Reward</i> in 1829.</p>
+
+<p>The banker, Thomas Armstrong, who arrived in Buenos Ayres in 1817,
+occupied the foremost place for half a century in the commerce of that
+city. He was of the ancient family of Armstrong in the King's county,
+one of whose members was General Sir John Armstrong, founder of
+Woolwich arsenal. Having married into the wealthy family of Villanueva
+he became intimately connected with all the leading enterprises of the
+day, such as railways, banks, loans, etc. He took no part in politics,
+but interested himself in charities of every kind.</p>
+
+<p>In 1865 another Irishman, James P. Cahill, introduced into Peru
+from the United States the first complete machinery for sugar growing
+and refining.</p>
+
+<p>Still another Irishman, Peter Sheridan, was one of the chief
+founders of the sheep farming industry in Argentina. His family
+claimed descent from the same stock in Co. Cavan as Richard Brinsley
+Sheridan, the great statesman and dramatist. Sheridan died at the age
+of 52, in 1844, and was succeeded in the <i>estancia</i> or
+sheep-farming business by his nephew, James, whose brother Dr. Hugh
+Sheridan had served under Admiral Brown.</p>
+
+<p>The number and wealth of the Irish <i>estancieros</i>, or
+sheep-farmers, in Argentina have never been exactly ascertained, but
+after the old Spanish families they are the most important. It would
+be impossible to give all the Irish names to be met with. Some of them
+own immense tracts of land. Men whose fathers arrived in Argentina
+without a shilling are today worth millions. Their <i>estancia</i>
+houses display all the comforts of an American or English home; their
+hospitality is proverbial; and most of them have built on their land
+fine schools and beautiful little chapels, in which the nearest Irish
+priest officiates.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the <i>partidos</i> or districts of the various provinces
+of Argentina may be compared to Irish counties, the railway stations
+being called after the owners of the land on which they are situated.
+Among the earliest families settled in Argentina in the farming
+industries, we find Duggans, Torneys, Harringtons, O'Briens, Dowlings,
+Gaynors, Murphys, Moores, Dillons, O'Rorkes, Kennys, Raths, Caseys,
+Norrises, O'Farrells, Brownes, Hams, Duffys, Ballestys, Gahans, and
+Garaghans.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Santiago O'Farrell, son of one of the earliest Irish pioneers,
+holds a foremost position among the distinguished lawyers of the
+present day. An Irish engineer, Mr. John Coghlan, gave Buenos Ayres
+its first waterworks. The British hospital has at present for its
+leading surgeon a distinguished Irishman, Dr. Luke O'Connor. A son of
+Peter Sheridan, educated in England, has left the finest landscapes of
+South America by any artist born in America. He died at Buenos Ayres
+in his 27th year, 1861. Among the public men of Irish descent, fifty
+years ago, in Buenos Ayres, are to be mentioned the distinguished
+lawyer and politician, Dalmacio Velez Sarsfield, and John Dillon,
+commissioner of immigration. Dillon was the first to start a brewery
+in Buenos Ayres, for which purpose he brought out workmen and
+machinery from Europe. All of his sons occupied distinguished
+positions. Richard O'Shee, president of the Chamber of Commerce in
+Buenos Ayres, was born at Seville of an old Irish family banished by
+William III. Among the many valuable citizens of Buenos Ayres who
+perished during the cholera of 1868 was Dr. Leslie, a native of Cavan,
+whose benevolence to the poor was unceasing. Henry O'Gorman, for some
+years chief of police in Buenos Ayres and afterwards governor of the
+penitentiary, was descended from an Irish family which went to Buenos
+Ayres in the eighteenth century. His brother, Canon O'Gorman, was one
+of the dignitaries of the archdiocese, and director of the boys'
+reformatory. General Donovan, son of an Irish Dr. Donovan of Buenos
+Ayres, had command of one of the sections of the new Indian
+frontier.</p>
+
+<p>The first Irish chaplain was Father Burke, a venerable friar
+mentioned by Mr. Love in 1820 as over 70 years of age and much
+esteemed. When Rivadavia suppressed the Orders in 1822, he allowed
+Father Burke to remain in the convent of Santo Domingo. After his
+death the Irish residents, in 1828, petitioned Archbishop Murray of
+Dublin for a chaplain. Accordingly the Rev. Patrick Moran was
+selected, and he arrived in Buenos Ayres in 1829. He died in the
+following year, and was succeeded by the Rev. Patrick O'Gorman from
+Dublin, who continued as chaplain during 16 years till his death in
+1847.</p>
+
+<p>The year 1843 is memorable for the arrival of Rev. Anthony Fahy,
+with whose name the advancement of the Irish in Argentina will be
+forever identified. This great patriarch was born at Loughrea, Co.
+Galway, in 1804, and made his ecclesiastical studies at St. Clement's
+convent of Irish Dominicans at Rome. Being sent to the western states
+of America, he passed ten years in Ohio and Kentucky, after which, on
+the invitation of the Irish community of Buenos Ayres and by
+permission of the superior of his Order, he came to the river Plate at
+a time when the prospects of the country and of the Irish residents
+were far from promising. The history of the Irish community since that
+time is in some measure a recital of the labors of Father Fahy. He it
+was who helped his countrymen to choose and buy their lands which now
+are of such enormous value. Their increasing numbers and prosperity in
+the camp districts obliged him to endow each of the provincial
+<i>partidos</i> was a resident chaplain. Most of these clergymen were
+educated in Dublin, and soon showed their zeal not merely in
+religious, but also in social spheres. Irish reading-rooms, libraries,
+and schools sprang up and laid the foundation for the refined Irish
+life of the present day in those districts. Among other services,
+Father Fahy founded the Irish convent, bringing out some Sisters of
+Mercy under Mrs. Mary Evangelist Fitzpatrick from Dublin, to whom he
+gave it in charge. Father Fahy died in harness in 1871 of yellow
+fever; he attended a poor Italian woman and on returning home was at
+once taken ill. He lasted only three days and expired peacefully, a
+martyr to his sacred calling. He died so poor that Mr. Armstrong had
+to discharge for him some small debts, and five others of his
+countrymen paid his funeral expenses. A fitting memorial of the
+deceased priest, the Fahy College for Irish orphan boys in Argentina,
+has been erected in Buenos Ayres, and a magnificent monument of Irish
+marble, carved in Ireland, also perpetuates his fame.</p>
+
+<p>The priests, still living, who were co-workers with Father Fahy and
+appointed by him to various <i>partidos</i>, are Monsignor Samuel
+O'Reilly, deservedly beloved by his parishioners, and the Rev. Father
+Flannery, whose appointment to San Pedro brought a great influx of
+Irish farmers into that district. Among those who have gone to enjoy
+their eternal reward are the brothers, Rev. Michael and Rev. John
+Leahy, both of whom were indefatigable during the yellow fever in
+Buenos Ayres. Rev. Father Mulleady, Rev. Patrick Lynch, Rev. James
+Curran, and Monsignor Curley were also among the Irish priests of that
+time.</p>
+
+<p>The Fahy College is entrusted to the care of the Marist Brothers,
+who are largely Irish. The community of Holy Cross of the Passionist
+Fathers, who have as provincial the distinguished North American
+scholar Father Fidelis Kent Stone, is almost entirely composed of
+Irish and Irish-Americans. They have several establishments in various
+provinces of Argentina. Irish priests are to be met with all over the
+country. In Patagonia and the Chaco we also find a number of
+Protestant missionaries sent out by the Irish branch of the South
+American Missionary Society.</p>
+
+<p>Archdeacon Dillon succeeded Father Fahy as Irish chaplain in Buenos
+Ayres, and, although by birth and education an Irishman, he became one
+of the principal dignitaries of the archdiocese. He was for some time
+professor of theology in the ecclesiastical seminary of Buenos Ayres,
+and accompanied Archbishop Escalada as theologian to the Vatican
+Council in 1869. He was the founder of the <i>Southern Cross</i> in
+1874, the Irish weekly paper which is now so ably edited by the gifted
+Irishman, Mr. Gerald Foley.</p>
+
+<p>The first daily paper to appear in English in South America was the
+<i>Standard</i>, founded in 1861 by Michael G. Mulhall, the
+distinguished statistician, and it is still one of the leading papers
+in the country. In conducting it Michael G. Mulhall was joined by his
+brother, Edward T. Mulhall, in 1862, and for many years it was
+continuously under their care. The <i>Standard</i> still remains in
+the Mulhall family, and has for its editor a cousin of the former
+editor's, Mr. John Mulhall, who wisely directs its course. The
+<i>Argentina</i>, an important paper in Spanish, was founded a few
+years since by Edward T. Mulhall, Jr., a brilliant son of the late
+Edward Mulhall of the <i>Standard</i>. The <i>Hyberno-Argentine
+Review</i>, a new Irish weekly, is edited by another able Irishman,
+James B. Sheridan. In Rio Janeiro the <i>Anglo-Brasilian Times</i> was
+founded in 1864 by an Irishman, Mr. Scully, who also wrote an
+important book on Brazil.</p>
+
+<p>Ireland had also its representatives in South American diplomacy
+and the making of treaties. As early as 1809 Colonel James Burke was
+sent by Lord Strangford, British minister at Rio, on a confidential
+mission to Buenos Ayres to negotiate the establishment of a separate
+kingdom on the river Plate, with the Princess Charlotte as queen. In
+1867 Mr. Gould, an Irishman, British charg&eacute; d'affaires,
+endeavored to mediate between the allies, Brazil and Argentina, and
+President Lopez of Paraguay, but without success. Stephen H. Sullivan,
+British charg&eacute; d'affaires for Chile, signed the treaty of
+commerce and navigation between England and Chile on the 10th of May,
+1852. He was afterwards appointed British minister at Lima, where he
+was murdered. The late Chilian ministers to Buenos Ayres and London,
+William Blest Gana and Albert Blest Gana, were the sons of an Irish
+Doctor Blest from Sligo, who settled in Chile. In 1859 George Fagan
+signed a treaty with General Guido for compensation of losses to
+British subjects during the civil wars after the Independence.</p>
+
+<p>The mining industry had among its pioneers brave sons of Erin. J.
+O. French went to Buenos Ayres in 1826, and after an arduous mountain
+journey arrived at the foot of the Cerro Morado, where he found
+auriferous ores. Chevalier Edmond Temple, an Irish gentleman who had
+served in Spain in a dragoon regiment, also landed in Buenos Ayres in
+1826, and started across the Pampas, then almost uninhabited, until he
+came to the mountainous country where the Potosi mines were situated.
+In one of the defiles he lost his favorite horse, and in his book he
+bids a touching farewell to the friendly steed which had shared with
+him so many toils and dangers. Temple's successor in the Argentine
+mining provinces was Major Rickard Seaver, a member of an old Co.
+Dublin family.</p>
+
+<p>Several books of travel in South America have been published by
+Irish writers during the last fifty years. MacCann's <i>Travels in the
+Argentine Provinces</i>, 1846-49, contains much that is valuable
+concerning the history and manners of the country. Major Rickard
+Seaver issued in 1863 an interesting narrative of his crossing the
+Andes. Consul Hutchinson, an Irishman, published in 1864 his book
+<i>Argentine Gleanings</i>, which was followed by another in 1869
+called <i>South American Recollections</i>. Robert Crawford, an Irish
+engineer, led an expedition from Buenos Ayres in November, 1871,
+across the Indian Pampas and over the pass of the Planchon in the
+Andes, to survey an overland route to Chile, and subsequently
+published an interesting account of his journey. The first book
+printed and published in English, in South America, was the
+<i>Handbook of the River Plate</i>, written by Michael G. Mulhall and
+published by the <i>Standard</i>, in 1861. The same author also
+published the <i>Rural Code of Buenos Ayres</i> in 1867, and the
+<i>Handbook of Brazil</i> in 1877. In 1871 he published an account of
+his travels among the German colonies in Rio Grande do Sul. Twenty
+years ago the writer of this sketch published <i>Between the Amazon
+and the Andes</i> and the <i>Story of the Jesuit Missions of
+Paraguay</i>. These books derive special interest from the fact that
+she was the first foreign woman ever seen in Cuyaba, the capital of
+Matto Grosso, whither she accompanied her husband, 2500 miles from
+either the Atlantic or the Pacific seaboard. They arrived as far as
+the Diamantina Mountains, beyond Cuyaba, and saw the little rivers
+which form the sources of the mighty Amazon.</p>
+
+<p>Casting a glance over South America, we see in every country and
+province evidences of Irish genius employed not only in fighting but
+in the development of natural resources. To quote Consul Cowper's
+report to the Foreign Office in London: "The progress of Buenos Ayres
+is mainly due to the industrious Irish sheep farmers." No other
+nationality contributed so largely to the export trade of the country.
+At one time it was shown by the tables of Mr. Duggan and other wool
+exporters that the quantity of this staple industry yearly sold by
+Irishmen in Buenos Ayres exceeded that sold by all other
+nationalities. In later years the Irish sheep farmers in the province
+of Buenos Ayres have turned their lands into wheat lands, and the
+great industries of the country, sheep and cattle, have been moved to
+the outside camps, especially to that wonderful grazing region in the
+Andine valleys recently visited by Col. Roosevelt and his party. It
+may be interesting to mention that at the first English races ever
+held in South America, on November 6, 1826, the principal event, in
+which ten horses ran, was easily won by an Irish horse with the
+appropriate name of "Shamrock."</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Beaumont: Travels In Buenos Ayres (1828); Wilson: Travels In South
+America (1796); Pinkerton: Travels (1808), Captain Weddell: Cape Horn
+and South Atlantic Surveys; Major Gillesple: Buenos Ayres and
+Provinces; Mrs. Williams, on Humboldt's Travels (1826); Captain
+Master: At Home with the Patagonians (1891); Hadfield: Notes of Travel
+in Brazil and La plata (1863); Hinchcliff: South American Sketches
+(1862); Captain Burton: Highlands of Brazil; Ross Johnston: A Vacation
+in the Argentine Alps (1867); MacCann: Travels in the Argentine
+Provinces (1846-1849); Hutchinson: Argentine Gleanings and South
+American Recollections; Major Seaver: Crossing the Andes; Crawford:
+Across the Pampas; V. MacKenna: Life of O'Higgins; Life of Diego
+Rimagro; History of Santiago; History of Valparaiso; MacKenna:
+Archives of Spanish America, 50 vols.; Miller: Memoirs; Lives of
+Belgrano and San Martin; Mulhall; English In South America.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T23"></a>THE IRISH IN AUSTRALASIA</h2>
+<h4>By BROTHER LEO, F.S.C., M.A.</h4>
+
+<p>Should one be called upon to give in brief the history of the Irish
+in the land of the Southern Cross, he could do nothing more to the
+purpose than to relate the story of the "Holy House of Australia." The
+episode, indeed, is characteristic, not merely of the Irish in
+Australia, but of the Irish in every land and clime where they have
+striven and conquered.</p>
+
+<p>On the fourteenth of November, 1817, there landed in Sydney an
+Irish Cistercian Father, Jeremiah F. Flynn. He had heard in Rome of
+the spiritual destitution of the Irish Catholics in Australia, and he
+secured the permission of his superiors to minister to the needs of
+his compatriots in the Antipodes. Shortly after his arrival he
+celebrated Mass in the house of an Irishman named William Davis, who
+had been transported for making pikes for the insurgents in the days
+of '98, and then, on the first opportunity that presented itself, he
+sought the authorization of the colonial governor to exercise the
+functions of his sacred ministry. Far from hospitable was the
+reception accorded him by Governor Macquarie. The priest was told,
+with the bluntness characteristic of British officialdom, that the
+presence of no "popish missionary" would be tolerated in the
+settlement, and that the profession of the Protestant form of belief
+was obligatory on every person in the penal colony.</p>
+
+<p>With the example of the "priesthood hunted down like wolves" before
+him, Father Flynn saw but one consistent course to pursue. His fellow
+Catholics, his fellow Irishmen, were in sore need of his help; that
+help they must receive, even though the civil powers refused their
+sanction. So for several months he went about as secretly as he could,
+hearing confessions, offering the Holy Sacrifice, and breaking the
+bread of good counsel. During this trying period, Davis was his host
+and defender and friend. Eventually the presence of the priest was
+detected; he was arrested and promptly sent back to England. Before
+the ship sailed he tried repeatedly to return to the house of Davis
+where the Blessed Sacrament was preserved in a cedar clothes-press,
+but the surveillance of his captors was strict and unsleeping. So in
+the dwelling of the convict Irishman the Sacred Species remained.
+Before this unwonted repository Davis kept a light ever burning day
+and night; and day and night crept the loyal Irishmen of the
+settlement to kneel in prayer before the improvised shrine. The "Holy
+House of Australia", as the Davis dwelling came to be known, remained
+the only Catholic church in the colony until 1821, when two Irish
+priests, Father John Joseph Therry of Cork and Father Philip Connolly
+of Kildare, were permitted to attend to the spiritual needs of the
+Irish Catholics. Their coming marked the beginning of religious
+toleration in Australia and the termination of the sufferings and
+sacrifices of the Irish colonists, several of whom had had to pay
+dearly for their religious convictions. Davis himself had been twice
+flogged and once imprisoned for refusing to attend Protestant
+service.</p>
+
+<p>Today, on the site of the "Holy House of Australia", stands the
+church of St. Patrick. Davis gave the land and the sum of one thousand
+pounds to the church, and his fellow exiles contributed according to
+their means. This episode in the history of the Irish in Australia
+pays a touchingly eloquent tribute to the spirit of loyalty to God and
+country which has characterized the sons and daughters of St. Patrick
+everywhere whither their feet have strayed. It is the spirit which has
+embodied itself in the imposing cathedral of St. Patrick in Melbourne
+and the splendidly equipped college of St. Patrick in Sydney. It is
+the spirit which has made the Irish play so conspicuous a role in the
+civic and commercial history of Australasia.</p>
+
+<p>Originally known as New Holland, Australia became an English penal
+colony after the outbreak of the Revolutionary War in the United
+States of America. An Irish element came into the colony in the last
+decade of the eighteenth century when, during the Orange reign of
+terror, upwards of a thousand people from the west of Ireland were
+deported by the Ulster magistrates and by Lord Carhampton, the
+notorious "Satanides", who was charged with the pacification of
+Connacht. And during the first three decades of the nineteenth century
+the stream of Irish transportation flowed on. As a result of the
+Tithes agitation, the Charter and Reform movements, the Combination
+Laws and the Corn Laws, many more Irishmen were forced across the sea.
+It was not until 1868 that the convict system was permanently
+abolished.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult for us of a later day to realize the meaning of
+that word, transportation. Let us form some conception of what the
+Irish exiles suffered from the graphic picture painted in colors,
+somber but not untrue, by one who knew from firsthand experience the
+lot of the political prisoner. Writes Dr. Ullathorne in <i>The Horrors
+of Transportation</i>:</p>
+
+<p>"Take any one of you, my dear readers; separate him from his wife,
+from his children, from all those whose conversation makes life dear
+to him; cast him on the ends of the earth; let him there fall amongst
+reprobates who are the last stain and disgrace of our common nature;
+give him those obscene-mouthed monsters for his constant companions
+and consolers; let the daily vision of their progress from infamy to
+infamy, until the demon that inspires them has exhausted invention and
+the powers of nature together, be his only example; house him, at
+night, in a bark hut on a mud floor, where he has less comfort than
+your cattle in their stalls; awake him from the troubled dreams of his
+wretched wife and outcast children, to feel how far he is from their
+help, and take him out at sunrise; work him under a burning sun, and a
+heartless overseer, and the threat of the lash until the night fall;
+give him not a penny's wages but sorrow; leave him no hope but the
+same dull, dreary round of endless drudgery for many years to come;
+let him see no opening by which to escape, but through a long, narrow
+prospect of police courts, of gaols, of triangles, of death cells, and
+of penal settlements; let him all the while be clothed in a dress of
+shame, that shows to every living soul his degradation; and if he dare
+to sell any part of that clothing, then flog him worse than any dog!
+And thus, whilst severed from all kindness and all love, whilst the
+stern harsh voice of his task-master is grating in incessant jars
+within his ear, take all rest out of his flesh, and plant the thorn;
+take all feeling out of his heart, and leave the withered core; take
+all peace out of his conscience, and leave the worm of remorse; and
+then let any one come and dare to tell me that the man is happy
+because he has bread and meat. Is it not here, if ever there was such
+a case, where the taste of bread is a taste of misery, and where to
+feed and prolong life is to feed and lengthen our sorrow? And in
+pondering these things, do not those strong words of Sacred Scripture
+bring down their load of truth in heavy trouble to our thoughts, that,
+'Their bread is loathsome to their eye, and their meat unto their
+soul.'"</p>
+
+<p>But the bright side of the story of the Irish in Australia and New
+Zealand unfolds in the subsequent years. The men who had been sent
+forth from Erin with the brand of the convict upon them became the
+founders of a new commonwealth. To them were joined the numerous
+voluntary settlers who, attracted by the natural resources of the
+island-continent and especially by the gold discoveries of the
+fifties, migrated to Queensland, Victoria, and New South Wales. When
+in 1858 William E. Gladstone sought to establish a new colony to be
+known as North Australia, he opened a fresh field for Irish
+initiative. As a result of his effort there stands today, on a terrace
+overlooking Port Curtis, the city of Gladstone, the terminal of the
+Australian railway system. It was here, according to Cardinal Moran,
+that in 1606, Mass was first celebrated in Australia, when the
+Spaniards sought shelter in the "Harbor of the Holy Cross." The first
+government resident at Gladstone was Sir Maurice Charles O'Connell, a
+relative of the great Liberator; he was four times acting-governor of
+Queensland.</p>
+
+<p>The list of Irish pioneer settlers in Australasia is a lengthy one.
+The name of Thomas Poynton stands out prominently. He was a New
+Zealand pioneer who had married an Irish girl in Sydney. The devotion
+of Poynton and his wife to the faith of their fathers is evidenced by
+the fact that he several times made the long journey from his home to
+Sydney to interest the church authorities in the wants of the New
+Zealand Irish Catholics, and that she twice made the same arduous trip
+to have her children baptized. Thomas Mooney has the distinction of
+being the first Irish pioneer in Western Australia; and yet another
+Irishman, Cassidy by name, carried out a policy of benevolent
+assimilation by marrying the daughter of a Maori chief.</p>
+
+<p>Among the pioneer ecclesiastics were Father William Kelly of
+Melbourne and Father John McEncroe, a native of Tipperary and a
+Maynooth man, who for thirty years and more was a prominent figure in
+the religious and civic life of New South Wales. Father John Brady,
+another pioneer priest, became Bishop of Perth. Irish names occupy a
+conspicuous and honored place in the roster of the Australian
+episcopate. Notable on the list are Bishop Francis Murphy of Adelaide,
+who was born in Co. Meath, and Archbishop Daniel Murphy of Sydney, a
+native of Cork, the man who delivered the eulogy on the occasion of
+Daniel O'Connell's funeral at Rome. But scant reference can here be
+made to the illustrious primate of Australia, Cardinal Moran,
+archbishop of Sydney from 1884 to 1911, who was such a potent force in
+the land of his adoption, and whose masterly <i>History of the
+Catholic Church in Australasia</i> puts him in the forefront of
+ecclesiastical historians. On his death he was succeeded in the see of
+Sydney by another Irishman, Archbishop Michael Kelly of Waterford.
+Archbishop O'Reily of Adelaide is a recognized authority on music, and
+has written several pamphlets on that subject. A Galway man, Dr. T. J.
+Carr, a great educator, is now (1914) archbishop of Melbourne, and a
+Clare man, Dr. J. P. Clune, holds sway in Perth.</p>
+
+<p>Irishmen in Australia have figured largely in the iron and coal
+industries, in the irrigation projects, in the manufacturing
+activities, and in the working of the gold mines. But they have
+likewise distinguished themselves in other fields of endeavor.
+Prominent on the beadroll of Australian fame stand the names of Sir
+Charles Gavan Duffy (1816-1903), founder of the <i>Nation</i>
+newspaper in Dublin, member of the British house of commons, and
+afterwards premier of Victoria and speaker of the legislative
+assembly, and his sons, John Gavan Duffy and Frank Gavan Duffy,
+public-spirited citizens and authorities on legal matters. The
+Currans, father and son, active in the public life of Sydney, were
+afterwards members of the British parliament. Distinguished in the
+records of the Australian judiciary are Judges Quinlan, Casey,
+Brennan, and O'Dowd. The Rev. J. Milne Curran, F.G.S., is a geologist
+who has achieved more than local fame. Other Irishmen who have loomed
+large in Australasian affairs are Daniel Brophy, John Cumin, Augustus
+Leo Kenny, James Coghlan, Sir Patrick Buckley, Sir John O'Shannessy,
+and Nicholas Fitzgerald. Louis C. Brennan, C.B., who was born in
+Ireland in 1852, emigrated to Australia when a boy and while working
+in a civil engineer's office in Melbourne conceived the idea of the
+"Brennan Torpedo", which he afterwards perfected, and then in 1897
+sold the invention to the British Admiralty for &pound;110,000.
+Another Brennan, Frank by name, is president of the Knights of Our
+Lady of the Southern Cross and has been a labor member of the federal
+parliament since 1911; a third, Christopher John, is assistant
+lecturer in modern literature in the University of Sydney; and a
+fourth, James, of the diocese of Perth, was made a Knight of St.
+Silvester by Pius X. in 1912. Young Australia and New Zealand may be
+as the world goes, but already both have much to their credit in the
+domains of music, art, and literature; and here, as usual, the Irish
+have been to the fore. In the writing of poetry, history, and fiction
+the Celtic element has been especially distinguished. Not to speak of
+the writers mentioned elsewhere in this sketch, scores of Irish men
+and women have been identified with the development of an Australian
+literature which, though delightfully redolent of the land whence it
+sprang, nevertheless possesses the universal note which makes it a
+truly human product. Many years ago one of the most gifted of
+Irish-Australian singers, "Eva"' of the <i>Nation</i>, voiced a
+tentative plaint:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>"O barren land! O blank, bright sky!</p>
+<p class="i2">Methinks it were a noble duty</p>
+<p>To kindle in that vacant eye</p>
+<p class="i2">The light of spirit&mdash;beauty&mdash;</p>
+<p>To fill with airy shapes divine</p>
+<p class="i2">Thy lonely plains and mountains,</p>
+<p>The orange grove, the bower of vine,</p>
+<p class="i2">The silvery lakes and fountains;</p>
+<p>To wake the voiceless, silent air</p>
+<p class="i2">To soft, melodious numbers;</p>
+<p>To raise thy lifeless form so fair</p>
+<p class="i2">From those deep, spell-bound slumbers.</p>
+<p>Oh, whose shall be the potent hand</p>
+<p class="i2">To give that touch informing,</p>
+<p>And make thee rise, O Southern Land,</p>
+<p class="i2">To life and poesy warming?"</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mrs. O'Doherty herself, who long lived in that Queensland which she
+thus apostrophized, helped in no uncertain way to answer her own
+question. So did John Farrell, the author of the truly remarkable
+"Jubilee Ode" of 1897 and of a collection of poems which include the
+well known "How He Died." And so, long before, had the non-Catholic
+Irishman, Edward O'Shaughnessy, who went to Australia as a convict,
+but who laughed in lockstep and made music with his chains.</p>
+
+<p>James Francis Hogan, author and journalist, was born in Tipperary
+in 1855 and shortly afterward was brought by his parents to Melbourne
+where he received his education. On his return to Ireland he was
+elected to represent his native county in parliament. He is an
+authority on Australian history and in his book on <i>The Gladstone
+Colony</i> has given us a fine specimen of modern historical method.
+With him must be mentioned Roderick Flanagan, whose <i>History of New
+South Wales</i> appeared in 1862.</p>
+
+<p>Other Irish names distinguished in Australasian literature are
+those of the New Zealand poet, Thomas Bracken; Roderick Quinn; Desmond
+Byrne; J.B. O'Hara; the eccentric convict-writer, George "Barrington"
+Waldron; Victor J. Daley; Bernard O'Dowd; Edwin J. Brady; the Rev.
+J.J. Malone; and the Rev. W. Kelly.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, the Irish in Australia have done more than their share in
+the work of education and social service. Under Irish auspices several
+of the Catholic teaching congregations, including the Christian
+Brothers and the Presentation Nuns, were introduced, and their work
+has borne goodly fruit. A mighty power for good is the Hibernian
+Australasian Benefit Society. The organization, which was founded in
+1871, has spread rapidly and has a large active membership.</p>
+
+<p>Truly the land of the Southern Cross is not the dimmest jewel in
+the coronet of Ireland's glories.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Hogan: The Irish in Australia (1888), The Gladstone Colony (1898);
+Mennell: Dictionary of Australian Biography (1892); Duffy: Life in Two
+Hemispheres (1903); Kenny: The Catholic Church in Australia to the
+Year 1840; Moran: History of the Catholic Church in Australasia
+(1898); Davitt: Life and Progress in Australasia (1898); Bonwick: The
+First Twenty Years of Australia (1883); Flanagan: History of New South
+Wales (1862); Byrne: Australian Writers (1896); Wilson: The Church in
+New Zealand (1910); Hocken: A Bibliography of the Literature Relating
+to New Zealand (1909).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T24"></a>THE IRISH IN SOUTH AFRICA</h2>
+<h4>By A. MILLIARD ATTERIDGE.</h4>
+
+<p>The tide of emigration from Ireland has set chiefly towards America
+and Australia. In South Africa, therefore, the Irish element among the
+colonists has never been a large one. But, despite its comparatively
+small numbers, it has been an important factor in the life of South
+Africa. Here, as in so many other countries, it has been the glory of
+the sons of Erin to be a missionary people. To their coming is due the
+very existence of the Catholic Church in these southern lands.</p>
+
+<p>When Dr. Ullathorne touched at the Cape on his way to Australia in
+1832, he found at Cape Town "a single priest for the whole of South
+Africa," an English Benedictine, who soon afterwards returned to
+Europe in broken health. Few Irish immigrants had by that time found
+their way to the Cape. They began to arrive in numbers only after the
+famine year.</p>
+
+<p>The founder of the Catholic hierarchy in South Africa was the Irish
+Dominican, Patrick R. Griffith, who, in 1837, was sent to Cape Town by
+Gregory XVI. as the first Vicar Apostolic of Cape Colony. His
+successors at the Cape, Bishops Grimley, Leonard, and Rooney, have all
+been Irishmen, and nine in every ten of their flock have from the
+first been Irish by birth or descent. In the earlier years of Bishop
+Griffith's episcopate there was a large garrison in South Africa on
+account of the Kaffir wars. Many of these soldiers were Irishmen. At
+Grahamstown in 1844 the soldiers of an Irish regiment stationed there
+did most of the work of building St. Patrick's Church, one of the
+oldest Catholic churches in South Africa. They worked without wages or
+reward of any kind, purely out of their devotion to their Faith,
+giving up most of their leisure to this voluntary labor.</p>
+
+<p>Ten years after Bishop Griffith's appointment, Pius IX. separated
+Natal and the eastern districts of Cape Colony from Cape Town, and
+erected the Eastern Vicariate Apostolic. Once more an Irish prelate
+was the first Bishop&mdash;Aidan Devereux, who was consecrated by
+Bishop Griffith at Cape Town in the Christmas week of 1847. The great
+emigration from Ireland had now begun, and a stream of immigrants was
+arriving at the Cape. Bishop Devereux fixed his residence at Port
+Elizabeth, and of his four successors up to the present day three have
+been Irish. Bishop Moran, who went out to Port Elizabeth in 1854, was
+consecrated at Carlow in Ireland by Archbishop (afterwards Cardinal)
+Cullen. The third Vicar Apostolic was Bishop Ricards, and the present
+bishop is another Irishman, Dr. Hugh McSherry, who received his
+consecration from the hands of Cardinal Logue in St. Patrick's
+Cathedral at Armagh.</p>
+
+<p>Until the discovery of the diamond deposits in what is now the
+Kimberley district, some forty years ago, the Irish immigrants had
+chiefly settled in the ports and along the coast. But among the crowds
+who went to seek their fortunes at the diamond fields were large
+numbers of adventurous Irishmen. The mission church established at
+Kimberley became the centre of a new bishopric in 1886, when the
+Vicariate of Kimberley, which for some time included the Orange Free
+State, was established, and an Irish Oblate, Father Anthony Gaughran,
+was appointed its first bishop. He was succeeded in 1901 by his
+namesake and fellow countryman, the present Bishop Matthew
+Gaughran.</p>
+
+<p>The gold discoveries on the Witwatersrand about Johannesburg
+produced another rush into the interior in the days after the first
+Transvaal war. A great city of foreign immigrants&mdash;the
+"Uitlanders"&mdash;grew up rapidly on the upland, where a few months
+before there had been only a few scattered Boer farms. Irishmen from
+Cape Colony and Natal, from Ireland itself, and from the United States
+formed a large element in the local mining and trading community. They
+were mostly workers. Few of them found their way into the controlling
+financier class, which was largely Jewish. The Irish were better out
+of this circle of international gamblers, whose intrigues finally
+produced the terrible two years' bloodshed of the great South African
+war. Many engineers of the mines were Irish-Americans. Huge
+consignments of mining machinery arrived from the United States, and
+many of the engineers who came to fit it up remained in the employ of
+the mining companies. Until after the war, the Transvaal and
+Johannesburg had depended ecclesiastically on the Vicar Apostolic of
+Natal, but in 1904 a Transvaal Vicariate was erected, and once more
+the first bishop was an Irishman, Dr. William Miller, O.M.I.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen how Irish the South African episcopate has been from
+the very outset. Most of the clergy belong to the same missionary
+race, as also do the nuns of the various convents, and the Christian
+Brothers, who are in charge of many of the schools. Of the white
+Catholic population of the various states of the South African Union,
+the greater part are Irish. There are about 25,000 Irish in Cape
+Colony in a total population of over two millions. There are some
+7,000 in Natal, I,500 in Kimberley, and about 2,000 in the Orange
+River Colony. In the Transvaal, chiefly in and about Johannesburg,
+there are some 12,000 Irish. A few thousand more are to be found
+scattered in Griqualand and Rhodesia.</p>
+
+<p>As has been already said, the total numbers are not large in
+proportion to that of the population generally, and they belong
+chiefly to the industrial and trading classes. The most notable names
+among them are those of prelates, priests, and missionaries, who have
+founded and built up the organization of the Catholic Church in South
+Africa. But there are some names of note also in civil life. Sir
+Michael Gallwey was for many years Chief Justice of Natal; the Hon. A.
+Wilmot, who has not only held high official posts, but has also done
+much to clear up the early history of South Africa, is Irish on the
+mother's side; Mr. Justice Shiel is a judge of the Cape Courts; Eyre
+and Woodbyrne are Irish names among the makers of Rhodesia; and
+amongst those who have done remarkable work in official life may also
+be named Sir Geoffrey Lagden, Sir William St. John Carr, and the Hon.
+John Daverin. Lagden was for many years British Resident in
+Basutoland, the Switzerland of South Africa, where the native tribes
+are practically independent under a British protectorate. Griffith,
+the paramount chief of the Basuto nation, has been a Catholic since
+1911. Sir Geoffrey's tactful policy and wise counsels did much to
+promote the prosperity of this native state, and during the trying
+days of the South African War, he was able to secure the neutrality of
+the tribesmen.</p>
+
+<p>In the Boer wars, Irishmen fought with distinction on both sides.
+General Colley, who fell at Majuba in the first Boer War, was a
+distinguished Irish soldier. Another great Irishman, General Sir
+William Butler, has written the story of Colley's life. Butler himself
+was in command of the troops at the Cape before the great war. If his
+wise counsels had been followed by the Government, the war would
+undoubtedly have been avoided. He refused to have any part in the
+war-provoking policy of Rhodes and Chamberlain, and warned the Home
+Government that an attack on the Dutch republics would be a serious
+and perilous enterprise. When the war came, England owed much to the
+enduring valor of Irish soldiers and to the leadership of Irish
+generals. One need only name General Hart, of the Irish Brigade;
+General French, who relieved Kimberley, and who is now (1914)
+Field-Marshal and Commander-in-Chief of the British army in France;
+General Mahon, who raised the siege of Mafeking; Colonel Moore, of the
+famous Connaught Rangers, now (1914) commandant and chief military
+organizer of the Irish National Volunteers; and, finally, Lord
+Roberts, who took over the chief command and saved the situation after
+the early disasters. Lord Kitchener, who acted as Roberts's
+chief-of-staff, succeeded him in the command, and brought the war to
+an end by an honorable treaty with the Boer leaders, is a native of
+Ireland, but of English descent, and he passed most of his boyhood in
+Ireland, in Co. Kerry, where his father had bought a small property. I
+used to know an Irish Franciscan lay brother who told me he had taught
+the future soldier "many games" when he was quite a little fellow.</p>
+
+<p>Of the regiments which took part in the war none won a higher fame
+than the Munster and the Dublin Fusiliers and the Connaught Rangers.
+It was in recognition of their splendid valor that the new regiment of
+Irish Guards was added to the British Army.</p>
+
+<p>But the majority of Irishmen sympathized with the Boer republics,
+and many of them fought under the Boer flag, of these were legally
+British subjects, but many were naturalized burghers of the Transvaal,
+and many more were United States citizens, Irish-Americans from the
+Rand gold mines. There were two small Irish brigades under the Boer
+flag, those of McBride and Lynch (the latter now a member of the
+British House of Commons), and an engineer corps commanded by Colonel
+Blake, an American. At the first battle before Ladysmith it was one of
+the Irish brigades that kept the Boer guns in action, bringing up
+ammunition under a rain of shellfire. During the Boer retreat and
+Roberts's advance on Pretoria, Blake's engineers were always with the
+Boer rearguard and successfully destroyed every mile of the railway as
+they went back. Blake had served in the United States cavalry, had
+learned mining while on duty in Nevada, and had then gone to seek his
+fortune at Johannesburg. The great leader of the Boer armies, now the
+Prime Minister of the new South Africa which has happily arisen out of
+the storm of war, has Irish connections. Louis Botha lived before the
+war in the southeast Transvaal, not far from Laings Nek, and near
+neighbors of his were a family of Irish settlers bearing the honored
+name of Emmet. The Emmets and the Bothas were united by ties of
+friendship and intermarriage, and one of the Emmets served with Louis
+Botha during the war.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish colonists of South Africa keep their love for faith and
+fatherland, but, as in the United States, they have thoroughly and
+loyally thrown in their lot with the new country of which they have
+become citizens. Few in number though they are, they are an important
+factor in the new Dominion, for their national tradition inspires them
+with civic patriotism, and their religion gives them a high standard
+of conduct and puts before them, as guides in the work of life and the
+solution of the problems of the day, the Christian principles of
+justice and charity.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Government Census Returns, South Africa; Catholic Directory for
+British South Africa (Cape Town, since 1904); The Catholic Magazine,
+Cape Town; Wilmot and Chase: History of Cape Colony (London, 1896);
+Theal: History of South Africa (5 vols., London, 1888-1893); for the
+war period, the <i>Times</i> History of the South African War, and the
+British Official History.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T25"></a>IRISH LANGUAGE AND LETTERS</h2>
+<h4>By DOUGLAS HYDE, LL.D., M.R.I.A.</h4>
+
+<p>The Celtic languages consist of two divisions, (a) the Gaelic or
+Irish division, and (b) the Kymric or Welsh division. Between them
+they comprise (a) Irish, Scotch-Gaelic, and Manx, and (b) Welsh,
+Armorican, and Cornish. All these languages are still alive except
+Cornish, which died out about a hundred years ago.</p>
+
+<p>Of all these languages Irish is the best preserved, and it is
+possible to follow its written literature back into the past for some
+thirteen hundred years; while much of the most interesting matter has
+come down to us from pagan times. It has left behind it the longest,
+the most luminous, and the most consecutive literary track of any of
+the vernacular languages of Europe, except Greek alone.</p>
+
+<p>For centuries the Irish and their language were regarded by the
+English as something strange and foreign to Europe. It was not
+recognized that they had any relationship with the Greeks or Romans,
+the French, the Germans, or the English. The once well-known
+statesman, Lord Lyndhurst, in the British parliament denounced the
+Irish as aliens in religion, in blood, and in language. Bopp, in his
+great Comparative Grammar, refused them recognition as Indo-Europeans,
+and Pott in 1856 also denied their European connection. It was left
+for the great Bavarian scholar, John Caspar Zeuss, to prove to the
+world in his epoch-making "Grammatica Celtica" (published in Latin in
+1853) that the Celts were really Indo-Europeans, and that their
+language was of the highest possible value and interest. From that day
+to the present it is safe to say that the value set upon the Irish
+language and literature has been steadily growing amongst the scholars
+of the world, and that in the domain of philology Old Irish now ranks
+close to Sanscrit for its truly marvellous and complicated scheme of
+word-forms and inflections, and its whole verbal system.</p>
+
+<p>The exact place which the Celtic languages (of which Irish is
+philologically far the most important) hold in the Indo-European group
+has often been discussed. It is now generally agreed upon that,
+although both the Celtic and Teutonic languages may claim a certain
+kinship with each other as being both of them Indo-European, still the
+Celtic is much more nearly related to the Greek and the Latin groups,
+especially to the Latin.</p>
+
+<p>All the Indo-European languages are more or less related to one
+another. We Irish must acknowledge a relationship, or rather a very
+distant connecting tie, with English. But, to trace this home, Irish
+must be followed back to the very oldest form of its words, and
+English must be followed back to Anglo-Saxon and when possible to
+Gothic. The hard mutes (p, t, c) of Celtic (and, for that matter, of
+Sanscrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, Slavonic, and Lithuanian) will be
+represented in Gothic by the corresponding soft mutes (b, d, g), and
+the soft mutes in Celtic by the corresponding, hard mutes in Gothic.
+Thus we find the Irish <i>dia</i> (god) in the Anglo-Saxon <i>tiw</i>,
+the god of war, whose name is perpetuated for all time in
+Tiwes-d&auml;g, now "Tuesday", and we find the Irish
+<i>d&eacute;ad</i> in the Anglo-Saxon "toth", now "tooth", and so on.
+But of all the Indo-European languages Old Irish possesses by far the
+nearest affinity to Latin, and this is shown in a great many ways, not
+in the vocabulary merely, but in the grammar, which for philologists
+is of far more importance,&mdash;as, for example, the <i>b</i>-future,
+the passive in-r, the genitive singular and nominative plural of "o
+stems", etc. Thus the Old Irish for "man", nom. <i>fer</i>, gen.
+<i>fir</i>, dat. <i>fiur</i>, acc. <i>fer n</i>&mdash;, plur. nom.
+<i>fir</i>, gen. <i>fer n</i>&mdash;, is derived from the older forms
+<i>viros, viri, viro, viron</i>, nom. plur. <i>viri</i>, gen. plur.
+<i>viron</i>, which everyone who knows Latin can see at a glance
+correspond very closely to the Latin inflections, <i>vir, viri, viro,
+virum</i>, nom. plur. <i>viri</i>, etc.</p>
+
+<p>So much for the language. When did this language begin to be used
+in literature? This question depends upon another&mdash;When did the
+Irish begin to have a knowledge of letters; when did they begin to
+commit their literature to writing; and whence did they borrow their
+knowledge of this art?</p>
+
+<p>The oldest alphabet used in Ireland of which remains exist appears
+to have been the Ogam, which is found in numbers of stone inscriptions
+dating from about the third century of our era on. About 300 such
+inscriptions have already been found, most of them in the southwest of
+Ireland, but some also in Scotland and Wales, and even in Devon and
+Cornwall. Wherever the Irish Gael planted a colony, he seems to have
+brought his Ogam writing with him.</p>
+
+<p>The Irishman who first invented the Ogam character was probably a
+pagan who obtained a knowledge of Roman letters. He brought back to
+Ireland his invention, or, as is most likely, invented it on Irish
+soil. Indeed, the fact that no certain trace of Ogam writing has been
+found upon the European continent indicates that the alphabet was
+invented in Ireland itself. An inscription at Killeen Cormac, Co.
+Kildare, survives which seems to show that the Roman alphabet was
+known in Ireland in pagan times. Ogam is an alphabet suitable enough
+for chiselling upon stones, but too cumbrous for the purposes of
+literature. For this the Roman alphabet must have been used. The Ogam
+script consists of a number of short lines straight or slanting, and
+drawn either below, above, or through one long stem-line. This
+stem-line is generally the sharp angle between two faces or sides of a
+long upright rectangular stone. Thus four cuts to the right of the
+long line stand for S; to the left of it they mean C; passing through
+it, half on one side and half on the other, they mean Z. The device
+was rude, but it was applied with considerable skill, and it was
+undoubtedly framed with much ingenuity. The vowels occurring most
+often are also the easiest to cut, being scarcely more than notches on
+the edge of the stone. The inscription generally contains the name of
+the dead warrior over whom the memorial was raised; it usually begins
+on the left corner of the stone facing the reader and is to be read
+upwards, and it is often continued down on the right hand angular line
+as well.</p>
+
+<p>The language of the Ogam inscriptions is very ancient and nearly
+the same forms occur as in what we know of Old Gaulish. The language,
+in fact, seems to have been an antique survival even when it was first
+engraved, in the third or fourth century. The word-forms are probably
+far older than those used in the spoken language of the time. This is
+a very important conclusion, and it must have a far-reaching bearing
+upon the history of the earliest epic literature. Because if forms of
+language much more ancient than any that were then current were
+employed on pillar-stones in the third or fourth century, it follows
+that this obsolescent language must have survived either in a written
+or a regularly recited form. This immediately raises the probability
+that the substance of Irish epic literature (which was written down on
+parchment in the sixth or seventh century) really dates from a period
+much more remote, and that all that is purely pagan in it was
+preserved for us in the same antique language as the Ogam inscriptions
+before it was translated into what we now call "Old Irish."</p>
+
+<p>The following is the Ogam alphabet as preserved on some 300 ancient
+pillars and stones, in the probably ninth-century treatise in the Book
+of Ballymote, and elsewhere:</p>
+
+<div class="ctr">
+<img src="images/270.png" width="50%" alt="Ogam Alphabet">
+</div>
+
+<p>There are a great many allusions to this Ogam writing in the
+ancient epics, especially in those that are purely pagan in form and
+conception, and there can be no doubt that the knowledge of letters
+must have reached Ireland before the island became Christianized. With
+the introduction of Christianity and of Roman letters, the old Ogam
+inscriptions, which were no doubt looked upon as flavoring of
+paganism, quickly fell into disuse and disappeared, but some
+inscriptions at least are as late as the year 600 or even 800. In the
+thoroughly pagan poem, <i>The Voyage of Bran</i>, which such
+authorities as Zimmer and Kuno Meyer both consider to have been
+committed to parchment in the seventh century, we find it stated that
+Bran wrote the fifty or sixty quatrains of the poem in Ogam.
+Cuchulainn constantly used Ogam writing, which he cut upon wands and
+trees and standing stones for Queen Medb's army to read, and these
+were always brought to his friend Fergus to decipher. Cormac, king of
+Cashel, in his glossary tells us that the pagan Irish used to inscribe
+the wand they kept for measuring corpses and graves with Ogam
+characters, and that it was a source of horror to anyone even to take
+it in his hand. St. Patrick in his Confession, the authenticity of
+which no one doubts, describes how he dreamt that a man from Ireland
+came to him with innumerable letters.</p>
+
+<p>In Irish legend Ogma, one of the Tuatha De Danann who was skilled
+in dialects and poetry, seems to be credited with the invention of the
+Ogam alphabet, and he probably was the equivalent of the Gaulish god
+Ogmios, the god of eloquence, so interestingly described by
+Lucian.</p>
+
+<p>We may take it then that the Irish pagans knew sufficient letters
+to hand down to Irish Christians the substance of their pagan epics,
+sagas, and poems. We may take it for granted also that the greater
+Irish epics (purely pagan in character, utterly untouched in substance
+by that Christianity which so early conquered the country) really
+represent the thoughts, manners, feelings, and customs of pagan
+Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>The effect of this conclusion must be startling indeed to those who
+know the ancient world only through the medium of Greek and Roman
+literature. To the Greek and to his admiring master, the Roman, all
+outside races were simply barbarians, at once despised,
+misinterpreted, and misunderstood.</p>
+
+<p>We have no possible means of reconstructing the ancient world as it
+was lived in by the ancestors of some of the leading races in Europe,
+the Gauls, Spaniards, Britons, and the people of all those countries
+which trace themselves back to a Celtic ancestry, because these races
+have left no literature or records behind them, and the Greeks and
+Romans, who tell us about them, saw everything through the false
+medium of their own prejudices. But now since the discovery and
+publication of the Irish sagas and epics, the descendants of these
+great races no longer find it necessary to view their own past through
+the colored and distorting glasses of the Greek or the Roman, since
+there has now opened for them, where they least expected to find it, a
+window through which they can look steadily at the life of their race,
+or of one of its leading offshoots, in one of its strongholds, and
+reconstruct for themselves with tolerable accuracy the life of their
+own ancestors. It is impossible to overrate the importance of this for
+the history of Europe, because neither Teutons nor Slavs have
+preserved pictures of their own heroic past, dating from pagan times.
+It is only the Celts, and of these the Irish, who have handed down
+such pictures drawn with all the fond intimacy of romance, and
+descriptions which exhibit the life of western Europeans at an even
+earlier culture-stage in the evolution of humanity than do the poems
+of Homer.</p>
+
+<p>This conclusion, to which a study of the literature invites us,
+falls in exactly with that arrived at from purely archaeological
+sources. Professor Ridgeway of Cambridge University, working on
+archaeological lines, expresses himself as follows: "From this survey
+of the material remains of the <i>la Tern</i> period found actually in
+Ireland, and from the striking correspondence between this culture and
+that depicted in the <i>T&aacute;in B&oacute; C&uacute;alnge</i>, and
+from the circumstance that the race who are represented in the epic as
+possessing this form of culture resemble in their physique the tall,
+fair-haired, grey-eyed Celts of Britain and the continent, we are
+justified in inferring (1) that there was an invasion (or invasions)
+of such peoples from Gaul in the centuries immediately before Christ,
+as is ascribed by the Irish traditions, and (2) that the poems
+themselves originally took shape when the <i>la T&egrave;ne</i>
+culture was still flourishing in Ireland. But as this could hardly
+have continued much later than A.D. 100, we may place the first
+shaping of the poems not much later than that date and possibly a
+century earlier."</p>
+
+<p>This conclusion would make the earliest putting together of the
+Irish epics almost contemporaneous with Augustus C&aelig;sar.</p>
+
+<p>So much for the history and growth of Irish letters.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Brash: Ogam inscribed Monuments of the Gaedhil (1879); MacAlister:
+Studies in Irish Epigraphy, vol. 1 (1897), vol. 2 (1902), vol. 3
+(1907); Rhys: in Proceedings of the Scottish Society of Antiquaries
+(Edinburgh, 1892); Ridgeway: Date of the First Shaping of the
+Cuchulain Saga (1905), in Proceedings of the British Academy, vol. II;
+Joyce: Social History of Ancient Ireland, vol. I, Chap. 2; Preface to
+fac-simile edition of the Book of Ballymote.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T26"></a>NATIVE IRISH POETRY</h2>
+<h4>By PROFESSOR GEORGES DOTTIN.</h4>
+
+<p>[Note.&mdash;This chapter was written in French by M. Dottin, who
+is a distinguished professor and dean at the University of Renacs,
+France. The translation into English has been made by the
+Editors.]</p>
+
+<p>By the year 1200 of the Christian era, a time at which the other
+national literatures of Europe were scarcely beginning to develop,
+Ireland possessed, and had possessed for several centuries, a Gaelic
+poetry, which was either the creation of the soul of the people or
+else was the work of the courtly bards. This poetry was at first
+expressed in rhythmical verses, each containing a fixed number of
+accented syllables and hemistichs separated by a pause:</p>
+
+<div class="ctr">
+<table summary="" style="width: 50%;">
+  <tbody>
+    <tr align="center">
+      <td><i>Crist</i> lim,</td>
+      <td>|</td>
+      <td><i>Crist</i> reum,</td>
+      <td>|</td>
+      <td><i>Crist</i> in degaid</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr align="center">
+      <td><i>Crist</i> indium</td>
+      <td>|</td>
+      <td><i>Crist</i> issum</td>
+      <td>|</td>
+      <td><i>Crist</i> &uacute;asum </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr align="center">
+      <td></td><td></td>
+      <td><i>Crist</i> dessum</td>
+      <td>|</td>
+      <td><i>Crist</i> &uacute;asum</td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>This versification, one of the elements of which was the repetition
+of words or sounds at regular intervals, was transformed about the
+eighth century into a more learned system. Thenceforward alliteration,
+assonance, rhyme, and a fixed number of syllables constituted the
+characteristics of Irish verse:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>M&eacute;sse ocus P&aacute;ngur b&Aacute;N</p>
+<p>cechtar n&aacute;thar fria s&aacute;indAN</p>
+<p>bith a <i>m&eacute;nma</i> sam fri SEILGG</p>
+<p>mu <i>m&eacute;nma</i> c&eacute;in im s&aacute;inchEIRDD.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>As we see, the consonants in the rhyme-words were merely related:
+<i>l, r, n, ng, m, dh, gh, bh, mh, ch, th, f</i> could rime together
+just as could <i>gg, dd, bb</i>. Soon the poets did not limit
+themselves to end-rhymes, which ran the risk of becoming monotonous,
+but introduced also internal rhyme, which set up what we may call a
+continuous chain of melody:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>is aire caraim DOIRE</p>
+<p>ar a reidhe ar a ghlOINE</p>
+<p>'s ar iomad a aingel fIND</p>
+<p>&oacute; 'n CIND go aoich arOILE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This harmonious versification was replaced in the seventeenth
+century by a system in which account was no longer taken of
+consonantal rhyme or of the number of syllables.</p>
+
+<p>The rules of Irish verse have nothing in common with classical
+Latin metres, which were based on the combination of short and long
+syllables. In Low-Latin, indeed, we find occasionally alliteration,
+rhyme, and a fixed number of syllables, but these novelties are
+obviously of foreign origin, and date from the time when the Romans
+borrowed them from the nations which they called barbarous. We cannot
+prove beyond yea or nay that they are of Celtic origin, but it is
+extremely probable that they are, for it is among the Celts both of
+Ireland and of Wales that the harmonizing of vowels and of consonants
+has been carried to the highest degree of perfection.</p>
+
+<p>This learned art was not acquired without long study. The training
+of a poet (<i>fil&eacute;</i>) lasted twelve years, or more. The poets
+had a regular hierarchy. The highest in rank, the <i>ollamh</i>, knew
+350 kinds of verse and could recite 250 principal and 100 secondary
+stories. The <i>ollamhs</i> lived at the court of the kings and the
+nobles, who granted them freehold lands; their persons and their
+property were sacred; and they had established in Ireland schools in
+which the people might learn history, poetry, and law. The bards
+formed a numerous class, of a rank inferior to the <i>fil&eacute;</i>;
+they did not enjoy the same honors and privileges; some of them even
+were slaves; according to their standing, different kinds of verse
+were assigned to them as a monopoly.</p>
+
+<p>The Danish invasions in the ninth century set back for some time
+the development of Irish poetry, but, when the Irish had driven the
+fierce and aggressive sea-rovers from their country, there was a
+literary renascence. This was in turn checked by the Anglo-Norman
+invasion in the twelfth century, and thereafter the art of
+versification was no longer so refined as it had formerly been.
+Nevertheless, the bardic schools still existed in the seventeenth
+century, more than four hundred years after the landing of Strongbow,
+and, in them, students followed the lectures of the <i>ollamhs</i> for
+six months each year, or until the coming of spring, exercising both
+their talents for composition and their memory.</p>
+
+<p>A catalogue of Irish poets, which has recently been made out, shows
+that there were more than a thousand of them. We have lost many of the
+oldest poems, but the Irish scribes often modernized the texts which
+they were copying. Hence the language is not always a sufficient
+indication of date, and it is possible that, under a comparatively
+modern form, some very ancient pieces may have been preserved. Even if
+the poems attributed to Amergin do not go back to the tenth century
+B.C., as has been claimed for them, they are in any case old enough to
+be archaic, and certain poems of the mythological cycle are
+undoubtedly anterior to the Christian era.</p>
+
+<p>We have reason to believe that there have been preserved some
+genuine poems of Finn macCumaill (third century), a hymn by St.
+Patrick (d. 461), some greatly altered verses of St. Columcille (d.
+597), and certain hymns written by saints who lived from the seventh
+to the ninth century. The main object of the most celebrated of the
+ancient poets up to the end of the twelfth century was to render
+history, genealogy, toponomy, and lives of saints readier of access
+and easier to retain by putting them into verse-form; and it is the
+names of those scholars that have been rescued from oblivion, while
+lyric poetry, having as its basis nothing more than sentiment, has
+remained for the most part anonymous. After the Anglo-Norman invasion,
+the best poet seems to have been Donnchadh M&oacute;r O'Daly (d.
+1244). Of later date were Teig MacDaire (1570-1652), Teig Dall
+O'Higinn (d. 1615), and Eochaidh O'Hussey, who belonged to the
+seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The new school, which abandoned
+the old rules and whose inspiration is now personal, now patriotic, is
+represented by <i>caoine</i> (keens or laments), <i>abran</i> (hymns),
+or <i>aislingi</i> (visions), composed, among others, by Geoffrey
+Keating (d. c. 1650), David O'Bruadair (c. 1625-1698), Egan O'Rahilly
+(c. 1670-c. 1734), John MacDonnell (1691-1754), William O'Heffernan
+(fl. 1750), John O'Tuomy (1706-1775), and Andrew MacGrath (d. c.
+1790). The greatest of the eighteenth century Irish poets was Owen Roe
+O'Sullivan (c. 1748-1784), whose songs were sung everywhere, and who,
+in the opinion of his editor, Father Dinneen, is the literary glory of
+his country and deserves to be ranked among the few supreme lyric
+poets of all time.</p>
+
+<p>If, in order to study the subjects treated by the poets, we lay
+aside didactic poetry and confine ourselves to the ancient poems from
+the seventh to the eleventh century, we shall find in the latter a
+singular variety. They were at first dialogues or monologues, now
+found incorporated with the sagas, of which they may have formed the
+original nucleus. Thus, in the <i>Voyage of Bran</i>, we have the
+account of the Isles of the Blessed and the discourse of the King of
+the Sea; in the <i>Expedition of Lo&eacute;gaire MacCrimthainn</i>,
+the brilliant description of the fairy hosts; in <i>The Death of the
+Sons of Usnech</i>, the touching farewell of Deirdre to the land of
+Scotland and her lamentation over the dead bodies of the three
+warriors; and in the <i>Lay of Fothard Canann</i>, the strange and
+thrilling speech of the dead lover, returning after the battle to the
+tryst appointed by his sweetheart. Other poems seem never to have
+figured in a saga, like the Song of Crede, daughter of Guaire, in
+which she extols the memory of her friend Dinertach, and the affecting
+love-scenes between Liadin and Curithir; or like the bardic songs
+designed to distribute praise or blame: the funeral panegyric on King
+Niall, in alternate verses, the song of the sword of Carroll, and the
+satire of MacConglinne against the monks of Cork.</p>
+
+<p>Religious poetry comprised lyric fragments, which were introduced
+into the lives of the saints and there formed a kind of Christian
+saga, or else were based on Holy Writ, like the <i>Lamentation of
+Eve</i>; hymns in honor of the saints, like <i>The Hymn to St.
+Michael</i>, by Mael Isu; pieces such as the famous Hymn of St.
+Patrick; and philosophic poems like that keen analysis of the flight
+of thought which dates from the tenth century.</p>
+
+<p>At a time when the poets of other lands seem wholly engrossed in
+the recital of the deeds of men, one of the great and constant
+distinguishing marks of poetry in Ireland, whether we have to do with
+a short note set down by a scribe on the margin of a manuscript or
+with a religious or profane poem, is a deep, personal, and intimate
+love of nature expressed not by detailed description, but more often
+by a single picturesque and telling epithet. Thus we have the hermit
+who prays God to give him a hut in a lonely place beside a clear
+spring in the wood, with a little lark to sing overhead; or we have
+Marban, who, rich in nuts, crab-apples, sloes, watercress, and honey,
+refuses to go back to the court to which the king, his brother,
+presses him to return. Now, we have the description of the summer
+scene, in which the blackbird sings and the sun smiles; now, the song
+of the sea and of the wind, which blows tempestuously from the four
+quarters of the sky; again, the winter song, when the snow covers the
+hills, when every furrow is a streamlet and the wolves range
+restlessly abroad, while the birds, numbed to the heart, are silent;
+or yet again the recluse in his cell, humorously comparing his quest
+of ideas to the pursuit of the mice by his pet cat. This deep love of
+inanimate and animate things becomes individualized in those poems in
+which every tree, every spring, every bird is described with its own
+special features.</p>
+
+<p>If we remember that these original poems, which, before the twelfth
+century, expressed thoughts that were scarcely known to the literature
+of Europe before the eighteenth, are, besides, clothed in the rich
+garb of a subtle harmony, what admiration, what respect, and what love
+ought we not to show to that ancient Ireland which, in the darkest
+ages of western civilization, not only became the depositary of Latin
+knowledge and spread it over the continent, but also had been able to
+create for herself new artistic and poetic forms!</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Hyde: Love Songs of Connacht (Dublin, 1893), Irish Poetry, an Essay
+in Irish with Translation in English and a Vocabulary (Dublin, 1902),
+The Religious Songs of Connacht (London, 1906); Meyer: Ancient Gaelic
+Poetry (Glasgow, 1906), a Primer of Irish Metrics with a Glossary and
+an Appendix containing an Alphabetical List of the Poets of Ireland
+(Dublin, 1909); Dottin-Dunn: The Gaelic Literature of Ireland
+(Washington, 1906); Meyer: Selections from Ancient Irish Poetry (2d
+edition, London, 1913); Best: Bibliography of Irish Philology and of
+Printed Irish Literature (Dublin, 1913); Loth: La m&eacute;trique
+galloise (Paris, 1902); Thurneysen: Mittelirische Verslehren, Irische
+Texte III.; Buile Suibhne (Dublin, 1910).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T27"></a>IRISH HEROIC SAGAS</h2>
+<h4>By ELEANOR HULL.</h4>
+
+<p>Ireland has the unique distinction of having preserved for mankind
+a full and vivid literary record of a period otherwise, so far as
+native memorials are concerned, clouded in obscurity. A few
+fragmentary suggestions, derived from ancient stone monuments or from
+diggings in tumuli and graves, are all that Gaul or Britain have to
+contribute to a knowledge of that important period just before and
+just after the beginning of our era, when the armies of Rome were
+overrunning western Europe and were brought, for the first time, into
+direct contact with the Celtic peoples of the West. Almost all that we
+know of the early inhabitants of these countries comes to us from the
+pens of Roman writers and soldiers&mdash;Poseidonius, Caesar,
+Diodorus, Tacitus. We may give these observers credit for a desire to
+be fair to peoples they sometimes admired and often dreaded, but
+conquerors are not always the best judges of the races they are
+engaged in subduing, especially when they are ignorant of their
+language, unversed in their lore and customs, and unused to their
+ways. Valuable as are the reports of Roman authorities, we feel at
+every point the need of checking them by native records; but the
+native records of Gaul, and in large part also those of Britain and
+Wales, have been swept away. Caesar is probably right in saying that
+the Druids, who were the learned men of their race and day, committed
+nothing to writing; if they did, whatever they wrote has been
+irrecoverably lost.</p>
+
+<p>But Ireland was exempt from the sweeping changes brought about
+through long periods of Roman and Saxon occupation; no great upheaval
+from without disturbed the native political and social conditions up
+to the coming of the Norse and Danes about the beginning of the ninth
+century. Agricola, standing on the western coast of Britain, looked
+across the dividing channel, and reflected upon "the beneficial
+connection that the conquest of Ireland would have formed between the
+most powerful parts of the Roman Empire," but, fortunately for the
+literature of Ireland, if not for her history, he never came. The
+early incursions of the Scotti or Irish were eastward into England,
+Wales, and Gaul, and there seem to have been few return movements
+towards the west. Ireland pursued her path of native development
+undisturbed. It is to this circumstance that she owes the preservation
+of so much of her native literature, a great body of material,
+historical, religious, poetic, romantic, showing marks of having
+originated at a very early time, and of great variety and
+interest.</p>
+
+<p>At what period this literature first began to be written down we do
+not know. Orosius tells us that a traveler named Aethicus spent a
+considerable time in Ireland early in the fifth century "examining
+their volumes", which tends to prove that there was writing in Ireland
+before St. Patrick. But the native bard must have made writing
+superfluous. The man who could, at a moment's notice, recite any one
+out of the 350 stories which might be called for, besides poetry,
+genealogies, and tribal records, was worth many books. Only a few were
+expert enough to read his writings, but all could enjoy his tales.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest written records that we have now existing date from
+the seventh or eighth century; but undoubtedly there is preserved for
+us, in these materials, a picture of social conditions going back to
+the very beginning of our era, and coeval with the stage of
+civilization known in archaeology as <i>La T&egrave;ne</i> or "Late
+Celtic".</p>
+
+<p>To help his memory the early "shanachie" or story-teller grouped
+his romantic story-store under different heads, such as "T&aacute;ins"
+or Cattle-spoils, Feasts, Elopements, Sieges, Battles, Destructions,
+Tragical Deaths; but it is easier for us now to group them in another
+way, and to class together the series of tales referring to the Tuatha
+De Danann or ancient deities, those belonging to the Red Branch cycle
+of King Conchobar and Cuchulainn, those relating to Finn, and the
+Legends of the Kings. The hundred or more tales belonging to the
+second group are especially valuable for social history on account of
+the detailed descriptions they give of customs, dress, weapons, habits
+of life, and ethical ideas. To the historian, folklorist, and student
+of primitive civilizations they are documents of the highest
+importance.</p>
+
+<p>It seems likely that the Red Branch cycle of tales, including the
+epic tale of the T&aacute;in or Cattle-spoil of Cualnge, which has
+gathered round itself a number of minor tales, had some basis of
+historical fact, and arose in the period of Ulster's predominance to
+celebrate the deeds of a band of warlike champions who flourished in
+the north about the beginning of the Christian era. No one who has
+visited the raths of Emain Macha, near Armagh, where stood the
+traditional site of the ancient capital of Ulster, or has followed the
+well-defined and massive outworks of Rath Celtchair and the forts of
+the other heroes whose deeds the tales embody, could doubt that they
+had their origin in great events that once happened there. The
+topography of the tales is absolutely correct. Or again, when we cross
+over into Connacht, the remains at Rath Croghan, near the ancient
+palace of the Amazonian queen, Medb, testify to similar events. She it
+was who in her "Pillow Talk" with her husband Ailill declared that she
+had married him only because in him did she find the "strange
+bride-gift" which her imperious nature demanded, "a man without
+stinginess, without jealousy, without fear." It was in her desire to
+surpass her husband in wealth that she sent the combined armies of the
+south and west into Ulster to carry off a famous bull, the Brown Bull
+of Cooley, the only match in Ireland for one possessed by her spouse.
+This raid forms the central subject of the <i>T&aacute;in B&oacute;
+C&uacute;alnge</i>. The motif of the tale and the kind of life
+described in it alike show the primitive conditions out of which it
+had its rise. It belongs to a time when land was plenty for the
+scattered inhabitants to dwell upon, but stock to place upon it was
+scarce. The possession of herds was necessary, not only for food and
+the provisioning of troops, but as a standard of wealth, a proof of
+position, and a means of exchange. Everything was estimated, before
+the use of money, by its value in kine or herds. When Medb and Ailill
+compare their possessions, to find out which of them is better than
+the other, their herds of cattle, swine, and horses are driven in,
+their ornaments and jewels, their garments and vats and household
+appliances are displayed. The pursuit of the cattle of neighboring
+tribes was the prime cause of the innumerable raids which made every
+man's life one of perpetual warfare, much more so than the acquisition
+of land or the avenging of wrongs. Hence a motif that may seem to us
+insufficient and remote as the subject of a great epic arose out of
+the necessities of actual life. Cattle-driving is the oldest of all
+occupations in Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>The conditions we find described in these tales show us an open
+country, generally unenclosed by hedges or walls. The chariots can
+drive straight across the province. There are no towns, and the
+stopping places are the large farmers' dwellings, open inns known as
+"houses of hospitality", fortified by surrounding raths or earthen
+walls, the only private property in land, in a time when the
+tribe-land was common, that we hear of at this period. Within these
+borders lay the pleasure grounds and gardens and the cattle-sheds for
+the herds, which the great landowner or chief loaned out to the
+smaller men in return for services rendered. Here were trained in arts
+of industry and fine needlework the daughters of the chief men of the
+tribe and their foster-sisters, drawn from the humbler families around
+them. The rivers as a rule formed the boundaries of the provinces, and
+the fords were constantly guarded by champions who challenged every
+wayfarer to single combat, if he could not show sufficient reason for
+crossing the borderland. These combats were fought actually in the
+ford itself, and all wars began in a long series of single
+hand-to-hand combats between equal champions before the armies as a
+whole engaged each other.</p>
+
+<p>To fight was every man's prime duty, and the man who had slain the
+largest number of his fellows was acclaimed as the greatest hero. It
+was the proud boast of Conall Cernach, "the Victorious", that seldom
+had a day passed in which he had not challenged a Connachtman, and few
+nights in which a Connachtman's head had not formed his pillow. It
+shows the primitive savagery of the period that skulls of enemies were
+worn dangling from the belt, and were stored up in one of the palaces
+of Emain Macha as trophies of valor. So warlike were the heroes that
+even during friendly feasts their weapons had to be hung up in a
+separate house, lest they should spring to arms in rivalry with their
+own fellows.</p>
+
+<p>Yet in spite of this rude barbarism of outward life, the warriors
+had formed for themselves a high and exacting code of honor, which may
+be regarded as the first steps toward what in later times and other
+countries became known as "chivalry"; save that there is in the acts
+of the Irish heroes a simplicity and sincerity which puts them on a
+higher level than the obligatory courtesies of more artificial ages.
+Generosity between enemies was carried to an extraordinary pitch.
+Twice over in fights with different foes, Conall Cernach binds his
+right hand to his side in order that his enemy, who had lost one hand,
+may fight on equal terms with him. The two severest combats sustained
+by Cuchulainn, the youthful Ulster champion, in the long war of the
+T&aacute;in are those with Loch the Great and Ferdiad, both first-rate
+warriors, who had been forced by the wiles of Medb into unwilling
+conflict against their young antagonist. In their youth they had been
+fellow-pupils in the school of the Amazon Scathach, who had taught
+them both alike the arts of war. When Loch the Great, as a dying
+request, prays Cuchulainn to permit him to rise, "so that he may fall
+on his face and not backwards towards the men of Erin," lest hereafter
+it should be said that he fell in flight, Cuchulainn replies: "That
+will I surely, for it is a warrior's boon thou cravest," and he steps
+back to allow the wounded man to reverse his position in the ford. The
+tale of Cuchulainn's combat with Ferdiad has become classic; nothing
+more pathetic or more full of the true spirit of chivalry is to be
+found in any literature. Each warrior estimates nobly the prowess of
+the other, each sorrowfully recalls the memory of old friendships and
+expeditions made together. When Ferdiad falls, his ancient comrade
+pours out over him a passionate lament. Each night, when the day's
+combat is over, they throw their arms round each other's neck and
+embrace. Their horses are put up in the same paddock and their
+charioteers sleep beside the same fire; each night Cuchulainn sends to
+his wounded friend a share of the herbs that are applied to his own
+wounds, while to Cuchulainn Ferdiad sends a fair half of the pleasant
+delicate food supplied to him by the men of Erin. We may recall, too,
+Cuchulainn's act of compassion towards Queen Medb near the close of
+the T&aacute;in. Her army is flying in rout homeward across the
+Shannon, closely pursued by Cuchulainn. As he approaches the ford he
+finds Queen Medb lying prostrate on the bank, unable any longer to
+guard the retreat of her army. She appeals to her enemy to aid her;
+and Cuchulainn, with that lovable boyish delight in acts of supreme
+generosity which is always ascribed to him, undertakes to shield the
+retreat of the disordered host from his own troops and to see them
+safely across the river, while Medb reposes peacefully in a field hard
+by. The spirit which actuates the heroes is well expressed by
+Cuchulainn when his friends would restrain him from going forth to his
+last fight, knowing that in that battle he must fall: "I had rather
+than the whole world's gold and than the earth's riches that death had
+ere now befallen me, so would not this shame and testimony of reproach
+now stand recorded against me; for in every tongue this noble old
+saying is remembered, 'Fame outlives life.'"</p>
+
+<p>The Irish tales surpass those of the Arthurian cycle in simplicity,
+in humor, and in human interest; the characters are not mere types of
+fixed virtues and vices, they have each a strongly marked
+individuality, consistently adhered to through the multitude of
+different stories in which they play a part. This is especially the
+case with regard to the female characters. Emer, Deirdre, Etain,
+Grainne may be said to have introduced into European literature new
+types of womanhood, quite unlike, in their sprightliness and humor,
+their passionate affection and heroic qualities, to anything found
+elsewhere. Stories about women play a large part in ancient Irish
+literature; their elopements, their marriages, their griefs and
+tragedies, form the subject of a large number of tales. Among the list
+of tales that any bard might be called upon to recite, the
+"Courtships" or "Wooings" probably formed a favorite group; they are
+of great variety and beauty. The Irish, indeed, may be called the
+inventors of the love-tale for modern Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The gravest defect of this literature (a defect which is common to
+all early literature before coming under the chastening hand of the
+master) is undoubtedly its tendency to extravagance; though much
+depended upon the individual writer, some being stylists and some not,
+all were prone to frequent and grotesque exaggerations. The lack of
+restraint and self-criticism is everywhere apparent; the old Irish
+writer seems incapable of judging how to shape his material with a
+view to presenting it in its best form. Thus, we have the feeling,
+even with regard to the <i>T&aacute;in B&oacute; C&uacute;alnge</i>,
+that what has come down to us is rather the rough-shaped material of
+an epic than a completed design. The single stories and the groups of
+stories have been handled and rehandled at different times, but only
+occasionally, as in the Story of Deirdre (the "Sorrowful Tale of the
+Sons of Usnech"), or in the later versions of the "Wooing of Emer", or
+the Book of Leinster version of the "Wooing of Ferb", do we feel that
+a competent artist has so formed his story that the best possible
+value has been extracted from it. Yet, in spite of their defects, the
+old heroic sagas of Ireland have in them a stimulating force and
+energy, and an element of fine and healthy optimism, which is
+strangely at variance with the popular conception of the melancholy of
+Irish literature, and which, wherever they are known, make them the
+fountain-head of a fresh creative inspiration. This stimulating of the
+imagination is perhaps the best gift that a revived interest in the
+old native romance of Ireland has to bestow.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>The originals of many of the Tales of the Cuchulainn cycle of
+romances will be found, usually accompanied by English or German
+translations, in the volumes of <i>Irische Texte; Revue Celtique;
+Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Celt. Phil.; Eriu</i>; Irish Texts Society, vol.
+II; <i>Atlantis</i>; Proceed. of the R. Irish Academy (Irish MSS.
+Series and Todd Lecture Series). English translations: of the
+T&aacute;in B&oacute; C&uacute;alnge (LU. and Y.B.L. versions), by
+Miss Winifred Faraday (1904); (LL. version with conflate readings), by
+Joseph Dunn (1914); of various stories: E. Hull, The Cuchulain Saga in
+Irish Literature (1898); A. H. Leahy, Heroic Romances of Ireland
+(1905-6), the Courtship of Ferb (1902). French translations in Arbois
+de Jubainville's <i>Epop&eacute;e celtique en Irlande</i>; German
+translations in Thurneysen's <i>Sagen aus dem alien Irland</i> (1901);
+free rendering by S. O'Grady in The Coming of Cuchullain (1904), and
+in his History of Ireland, the Heroic Period (1878). For full
+bibliography, see R. I. Best's Bibliography of Irish Philology and
+Printed Literature (1913), and Joseph Dunn's <i>T&aacute;in B&oacute;
+C&uacute;alnge</i>, pp. xxxii-xxxvi (1914).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T28"></a>IRISH PRECURSORS OF DANTE</h2>
+<h4>By SIDNEY GUNN, M.A.</h4>
+
+<p>One of the supreme creations of the human mind is the <i>Divine
+Comedy</i> of Dante, and undoubtedly one of its chief sources is the
+literature of ancient Ireland. Dante himself was a native of Florence,
+Italy, and lived from 1265 to 1321. Like many great men, he incurred
+the hatred of his countrymen, and he spent, as a result, the last
+twenty years of his life in exile with a price on his head. He had
+been falsely accused of theft and treachery, and his indignation at
+the wrong thus done him and at the evil conduct of his contemporaries
+led him to write his poem, in which he visits Hell, Purgatory, and
+Paradise, and learns how God punishes bad actions, and how He rewards
+those who do His will.</p>
+
+<p>To the writing of his poem Dante brought all the learning of his
+time, all its science, and an art that has never been surpassed,
+perhaps never equalled. Of course, he did not know any Irish, but he
+knew Italian and the then universal tongue of the learned&mdash;Latin,
+in both of which were tales of visits to the other world; and the
+greater part of these tales, as well as those most resembling Dante's
+work in form and spirit, were Irish in origin.</p>
+
+<p>All peoples have traditions of persons visiting the realms of the
+dead. Homer tells of Odysseus going there; Virgil does the same of
+Aeneas; and the Oriental peoples, as well as the Germanic races, have
+similar tales; but no people have so many or such finished accounts of
+this sort as the ancient Irish. In pagan times in Ireland one of the
+commonest adventures attributed to a hero was a visit to "t&iacute;r
+na m-be&oacute;," the land of the living, or to "t&iacute;r na
+n-&oacute;g," the land of the young; and this supernatural world was
+reached in some cases by entering a fairy mound and going beneath the
+ground to it, and in others by sailing over the ocean.</p>
+
+<p>Of the literature of pagan Ireland, though much has come down to
+us, we have only a very small fraction of what once existed, and what
+we have has been transmitted and modified by persons of later times
+and different culture, who, both consciously and unconsciously, have
+changed it, so that it is very different from what it was in its
+original form; but the subject and the main outlines still remain, and
+we have many accounts of both voyages and underground journeys to the
+other world.</p>
+
+<p>The oldest voyage is, perhaps, that of Maelduin, which, Tennyson
+has transmuted into English under the title <i>The Voyage of
+Maeldune</i>. This is a voyage undertaken for revenge; but vengeance,
+as Sir Walter Scott has pointed out in his preface to <i>The Two
+Drovers</i>, springs in a barbarous society from a passion for
+justice; and it is this instinct for justice that inspires the Irish
+hero to endure and to achieve what he does. Christianity has preserved
+this legend and added to it its own peculiar quality of mercy; and
+this illustrates one of the characteristics of Ireland's pagan
+literature&mdash;it is imperfectly Christian and can readily be made
+to express the Christian point of view.</p>
+
+<p>Another voyage of pagan Irish literature is the <i>Voyage of
+Bran</i>. In this tale idealism is the inspiration that leads the hero
+into the unknown world. A woman appears who is invisible to all but
+Bran, and whose song of the beauteous supernatural land beyond the
+wave is heard by none but him; so that, after refusing to go with her
+the first time she appears, at length he steps into her boat of glass
+and sails away to view the wonders and taste the joys of the other
+world.</p>
+
+<p>In these tales we have two main elements, one real and one ideal.
+The real element is the fact that the ancient Irish unquestionably
+made voyages and visited lands which the fervid Celtic imagination and
+the lapse of time transformed into the wonderful regions of the
+legends. The stories are thus early geographies, and they show
+unmistakably a knowledge of western Europe and of the Canary Islands
+or some other tropical regions; perhaps also, some have gone so far as
+to claim, they are reminiscent of voyages to America.</p>
+
+<p>The ideal element is no less important as indicating achievement,
+for it shows that the Irish poets of pagan times had not only
+realized, but had succeeded in making their national traditions
+embody, the fact that love of justice and aspiration for knowledge are
+the foundations of all enduring human achievement and all perfect
+human joy. Christianity therefore found moral and spiritual ideas of a
+highly developed order in pagan Ireland, and it did not hesitate to
+adopt whatever in the literature of the country illustrated its own
+teachings, and not only were these stories of visits to the other
+world full of suggestions as to ways of enforcing Christian doctrine,
+but the Irish church and men of Irish birth were the most active in
+spreading the faith in the early centuries of its conquest of western
+Europe.</p>
+
+<p>For these reasons it is not strange that all the earliest Christian
+visions of the spirit-world were of Irish origin. We find the earliest
+in the <i>Ecclesiastical History</i> of the "Venerable Bede," who died
+in 735. It is the story of how an Irishman of great sanctity, Furseus
+by name, was taken in spirit by three angels to a place from which he
+looked down and saw the four fires that are to consume the world:
+those of falsehood, avarice, discord, fraud and impiety. In this there
+is the germ of some very fundamental things in Dante's poem, and we
+know that Dante knew Bede and had probably read his history, for he
+places him in Paradise and mentions him elsewhere in his works.</p>
+
+<p>In Bede's work there is also another vision, and though in this
+second case the man who visits the spirit-world is not an Irishman,
+but a Saxon named Drithelm, yet the story came to Bede through an
+Irish monk named Haemgils; so it, too, is connected with Ireland, and
+it also contains much that is developed further in the <i>Divine
+Comedy</i>.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most celebrated of the works belonging to this class of
+so-called "visionary" writings is the <i>Fis</i> or "Vision" which
+goes under the name of the famous Irish saint, Adamnan, who was
+poetically entitled the "High Scholar of the Western World." This
+particular vision, the <i>Fis Adamn&aacute;in</i>, is remarkable among
+other things for its literary quality, which is far superior to
+anything of the time, and for the fact that it represents "the highest
+level of the school to which it belonged," and that it is "the most
+important contribution made to the growth of the legend within the
+Christian Church prior to the advent of Dante."</p>
+
+<p>Another Irish vision of great popularity all over Europe in the
+Middle Ages is the <i>Voyage of Saint Brendan</i>. This is known as
+the Irish Odyssey, and it is similar to the pagan tales of Maelduin
+and Bran, except that instead of its hero being a dauntless warrior
+seeking vengeance or a noble youth seeking happiness, he is a
+Christian saint in quest of peace; and instead of the perils of the
+way being overcome by physical force or the favor of some capricious
+pagan deity, they are averted by the power of faith and virtue.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Voyage of Saint Brendan</i>, like its pagan predecessors,
+has a real and an ideal basis; and in both respects it shows an
+advancement over its prototypes. It contains some very poetic touches,
+and is credited with being the source of some of the most effective
+features of Dante's poem. Its great popularity is shown by the fact
+that Caxton, the first English printer, published a translation of it
+in 1483; so that it was among the first books printed in English, and
+for that reason must have been one of the best-known works of the
+time. Dante undoubtedly knew it, for he was a great scholar in the
+learning of his day, and especially in ecclesiastical history and the
+biography of saints.</p>
+
+<p>Another vision of Irish origin that Dante and other writers have
+borrowed from is that of an Irish soldier named Tundale. He is said to
+have been a very wicked and proud man, who refused to a friend who
+owed him for three horses an extension of time in which to pay for
+them. For this he was struck down by an invisible hand so that he
+remained apparently dead from Wednesday till Saturday, when he revived
+and told a story of a visit to the world of the dead that has many
+features later embodied in the <i>Divine Comedy</i>. Tundale's vision
+is said to have taken place in 1149; Dante probably wrote his poem
+between 1314 and 1321.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish also produced another legend of this sort that was
+enormously and universally popular, and became the chief authority on
+the nature of heaven and hell, in the story of <i>Saint Patrick's
+Purgatory</i>. Saint Patrick was said to have been granted a view of
+heaven and hell, and a certain island in Lough Derg in Donegal was
+reputed to be the spot in which he had begun his journey; and there,
+it was said, those who desired to purge themselves of their sins could
+enter as he had entered and come back to the world again, provided
+their faith was strong enough.</p>
+
+<p>This legend was probably known in Ireland from a very early time,
+but it had spread over all western Europe by the twelfth century.
+Henry of Saltrey, a Benedictine monk of the Abbey of that name in
+England, wrote an account in Latin of the descent of an Irish soldier
+named Owen into Saint Patrick's Purgatory in 1153; and this story soon
+became the subject of poetic treatment all over Europe. We have
+several French versions, one by the celebrated French poetess Marie de
+France, who lived about 1200; and there are others in all the
+languages of Europe, besides evidence of its wide circulation in the
+original Latin. Its importance is shown by the fact that it is
+mentioned by Matthew Paris, the chief English historian of the
+thirteenth century, and also by Froissart, the well-known French
+annalist of the fourteenth while Calderon, the great Spanish
+dramatist, has written a play based on the legend. Dante undoubtedly
+knew of Marie de France's version as well as the original of Henry of
+Saltrey and probably others besides.</p>
+
+<p>From what has been said it will be seen that Dante's masterpiece is
+largely based on literature of Irish origin; but there are other
+superlative exhibitions of human genius of which the same is true. One
+of these is the story of Tristan and Isolde. Tristan is the paragon of
+all knightly accomplishments, the most versatile figure in the entire
+literature of chivalry; while Isolde is an Irish princess. By a trick
+of fate these two drink a love potion inadvertently and become
+irresistibly enamored of each other, although Isolde is betrothed to
+King Mark of Cornwall, and Tristan is his nephew and ambassador. The
+story that follows is infinitely varied, intensely dramatic,
+delicately beautiful, and tenderly pathetic. It has been treated by
+several poets of great genius, among them Gottfried of Strassburg, the
+greatest German poet of his time, and Richard Wagner; but all the
+beauty and power in the works of these men existed in the original
+Celtic form of the tale, and the later writers have only discovered it
+and brought it to light.</p>
+
+<p>The same thing is true of the Arthurian Legend and the story of the
+Holy Grail. Dante knew of King Arthur's fame, and mentions him in the
+<i>Inferno</i>. To Dante he was a Christian hero, and the historical
+Arthur may have been a Christian; but much in the story goes back to
+the pagan Celtic religion. We can find in Irish literature many
+references that indicate a belief in a self-sustaining, miraculous
+object similar to the Holy Grail, and the fact that this object was
+developed into a symbol of some of the deepest and most beautiful
+Christian truths shows the high character of the civilization and
+literature of ancient Ireland.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Wright: St. Patrick's Purgatory (London, 1844); Krapp: The Legend
+of St. Patrick's Purgatory (Baltimore, 1900); Becker: Mediaeval
+Visions of Heaven and Hell (Baltimore, 1899); Shackford: Legends and
+Satires (Boston, 1913); Meyer and Nutt: The Voyage of Bran, edited and
+translated by K. Meyer, with an Essay on the Irish Version of the
+Happy Other World and the Celtic Doctrine of Rebirth, by A. Nutt, 2
+vols. (London, 1895); Boswell: An Irish Precursor of Dante (London,
+1908).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T29"></a>IRISH INFLUENCE ON ENGLISH LITERATURE</h2>
+<h4>By E.C. QUIGGIN, M.A.</h4>
+
+<p>Among the literary peoples of the west of Europe, the Irish, in
+late medieval and early modern times, were singularly little affected
+by the frequent innovations in taste and theme which influenced
+Romance and Teutonic nations alike. To such an extent is this true,
+that one is often inclined to think that far-off Iceland was to a
+greater degree in the general European current than the much more
+accessible Erin. During the age of chivalry, conditions in Ireland
+were not calculated to promote the growth of epic and lyric poetry
+after the continental manner. Some considerable time elapsed before
+the Norman barons became fully Hibernicised, previous to which their
+interest may be assumed to have turned to the compositions of the
+trouv&egrave;res. In the early Norman period, the poets of Ireland
+might well have begun to imitate Romance models. But, strange to say,
+they did not, and, for this, various reasons might be assigned. The
+flowing verses of the Anglo-Norman were impossible for men who
+delighted in the trammels of the native prosody; and in the heyday of
+French influence, the patrons of letters in Ireland probably insisted
+on hearing the foreign compositions in their original dress, as these
+nobles were doubtless sufficiently versed in Norman-French to be able
+to appreciate them. But a still more potent factor was the
+conservatism of the hereditary Irish poet families. A close
+corporation, they appear to have resented every innovation, and were
+content to continue the tradition of their ancestors. The direct
+consequence of this tenacious clinging to the fashions of by-gone days
+rendered it impossible, nay almost inconceivable, that the literary
+men of Ireland should have exerted any profound or immediate influence
+upon England or western Europe. Yet, nowadays, few serious scholars
+will be prepared to deny that the island contributed in considerable
+measure to the common literary stock of the Middle Ages.</p>
+
+<p>We might expect to find that direct influence, as a general rule,
+can be most easily traced in the case of religious themes. Here, in
+the literature of vision, so popular in Ireland, a chord was struck
+which continued to vibrate powerfully until the time of the
+Reformation. In this branch the riotous fancy of the Celtic monk
+caught the medieval imagination from an early period. Bede has
+preserved for us the story of Fursey, an Irish hermit who died in
+France, A.D. 650. The greatest Irish composition of this class with
+which we are acquainted, the <i>Vision of Adamnan</i>, does not appear
+to have been known outside the island, but a later work of a similar
+nature met with striking success. This was the <i>Vision of
+Tundale</i> (Tnudgal), written in Latin by an Irishman named Marcus at
+Regensburg, about the middle of the twelfth century. It seems probable
+that this work was known to Dante, and, in addition to the numerous
+continental versions, there is a rendering of the story into Middle
+English verse.</p>
+
+<p>Closely allied to the Visions are the <i>Imrama</i> or "voyages"
+(Lat. <i>navigationes</i>). The earliest romances of this class are
+secular, <i>e.g., Imram Maelduin</i>, which provided Tennyson with the
+frame-work of his well-known poem. However, the notorious love of
+adventure on the part of the Irish monks inevitably led to the
+composition of religious romances of a similar kind. The most famous
+story of this description, the Voyage of St. Brendan, found its way
+into every Christian country in Europe, and consequently figures in
+the South English Legendary, a collection of versified lives of saints
+made in the neighborhood of Gloucester towards the end of the
+thirteenth century. The episode of St. Brendan and the whale,
+moreover, was probably the ultimate source of one of Milton's best
+known similes in his description of Satan. Equally popular was the
+visit of Sir Owayn to the Purgatory of St. Patrick, which is also
+included in the same Middle English Legendary. Ireland further
+contributed in some measure to the common stock of medieval stories
+which were used as illustrations by the preachers and in works of an
+edifying character.</p>
+
+<p>When we turn to purely secular themes, we find ourselves on much
+less certain ground. Though the discussion as to the origins of the
+"romance of Uther's son", Arthur, continues with unabated vigor, many
+scholars have come think that the Celtic background of these stories
+contains much that is derived from Hibernian sources. Some writers in
+the past have argued in favor of an independent survival of common
+Celtic features, in Wales and Ireland, but now the tendency is to
+regard all such coincidences as borrowings on the part of Cymric
+craftsmen. At the beginning of the twelfth century a new impulse seems
+to have been imparted to native minstrelsy in Wales under'the
+patronage of Gruffydd ap Cynan, a prince of Gwynedd, who had spent
+many years in exile at the court of Dublin. Some of the Welsh
+rhapsodists apparently served a kind of apprenticeship with their
+Irish brethren, and many things Irish were assimilated at this time
+which, through this channel, were shortly to find their way into
+Anglo-French. Thus it may now be regarded as certain that the name of
+the "fair sword" Excalibur, by Geoffrey called Caliburnus (Welsh
+<i>caletfwlch</i>), is taken from Caladbolg, the far-famed broadsword
+of Fergus macRoig. It does not appear that the whole framework of the
+Irish sagas was taken over, but, as Windisch points out, episodes were
+borrowed as well as tricks of imagery. So, to mention but one, the
+central incident of <i>Syr Gawayn and the Grene Knyght</i> is
+doubtless taken from the similar adventure of Cuchulainn in
+<i>Bricriu's Feast</i>. The share assigned to Irish influence in the
+<i>mati&egrave;re de Bretagne</i> is likely to grow considerably with
+the progress of research.</p>
+
+<p>The fairy lore of Great Britain undoubtedly owes much to Celtic
+phantasy. Of this Chaucer, at any rate, had little doubt, as he
+writes:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>In th' olde dayes of the King Arthour,</p>
+<p>Of which that Britons speken greet honour,</p>
+<p>Al was this land fulfild of fayerye;</p>
+<p>The elf-queen, with hir joly companye,</p>
+<p>Daunced ful ofte in many a grene med.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>And here again there is a reasonable probability that certain
+features were borrowed from the wealth of story current in the
+neighboring isle. Otherwise it is difficult to understand why the
+queen of fayerye should bear an Irish name (Mab, from Irish Medb), and
+curiously enough the form of the name rathef suggests that it was
+borrowed through a written medium and not by oral tradition. On the
+other hand it is incorrect to derive Puck from Irish <i>puca</i>, as
+the latter is undoubtedly borrowed from some form of Teutonic
+speech.</p>
+
+<p>So all embracing a mind as that of the greatest English dramatist
+could not fail to be interested in the gossip that must have been
+current in London at the time of the wars in Ulster. References to
+kerns and gallowglasses are fairly frequent. He had evidently heard of
+the marvellous powers with which the Irish bards were credited, for,
+in <i>As You Like It</i>, Rosalind exclaims:</p>
+
+<p>"I was never so be-rhymed since Pythagoras' time, that I was an
+Irish rat, which I can hardly remember."</p>
+
+<p>Similarly, in <i>King Richard III</i>, mention is made of the
+prophetic utterance of an Irish bard, a trait which does not appear in
+the poet's source. Any statements as to Irish influence in Shakespeare
+that go beyond this belong to the realm of conjecture. Professor
+Kittredge has attempted to show that in Syr Orfeo, upon which the poet
+drew for portions of the plot of <i>A Midsummer Night's Dream</i>, the
+Irish story of Etain and Mider was fused with the medieval form of the
+classical tale of Orpheus and Eurydice. Direct influence is entirely
+wanting, and it is difficult to see how it could have been
+otherwise.</p>
+
+<p>Even in the case of the Elizabethan poet who spent many years in the
+south
+of Ireland, there is no trace of Hibernian lore or legend. Spenser,
+indeed, tells us himself that he had caused some of the native poetry
+to
+be translated to him, and had found that it "savoured of sweet wit and
+good invention." But Ireland plays an infinitesimal part in the <i>Faerie
+Queene</i>. The scenery round Kilcolman Castle forms the background of
+much
+of the incident in Book V. "Marble far from Ireland brought" is
+mentioned
+in a simile in the second Book, where we also read:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>As when a swarme of gnats at eventide</p>
+<p>Out of the fennes of Allan do arise.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>But Ireland supplied no further inspiration.</p>
+
+<p>The various plantations of the seventeenth century produced an
+Anglo-Irish stock which soon asserted itself in literature. As a
+typical example, we may take the author of <i>The Vicar of
+Wakefield</i>. At his first school at Lissoy, Oliver Goldsmith came
+under Thomas Byrne, a regular shanachie, possessed of all the
+traditional lore, with a remarkable gift for versifying. It was under
+this man that the boy made his first attempts at verse, and his memory
+is celebrated in <i>The Deserted Village</i>:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>There, in his noisy mansion, skilled to rule,</p>
+<p>The village master taught his little school.</p>
+<p>A man severe he was, and stern to view.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Unfortunately Goldsmith was removed to Elphin at the age of nine,
+and although he retained an affection for Irish music all his life,
+his intimate connection with Irish Ireland apparently ceased at this
+point. "Sweet Auburn! loveliest village of the plain" is doubtless
+full of reminiscences of the poet's early years in Westmeath, but the
+sentiments, the rhythm, and the language are entirely cast in an
+English mould. We may mention, in passing, that it has been suggested
+that Swift derived the idea of the kingdom of Lilliput from the Irish
+story of the Adventures of Fergus macLeide amongst the leprechauns.
+All that can be said is that this derivation is not impossible, though
+the fact that the tale is preserved only in a single manuscript rather
+points to the conclusion that the story did not enjoy great popularity
+in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen that Goldsmith was removed from an Irish atmosphere at
+a tender age, and this is not the only instance of the frowning of
+fortune upon the native literature. When the fame of the ancient bards
+of the Gael was noised from end to end of Europe, it was through the
+medium of Macpherson's forgeries. <i>Fingal</i> caught the fleeting
+fancy of the moment in a manner never achieved by the true Ossianic
+lays of Ireland. The <i>Reliques of Irish Poetry</i>, published by
+Miss Brooke by subscription in Dublin in 1789 to vindicate the
+antiquity of the literature of Erin, never went into a second edition.
+And although some of the pieces contained in that volume have been
+reprinted in such undertakings of a learned character as the volumes
+of the Dublin Ossianic Society, J.F. Campbell's <i>Leabhar na
+Feinne</i>, and Cameron's <i>Reliquiae Celticae</i>, they have aroused
+little interest amongst those ignorant of the Irish tongue.</p>
+
+<p>During the nineteenth century, the number of poets who drew upon
+Ireland's past for their themes increased considerably. The most
+popular of all is unquestionably the author of the <i>Irish
+Melodies</i>. But, here again, the poet owes little or nothing to
+vernacular poetry, the mould is English, the sentiments are those of
+the poet's age. Moore's acquaintance with the native language can have
+been but of the slightest, and in the case of Mangan we are told that
+he had to rely upon literal versions of Irish pieces furnished him by
+O'Donovan or O'Curry. Of the numerous attempts to reproduce the
+overelaboration of rhyme to which Irish verse has ever been prone,
+Father Prout's <i>Bells of Shandon</i> is perhaps the only one that is
+at all widely known. When the legendary lore of Ireland became
+accessible to men of letters, owing to the labors of O'Curry,
+O'Donovan, and Hennessy, and the publication of various ancient texts
+by the Irish Archaeological Society, it was to be expected that an
+attempt would be made by some poet of Erin to do for his native land
+what the Wizard of the North had accomplished for Scotland. The task
+was undertaken by Sir Samuel Ferguson, who met with conspicuous
+success. His most ambitious effort, <i>Congal</i>, deals in epic
+fashion with the story of the battle of Moyra. Others in similar
+strain treat the story of Conaire M&oacute;r and Deirdre, whilst
+others such as the <i>Tain-Quest</i> are more in the nature of
+ballads. Ferguson did more to introduce the English reading public to
+Irish story than would have been accomplished by any number of bald
+translations. His diction is little affected by the originals, and he
+sometimes treats his materials with great freedom, but his achievement
+was a notable one, and he has not infrequently been acclaimed as the
+national poet.</p>
+
+<p>Is it perhaps invidious to single out any living author for special
+mention, but this brief survey cannot close without noticing the
+dramatic poems of W.B. Yeats, the latest poet who attempts to present
+the old stories in an English dress. His plays <i>On Baile's Strand,
+Deirdre</i>, and others, have become familiar to English audiences
+through the excellent acting of the members of the Abbey Theatre
+Company. The original texts are now much better known than they were
+in Ferguson's day, and Mr. Yeats consequently cannot permit himself
+the same liberties. Similarly, it is only during the last twenty-five
+years that the language of Irish poetry has been carefully studied,
+and Mr. Yeats has this advantage over his predecessors that on
+occasion, e.g., in certain passages in <i>The King's Threshold</i>, he
+is able to introduce with great effect reminiscences of the
+characteristic epithets and imagery which formed so large a part of
+the stock-in-trade of the medieval bard.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Friedel and Meyer: La Vision de Tondale (Paris, 1907); Boswell: An
+Irish Precursor of Dante (London, 1908); Cambridge History of English
+Literature, vol. I, chaps, xii and xvi; Windisch: <i>Das Keltische
+Brittannien</i> (Leipzig, 1912), more especially chap. xxxvii;
+Dictionary of National Biography; Gwynn: Thos. Moore ("English Men of
+Letters" Series, London, 1905).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T30"></a>IRISH FOLKLORE</h2>
+<h4>By ALFRED PERCEVAL GRAVES.</h4>
+
+<p>Among savage peoples there is at first no distinction of a definite
+kind between good and bad spirits, and when a distinction has been
+reached, a great advance in a spiritual direction has been made. For
+the key to the religion of savages is fear, and until such terror has
+been counteracted by belief in beneficent powers, civilization will
+not follow. But the elimination of the fear of the unseen is a slow
+process; indeed, it will exist side by side with the belief in
+Christianity itself, after a modification through various stages of
+better pagan belief.</p>
+
+<p>Ireland still presents, in its more out-of-the-way districts,
+evidence of that strong persistence in the belief in maleficent or
+malicious influences of the pre-Christian powers of the air, which it
+seems difficult to eradicate from the Celtic imagination. In the
+celebrated poem entitled <i>The Breastplate of St. Patrick</i>, there
+is much the same attitude on the part of Patrick towards the Druids
+and their powers of concealing and changing, of paralyzing and
+cursing, as was shown by Moses towards the magicians of Egypt. Indeed,
+in Patrick's time a belief in a world of fairies existed even in the
+king's household, for "when the two daughters of King Leary of
+Ireland, Ethnea the fair and Fedelma the ruddy, came early one morning
+to the well of Clebach to wash, they found there a synod of holy
+bishops with Patrick. And they knew not whence they came, or in what
+form, or from what people, or from what country; but they supposed
+them to be <i>Duine Sidh</i>, or gods of the earth, or a
+phantasm."</p>
+
+<p>Colgan explains the term <i>Duine Sidh</i> thus: "Fantastical
+spirits," he writes, "are by the Irish called men of the <i>Sidh</i>,
+because they are seen, as it were, to come out of the beautiful hills
+to infest men, and hence the vulgar belief that they reside in certain
+subterranean habitations: and sometimes the hills themselves are
+called, by the Irish, <i>Sidhe</i> or <i>Siodha</i>."</p>
+
+<p>No doubt, when the princesses spoke of the gods of the earth,
+reference was made to such pagan deities as Beal; Dagda the great or
+the good god; Aine, the Moon, goddess of the water and of wisdom;
+Manannan macLir, the Irish Neptune; Crom, the Irish Ceres; and Iphinn,
+the benevolent, whose relations to the Irish Oirfidh resembled those
+of Apollo towards Orpheus; and to the allegiance they owed to the
+Elements, the Wind, and the Stars. But besides these pagan divinities
+and powers, and quite apart from them, the early Irish believed in two
+classes of fairies: in the first place, a hierarchy of fairy beings,
+well and ill disposed, not differing in appearance, to any great
+degree at any rate, from human beings&mdash;good spirits and demons,
+rarely visible during the daytime; and, in the second place, there was
+the magic race of the De Danann, who, after conquest by the Milesians,
+transformed themselves into fairies, and in that guise continued to
+inhabit the underworld of the Irish hills, and to issue thence in
+support of Irish heroes, or to give their aid against other fairy
+adversaries.</p>
+
+<p>There is another theory to account for the fairy race. It is that
+they are angels who revolted with Satan and were excluded from heaven
+for their unworthiness, but were not found evil enough for hell, and
+therefore were allowed to occupy that intermediate space which has
+been called "the Other World." It is still a moot point with the Irish
+peasantry, as it was with the Irish saints of old, whether, after
+being compelled to dwell without death among rocks and hills, lakes
+and seas, bushes and forest, till the day of judgment, the fairies
+then have the chance of salvation. Indeed, the fairies are themselves
+believed to have great doubts of a future existence, though, like many
+men, entertaining undefined hopes of happiness; and hence the enmity
+which some of them have for mankind, who, they acknowledge, will live
+eternally. Thus their actions are balanced between generosity and
+vindictiveness towards the human race.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. W.Y. Evans Wentz, A.M., of Leland Stanford University,
+California, and Jesus College, Oxford, has received an honorary degree
+from the latter university for his thesis, "The Fairy Faith in Celtic
+Countries: Its Psychical Origin and Nature", a most laborious as well
+as ingenious work, whose object is to prove "that the origin of the
+fairy faith is psychical, and that fairyland, being thought of as an
+invisible world within which the visible world is immersed as an
+island in an unexplored ocean, actually exists, and that it is peopled
+by more species of living beings than this world, because incomparably
+more vast and varied in its possibilities." This may be added as a
+fourth theory to account for the existence of fairies, and it may be
+further stated here that the Irish popular belief in ghosts attributes
+to some of their departed spirits much of the same violence and malice
+with which fairies are credited. Mr. Jeremiah Curtin gives striking
+instances of this kind in his book, the <i>Folk Lore of West
+Kerry</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It became necessary, therefore, for the Gaels who believed in the
+preternatural powers of the fairies for good and ill to propitiate
+them as far as possible. On May eve, accordingly, cattle were driven
+into raths and bled there, some of the blood being tasted, the rest
+poured out in sacrifice. Men and women were also bled on these
+occasions. The seekers for buried treasure, over which fairies were
+supposed to have influence, immolated a black cock or a black cat to
+propitiate them. Again, a cow, suffering from sickness believed to be
+due to fairy malice, was bled and then devoted to St. Martin. If it
+recovered, it was never sold or killed. The first new milk of a cow
+was poured out on the ground to propitiate the fairies, and especially
+on the ground within a fairy rath. The first drop of any drink is also
+thrown out by old Irish people. If a child spills milk, the mother
+says, "that's for the fairies, leave it to them and welcome." Slops
+should never be thrown out of doors without the warning, "Take care of
+water!" lest fairies should be passing invisibly and get soiled by the
+discharge. Eddies of dust upon the road are supposed to be caused by
+the fairies, and tufts of grass, sticks, and pebbles are thrown into
+the centre of the eddy to propitiate the unseen beings. Some fairies
+of life size, who live within the green hills or under the raths, are
+supposed to carry off healthy babes to be made fairy children, their
+abstractors leaving weak changelings in their place. Similarly,
+nursing mothers are sometimes supposed to be carried off to give the
+breast to fairy babes, and handsome young men are spirited away to
+become bridegrooms to fairy brides. Again, folk suffering from falling
+sickness are supposed to be in that condition owing to the fatigue
+caused by nocturnal rides through the air with the fairies, whose
+steeds are bewitched rushes, blades of grass, straws, fern roots, and
+cabbage stalks. The latter, to be serviceable for the purpose, should
+be cut into the rude shapes of horses before the metamorphosis can
+take place.</p>
+
+<p>Iron of every kind keeps away malignant fairies: thus, a horseshoe
+nailed to the bottom of the churn prevents butter from being
+bewitched. Here is a form of charm against the fairies who have
+bewitched the butter: "Every window should be barred, a great turf
+fire should be lit upon which nine irons should be placed, the
+bystanders chanting twice over in Irish, 'Come, butter, come; Peter
+stands at the gate waiting for a buttered cake.' As the irons become
+heated the witch will try to break in, asking the people to take the
+irons, which are burning her, off the fire. On their refusing, she
+will go and bring back the butter to the churn. The irons may then be
+removed from the fire and all will go well."</p>
+
+<p>If a neighbor or stranger should enter a cottage during the
+churning, he should put his hand to the dash, or the butter will not
+come. A small piece of iron should be sewed into an infant's clothes
+and kept there until the child is baptized, and salt should be
+sprinkled over his cradle to preserve the babe from abduction. The
+fairies are supposed to have been conquered by an iron-weaponed race,
+and hence their dread of the metal.</p>
+
+<p>To recover a spell-bound friend, stand on All Hallows' eve at cross
+roads or at a spot pointed out by a wise woman or fairy doctor. When
+you have rubbed fairy ointment on your eyelids, the fairies will
+become visible as the host sweeps by with its captive, whom the gazer
+will then be able to recognize. A sudden gust announces their
+approach. Stooping down, you will then throw dust or milk at the
+procession, whose members are then obliged to surrender your
+spell-bound friend. If a man leaves home after his wife's confinement,
+some of his clothes should be spread over the mother and infant, or
+the fairies may carry them off. It is good for a woman, but bad for a
+man, to dream of fairies. It betokens marriage for a girl, misfortune
+for a man, who should not undertake serious business for some time
+after such dreaming.</p>
+
+<p>Fairy changelings may be recognized by tricky habits, constant
+crying, and other unusual characteristics. It was customary to recover
+the true child in the following way: The changeling was placed upon an
+iron shovel over the fire, when it would go shrieking up the chimney,
+and the <i>bona fide</i> human child would be restored. It was
+believed that fairy changelings often produced a set of small bagpipes
+from under the clothes and played dance music upon them, till the
+inmates of the cottage dropped with exhaustion from the effects of the
+step dancing they were compelled to engage in.</p>
+
+<p>On Samain eve, the night before the first of November, or, as it is
+now called, All Hallows' night or Hallowe'en, all the fairy hills or
+<i>shees</i> are thrown wide open and the fairy host issues forth, as
+mortals who are bold enough to venture near may see. Naturally
+therefore people keep indoors so as not to encounter the spectral
+host. The superstition that the fairies are abroad on Samain night
+still exists in Ireland and Scotland, and there is a further belief,
+no doubt derived from it, that the graves are open on that night and
+that the spirits of the dead are abroad.</p>
+
+<p>Salt, as already suggested, is regarded to be so lucky that if a
+child falls, it should always be given three pinches of salt, and if a
+neighbor calls to borrow salt, it should not be refused, even though
+it be the last grain in the house.</p>
+
+<p>An infant born with teeth should have them drawn by the nearest
+smith, and the first teeth when shed should be thrown into the fire,
+lest the fairies should get hold of what had been part of you.</p>
+
+<p>Those who hear fairy music are supposed to be haunted by the
+melody, and many are believed to go mad or commit suicide in
+consequence.</p>
+
+<p>The fairies are thought to engage in warfare with one another, and
+in the year 1800 a specially sanguinary battle was believed to have
+been fought between two clans of the fairies in county Kilkenny. In
+the morning the hawthorns along the fences were found crushed to
+pieces and drenched with blood.</p>
+
+<p>In popular belief fairies often go hunting, and faint sounds of
+fairy horns, the baying of fairy hounds, and the cracking of fairy
+whips are supposed to be heard on these occasions, while the flight of
+the hunters is said to resemble in sound the humming of bees.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the life-sized fairies who are reputed to have these direct
+dealings with human beings, there are diminutive preternatural beings
+who are also supposed to come into close touch with men. Among these
+is the Luchryman (<i>Leithphrogan</i>), or brogue maker, otherwise
+known as Leprechaun. He is always found mending or making a shoe, and,
+if grasped firmly and kept constantly in view, will disclose hidden
+treasure to you, or render up his <i>sparan na sgillinge</i>, or purse
+of the (inexhaustible) shilling. He can only be bound by a plough
+chain or woolen thread. He is the symbol of industry which, if
+steadily faced, leads to fortune, but, if lost sight of, is followed
+by its forfeiture.</p>
+
+<p>Love in idleness is personified by another pigmy, the
+<i>Geancanach</i> (love-talker). He does not appear, like the
+Leprechaun, with a purse in one of his pockets, but with his hands in
+both of them, and a <i>dudeen</i> (short pipe) in his mouth, as he
+lazily strolls through lonely valleys making love to the foolish
+country lasses and "gostering" with the idle "boys." To meet him meant
+bad luck, and whoever was ruined by ill-judged love was said to have
+been with the <i>Geancanach</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Another evil sprite was the <i>Clobher-ceann</i>, "a jolly,
+red-faced, drunken little fellow," always "found astride of a
+wine-butt" singing and drinking from a full tankard in a hard
+drinker's cellar, and bound by his appearance to bring its owner to
+speedy ruin.</p>
+
+<p>Then there were the <i>Leannan-sighes</i>, or native Muses, to be
+found in every place of note to inspire the local bard, and the
+<i>Beansighes</i> (Banshees, fairy women) attached to each of the old
+Irish families and giving warning of the death of one of its members
+with piteous lamentations.</p>
+
+<p>Black Joanna of the Boyne (<i>Siubhan Dubh na Boinne</i>) appeared
+on Hallowe'en in the shape of a great black fowl, bringing luck to the
+home whose <i>Banithee</i> (woman of the house) kept the dwelling
+constantly clean and neat.</p>
+
+<p>The Pooka, who appeared in the shape of a horse, and whom
+Shakespeare is by many believed to have adapted as "Puck," was a
+goblin who combined "horse-play" with viciousness, but also at times
+helped with the housework.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Dullaghan</i> was a churchyard demon whose head was of a
+movable kind. Dr. Joyce writes: "You generally meet him with his head
+in his pocket, under his arm, or absent altogether; or if you have the
+fortune to light upon a number of <i>Dullaghans</i>, you may see them
+amusing themselves by flinging their heads at one another or kicking
+them for footballs."</p>
+
+<p>An even more terrible churchyard demon is the fascinating phantom
+that waylays the widower at his wife's very tomb, and poisons him by
+her kiss when he has yielded to her blandishments.</p>
+
+<p>Of monsters the Irish had, and still believe in, the <i>Piast</i>
+(Latin <i>bestia</i>), a huge dragon or serpent confined to lakes by
+St. Patrick till the day of judgment, but still occasionally seen in
+their waters. In old Fenian times, namely, the days of Finn and his
+companion knights, the <i>Piasts</i>, however, roamed the country,
+devouring men and women and cattle in large numbers, and some of the
+early heroes are recorded to have been swallowed alive by them and
+then to have hewed their way out of their entrails.</p>
+
+<p>Merrows, or Mermaids, are also still believed in, and many folk
+tales exist describing their intermarriage with mortals.</p>
+
+<p>According to Nicholas O'Kearney, "It is the general opinion of many
+old persons versed in native traditional lore, that, before the
+introduction of Christianity, all animals possessed the faculties of
+human reason and speech; and old story-tellers will gravely inform you
+that every beast could speak before the arrival of St. Patrick, but
+that the saint having expelled the demons from the land by the sound
+of his bell, all the animals that, before that time, had possessed the
+power of foretelling future events, such as the Black Steed of
+<i>Binn-each-labhra</i>, the Royal Cat of <i>Cloughmagh-righ-cat</i>
+(Clough), and others, became mute, and many of them fled to Egypt and
+other foreign countries."</p>
+
+<p>Cats are said to have been appointed to guard hidden treasures; and
+there are few who have not heard old Irish people tell about strange
+meetings of cats and violent battles fought by them in the
+neighborhood. "It was believed," adds O'Kearney, "that an evil spirit
+in the shape of a cat assumed command over these animals in various
+districts, and that when those wicked beings pleased they could compel
+all the cats belonging to their division to attack those of some other
+district. The same was said of rats; and rat-expellers, when
+commanding a colony of those troublesome and destructive animals to
+emigrate to some other place, used to address their 'billet' to the
+infernal rat supposed to hold command over the rest. In a curious
+pamphlet on the power of bardic compositions to charm and expel rats,
+lately published, Mr. Eugene O'Curry states that a degraded priest,
+who was descended from an ancient family of hereditary bards, was
+enabled to expel a colony of rats by the force of satire!"</p>
+
+<p>Hence, of course, Shakespeare's reference to rhyming Irish rats to
+death.</p>
+
+<p>It will thus be seen that Irish Fairy Lore well deserves to have
+been called by Mr. Alfred Nutt, one of the leading authorities on the
+subject, "as fair and bounteous a harvest of myth and romance as ever
+flourished among any race."</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Alex. Carmichael: Carmina Gadelica; David Comyn: The Boyish
+Exploits of Finn; the Periodical, "Folklore"; Lady Gregory: Cuchulain
+of Muirthemne, Gods and Fighting Men; Miss Eleanor Hull: The Cuchulain
+Saga in Irish Literature; Douglas Hyde: Beside the Fire, (a collection
+of Irish Gaelic Folk Stories), <i>Leabhar Sgeulaicheachta</i>, (Folk
+Stories in Irish); "Irish Penny Journal"; Patrick Kennedy: The
+Fireside Stories of Ireland, Legendary Fictions of the Irish Celt;
+Standish Hayes O'Grady: Silva Gadelica; Wood-Martin: Traces of the
+Elder Faiths in Ireland, Pagan Ireland; W.Y. Wentz: The Fairy Faith in
+Celtic Countries; Lady Wilde: Charms, Incantations, etc.; Celtic
+articles in Hastings' Dictionary of Religion and Ethics.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T31"></a>IRISH WIT AND HUMOR</h2>
+<h4>By Charles L. Graves.</h4>
+
+<p>No record of the glories of Ireland would be complete without an
+effort, however inadequate, to analyze and illustrate her wit and
+humor. Often misunderstood, misrepresented, and misinterpreted, they
+are nevertheless universally admitted to be racial traits, and for an
+excellent reason. Other nations exhibit these qualities in their
+literature, and Ireland herself is rich in writers who have furnished
+food for mirth. But her special pre-eminence resides in the possession
+of what, to adapt a famous phrase, may be called an <i>anima
+naturaliter jocosa</i>. Irish wit and Irish humor are a national
+inheritance. They are inherent in the race as a whole, independent of
+education or culture or comfort. The best Irish sayings are the
+sayings of the people; the greatest Irish humorists are the nameless
+multitude who have never written books or found a place in national
+dictionaries of biography. None but an Irishman could have coined that
+supreme expression of contempt: "I wouldn't be seen dead with him at a
+pig-fair," or rebuked a young barrister because he did not "squandher
+his carcass" (<i>i.e.</i>, gesticulate) enough. But we cannot trace
+the paternity of these sayings any more than we can that of the
+lightning retort of the man to whom one of the "quality" had given a
+glass of whisky. "That's made another man of you, Patsy," remarked the
+donor. "'Deed an' it has, sor," Patsy flashed back, "an' that other
+man would be glad of another glass." It is enough for our purpose to
+note that such sayings are typically Irish and that their peculiar
+felicity consists in their combining both wit and humor.</p>
+
+<p>To what element in the Irish nature are we to attribute this joyous
+and illuminating gift? No one who is not a Gaelic scholar can venture
+to dogmatize on this thorny subject. But, setting philology and
+politics aside, it is hard to avoid the conclusion that Ireland has
+gained rather than lost in this respect by the clash of races and
+languages. Gaiety, we are told, is not the predominating
+characteristic of the Celtic temperament, nor is it reflected in the
+prose and verse of the "old ancient days" that have come down to us.
+Glamour and magic and passion abound in the lays and legends of the
+ancient Gael, but there is more melancholy than mirth in these tales
+of long ago. Indeed, it is interesting to note in connection with this
+subject that the younger school of Irish writers associated with what
+is called the Celtic Renascence have, with very few exceptions,
+sedulously eschewed anything approaching to jocosity, preferring the
+paths of crepuscular mysticism or sombre realism, and openly avowing
+their distaste for what they consider to be the denationalized
+sentiment of Moore, Lever, and Lover. To say this is not to disparage
+the genius of Yeats and Synge; it is merely a statement of fact and an
+illustration of the eternal dualism of the Irish temperament, which
+Moore himself realized when he wrote of "Erin, the tear and the smile
+in thine eye."</p>
+
+<p>A reaction against the Donnybrook tradition was inevitable and to a
+great extent wholesome, since the stage Irishman of the transpontine
+drama or the music-halls was for the most part a gross and unlovely
+caricature, but, like all reactions, it has tended to obscure the real
+merits and services of those who showed the other side of the medal.
+Lever did not exaggerate more than Dickens, and his portraits of
+Galway fox-hunters and duellists, of soldiers of fortune, and of
+Dublin undergraduates were largely based on fact. At his best he was a
+most exhilarating companion, and his pictures of Irish life, if
+partial, were not misleading. He held no brief for the landlords, and
+in his later novels showed a keen sense of their shortcomings. The
+plain fact is that, in considering the literary glories of Ireland, we
+cannot possibly overlook the work of those Irishmen who were affected
+by English influences or wrote for an English audience.</p>
+
+<p>Anglo-Irish humorous literature was a comparatively late product,
+but its efflorescence was rapid and triumphant. The first great name
+is that of Goldsmith, and, though deeply influenced in technique and
+choice of subjects by his association with English men of letters and
+by his residence in England, in spirit he remained Irish to the
+end&mdash;generous, impulsive, and improvident in his life; genial,
+gay, and tender-hearted in his works. The Vicar of Wakefield was Dr.
+Primrose, but he might just as well have been called Dr. Shamrock. No
+surer proof of the pre-eminence of Irish wit and humor can be found
+than in the fact that, Shakespeare alone excepted, no writers of
+comedy have held the boards longer or more triumphantly than Goldsmith
+and his brother Irishman, Sheridan. <i>She Stoops to Conquer, The
+Rivals, The School for Scandal</i>, and <i>The Critic</i> represent
+the sunny side of the Irish genius to perfection. They illustrate, in
+the most convincing way possible, how the debt of the world to Ireland
+has been increased by the fate which ordained that her choicest
+spirits should express themselves in a language of wider appeal than
+the ancient speech of Erin.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, English literature and the English tongue have
+gained greatly from the influence exerted by writers familiar from
+their childhood with turns of speech and modes of expression which,
+even when they are not translations from the Gaelic, are
+characteristic of the Hibernian temper. The late Dr. P.W. Joyce, in
+his admirable treatise on English as spoken in Ireland, has
+illustrated not only the essentially bilingual character of the
+Anglo-Irish dialect, but the modes of thought which it enshrines.
+There is no better known form of Irish humor than that commonly called
+the "Irish bull," which is too often set down to lax thinking and
+faulty logic. But it is the rarest thing to encounter a genuine Irish
+"bull" which is not picturesque and at the same time highly
+suggestive. Take, for example, the saying of an old Kerry doctor who,
+when conversing with a friend on the high rate of mortality, observed,
+"Bedad, there's people dyin' who never died before." Here a truly
+illuminating result was attained by the simple device of using the
+indicative for the conditional mood&mdash;as in Juvenal's famous
+comment on Cicero's second Philippic: <i>Antoni gladios potuit
+contemnere si sic omnia dixisset</i>. The Irish "bull" is a heroic and
+sometimes successful attempt to sit upon two stools at once, or, as an
+Irishman put it, "Englishmen often make 'bulls,' but the Irish 'bull'
+is always pregnant."</p>
+
+<p>Though no names of such outstanding distinction as those of
+Goldsmith and Sheridan occur in the early decades of the nineteenth
+century, the spirit of Irish comedy was kept vigorously alive by Maria
+Edgeworth, William Maginn, Francis Mahony (Father Prout), and William
+Carleton. Sir Walter Scott's splendid tribute to the genius of Maria
+Edgeworth is regarded by some critics as extravagant, but it is
+largely confirmed in a most unexpected quarter. Turgenief, the great
+Russian novelist, proclaimed himself her disciple, and has left it on
+record that but for her example he might never have attempted to give
+literary form to his impressions of the classes in Russia
+corresponding to the poor Irish and the squireens and the squires of
+county Longford. Maginn and Mahony were both scholars&mdash;the latter
+happily called himself "an Irish potato seasoned with Attic
+salt"&mdash;wrote largely for English periodicals, and spent most of
+their lives out of Ireland. In the writings of all three an element of
+the grotesque is observable, tempered, however, in the case of Mahony,
+with a vein of tender pathos which emerges in his delightful "Bells of
+Shandon." Maginn was a wit, Mahony was the hedge-schoolmaster <i>in
+excelsis</i>, and Carleton was the first realist in Irish peasant
+fiction. But all alike drew their best inspiration from essentially
+Irish themes. The pendulum has swung back slowly but steadily since
+the days when Irish men of letters found it necessary to accommodate
+their genius to purely English literary standards. Even Lever, though
+he wrote for the English public, wrote mainly about Ireland. So, too,
+with his contemporary Le Fanu, whose reputation rests on a double
+basis. He made some wonderful excursions into the realm of the
+bizarre, the uncanny, and the gruesome. But in the collection known as
+<i>The Purcell Papers</i> will be found three short stories which for
+exuberant drollery and "diversion" have never been excelled. That the
+same man could have written <i>Uncle Silas</i> and <i>The Quare
+Gander</i> is yet another proof of the strange dualism of the Irish
+character.</p>
+
+<p>The record of the last fifty years shows an uninterrupted progress
+in the invasion of English <i>belles lettres</i> by Irish writers.
+Outside literature, perhaps the most famous sayer of good things of
+our times was a simple Irish parish priest, the late Father Healy. Of
+his humorous sayings the number is legion; his wit may be illustrated
+by a less familiar example&mdash;his comment on a very tall young lady
+named Lynch: "Nature gave her an inch and she took an ell." In the
+House of Commons today there is no greater master of irony and
+sardonic humor than his namesake, Mr. Tim Healy. On one occasion he
+remarked that Lord Rosebery was not a man to go tiger-shooting
+with&mdash;except at the Zoo. On another, being anxious to bring an
+indictment against the "Castle" <i>r&eacute;gime</i> in Dublin and
+finding the way blocked by a debate on Uganda, he successfully
+accomplished his purpose by a judicious geographical transference of
+names, and convulsed the House by a speech in which the nomenclature
+of Central Africa was applied to the government of Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>But wit and humor are the monopoly of no class or calling in
+Ireland. They flourish alike among car-drivers and K.C.'s, publicans
+and policemen, priests and parsons, beggars and peers. It is a
+commonplace of criticism to deny these qualities in their highest form
+to women. But this is emphatically untrue of Ireland, and was never
+more conclusively disproved than by the recent literary achievements
+of her daughters. The partnership of two Irish ladies, Miss Edith
+Somerville and Miss Violet Martin, has given us, in <i>Some
+Experiences of an Irish R.M.</i> (<i>i.e.</i>, Resident Magistrate),
+the most delicious comedy, and in <i>The Real Charlotte</i> the finest
+tragi-comedy, that have come out of Great Britain in the last thirty
+years. The <i>R.M.</i>, as it is familiarly called, is already a
+classic, but the Irish <i>com&eacute;die humaine</i>&mdash;to use the
+phrase in the sense of Balzac&mdash;is even more vividly portrayed in
+the pages of <i>The Real Charlotte</i>. Humor, genuine though
+intermittent, irradiates the autumnal talent of Miss Jane Barlow, and
+the long roll of gifted Irishwomen who have contributed to the gaiety
+of nations may be closed with the names of Miss Hunt, author of
+<i>Folk Tales of Breffny</i>; of Miss Purdon and Miss Winifred Letts,
+who in prose and verse, respectively, have moved us to tears and
+laughter by their studies of Leinster peasant life; and of "Moira
+O'Neill" (Mrs. Skrine), the incomparable singer of the Glens of
+Antrim. To give a full list of the living Irish writers, male and
+female, who are engaged in the benevolent work of driving dull care
+away would be impossible within the space at our command. But we
+cannot end without recognition of the exhilarating extravaganzas of
+"George A. Birmingham" (Canon Hannay), the freakish and elfin muse of
+James Stephens, and the coruscating wit of F.P. Dunne, the famous
+Irish-American humorist, whose "Mr. Dooley" is a household word on
+both sides of the Atlantic.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Goldsmith: Vicar of Wakefield, She Stoops to Conquer; Sheridan: The
+Rivals, The School for Scandal, The Critic; R. Edgeworth: Essay on
+Irish Bulls; M. Edgeworth: Castle Rackrent, The Absentee; Maginn:
+Miscellanies in Prose and Verse; Carleton: Traits and Stories of the
+Irish Peasantry; Mahony (Father Prout): Reliques of Father Prout; John
+and Michael Banim: Tales of the O'Hara Family; Lover: Legends and
+Stories of Ireland, Handy Andy; Lever: Harry Lorrequer, Charles
+O'Malley, Lord Kilgobbin; Le Fanu: The Purcell Papers; Barlow: Bogland
+Studies, Irish Idylls, Irish Neighbours; Birmingham: The Seething Pot,
+Spanish Gold, The Major's Niece, The Red Hand of Ulster, General John
+Regan; Stephens: The Crock of Gold, Here are Ladies; Hunt: The Folk
+Tales of Breffny; Purdon: The Folk of Furry Farm; Somerville and Ross:
+The Real Charlotte, Some Experiences of an Irish R.M., All on the
+Irish Shore, Dan Russel the Fox.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T32"></a>THE IRISH THEATRE</h2>
+<h4>By JOSEPH HOLLOWAY.</h4>
+
+<p>The Irish theatre and secular drama may be said to begin with the
+production of James Shirley's historical play, <i>St. Patrick for
+Ireland</i>, in Werburgh Street Theatre, about 1636-7; and though
+Dublin was a great school for acting, and supplied many of the best
+players to the English stage, such as Quin, Macklin, Peg Woffington,
+Miss O'Neill, and hosts of others, it never really possessed a
+creative theatre (save at the Capel Street Theatre for a few years
+during the Grattan Parliament) until the modern movement in Ireland
+came into being and the Abbey Theatre became its headquarters.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, innumerable plays by Irish writers were written, but
+most of them were not distinctively Irish in character; and the names
+of Goldsmith, Sheridan, O'Keeffe, Farquhar, Sheridan Knowles, Oscar
+Wilde, and dozens of others will always be remembered as great Irish
+writers for the stage. And when fine impersonators of Irish character
+like Tyrone Power, John Drew, or Barney Williams arrived, there were
+always to be found several clever writers to fit them with parts, the
+demand always creating the supply.</p>
+
+<p>Even before Dion Boucicault took to writing Irish dramas of a more
+palatable and less "stage-Irish" character than those of his immediate
+predecessors, some excellent plays, Irish in character and tone, had
+from time to time found their way to the stage. However, Boucicault
+sweetened our stage by the production of <i>The Colleen Bawn,
+Arrah-na-Pogue</i>, and <i>The Shaughraun</i>, and showed by his
+rollicking impersonations of Myles, Shan, and Conn, how good-humored,
+hearty, and self-sacrificing Irish boys in humble life can be. He had
+great technical knowledge of stagecraft, and that has helped to make
+his Irish plays live in the popular goodwill right up to today.</p>
+
+<p>A revolt against Boucicault's Irish boys, all fun and frolic, and
+charming colleens, who could do no wrong, has made our modern
+playwrights go to the other extreme; so that now we find our stage
+peopled with peasants, cruel, hard, and forbidding for the most part,
+and with colleens who are the reverse of lovable in thought or act.
+Neither picture is quite true of our people. What is really wanted is
+the happy medium, which few, if any, of our new playwrights have yet
+given us.</p>
+
+<p>If our great popular Irish drama has yet to come, I think the Fays
+have made it possible to say that a distinct and really fine dramatic
+school has arisen in Ireland, evolved out of their wonderful skill in
+teaching, producing, and acting; and if we are not always really
+delighted with what our playwrights give us, the almost perfect way in
+which the plays are served up by the actors invariably wholly
+satisfies. It is the actors who have made the Abbey Theatre famous,
+and not the plays. Such acting as theirs cast a spell over all who see
+them. What pleasing memories do the names of W.G. Fay, Frank J. Fay,
+Dudley Digges, Sara Allgood, Arthur Sinclair, Maire O'Neill, Maire ni
+Shuiblaigh, J.M. Kerrigan, Fred O'Donovan, Eileen O'Doherty, Una
+O'Connor, Eithne Magee, Nora Desmond, and John Connolly recall!</p>
+
+<p>With the production of W.B. Yeats's poetic one-act play, <i>The
+Land of Heart's Desire</i>, at the Avenue Theatre, London, on March
+29, 1894, began the modern Irish dramatic movement. When the poet had
+tasted the joys of the footlights, he longed to see an Irish Literary
+Theatre realized in Ireland. Five years later, in the Antient Concert
+Rooms, Dublin, on May 9, 1899, his play, <i>The Countess Cathleen</i>,
+was produced, and his desire gratified. The experiment was tried for
+three years and then dropped; plays by Yeats, Edward Martyn, George
+Moore, and Alice Milligan were staged with English-trained actors in
+the casts; and a Gaelic play&mdash;the first ever presented in a
+theatre in Ireland&mdash;was also given during the third season. It
+was <i>The Twisting of the Rope</i>, by Dr. Douglas Hyde, and was
+played at the Gaiety Theatre, Dublin, on October 21, 1901, by a Gaelic
+Amateur Dramatic Society coached by W.G. Fay. The author filled the
+principal part with distinction.</p>
+
+<p>It was while rehearsing this play that the thought came to Fay:
+"Why not have my little company of Irish-born actors&mdash;the Ormond
+Dramatic Society&mdash;appear in plays by Irish writers instead of in
+the ones they have been giving for years?" And the thought soon
+ripened into realization. His brother, Frank, had dreamed of such a
+company since he read of the small beginnings out of which the
+Norwegian Theatre had grown; and just then, seeing some of "&AElig;'s"
+(George Russell's) play, <i>Deirdre</i>, in the <i>All Ireland
+Review</i>, he asked the author if he would allow them to produce it,
+and, consent being given, the company put it into rehearsal at once.
+"&AElig;" got for them from Yeats <i>Kathleen-Ni-Houlihan</i>, to make
+up the programme. Thus it was that this company of amateurs and poets,
+now known as the Abbey Players, came into existence, and at St.
+Teresa's Hall, Clarendon Street, Dublin, gave their first performance
+on April 2, 1902.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly afterwards they took a hall at the back of a shop in Camden
+Street, where they rehearsed and gave a few public performances. On
+"&AElig;" declining to be their president, Frank Fay suggested the
+name of W.B. Yeats, and he was elected, and in that way came again
+into the movement in which he has figured so largely ever since.</p>
+
+<p>The company played occasionally in the Molesworth Hall, and
+produced there, among other pieces, Synge's <i>In the Shadow of the
+Glen</i> (October 8, 1903) and <i>Riders to the Sea</i> (February 25,
+1904); Yeats's <i>The Hour Glass</i> (March 14, 1903) and <i>The
+King's Threshold</i> (October 8, 1903); Lady Gregory's
+<i>Twenty-five</i> (March 14,1903); and Padraic Colum's <i>Broken
+Soil</i> (December 3, 1903).</p>
+
+<p>On March 26, 1904, the company paid a flying one-day visit to the
+Royalty, London, and Miss A.E.F. Horniman, who had given Shaw, Yeats,
+and Dr. John Todhunter their first real start as playwrights at the
+Avenue, London, in March-April, 1894 (Shaw had had his first play,
+<i>Widowers' Houses</i>, played by the Independent Theatre in 1892),
+saw the performance, and was so impressed that she thought she would
+like to find a suitable home for such talent in Dublin, and fixed upon
+the old Mechanics' Institute and its surrounding buildings, and there
+the Abbey Theatre soon afterwards&mdash;on December 27,
+1904&mdash;came into existence.</p>
+
+<p>In writing of this Irish dramatic movement, one must always bear in
+mind that it was Yeats who first conceived the idea of such a
+movement; the Fays who founded the school of Irish acting; and Miss
+Horniman who, like a fairy godmother, waved the wand, and gave it a
+habitation and a name&mdash;the Abbey Theatre&mdash;and endowed it for
+six years.</p>
+
+<p>Play followed play with great rapidity, and dramatic societies
+sprang up all over the country, playing home-made productions in
+Gaelic and English. All Ireland seemed to be play-acting and
+play-writing; so much so that Frank Fay was heard to say that "he
+thought everyone had a play in his pocket, and that anyone in the
+street could be picked up and shaped into an actor or actress with a
+little training, Ireland was so teeming with talent!"</p>
+
+<p>Dramatic Ireland had slumbered for a long while, and awoke with
+tremendous vigor for work. New dramatists sprang up in all parts of
+Ireland; The Ulster Literary Theatre started in Belfast; The Cork
+Dramatic Society, in Cork; The Theatre of Ireland, in Dublin; and
+others in Galway and Waterford soon followed. In Dublin at present
+more than half a dozen dramatic societies are continually producing
+new plays and discovering new acting talent. There are also two Gaelic
+dramatic societies. And nearly every town in Ireland now has its own
+dramatic class and its own dramatists. All this activity has come
+about within the last ten or twelve years, where, before, in many
+places, drama and acting were almost unknown.</p>
+
+<p>Many Gaelic societies throughout the country put on Gaelic plays by
+Dr. Douglas Hyde, Pierce Beasley, Thomas Haynes, Canon Peter O'Leary,
+and others; and the <i>Oireachtas</i> (the Gaelic musical and literary
+festival) held each year in Dublin usually presents several Irish
+plays and offers prizes for new ones at each festival.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the Irish playwrights who have arisen in recent years, Lady
+Gregory has produced most and W.B. Yeats is the most poetic. He is
+more a lyric poet than a dramatist, and is never satisfied with his
+work for the stage, but keeps eternally chopping and changing it. His
+<i>Kathleen-Ni-Houlihan</i>, though a dream-play, always appeals to an
+audience of Irish people. Perhaps his one-act <i>Deirdre</i> is the
+nearest approach to real drama he has done. Some of Lady Gregory's
+earlier one-act farces, such as <i>The Workhouse-Ward</i>, are very
+amusing; <i>The Rising of the Moon</i> is a little dramatic gem, and
+<i>The Gaol Gate</i> is touched with genuine tragedy. Synge wrote only
+one play&mdash;Riders to the Sea&mdash;that acts well. The others are
+admired by critics for the strangeness of their diction and the beauty
+of the nature-pictures scattered through them. His much-discussed
+<i>Playboy of the Western World</i> has become famous for the rows it
+has created at home and abroad from its very first production on
+January 26, 1907. William Boyle, who gets to the heart of those he
+writes about, has produced the most popular play of the movement in
+<i>The Eloquent Dempsey</i>, and a perfectly constructed one in <i>The
+Building Fund</i>. W.F. Casey's two plays&mdash;The Man Who Missed the
+Tide and <i>The Suburban Groove</i>&mdash;are both popular and
+actable. Padraic Colum's plays&mdash;The Land and <i>Broken Soil</i>
+(the latter rewritten and renamed <i>The Fiddler's
+House</i>)&mdash;are almost idyllic scenes of country life. Lennox
+Robinson's plays are harsh in tone, but dramatically effective, and
+T.C. Murray's <i>Birthright</i> and <i>Maurice Harte</i> are fine
+dramas, well constructed and full of true knowledge of the people he
+writes about. Seumas O'Kelly has written two strong dramas in
+<i>The Shuiler's Child</i> and <i>The Bribe</i>, and Seumas O'Brien
+one of the funniest Irish farces ever staged in <i>Duty</i>. R.J.
+Ray's play, <i>The Casting Out of Martin Whelan</i>, is the best this
+dramatist has as yet given us, and George Fitzmaurice's <i>The Country
+Dressmaker</i> has the elements of good drama in it. St. John G.
+Ervine has written a very human drama in <i>Mixed Marriage</i>. He
+hails from the north of Ireland; but Rutherford Mayne is the best of
+the Northern playwrights, and his plays, <i>The Drone</i> and <i>The
+Turn of the Road</i>, are splendid homely county Down comedies.</p>
+
+<p>Bernard Shaw's <i>John Bull's Other Island</i>, as Irish plays go,
+is a fine specimen; Canon Hannay has written two successful comedies,
+<i>Eleanor's Enterprise</i> and <i>General John Regan</i>&mdash;the
+latter not wholly to the taste of the people of the west. James
+Stephens and Jane Barlow have also tried their hands at playwriting,
+with but moderate success. Perhaps the modern drama that made the most
+impression when first played was <i>The Heather Field</i>, by Edward
+Martyn. It gripped and remains a lasting memory with all who saw it in
+1899. But I think I have written enough to show that the Irish Theatre
+of today is in a very alive condition, and that if the great National
+Dramatist has not yet arrived, he is sure to emerge. When that time
+comes, the actors are here ready to interpret such work to
+perfection.</p>
+
+<p>An article, however brief, on the Irish Theatre, would be
+incomplete without mention of the world-famous tragedians, John Edward
+MacCullough, Lawrence Patrick Barrett, and Barry Sullivan; of genial
+comedians like Charles Sullivan and Hubert O'Grady; of sterling actors
+like Shiel Barry, John Brougham, Leonard Boyne, J.D. Beveridge, and
+Thomas Nerney; or of operatic artists like Denis O'Sullivan and Joseph
+O'Mara&mdash;many of whom have passed away, but some, fortunately, are
+with us still.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>John Genest: Some Account of the English Stage from the Restoration
+to 1830 (1832; vol. 10 is devoted to the Irish Stage); Chetwood:
+General History of the Stage, more particularly of the Irish Theatre
+(Dublin, 1749); Molloy: Romance of the Irish Stage; Baker: Biographia
+Dramatica (Dublin, 1782); Hitchcock: An Historical View of the Irish
+Stage from its Earliest Period down to the Season of 1788; Doran:
+Their Majesties' Servants, or Annals of the English Stage (London,
+1865); Hughes: The Pre-Victorian Drama in Dublin; The History of the
+Theatre Royal, Dublin (Dublin, 1870); Levey and O'Rourke: Annals of
+the Theatre Royal (Dublin, 1880); O'Neill: Irish Theatrical History
+(Dublin, 1910); Brown: A Guide to Books on Ireland (Dublin, 1912);
+Lawrence: The Abbey Theatre (in the Weekly Freeman, Dublin, Dec.,
+1912), Origin of the Abbey Theatre (in Sinn Fein, Dublin, Feb. 14,
+1914); Weygandt: Irish Plays and Playwrights (London, 1913); Lady
+Gregory: Our Irish Theatre (London, 1914); Bourgeois: John M. Synge
+and the Irish Theatre (London, 1913); Moore: Hail and Farewell, 3
+vols. (London, 1911-1914); Esmore: The Ulster Literary Theatre (in the
+Lady of the House, Dublin, Nov. 15, 1913); the Reviews, Beltaine
+(1899-1900) and Samhain (1901-1903).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T33"></a>IRISH JOURNALISTS</h2>
+<h4>By MICHAEL MACDONAGH.</h4>
+
+<p>The most splendid testimony to the Irish genius in journalism is
+afforded by the London press of the opening decades of the twentieth
+century. One of the greatest newspaper organizers of modern times is
+Lord Northcliffe. As the principal proprietor and guiding mind of both
+the <i>Times</i> and the <i>Daily Mail</i>, he directly influences
+public opinion, from the steps of the Throne and the door of the
+Cabinet, to the errand boy and the servant maid. T.P. O'Connor, M.P.,
+is the most popular writer on current social and political topics, and
+so amazing is his versatility that every subject he touches is
+illumined by those fine qualities, vision and sincerity. The most
+renowned of political writers is J.L. Garvin of the <i>Pall Mall
+Gazette</i> and the <i>Observer</i>. By his leading articles he has
+done as much as the late Joseph Chamberlain by his speeches to
+democratize and humanize the old Tory party of England. The
+authoritative special correspondent, studying at first hand all the
+problems which divide the nations of Europe, and knowing personally
+most of its rulers and statesmen, is E.J. Dillon of the <i>Daily
+Telegraph</i>. And when the quarrels of nations are transferred from
+the chancelleries to the stricken field there is no one among the war
+correspondents more enterprising and intrepid in his methods, or more
+picturesque and vivid with his pen, than M.H. Donohoe of the <i>Daily
+Chronicle</i>. All these men are Irish. Could there be more striking
+proof of the natural bent and aptitude of the Irish mind for
+journalism?</p>
+
+<p>Dean Swift was the mightiest journalist that ever stirred the
+sluggish soul of humanity. Were he alive today and had he at his
+command the enormous circulation of a great daily newspaper, he would
+keep millions in a perpetual mental ferment, such was the ferocious
+indignation into which he was aroused by wrong and injustice and his
+gift of savage ironical expression. Swift, as a young student in
+Trinity College, Dublin, saw the birth of the first offspring of the
+Irish mind in journalism. The <i>Dublin News Letter</i> made its
+appearance in June, 1685, and was published every three or four days
+for the circulation of news and advertisements. Only one copy of the
+first issue of this, the earliest of Irish newspapers, is extant. It
+is included in the Thorpe collection of tracts in the Royal Dublin
+Society. Dated August 26, 1685, it consists of a single leaf of paper
+printed on both sides, and contains just one item of news, a letter
+brought by the English packet from London, and two local
+advertisements. As I reverently handled it, I was thrilled by the
+thought that from this insignificant little seed sprang the great
+national organ, the <i>Freeman's Journal</i>; the <i>Press</i> of the
+United Irishmen; the <i>Nation</i> of the Young Irelanders; the
+<i>United Ireland</i> of the Land League; the <i>Irish World</i> and
+the <i>Boston Pilot</i> of the American Irish; and the <i>Irish
+Independent</i>, the first half-penny Dublin morning paper, and the
+most widely circulated of Irish journals. If Swift did not write for
+the <i>Dublin News Letter</i>, he certainly wrote for the
+<i>Examiner</i>, a weekly miscellany published in the Irish capital
+from 1710 to 1713, and the first journal that endeavored to create
+public opinion in Ireland. It was at Swift's instigation that this
+paper was started, and he was doubtless encouraged to suggest it by
+the success that attended his articles in the contemporary London
+publication of the same name, the Tory <i>Examiner</i>, in which his
+journalistic genius was fully revealed. As it has been expressively
+put, he wrote his friends, Harley and St. John, into a firm grip of
+power, and thus, as in other ways, contributed his share to the
+inauguration and maintenance of that policy which in the last four
+years of Queen Anne so materially recast the whole European situation.
+About the same time there appeared in London the earliest forms of the
+periodical essay in the <i>Tatler</i> and the <i>Spectator</i>, which
+exhibit the comprehensiveness of the Irish temperament in writing by
+affording a contrast between the Irish force and vehemence of Swift
+and the Irish play of kindly wit and tender pathos in the deft and
+dainty periods of Richard Steele.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Charles Lucas was, even more than Swift perhaps, the precursor
+of that type of Irish publicist and journalist, of which there have
+been many splendid examples since then in Ireland, England, and
+America. Lucas first started the <i>Censor</i>, a weekly journal, in
+1748. Within two years his paper was suppressed for exciting
+discontent with the government, and to avoid a prosecution he fled to
+England. In 1763 the <i>Freeman's Journal</i> was established by three
+Dublin merchants. Lucas, who had returned from a long exile and was a
+member of the Irish parliament, contributed to it, sometimes
+anonymously but generally over the signature of "A Citizen" or
+"Civis." The editor was Henry Brooks, novelist, poet, and playwright.
+His novel, <i>The Fool of Quality</i>, is still read. His tragedy,
+<i>The Earl of Essex</i>, was, wrongly, supposed to contain a precept,
+"Who rules o'er freemen should himself be free," which led to the more
+famous parody of Dr. Samuel Johnson, "Who drives fat oxen should
+himself be fat." The object of Lucas and Brooke, as journalists, was
+to awaken national sentiment, by teaching that Ireland had an
+individuality of her own independently of England. But they were more
+concerned with the assertion of the constitutional rights of the
+parliament of the Protestant colony as against the domination of
+England. Therefore, the first organ of Irish Nationality,
+representative of all creeds and classes, was the <i>Press</i>, the
+newspaper of the United Irishmen, which was started in Dublin in 1797,
+by Arthur O'Connor, the son of a rich merchant who had made his money
+in London. Its editor was Peter Finnerty, born of humble parentage at
+Loughrea, afterwards a famous parliamentary reporter for the London
+<i>Morning Chronicle</i>, and its most famous contributor was Dr.
+William Drennan, the poet, who first called Ireland "the Emerald
+Isle."</p>
+
+<p>Irishmen did not become prominently associated with American
+journalism until after the Famine and the collapse of the Young
+Ireland movement in 1848. The journalist whom I regard as having
+exercised the most fateful influence on the destinies of Ireland was
+Charles Gavan Duffy, the founder and first editor of the
+<i>Nation</i>, a newspaper of which it was truly and finely said that
+it brought a new soul into Erin. Among its contributors, who
+afterwards added lustre to the journalism of the United States, was
+John Mitchel. In the <i>Southern Citizen</i> and the <i>Richmond
+Enquirer</i> he supported the South against the North in the Civil
+War. The Rev. Abram Joseph Ryan, who was associated with journalism in
+New Orleans, not only acted as a Catholic chaplain with the
+Confederate army, but sang of its hopes and aspirations in tuneful
+verse. Serving in the army of the North was Charles G. Halpine, whose
+songs signed "Private Miles O'Reilly" were very popular in those days
+of national convulsion in the United States. Halpine's father had
+edited the Tory newspaper, the Dublin <i>Evening Mail</i>; and Halpine
+himself, after the war, edited the <i>Citizen</i> of New York, famous
+for its advocacy of reforms in civic administration. Perhaps the two
+most renowned men in Irish-American journalism were John Boyle
+O'Reilly of the <i>Boston Pilot</i> and Patrick Ford of the <i>Irish
+World</i>. O'Reilly was a troop-sergeant in the 10th Hussars (Prince
+of Wales's Own), and during the Fenian troubles of 1866 had eighty of
+his men ready armed and mounted to take out of Island Bridge Barracks,
+Dublin, at a given signal, to aid the projected insurrection.
+Detected, he was brought to trial, summarily convicted, and sentenced
+to be shot. This sentence was commuted to twenty-five years' penal
+servitude; but O'Reilly survived it all to become a brilliant man of
+letters and make the <i>Boston Pilot</i> one of the most influential
+Irish and Catholic newspapers in the United States. Ford, who had
+served his apprenticeship as a compositor in the office of William
+Lloyd Garrison at Boston, founded the <i>Irish World</i> in 1870. This
+newspaper gave powerful aid to the Land League. A special issue of
+1,650,000 copies of the <i>Irish World</i> was printed on January 11,
+1879, for circulation in Ireland; and money to the amount of $600,000
+altogether was sent by Ford to the headquarters of the agitation in
+Dublin. A journalist of a totally different kind was Edwin Lawrence
+Godkin. Born in County Wicklow, the son of a Presbyterian clergyman,
+Godkin in 1865 established the <i>Nation</i> in New York as an organ
+of independent thought; and for thirty-five years he filled a unique
+position, standing aside from all parties, sects, and bodies, and yet
+permeating them all with his sane and restraining philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>In Canada, Thomas D'Arcy Magee won fame as a journalist on the
+<i>New Era</i> before he became even more distinguished as a
+parliamentarian. When the history of Australian journalism is written
+it will contain two outstanding Irish names: Daniel Henry Deniehy, who
+died in 1865, was called by Bulwer Lytton "the Australian Macaulay" on
+account of his brilliant writings as critic and reviewer in the press
+of Victoria. Gerald Henry Supple, another Dublin man, is also
+remembered for his contributions to the <i>Age</i> and the
+<i>Argus</i> of Melbourne. In India one of the first&mdash;if not the
+first&mdash;English newspapers was founded by a Limerick man, named
+Charles Johnstone, who had previously attained fame as the author of
+<i>Chrysal, or the Adventures of a Guinea</i>, and who died at
+Calcutta about 1800.</p>
+
+<p>Stirring memories of battle and adventure leap to the mind at the
+names of those renowned war correspondents, William Howard Russell,
+Edmond O'Donovan, and James J. O'Kelly. Russell, a Dublin man, was the
+first newspaper representative to accompany an army into the field. He
+saw all the mighty engagements of the Crimea&mdash;Alma, Balaclava,
+Inkerman, Sebastopol&mdash;not from a distance of 60 or 80 miles,
+which is the nearest that correspondents are now allowed to approach
+the front, but at the closest quarters, riding through the lines on
+his mule, and seeing the engagements vividly, so that he was able to
+describe them in moving detail for readers of the <i>Times</i>.
+O'Donovan&mdash;son of Dr. John O'Donovan, the distinguished Irish
+scholar and archaeologist&mdash;was in the service of the London
+<i>Daily News</i>. That dashing campaigner&mdash;as his famous book,
+<i>The Merv Oasis</i>, shows him to have been&mdash;perished with
+Hicks Pasha's Army in the Sudan in November, 1883. At the same time
+James O'Kelly, also of the <i>Daily News</i>, was lost in the desert,
+trying to join the forces of the victorious Sudanese under the Madhi.
+Ten years before that he had accomplished, for the New York
+<i>Herald</i>, the equally daring and hazardous feat of joining the
+Cuban rebels in revolt against Spain. He escaped the perils of the
+Mambi Land and the Sudan, and survived to serve Ireland for many years
+as a Nationalist member in the British parliament. John Augustus
+O'Shea, better known, perhaps, as "The Irish Bohemian", also deserves
+remembrance for his quarter of a century's work as special
+correspondent in Europe&mdash;including Paris during the
+siege&mdash;for the London
+<i>Standard</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed, no matter to what side of journalism we turn, we find
+Irishmen filling the foremost and the highest places. John Thaddeus
+Delane, under whose editorship the <i>Times</i> became for a time the
+most influential newspaper in the world, was of Irish parentage. The
+first editor of the <i>Illustrated London News</i> (1842)&mdash;one of
+the pioneers in the elucidation of news by means of pictures&mdash;was
+an Irishman, Frederick Bayley. Among the projectors of <i>Punch</i>,
+and one of its earliest contributors, was a King's county man, Joseph
+Sterling Coyne. The founder of the <i>Liverpool Daily Post</i> (1855),
+the first penny daily paper in Great Britain, was Michael Joseph
+Whitty, a Wexford man. His son, Edward M. Whitty, was the originator
+of that interesting feature of English and Irish journalism, the
+sketch of personalities and proceedings in parliament. Of the editors
+of the <i>Athenaeum</i>&mdash;for many years the leading English organ
+of literary criticism&mdash;one of the most famous was Dr. John Doran,
+who was of Irish parentage. "Dod" is a familiar household word in the
+British Parliament. It is the name of the recognized guide to the
+careers and political opinions of Lords and Commons. Its founder was
+an Irishman, Charles Roger Dod, who for twenty-three years was a
+parliamentary reporter for the <i>Times</i>. And what name sheds a
+brighter light on the annals of British journalism for intellectual
+and imaginative force than that of Justin MacCarthy, novelist and
+historian, as well as newspaper writer?</p>
+
+<p>At home in Ireland the name of Gray is inseparably associated with
+the <i>Freeman's Journal</i>. Under the direction of Dr. John Gray
+this newspaper became in the sixties and seventies the most powerful
+organ of public opinion in Ireland; and in the eighties it was raised
+still higher in ability and influence by his son and successor, Edmund
+Dwyer Gray. In the south of Ireland the most influential daily
+newspaper is the <i>Cork Examiner</i>, which was founded in 1841 by
+John Francis Maguire, who wrote in 1868 <i>The Irish in America</i>.
+It is doubtful whether any country ever produced a more militant and
+able political journal than was <i>United Ireland</i> in the stormy
+years during which it was edited by William O'Brien as the organ of
+the Land League.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish mood is gregarious, expansive, glowing, and eager to keep
+in intimate touch with the movements and affairs of humanity. That, I
+think, is the secret of its success in journalism.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Madden: Irish Periodical Literature (1867); Andrews: English
+Journalism (1855); North: Newspaper and Periodical Press of the United
+States (1884); MacDonagh: The Reporter's Gallery (1913).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T34"></a>THE IRISH LITERARY REVIVAL</h2>
+<h4>By HORATIO S. KRANS, Ph.D.</h4>
+
+<p>In the closing decade of the nineteenth century and in the opening
+years of the twentieth, no literary movement has awakened a livelier
+interest than the Irish Literary Revival, a movement which, by its
+singleness and solidarity of purpose, stood alone in a time of
+confused literary aims and tendencies. Movements, like individuals,
+have their ancestry, and that of the Irish Literary Revival is easily
+traced. It descends from Callanan and Walsh, and from the writers of
+'48. It is to this descent that the lines in William Butler Yeats's
+"To Ireland in Coming Times" allude:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>Know that I would accounted be</p>
+<p>True brother of that company,</p>
+<p>Who sang to sweeten Ireland's wrong,</p>
+<p>Ballad and story, rann and song.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>With the passing of the mid-nineteenth-century writers, the old
+movement waned, and in the field of Irish letters there was, in the
+phrase of a famous bull, nothing stirring but stagnation. A witty
+critic of the period, commenting upon this unhappy state of affairs,
+declared that, though the love of learning in Ireland might still be,
+as the saying went, indestructible, it was certainly imperceptible.
+But after the fall of Parnell a new spirit was stirring. Politics no
+longer absorbed the whole energy of the nation. Groups of men inspired
+with a love of the arts sprang up here and there. In 1890 Yeats proved
+himself a real prophet when he wrote: "A true literary
+consciousness&mdash;national to the centre&mdash;seems gradually to be
+forming out of all this disguising and prettifying, this penumbra of
+half-culture. We are preparing likely enough for a new Irish literary
+movement&mdash;like that of '48&mdash;that will show itself in the
+first lull in politics."</p>
+
+<p>Responsive to the need of the young writers associated with Yeats,
+the National Literary Society was founded in Dublin in 1892, and a
+year later London Irishmen, among them men already distinguished in
+letters, founded in the English metropolis the Irish Literary Society.
+From the presses in Dublin, in London, and in New York as well, books
+began to appear in rapid succession&mdash;slender volumes of verse,
+novels, short stories, essays, plays, translations, and remakings of
+Irish myths and legends, all inspired by, and closely related to, the
+past or the present of Ireland, voicing an essentially national spirit
+and presenting the noblest traits of Irish life and character.</p>
+
+<p>Not content with the organization of the two literary societies,
+Yeats, with courage and relentless tenacity, cast about to realize his
+long-cherished dream of a theatre that should embody the ideals of the
+Revival. In Lady Gregory, and in Edward Martyn, an Irishman of large
+means, who with both pen and purse lent a willing hand, he found two
+ardent laborers for his vineyard. George Moore, who in the event
+proved a fish out of water in Ireland, Yeats and Martyn contrived to
+lure from his London lodgings and his cosmopolitan ways, and to enlist
+in the theatrical enterprise. The practical knowledge of the stage
+which this gifted <i>enfant terrible</i> of literature contributed was
+doubtless of great value in the early days of the dramatic adventure,
+though Moore's free thoughts, frank speech, and mordant irony brought
+an element of discord into Dublin literary circles, which may well
+have left Yeats and his associates with a feeling that they had paid
+too dear for a piper to whose tunes they refused to dance. Be that as
+it may, in 1899 Yeats's dream was measurably realized, and the Irish
+Literary Theatre established, to be succeeded a little later by the
+Irish National Theatre Society. Enough, however, of the dramatic
+aspect of the Revival, which receives separate treatment elsewhere in
+these pages, as does also the dramatic work of certain of the authors
+considered here.</p>
+
+<p>From what has already been said, it should be plain that in the
+last decade of the last century the ranks of the Irish Literary
+Revivalists filled rapidly, and that the movement was really under
+way. The renascent spirit took various forms. To one group of poets
+the humor, pathos, and tragedy of peasant life deeply appealed, and
+found expression in a poetry distinctively and unmistakably national,
+from which a kind of pleasure could be drawn unlike anything else in
+other literatures. In this group Alfred Perceval Graves and Moira
+O'Neill cannot pass unmentioned. Who would ask anything racier in its
+kind than the former's "Father O'Flynn"?</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>Of priests we can offer a charmin' variety,</p>
+<p>Far renowned for larnin' and piety,</p>
+<p>Still I'd advance you without impropriety,</p>
+<p>Father O'Flynn as the flower of them all.</p>
+<p class="i2">Here's a health to you, Father O'Flynn,</p>
+<p class="i2">Slainte,[1] and slainte, and slainte agin.</p>
+<p class="i4">Powerfullest preacher,</p>
+<p class="i4">And tinderest teacher,</p>
+<p>And kindliest creature in Old Donegal.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>[Footnote 1: "Your health."]</p>
+
+<p>Or was the homing instinct, the homesick longing for the old sod,
+ever more truly rendered than in Moira O'Neill's song of the Irish
+laborer in England?</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Over here in England I'm helpin' wi' the hay,</p>
+<p>An' I wish I was in Ireland the livelong day;</p>
+<p>Weary on the English, an' sorra take the wheat!</p>
+<p>Och! Corrymeela an' the blue sky over it.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>D'ye mind me now, the song at night is mortial hard to
+raise,</p>
+<p>The girls are heavy-goin' here, the boys are ill to plase;</p>
+<p>When ones't I'm out this workin' hive, 'tis I'll be back
+again&mdash;</p>
+<p>Aye, Corrymeela in the same soft rain.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Here, too, should be named Jane Barlow, whose poems and stories are
+faithful imaginative transcripts of the face of nature and the hearts
+of men as she knew them in Connemara. Finally there is William Butler
+Yeats, who, on the whole, is the representative man of the Revival.
+Except in the translator's sphere, his writings have given him a place
+in almost all the activities of this movement. As a lyric poet, he has
+expressed the moods of peasant and patriot, of mystic, symbolist, and
+quietist, and it is safe to say that in lyric poetry no one of his
+generation writing in English is his superior. We cannot resist the
+pleasure of quoting here from his "Innisfree", which won the praise of
+Robert Louis Stevenson, and which, if not the high mark of Yeats's
+achievement, is still a flawless thing in its way:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>I will arise and go now, and go to Innisfree,</p>
+<p class="i2">And a small cabin build there, of clay and wattles made;</p>
+<p>Nine bean rows will I have there, a hive for the honey bee,</p>
+<p class="i2">And live alone in the bee-loud glade.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>And I shall have some peace there, for peace comes
+dropping slow,</p>
+<p class="i2">Dropping from the veils of the morning to where the
+cricket sings;</p>
+<p>There midnight's all a glimmer, and noon a purple glow,</p>
+<p class="i2">And evening full of the linnets' wings.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In this place, and for convenience sake, it may be permitted to
+speak of aspects of Yeats's work other than that by virtue of which he
+is to be classed with the group we have just considered. In his
+narrative poem, "The Wanderings of Usheen", as well as in his plays
+and lyrics, he is of the best of those&mdash;among them we may mention
+by the way Dr. John Todhunter, Nora Hopper (Mrs. W.H. Chesson), and
+William Larminie&mdash;who have revealed to our day the strange beauty
+of the ancient creations of the Gaelic imagination. In prose he has
+written short stories, a novelette, <i>John Sherman and Dhoya</i>, and
+essays that reveal a subtle critical insight, and a style of beautiful
+finish and grace, suggestive of the style of Shelley's <i>Defence of
+Poetry</i>. Yeats's plays constitute a considerable and an important
+part of his work, but these must be reserved for treatment elsewhere
+in this book. In prefaces to anthologies of prose and verse of his
+editing, in the pages of reviews, and elsewhere, he appears as the
+chief apologist of the aims of the Literary Revival, and in particular
+of the methods of the dramatists of the Revival. Whatever he has
+touched he has lifted into the realm of poetry, and this is in large
+measure true of his prose, which proceeds from the poet's point of
+view and breathes the poetic spirit. A man of rare versatility, a
+finished artist with a scrupulous artistic conscience, he has done
+work of high and sustained quality, and is certain to exert a good and
+lasting influence upon the literature of his country.</p>
+
+<p>In a literary movement in the "Isle of Saints", we look naturally
+for religious poetry, and we do not look in vain. This poetry, chiefly
+Catholic, has a quality of its own as distinctive as that of the
+writers of the group we have just left. Now it voices a na&iuml;ve,
+devoted simplicity of Christian faith; now it attains to a high and
+keen spirituality; now it is mystic and pagan. Among the religious
+poets, Lionel Johnson easily stands first&mdash;perhaps the Irish poet
+of firmest fibre and most resonant voice of his generation. A note of
+high courage and of spiritual triumph rings through his verse, even
+from the shadow of the wings of the dark angel that gives a title to
+one of the saddest of his poems. Often he strikes a note of genuine
+religious ecstasy and exaltation rarely heard in English, as in "Te
+Martyrum Candidatus":</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Ah, see the fair chivalry come, the companions of Christ!</p>
+<p class="i2">White Horsemen, who ride on white horses, the Knights of
+God!</p>
+<p>They, for their Lord and their Lover who sacrificed</p>
+<p class="i2">All, save the pleasure of treading where He first trod.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>These through the darkness of death, the dominion of night,</p>
+<p class="i2">Swept, and they woke in white places at morning tide:</p>
+<p>They saw with their eyes, and sang for joy of the sight,</p>
+<p class="i2">They saw with their eyes the Eyes of the Crucified.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Among the men of the Revival, no personality is stronger or more
+attractive than that of G.W. Russell&mdash;"&AElig;", as he is always
+called&mdash;who may be regarded as the hero of George Moore's <i>Hail
+and Farewell</i>, and who alone in that gallery of wonderful
+pen-portraits looks forth with complete amiability. He is a pantheist,
+a mystic, and a visionary, with what would seem a literal and living
+faith in many gods, though strongly prepossessed in favor of the
+ancient divinities of the Gael, now long since in exile. Impressive
+and striking by a certain spiritual integrity, so to say, "&AElig;"
+unites gifts and faculties seldom combined. He is a poet of rare
+subtlety, a painter in whose genius so good a judge as George Moore
+believed, and a most practical man of affairs, who, as assistant to
+Sir Horace Plunkett, held up the latter's hands in his labors on
+behalf of co-operative dairies and the like. His poems have their
+roots in a pantheism which half reveals the secrets of an indwelling
+spirit, speaking alike "from the dumb brown lips of earth" and from
+the passions of the heart of man.</p>
+
+<p>Of novelists, both men and women, the Irish Revival can, in the
+words of "Father O'Flynn", offer a charming variety, and among their
+novels and short stories are some books of high quality and not a few
+in a high degree interesting and entertaining. To Standish O'Grady we
+turn for tales, with a kind of bardic afflatus about them, of the hero
+age of legendary Ireland&mdash;tales which drew attention to the
+romantic Celtic past of myth and saga, and must have been an
+inspiration to more than one writer of the younger generation. In
+contrast to the broad epic sweep and remote romantic backgrounds of
+O'Grady, are the stories of Jane Barlow, whose <i>genre</i> pictures
+of peasant life in the west of Ireland, like her poems mentioned
+above, show how sympathetically she understands the ways of thinking,
+feeling, and acting of her humble compatriots. A like minute and
+faithful knowledge is evident in the work of two story-tellers of the
+north, Seumas MacManus and Shan Bullock. The former's outlook is
+humorous and pathetic. He tells fairy and folk tales well, and is a
+past master of the dialect and idiom that combine to give his
+old-wives' yarns an honest smack of the soil. Let him who doubts it
+read <i>Through the Turf Smoke</i> or <i>Donegal Fairy Stories</i>. If
+Shan Bullock walks the same fields as Seumas MacManus, he does so with
+a different air and with a more definite purpose. Sometimes he turns
+to the squireens, small farmers, or small country gentry, and lays
+bare the hardness and narrowness that are a part of their life. Or,
+again, in pictures whose sadness and gloom are lightened, to be sure,
+with humor or warmed with love, he studies the necessitous life of the
+poor. <i>The Squireen, The Barrys</i>, and <i>Irish Pastorals</i> are
+some of his representative books.</p>
+
+<p>In the novel as in poetry the ladies have worked side by side with
+their literary brethren. Miss Hermione Templeton, in her <i>Darby
+O'Gill</i>, and elsewhere, has written pleasantly and gracefully of
+the fairies. In a very different vein are the novels of the
+collaborators, Miss Somerville and "Martin Ross" (Miss Violet Martin),
+over which English and American readers have laughed as heartily as
+their own fellow countrymen. <i>The Experiences of an Irish
+R.M.</i>remains, perhaps, their best book. The work of these ladies,
+be it said by the way, is in the line of descent from that group of
+older Irish novelists who wrote in the spirit of the devil-may-care
+gentry, the novelists from Maxwell to Lover and Lever, who were ever
+questing "divilment and divarshion," and who in their moods of
+boisterous fun forgot the real Irishman, and presented in his place a
+caricature&mdash;him of the Celtic screech and the exhilarating whack
+of the shillelagh, the famous stage Irishman who has made occasional
+appearances in English literature from the time of Shakespeare's
+<i>Henry V.</i>, on through the works of Fielding and the plays of
+Sheridan, to the present moment of writing.</p>
+
+<p>Of a very different stripe from the work of the collaborating
+ladies just mentioned are the novels of the recently deceased Canon
+Sheehan&mdash;notable among them <i>Luke Delmege</i> and <i>My New
+Curate</i>&mdash;rambling, diffuse, and a trifle provincial from the
+artistic standpoint, but interesting as studies of manners, and for
+the pictures they afford of the priesthood of modern Ireland in the
+pleasantest light. If the stories of Miss Somerville and "Martin Ross"
+are related to the comic stories of the old novelists of the gentry,
+those of Canon Sheehan must be associated with the work of the older
+novelists who wrote more or less in the spirit of the peasantry, that
+is, with Gerald Griffin, the Banim brothers, and William Carleton,
+less famous than he deserves to be by his <i>Traits and Stories</i>
+and a long line of novels and tales.</p>
+
+<p>No survey of Irish novelists, however brief, can afford to forget
+the Rev. James Owen Hannay ("George A. Birmingham"), canon of St.
+Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, whose work is as distinctively Protestant
+in its point of view as Father Sheehan's is Catholic. His more
+substantial novels are a careful transcript of the actualities of
+Irish life today, and in them one meets, incognito but easily
+recognizable, many Irishmen now prominent in literature or politics in
+Ireland. Of his numerous books may be mentioned <i>The Seething Pot</i>,
+<i>Hyacinth</i>, and <i>Northern Iron</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Finally there is George Moore, whose enlistment in the Revival was
+responsible for the novel <i>The Lake</i> and the short stories of
+<i>The Unfilled Field</i>, and for a largely autobiographic and
+entirely indiscreet trilogy entitled <i>Hail and Farewell</i>, the
+separate volumes appearing as <i>Ave</i>, <i>Salve</i>, <i>Vale</i>,
+and the last of them as late as 1914. George Moore's anti-Catholic
+bias is strong, but his is the pen of an accomplished artist. He has
+the story-teller's beguiling gift, and he bristles with ideas which
+his books cleverly embody and to which the dramatic moments of his
+novels give point and relief.</p>
+
+<p>Not the least important work of the Irish Literary Revival has been
+done by translators, who have put into English the old Gaelic romances
+and the folklore still current among the little remnant of
+Irish-speaking country folk. Dr. Douglas Hyde is in the forefront of
+this group. He it was who organized the Gaelic League, a band of
+enthusiasts zealous for the revival of the Irish language both as a
+spoken tongue and as the medium for a national literature, and eager,
+also, to breed up a race of Celtic scholars. The lyrics in his <i>Love
+Songs of Connacht</i> are full of grace, tenderness, and fire, and
+indicate the kind of gems which he and his fellow laborers have added
+to the treasury of poetry in English. But it is Lady Gregory,
+especially in her <i>Cuchulain of Muirthemne</i> and <i>Gods and
+Fighting Men</i>, who more than any other has found a way to stir the
+blood of readers of to-day by the romantic hero tales of Ireland. From
+the racy idiom of the dwellers on or about her own estate in Galway,
+she happily framed a style that gave her narratives freshness,
+novelty, and a flavor of the soil. Upon the work of scholars she drew
+heavily in making her own renderings, but she has justified all
+borrowings by breathing into her books the breath and the warmth of
+life, and her adaptation to epic purposes of the dialect of those who
+still retain the expiring habit of thinking in Gaelic was a real
+literary achievement. She has, indeed, in sins of commission and of
+omission, taken liberties with the old legends, but this may render
+them not less, and perhaps more, delightful to the general reader,
+however just complaints may be from the standpoint of the scholar.</p>
+
+<p>Even so brief a sketch as this may suffice to bring home to those
+not already aware of it a realization of the delights to be drawn from
+the creations of a living literary movement, which is perhaps the most
+notable of its generation, and which has gathered together a
+remarkable group of poets, novelists, and dramatists, who, as men and
+women, are a most interesting company&mdash;a fact to which even
+George Moore's <i>Hail and Farewell</i>, with its quick eye for
+defects and foibles and its ironic wit, bears abundant testimony.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Brooke and Rolleston: Treasury of Irish Poetry (New York and
+London, 1900); Krans: William Butler Yeats and the Irish Literary
+Revival (New York and London, 1904); Yeats: Ideas of Good and Evil
+(London, 1903); Moore: Hail and Farewell, 3 vols. (London and New
+York, 1912-1914); Lady Gregory: Our Irish Theatre (New York and
+London, 1913); Weygandt: Irish Plays and Playwrights (New York, 1913);
+Yeats: Introduction to Fairy and Folk Tales of the Irish Peasantry
+(London, 1889), Representative Irish Tales (London, 1890), Book of
+Irish Verse (London, 1895). There is much of interest, though chiefly
+as regards the drama, in the reviews, Beltaine (London and Dublin,
+1899-1900) and Samhain (London and Dublin, 1901-1903).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T35"></a>IRISH WRITERS OF ENGLISH</h2>
+<h4>By P.J. LENNOX, B.A., Litt.D.</h4>
+
+<p>The Gaelic literature of Ireland is not only of wonderful volume
+and priceless worth, but is also of great antiquity, whereas the
+English literature of Ireland, while also of considerable extent and
+high value, is of comparatively modern origin. The explanation of this
+fact is that for more than six centuries after the Anglo-Norman
+invasion of 1169 the Irish language continued to be both the spoken
+and, with Latin, the written organ of the great mass of the Irish
+people, and that for nearly the whole of that period those English
+settlers who did not become, as the well-known phrase has it, more
+Irish than the Irish themselves by adopting the native language,
+customs, and sentiments, were kept too busy in holding, defending, and
+extending their territory to devote themselves to literary pursuits.
+Hence we need not wonder if, leaving out of account merely technical
+works like Lionel Power's treatise on music, written in 1395, we find
+that the English literature of Ireland takes its comparatively humble
+origin late in the sixteenth century. For more than two centuries
+thereafter, owing to the fact that the native Irish, because they were
+Catholics, were debarred by law from an education, the writing of
+English remained almost exclusively in the hands of members or
+descendants of the Anglo-Irish colony, who, with scarcely an
+exception, were Protestants and had as their principal Irish seat of
+learning the then essentially Protestant institution, Trinity College,
+Dublin. Alien in race and creed though these writers mainly were, they
+have nevertheless spread a halo of glory around their adopted country,
+and have won the admiration, and often the affection, of Irishmen of
+every shade of religious and political belief. For example, there is
+no Irishman who is not proud of Molyneux and Swift, of Goldsmith and
+Burke, of Grattan and Sheridan. From the nineteenth century onward
+Irish Catholics have taken their full share in the production of
+English literature. Here, however, it will be necessary to consider
+the writers of none but the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth
+centuries, as in other pages of this volume considerable attention has
+been given to those of later date.</p>
+
+<h4>I. SIXTEENTH CENTURY.</h4>
+
+<p>Richard Stanyhurst (1547-1618), born in Dublin but educated at
+Oxford, is the first representative of the sixteenth century with whom
+we are called upon to deal. He belonged to a family long settled in or
+near Dublin and of some note in municipal annals. Under the direction
+of the Jesuit martyr, Edmund Campion, Stanyhurst wrote a
+<i>Description</i>, as well as a portion of the <i>History</i>, of
+Ireland for Holinshed's <i>Chronicles</i>, published in 1577. He also
+translated (1582) the first four books of <i>Virgil his Aeneis</i>
+into quantitative hexameters, on the unsound pedantic principles which
+Gabriel Harvey was at that time trying so hard to establish in English
+prosody; but the experiment, which turned out so badly in the master's
+hands, fared even worse in those of the disciple, and Stanyhurst's
+lines will always stand as a noted specimen of inept translation and
+ridiculous versification. Equally inartistic was his version of some
+of the Psalms in the same metre. In Latin he wrote a profound
+commentary on Porphyry, the Neo-Platonic mystic. Stanyhurst, who was
+uncle to James Ussher, the celebrated Protestant archbishop of Armagh,
+was himself a convert to Catholicity, and on the death of his second
+wife became a priest and wrote in Latin some edifying books of
+devotion. Two of his sons joined the Jesuit order. He died at Brussels
+in 1618. Stanyhurst viewed Ireland entirely from the English
+standpoint, and in his <i>Description</i> and <i>History</i> is,
+consciously or unconsciously, greatly biased against the native
+race.</p>
+
+<p>If we may take it as certain that modern investigation is correct
+in asserting that Thomas Campion was a native of Dublin, a notable
+addition will have been made to the ranks of Irish-born writers of
+English at this period. Thomas Campion (1567-1620), wherever born,
+spent most of his life in London. He was a versatile genius, for,
+after studying law, he took up medicine, and, although practising as a
+physician, he yet found time to write four masques and many lyrics and
+to compose a goodly quantity of music. Some of his songs appeared as
+early as 1591. Among his works is a treatise entitled <i>Observations
+in the Art of English Poesie</i> (1602), in which, strange to say, he,
+a born lyrist, advocated unrhymed verse and quantitative measures, but
+fortunately his practice did not usually square with his theory. His
+masques were written for occasions, such as the marriage of Lord Hayes
+(1607), the nuptials of the Princess Elizabeth and the Elector
+Palatine (1613), and the ill-starred wedding of Somerset and the
+quondam Countess of Essex in the same year. In these masques are
+embedded some of his best songs; others of his lyrics appeared in
+several <i>Bookes of Ayres</i> between 1601 and 1617. Many of them
+were written to music, sometimes music of his composing. Such dainty
+things as "Now hath Flora robb'd her bowers" and "Harke, all you
+ladies that do sleep" possess the charms of freshness and spontaneity,
+and his devotional poetry, especially "Awake, awake, thou heavy
+Spright" and "Never weather-beaten Saile more willing bent to shore",
+makes almost as wide an appeal.</p>
+
+<h4>II. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.</h4>
+
+<p>Passing by with regret the illustrious seventeenth century names of
+Philip O'Sullivan Beare, Sir James Ware, Luke Wadding, Hugh Ward, John
+Colgan, and John Lynch, because their bearers wrote in Latin, and
+those of "The Four Masters" and Geoffrey Keating, because they wrote
+in Irish, we are first brought to a pause in the seventeenth century
+by the imposing figure of him, whom, in a later day, Johnson justly
+called the "great luminary of the Irish [Protestant] church", none
+other than the archbishop of Armagh and primate of Ireland, James
+Ussher himself. James Ussher (1581-1656), born in Dublin and among the
+earliest students of the newly-founded Trinity College, was in
+intellect and scholarship one of the greatest men that Ireland has
+ever produced. Selden describes him as "learned to a miracle" (<i>ad
+miraculum doctus</i>), and Canon D'Alton in his <i>History of
+Ireland</i> says of him that "he was not unworthy to rank even with
+Duns Scotus, and when he died he left in his own Church neither an
+equal nor a second." Declining the high office of provost of Trinity,
+Ussher was made bishop of Meath and was afterwards promoted to the
+primatial see. His fine intellect was unfortunately marred by narrow
+religious views, and in many ways he displayed his animus against
+those of his countrymen who did not see eye to eye with him in matters
+of faith and doctrine. For example, it was he who in 1626 drew up the
+Irish Protestant bishops' protest against toleration for Catholics,
+therein showing a bigotry which consorted badly with his reputation as
+a scholar. On account of his well-known attitude towards Catholicism,
+he was naturally unpopular with those who professed the ancient creed,
+and hence, when the rebellion of 1641 broke out, much of his property
+was destroyed by the enraged insurgents. His person escaped violence,
+for he happened to be in England at the time engaged in the vain task
+of trying to effect an accommodation between Charles I. and the
+English parliament. He never returned to his see and died in
+London.</p>
+
+<p>Ussher's collected works fill seventeen stately volumes. His
+<i>magnum opus</i> is undoubtedly the <i>Annales Veteris et Novi
+Testamenti</i>. It is written in Latin, and is a chronological
+compendium of the history of the world from the Creation to the
+dispersion of the Jews under Vespasian. Published at Leyden, London,
+Paris, and Oxford, it gained for its author a European fame. His books
+written in English deal mostly with theological or controversial
+subjects, and while they display wide reading, great acumen, and keen
+powers of argumentation, they yet do not do full justice to his
+genius. Those which he published in Dublin are <i>A Discourse of the
+Religion anciently professed by the Irish and British</i> (1622), in
+which he tried to show that the ritual and discipline of the Church as
+originally established in the British Isles were in agreement with the
+Church of England and opposed to the Catholic Church on the matters in
+dispute between them; <i>An Answer to a Challenge made by a Jesuite in
+Ireland</i> (1624), in which his aim was to disprove the contention
+set forth earlier in the same year by a Jesuit that uniformity of
+doctrine had always been maintained by the Catholic Church; and
+<i>Immanuel, or the Mysterie of the Incarnation</i>. He published in
+England <i>The Originall of Bishops, A Body of Divinitie, The
+Principles of Christian Religion</i>, and other works. So great was
+Ussher's reputation that when he died Cromwell relaxed in his favor
+one of the strictest laws of the Puritans and allowed him to be buried
+with the full service of the Church of England, and with great pomp,
+in Westminster Abbey.</p>
+
+<p>Among Ussher's other claims to distinction, it should be noted that
+it was he who in 1621 discovered the celebrated Book of Kells, which
+had long been lost. This marvel of the illuminator's art passed with
+the remainder of his collection of books and manuscripts to Trinity
+College, Dublin, in 1661, and to this day it remains one of the most
+treasured possessions of the noble library of that institution.</p>
+
+<p>Sir John Denham (1615-1669), a Dublin man by birth, took an active
+part on the side of Charles I. against the parliament during the Civil
+War, and subsequently was conspicuous in the intrigues that led to the
+restoration of Charles II. In his own day he had a great reputation as
+a poet. His tragedy, <i>The Sophy</i>, and his translation of the
+Psalms are now forgotten, but he is still remembered for one piece,
+<i>Cooper's Hill</i>, in which occur the well-known lines addressed to
+the River Thames:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>O could I flow like thee, and make thy stream</p>
+<p>My great example, as it is my theme!</p>
+<p>Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull;</p>
+<p>Strong, without rage; without o'erflowing, full.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another Dublin-born man was Wentworth Dillon, Earl of Roscommon
+(1633-1684). He had the good fortune to win encomiums both from Dryden
+and from Pope. One of his merits, as pointed out by the latter, is
+that</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p class="i10">In all Charles's days</p>
+<p>Roscommon only boasts unspotted bays.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>He translated from Virgil, Lucan, Horace, and Guarini; wrote
+prologues, epilogues, and other occasional verses; but is now
+principally remembered for his poetical <i>Essay on Translated
+Verse</i> (1681), in which he develops principles previously laid down
+by Cowley and Denham. To his credit be it said, he condemns indecency,
+both as want of sense and bad taste. He was honored with a funeral in
+Westminster Abbey. Johnson records that, at the moment of his death,
+Roscommon uttered with great energy and devotion the following two
+lines from his own translation of the <i>Dies Irae</i>:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>My God, my Father, and my Friend,</p>
+<p>Do not forsake me in my end!</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Robert Boyle (1627-1691), one of the founders of the Royal Society
+(1662), was son of the "great" Earl of Cork and was born at Lismore,
+Co. Waterford. He takes rank among the principal experimental
+philosophers of his age, and he certainly rendered valuable services
+to the advancement of science. Most of his writings, which are very
+voluminous, are naturally of a technical character and therefore do
+not properly belong to literature; but his <i>Occasional Reflections
+on Several Subjects</i> (1665), a strange mixture of triviality and
+seriousness, was germinal in this sense that it led to two celebrated
+<i>jeux d'esprit</i>, namely, Butler's <i>Occasional Reflection on Dr.
+Charlton's feeling a Dog's Pulse at Gresham College</i> and Swift's
+<i>Pious Meditation upon a Broomstick, in the Style of the Honourable
+Mr. Boyle</i>. Indeed, one of Boyle's <i>Reflections</i>, that "Upon
+the Eating of Oysters", is reputed to have rendered a still more
+signal service to literature, for in its two concluding paragraphs is
+contained the idea which, under the transforming hand of the master
+satirist, eventually took the world by storm when it appeared, fully
+developed, as <i>Gulliver's Travels</i>.</p>
+
+<p>His brother, Roger Boyle (1621-1679), who figures largely as a
+soldier and a statesman in Irish and English history under his title
+of Lord Broghill, was an alumnus of Trinity College, Dublin. During
+the Civil War he was a royalist until the death of Charles I., when he
+changed sides and aided Cromwell materially in his Irish campaign.
+When the Lord Protector died, Broghill made another right-about-face,
+and crossing to his native country worked so energetically and
+successfully that he made Ireland solid for the restoration of Charles
+II. For this service he was rewarded by being created Earl of Orrery.
+He was the author of six tragedies and two comedies, some of which
+when produced proved gratifyingly popular. He is noted for having been
+the first to write tragedy in rhyme, thereby setting an example that
+was followed with avidity for a time by Dryden and others. He also
+wrote poems, a romance called <i>Parthenissa</i> (1654), and a
+<i>Treatise on the Art of War</i> (1677). From whatever point of view
+considered, Lord Orrery was a remarkable member of a remarkable
+family. His son, John Boyle, Earl of Cork and Orrery (1707-1762), in
+virtue of his translation of Pliny's <i>Letters</i>, his <i>Remarks on
+the Life and Writings of Swift</i>, and his <i>Letters from Italy</i>,
+has some claims to recognition in the field of literature.</p>
+
+<p>Charles Leslie (1650-1722), a Dubliner by birth, was son of that
+John Leslie, bishop of Raphoe and Clogher, who lived through a whole
+century, from 1571 to 1671, and who was 79 years of age when Charles,
+his sixth son, was born. Educated first at Enniskillen and afterwards
+at Trinity College, Dublin, Charles Leslie studied law in London, but
+eventually abandoned that profession and entered the ministry. He was
+of a disputatious character and in particular went to great lengths in
+opposing the pro-Catholic activities of James II. Nevertheless, when
+the Revolution of 1688 came, he took the side of the deposed monarch,
+and loyally adhered to his Jacobite principles for the remainder of
+his life. He even joined the Old Pretender on the continent, and
+endeavored to convert him to Protestantism, but, failing therein, he
+returned to Ireland, where he died at Glasslough in county Monaghan.
+Many years of Leslie's life were devoted to disputes with Catholics,
+Quakers, Socinians, and Deists, and the seven volumes which his
+writings fill prove that he was an extremely able controversialist.
+His best known work is the famous treatise, <i>A Short and Easy Method
+with the Deists</i>, published in 1698.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish note, tone, or temper is not conspicuous in any of the
+writings so far named unless when it is conspicuous by its absence;
+but it appears plainly, for the first time, in Molyneux's <i>Case of
+Ireland being bound by Laws [made] in England Stated</i> (1698).
+William Molyneux (1656-1698) has always ranked as an Irish patriot.
+His was one of the spirits invoked by Grattan in his great speech
+(1782) on the occasion on which he carried his celebrated Declaration
+of Independence in the Irish parliament. When the English Act of 1698,
+which was meant to destroy, and did destroy, the Irish woolen
+industry, came before the Irish house of commons for ratification,
+Molyneux's was the only voice raised against its adoption. His protest
+was followed by the publication of his <i>Case Stated</i>, which is a
+classic on the general relations between Ireland and England, and
+contained arguments so irrefutable that it drove the English
+parliament to fury and was by that body ordered to be burned by the
+common hangman. It is a remarkable coincidence that Molyneux opens his
+argument by laying down in almost identical words the principles which
+stand at the beginning of the American Declaration of
+Independence.</p>
+
+<p>John Toland (1669-1722) was born near Redcastle, in Co. Derry, and
+was at first a Catholic but subsequently became a free-thinker. His
+<i>Christianity not Mysterious</i> (1696) marks an epoch in religious
+disputes, for it started the deistical controversy which was so
+distinctive a feature of the first half of the eighteenth century. It
+shared a similar fate to that of the <i>Case Stated</i>, though on
+very different grounds, and was ordered by the Irish parliament to be
+burned by the hangman. Toland wrote many other books, among which are
+<i>Amyntor</i> (1699); <i>Nazarenus</i> (1702);
+<i>Pantheisticon</i>; <i>History of the Druids</i>; and
+<i>Hypatia</i>. All his books show versatility and wide reading and
+are characterized by a pointed, vigorous, and aggressive style.</p>
+
+<p>George Farquhar (1678-1707), a Derry man, and Thomas Southerne
+(1660-1746), born near Dublin, were distinguished playwrights, who
+began their respective careers in the seventeenth century. Farquhar
+left Trinity College, Dublin, as an undergraduate and became an actor,
+but owing to his accidental killing of another player he left the
+stage and secured a commission in the army. He soon turned his
+attention to the writing of plays, and was responsible in all for
+eight comedies. He has left us some characters that are very humorous
+and at the same time true to life, such as Scrub the servant in <i>The
+Beaux' Stratagem</i> and Sergeant Kite in <i>The Recruiting
+Officer</i>. His Boniface, the landlord in the former of these two
+plays, has become the type, as well as the ordinary quasi-facetious
+nickname, of an innkeeper. He was advancing in his art, for his last
+comedy, <i>The Beaux' Stratagem</i> (1707), is undoubtedly his best,
+and had he lived longer&mdash;he died before he was thirty&mdash;he
+might have bequeathed to posterity something even more noteworthy. As
+Leigh Hunt says of him: "He was becoming gayer and gayer, when death,
+in the shape of a sore anxiety, called him away as if from a pleasant
+party, and left the house ringing with his jest."</p>
+
+<p>Southerne was also a student of Trinity College, Dublin. At the age
+of eighteen, however, he left his <i>alma mater</i>, and went to
+London to study law. This profession he in turn abandoned for the
+drama. His first play, <i>The Persian Prince, or the Loyal
+Brother</i>, had remarkable success when performed, and secured him an
+ensign's commission in the army (1685). Here promotion came to him
+rapidly and by 1688 he had risen to captain's rank. The Revolution of
+that year, however, cut off all further hope of advancement, and he
+once more turned his attention to the writing of plays. His
+productions number ten. His tragedies <i>Isabella, or the Fatal
+Marriage</i> (1694) and <i>Oroonoko</i> (1696), both founded on tales
+by Mrs. Aphra Behn, are powerful presentations of human suffering. His
+comedies are amusing, but gross. Southerne had business ability enough
+to make play-writing pay, and the amounts he received for his
+productions fairly staggered his friend Dryden. It is to this faculty
+that Pope alludes when he says that Southerne was one whom</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p class="i10">heaven sent down to raise</p>
+<p>The price of prologues and of plays.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>He was apparently of amiable and estimable character, for he
+secured and retained the friendship not only of Dryden&mdash;a
+comparatively easy matter&mdash;but also that of Pope, a much more
+difficult task. Known as "the poets' Nestor", Southerne spent his
+declining years in peaceful retirement and in the enjoyment of the
+fortune which he had amassed by his pen.</p>
+
+<p>Nahum Tate (1652-1715), a Dubliner by birth, and Nicholas Brady
+(1659-1726), a Bandon man, have secured a certain sort of twin
+immortality by their authorized metrical version of the Psalms (1696),
+which gradually took the place of the older rendering by Sternhold and
+Hopkins. Tate became poet-laureate in 1690 in succession to Shadwell
+and was appointed historiographer-royal in 1702. He wrote the bulk of
+the second part of <i>Absalom and Achitophel</i> with a wonderfully
+close imitation of Dryden's manner, besides several dramatic pieces
+and poems. Between Tate, Shadwell, Eusden, and Pye lies the unenviable
+distinction of being the worst of the laureates of England. Brady was
+a clergyman who, after the pleasant fashion of that day, was a
+pluralist on a small scale, for he had the living of Richmond for
+thirty years from 1696, and while holding that held also in succession
+the livings of Stratford-on-Avon and Clapham. He added further to his
+income, and doubtless to his anxieties, by keeping a school at
+Richmond. He wrote a tragedy entitled <i>The Rape</i>, a <i>History of
+the Goths and Vandals</i>, a translation of the <i>Aeneid</i> into
+blank verse, and an <i>Ode for St. Cecilia's Day</i>; but, unless for
+his share in the version of the Psalms, his literary reputation is
+well nigh as dead as the dodo.</p>
+
+<p>Ireland somewhat doubtfully claims to have given birth to Mrs.
+Susannah Centlivre (c. 1667-1723), who, after a rather wild youth,
+settled down to literary pursuits and domestic contentment when, in
+1706, she married Queen Anne's head-cook, Joseph Centlivre, with whom
+she lived happily ever after. Her first play, <i>The Provoked
+Husband</i>, a tragedy, was produced in 1700, and then she went on the
+stage as an actress. She wrote in all nineteen dramatic pieces, some
+of which had the honor of being translated into French and German. Her
+most original play was <i>A Bold Stroke for a Wife</i> (1717).</p>
+
+<h4>III. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</h4>
+
+<p>We have now fairly crossed the border of the eighteenth century,
+and, as we met Ussher early in the seventeenth, so we are here
+confronted with the colossal intellect and impressive personality of
+Swift, one of the greatest, most peculiar, and most original geniuses
+to be found in the whole domain of English literature. Jonathan Swift
+(1667-1745), born in Dublin, was educated at Trinity College, where he
+succeeded in graduating only by special favor. After some years spent
+in the household of Sir William Temple in England, he entered the
+ministry of the Irish Church. During the early years of the century he
+spent much time in London, and took an active part in bringing about
+that political revolution which seated the Tories firmly in power
+during the last four years of the reign of Queen Anne. His services in
+that connection on the <i>Examiner</i> newspaper were so great that it
+would be difficult to dispute the assertion, which has been made, that
+he was one of the mightiest journalists that ever wielded a pen. He
+also stood loyally by his party in his great pamphlets, <i>The Conduct
+of the Allies</i> (1711), <i>The Barrier Treaty</i> (1712), and <i>The
+Public Spirit of the Whigs</i> (1714). When the time came for his
+reward, he received not, as he had hoped, an English bishopric, but
+the deanery of St. Patrick's in Dublin. On resuming his residence in
+Ireland he was at first very unpopular, but his patriotic spirit as
+shown in the <i>Drapier Letters</i> (1723-1724), written in connection
+with a coinage scheme known as "Wood's halfpence", not only caused the
+withdrawal of the obnoxious project but also made Swift the idol of
+all classes of his countrymen. In many others of his writings he
+showed that pro-Irish leaning which caused Grattan to invoke his
+spirit along with that of Molyneux on the occasion already referred
+to. Nothing more mordant than the irony contained in his
+<i>Modest Proposal</i> has ever been penned. In his plea for native
+manufactures he struck a keynote that has vibrated down the ages when
+he advised Irishmen to burn everything English except coal!</p>
+
+<p>Swift's greater works are <i>The Battle of the Books</i>, his
+contribution to the controversy concerning the relative merits of the
+ancients and the moderns; the <i>Tale of a Tub</i>, in which he
+attacked the three leading forms of Christianity; and, above all,
+<i>Gulliver's Travels</i>. In this last work he let loose the full
+flood of his merciless satire and lashed the folly and vices of
+mankind in the most unsparing way. He also wrote verses which are
+highly characteristic and some of them not without considerable merit.
+His life was unhappy and for the last five years of it he was to all
+intents and purposes insane. His relations with Stella (Hester
+Johnson) and Vanessa (Esther Vanhomrigh) have never been quite
+satisfactorily explained. The weight of evidence would seem to show
+that he was secretly married to Stella, but that they never lived
+together as husband and wife. Many novels and plays have been written
+round those entanglements. He lies buried in his own cathedral, St.
+Patrick's, Dublin, and beside him lies Stella. Over his tomb there is
+an epitaph in Latin, written by himself, in which, after speaking of
+the <i>saeva indignatio</i> which tore his heart, he bids the wayfarer
+go and imitate, if he can, the energetic defender of his native
+land.</p>
+
+<p>Contemporary with the Dean there was another Anglo-Irishman, who
+fills a large space in the history of English literature, and of whom
+his countrymen are justly proud. Sir Richard Steele (1672-1729), who
+was born in Dublin and educated at the Charterhouse in London and
+afterwards at Oxford, started the <i>Tatler</i> in 1709, and thereby
+popularized, though he did not exactly originate, the periodical
+essay. Aided by his friend, Addison, he carried the work to perfection
+in the <i>Spectator</i> (1711-1712) and the <i>Guardian</i> (1713).
+Since then these essays have enlightened and amused each succeeding
+generation. Of the two, Addison's is the greater name, but Steele was
+the more innovating spirit, for it is to him, and not to Addison, that
+the conception and initiation of the plan of the celebrated papers is
+due. Steele had had a predecessor in Defoe, whose <i>Review</i> had
+been in existence since 1704, but the more airy graces which
+characterized the <i>Tatler</i> and the <i>Spectator</i> gave the
+"lucubrations" of "Isaac Bickerstaffe" and of "Mr. Spectator" a
+greater hold on the public than Defoe's paper was ever able to
+establish. Steele was responsible for many more periodicals, such as
+the <i>Englishman</i>, the <i>Lover</i>, the <i>Reader</i>, <i>Town
+Talk</i>, the <i>Tea-Table, Chit-Chat</i>, the <i>Plebeian</i>, and
+the <i>Theatre</i>, most of which had a rather ephemeral existence.
+Among his other services to literature he helped to purify the stage
+of some of its grossness, and he became the founder of that
+sentimental comedy which in the days of the early Georges took the
+place of the immoral comedy of the Restoration period, when, in
+Johnson's famous phrase,</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>Intrigue was plot, obscenity was wit.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>Steele's four comedies are <i>The Funeral; or Grief &agrave; la
+mode</i> (1701); <i>The Lying Lover</i> (1703); <i>The Tender
+Husband</i> (1705); and <i>The Conscious Lovers</i> (1722). Although
+he held various lucrative offices, Steele was never really prosperous
+and was frequently in debt; like most of the contemporary Englishmen
+with whom his lot was thrown, he was rather addicted to the bottle;
+but, on the whole, it may fairly be advanced that unnecessary stress
+has been laid on these aspects of his life by Macaulay, Thackeray, and
+others. After a chequered career, he died near Carmarthen, in Wales,
+on September 1, 1729.</p>
+
+<p>Member of a family and bearer of a name destined to secure immense
+fame in later Irish history, Thomas Parnell (1679-1718) was born in
+Dublin and educated at Trinity College. Entering the ministry in 1700,
+he was rapidly promoted to be archdeacon of Clogher and some years
+later was made rector of Finglas. An accomplished scholar and a
+delightful companion, he was one of the original members of the famous
+Scriblerus Club and wrote or helped to write several of its papers, he
+contributed to the <i>Spectator</i> and the <i>Guardian</i>, and he
+rendered sterling assistance to Pope in the translation of Homer. As
+will be inferred, he spent much of his time in England, and on one of
+his journeys to Ireland he died in his thirty-ninth year at Chester,
+where he was buried. He wrote a great deal of verse&mdash;songs,
+hymns, epistles, eclogues, translations, tales, and occasional
+trifles; but three poems, <i>A Hymn to Contentment</i>, which is
+fanciful and melodious, <i>A Night-piece on Death</i>, in which
+inquisitorial research seems to have found the first faint dawn of
+Romanticism, and <i>The Hermit</i>, which has been not inaptly styled
+"the apex and <i>chef d'oeuvre</i> of Augustan poetry in England",
+constitute his chief claim to present remembrance.</p>
+
+<p>Francis Hutcheson (1694-1746), the son of a Presbyterian minister,
+was born at Armagh, and studied at Glasgow University. He opened in
+Dublin a private academy, which succeeded beyond expectation. The
+publication of his <i>Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty
+and Virtue</i> (1720) and his <i>Essay on the Nature and Conduct of
+the Passions</i> (1728) brought him great fame, and in 1729 he was
+elected to the professorship of moral philosophy in the University of
+Glasgow. Others of his works are a treatise on <i>Logic</i> and <i>A
+System of Moral Philosophy</i>, the latter not published till 1755,
+nine years after his death. Hutcheson fills a large space in the
+history of philosophy, both as a metaphysician and as a moralist. He
+is in some respects a pioneer of the "Scotch school" and of "common
+sense" philosophy. He greatly developed the doctrine of "moral sense",
+a term first used by the third Earl of Shaftesbury; indeed, much of
+his whole moral system may be traced to Shaftesbury. Hutcheson's
+influence was widely felt: it is plainly perceptible in Hume, Adam
+Smith, and Reid. He was greater as a speaker even than as a writer,
+and his lectures evoked much enthusiasm.</p>
+
+<p>George Berkeley (1685-1753), bishop of Cloyne, was born at Dysert
+Castle, near Thomastown, Co. Kilkenny, and was educated first at
+Kilkenny school and afterwards at Trinity College, Dublin. Having
+taken Anglican orders, he visited London, where he wrote nine papers
+for the <i>Guardian</i> and was admitted to the companionship and
+friendship of the leading literary men of the age&mdash;Swift, Pope,
+Addison, Steele, and Arbuthnot. This connection proved of great
+assistance to him, for Pope not only celebrated him as possessing
+"every virtue under heaven", but also recommended him to the Duke of
+Grafton, Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, who appointed him his chaplain
+and subsequently obtained for him the deanery of Derry. In furtherance
+of a great scheme for "converting the savage Americans to
+Christianity", Berkeley and some friends, armed with a royal charter,
+came to this country, landing at Newport in Rhode Island in January,
+1729. All went well for a while: Berkeley bought a farm and built a
+house; but when the hard-hearted prime minister refused to forward the
+&pound;20,000 which had been promised, the project came to an end, and
+Berkeley returned to London in February, 1732. In 1734 he was
+appointed bishop of Cloyne, and later refused the see of Clogher,
+though its income was fully double that of his own diocese. In 1752 he
+resigned his bishopric and settled at Oxford, where he died in
+1753.</p>
+
+<p>Berkeley's works are very numerous. His <i>Essay towards a New
+Theory of Vision</i> (1709), which was long regarded in the light of a
+philosophical romance, in reality contains speculations which have
+been incorporated in modern scientific optics. In his <i>Three
+Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous</i> (1713) he sets forth his
+famous demonstration of the immateriality of the external world, of
+the spiritual nature of the soul, and of the all-ruling and direct
+providence of God. His tenets on immateriality have always been
+rejected by "common-sense" philosophers; but it should be remembered
+that the whole work was written at a time when the English-speaking
+world was disturbed by the theories of sceptics and deists, whose
+doctrines the pious divine sought as best he could to confute. In 1732
+appeared his <i>Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher</i>, in which,
+dialogue-wise, he presents nature from a religious point of view and
+in particular gives many pleasing pictures of American scenery and
+life. These dialogues have frequently been compared to the dialogues
+of Plato. To Berkeley's credit be it said that while he ruled in
+Cloyne he devoted much thought to the amelioration of conditions in
+his native land. Many acute suggestions in that direction are found in
+the <i>Querist</i> (1735-1737). By some extraordinary ratiocinative
+process he convinced himself that tar-water was a panacea for human
+ills, and in 1744 he set forth his views on that subject in the tract
+called <i>Siris</i>, and returned to the charge in 1752 in his
+<i>Further Thoughts on Tar-Water</i>. Whatever may be thought of the
+value of Berkeley's philosophical or practical speculations, there is
+only one opinion of his style. It is distinguished by lucidity, ease,
+and charm; it has the saving grace of humor; and it is shot through
+with imagination. Taken all in all, this eighteenth century bishop is
+a notable figure in literary annals.</p>
+
+<p>Charles Macklin (c. 1697-1797), whose real name was MacLaughlin,
+was a Westmeath man, who took to the stage in early life and remained
+on the boards with considerable and undiminished reputation for some
+seventy years, not retiring until 1789 when he was at least 92 years
+old. To him we are indebted for what is now the accepted presentation
+of the character of Shylock in <i>The Merchant of Venice</i>. He wrote
+a tragedy and many comedies and farces: those by which he is now best
+remembered are the farce, <i>Love-&agrave;-la-Mode</i> (1760), and his
+masterpiece, the farcical comedy, <i>The Man of the World</i> (1764).
+In Sir Pertinax MacSycophant, Macklin has given us one of the
+traditional burlesque characters of the English stage.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas Amory (1691?-1788), if not born in Ireland, was at least of
+Irish descent and was educated in Dublin. He is known in literature
+for two books. The first, with the very mixed title of <i>Memoirs
+containing the Lives of several Ladies of Great Britain; A History of
+Antiquities; Observations on the Christian Religion</i>, was published
+in 1755, and the second, <i>The Life of John Buncle, Esq.</i>, came
+out in two volumes in 1756-1766. It appears to have been the author's
+aim in both works to give us a hotch-potch in which he discourses
+<i>de omnibus rebus et quibusdam aliis</i>. We have dissertations on
+the cause of earthquakes and of muscular motion, on the Athanasian
+Creed, on fluxions, on phlogiston, on the physical cause of the
+Deluge, on Irish literature, on the origin of language, on the
+evidences for Christianity, and on all other sorts of unrelated
+topics. Hazlitt thought that the soul of Rabelais had passed into
+Amory, while a more recent critic can see in his long-winded
+discussions naught but the "light-headed ramblings of delirium." If we
+try to read <i>John Buncle</i> consecutively, the result is boredom;
+but if we open the book at random, we are pretty sure to be interested
+and even sometimes agreeably entertained.</p>
+
+<p>The bizarre figure of Laurence Sterne (1713-1768) next claims our
+attention. The son of a captain in the British army, he was born at
+Clonmel, Co. Tipperary. Of him almost more than of any of the writers
+so far dealt with, it may be said that he was Irish only by the
+accident of birth. His parents were English on both sides, and
+practically the whole life of their son was spent out of Ireland. He
+was sent to school at Halifax, in Yorkshire, and thence went to
+Cambridge University, where he graduated in due season. Taking
+Anglican orders in 1738, he was immediately appointed to the benefice
+of Sutton-in-the-Forest, near York, and on his marriage in 1741 with
+Elizabeth Lumley he received the additional living of Stillington. He
+was also given sundry prebendal and other appointments in connection
+with the chapter of the archdiocese of York. He spent nearly twenty
+years in the discharge of his not very onerous duties and in reading,
+painting, shooting, and fiddling, without showing the least sign of
+any literary leanings. Then suddenly, in 1760, he took the world by
+storm with the first two volumes of <i>Tristram Shandy</i>. He at once
+became the lion of the hour, was f&ecirc;ted and dined to his heart's
+content, and had his nostrils tickled with the daily incense of praise
+from his numerous worshippers. He repeated the experiment with equal
+success the following year with two more volumes of <i>Tristram</i>,
+and so at intervals until 1767, when he published the ninth and last
+volume of this most peculiar story. In 1768 he brought out <i>A
+Sentimental Journey</i>, and within three weeks he died in his
+lodgings in London. His other publications include <i>Sermons</i> and
+<i>Letters</i>. <i>Tristram Shandy</i> is unique in English
+literature&mdash;it stands <i>sui generis</i> for all time. There is
+scarcely any consecutive narrative, and what there is is used merely
+as a peg on which to hang endless digressions. But while there are
+many faults of taste and morals, there are also genuine humor and
+pathos, and without Walter Shandy, Dr. Slop, the Widow Wadman, Yorick,
+Uncle Toby, and Corporal Trim, English literature would certainly be
+very much the poorer.</p>
+
+<p>Hugh Kelly (1739-1777), born in Dublin, was the son of a publican
+and himself became a staymaker, a trade from which he developed
+through the successive stages of attorney's clerk, newspaper-writer,
+theatrical critic, and essayist, into a novelist and playwright. His
+novel, <i>Memoirs of a Magdalen</i> (1767), was translated into
+French. His first comedy, a sentimental one entitled <i>False
+Delicacy</i> (1768), achieved a remarkable success on the stage and
+was even a greater success in book form, 10,000 copies being sold in a
+year, so that its author was raised from poverty to comparative
+affluence. In addition, it gave him a European reputation, for it was
+translated into German, French, and Portuguese. Strange to say, his
+later comedies, <i>A Word to the Wise, A School for Wives</i>, and
+<i>The Man of Reason</i>, were practically failures, and the same is
+true of his tragedy, <i>Clementina</i>. Kelly ultimately withdrew from
+stage work, and for the last three years of his life practised as a
+barrister without, however, achieving much distinction in his new
+profession.</p>
+
+<p>Charles Coffey (d. 1745), an Irishman, was the author of several
+farces, operas, ballad operas, ballad farces, and farcical operas, the
+best known of which was <i>The Devil to Pay, or the Wives
+Metamorphosed</i> (1731).</p>
+
+<p>Henry Brooke (1703?-1783), a county Cavan man and the son of a
+clergyman, was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and afterwards
+studied law in London. Becoming guardian to his cousin, a girl of
+twelve, he put her to school for two years and then secretly married
+her. Of his large family of twenty-two children, three of whom were
+born before their mother was eighteen years old, but one survived him.
+Appointed by Lord Chesterfield barrack-master at Mullingar, Brooke
+afterwards settled in Co. Kildare. It was there that he wrote his
+celebrated work, <i>The Fool of Quality, or the History of the Earl of
+Moreland</i> (5 vols., 1766-1770), which won the commendations of men
+so widely different as John Wesley and Charles Kingsley. It is,
+indeed, a remarkable book, combining, as it does, many of the
+characteristics of Sterne, Mackenzie, Borrow, and George Meredith. It
+is not very well known nowadays, but it will always bear, and will
+well repay, perusal. Brooke also wrote a poem on <i>Universal
+Beauty</i> (1735) and the tragedies <i>Gustavus Vasa</i> (1739), the
+production of which was forbidden in London but which was afterwards
+staged in Dublin as <i>The Patriot</i>, and <i>The Earl of Essex</i>
+(1749), which was played both in London and in Dublin, and has been
+made famous by the parody of one line in it by Samuel Johnson. Another
+novel, <i>Juliet Grenville, or the History of the Human Heart</i>,
+published in 1774, was not nearly up to the standard of <i>The Fool of
+Quality</i>. Brooke was a busy literary man. He made a translation of
+part of Tasso, drafted plans for a History of Ireland, projected a
+series of old Irish tales, wrote one fragment in a style very like
+that subsequently adopted by Macpherson in his <i>Ossian</i>, and for
+a while was editor of the <i>Freeman's Journal</i>. In the beginning,
+Brooke was violently anti-Catholic; but, as time progressed, he became
+more liberal-minded, and advocated the relaxation of the penal laws
+and a more humane treatment of his Catholic fellow-countrymen. Like
+Swift and Steele, he fell into a state of mental debility for some
+years before his death. His daughter, Charlotte Brooke (1740-1793),
+deserves mention as a pioneer of the Irish literary revival, for she
+devoted herself to the saving of the stores of Irish literature which
+in her time were rapidly disappearing. One of the fruits of her labors
+was <i>The Reliques of Irish Poetry</i>, published in 1789. She also
+wrote <i>Emma, or the Foundling of the Wood</i>, a novel, and
+<i>Belisarius</i>, a tragedy.</p>
+
+<p>Charles Johnstone (c. 1719-1800), a Co. Limerick man, was educated
+in Dublin and called to the English bar, but owing to deafness was
+more successful as a chamber counsel than as a pleader. Emigrating to
+India in 1782, he became joint proprietor of a newspaper in Calcutta,
+and there he died. He wrote several satirical romances, such as
+<i>Chrysal, or the Adventures of a Guinea; The Reverie, or a Flight to
+the Paradise of Fools</i>; and <i>The History of Arsaces, Prince of
+Betlis</i>. Of these the first was the best. Samuel Johnson, who read
+it in manuscript, advised its publication, and his opinion was
+vindicated, for it proved a huge success. Sir Walter Scott afterwards
+said that the author of <i>Chrysal</i> deserved to rank as a prose
+Juvenal. Johnstone also wrote <i>The Pilgrim, or a Picture of Life</i>
+and a picaresque novel, <i>The History of John Juniper, Esquire, alias
+Juniper Jack</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Arthur Murphy (1727-1805), born at Cloonquin, Co. Roscommon, was
+educated at St. Omer. At first an actor, he afterwards studied law and
+was called to the English bar in 1762. He made a translation of
+Tacitus, and wrote several farces and comedies, among which may be
+mentioned <i>The Apprentice; The Spouter; The Upholsterer; The Way to
+Keep Him</i>; and <i>All in the Wrong</i>. He also wrote three
+tragedies, namely, <i>The Orphan of China; The Grecian Daughter</i>;
+and <i>Arminius</i>. For the last-named, which was produced in 1798,
+and which had a strongly political cast, he received a pension of
+&pound;200 a year. His plays long held the stage.</p>
+
+<p>Oliver Goldsmith (1728-1774), essayist, poet, novelist, playwright,
+historian, biographer, and editor, was a many-sided genius, who, as
+Johnson said in his epitaph, left scarcely any kind of writing
+untouched, and touched none that he did not adorn. Born, probably, in
+Co. Longford, the son of a poor clergyman, he was educated at various
+country schools until, in 1744, he secured a sizarship in Trinity
+College, Dublin. There he had a somewhat stormy career, but eventually
+took his degree in 1749. He then lounged at home for a while in his
+widowed mother's cottage at Ballymahon, until he was persuaded to take
+orders, but spoiled his already sufficiently poor chances of
+ordination by appearing before the bishop of Elphin in scarlet
+breeches. After other adventures in search of a profession, he went to
+Edinburgh in 1752 to study medicine, and two years later transferred
+himself to Leyden for the same purpose. It was from Leyden that, with
+one guinea in his pocket, one shirt on his person, and a flute in his
+hand, he started on his celebrated walking tour of Europe, during
+which he gained those impressions which he was afterwards to embody in
+some of his greater works. In 1756 he arrived in England, where for
+three years he had very varied experiences&mdash;as a strolling
+player, an apothecary's journeyman, a practising physician, a reader
+for the press, an usher in an academy, and a hack-writer. In 1759 he
+published anonymously his <i>Enquiry into the Present State of Polite
+Learning in Europe</i>, which was well received and helped him to
+other literary work. <i>The Bee</i>, a volume of essays and verses,
+appeared in the same year. He was made editor of the <i>Lady's
+Magazine</i>; he published <i>Memoirs of Voltaire</i> (1761), a
+<i>History of Mecklenburgh</i> (1762), and a <i>Life of Richard
+Nash</i> (1762). In 1762 also he brought out his <i>Citizen of the
+World</i>, a collection of essays, which takes an extremely high rank.
+In 1764 his poem, <i>The Traveller, or a Prospect of Society</i>, made
+its appearance; and in 1766 he gave to the world his famous novel,
+<i>The Vicar of Wakefield</i>. His reputation as a writer was now
+established; he was received into Johnson's circle and was a member of
+the Literary Club; Reynolds and Burke were proud to call him friend.
+In 1768 he had his comedy, <i>The Good Natured Man</i>, produced at
+Covent Garden Theatre, where it achieved a fair measure of success and
+brought him in &pound;400. In 1770 he repeated his triumph as a poet
+with <i>The Deserted Village</i>. He wrote a <i>History of Animated
+Nature</i>, a <i>History of England</i>, and a <i>History of Rome</i>,
+all compilations couched in that easy style of which he was master. He
+also wrote a <i>Life of Parnell</i> and a <i>Life of Bolingbroke</i>.
+Finally, in 1773, his great comedy, <i>She Stoops to Conquer</i>, was
+staged at Covent Garden, and met with wonderful success. A little more
+than a year later Goldsmith died of a nervous fever, the result of
+overwork and anxiety, and was buried in the burial ground of the
+Temple Church. His unfinished poem, <i>Retaliation</i>, a series of
+epigrams in epitaph form on some of his distinguished literary and
+artistic friends, was issued a few days after his death, and added
+greatly to his reputation as a wit and humorist, a reputation which
+was still further enhanced when, in 1776, <i>The Haunch of Venison</i>
+made its appearance. In the latter year a monument, with a medallion
+and Johnson's celebrated Latin epitaph attached, was erected to his
+memory in Westminster Abbey.</p>
+
+<p>Goldsmith's renown, great in his own day, has never since
+diminished. His essays, his novel, and his poems are still read with
+avidity and pleasure; his comedy is still acted. It is his statue that
+stands along with Burke's at the entrance gate to Trinity College,
+Dublin, the <i>alma mater</i> seeking to commemorate in a striking
+manner two of her most distinguished sons by placing their effigies
+thus in the forefront of her possessions and in full view of all the
+world. Personally, Goldsmith was a very amiable and good-hearted man,
+dear to his own circle and dear to that "Mr. Posterity" to whom he
+once addressed a humorous dedication. He had his faults, it is true,
+but they are hidden amid his many perfections. Everyone will be
+disposed to agree with what Johnson wrote of him: "Let not his
+frailties be remembered; he was a very great man."</p>
+
+<p>Edmund Burke (1729-1797), born in Dublin, the son of a Protestant
+father and a Catholic mother whose name was Nagle, was educated first
+at a Quaker school in Ballitore, Co. Kildare, and afterwards at
+Trinity College, Dublin. He became a law student in London, but he did
+not eventually adopt the law as a profession. He brought out in 1756 a
+<i>Vindication of Natural Society</i>, in which he so skilfully
+imitated the style and the paradoxical reasoning of Bolingbroke that
+many were deceived into the belief that the <i>Vindication</i> was a
+posthumously published production of the viscount's pen. In the
+following year Burke published in his own name <i>A Philosophical
+Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful</i>,
+which attracted widespread attention, was translated into German and
+French, and brought its author into touch with all the leading
+literary men of London. He was instrumental with Dodsley the publisher
+in starting the <i>Annual Register</i> in 1759, and for close on
+thirty years he continued to supply it with the "Survey of Events." He
+entered public life in 1760 by accompanying "Single-Speech" Hamilton
+to Dublin when the latter was appointed Chief Secretary for Ireland.
+In 1765 he was made private secretary to the prime minister, the
+Marquis of Rockingham, and, as member for Wendover, entered
+parliament, where he speedily made a name for himself. During Lord
+North's long tenure of office (1770-1782) Burke was one of the
+minority and opposed the splendid force of his genius to the
+corruption, extravagance, and mal-administration of the government. To
+this period belong, in addition to lesser works, his great speeches
+<i>On American Taxation</i> (1774) and <i>On Conciliation with
+America</i> (1775), as well as his spirited <i>Letter to the Sheriffs
+of Bristol</i> (1777). He had been elected member of parliament for
+Bristol in 1774, but he lost his seat in 1780 because he had advocated
+the relaxation of the restrictions on the trade of Ireland with Great
+Britain and of the penal laws against Catholics. In the second
+administration of Rockingham (1782) and in that of Portland (1783) he
+was paymaster of the forces, a position which he lost on the downfall
+of the Whigs in the latter year, and he never again held public
+office. His speech on the impeachment of Warren Hastings in 1788 is
+universally and justly ranked as a masterpiece of eloquence. When the
+French Revolution broke out, he opposed it with might and main. His
+<i>Reflections on the French Revolution</i> (1790) had an enormous
+circulation, reached an eleventh edition inside of a year, was read
+all over the continent as well as in the British Isles, and helped
+materially not only to keep England steady in the crisis, but also to
+incite the other powers to continue their resistance to French
+aggression. He continued his campaign in <i>Thoughts on French
+Affairs</i> and <i>Letters on a Regicide Peace</i>. He was given two
+pensions in 1794, and would have been raised to the peerage as Lord
+Beaconsfield, had not the succession to the title been cut off by the
+premature death of his only son. He himself died in 1797 and was
+buried at Beaconsfield, where, as far back as 1768, he had purchased a
+small estate.</p>
+
+<p>As an orator and a deep political thinker, Burke holds a foremost
+place among those of all time who distinguished themselves in the
+British parliament. His keen intellect, his powerful imagination, his
+sympathy with the fallen, the downtrodden, and the oppressed, and his
+matchless power of utterance of the thoughts that were in him have
+made an impression that can never be effaced. His wise and
+statesman-like views on questions affecting the colonies ought to
+endear him to all Americans, although, if his counsels had been
+hearkened to, it is probable that the separation from the mother
+country would not have occurred as soon as it did. For his native land
+he used his best endeavors when and how he could, and although, as her
+defender, he was faced by obloquy as well as by the loss of that
+parliamentary position which was as dear to him as the breath of his
+nostrils, he did not flinch or shrink from supporting her material and
+spiritual interests in his own generous, manly, whole-hearted way.
+Trinity College, Dublin, has done well in placing his statue at her
+outer gates as representing the greatest Irishman of his
+generation.</p>
+
+<p>A political associate of Burke's for many years was Richard
+Brinsley Sheridan (1751-1816). Of Co. Cavan descent, Sheridan was born
+in Dublin, and was educated partly in his native city and partly at
+Harrow, and the remainder of his life was spent in England. He was
+distinguished first as a playwright and afterwards as a parliamentary
+orator. In 1775 his comedy, <i>The Rivals</i>, was produced at Covent
+Garden Theatre; his farce, <i>St. Patrick's Day, or the Scheming
+Lieutenant</i>, and his comic opera, <i>The Duenna</i>, were staged in
+the same year. His greatest comedy, <i>The School for Scandal</i>, was
+acted at Drury Lane Theatre in 1777, and it was followed in 1779 by
+<i>The Critic</i>. His last dramatic composition was the tragedy,
+<i>Pizarro</i>, produced in 1799. Elected to parliament in 1780,
+Sheridan was made under-secretary for foreign affairs in the
+Rockingham administration of 1782, and in 1783 he was secretary to the
+treasury in the Coalition Ministry. He sprang into repute as a
+brilliant orator during the impeachment of Warren Hastings, 1787-1794.
+His speech on the Begums of Oude was one of the greatest ever
+delivered within the walls of the British parliament. In 1806, on the
+return of the Whigs to power, he was appointed treasurer in the navy.
+In 1812 his long parliamentary career came to a close when he was
+defeated for the borough of Westminster. He died in 1816, and was
+honored with a magnificent funeral in Westminster Abbey.</p>
+
+<p>To give an idea as to how Sheridan's oratorical powers impressed
+his contemporaries, it is perhaps enough to repeat what Burke said of
+his second speech against Warren Hastings, namely, that it was "the
+most astonishing effort of eloquence, argument, and wit united of
+which there is any record or tradition", and to add that when, after
+three hours of impassioned pleading, he brought his first speech
+against Hastings to an end, the effect produced was so great that it
+was agreed to adjourn the house immediately and defer the final
+decision until the members should be in a less excited mood. As a
+dramatist Sheridan is second in popularity to Shakespeare alone.
+<i>The School for Scandal</i> and <i>The Rivals</i> are as fresh and
+as eagerly welcomed today as they were a hundred and forty years ago.
+Like Burke, he was true to the land of his birth and his oppressed
+Catholic fellow-countrymen. Almost his last words in the house of
+commons were these: "Be just to Ireland. I will never give my vote to
+any administration that opposes the question of Catholic
+emancipation."</p>
+
+<p>Sheridan belonged to a family that was exceptionally distinguished
+in English literature. Among those who preceded him as litterateurs
+were his grandfather, the Rev. Thomas Sheridan, D.D.; his father,
+Thomas Sheridan; and his mother, Frances Sheridan. Rev. Dr. Sheridan
+(1684-1738), the friend and confidant of Dean Swift, kept a
+fashionable school in Dublin, edited the <i>Satires</i> of Persius in
+1728, wrote a treatise on <i>The Art of Punning</i>, and figures
+largely in Swift's correspondence. Thomas Sheridan (1721-1788) was at
+first an actor of considerable reputation, both in Dublin and in
+London; was next a teacher of elocution; and finally came forward with
+an improved system of education, in which oratory was to have a
+conspicuous part. In this connection he published an elaborate <i>Plan
+of Education</i> in 1769, but his ideas, some of which are in accord
+with modern practice, were not taken up, He also compiled a
+pronouncing <i>Dictionary of the English Language</i>, with a prosodic
+grammar, and in 1784 published an entertaining <i>Life of Swift</i>.
+Frances Sheridan (1724-1766), wife of Thomas and mother of Richard
+Brinsley, who as Frances Chamberlaine had been known as a poetess,
+wrote after her marriage two plays, <i>The Discovery</i> and <i>The
+Dupe</i>, and two novels, <i>The Memoirs of Miss Sidney Biddulph</i>,
+which was a great success and was translated by the Abb&eacute;
+Pr&eacute;vost into French, and <i>The History of Nourjahad</i>, an
+Oriental tale. In 1775 the singular spectacle was presented of the
+son's play running at Covent Garden while the mother's was being acted
+at Drury Lane.</p>
+
+<p>Among Sheridan's descendants who earned a niche in the temple of
+literary fame were his grand-daughters, the Countess of Dufferin
+(1807-1867) and the Hon. Mrs. Norton, afterwards Lady Stirling Maxwell
+(1808-1877), and his great-grandson, the first Marquis of Dufferin and
+Ava (1826-1902). Lady Dufferin's <i>Lament of the Irish Emigrant</i>
+("I'm sittin' on the style, Mary") has moved the hearts and brought
+tears to the eyes of countless thousands since it was published more
+than fifty years ago.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Philip Francis (1740-1818), born in Dublin, was the son of a
+clergyman of like name who attained some literary eminence as the
+translator of Horace and as a political writer. After filling various
+important government positions, Philip Francis, the son, was in 1773
+made a member of the Council of Bengal, where his relations with the
+governor-general, Warren Hastings, were of an extremely strained
+character, amounting at times almost to a public scandal. He returned
+to England in 1781, entered parliament, made a name as a speaker, took
+part in the impeachment of Hastings, and composed numerous political
+pamphlets. He is generally supposed to have been the writer of the
+celebrated <i>Letters of Junius</i>, which appeared at intervals in
+the <i>Public Advertiser</i> between January 21, 1769, and January 21,
+1772. These letters are distinguished for their polished style, their
+power of invective, their galling sarcasm, their knowledge of state
+secrets, and their unparalleled boldness. Every prominent man
+connected with the government was attacked: even the king himself was
+not spared. As revised by their pseudonymous writer in a reprint made
+in 1772, they number 70; a later edition, in 1812, contained 113 more.
+Their authorship has been the subject of much controversy, nor is the
+question yet finally settled. In his <i>Essay on Warren Hastings</i>,
+written in 1841, Macaulay went to considerable trouble to prove, by
+the cumulative method, that Francis was the writer, and since then
+that opinion has been generally, but not universally, maintained.</p>
+
+<p>Isaac Bickerstaffe (c. 1735-c. 1812) was an Irishman, whose name,
+strange to say, had no connection with the <i>nom de guerre</i> of the
+same style under which Swift had masqueraded in his outrageously
+satirical attacks on Partridge the almanac maker, or with the more
+celebrated imaginary Isaac Bickerstaffe under cover of whose
+personality Steele conducted the <i>Tatler</i>. The real Bickerstaffe
+was a prolific playwright. His best known pieces are <i>The
+Sultan</i>, <i>The Maid of the Mill</i>, <i>Lionel and Clarissa</i>,
+and <i>Love in a Village</i>. In the last-mentioned occurs the famous
+song, beginning "We all love a pretty girl&mdash;under the rose."</p>
+
+<p>William Drennan (1754-1820), who has been called the Tyrtaeus of
+the United Irishmen, was the son of a Presbyterian clergyman, was born
+in Belfast, and was educated at Glasgow and Edinburgh universities,
+taking a medical degree from the latter. He practised his profession
+in the north of Ireland. When the Irish Volunteers were established,
+Drennan entered heart and soul into the movement. Removing to Dublin
+in 1789, he associated with Tone and other revolutionary spirits, and
+became one of the founders of the Society of United Irishmen, the
+first statement of whose objects was the product of his pen. His
+<i>Letters of Orellana</i> helped materially to enlist the men of
+Ulster in the ranks of the Society. He also wrote a series of stirring
+lyrics which, voicing as they did the general sentiment in Ireland at
+the time, became extremely popular and had a widespread effect. These
+were afterwards (1815) collected under the title of <i>Fugitive
+Pieces</i>. All his political hopes being blasted with the failure of
+the rebellion of 1798 and of Emmet's insurrection in 1803, Drennan
+returned in 1807 to Belfast and there founded the <i>Belfast
+Magazine</i>. "The Wake of William Orr", a series of noble and
+affecting stanzas commemorating the judicial murder of a young
+Presbyterian Irish patriot in 1798, is one of his best known pieces.
+He also celebrated the ill-fated brothers Sheares. His song "Erin" was
+considered by Moore to be one of the most perfect of modern songs. It
+was in this piece that he fixed upon Ireland the title of the Emerald
+Isle:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>When Erin first rose from the dark swelling flood,</p>
+<p>God bless'd the green island, and saw it was good;</p>
+<p>The em'rald of Europe, it sparkled and shone&mdash;</p>
+<p>In the ring of the world the most precious stone.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mary Tighe (1772-1810), whose maiden name was Blachford, was born,
+the daughter of a clergyman, in Co. Wicklow. She contracted an unhappy
+marriage with her cousin who represented Kilkenny in the Irish house
+of commons. By all accounts she was of great beauty and numerous
+accomplishments. She wrote many poems: her best, and best known, is
+<i>Psyche, or the Legend of Love</i>, an adaptation of the story of
+Cupid and Psyche from the <i>Golden Ass</i> of Apuleius. The metre she
+employed in this piece was the Spenserian stanza, which she handled
+with great power, freedom, and melody. <i>Psyche</i>, which first
+appeared in 1795, had a wonderful vogue, running rapidly through
+edition after edition. Among others to whom it appealed and who were
+influenced by it was Keats. Mrs. Tighe's talent drew from Moore a
+delicate compliment in "Tell me the witching tale again"; and in "The
+Grave of a Poetess" and "I stood where the life of song lay low", Mrs.
+Hemans bewailed her untimely death.</p>
+
+<p>Edmund Malone (1741-1813), the son of an Irish judge, was born in
+Dublin and studied at Trinity College. He was called to the Irish bar
+in 1767, but coming into a fortune, he abandoned his profession and
+gave himself over to literary work. In 1790 he brought out an edition
+of Shakespeare which was deservedly praised for its learning and
+research. His critical acumen led him to doubt the genuineness of
+Chatterton's <i>Rowley Poems</i>, and he was one of the first to
+expose Ireland's Shakespearean forgeries in 1796. Among other services
+to literature he wrote a <i>Life of Sir Joshua Reynolds</i> and edited
+Dryden. He also left a quantity of materials afterwards utilized for
+the "Variorum Shakespeare" by James Boswell the younger in 1821.</p>
+
+<p>John O'Keeffe (1747-1833), a Dublin man, was at first an art
+student, but soon became an actor, and then developed into a
+playwright. His pen was most prolific; he published a collection of
+over fifty pieces in 1798. His plays are mostly comic operas or
+farces, and some of them had great success. Lingo, the schoolmaster in
+<i>The Agreeable Surprise</i>, is a very amusing character. <i>The
+Positive Man, The Son-in-Law, Wild Oats, Love in a Camp</i>, and
+<i>The Poor Soldier</i> are among his compositions. His songs are well
+known, such as "I am a friar of orders grey", and there are few
+schoolboys who have not sooner or later made the acquaintance of his
+"Amo, amas, I loved a lass". For the last fifty-two years of his life
+O'Keeffe was blind, an affliction which he bore with unfailing
+cheerfulness. In 1826 he was given a pension of one hundred guineas a
+year from the king's privy purse.</p>
+
+<p>George Canning (1770-1827), prime minister of England, properly
+belongs here, for, although born in London, he was a member of an
+Irish family long settled at Garvagh in Co. Derry. Entering parliament
+on the side of Pitt in 1796, he was made secretary of the navy in 1804
+and in 1812 secretary of State for foreign affairs. He became prime
+minister in 1827, but died within six months, leaving a record for
+scarcely surpassed eloquence. In addition to his speeches, he is known
+in literature for his contributions to the <i>Anti-Jacobin, or Weekly
+Examiner</i>, which ran its satirical and energetic career for eight
+months (November, 1797-July, 1798.) Some of the best things that
+appeared in this ultra-conservative organ were from Canning's pen. Few
+there are who have not laughed at his <i>Loves of the Triangles</i>,
+in which he caricatured Erasmus Darwin's <i>Loves of the Plants</i>;
+at <i>The Needy Knife-Grinder</i>; or at the song of Rogero in
+<i>The Rovers</i>, with its comic refrain of the</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p class="i10">U&mdash;</p>
+<p>niversity of Gottingen.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Like most of the great Anglo-Irishmen of his time, Canning favored
+Catholic emancipation. It is interesting to note that it was a letter
+of Canning's that led to the formulation of the Monroe Doctrine.</p>
+
+<p>Henry Grattan (1746-1820), the hero of Grattan's parliament, was
+born in Dublin and studied at Trinity College. His history belongs to
+that of his country. Suffice it here to say that not only did he by
+great eloquence and real statesmanship secure a free parliament for
+Ireland In 1782, but also that he fought energetically, if
+unavailingly, against the abolition of that parliament in 1800, and
+that thenceforward he devoted his abilities to promoting the cause of
+Catholic emancipation. Dying in London, he was honored by being buried
+in Westminster Abbey. In an age of great orators he stands out among
+the very foremost. His speeches have become classics, and are
+constantly quoted.</p>
+
+<p>Another brilliant Irish orator, as well as an eminent wit, of this
+period, was John Philpot Curran (1750-1817), who, born at Newmarket,
+Co. Cork, and educated at Trinity College, Dublin, achieved a
+wonderful success at the Irish bar. He defended with rare insight,
+eloquence, and patriotism those who were accused of complicity in the
+rebellion of 1798. As a member of Grattan's parliament, he voiced the
+most liberal principles, and, though a Protestant himself, he worked
+hard in the Catholic cause. He held the great office of Master of the
+Rolls in Ireland from 1806 to 1814. The memory of few Irish orators,
+wits, or patriots is greener today than that of Curran. His daughter
+Sarah, whose fate is so inextricably blended with that of the
+ill-starred Robert Emmet, has been rendered immortal by Moore in his
+beautiful song, "She is far from the land where her young hero
+sleeps".</p>
+
+<p>Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin (1759-1797), the first advocate of the
+rights of women, though born in London, was of Irish extraction. Into
+the details of her extraordinary and chequered career it is not
+possible, or necessary, here to enter. Her published works include
+<i>Thoughts on the Education of Daughters</i> (1787); <i>Answer to
+Burke's Reflections on the French Revolution</i> (1791);
+<i>Vindication of the Rights of Women</i> (1792); and an unfinished
+<i>Historical and Moral View of the French Revolution</i> (Vol. I.,
+1794). Having in August, 1797, borne to her husband, William Godwin, a
+daughter who afterwards became Shelley's second wife, Mary Godwin died
+in the following month. Whatever her faults&mdash;and they were
+perhaps not greater than her misfortunes&mdash;she had something of
+the divine touch of genius, and, in a different environment, might
+easily have left some great literary memento which the world would not
+willingly let die.</p>
+
+<p>Maria Edgeworth (1767-1849), though born at Blackbourton in
+England, belonged to a family which had been settled in different
+parts of Ireland and finally at Edgeworthstown, Co. Longford, for
+nearly two hundred years. She was the daughter of Richard Lovell
+Edgeworth (1744-1817), who was distinguished for his inventions, for
+his eccentricity, and for his varied matrimonial experiences, and who
+himself figures in literature as the author of <i>Memoirs</i>,
+posthumously published in 1820, and as the partner with his daughter
+in <i>Practical Education</i> (1798) and in an <i>Essay on Irish
+Bulls</i> (1802). Maria had a busy literary career and was before the
+public for fifty-two years from 1795 to 1847. She wrote <i>Moral
+Tales; Popular Tales; Tales from Fashionable Life</i>; and
+<i>Harrington</i>; but she is now best remembered for her three
+masterpieces dealing with Irish life and conditions, namely, <i>Castle
+Rackrent</i> (1800); <i>The Absentee</i> (1812); and <i>Ormond</i>
+(1817). By these works she inspired Scott, as he himself tells us, to
+attempt for his own country something "of the same kind with that
+which she had so fortunately achieved for Ireland", and in a later day
+she inspired Turgenief to do similarly for Russia. She excels in wit
+and pathos and gives a true and vivid presentation of the times and
+conditions as she viewed them.</p>
+
+<p>Andrew Cherry (1763-1821), born in Limerick, became an actor, a
+theatrical manager, and a playwright. He wrote nine or ten plays,
+several of which were moderately successful. The one that is now
+remembered is <i>The Soldier's Daughter</i>. Some of his songs, such
+as "The Bay of Biscay", "Tom Moody, the Whipper-in", and, especially,
+"The Green Little Shamrock of Ireland", bid fair to be immortal.</p>
+
+<p>Other Irish song-writers were Thomas Duffet (fl. 1676), author of
+"Come all you pale lovers"; Arthur Dawson (1700?-1775), author of
+"Bumpers, Squire Jones"; George Ogle (1742-1814), author of "Molly
+Asthore"; Richard Alfred Millikin (1767-1815), author of the grotesque
+"Groves of Blarney"; Edward Lysaght (1763-1811), author of "Our
+Ireland", "The Gallant Man who led the van Of the Irish Volunteers",
+and "Kate of Garnavilla"; George Nugent Reynolds (1770?-1802), author
+of "Kathleen O'More"; Thomas Dermody (1775-1802), author of the
+collection of poems and songs known as <i>The Harp of Erin</i>; James
+Orr (1770-1816), author of "The Irishman"; Henry Brereton Code (d.
+1830), author of "The Sprig of Shillelah"; Charles Wolfe (1791-1823),
+author of "If I had thought thou couldst have died", and of "The
+Burial of Sir John Moore"; and Charles Dawson Shanly (1811-1875),
+author of "Kitty of Coleraine".</p>
+
+<p>Theobald Wolfe Tone (1763-1798), born in Dublin, educated at
+Trinity College, and called to the Irish bar in 1789, fills a large
+space in the history of his country from 1790 to his death in 1798.
+Intrepid, daring, and resourceful, he was one of the most dangerous of
+the enemies to English domination in Ireland that arose at any time
+during the troubled relations between the two countries. Taken
+prisoner on board a French ship of the line bound for Ireland on a
+mission of freedom, he committed suicide in prison rather than submit
+to the ignominy of being hanged to which he had been condemned. He
+sleeps his last sleep in Bodenstown churchyard, in that county of
+Kildare to which he was connected by many ties. His grave is still the
+Mecca of many a pilgrimage, and the corner-stone of a statue to his
+memory has been laid for some years on a commanding site in the city
+of his birth. He is known in literature for his <i>Journals</i> and
+his <i>Autobiography</i>, both containing sad, but inspiring, reading
+for the Irishman of today.</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+<p>Here this rapid survey of Irish writers of English must close. To
+tell in any sort of appropriate detail the story of the English
+literature of Ireland in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries would
+require a separate volume&mdash;a volume which is now under way and
+will, it is hoped, be speedily forthcoming. There is all the less need
+to attempt the agreeable task here, because in other portions of this
+book much more than passing reference is made to the chief Irish
+authors who, in the last hundred and fifteen years, have distinguished
+themselves and shed lustre on their country. During that period Irish
+poets, playwrights, novelists, essayists, historians, biographers,
+humorists, critics, and scholars have fully held their own both in the
+quantity and the quality of the work produced, and have left an
+impression of power and personality, of graceful style and vivifying
+imagination, that in itself constitutes, and must for ever constitute,
+one of the distinctive Glories of Ireland.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Irish Literature (10 vols., New York, 1904); Chambers's Cyclopaedia
+of English Literature (3 vols., Philadelphia and London, 1902-1904);
+Dictionary of National Biography; Encyclopaedia Britannica; Cambridge
+History of English Literature; D'Alton: History of Ireland (London,
+1910); Lennox: Early Printing in Ireland (Washington, 1909), Addison
+and the Modern Essay (Washington, 1912), Lessons in English Literature
+(21st edition, Baltimore, 1913); Macaulay: Essays, History of England;
+Brown: A Reader's Guide to Irish Fiction (London, 1910), A Guide to
+Books on Ireland (Dublin, 1912).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<div>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12111 ***</div>
+</body>
+</html>
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+Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for
+eBook #12111 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/12111)
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Glories of Ireland
+by Edited by Joseph Dunn and P.J. Lennox
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Glories of Ireland
+
+Author: Edited by Joseph Dunn and P.J. Lennox
+
+Release Date: April 22, 2004 [EBook #12111]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GLORIES OF IRELAND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by GF Untermeyer, Brendan Lane, and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE GLORIES
+OF
+IRELAND
+
+
+EDITED BY
+
+JOSEPH DUNN, Ph.D.,
+AND
+P.J. LENNOX. Litt.D.,
+
+
+PROFESSORS AT THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA
+
+
+1914
+
+
+TO THE IRISH RACE
+IN EVERY LAND
+
+
+      _Ireland_:
+
+      "All thy life has been a symbol; we can only read a part:
+      God will flood thee yet with sunshine for the woes that
+            drench thy heart."
+
+      JOHN BOYLE O'REILLY.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+We had at first intended that this should be a book without a
+preface, and indeed it needs none, for it speaks in no uncertain
+tones for itself; but on reconsideration we decided that it would be
+more seemly to give a short explanation of our aim, our motives, and
+our methods.
+
+As a result of innumerable inquiries which have come to us during our
+experience as educators, we have been forced to the conclusion that
+the performances of the Irish race in many fields of endeavor are
+entirely unknown to most people, and that even to the elect they are
+not nearly so well known as they deserve to be. Hence there came to
+us the thought of placing on record, in an accessible, comprehensive,
+and permanent form, an outline of the whole range of Irish
+achievement during the last two thousand years.
+
+In undertaking this task we had a twofold motive. In the first place,
+we wished to give to people of Irish birth or descent substantial
+reason for that pride of race which we know is in them, by placing in
+their hands an authoritative and unassailable array of facts as
+telling as any nation in the world can show. Our second motive was
+that henceforward he who seeks to ignore or belittle the part taken
+by men and women of Irish birth or blood in promoting the spread of
+religion, civilization, education, culture, and freedom should sin,
+not in ignorance, but against the light, and that from a thousand
+quarters at once champions armed with the panoply of knowledge should
+be able to spring to his confutation.
+
+To carry out in a satisfactory manner over a field so immense our
+lawfully ambitious aim was, as we realized at the outset, not
+possible to any two men who are primarily engaged, as we are, in
+other work of an exacting nature. Therefore, to render feasible the
+execution of our undertaking, we decided to invite the collaboration
+of many scholars and specialists, each of whom could, out of the
+fullness of information, speak with authority on some particular
+phase of the general subject. We are glad to say that the eminent
+writers to whom we addressed ourselves answered with promptitude and
+alacrity to our call, and have supplied us with such a body of
+material as to enable us to bring out a book that is absolutely
+unique.
+
+From each contributor we asked nothing but a plain verifiable
+statement of facts, and that, we think, is exactly what they have
+given us, for, while we do not make ourselves personally responsible
+for everything set down in the following pages, we believe that what
+stands written therein bears every mark of careful research and of
+absolute reliability.
+
+Although on many of our subjects little more remains to be said than
+what appears in the text, yet the treatment on the whole does not
+claim to be exhaustive, and therefore each writer has, at our
+request, appended to his contribution a short and carefully selected
+bibliography, so that those who are interested may have a guide for
+further reading. For our part, we consider these lists of works of
+reference to be a highly useful feature.
+
+It is a glorious thing for us, who are proud, one of us of his Irish
+descent and the other of his Irish birth, to think that the sons and
+daughters of mother Erin have so conspicuously distinguished
+themselves in such varied spheres of activity in every age and in so
+many lands, and that we were privileged to make public the record of
+their achievements in a form never before attempted.
+
+We have other works in contemplation, and some actually in
+preparation, which will go far to strengthen the claims put forward
+in this book. In the meantime, we trust that the reception accorded
+to it will be such as to encourage us to persevere in making still
+better known the Glories of Ireland.
+
+
+                                                JOSEPH DUNN
+                                                P.J. LENNOX
+
+      _Catholic University of America_,
+          _Washington, D.C._
+
+      November, 1914
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+THE ROMANCE OF IRISH HISTORY
+   Sir Roger Casement, C.M.G.
+
+THE ISLAND OF SAINTS AND SCHOLARS
+   Very Rev. Canon D'Alton, M.R.I.A., LL.D.
+
+IRISH MONKS IN EUROPE
+   Rev. Columba Edmonds, O.S.B.
+
+THE IRISH AND THE SEA
+   William H. Babcock, LL.B.
+
+IRISH LOVE OF LEARNING
+   Rev. P.S. Dinneen, M.A., R.U.I.
+
+IRISH MEN OF SCIENCE
+   Sir Bertram C.A. Windle, Sc.D., M.D.
+
+LAW IN IRELAND
+   Laurence Ginnell, B.L., M.P.
+
+IRISH MUSIC
+   W.H. Grattan Flood, Mus.D.
+
+IRISH METAL WORK
+   Diarmid Coffey
+
+IRISH MANUSCRIPTS
+   Louis Ely O'Carroll, B.A., B.L.
+
+THE RUINS OF IRELAND
+   Francis J. Bigger, M.R.I.A.
+
+MODERN IRISH ART
+   D.J. O'Donoghue
+
+IRELAND AT PLAY
+   Thomas E. Healy
+
+THE FIGHTING RACE
+   Joseph I.C. Clarke
+
+THE SORROWS OF IRELAND
+   John Jerome Rooney, A.M., LL.D.
+
+IRISH LEADERS
+   Shane Leslie
+
+IRISH HEROINES
+   Alice Milligan
+
+IRISH NATIONALITY
+   Lord Ashbourne
+
+FAMOUS IRISH SOCIETIES
+   John O'Dea
+
+THE IRISH IN THE UNITED STATES
+   Michael J. O'Brien
+
+THE IRISH IN CANADA
+   James J. Walsh, M.D.
+
+THE IRISH IN SOUTH AMERICA
+   Marion Mulhall
+
+THE IRISH IN AUSTRALASIA
+   Brother Leo, F.S.C., M.A.
+
+THE IRISH IN SOUTH AFRICA
+   A. Hilliard Atteridge
+
+THE IRISH LANGUAGE AND LETTERS
+   Douglas Hyde, LL.D.
+
+NATIVE IRISH POETRY
+   Georges Dottin
+
+IRISH HEROIC SAGAS
+   Eleanor Hull
+
+IRISH PRECURSORS OF DANTE
+   Sidney Gunn, M.A.
+
+IRISH INFLUENCE ON ENGLISH LITERATURE
+   Edmund C. Quiggin, M.A.
+
+IRISH FOLK LORE
+   Alfred Perceval Graves
+
+IRISH WIT AND HUMOR
+   Charles L. Graves
+
+THE IRISH THEATRE
+   Joseph Holloway
+
+IRISH JOURNALISTS
+   Michael MacDonagh
+
+THE IRISH LITERARY REVIVAL
+   Horatio S. Krans, Ph.D.
+
+IRISH WRITERS OF ENGLISH
+   P.J. Lennox, B.A., Litt. D.
+
+
+
+
+THE GLORIES OF IRELAND
+
+
+
+THE ROMANCE OF IRISH HISTORY
+
+By SIR ROGER CASEMENT, C.M.G.
+
+
+The history of Ireland remains to be written, for the purpose of
+Irishmen remains yet to be achieved.
+
+The struggle for national realization, begun so many centuries ago,
+is not ended; and if the long story offers a so frequent record of
+failure, it offers a continuous appeal to the highest motives and a
+constant exhibition of a most pathetic patriotism linked with the
+sternest courage.
+
+Irish wars, throughout all time, have been only against one enemy,
+the invader, and, ending so often in material disaster, they have
+conferred always a moral gain. Their memory uplifts the Irish heart;
+for no nation, no people, can reproach Ireland with having wronged
+them.
+
+When, at the dawn of the Christian era, we first hear of Ireland from
+external sources, we learn of it as an island harboring free men,
+whose indomitable love of freedom was hateful to the spirit of
+imperial exploitation.
+
+Agricola's advice to the empire-builders of his day was that Rome
+should "war down and take possession of Ireland, so that freedom
+might be put out of sight."
+
+It was to meet this challenge of despotism that the Scotic clans of
+Alba turned to their motherland for help, and the sea was "white with
+the hurrying oars" of the men of Erin speeding to the call of their
+Highland kinsmen, threatened with imperial servitude.
+
+The first external record we possess thus makes it clear that when
+the early Irish went forth to carry war abroad, it was not to impose
+their yoke on other peoples, or to found an empire, but to battle
+against the Empire of the World in the threatened cause they held so
+dear at home.
+
+In this early Roman reference to Ireland we get the keynote to all
+later Irish history--a warring down on the one hand, so that freedom
+might be put out of sight; an eternal resistance, on the other, so
+that it might be upheld.
+
+It was this struggle that Ireland sought to maintain against every
+form of attack, down through Danish, Norman, Tudor, Stuart, and
+Cromwellian assault, to the larger imperialism of the nineteenth
+century, when, as Thierry, the historian of the Norman Conquest,
+tells us, it still remained the one "lost cause" of history that
+refused to admit defeat. "This indomitable persistency, this faculty
+of preserving through centuries of misery the remembrance of lost
+liberty and of never despairing of a cause always defeated, always
+fatal to those who dared to defend it, is perhaps the strangest and
+noblest example ever given by any nation."
+
+The resources Ireland opposed to her invaders have been unequal to
+the founding of a great state, but have preserved a great tradition.
+The weakness of Ireland lay in the absence of a central organization,
+a state machine that could mobilize the national resources to defend
+the national life. That life had to depend for its existence, under
+the stress of prolonged invasion, on the spontaneous patriotism and
+courage of individuals. At times one clan alone, or two clans,
+maintained the struggle. Arrayed against them were all the resources
+of a mighty realm--shipping, arms, munitions of war, gold,
+statecraft, a widespread and calculating diplomacy, the prestige of a
+great Sovereign and a famous Court--and the Irish clan and its
+chieftain, by the sheer courage of its members, by their bodily
+strength and hardihood and feats of daring, for years kept the issue
+in doubt.
+
+When Hugh O'Neill, leagued with Red Hugh O'Donnell, challenged the
+might of Elizabeth, he had nothing to rely upon but the stout hearts
+and arms of the men of Tir-owen and Tir-Conail. Arms and armaments
+were far from Ulster. They could be procured only in Spain or
+elsewhere on the continent. English shipping held the sea; the
+English mint the coinage. The purse of England, compared to that of
+the Ulster princes, was inexhaustible. Yet for nine years the
+courage, the chivalry, the daring and skill of these northern
+clansmen, perhaps 20,000 men in all, held all the might of England at
+bay. Had the Spanish king at any time during the contest made good
+his promise to lend effective aid to the Irish princes, O'Neill would
+have driven Elizabeth from Ireland, and a sovereign State would today
+be the guardian of the freedom of the western seas for Europe and the
+world. It took "the best army in Europe" and a vast treasure, as Sir
+John Davies asserted, to conquer two Ulster clans three hundred years
+ago. The naked valor of the Irishman excelled the armed might of
+Tudor England; and the struggle that gave the empire of the seas to
+Britain was won not in the essay of battle, but in the assay of the
+mint.
+
+It is this aspect of the Irish fight for freedom that dignifies an
+otherwise lost cause. Ever defeated, yet undefeated, a
+long-remembering race believes that these native qualities must in
+the end prevail. The battle has been from the first one of manhood
+against might. The State Papers, the official record of English rule
+in Ireland, leave us rarely in doubt. We read in that record that,
+where the appeal was to the strength or courage of the opposing men,
+the Irish had nothing to fear from English arms.
+
+Thus the Earl of Essex, in a despatch to Elizabeth, explained the
+failure of his great expedition in 1599 against O'Neill and
+O'Donnell. "These rebels ... have (though I do unwillingly confess
+it) better bodies and perfecter use of their arms than those men whom
+your Majesty sends over." The flight of the Earls in 1607 left
+Ireland leaderless, with nothing but the bodies and hearts of the
+people to depend on. In 1613 we read, in the same records, a candid
+admission that, although the clan system had been destroyed and the
+great chiefs expropriated, converted, or driven to flight, the people
+still trusted to their own stout arms and fearless hearts:
+
+"The next rebellion, whenever it shall happen, doth threaten more
+danger to the State than any heretofore, when the cities and walled
+towns were always faithful; (1) because they have the same bodies
+they ever had and therein they had and have advantage of us; (2) from
+infancy they have been and are exercised in the use of arms; (3) the
+realm by reason of the long peace was never so full of youths; (4)
+that they are better soldiers than heretofore their continental
+employment in wars abroad assures us, and they do conceive that their
+men are better than ours."
+
+And when that "next rebellion" came, the great uprising of the
+outraged race in 1641, what do we find? Back from the continent sails
+the nephew of the great O'Neill, who had left Ireland a little boy in
+the flight of the Earls, and the dispossessed clansmen, robbed of all
+but their strength of body and heart, gathered to the summons of Owen
+Roe.
+
+Again it was the same issue: the courage and hardihood of the
+Irishman to set against the superior arms, equipment, and wealth of a
+united Britain. Irish valor won the battle; a great state
+organization won the campaign. England and Scotland combined to lay
+low a resurgent Ireland; and again the victory was not to the brave
+and skilled, but to the longer purse and the implacable mind. Perhaps
+the most vivid testimony to these innate qualities of the Irishman is
+to be found in a typically Irish challenge issued in the course of
+this ten years' war from 1641 to 1651. The document has a lasting
+interest, for it displays not only the "better body" of the Irishman,
+but something of his better heart and chivalry of soul.
+
+One Parsons, an English settler in Ireland, had written to a friend
+to say, among other things, that the head of a colonel of an Irish
+regiment then in the field against the English would not be allowed
+to stick long on its shoulders. The letter was intercepted by the
+very regiment itself, and a captain in it, Felim O'Molloy, wrote back
+to Parsons:
+
+"I will doe this, if you please. I will pick out 60 men and fight
+against 100 of your choise men, if you do but pitch your campe one
+mile out of your towne, and then, if you have the victory, you may
+threaten my colonel; otherwise do not reckon your chickens before
+they be hatched."
+
+It was this same spirit of daring, this innate belief in his own
+manhood, that for three hundred years made every Irishman the
+custodian of his country's honor.
+
+An Irish state had not been born; that battle had still to be fought;
+but the romantic effort to achieve it reveals ever an unstained
+record of personal courage. Freedom has not come to Ireland; it has
+been "warred down and kept out of sight"; but it has been kept in the
+Irish heart, from Brian Boru to Robert Emmet, by a long tale of blood
+shed always in the same cause. Freedom is kept alive in man's blood
+only by the shedding of that blood. It was this they were seeking,
+those splendid "scorners of death", the lads and young men of Mayo,
+who awaited with a fearless joy the advance of the English army fresh
+from the defeat of Humbert in 1798. Then, if ever, Irishmen might
+have run from a victorious and pitiless enemy, who having captured
+the French general and murdered, in cold blood, the hundreds of
+Killala peasants who were with his colors, were now come to Killala
+itself to wreak vengeance on the last stronghold of Irish rebellion.
+
+The ill-led and half-armed peasants, the last Irishmen in Ireland to
+stand in open, pitched fight for their country's freedom, went to
+meet the army of General Lake, as the Protestant bishop who saw them
+says, "running upon death with as little appearance of reflection or
+concern as if they were hastening to a show."
+
+The influences that begot this reverence for freedom lie in the
+island itself no less than in the remote ancestry of the people.
+Whoever looks upon Ireland cannot conceive it as the parent of any
+but freemen. Climate and soil here unite to tell man that
+brotherhood, and not domination, constitutes the only nobility for
+those who call this fair shore their motherland. The Irish struggle
+for liberty owes as much, perhaps, to the continuing influence of the
+same lakes and rivers and the same mountains as to the survival of
+any political fragments of the past. Irish history is inseparably the
+history of the land, rather than of a race; and in this it offers us
+a spectacle of a continuing national unity that long-continuing
+disaster has not been able wholly to efface or wholly to disrupt.
+
+To discover the Europe that existed before Rome we must turn to the
+East, Greece, and to the West, Ireland.
+
+Ireland alone among western lands preserves the recorded tradition,
+the native history, the continuity of mind, and, until yesterday, of
+speech and song, that connect the half of Europe with its ancestral
+past. For early Europe was very largely Celtic Europe, and nowhere
+can we trace the continuous influence of Celtic culture and idealism,
+coming down to us from a remote past, save in Ireland only.
+
+To understand the intellect of pre-Roman Gaul, of Spain, of Portugal,
+and largely of Germany, and even of Italy, we must go to Ireland.
+Whoever visits Spain or Portugal, to investigate the past of those
+countries, will find that the record stops where Rome began. Take
+England in further illustration. The first record the inhabitants of
+England have of the past of their island comes from Roman invasion.
+They know of Boadicea, of Cassivelaunus, the earliest figures in
+their history, from what a foreign destroyer tells them in an alien
+tongue.
+
+All the early life of Celtiberians and Lusitanians has passed away
+from the record of human endeavor, save only where we find it
+recorded by the Italian invaders in their own speech, and in such
+terms as imperial exploitation ever prescribes for its own
+advancement and the belittlement of those it assails. Ireland alone
+among all western nations knows her own past, from the very dawn of
+history and before the romance of Romulus began, down to the present
+day, in the tongue of her own island people and in the light of her
+own native mind. Early Irish history is not the record of the
+clan-strivings of a petty and remote population, far from the centre
+of civilization. It is the authentic story of all western
+civilization before the warm solvent of Mediterranean blood and iron
+melted and moulded it into another and rigid shape.
+
+The Irishman called O'Neill, O'Brien, O'Donnell, steps out of a past
+well-nigh co-eval with the heroisms and tragedies that uplifted
+Greece and laid Troy in ashes, and swept the Mediterranean with an
+Odyssey of romance that still gives its name to each chief island,
+cape, and promontory of the mother sea of Europe. Ireland, too, steps
+out of a story just as old. Well nigh every hill or mountain, every
+lake or river, bears the name today it bore a thousand, two thousand,
+years ago, and one recording some dramatic human or semi-divine
+event.
+
+The songs of the Munster and Connacht poets of the eighteenth and
+nineteenth centuries gave to every cottage in the land the ownership
+as well as the tale of an heroic ancestry. They linked the Ireland of
+yesterday with the Ireland of Finn and Oscar, of Diarmid and Grainne,
+of Deirdre and the Sons of Usnech, of Cuchulainn the Hound of Ulster.
+A people bred on such soul-stirring tales as these, linked by a
+language "the most expressive of any spoken on earth" in thought and
+verse and song with the very dawn of their history, wherein there
+moved, as familiar figures, men with the attributes of gods--great in
+battle, grand in danger, strong in loving, vehement in death--such a
+people could never be vulgar, could never be mean, but must repeat,
+in their own time and in their own manhood, actions and efforts thus
+ascribed as a vital part of their very origin. Hence the inspiration
+that gave the name of Fenian, in the late nineteenth century, to a
+band of men who sought to achieve by arms the freedom of Ireland. The
+law of the Fenian of the days of Marcus Aurelius was the law of the
+Fenian in the reign of Victoria--to give all--mind, body, and
+strength of purpose--to the defense of his country, "to speak truth
+and harbor no greed in his heart."
+
+Some there are who may deny to Finn and his Fenians of the second and
+third centuries corporeal existence; yet nothing is surer than that
+Ireland claims these ancestral embodiments of an heroic tradition by
+a far surer title of native record than gives to the Germans
+Arminius, to the Gauls, Ariovistus, to the British, Caractacus. This
+conception of a national life, one with the land itself, was very
+clear to the ancient Irish, just as it has been and is the foundation
+of all later national effort.
+
+"If ever the idea of nationality becomes the subject of a thorough
+and honest study, it will be seen that among all the peoples of
+antiquity, not excluding the Hellenes and the Hebrews, the Irish held
+the clearest and most conscious and constant grasp of that idea; and
+that their political divisions, instead of disproving the existence
+of the idea, in their case intensely strengthen the proof of its
+existence and emphasize its power.
+
+In the same way the remarkable absence of insular exclusiveness,
+notwithstanding their geographical position, serves to bring their
+sense of nationality into higher relief.
+
+Though pride of race is evident in the dominant Gaelic stock, their
+national sentiment centres not in the race, but altogether in the
+country, which is constantly personified and made the object of a
+sort of cult.
+
+It is worth noting that just as the Brehon Laws are the laws of
+Ireland without distinction of province or district; as the language
+of Irish literature is the language of Ireland without distinction of
+dialects; as the Dindshenchus contains the topographical legends of
+all parts of Ireland, and the Festilogies commemorate the saints of
+all Ireland; so the Irish chronicles from first to last are histories
+of the Irish nation. The true view of the Book of Invasions is that
+it is the epic of Irish Nationality." (Professor Eoin MacNeill, in a
+letter to Mrs. A.S. Green, January, 1914.)
+
+The "Book of Invasions", which Professor MacNeill here speaks of, was
+compiled a thousand years ago. To write the history of later Ireland
+is merely to prolong the "Book of Invasions", and thus bring the epic
+of Irish resistance down to our own day. All Irish valor and
+chivalry, whether of soul or of body, have been directed for a
+thousand years to this same end. It was for this that Sarsfield died
+at Landen no less than Brian at Clontarf. The monarch of Ireland at
+the head of a great Irish army driving back the leagued invaders from
+the shores of Dublin Bay in 1014, and the exiled leader in 1693,
+heading the charge that routed King William's cause in the
+Netherlands, fell on one and the same battlefield. They fought
+against the invader of Ireland.
+
+We are proudly told that the sun never sets on the British Empire.
+Wherever an Irishman has fought in the name of Ireland it has not
+been to acquire fortune, land, or fame, but to give all, even life
+itself, not to found an empire, but to strike a blow for an ancient
+land and assert the cause of a swordless people. Wherever Irishmen
+have gone, in exile or in fight, they have carried this image of
+Ireland with them. The cause of Ireland has found a hundred fields of
+foreign fame, where the dying Irishman might murmur with Sarsfield,
+"Would that this blood were shed for Ireland", and history records
+the sacrifice as made in no other cause.
+
+Ireland, too, owns an empire on which the sun never sets.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Sigerson: Bards of the Gael and Gall; O'Callaghan: History of the
+Irish Brigades; Mitchel: Life of Hugh O'Neill; Green: The Making of
+Ireland and its Undoing, Irish Nationality, The Old Irish World;
+Taylor: Life of Owen Roe O'Neill; Todhunter: Life of Patrick
+Sarsfield; Hyde: Love Songs of Connacht, Religious Songs of Connacht;
+O'Grady: Bog of Stars, Flight of the Eagle; Ferguson: Hibernian
+Nights' Entertainment; Mitchel: History of Ireland, in continuation
+of MacGeoghegan's History.
+
+
+
+THE ISLAND OF SAINTS AND SCHOLARS
+
+By CANON D'ALTON, M.R.I.A., LL.D.
+
+
+Unlike the natives of Britain and Scotland, the Irish in
+pre-Christian times were not brought into contact with Roman
+institutions or Roman culture. In consequence they created and
+developed a civilization of their own that was in some respects
+without equal. They were far advanced in the knowledge of metal-work
+and shipbuilding; they engaged in commerce; they loved music and had
+an acquaintance with letters; and when disputes arose among them,
+these were settled in duly constituted courts of justice, presided
+over by a trained lawyer, called a brehon, instead of being settled
+by the stern arbitrament of force. Druidism was their pagan creed.
+They believed in the immortality and in the transmigration of souls;
+they worshipped the sun and moon, and they venerated mountains,
+rivers, and wells; and it would be difficult to find any ministers of
+religion who were held in greater awe than the Druids.
+
+Commerce and war brought the Irish into contact with Britain and the
+continent, and thus was Christianity gradually introduced into the
+island. Though its progress at first was not rapid, there were, by
+431, several Christian churches in existence, and in that year
+Palladius, a Briton and a bishop, was sent by Pope Celestine to the
+Irish who already believed in Christ. Discouraged and a failure,
+Palladius returned to Britain after a brief stay on his mission, and
+then, in 432, the same Pope sent St. Patrick, who became the Apostle
+of Ireland.
+
+Because of the great work he did, St. Patrick is one of the prominent
+figures of history; and yet, to such an extent has the dust of time
+settled down on his life and acts that the place and year of his
+birth, the schools in which he was educated, and the year of his
+death, are all matters of dispute. There is, however, no good reason
+to depart from the traditional account, which is, that the Apostle
+was born at Dumbarton in Scotland, in the year 372; that in 388 he
+was captured by the Irish king Niall, who had gone on a plundering
+raid into Scotland; that he was brought to Ireland and sold as a
+slave, and that as such he served a pagan chief named Milcho who
+lived in what is now the county of Antrim; that from Antrim he
+escaped and went back to his own country; that he had many visions
+urging him to return to Ireland and preach the Gospel there; that,
+believing these were from God, he went to France, and there was
+educated and ordained priest, and later consecrated bishop; and then,
+accompanied by several ecclesiastics, he was sent to Ireland.
+
+From Wicklow, where he landed, he proceeded north and endeavored, but
+in vain, to convert his old pagan master Milcho; thence he proceeded
+south by Downpatrick and Dundalk to Slane in Meath, where, in sight
+of Tara, the high-king's seat, he lighted the paschal fire. At Tara
+he confounded the Druids in argument, baptized the high-king and the
+chief poet; and then, turning north and west, he crossed the Shannon
+into Connacht, where he spent seven years. From Connacht he passed
+into Donegal, and thence through Tyrone and Antrim, after which he
+entered Munster, and remained there seven years. Finally, he returned
+to Armagh, which he made his episcopal see, and died at Saul, near
+Downpatrick, in 493.
+
+St. Patrick wrote two short works, both of which have survived, his
+_Confession_ and his _Epistle to Coroticus_. In neither are there any
+graces of style, and the Latin is certainly not that of Cicero or
+Livy. But in the _Confession_ the character of the author himself is
+completely revealed--his piety, his zeal, his self-sacrifice, his
+courage in face of every danger and every trial. Not less remarkable
+was the skill with which he handled men and used pagan institutions
+for the purposes of Christianity; and equally so was the success with
+which his bloodless apostolate was crowned.
+
+One great difficulty which St. Patrick had was to provide the people
+with a native ministry. At first he selected the chief men--princes,
+brehons, bards--and these, with little training and little education,
+he ordained. Thus, slenderly equipped with knowledge, the priest,
+with his ritual, missal, and a catechism, and the bishop, with his
+crozier and bell, went forth to do battle for the Lord. This
+condition of things was soon ended. In 450 a college was founded at
+Armagh, which in a short time grew to be a famous school, and
+attracted students from afar. Other schools were founded in the fifth
+century, at Noendrum, Louth, and Kildare. In the sixth century arose
+the famous monastic schools of Clonfert, Clonard, Clonmacnois, Arran,
+and Bangor; while the seventh century saw the rise of Glendalough and
+Lismore.
+
+St. Patrick was educated in Gaul, at the monasteries of Marmoutier
+and Lerins; and, perhaps as a result, the monastic character of the
+early Irish church was one of its outstanding features; moreover it
+was to the prevalence of the monastic spirit, the desire for solitude
+and meditation, that so many of the great monastic establishments
+owed their existence. Fleeing from society and its attractions, and
+wishing only for solitude and austerity, some holy man sought out a
+lonely retreat, and there lived a life of mortification and prayer.
+Others came to share his poverty and vigils; a grant of land was then
+obtained from the ruling chief, the holy man became abbot and his
+followers his monks; and a religious community was formed destined
+soon to acquire fame. It was thus that St. Finnian established
+Clonard on the banks of the Boyne, and St. Kieran, Clonmacnois by the
+waters of the Shannon; and thus did St. Enda make the wind-swept
+Isles of Arran the home and the resting place of so many saints.
+Before the close of the sixth century, 3,000 monks followed the rule
+of St. Corngall at Bangor; and in the seventh century, St. Carthage
+made Lismore famous and St. Kevin attracted pious men from afar to
+his lonely retreat in the picturesque valley of Glendalough.
+
+And there were holy women as well as holy men in Ireland. St. Brigid
+was held in such honor that she is often called the Mary of the Gael.
+Even in St. Patrick's day, she had founded a convent at Kildare,
+beside which was a monastery of which St. Conleth was superior; and
+she founded many other convents in addition to that at Kildare. Her
+example was followed by St. Ita, St. Fanchea, and many others; and if
+at the close of the sixth century there were few districts which had
+not monasteries and monks, there were few also which had not convents
+and nuns.
+
+Nor was this all. Fired with missionary zeal, many men left Ireland
+to plant the faith in distant lands. Thus did St. Columcille settle
+in Iona, whence he converted the Picts. Under his successors, St.
+Aidan and his friends went south to Lindisfarne to convert
+Northumbria in England; and the ninth abbot of Iona was the saintly
+Adamnan, whose biography of St. Columcille has been declared by
+competent authority to be the best of its kind of which the whole
+Middle Ages can boast. Nor must it be forgotten that the monasteries
+of Luxeuil and Bobbio owed their origin to St. Columbanus; that St.
+Gall gave his name to a town and canton in Switzerland; that St.
+Fridolin labored on the Rhine and St. Fursey on the Marne; and that
+St. Cathaldus was Bishop of Tarentum, and is still venerated as the
+patron of that Italian see.
+
+And if we would know what was the character of the schools in which
+these men were trained, we have only to remember that Colgu, who had
+been educated at Clonmacnois, was the master of Alcuin; that Dicuil
+the Geographer came from the same school; that Cummian, Abbot and
+Bishop of Clonfert, combated the errors about the paschal computation
+with an extent of learning and a wealth of knowledge amazing in a
+monk of the seventh century; and that at the close of the eighth
+century two Irishmen went to the court of Charlemagne and were
+described by a monk of St. Gall as "men incomparably skilled in human
+learning". The once pagan Ireland had by that time become a citadel
+of Christianity, and was rightfully called the School of the West,
+the Island of Saints and Scholars.
+
+With this state of progress and prosperity the Danes played sad
+havoc. Animated with the fiercest pagan fanaticism, they turned with
+fury against Christianity, and especially against monks and religious
+foundations. Armagh, Clonmacnois, Bangor, Kildare, and many other
+great monastic establishments thus fell before their fury. Ignorance,
+neglect of religion, and corruption of manners followed, and from the
+eighth to the twelfth century there was a noted falling off in the
+number of Irish scholars. At home indeed were Cormac and Maelmurra,
+O'Hartigan and O'Flynn, and abroad was John Scotus Erigena, whose
+learning was so great that it excited astonishment even at Rome. The
+love of learning and zeal for religion lived on through this long
+period of accumulated disasters. After the triumph of Brian Boru at
+Clontarf, there was a distinct revival of piety and learning; and,
+when a century of turmoil followed Brian's fall and religion again
+suffered, nothing was wanted to bring the people back to a sense of
+their duty but the energy and reforming zeal of St. Malachy.
+
+Gerald Barry, the notorious Anglo-Norman, who visited Ireland towards
+the close of the twelfth century, has been convicted out of his own
+mouth when he states that Ireland was a barbarous nation when his
+people came there. He forgot that a people who could illuminate the
+Book of Kells and build Cormac's Chapel could not be called savages,
+nor could a church be lost to a sense of decency and dignity that
+numbered among its children such a man as St. Laurence O'Toole.
+Abuses there were, it is true, consequent on long continued war,
+though these abuses were increased rather than lessened by the coming
+of the Anglo-Normans, and to such an extent that for more than two
+centuries there is not a single great name among Irish scholars
+except Duns Scotus.
+
+The fame of Duns Scotus was European, and the Subtle Doctor, as he
+was called, became the great glory of the Franciscan, as his rival
+St. Thomas was the great glory of the Dominican, order. But he left
+no successor, and from his death, at the opening of the fourteenth
+century, till the seventeenth century the number of Irish scholars or
+recognized Irish saints was small. Yet, in the midst of disorders
+within, and despite oppression from without, at no time did the love
+of learning disappear in Ireland; nor was there ever in the Irish
+church either heresy or schism.
+
+The attempted reformation by Henry VIII and his daughter Elizabeth
+produced martyrs like O'Hurley and O'Hely; and there were many more
+martyrs in the time of the Stuarts, and especially under the short
+but sanguinary rule of Cromwell.
+
+Those were the days of the penal laws, when they who clung to the old
+religion suffered much. But nothing could shake their faith; neither
+the proclamations of Elizabeth and James, the massacres of Cromwell,
+nor the ferocious proscriptions of the eighteenth century. The priest
+said Mass, though his crime was punishable by death, and the people
+heard Mass, though theirs also was a criminal offence; and the
+schoolmaster, driven from the school, taught under a sheltering
+hedge. The clerical student, denied education at home, crossed the
+sea, to be educated at Louvain or Salamanca or Seville, and then,
+perhaps loaded with academic honors, he returned home to face poverty
+and persecution and even death. The Catholic masses, socially
+ostracised, degraded, and impoverished, shut out from every avenue to
+ambition or enterprise, deprived of every civil right, knowing
+nothing of law except when it oppressed them and nothing of
+government except when it struck them down, yet clung to the religion
+in which they were born. And when, in the latter half of the
+eighteenth century, the tide turned and the first dawn of toleration
+appeared on the horizon, it was found that the vast majority of the
+people were unchanged, and that, after two centuries of the most
+relentless persecution since the days of Diocletian, Ireland was, in
+faith and practice, a strongly Catholic nation still.
+
+On a soil constantly wet with the blood and tears of its children, it
+would be vain to expect that scholarship could flourish. And yet the
+period had its distinguished Irish scholars both at home and abroad.
+At Louvain, in the sixteenth century, were Lombard and Creagh, who
+both became Archbishops of Armagh, and O'Hurley who became Archbishop
+of Cashel. An even greater scholar than these was Luke Wadding, the
+eminent Franciscan who founded the convent of St. Isidore at Rome. At
+Louvain was John Colgan, a Franciscan like Wadding, a man who did
+much for Irish ecclesiastical history. And at home in Ireland, as
+parish priest of Tybrid in Tipperary, was the celebrated Dr. Geoffrey
+Keating the historian, once a student at Salamanca. John Lynch, the
+renowned opponent of Gerald Barry the Welshman, was Archdeacon of
+Tuam. And in the ruined Franciscan monastery of Donegal, the Four
+Masters, aided and encouraged by the Friars, labored long and
+patiently, and finally completed the work which we all know as the
+_Annals of the Four Masters_. This work, originally written in Irish,
+remained in manuscript in Louvain till the middle of the nineteenth
+century, when it was edited and translated into English by John
+O'Donovan, one of Ireland's greatest Irish scholars, with an ability
+and completeness quite worthy of the original.
+
+On the Anglo-Irish side there were also some great names, and
+especially in the domain of history, notably Stanyhurst and Hammer,
+Moryson and Campion and Davies, and, above all, Ussher and Ware.
+James Ware died in 1666, and though a Protestant and an official of
+the Protestant government, and living in Ireland in an intolerant age
+and in an atmosphere charged with religious rancor, he was, to his
+credit be it said, to a large extent free from bigotry. He dealt with
+history and antiquities, and wrote in no party spirit, wishing only
+to be fair and impartial, and to set out the truth as he found it.
+James Ussher, Archbishop of Armagh, was a much abler man and a much
+greater scholar than Ware. His capacity for research, his profound
+scholarship, the variety and extent of his learning raised him far
+above his co-religionists, and he has been rightly called the Great
+Luminary by the Irish Protestant church. It is regrettable that his
+fine intellect was darkened by bigotry and intolerance.
+
+Far different was the character of another Protestant bishop, the
+great Berkeley, of Cloyne, a patriot, a philosopher, and a scholar,
+who afterwards left money and books for a scholarship, which is still
+in existence, at the then infant Yale College in New England. He
+lived in the first half of the eighteenth century, when the whole
+machinery of government was ruthlessly used to crush the Catholics.
+But Berkeley had little sympathy with the penal laws; he had words of
+kindness for the Catholics, and undoubtedly wished them well. Nor
+must Swift be forgotten, for though he took little pride in being an
+Irishman, he hated and despised those who oppressed Ireland, and is
+rightly regarded as one of the greatest of her sons.
+
+The short period during which Grattan's parliament existed was one of
+great prosperity. It was then that Maynooth College was established
+for the education of the Irish priesthood. But Catholics, though free
+to set up schools, were still shut out from the honors and emoluments
+of Trinity College, the one university at that time in Ireland.
+Still, Charles O'Connor, MacGeoghegan, and O'Flaherty were great
+Catholic scholars in the latter part of the eighteenth century.
+
+In the following century, while Protestant ascendancy was still
+maintained, the Catholics had greater scope. Away back in the days of
+Queen Elizabeth, Campion found Latin widely spoken among the
+peasantry, and Father Mooney met country lads familiar with Virgil
+and Homer. In 1670, Petty had a similar story to tell, in spite of
+all the savageries of Cromwell and the ruin which necessarily
+followed. And in the eighteenth century the schoolmaster, though a
+price was set on his head, was still active. With an inherited love
+of learning, the Irish in the nineteenth century would have made
+rapid progress had they been rich. But their impoverishment by the
+penal laws made it impossible for them to set up an effective system
+of primary education, and until the national school system came into
+existence in 1831, they had to rely on the hedge-schools. Secondary
+education fared better, for the bishops, relying with confidence on
+the generosity of their flocks, were soon able to establish diocesan
+colleges. And in higher education, equally determined efforts were
+made by the establishment of the Catholic University under Cardinal
+Newman. But in this field of intellectual effort, in spite of the
+energy and zeal of the bishops, in spite of the great generosity of
+the people, so many of whom were poor, and in spite of the fame of
+Newman, it is failure rather than success which the historian has to
+record.
+
+Nor has the love of the Irish for religion, any more than their love
+of learning, been lessened or enfeebled by time. The mountain side as
+the place for Mass in the penal days gradually gave way to the rude
+stone church without steeple or bell; and when steeple and bell
+ceased to be proscribed, and the people were left free to erect
+suitable houses of sacrifice and prayer, the fine churches of the
+nineteenth century began gradually to appear. The unfettered exercise
+of freedom of religious worship, the untiring efforts of a zealous
+clergy and episcopate, the unstinted support of a people, who out of
+their poverty grudged nothing to God or to God's house, formed an
+irresistible combination, and all over the country beautiful churches
+are now to be found.
+
+In every diocese in Ireland, with scarcely an exception, there is now
+a stately cathedral to perpetuate the renown of the patron saint of
+that diocese, and even parish churches have been built not unworthy
+to be the churches of an ancient see. At Armagh, a cathedral has been
+built which does honor to Irish architecture, and worthily
+commemorates the life and labors of St. Patrick, the founder of the
+primatial see; at Thurles, a cathedral stands, the chief church of
+the southern province, statelier far than any which ever stood on the
+Rock of Cashel; at Tuam, a noble building, associated with the memory
+of John MacHale, the Lion of the Fold of Judah, perpetuates the name
+of St. Jarlath; at Queenstown, the traveller, going to America or
+returning from it to the old land, has his attention attracted to the
+splendid cathedral pile sacred to St. Colman, the patron saint of the
+diocese of Cloyne; and if we would see how splendid even a parish
+church may be, let us visit the beautiful church in Drogheda,
+dedicated to the memory of Oliver Plunkett.
+
+Nor are these things the only evidence we have that zeal for religion
+among the Irish has survived centuries of persecution. Columbanus and
+Columcille have still their successors, eager and ready as they were
+to bring the blessings of the Gospel to distant lands. In recent
+years an Irish-born Archbishop of Sydney has been succeeded by an
+Irish-born Archbishop; an Irishman rules the metropolitan see of
+Adelaide; and an Irish-born Archbishop of Melbourne has as his
+coadjutor a former president of the College of Maynooth. In South
+Africa, the work of preaching and teaching and ruling the church is
+largely the work of Irish-born men. In the great Republic of the West
+the three cardinal-archbishops at the head of the Catholic Church
+have the distinctively Irish names of Gibbons and Farley and
+O'Connell; and in every diocese throughout the United States the
+proportion of priests of Irish birth or descent is large.
+
+Nor must the poorer Irish be forgotten. How much does the Catholic
+Church, both in Ireland and in America, owe to the generosity of
+Irish-American laborers and servant girls! Out of their scanty and
+hard-earned pay they have contributed much not only towards the
+building of the plain wooden church in the rural parishes, but also
+of the stately cathedrals of American cities. And many a church in
+old Ireland owes its completion and its adornment to the dollars
+given by the poor but generous Irish exiles.
+
+And if the zeal of the Irish for religion has thus survived to the
+twentieth century, so also in an equally remarkable degree has their
+zeal for learning. We have evidence of this in the numerous primary
+schools in every parish, filled with eager pupils and presided over
+by hard working teachers; in the colleges where the sciences and the
+classics are studied with the same energy as in the ancient monastic
+schools; and in Maynooth College, which is the foremost
+ecclesiastical college in the world. And if there are now new
+universities, the National and the Queen's, sturdy and vigorous in
+their youth, this does not imply that Trinity College suffers from
+the decreptitude of age. For among those whom she sent forth in
+recent times are Dowden and Mahaffy and Lecky, to name but three, and
+these would do credit to any university in Europe.
+
+It would be difficult to find in any age of Irish history a greater
+pulpit orator than the famous Dominican, Father Tom Burke, or a more
+delightful essayist than Father Joseph Farrell; and who has depicted
+Irish clerical life more faithfully than the late Canon Sheehan,
+whose fame as a novelist has crossed continents and oceans? O'Connell
+was a great orator as well as a great political leader, and Dr. Doyle
+and Archbishop John MacHale were scholars as well as statesmen and
+bishops. We have thus an unbroken chain of great names, a series of
+Irishmen whom the succeeding ages have brought forth to enlighten and
+instruct lesser men; and Ireland, in the twentieth century, is not
+less attached to religion and learning than she was when Clonmacnois
+flourished and the saintly Carthage ruled at Lismore.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Joyce: Social History of Ancient Ireland (Dublin, 1903); Lanigan:
+Ecclesiastical History of Ireland (Dublin, 1822); Healy: Ireland's
+Ancient Schools and Scholars (Dublin, 1896), Life and Writings of St.
+Patrick (Dublin, 1905); Bury: St. Patrick and his Place in History
+(London, 1905); Ussher's Works (Dublin, 1847); Reeves: Adamnan's Life
+of St. Columba (Dublin, 1851); Worsae: The Danes in Ireland (London,
+1852); Moran: Essays on the Early Irish Church (Dublin, 1864);
+Stokes: Ireland and the Anglo-Norman Church (London, 1897); Mant:
+History of the Church of Ireland (London, 1841); Bagwell: Ireland
+under the Tudors (London, 1885-90); Moran: Persecutions under the
+Puritans (Callan, 1903); Murphy: Our Martyrs (Dublin, 1896); Meehan:
+Franciscan Monasteries of the Seventeenth Century (Dublin, 1870);
+Lecky: History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century (London, 1902);
+O'Connell's Correspondence (London, 1888); Wyse: History of the
+Catholic Association (London, 1829); Doyle: Letters on the State of
+Ireland (Dublin, 1826); O'Rorke: Irish Famine (Dublin, 1902); Gavan
+Duffy: Young Ireland (London, 1880); Plunkett: Ireland in the New
+Century (London, 1904); O'Riordan: Catholicity and Progress in
+Ireland (London, 1905); MacCaffery: History of the Church in the
+Nineteenth Century (Dublin, 1909); Healy: Centenary History of
+Maynooth College (Dublin, 1905); D'Alton: History of Ireland (London,
+1910).
+
+
+
+IRISH MONKS IN EUROPE
+
+By Rev. Columba Edmonds, O.S.B.
+
+
+St. Patrick's work in Ireland was chiefly concerned with preaching
+the faith and establishing monasteries which served as centres of
+education. The great success that attended these efforts earned for
+Ireland the double title of Island of Saints and a Second Thebaid.
+
+The monastic institutions organized by St. Patrick were characterized
+from their commencement by an apostolic zeal that knew no bounds.
+Sufficient scope was not to be found at home, so it was impatient to
+diffuse itself abroad.
+
+SCOTLAND: Hence in the year 563 St. Columcille, a Donegal native of
+royal descent, accompanied by twelve companions, crossed the sea in
+currachs of wickerwork and hides, and sought to land in Caledonia.
+They reached the desolate Isle of Iona on the day preceding
+Whitsunday.
+
+Many years before, colonies of Irishmen had settled along the western
+parts of the present Scotland. The settlement north of the Clyde
+received the name of the Kingdom of Dalriada. These Dalriadan Irish
+were Christian at least in name, but their neighbors in the Pictish
+Highlands were still pagans. Columcille's apostolate was to be among
+both these peoples. Adamnan says that Columcille came to Caledonia
+"for the love of Christ's name", and well did his after-life prove
+the truth of this statement. He had attained his forty-fourth year
+when King Conall, his kinsman, bestowed Iona upon him and his
+brethren. The island, situated between the Dalriadans and the Picts
+of the Highlands, was conveniently placed for missionary work. A
+numerous community recruited from Ireland, with Columcille as its
+Abbot, soon caused Iona to become a flourishing centre from which men
+could go forth to preach Christianity. Monasteries and hermitages
+rapidly sprang up in the adjacent islands and on the mainland. These,
+together with the Columban foundations in Ireland, formed one great
+religious federation, in which the Celtic apostles of the northern
+races were formed under the influence of the holy founder.
+
+St. Columcille recognized the need of securing permanence for his
+work by obtaining the conversion of the Pictish rulers, and thus he
+did not hesitate to approach King Brude in his castle on the banks of
+the River Ness. St. Comgall and St. Canice were Columcille's
+companions on his journey through the great glen, now famous for the
+Caledonian Canal. The royal convert Brude was baptized, and by
+degrees the people followed the example set them. Opposition,
+however, was keen and aggressive, and it came from the official
+representatives of Pictish paganism--the Druids.
+
+Success, too, attended Columcille's ministrations among the
+Dalriadans, and on the death of their king, Aidan Gabhran, who
+succeeded to the throne, sought regal consecration from the hands of
+Columcille. In 597 the saint died, but not before he had won a whole
+kingdom to Christ and covered the land with churches and monasteries.
+Today his name is held in honor not by Irishmen alone, but by the
+Catholics and non-Catholics of the land of his adoption.
+
+There are other saints who either labored in person with Columcille
+or perpetuated the work he accomplished in Caledonia; and their names
+add to the glory of Ireland, their birth-land. Thus St. Moluag (592)
+converted the people of Lismore, and afterwards died at Rosemarkie;
+St. Drostan, St. Columcille's friend and disciple, established the
+faith in Aberdeenshire and became abbot of Deer; St. Kieran (548)
+evangelized Kintyre; St. Mun (635) labored in Argyleshire; St. Buite
+(521) did the same in Pictland; St. Maelrubha (722) preached in
+Ross-shire; St. Modan and St. Machar benefited the dwellers on the
+western and eastern coasts respectively; and St. Fergus in the eighth
+century became apostle of Forfar, Buchan, and Caithness.
+
+DISTANT ISLANDS: But Irish monks were mariners as well as apostles.
+Their hide-covered currachs were often launched in the hope of
+discovering solitudes in the ocean. Adamnan records that Baitan set
+out with others in search of a desert in the sea. St. Cormac sought a
+similar retreat and arrived at the Orkneys. St. Molaise's holy isle
+guards Lamlash Bay, off Arran. The island retreats of the Bass,
+Inchkeith, May, and Inchcolm, in the Firth of Forth, are associated
+with the Irish saints Baldred, Adamnan, Adrian, and Columcille. St.
+Maccaldus, a native of Down, became bishop of the Isle of Man.
+
+Remarkable, too, is the fact that Irish monks sailed by way of the
+Faroe Islands to distant Iceland. These sailor-clerics, who settled
+on the southeast of the island, were spoken of by later Norwegians as
+"papar." After their departure--they were probably driven away by
+Norwegian pagans--these Icelandic apostles "left behind them Irish
+books, bells, and croziers, wherefrom one could understand they were
+Irishmen."
+
+But St. Brendan, the voyager, is the most wonderful of the mariner
+monks of Ireland. He accomplished apostolic work in both Wales and
+Scotland, but his seafaring instincts urged him to make missionary
+voyages to regions hitherto unknown. Some writers, not without
+reason, have actually maintained that he and his followers traveled
+as far as the American shore. Be this as it may, the tradition of the
+discoveries of this Irish monk kept in mind the possibly existing
+western land, and issued at last in the discovery of the great
+continent of America by Columbus.
+
+NORTHUMBRIA: Turn now to Northumbria. Adamnan writes that St.
+Columcille's name was honored not only in Gaul, Spain, and Italy, but
+in Rome itself. England, however, owes to it a special veneration,
+because of the widespread apostolic work accomplished within her
+borders by Columcille's Irish disciples. The facts are as follows:
+Northumbrian Christianity was well-nigh exterminated through the
+victory of Penda the pagan over Edwin the Christian, A.D. 633. St.
+Paulinus, its local Roman apostle, was driven permanently from his
+newly founded churches. Meanwhile Oswald and his brother Edwith
+sought refuge among the Irish monks of lona, and received baptism at
+their hands. Edwith died and Oswald became heir to the throne. A
+battle was fought. The day before he met the pagan army, between the
+Tyne and the Solway, Oswald beheld St. Columcille in vision saying to
+him: "Be strong and of good faith; I will be with thee." The result
+of this vision of the abbot of Iona was that a considerable part of
+England received the true faith. Oswald was victorious; he united the
+kingdoms of Deira and Bernicia, and became overlord of practically
+all England, with the exception of Kent. There was evangelization to
+be done, and St. Oswald turned to Iona. In response to his appeal,
+the Irish bishop, St. Aidan, was sent with several companions. They
+were established on the island of Lindisfarne, in sight of the royal
+residence at Bamborough. These monks labored in union with, and even
+seemed to exceed in zeal, the Roman missionaries in the south under
+St. Augustine. However great the enthusiasm they had displayed for
+conversions in Iona, they displayed still greater on the desolate
+isle of Lindisfarne. In the first instance St. Aidan and his monks
+evangelized Northumbria. Want of facility in preaching in the
+Anglo-Saxon tongue was at first an obstacle, but it was speedily
+overcome, for king Oswald himself, who knew both Gaelic and English,
+came forward and acted as interpreter.
+
+When St. Aidan died in 651, Iona sent St. Finan, another Irish
+bishop, to succeed him. Finan spread the faith beyond the borders of
+Northumbria and succeeded so well that he himself baptized Penda,
+king of the Mid-Angles, and Sigebert, king of the East Saxons. Diuma
+and Cellach, Irish monks, assisted by three Anglo-Saxon disciples of
+St. Aidan, consolidated the mission to the Mercians.
+
+ANGLIA: While Christianity was thus being restored in Northumbria,
+other Irish apostles were teaching it in East Anglia. St. Fursey,
+accompanied by his brother St. Foillan and St. Ultan and the priests
+Gobham and Dicuil, landed in England in 633, and began to labor in
+the eastern portions of Anglia. In his monastery at Burghcastle, in
+Suffolk, the convert king Sigebert made his monastic profession, and
+in the same house many heavenly visions were vouchsafed to its
+founder.
+
+The South Saxons had in Dicuil an apostle who founded the monastery
+of Bosham in Sussex, whence originated the episcopal see of
+Chichester. Another Irish monk named Maeldubh settled among the West
+Saxons and became the founder of Malmesbury Abbey and the instructor
+of the well-known St. Aldhelm.
+
+Thus did Irish monks contribute to the conversion of Great Britain
+and its many distant islands. They built up the faith by their holy
+lives, their preaching, and their enthusiasm, and wisely provided for
+its perpetuation by educating a native clergy and by the founding of
+monastic institutions.
+
+They were not yet satisfied, so they turned towards other lands to
+bring to other peoples the glad tidings of salvation.
+
+GAUL: In 590 St. Columbanus, a monk of Bangor in Ireland, accompanied
+by twelve brethren, arrived in France, having passed through Britain.
+After the example of St. Columcille in Caledonia, they traveled to
+the court of Gontram, king of Burgundy, in order to secure his help
+and protection. During the course of the journey they preached to the
+people, and all were impressed with their modesty, patience, and
+devotion. At that epoch Gaul was sadly in need of such missionaries,
+for, owing partly to the invasion of barbarians and partly to
+remissness on the part of the clergy, vice and impiety everywhere
+prevailed. Columbanus, because of his zeal, sanctity, and learning,
+was well fitted for the task that lay before him. One of his early
+works in Burgundy was the founding of the monastery of Luxeuil, which
+became the parent of many other monasteries founded either by himself
+or by his disciples. Many holy men came from Ireland to join the
+community, and so numerous did the monks of Luxeuil become that
+separate choirs were formed to keep up perpetual praise--the "laus
+perennis". But Columbanus did not remain at Luxeuil. In his strict
+uncompromising preaching he spared not even kings, and he preferred
+to leave his flourishing monastery rather than pass over in silence
+the vices of the Merovingians. He escaped from the malice of
+Brunehaut, and, being banished from Burgundy, made his way to
+Neustria, and thence to Metz. Full of zeal, he resolved to preach the
+faith to the pagans along the Rhine, and with this purpose set out
+with a few of his followers. They proceeded as far as the Lake of
+Zurich, and finally established themselves at Bregentz, on the Lake
+of Constance.
+
+By this time his disciple St. Gall had learned the Alemannian
+dialect, which enabled him to push forward the work of
+evangelization. But Columbanus felt that he was called to labor in
+other lands while vigor remained to him, so, bidding his favorite
+follower farewell, he crossed the Alps and arrived at Milan in
+northern Italy. King Agilulph and his queen, Theodelinda, gave the
+Irish abbot a reverent and kind welcome. His zeal was still unspent,
+and he worked much for the conversion of the Lombard Arians. Here he
+founded, between Milan and Genoa, the monastery of Bobbio, which as a
+centre of knowledge and piety was long the light of northern Italy.
+In this monastery he died in the year 615, but not before the arrival
+of messengers from King Clothaire, inviting him to return to Luxeuil,
+as his enemies were now no more. But he could not go; all he asked
+was protection for his dear monks at Luxeuil.
+
+It has been said most truly that Ireland never sent a greater son to
+do God's work in foreign lands than Columbanus. The fruit of his
+labors remained; and for centuries after his death his influence was
+widely felt throughout Europe, especially in France and Italy. His
+zeal for the interests of God was unbounded, and this was the secret
+of his immense power. Some of his writings have come down to us, and
+comprise his Rule for Monks, his Penitential, sixteen short sermons,
+six letters, and several poems, all in Latin. His letters are of much
+value as evidence of Ireland's ancient belief in papal supremacy.
+
+SWITZERLAND: Gall, Columbanus's disciple, remained in Switzerland. In
+a fertile valley, lying between two rivers and surrounded by hills,
+he laid the beginnings of the great abbey which afterwards bore his
+name and became one of the most famous monasteries in Christendom.
+St. Gall spent thirty years of his life in Helvetia, occupying
+himself in teaching, preaching, and prayer. He succeeded where others
+had failed, and that which was denied to Columbanus was reserved for
+Gall, his disciple, and the latter is entitled the Apostle of
+Alemannia.
+
+Other districts had their Irish missionaries and apostles. Not far
+from St. Gall, at Seckingen, near Basle, St. Fridolin was a pioneer
+in the work of evangelization.
+
+Towards the close of the seventh century St. Kilian, an Irishman,
+with his companions, Totnan and Colman, arrived in Franconia. He was
+martyred in Würtzburg, where he is honored as patron and apostle.
+
+Sigisbert, another Irish follower of St. Columbanus, spread the faith
+among the half-pagan people of eastern Helvetia, and founded the
+monastery of Dissentis in Rhaetia.
+
+St. Ursanne, a little town on the boundaries of Switzerland, took its
+origin from another disciple of St. Columbanus.
+
+OTHER APOSTLES AND FOUNDERS: Desire for solitary life drew St. Fiacre
+to a hermitage near Meaux, where he transformed wooded glades into
+gardens to provide vegetables for poor people. This charity has
+earned for Fiacre the title of patron saint of gardeners.
+
+St. Fursey, the illustrious apostle of East Anglia, crossed over to
+France, where he travelled and preached continuously. He built a
+monastery at Lagny-sur-Marne, and was about to return to East Anglia
+when he died at Mézerolles, near Doullens. St. Gobham followed his
+master's example, and like him evangelized and founded monasteries.
+St. Etto (Zé) acted in like manner. St. Foillan and St. Ultan,
+brothers of St. Fursey, became apostles in southern Brabant.
+
+The monastery of Honau, on an island near Strasburg, and that of
+Altomünster, in Bavaria, owe their foundation to the Irish monks
+Tuban and Alto, respectively.
+
+Not far from Luxeuil was the Abbey of Lure, another great Irish
+foundation, due to Deicolus (Desle, Dichuill), a brother of St. Gall
+and a disciple of St. Columbanus. So important was this house
+considered in later times that its abbot was numbered among the
+princes of the Holy Roman Empire.
+
+Rouen, in Normandy, felt the influence of the Irish monks through the
+instrumentality of St. Ouen; and the monasteries of Jouarre, Rebais,
+Jumièges, Leuconaus, and St. Vandrille were due at least indirectly
+to Columbanus or his disciples.
+
+Turning to Belgium, it is recorded that St. Romold preached the faith
+in Mechlin, and St. Livinus in Ghent. Both came from Ireland.
+
+St. Virgilius, a voluntary exile from Erin, "for the love of Christ",
+established his monastery at Salzburg, in Austria. He became bishop
+there, and died in 781.
+
+Moreover, the Celtic Rule of Columbanus was carried into Picardy by
+St. Valery, St. Omer, St. Bertin, St. Mummolin, and St. Valdelenus;
+but the Irish Caidoc and Fricor had already preceded them, their work
+resulting in the foundation of the Abbey of St. Riquier.
+
+ITALY: Something yet remains to be said of the monks of Ireland in
+Italy. Anterior to St. Columbanus's migration, his fellow countryman,
+St. Frigidian (or Fridian), had taken up his abode in Italy at Monte
+Pisana, not far from the city of Lucca, where he became famed for
+sanctity and wisdom. On the death of the bishop of Lucca, Frigidian
+was compelled to occupy the vacant see. St. Gregory the Great wrote
+of him that "he was a man of rare virtue". His teachings and holy
+life not only influenced the lives of his own flock, but brought to
+the faith many heretics and pagans. In Lucca this Celtic apostle is
+still honored under the name of St. Frediano.
+
+St. Pellegrinus is another Irish saint who sought solitude at
+Garfanana in the Apennines; and Cathaldus, a Waterford saint, in 680,
+became Bishop of Taranto, which he governed for many years with zeal
+and great wisdom. His co-worker was Donatus, his brother, who founded
+the church at Lecce in the Kingdom of Naples.
+
+Of the two learned Irishmen, Clemens and Albinus, who resided in
+France in the eighth century, Albinus was sent into Italy, where at
+Pavia he was placed at the head of the school attached to St.
+Augustine's monastery. Dungal, his compatriot, was a famous teacher
+in the same city. Lothair thus ordained concerning him: "We desire
+that at Pavia, and under the superintendence of Dungal, all students
+should assemble from Milan, Brescia, Lodi, Bergamo, Novara, Vercelli,
+Tortona, Acqui, Genoa, Asti, Como."
+
+It was this same Dungal who presented the Bangor psalter to Bobbio;
+therefore it may be reasonably conjectured that he came from the very
+monastery that produced Columbanus, Gall, and Comgall.
+
+Fiesole, in Tuscany, venerates two Irish eighth-century saints,
+Donatus and Andrew. The former was educated at Iniscaltra, and Andrew
+was his friend and disciple. After visiting Rome, they lingered at
+Fiesole. Donatus was received with great honor by clergy and people
+and was requested to fill their vacant bishopric. With much
+hesitation he took upon himself ihe burden, which he bore for many
+years. His biographer says of him that "he was liberal in almsgiving,
+sedulous in watching, devout in prayer, excellent in doctrine, ready
+in speech, holy in life." Andrew, who was his deacon, founded the
+church and monastery of St. Martin in Mensola, and is known in
+Fiesole as St. Andrew of Ireland, or St. Andrew the Scot, that is,
+the Irishman.
+
+HOSPITALIA: Thus Irish monks were to be found in France, Belgium,
+Switzerland, Germany, and Italy, and even in Bulgaria. So numerous
+were they and so frequent their travels through the different
+countries of Europe that hospices were founded to befriend them.
+These institutions were known as "Hospitalia Scottorum" ("Hospices
+for the Irish"), and their benefactors were not only pious laymen but
+the highest ecclesiastical authorities. Sometimes the hospices were
+diverted to purposes other than those originally intended, and then
+Church Councils would intervene in favor of the lawful inheritors.
+Thus in 845 we read that the Council of Meaux ordered the hospices in
+France to be restored to the dispossessed Irishmen. In the twelfth
+century Ireland still continued to send forth a constant succession
+of monk-pilgrims, renowned for faith, austerity, and piety.
+
+RATISBON: Special monasteries were erected to be peopled by the
+Irish. The most renowned of these dates from 1067, when Marianus
+Scotus ("Marianus the Irishman"), with his companions, John and
+Candidus, left his native land and arrived in Bavaria. These holy men
+were welcomed at Ratisbon by the Bishop Otto; and on the advice of
+Murcherat, an Irish recluse, took up their residence near St. Peter's
+church at the outskirts of the city. Novices flocked from Ireland to
+join them and a monastery was erected to receive the community. In a
+short time this had to be replaced by a still larger one, which was
+known to future ages as the Abbey of St. James's of the Scots (that
+is, Irish) at Ratisbon. How prolific was this parent foundation is
+evidenced from its many offshoots, the only surviving monasteries on
+the continent for many centuries intended for Irish brethren. These,
+besides St. James's at Erfurt and St. Peter's at Ratisbon, comprised
+St. James's at Würtzburg, St. Giles's at Nuremberg, St. Mary's at
+Vienna, St. James's at Constance, St. Nicholas's at Memmingen, Holy
+Cross at Eichstatt, a Priory at Kelheim and another at Oels in
+Silesia, all of which were founded during the twelfth or thirteenth
+century, and formed a Benedictine congregation approved of by Pope
+Innocent III., and presided over by the Abbot of Ratisbon. These
+Irish houses, with their long lines of Celtic abbots, in the days of
+their prosperity did much work that was excellent and civilizing, and
+rightly deserve a remembrance in the achievements of Ireland's
+ancient missionaries.
+
+Ratisbon and its dependent abbeys, as is set forth in the papal
+briefs of 1218, possessed priories in Ireland, and, from these,
+novices were usually obtained.
+
+But evil days came for the Congregation of St. James, and now it is
+extinct. The subjugation of Ireland to England, says Wattenbach,
+contributed no doubt to the rapid decline of the Scotic (that is,
+Irish) monasteries. For from Ireland they had up till then been
+continually receiving fresh supplies of strength. In this their
+fatherland the root of their vitality was to be found. Loss of
+independence involved loss of enterprise.
+
+SCHOLARSHIP AND INFLUENCE: Irish monks were not only apostles of
+souls, but also masters of intellectual life. Thus in the seventh
+century the Celtic monastery of Luxeuil became the most celebrated
+school in Christendom. Monks from other houses and sons of the
+nobility crowded to it. The latter were clearly not intended for the
+cloister, but destined for callings in the world.
+
+There were outstanding men among these missionaries from Ireland. St.
+Virgilius of Salzburg in the eighth century taught the sphericity of
+the earth and the existence of the Antipodes. It was this same
+teaching that Copernicus and later astronomers formulated into the
+system now in vogue.
+
+St. Columcille himself was a composer of Latin hymns and a penman of
+no mean order, as the Book of Kells, if written by him, sufficiently
+proves. In all the monasteries which he founded, provision was made
+for the pursuit of sacred learning and the multiplication of books by
+transcription. The students of his schools were taught classics,
+mechanical arts, law, history, and physics. They improved the methods
+of husbandry and gardening; supplied the people, whom they helped to
+civilize, with implements of labor; and taught them the use of the
+forge, an accomplishment belonging to almost every Irish monk.
+
+The writings of Adamnan, who spent most of his life outside his
+native land, show that he was familiar with the best Latin authors,
+and had a knowledge of Greek as well. His "Vita S. Columbae" ("Life
+of St. Columcille") has made his name immortal as a Latin writer. His
+book "De Locis Sanctis" ("On the Holy Places") contains information
+he received from the pilgrim bishop Arculfus, who had been driven by
+a tempest to take refuge with the monks of Iona. On account of the
+importance of the writings of Adamnan and because of his influence in
+secular and ecclesiastical affairs of importance, few will question
+his right to a distinguished place among the saintly scholars of the
+West.
+
+Irish monks, abroad as well as at home, were pre-eminently students
+and exponents of Holy Scripture. Sedulius wrote a commentary on the
+Epistles of St. Paul; John Scotus Erigena composed a work, "De
+Praedestinatione" ("Concerning Predestination"); Dungal was not only
+an astronomer, but also an excellent theologian, as is clear from his
+defence of Catholic teaching on the invocation of saints and the
+veneration of their relics. His knowledge of Sacred Scripture and of
+the Fathers is exceedingly remarkable.
+
+St. Columbanus, besides other works, is said to have composed an
+exposition of the Psalms, which is mentioned in the catalogue of St.
+Gall's library, but which cannot now be identified with certainty.
+The writings of this abbot are said to have brought about a more
+frequent use of confession both in the world and in monasteries; and
+his legislation regarding the Blessed Sacrament fostered eucharistic
+devotion.
+
+Marianus Scotus is the author of a commentary on the Psalms, so
+precious that rarely was it allowed to pass beyond the walls of the
+monastic library. His commentary on St. Paul's Epistles is regarded
+as his most famous production. Herein he shows acquaintance with
+Saints Jerome, Augustine, Gregory, and Leo, with Cassiodorus, Origen,
+Alcuin, Cassian, and Peter the Deacon. He completed the work on the
+17th May, 1079, and ends the volume by asking the reader to pray for
+the salvation of his soul.
+
+TRANSCRIPTION: In all the monasteries a vast number of scribes were
+continually employed in multiplying copies of the Sacred Scriptures.
+These masterpieces of calligraphy, written by Irish hands, have been
+scattered throughout the libraries of Europe, and many fragments
+remain to the present day. The beauty of these manuscripts is praised
+by all, and the names of the best transcribers often find mention in
+monastic annals. The work was irksome, but it was looked upon as a
+privilege and meritorious.
+
+It remains to speak of that glorious monument of the Irish monks, the
+abbey of St. Gall, in Switzerland. It was here that Celtic influence
+was most felt and endured the longest. Within its walls for centuries
+the sacred sciences were taught and classic authors studied. Many of
+its monks excelled as musicians and poets, while others were noted
+for their skill in calligraphy and the fine arts. The library was
+only in its infancy in the eighth century, but gradually it grew, and
+eventually became one of the largest and richest in the world. The
+brethren were in correspondence with all the learned houses of France
+and Italy, and there was constant mutual interchange of books, sacred
+and scientific, between them.
+
+They manufactured their own parchment from the hides of the wild
+beasts that roamed in the forests around them, and bound their books
+in boards of wood clamped with iron or ivory.
+
+Such was the monastery of St. Gall, which owes its inception to the
+journey through Europe of the great Columbanus and his
+monk-companions--men whose lives, according to Bede, procured for the
+religious habit great veneration, so that wherever they appeared they
+were received with joy, as God's own servants. "And what will be the
+reward," asks the biographer of Marianus Scotus, "of these
+pilgrim-monks who left the sweet soil of their native land, its
+mountains and hills, its valleys and its groves, its rivers and pure
+fountains, and went like the children of Abraham without hesitation
+into the land which God had pointed out to them?" He answers thus:
+"They will dwell in the house of the Lord with the angels and
+archangels of God forever; they will behold the God of gods in Sion,
+to whom be honor and glory for ever and ever."
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Lanigan: Ecclesiastical History of Ireland (Dublin, 1829);
+Montalembert: Monks of the West (Edinburgh, 1861); Moran: Irish
+Saints in Great Britain (Dublin, 1903); Dalgairns: Apostles of Europe
+(London, 1876); Healy: Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars
+(Dublin, 1890); Barrett: A Calendar of Scottish Saints (Fort
+Augustus, 1904); Stokes: Six Months in the Apennines (London, 1892),
+Three Months in the Forests of France (London, 1895); Fowler: Vita S.
+Columbae (Oxford, 1894); Wattenbach: Articles in Ulster Journal of
+Archaeology, vol. 7 (Belfast, 1859); Gougaud: Les Chrétientés
+celtiques (Paris, 1911); Hogan: Articles in Irish Ecclesiastical
+Record, 1894, 1895; Drane: Christian Schools and Scholars (London,
+1881).
+
+
+
+THE IRISH AND THE SEA
+
+By WILLIAM H. BABCOCK, LL.B.
+
+
+The beginning of Irish navigation, like the beginning of everything
+else, is hidden in the mist of antiquity. Vessels of some kind
+obviously must have borne the successive waves of immigrants or
+invaders to the island. Naturally they would remain in use afterwards
+for trade, travel, exploration, and war. Irish ships may have been
+among those of the Breton fleet that Cæsar dispersed at Vannes after
+an obstinate struggle. Two or three centuries later we find Niall of
+the Nine Hostages making nautical descents on the neighboring shores,
+especially Britain: and there is every probability that ships of the
+island conveyed some at least of the "Scots" (Irish) whom Gildas in
+the sixth century describes as joining the Picts in furiously
+storming the Roman wall.
+
+The equally adventurous but more pacific work of exploration went on
+also, if we may judge by that extraordinary series of Irish
+sea-sagas, the _Imrama_, comprising the Voyages of Bran, Maelduin,
+the Hui Corra, and St. Brendan--the last-mentioned deservedly the
+most famous. These vary in their literary merits and in the merits of
+their several parts, for they have been successively rewritten at
+different periods, receiving always something of the color, belief,
+and adornment which belonged to the writer's time; but under all may
+be dimly traced, as in a palimpsest, the remote pagan original. At
+their best they embody a lofty and touching poetry very subtle and
+significant, as when we read of Bran's summoning by a visitant of
+supernatural beauty to the isles of undying delight, where a thousand
+years are but as a day; his return with a companion who had been
+overcome by longing for Ireland and home; the man's falling to ashes
+at the first touch of the native soil, as though he had been long
+dead; and the flight of Bran and his crew from the real living world
+to the islands of the blessed. At least equally fine and stirring is
+St. Brendan's interview with the exiled spirit of Heaven, whose "sin
+was but little", so that he and his fellows were given only the
+pleasing penance of singing delightfully, in the guise of beautiful
+birds, the praises of the God who showed them mercy and grace, amid
+the charms of an earthly paradise. "Then all the birds sang evensong,
+so that it was an heavenly noise to hear."
+
+It is not very surprising that St. Brendan's legend, with such
+qualities in prose and verse, made itself at home in many lands and
+languages, and became for centuries a widespread popular favorite and
+matter of general belief, also influencing the most permanent
+literature of a high contemplative cast, which we might suppose to be
+out of touch with it altogether. Certain of its more unusual
+incidents are found even in Arab writings of romance founded on fact,
+as in Edrisi's narrative of the Magrurin explorers of Lisbon and the
+adventures of Sinbad related in the Arabian Nights; but perhaps here
+we have a case of reciprocal borrowing such as may well occur when
+ships' companies of different nations meet.
+
+The most conspicuous, insistent, and repeated feature of all these
+_Imrama_ is a belief in Atlantic islands fair enough or wonderful
+enough to tempt the shore dwellers of Ireland far away and hold them
+spell-bound for years. It is easy to ascribe these pictures to sunset
+on the ocean, or the wonders of mirage; but all the time, within long
+sailing distance, there actually were islands of delightful climate
+and exceeding beauty. These had been occasionally reached from the
+Mediterranean ever since early Carthaginian times, as classical
+authors seem to tell us; why not also from Ireland, perhaps not quite
+so distant? It is undoubted that the Canary Islands were never really
+altogether forgotten, and the same is probably true of the Madeiras
+and all three groups of Azores, though the knowledge that lingered in
+Ireland was a distorted glimmering tradition of old voyages,
+occasionally inciting to new ventures in the same field.
+
+Some have supposed, though without sufficient evidence, that Saint
+Brendan even made his way to America, and parts of that shore line in
+several different latitudes have been selected as the scene of the
+exploit. His first entry into serious geography is in the fine maps
+of Dulcert, 1339, and the Pizigani, 1367, both of which plainly label
+Madeira, Porto Santo, and Las Desertas--"The Fortunate Islands of St.
+Brandan." That there may be no possibility of misunderstanding, the
+Pizigani brothers present a full-length portrait of the holy
+navigator himself bending over these islands with hands of
+benediction. The inscription, though not the picture, was common,
+thus applied, on the maps of the next century or two, and no other
+interpretation of his voyage found any place until a later time.
+
+Of course the fourteenth century was a long way from the sixth, when
+the voyage was supposed to have been made, and we cannot take so late
+a verdict as convincing proof of any fact. But it at least exhibits
+the current interpretation of the written narrative among geographers
+and mariners, the people best able to judge; and here the interval
+was much less. The story itself seems to corroborate them in a
+general way, if read naturally. One would say that it tells of a
+voyage to the Canaries, of which one is unmistakably "the island
+under Mount Atlas", and that this was undertaken by way of the Azores
+and Madeira, with inevitable experience of great beauty in some
+islands and volcanic terrors in others. Madeira may well have been
+pitched upon by the interpreters as the suitable scene of a
+particularly long tarrying by the way. Of course magic filled out all
+gaps of real knowledge, and wonders grew with each new rewriting.
+
+Whatever Brendan did, there is no doubt that Irish mariner-monks,
+incited by the great awakening which followed St. Patrick's mission,
+covered many seas in their frail vessels during the next three or
+four centuries. They set up a flourishing religious establishment in
+Orkney, made stepping stones of the intervening islands, and reached
+Iceland some time in the eighth century, if not earlier. The
+Norsemen, following in their tracks as always, found them there, and
+the earliest Icelandic writings record their departure, leaving
+behind them books, bells, and other souvenirs on an islet off shore
+which still bears their name.
+
+Did they keep before the Norsemen to America too? At least the
+Norsemen thought so. For centuries the name Great Ireland or
+Whitemen's Land was accepted in Norse geography as meaning a region
+far west of Ireland, a parallel to Great Sweden (Russia), which lay
+far east of Sweden. The saga of Thorfinn Karlsefni, first to attempt
+colonizing America, makes it plain that his followers believed Great
+Ireland to be somewhere in that region, and it is explicitly located
+near Wineland by the twelfth century Landnamabok. Also there were
+specific tales afloat of a distinguished Icelander lost at sea, who
+was afterward found in a western region by an Irish vessel long
+driven before the storm. The version most relied on came through one
+Rafn, who had dwelt in Limerick; also through Thorfinn, earl of the
+Orkneys.
+
+Brazil, the old Irish _Breasail_, was another name for land west of
+Ireland--where there is none short of America--on very many medieval
+maps, of which perhaps a dozen are older than the year 1400, the
+earliest yet found being that of Dalorto, 1325. Usually it appears as
+a nearly circular disc of land opposite Munster, at first altogether
+too near the Irish coast, as indeed the perfectly well-known Corvo
+was drawn much too near the coast of Spain, or as even in the
+sixteenth century, when Newfoundland had been repeatedly visited,
+that island was shifted by divers mapmakers eastward towards Ireland,
+almost to the conventional station of Brazil. Also, not long
+afterwards, the maps of Nicolay and Zaltieri adopted the reverse
+treatment of transferring Brazil to Newfoundland waters, as if
+recognizing past error and restoring its proper place.
+
+The name Brazil appears not to have been adopted by the Norsemen, but
+there is one fifteenth century map, perhaps of 1480, preserved in
+Milan, which shows this large disc-form "Brazil" just below Greenland
+("Illa Verde"), in such relation that the mapmaker really must have
+known of Labrador under the former name and believed that it could be
+readily reached from that Norse colony.
+
+It seems altogether likely that "Brazil" was applied to the entire
+outjutting region of America surrounding the Gulf of St.
+Lawrence--that part of this continent which is by far the nearest
+Ireland. Besides the facts above stated, certain coincidences of real
+geography and of these old maps favor that belief, and they are quite
+unlikely to have been guessed or invented. Thus certain maps,
+beginning with 1375, while keeping the circular external outline of
+Ireland, reduce the land area to a mere ring, enclosing an expanse of
+water dotted with islands; and certain other maps show it still
+nearly circular externally, and solid, but divided into two parts by
+a curved channel nearly from north to south. The former exposition is
+possible enough to one more concerned with the nearly enclosed Gulf
+of St. Lawrence and its islands than with its two comparatively
+narrow outlets; the second was afterward repeated approximately by
+Gastoldi's map illustrating Ramusio when he was somehow moved to
+minimize the width of the Gulf, though well remembering the straits
+of Belle Isle and Cabot. There are some other coincidences, but it is
+unnecessary to dwell on them. Land west of Ireland must be either
+pure fancy or the very region in question, and it is hardly
+believable that fancy could guess so accurately as to two different
+interpretations of real though unusual geography and give them right
+latitude, with such an old Irish name (Brazil) as might naturally
+have been conferred in the early voyaging times. That an extensive
+region, chiefly mainland, should be represented as an island is no
+objection, as anyone will see by examining the maps which break up
+everything north of South America in the years next following the
+achievements of Columbus and Cabot. There was a natural tendency to
+expect nothing but islands short of Asia.
+
+It seems likely, therefore, that America was actually reached by the
+Irish even before the Norsemen and certainly long before all other
+Europeans.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Babcock: Early Norse Visits to North America, Smithsonian Publication
+2138 (1913); Baring-Gould: Curious Myths of the Middle Ages;
+Beauvois: The Discovery of the New World by the Irish; Cantwell:
+Pre-Columbian Discoveries of America; Daly: The Legend of St.
+Brandan, Celtic Review, vol. I, A Sequel to the Voyage of St.
+Brandan, Celtic Review, Jan. 13, 1909; Hardiman: The History of
+Galway; Hull: Irish Episodes of Icelandic History; Joyce: The Voyage
+of Maelduin; Nutt: The Voyage of Bran; Stokes: The Voyage of Maelduin
+(_Revue Celtique_, vol. 9), Voyage of Snedgus (_Revue Celtique_, vol.
+9), Voyage of the Hui Corra (_Revue Celtigue_, vol. 14); Moran:
+Brendaniana.
+
+
+
+IRISH LOVE OF LEARNING
+
+By REV. P.S. DINNEEN, M.A., R.U.I.
+
+
+"The distinguishing property of man," says Cicero, "is to search for
+and follow after truth. Therefore, when disengaged from our necessary
+cares and concerns, we desire to see, to hear, and to learn, and we
+esteem knowledge of things obscure or wonderful as indispensable to
+our happiness." (_De Officiis_ I., 4).
+
+I claim for the Irish race that throughout their history they have
+cut down their bodily necessities to the quick, in order to devote
+time and energy to the pursuit of knowledge; that they have engaged
+in intellectual pursuits, not infrequently of a high order, on a low
+basis of material comfort; that they have persevered in the quest of
+learning under unparalleled hardships and difficulties, even in the
+dark night of "a nation's eclipse", when a school was an unlawful
+assembly and school-teaching a crime. I claim, moreover, that, when
+circumstances were favorable, no people have shown a more adventurous
+spirit or a more chivalrous devotion in the advancement and spread of
+learning.
+
+Love of learning implies more than a natural aptitude for acquiring
+information. It connotes a zest for knowledge that is recondite and
+attainable only at the expense of ease, of leisure, of the comforts
+and luxuries of life, and a zeal for the cultivation of the mental
+faculties. It is of the soul and not of the body; it refines,
+elevates, adorns. It is allied to sensibility, to keenness of vision,
+to the close observation of mental phenomena. Its possessor becomes a
+citizen of the known world. His mind broadens; he compares,
+contrasts, conciliates; he brings together the new and the old, the
+near and the distant, the permanent and the transitory, and weaves
+from them all the web of systematized human thought.
+
+I am not here concerned with the extent of Ireland's contribution to
+the sum of human learning, nor with the career of her greatest
+scholars; I am merely describing the love of learning which is
+characteristic of the race, and which it seems best to present in a
+brief study of distinct types drawn from various periods of Irish
+history.
+
+In the pre-Christian period the Druid was the chief representative of
+the learning of the race. He was the adviser of kings and princes,
+and the instructor of their children. His knowledge was of the
+recondite order and beyond the reach of ordinary persons. The esteem
+in which he was held by all classes of the people proves their love
+for the learning for which he stood.
+
+Patrick came: and with him came a wider horizon of learning and
+greater facilities for the acquisition and diffusion of knowledge.
+Monastic schools sprang up in all directions--at Clonard, Armagh,
+Clonmacnois, Bangor, Lismore, Kildare, Innisfallen. These schools
+were celebrated throughout Europe in the earlier middle ages, and
+from the fifth to the ninth century Ireland led the nations of Europe
+in learning and deserved the title of the "Island of Saints and
+Scholars." Our type is the student in one of these monastic schools.
+He goes out from his parents and settles down to study in the
+environs of the monastery. He is not rich; he resides in a hut; his
+time is divided between study, prayer, and manual labor. He becomes a
+monk, only to increase in devotion to learning and to accentuate his
+privations. He copies and illuminates manuscripts. He memorizes the
+Psalms. He glosses the Vulgate Scriptures with vernacular notes. He
+receives ordination, and, realizing that there are benighted
+countries ten times as large as his native land beyond the seas, and,
+burning with zeal for the spread of the Gospel and the advancement of
+learning, sails for Britain, or passes into Gaul, or reaches the
+slopes of the Apennines, or the outskirts of the Black Forest. The
+rest of his life is devoted to the foundation of monasteries to which
+schools are attached, to the building of churches, and to the
+diffusion around him of every known branch of knowledge. He may have
+taken books from Ireland over seas, and, of these, relics are now to
+be found among the treasures of the ancient libraries of Europe.
+Columcille, Columbanus, Adamnan, Gall, Virgilius occur to the mind in
+dwelling on this type.
+
+The hereditary _seanchaidhe_, who treasured up the traditional lore
+of the clan and its chief, was held in high honor and enjoyed
+extraordinary privileges. He held a freehold. He was high in the
+graces of the chief, and officiated at his inauguration.
+
+An important type is the Irish ecclesiastical student abroad in the
+penal days. School teaching, unless at the sacrifice of Faith, was a
+crime in Ireland, and the training required for the priesthood had to
+be obtained on the continent. The Irish out of their poverty
+established colleges in Rome (1628), Salamanca (1593), Seville
+(1612), Alcala (1590), Lisbon (1593), Louvain (1634), Antwerp (1629),
+Douai (1577), Lille (1610), Bordeaux (1603), Toulouse (1659), Paris
+(1605), and elsewhere. As late as 1795 these colleges contained 478
+students, and some of them are still in existence. The young student
+in going abroad risked everything. He often returned watched by
+spies, with his life in danger. Yet the supply never failed; the
+colleges flourished; and those who returned diffused around them not
+only learning but the urbanity and refinement which were a striking
+fruit and mark of their studies abroad.
+
+Another type is the Irish scribe. In the days of Ireland's fame and
+prosperity and of the flood-tide of her native language, he was a
+skilled craftsman, and the extant specimens of his work are
+unsurpassed of their kind. But I prefer to look at him at a later
+period, when he became our sole substitute for the printer and when
+his diligence preserved for us all that remains of a fading
+literature. He was miserably poor. He toiled through the day at the
+spade or the plough, or guided the shuttle through the loom. At
+night, by the flare of the turf-fire or the fitful light of a
+splinter of bogwood, he made his copy of poem or tract or tale, which
+but for him would have perished. The copies are often ill-spelt and
+ill-written, but with all their faults they are as noble a monument
+to national love of learning as any nation can boast of.
+
+In our gallery of types we must not forget the character whom English
+writers contemptuously called the "hedge-schoolmaster." The
+hedge-school in its most elemental state was an open-air daily
+assemblage of youths in pursuit of knowledge. Inasmuch as the law had
+refused learning a fitting temple in which to abide and be honored,
+she was led by her votaries into the open, and there, beside the
+fragrant hedge, if you will, with the green sward for benches, and
+the canopy of heaven for dome, she was honored in Ireland, even as
+she had been honored ages before in Greece, in Palestine, and by our
+primordial Celtic ancestors themselves. The hedge-schoolmaster
+conducted the rites, and the air resounded with the sonorous
+hexameters of Virgil and the musical odes of Horace.
+
+In the Irish-speaking portions of the country the hedge-schoolmaster
+was often also a poet who wrote mellifluous songs in Irish, which
+were sung throughout the entire district and sometimes earned him
+enduring fame. Eoghan Ruadh O'Sullivan and Andrew MacGrath, called
+_An Mangaire Sugach_ or "the Jolly Pedlar," are well-known instances
+of this type.
+
+The poor scholar is another type that under varying forms and under
+various circumstances has ever trod the stage of Irish history. From
+an ancient Irish manuscript (See O'Curry, _Manners and Customs_, II,
+79, 80) we learn that Adamnan, the biographer of St. Columcille, and
+some other youths studied at Clonard and were supported by the
+neighborhood. The poor scholar more than any other type embodies the
+love of learning of the Irish race. In the schools which preceded the
+National, he appeared in a most interesting stage of development. He
+came from a distance, attracted by the reputation of a good teacher
+and the regularity of a well-conducted school. He came, avowedly
+poor. His only claim on the generosity of his teacher and of the
+public was a marked aptitude for learning and an ardent desire for
+study and cultivation of mind. He did not look for luxuries. He was
+satisfied, if his bodily wants were reasonably supplied, even with
+the inconveniences of frequent change of abode. A welcome was
+extended to him on all sides. His hosts and patrons honored his
+thirst for knowledge and tenacity of purpose. He was expected to help
+the students in the house where he found entertainment, and it may
+not have been unpleasing to him on occasion to display his talents
+before his host. When school was over, it was not unusual to find him
+surrounded by a group of school-companions, each pressing his claim
+to entertain him for the night.
+
+Despite the hospitality of his patrons, the poor scholar often felt
+the bitterness of his dependent state, but he bore it with
+equanimity, his hand ever eagerly stretched out for the prize of
+learning. What did learning bring him? Why was he so eager to bear
+for its sake
+
+                         "all the thousand aches
+      That patient merit of the unworthy takes"?
+
+Sometimes he became a priest; sometimes his life was purposeless and
+void. But he was ever urged onward by the fascination of learning and
+of the cultivation of the nobler part of his nature.
+
+As might have been expected, the Irish who have emigrated to the
+American and Australian continents have given touching proof of their
+devotion to the cause of learning. I have space only for a few
+pathetic examples.
+
+An Irish workman in the United States, seeing my name in connection
+with an Irish Dictionary, wrote to me a few years ago to ask how he
+might procure one, as, he said, an Italian in the works had asked him
+the meaning of _Erin go bragh_, and he felt ashamed to be unable to
+explain it.
+
+A man who, at the age of three, had emigrated from Clare in the
+famine time, wrote to me recently from Australia in the Irish
+language and character.
+
+An old man named John O'Regan of New Zealand, who had been twelve
+years in exile in the United States and forty-eight on the Australian
+continent, with failing eyesight, in a letter that took him from
+January to June of the year 1906 to write, endeavored to set down
+scraps of Irish lore which he had carried with him from the old
+country and which had clung to his memory to the last.
+
+"In my digging life in the quarries," he says, "books were not a part
+of our swag (prayerbook excepted). In 1871, when I had a long seat of
+work before me, I sent for McCurtin's Dictionary to Melbourne. It is
+old and wanting in the introductory part, but for all was splendid
+and I loved it as my life." (See _Gaelic Journal_, Dec., 1906.)
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Joyce: A Social History of Ancient Ireland (2 vols., 2d ed., Dublin,
+1913); Healy: Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars (Dublin, 1890),
+Maynooth College Centenary History (Dublin, 1895); O'Curry: Manners
+and Customs of the Ancient Irish, (3 vols., Dublin and London, 1873),
+Manuscript Materials of Irish History, reissue (Dublin, 1873);
+Carleton: Traits and Stories of the Irish Peasantry, especially vol.
+3, The Poor Scholar; Montalembert: The Monks of the West, authorized
+translation, (7 vols., London, 1861); Meyer: Learning in Ireland in
+the Fifth Century (Dublin, 1913); Dinneen: Poems of Eoghan Ruadh
+O'Sullivan, Introduction (Dublin, 1902), The Maigue Poets,
+Introduction (Dublin, 1906); Boyle: The Irish College in Paris
+1578-1901, with a brief sketch of the other Irish Colleges in France
+(Dublin, 1901); Irish Ecclesiastical Record, new series, vol. VIII,
+307, 465; 3rd series, vol. VII, 350, 437, 641.
+
+
+
+IRISH MEN OF SCIENCE
+
+By SIR BERTRAM C.A. WINDLE, Sc.D., M.D.,
+
+_President, University College, Cork_.
+
+
+We may divide our survey of the debt owed to Ireland by science into
+three periods: the earliest, the intermediate, and the latest.
+
+In the earliest period the names which come before us are chiefly
+those of compilers such as Augustin, a monk and an Irishman who wrote
+at Carthage, in Africa, in the seventh century, a Latin treatise on
+_The Wonderful Things of the Sacred Scripture_, still extant, in
+which, in connection with Joshua's miracle, a very full account of
+the astronomical knowledge of the period, Ptolemaic, but in many ways
+remarkably accurate, is given. There are, however, three
+distinguished names. Virgil the Geometer, _i.e._, Fergil (O'Farrell),
+was Abbot of Aghaboe, went to the continent in 741, and was
+afterwards Bishop of Salzburg. He died in 785. He is remembered by
+his controversies with St. Boniface, one of which is concerned with
+the question of the Antipodes. Virgil is supposed to have been the
+first to teach that the earth is spherical. So celebrated was he that
+it has been thought that a part of the favor in which the author of
+the _Aeneid_ was held by medieval churchmen was due to a confusion
+between his name and that of the geometer, sometimes spoken of as St.
+Virgil.
+
+Dicuil, also an Irish monk, was the author of a remarkable work on
+geography, _De Mensura Provinciarum Orbis Terrae_, which was written
+in 825, and contains interesting references to Iceland and especially
+to the navigable canal which once connected the Nile with the Red
+Sea. He wrote between 814 and 816 a work on astronomy which has never
+been published. It is probable, but not certain, that he belonged to
+Clonmacnois.
+
+Dungal, like the two others named above, was an astronomer. He
+probably belonged to Bangor, and left his native land early in the
+ninth century. In 811 he wrote a remarkable work, _Dungali Reclusi
+Epistola de duplici solis eclipsi anno 810 ad Carolum Magnum_. This
+letter, which is still extant, was written at the request of
+Charlemagne, who considered its author to be the most learned
+astronomer in existence and most likely to clear up the problem
+submitted to him.
+
+Before passing to the next period, a word should be said as to the
+medieval physicians, often if not usually belonging to families of
+medical men, such as the Leahys and O'Hickeys, and attached
+hereditarily to the greater clans. These men were chiefly compilers,
+but such works of theirs as we have throw light upon the state of
+medical knowledge in their day. Thus there is extant a treatise on
+_Materia Medica_ (1459); written by Cormac MacDuinntsleibhe
+(Dunleavy), hereditary physician to the clan of O'Donnell in Ulster.
+A more interesting work is the _Cursus Medicus_, consisting of six
+books on Physiology, three on Pathology, and four on Semeiotica,
+written in the reign of Charles I. of England by Nial O'Glacan, born
+in Donegal, and at one time physician to the king of France.
+
+O'Glacan's name introduces us to the middle period, if indeed it does
+not belong there. _Inter arma silent leges_, and it may be added,
+scientific work. The troublous state of Ireland for many long years
+fully explains the absence of men of science in any abundance until
+the end of the eighteenth century. Still there are three names which
+can never be forgotten, belonging to the period in question. Sir Hans
+Sloane was born at Killileagh, in Ulster, in 1660. He studied
+medicine abroad, went to London where he settled, and was made a
+Fellow of the Royal Society. He published a work on the West Indies,
+but his claim to undying memory is the fact that it was the bequest
+of his most valuable and extensive collections to the nation which
+was the beginning and foundation of the British Museum, perhaps the
+most celebrated institution of its kind in the world. Sloane's
+collection, it should be added, contained an immense number of
+valuable books and manuscripts, as well as of objects more usually
+associated with the idea of a museum. He died in 1753.
+
+The Hon. Robert Boyle was born at Lismore, in the county Waterford,
+in 1627, being the fourteenth child of the first Earl of Cork. On his
+tombstone he is described as "The Father of Chemistry and the Uncle
+of the Earl of Cork", and, indeed, in his _Skyptical Chimist_ (1661),
+he assailed, and for the time overthrew, the idea of the alchemists
+that there was a _materia prima_, asserting as he did that theory of
+chemical "elements" which held good until the discoveries in
+connection with radium led to a modification in chemical teaching.
+This may be said of Boyle, that his writings profoundly modified
+scientific opinion, and his name will always stand in the forefront
+amongst those of chemists. He made important improvements in the
+air-pump, was one of the earliest Fellows of the Royal Society, and
+founded the "Boyle Lectures." He died in 1691.
+
+Sir Thomas Molyneux was born in Dublin, in 1661, of a family which
+had settled in Ireland about 1560-70. He practised as a physician in
+his native city, was the first person to describe the Irish Elk and
+to demonstrate the fact that the Giant's Causeway was a natural and
+not, as had been previously supposed, an artificial production. He
+was the author of many other scientific observations. He died in
+1733.
+
+We may now turn to more recent times, and it will be convenient to
+divide our subjects according to the branch of science in which they
+were distinguished, and to commence with
+
+MATHEMATICIANS,
+
+of whom Ireland may boast of a most distinguished galaxy.
+
+Sir William Rowan Hamilton (b. in Dublin 1805, d. 1865), belonged to
+a family, long settled in Ireland, but of Scottish extraction. He was
+a most precocious child. He read Hebrew at the age of seven, and at
+twelve, had studied Latin, Greek, and four leading continental
+languages, as well as Persian, Syriac, Arabic, Sanscrit, and other
+tongues. In 1819 he wrote a letter to the Persian ambassador in that
+magnate's own language. After these linguistic contests, he early
+turned to mathematics, in which he was apparently self-taught; yet,
+in his seventeenth year he discovered an error in Laplace's
+_Mécanique Céleste_. He entered Trinity College where he won all
+kinds of distinctions, being famous not merely as a mathematician,
+but as a poet, a scholar, and a metaphysician. He was appointed
+Professor of Astronomy and Astronomer Royal whilst still an
+undergraduate. He predicted "conical refraction," afterwards
+experimentally proved by another Irishman, Humphrey Lloyd. He twice
+received the Gold Medal of the Royal Society: (i) for optical
+discoveries; (ii) for his theory of a general method of dynamics,
+which resolves an extremely, abstruse problem relative to a system of
+bodies in motion. He was the discoverer of a new calculus, that of
+Quaternions, which attracted the attention of Professor Tait of
+Edinburgh, and was by him made comprehensible to lesser
+mathematicians. It is far too abstruse for description here.
+
+Sir George Gabriel Stokes (born in Sligo 1819, d. 1903) was, if not
+the greatest mathematician, at least among the greatest, of the last
+hundred years. He was educated in Cambridge, where he spent the rest
+of his life, being appointed Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in
+1849, and celebrating the jubilee of that appointment in 1899. He was
+member of parliament for his University, and for a time occupied the
+presidential chair of the Royal Society. He devoted himself, _inter
+alia_, to optical work, and is perhaps best known by those researches
+which deal with the undulatory theory of light. It was on this
+subject that he delivered the Burnett lectures in Aberdeen
+(1883-1885).
+
+James McCullagh, the son of a poor farmer, was born in Tyrone in
+1809, d. 1847. His early death, due to his own hand in a fit of
+insanity, cut short his work, but enough remains to permit him to
+rank amongst the great mathematicians of all time, his most important
+work being his memoir on surfaces of the second order.
+
+Humphrey Lloyd (b. in Dublin 1800, d. 1881), F.R.S. His father was
+Provost of Trinity College, Dublin, a position subsequently occupied
+also by the son. Lloyd's work was chiefly concerned with optics and
+magnetism, and it was in connection with the former that he carried
+out what was probably the most important single piece of work of his
+life, namely, the experimental proof of the phenomenon of conical
+refraction which had been predicted by Sir William Hamilton. He was
+responsible for the erection of the Magnetic Observatory in Dublin,
+and the instruments used in it were constructed under his observation
+and sometimes from his designs or modifications. He was also a
+meteorologist of distinction.
+
+George Salmon (b. in Dublin 1819, d. 1904), like the last mentioned
+subject, was, at the time of his death, Provost of Trinity College,
+Dublin. Besides theological writings, he contributed much to
+mathematical science, especially in the directions of conic sections,
+analytic geometry, higher plane curves, and the geometry of three
+dimensions. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society, and received the
+Copley and Royal medals, as well as distinctions from many
+universities and learned societies.
+
+John Casey (b. Kilkenny 1820, d. 1891), F.R.S., was educated at a
+National School and became a teacher in one in later years. Entirely
+self-taught as a mathematician, he raised himself from the humble
+position which he occupied to be a university professor (in the
+Catholic University of Ireland, and afterwards in the Royal
+University), and earned the highest reputation as one of the greatest
+authorities on plane geometry. He was a correspondent of eminent
+mathematicians all over the world.
+
+Henry Hennessey (b. in Cork 1826, d. 1901), F.R.S., was also a
+professor in the Catholic University of Ireland and afterwards in the
+Royal College of Science in Dublin. He was a writer on mathematics,
+terrestrial physics, and climatology.
+
+Benjamin Williamson (b. in Cork 1827), F.R.S., is a Senior Fellow of
+Trinity College, Dublin, and a distinguished writer on mathematical
+subjects, especially on the differential, integral, and infinitesimal
+calculuses.
+
+Sir Joseph Larmor (b. in Antrim 1857), F.R.S., was educated at
+Queen's College, Belfast, and in Cambridge, in which last place he
+has spent his life as a professor. He now represents the University
+in parliament and is secretary to the Royal Society. He is well-known
+for his writings on the ether and on other physical as well as
+mathematical subjects.
+
+ASTRONOMERS.
+
+William Parsons, Earl of Rosse (b. in York 1800, d. 1867), F.R.S.,
+was a very distinguished astronomer who experimented in fluid lenses
+and made great improvements in casting specula for reflecting
+telescopes. From 1842-45 he was engaged upon the construction, in his
+park at Parsonstown, of his great reflecting telescope 58 feet long.
+This instrument, which cost £30,000, long remained the largest in the
+world. He was president of the Royal Society from 1848 to 1854.
+
+Sir Howard Grubb (b. 1844), F.R.S., is known all over the world for
+his telescopes and for the remarkable advances which he has made in
+the construction of lenses for instruments of the largest size.
+
+Sir Robert Ball (b. in Dublin 1840, d. 1913), F.R.S. Originally Lord
+Rosse's astronomer at Parsonstown, he migrated as professor to
+Trinity College, Dublin, and subsequently became Lowndean Professor
+of Astronomy at Cambridge. He was a great authority on the
+mathematical theory of screws, and his popular works on astronomy
+have made him known to a far wider circle of readers than those who
+can grapple with his purely scientific treatises.
+
+William Edward Wilson (b. Co. Westmeath 1851, d. 1908), F.R.S. A man
+of independent means, he erected, with the help of his father, an
+astronomical observatory at his residence. In this well-equipped
+building he made many photographic researches, especially into the
+nature of nebulae. He also devoted himself to solar physics, and
+wrote some remarkable papers on the sudden appearance in 1903 of the
+star Nova Persei. He was the first to call attention to the
+probability that radium plays a part in the maintenance of solar
+heat. In fact, the science of radio-activity was engaging his keenest
+interest at the time of his early death.
+
+A.A. Rambaut (b. Waterford 1859), F.R.S., formerly Astronomer Royal
+for Ireland and now Radcliffe Observer at Oxford, is one of the
+leading astronomers of the day.
+
+PHYSICISTS.
+
+Lord Kelvin, better known as Sir William Thompson (b. Belfast 1824,
+d. 1907), F.R.S. Amongst the greatest physicists who have ever lived,
+his name comes second only to that of Newton. He was educated at
+Cambridge, became professor of natural philosophy in Glasgow
+University in 1846, and celebrated the jubilee of his appointment in
+1896. To the public his greatest achievement was the electric cabling
+of the Atlantic Ocean, for which he was knighted in 1866. His
+electrometers and electric meters, his sounding apparatus, and his
+mariners' compass are all well-known and highly valued instruments.
+To his scientific fellows, however, his greatest achievements were in
+the field of pure science, especially in connection with his
+thermodynamic researches, including the doctrine of the dissipation
+or degradation of energy. To this brief statement may be added
+mention of his work in connection with hydrodynamics and his magnetic
+and electric discoveries. His papers in connection with wave and
+vortex movements are also most remarkable. He was awarded the Royal
+and Copley medals and was an original member of the Order of Merit.
+He received distinctions from many universities and learned
+societies.
+
+George Francis Fitzgerald (b. Dublin 1851, d. 1901), F.R.S., was
+fellow and professor of natural philosophy in Trinity College,
+Dublin, where he was educated. He was the first person to call the
+attention of the world to the importance of Hertz's experiment.
+Perhaps his most important work, interrupted by his labors in
+connection with education and terminated by his early death, was that
+in connection with the nature of the ether.
+
+George Johnston Stoney (b. King's Co. 1826, d. 1911), F.R.S., after
+being astronomer at Parsonstown and professor of natural philosophy
+at Galway, became secretary to the Queen's University and occupied
+that position until the dissolution of the university in 1882. He
+wrote many papers on geometrical optics and on molecular physics, but
+his great claim to remembrance is that he first suggested, "on the
+basis of Faraday's law of Electrolysis, that an absolute unit of
+quantity of electricity exists in that amount of it which attends
+each chemical bond or valency and gave the name, now generally
+adopted, of electron to this small quantity." He proposed the
+electronic theory of the origin of the complex ether vibrations which
+proceed from a molecule emitting light.
+
+John Tyndall (b. Leighlin Bridge, Co. Carlow, 1820, d. 1893), F.R.S.,
+professor at the Royal Institution and a fellow-worker in many ways
+with Huxley, especially on the subject of glaciers. He wrote also on
+heat as a mode of motion and was the author of many scientific
+papers, but will, perhaps, be best remembered as the author of a
+Presidential Address to the British Association in Belfast (1874),
+which was the highwater mark of the mid-Victorian materialism at its
+most triumphant moment.
+
+CHEMISTS.
+
+Richard Kirwan (b. Galway 1733, d. 1812), F.R.S. A man of independent
+means, he devoted himself to the study of chemistry and mineralogy
+and was awarded the Copley medal of the Royal Society. He published
+works on mineralogy and on the analysis of mineral waters, and was
+the first in Ireland to publish analyses of soils for agricultural
+purposes, a research which laid the foundation of scientific
+agriculture in Great Britain and Ireland.
+
+Maxwell Simpson (b. Armagh 1815, d. 1902), F.R.S., held the chair of
+chemistry in Queen's College, Cork, for twenty years and published a
+number of papers in connection with his subject and especially with
+the behavior of cyanides, with the study of which compounds his name
+is most associated.
+
+Cornelius O'Sullivan (b. Brandon, 1841, d. 1897), F.R.S., was for
+many years chemist to the great firm of Bass & Co., brewers at
+Burton-on-Trent, and in that capacity became one of the leading
+exponents of the chemistry of fermentation in the world.
+
+James Emerson Reynolds (b. Dublin 1844), F.R.S., professor of
+chemistry, Trinity College, Dublin, for many years, discovered the
+primary thiocarbamide and a number of other chemical substances,
+including a new class of colloids and several groups of organic and
+other compounds of the element silicon.
+
+Among others only the names of the following can be mentioned:--Sir
+Robert Kane (b. Dublin 1809, d. 1890), professor of chemistry in
+Dublin and founder and first director of the Museum of Industry, now
+the National Museum. He was president of Queen's College, Cork, as
+was William K. Sullivan (b. Cork 1822, d. 1890), formerly professor
+of chemistry in the Catholic University. Sir William O'Shaughnessy
+Brooke, F.R.S. (b. Limerick 1809, d. 1889), professor of chemistry
+and assay master in Calcutta, is better known as the introducer of
+the telegraphic system into India and its first superintendent.
+
+BIOLOGISTS.
+
+William Henry Harvey (b. Limerick 1814, d. 1866), F.R.S., was a
+botanist of very great distinction. During a lengthy residence in
+South Africa, he made a careful study of the flora of the Cape of
+Good Hope and published _The Genera of South African Plants_. After
+this he was made keeper of the Herbarium, Trinity College, Dublin,
+but, obtaining leave of absence, travelled in North and South
+America, exploring the coast from Halifax to the Keys of Florida, in
+order to collect materials for his great work, _Nereis
+Boreali-Americana_, published by the Smithsonian Institution.
+Subsequently he visited Ceylon, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, and
+the Friendly and Fiji Islands, collecting algae. The results were
+published in his _Phycologia Australis_. At the time of his death he
+was engaged on his _Flora Capensis_, and was generally considered the
+first authority on algae in the world.
+
+William Archer (b. Co. Down 1837, d. 1897), F.R.S., devoted his life
+to the microscopic examination of freshwater organisms, especially
+desmids and diatoms. He attained a very prominent place in this
+branch of work among men of science. Perhaps his most remarkable
+discovery was that of Chlamydomyxa labyrinthuloides (in 1868), "one
+of the most remarkable and enigmatical of all known microscopic
+organisms."
+
+George James Allman (b. Cork 1812, d. 1898), F.R.S., professor of
+botany in Trinity College, Dublin, and afterwarls Regius Professor of
+natural history in the University of Edinburgh, published many papers
+on botanical and zoological subjects, but his great work was that on
+the gymnoblastic Hydrozoa, "without doubt the most important
+systematic work dealing with the group of Coelenterata that has ever
+been produced."
+
+Amongst eminent living members of the class under consideration may
+be mentioned Alexander Macalister (b. Dublin 1844), F.R.S., professor
+of anatomy, first in Dublin and now in Cambridge, an eminent
+morphologist and anthropologist, and Henry Horatio Dixon (b. Dublin),
+F.R.S., professor of botany in Trinity College, an authority on
+vegetable physiology, especially problems dealing with the sap.
+
+GEOLOGISTS.
+
+Samuel Haughton (b. Carlow 1821, d. 1897), F.R.S., after earning a
+considerable reputation as a mathematician and a geologist, and
+taking Anglican orders, determined to study medicine and entered the
+school of that subject in Trinity College. After graduating he became
+the reformer, it might even be said the re-founder, of that school.
+He devoted ten years to the study of the mechanical principles of
+muscular action, and published his _Animal Mechanism_, probably his
+greatest work. He will long be remembered as the introducer of the
+"long drop" as a method of capital execution. He might have been
+placed in several of the categories which have been dealt with, but
+that of geologist has been selected, since in the later part of his
+most versatile career he was professor of geology in Trinity College,
+Dublin.
+
+Valentine Ball (b. Dublin 1843, d. 1894), F.R.S., a brother of Sir
+Robert, joined the Geological Survey of India, and in that capacity
+became an authority not only on geology but also on ornithology and
+anthropology. His best known work is _Jungle-Life in India_. In later
+life he was director of the National Museum, Dublin.
+
+MEDICAL SCIENCE.
+
+Very brief note can be taken of the many shining lights in Irish
+medical science. Robert James Graves (1796-1853), F.R.S., after whom
+is named "Graves's Disease", was one of the greatest of clinical
+physicians. His _System of Clinical Medicine_ was a standard work and
+was extolled by Trousseau, the greatest physician that France has
+ever had, in the highest terms of appreciation.
+
+William Stokes (1804-1878), Regius Professor of Medicine in Trinity
+College, and the author of a _Theory and Practice of Medicine_, known
+all over the civilized world, was equally celebrated.
+
+To these must be added Sir Dominic Corrigan (1802-1880), the first
+Catholic to occupy the position of President of the College of
+Physicians in Dublin, an authority on heart disease, and the first
+adequate describer of aortic patency, a form of ailment long called
+"Corrigan's Disease". "Colles's Fracture" is a familiar term in the
+mouths of surgeons. It derives its name from Abraham Colles
+(1773-1843), the first surgeon in the world to tie the innominate
+artery, as "Butcher's Saw", a well-known implement, does from another
+eminent surgeon; Richard Butcher, Regius Professor in Trinity College
+in the seventies of the last century.
+
+Sir Rupert Boyce (1863-1911), F.R.S., though born in London, had an
+Irish father and mother. Entering the medical profession, he was
+assistant professor of pathology at University College, London, and
+subsequently professor of pathology in University College, Liverpool,
+which he was largely instrumental in turning into the University of
+Liverpool. He was foremost in launching and directing the Liverpool
+School of Tropical Medicine, which has had such widespread results
+all over the world in elucidating the problems and checking the
+ravages of the diseases peculiar to hot countries. It was for his
+services in this direction that he was knighted in 1906.
+
+Sir Richard Quain (b. Mallow 1816, d. 1898), F.R.S., spent most of
+his life in London, where he was for years the most prominent
+physician. He wrote on many subjects, but the _Dictionary of
+Medicine_, which he edited and which bears his name, has made itself
+and its editor known all over the world.
+
+Sir Almroth Wright (b. 1861), F.R.S., is the greatest living
+authority on the important subject of vaccino-therapy, which, indeed,
+may be said to owe its origin to his researches, as do the methods
+for measuring the protective substances in the human blood. He was
+the discoverer of the anti-typhoid injection which has done so much
+to stay the ravages of that disease.
+
+ENGINEERING.
+
+Bindon Blood Stoney (1828-1909), F.R.S., made his reputation first as
+an astronomer by discovering the spiral character of the great nebula
+in Andromeda. Turning to engineering, he was responsible for the
+construction of many important works, especially in connection with
+the port of Dublin. He was brother of G. J. Stoney.
+
+Sir Charles Parsons (b. 1854), F.R.S., fourth son of the third Earl
+of Rosse, is the engineer who developed the steam turbine system and
+made it suitable for the generation of electricity, and for the
+propulsion of war and mercantile vessels. If he has revolutionized
+traffic on the water, so on the land has John Boyd Dunlop (still
+living), who discovered the pneumatic tire with such wide-spread
+results for motorcars, bicycles, and such means of locomotion.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS.
+
+Admiral Sir Leopold McClintock (b. Dundalk 1819, d. 1907), F.R.S.,
+was one of the great Arctic explorers, having spent eleven navigable
+seasons and six winters in those regions. He was the chief leader and
+organizer of the Franklin searches. From the scientific point of view
+he made a valuable collection of miocene fossils from Greenland, and
+enabled Haughton to prepare the geological map and memoir of the
+Parry Archipelago.
+
+John Ball (b. Dublin 1818, d. 1889), F.R.S., educated at Oscott,
+passed the examination for a high degree at Cambridge, but, being a
+Catholic, was excluded from the degree itself and any other honors
+which a Protestant might have attained to. He travelled widely and
+published many works on the natural history of Europe and South
+America from Panama to Tierra del Fuego. He was the first to suggest
+the utilization of the electric telegraph for meteorological purposes
+connected with storm warnings.
+
+Space ought to be found for a cursory mention of that strange person,
+Dionysius Lardner (1793-1859), who by his _Lardner's Cyclopaedia_ in
+132 vols., his _Cabinet Library_, and his _Museum of Science and
+Art_, did much to popularize science in an unscientific day.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+The principal sources of information are the National Dictionary of
+Biography; the Obituary Notices of the Royal Society (passages in
+inverted commas are from these); "Who's Who" (for living persons);
+Healy: Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars; Hyde: Literary History
+of Ireland; Joyce: Social History of Ancient Ireland; Moore: Medicine
+in the British Isles.
+
+
+
+LAW IN IRELAND
+
+By LAURENCE GINNELL, B.L., M.P.
+
+
+A DISTINCTION. Ireland having been a self-ruled country for a stretch
+of some two thousand years, then violently brought under subjection
+to foreign rule, regaining legislative independence for a brief
+period toward the close of the eighteenth century, then by violence
+and corruption deprived of that independence and again brought under
+the same foreign rule, to which it is still subject, the expression
+"Law in Ireland" comprises the native and the foreign, the laws
+devised by the Irish Nation for its own governance and the laws
+imposed upon it from without: two sets, codes, or systems proper to
+two entirely distinct social structures having no relation and but
+little resemblance to each other. Whatever may be thought of either
+as law, the former is Irish in every sense, and vastly the more
+interesting historically, archaeologically, philologically, and in
+many other ways; the latter being English law in Ireland, and not
+truly Irish in any sense.
+
+ORIGIN AND CHARACTER OF IRISH LAW. _Seanchus agus Féineachus na
+hEireann_ == _Hiberniae Antiquitates et Sanctiones Legales_--The
+Ancient Laws and Decisions of the _Féini_, of Ireland. _Sen_ or
+_sean_ (pronounced shan) == "old," differs from most Gaelic
+adjectives in preceding the noun it qualifies. It also tends to
+coalesce and become a prefix. _Seanchus_ (shanech-us) == "ancient
+law." _Féineachus_ (fainech-us) == the law of the _Féini_, who were
+the Milesian farmers, free members of the clans, the most important
+class in the ancient Irish community. Their laws were composed in
+their contemporary language, the _Bearla Féini_, a distinct form of
+Gaelic. Several nations of the Aryan race are known to have cast into
+metre or rhythmical prose their laws and such other knowledge as they
+desired to communicate, preserve, and transmit, before writing came
+into use. The Irish went further and, for greater facility in
+committing to memory and retaining there, put their laws into a kind
+of rhymed verse, of which they may have been the inventors. By this
+device, aided by the isolated geographical position of Ireland, the
+sanctity of age, and the apprehension that any change of word or
+phrase might change the law itself, these archaic laws, when
+subsequently committed to writing, were largely preserved from the
+progressive changes to which all spoken languages are subject, with
+the result that we have today, embedded in the Gaelic text and
+commentaries of the _Senchus Mór_, the _Book of Aicill_, and other
+law works, available in English translations made under a Royal
+Commission appointed by Government in 1852, and published, at
+intervals extending over forty years, in six volumes of "Ancient Laws
+and Institutions of Ireland," a mass of archaic words, phrases, law,
+literature, and information on the habits and manners of the people,
+not equalled in antiquity, quantity, or authenticity in any other
+Celtic source. In English they are commonly called Brehon Laws, from
+the genitive case singular of _Brethem_ = "judge", genitive
+_Brethemain_ (pronounced brehun), as Erin is an oblique case of Eire,
+and as Latin words are sometimes adopted in the genitive in modern
+languages which themselves have no case distinctions. It is not to be
+inferred from this name that the laws are judge-made. They are rather
+case law, in parts possibly enacted by some of the various assemblies
+at which the laws were promulgated or rehearsed, but for the most
+part simple declarations of law originating in custom and moral
+justice, and records of judgments based upon "the precedents and
+commentaries", in the sort of cases common to agricultural
+communities of the time, many of the provisions being as inapplicable
+to modern life as modern laws would be to ancient life. A reader is
+impressed by the extraordinary number and variety of cases with their
+still more numerous details and circumstances accumulated in the
+course of long ages, the manner in which the laws are inextricably
+interwoven with the interlocking clan system, and the absence of
+scientific arrangement or guiding principle except those of moral
+justice, clemency, and the good of the community. This defect in
+arrangement is natural in writings intended, as these were, for the
+use of judges and professors, experts in the subjects with which they
+deal, but makes the task of presenting a concise statement of them
+difficult and uncertain.
+
+SOCIETY LAW. The law and the social system were inseparable parts of
+a complicated whole, mutually cause and consequence of each other.
+_Tuath, clann, cinel, cine_, and _fine_ (pronounced thooah, clong,
+kinnel, kineh, and fin-yeh) were terms used to denote a tribe or set
+of relatives, in reality or by adoption, claiming descent from a
+common ancestor, forming a community occupying and owning a given
+territory. _Tuath_ in course of time came to be applied indifferently
+to the people and to their territory. _Fine_, sometimes designating a
+whole tribe, more frequently meant a part of it, occupying a distinct
+portion of the territory, a potential microcosm or nucleus of a clan,
+having limited autonomy in the conduct of its own immediate affairs.
+The constitution of this organism, whether as contemplated by the law
+or in the less perfect actual practice, is alike elusive, and
+underwent changes. For the purpose of illustration, the _fine_ may be
+said to consist, theoretically, of the "seventeen men" frequently
+mentioned throughout the laws, namely, the _flaithfine_ = chief of
+the _fine_; the _geilfine_ = his four fullgrown sons or other nearest
+male relatives; the _deirbhfine, tarfine_, and _innfine_, each
+consisting of four heads of families in wider concentric circles of
+kinship, say first, second, and third cousins of the _flaithfine_.
+The _fine_ was liable, in measure determined by those circles, for
+contracts, fines, and damages incurred by any of its members so far
+as his own property was insufficient, and was in the same degree
+entitled to share advantages of a like kind accruing. Intermarriage
+within this _fine_ was prohibited. The modern term "sept" is applied
+sometimes to this group and sometimes to a wider group united under a
+_flaith_ (flah) = "chief", elected by the _flaithfines_ and provided,
+for his public services, with free land proportionate to the area of
+the district and the number of clansmen in it. _Clann_ might mean the
+whole Irish nation, or an intermediate homogeneous group of _fines_
+having for wider purposes a _flaith_ or _ri-tuatha_ = king of one
+_tuath_, elected by the _flaiths_ and _flaithfines_, subject to
+elaborate qualifications as to person, character, and training, which
+limited their choice, and provided with a larger portion of free
+land. This was the lowest chief to whom the title _ri, righ_ (both
+pr. ree) = _rex_, or "king", was applied. A group of these kinglets
+connected by blood or territory or policy, and their _flaiths_,
+elected, from a still narrower circle of specially trained men within
+their own rank, the _ri-mor-tuatha_--king of the territory so
+composed, to whose office a still larger area of free land was
+attached. In turn, kings of this class, with their respective
+sub-kings and _flaiths_, elected from among the _riogh-dhamhna_
+(ree-uch-dhowna) = _materia principum_ or "king-timber", a royal
+_fine_ specially educated and trained, a _rì-cuighidh_ (ree
+coo-ee-hee) supreme over five _ri-mor-tuathas_--roughly, a fourth of
+Ireland. These, with their respective principal supporters, elected
+the _ard-ri_--"supreme king", of Ireland, who for ages held his court
+and national assemblies at Tara and enjoyed the kingdom of Meath for
+his mensal land. Usually the election was not direct to the kingship,
+but to the position of _tanaiste_--"second" (in authority),
+heir-apparent to the kingship. This was also the rule in the learned
+professions and "noble" arts, which were similarly endowed with free
+land. The most competent among those specially trained, whether son
+or outsider, should succeed to the position and land. All such land
+was legally indivisible and inalienable and descended in its entirety
+to the successor, who might, or might not, be a relative of the
+occupant. The beneficiaries were, however, free to retain any land
+that belonged to them as private individuals.
+
+Membership of the clan was an essential qualification for every
+position; but occasionally two clans amalgamated, or a small _fine_,
+or desirable individual, was co-opted into the clan--in other words,
+naturalized. The rules of kinship determined _eineachlann_
+(ain-yach-long)--"honor value", the assessed value of status, with
+its correlative rights, obligations, and liabilities in connection
+with all matters civil and criminal; largely supplied the place of
+contract; endowed members of the clan with birthrights; and bound
+them into a compact social, political, and mutual insurance
+copartnership, self-controlled and self-reliant. _Eineachlann_ rested
+on the two-fold basis of kinship and property, expanding as a
+clansman by acquisition of property and effluxion of time progressed
+upward from one grade to another; diminishing if he sank; vanishing
+if for crime he was expelled from the clan.
+
+FOSTERAGE. To our minds, one of the most curious customs prevalent
+among the ancient Irish was that of _iarrad_, called also _altar_ =
+"fosterage"--curious in itself and in the fact that in all the
+abundance of law and literature relating to it no logically valid
+reason is given why wealthy parents normally put out their children,
+from one year old to fifteen in the case of a daughter and to
+seventeen in the case of a son, to be reared in another family, while
+perhaps receiving and rearing children of other parents sent to them.
+As modern life does not comprise either the custom or a reason for
+it, we may assume that fosterage was a consequence of the clan
+system, and that its practice strengthened the ties of kinship and
+sympathy. This conjecture is corroborated by the numerous instances
+in history and in story of fosterage affection proving, when tested,
+stronger than the natural affection of relatives by birth. What is
+more, long after the dissolution of the clans, fosterage has
+continued stealthily in certain districts in which the old race of
+chiefs and clansmen contrived to cling together to the old sod; and
+the affection generated by it has been demonstrated, down to the
+middle of the nineteenth century. The present writer has heard it
+spoken of lovingly, in half-Irish, by simple old people, whom to
+question would be cruel and irreverent.
+
+LAND LAW. The entire territory was originally, and always continued
+to be, the absolute property of the entire clan. Not even the private
+residence of a clansman, with its _maighin digona_ = little lawn or
+precinct of sanctuary, within which himself and his family and
+property were inviolable, could be sold to an outsider. Private
+ownership, though rather favored in the administration of the law,
+was prevented from becoming general by the fundamental ownership of
+the clan and the birthright of every free-born clansman to a
+sufficiency of the land of his native territory for his subsistence.
+The land officially held as described was not, until the population
+became numerous, a serious encroachment upon this right. What
+remained outside this and the residential patches of private land was
+classified as cultivable and uncultivable. The former was the common
+property of the clansmen, but was held and used in severalty for the
+time being, subject to _gabhail-cine_ (gowal-kinneh)--clan-resumption
+and redistribution by authority of an assembly of the clan or _fine_
+at intervals of from one to three years, according to local customs
+and circumstances, for the purpose of satisfying the rights of young
+clansmen and dealing with any land left derelict by death or
+forfeiture, compensation being paid for any unexhausted improvements.
+The clansmen, being owners in this limited sense, and the only
+owners, had no rent to pay. They paid tribute for public purposes,
+such as the making of roads, to the _flaith_ as a public officer, as
+they were bound to render, or had the privilege of
+rendering--according to how they regarded it--military service when
+required, not to the _flaith_ as a feudal lord, which he was not, but
+to the clan, of which the _flaith_ was head and representative.
+
+The uncultivable, unreclaimed forest, mountain, and bog-land was
+common property in the wider sense that there was no several
+appropriation of it even temporarily by individuals. It was used
+promiscuously by the clansmen for grazing stock, procuring fuel,
+pursuing game, or any other advantage yielded by it in its natural
+state.
+
+Kings and _flaiths_ were great stock-owners, and were allowed to let
+for short terms portions of their official lands. What they more
+usually let to clansmen was cattle to graze either on private land or
+on a specified part of the official land, not measured, but
+calculated according to the number of beasts it was able to support.
+A _flaith_ whose stock for letting ran short hired some from a king
+and sublet them to his own people. A _féine, aithech_, or _ceile_
+(kailyeh), as a farmer was generally called, might hire stock in one
+of two distinct ways: _saer_-"free", which was regulated by the law,
+left his status unimpaired, could not be terminated arbitrarily or
+unjustly, under which he paid one-third of the value of the stock
+yearly for seven years, at the end of which time what remained of the
+stock became his property, and in any dispute relating to which he
+was competent to sue or defend even though the _flaith_ gave
+evidence; or _daer_--"bond", which was matter of bargain and not of
+law, was subject to onerous conditions and contingencies, including
+maintenance of kings, _flaiths_, or brehons, with their retinues, on
+visitations, of disbanded soldiers, etc., under which the stock
+always remained the property of the _flaith_, regarding which the
+_ceile_ could not give evidence against that of the _flaith_, which
+degraded the _ceile_ and his _fine_ and impaired their status; a
+bargain therefore which could not be entered into without the
+sanction of the _fine_. This prohibition was rendered operative by
+the legal provision that in case of default the _flaith_ could not
+recover from the _fine_ unless their consent had been obtained. The
+letting of stock, especially of _daer_-stock, increased the
+_flaith's_ power as a lender over borrowers, subject, however, to the
+check that his rank and _eineachlann_ depended on the number of
+independent clansmen in his district.
+
+Though workers in precious metals, as their ornaments show, the
+ancient Irish did not coin or use money. Sales were by barter. All
+payments, tribute, rent, fulfilment of contract, fine, damages,
+wages, or however else arising, were made in kind--horses, cows,
+store cattle, sheep, pigs, corn, meal, malt, bacon, salt beef, geese,
+butter, honey, wool, flax, yarn, cloth, dye-plants, leather,
+manufactured articles of use or ornament, gold, and silver--whatever
+one party could spare and the other find a use for.
+
+Tributes and rent, being alike paid in kind and to the same person,
+were easily confused. This tempted the _flaith_, as the system
+relaxed, to extend his official power in the direction of ownership;
+but never to the extent of enabling him to evict a clansman. For a
+crime a clansman might be expelled from clan and territory; but,
+apart from crime, the idea of eviction from one's homestead was
+inconceivable. Not even when a _daer-ceile_, or "unfree peasant",
+failed to make the stipulated payments could the _flaith_ do more
+than sue as for any other debt; and, if successful, he was bound, in
+seizing, to leave the family food-material and implements necessary
+for living and recovering.
+
+LAW OF DISTRAINING. _Athgabail_ ([)a]h-gowil) = "distress", was the
+universal legal mode of obtaining anything due, or justice or redress
+in any matter, whether civil or criminal, contract or tort. Every
+command or prohibition of the law, if not obeyed, was enforced by
+_athgabail_. The brehons reduced all liabilities of whatsoever origin
+to material value to be recovered by this means. Hence its great
+importance, the vast amount of space devoted to it in the laws, and
+the fact that the law of distress deals incidentally with every other
+branch of law and reveals best the customs, habits, and character of
+the people. A claimant in a civil case might either summon his debtor
+before a brehon, get a judgment, and seize the amount adjudged, or,
+by distraining first at his own risk, force the defendant either to
+pay or stop the seizure by submitting the matter in dispute to trial
+before a brehon, whom he then could choose. There was no officer
+corresponding to a sheriff to distrain and realize the amount
+adjudged; the person entitled had to do it himself, accompanied by a
+law-agent and witnesses, after, in "distress with time", elaborate
+notices at intervals of time sufficient to allow the defendant to
+consider his position and find means of satisfying the claim if he
+could. In a proper case his hands were strengthened by very explicit
+provisions of the law. "If a man who is sued evades justice, knowing
+the debt to be due of him, double the debt is payable by him." In
+urgent cases "immediate distress" was allowed. In either case the
+property seized--usually cattle--was not taken to the plaintiff's
+home, but put into a pound, and by similar easy stages became his
+property to the amount of the debt. The costs were paid out of what
+remained, and any ultimate remainder was returned. On a _fuidir_
+(foodyir) = serf or other unfree person resident in the territory
+incurring liability to a clansman, the latter might proceed against
+the _flaith_ on whose land the defendant lived, or might seize
+immediately any property the defendant owned, and if he owned none,
+might seize him and make him work off the debt in slavery.
+
+Seizure of property of a person of higher rank than the plaintiff had
+to be preceded by _troscead_ (truscah) = fasting upon him. This
+consisted in waiting at the door of the defendant's residence without
+food until the debt was paid or a pledge given. The laws contained no
+process more strongly enforced than this. A defendant who allowed a
+plaintiff properly fasting to die of hunger was held by law and by
+public opinion guilty of murder, and completely lost his
+_eineachlann_. Both text and commentary declare that whoever refuses
+to cede a just demand when fasted upon shall pay double that amount.
+If the faster, having accepted a pledge, did not in due course
+receive satisfaction of his claim, he forthwith distrained, taking
+and keeping double the amount of the debt. The law did not allow
+those whom it at first respected to trifle with justice.
+
+_Troscead_ is believed to have been of druidical origin, and it
+retained throughout, even in Christian times, a sort of supernatural
+significance. Whoever disregarded it became an outcast and incurred
+risks and dangers too grave to be lightly faced. Besides being a
+legal process, it was resorted to as a species of elaborate prayer,
+or curse,--a kind of magic for achieving some difficult purpose. This
+mysterious character enhanced its value in a legal system deficient
+in executive power.
+
+NON-CITIZENS. From what precedes it will be understood that there
+were in ancient Ireland from prehistoric times people not comprised
+in the clan organization, and therefore not enjoying its rights and
+advantages or entitled to any of its land, some of whom were
+otherwise free within certain areas, while some were serfs and some
+slaves. Those outsiders are conjectured to have originated in the
+earlier colonists subdued by the Milesians and reduced to an inferior
+condition. But the distinction did not wholly follow racial lines.
+Persons of pre-Milesian race are known to have risen to eminence,
+while Milesians are known to have sunk, from crime or other causes,
+to the lowest rank of the unfree. Here and there a _daer-tuath_ =
+"bond community", of an earlier race held together down to the Middle
+Ages in districts in which conquest had left them and to which they
+were restricted. Beyond that restriction, exclusion from the clan and
+its power, some peculiarities of dialect, dress, and manners, and a
+tradition of inferiority such as still exists in certain parishes,
+they were not molested, provided they paid tribute, which may have
+been heavy.
+
+There were also _bothachs_ = cottiers, and _sen-cleithes_ = old
+adherents of a _flaith_, accustomed to serve him and obtain benefits
+from him. If they had resided in the territory for three generations,
+and been industrious, thrifty, and orderly, on a few of them joining
+their property together to the number of one hundred head of cattle,
+they could emancipate themselves by appointing a _flaithfine_ and
+getting admitted to the clan. Till this was done, they could neither
+sue nor defend nor inherit, and the _flaith_ was answerable for their
+conduct.
+
+There being no prisons or convict settlements, any person of whatever
+race convicted of grave crime, or of cowardice on the field of
+battle, and unable to pay the fines imposed, captives taken in
+foreign wars, fugitives from other clans, and tramps, fell into the
+lowest ranks of the _fuidre_--"serfs." It was as a captive that Saint
+Patrick was brought in his youth to Ireland. The law allowed, rather
+than entitled, a _flaith_ to keep unfree people for servile
+occupations and the performance of unskilled labor for the public
+benefit. In reality they worked for his personal profit, oftentimes
+at the expense of the clan. They lived on his land, and he was
+responsible for their conduct. By analogy, the distinctions _saer_
+and _daer_ were recognized among them, according to origin,
+character, and means. Where these elements continued to be favorable
+for three generations, progress upward was made; and ultimately a
+number of them could club together, appoint a _flaithfine_, and apply
+to be admitted to the clan.
+
+A _mog_ was a slave in the strict sense, usually purchased as such
+from abroad, and legally and socially lower than the lowest _fuidir_.
+Giraldus Cambrensis, writing towards the close of the twelfth
+century, tells us that English parents then frequently sold their
+surplus children and other persons to the Irish as slaves. The Church
+repeatedly intervened for the release of captives and mitigation of
+their condition. The whole institution of slavery was strongly
+condemned as un-Christian by the Synod held in Armagh in 1171.
+
+CRIMINAL LAW. Though there are numerous laws relating to crime, to be
+found chiefly in the _Book of Aicill_, criminal law in the sense of a
+code of punishment there was none. The law took cognizance of crime
+and wrong of every description against person, character, and
+property; and its function was to prevent and restrict crime, and
+when committed to determine, according to the facts of the case and
+the respective ranks of the parties, the value of the compensation or
+reparation that should be made. It treated crime as a mode of
+incurring liability; entitled the sufferer, or, if he was murdered,
+his _fine_, to bring the matter before a brehon, who, on hearing the
+case, made the complicated calculations and adjustments rendered
+necessary by the facts proved and by the grades to which the
+respective parties belonged, arrived at and gave judgment for the
+amount of the compensation, armed with which judgment, the plaintiff
+could immediately distrain for that amount the property of the
+criminal, and, in his default, that of his _fine_. The _fine_ could
+escape part of its liability by arresting and giving up the convict,
+or by expelling him and giving substantial security against his
+future misdeeds.
+
+From the number of elements that entered into the calculation of a
+fine, it necessarily resulted that like fines by no means followed
+like crimes. Fines, like all other payments, were adjudged and paid
+in kind, being, in some cases of the destruction of property,
+generic--a quantity of that kind of property. Large fines were
+usually adjudged to be paid in three species, one-third in each, the
+plaintiff taking care to inform correctly the brehon of the kinds of
+property the defendant possessed, because he could seize only that
+named, and if the defendant did not possess it, the judgment was "a
+blind nut." Crime against the State or community, such as wilful
+disturbance of an assembly, was punished severely. These were the
+only cases to which the law attached a sentence of death or other
+corporal punishment. For nothing whatsoever between parties did the
+law recognize any duty of revenge, retaliation, or the infliction of
+personal punishment, but only the payment of compensation. Personal
+punishment was regarded as the commission of a second crime on
+account of a first. There was no duty to do this; but the right to do
+it was tacitly recognized if a criminal resisted or evaded payment of
+an adjudged compensation. Criminal were distinguished from civil
+cases only by the moral element, the sufferer's right in all cases to
+choose a brehon, the loss of _eineachlann_, partial or whole
+according to the magnitude of the crime, the elements used in
+calculating the amount of fine, and the technical terms employed.
+_Dire_ (djeereh) was a general name for a fine, and there were
+specific names for classes of fines. _Eric_ = reparation, redemption,
+was the fine for killing a human being, the amount being affected by
+the distinction between murder and manslaughter and by other
+circumstances; but in no case was a violent death, however innocent,
+allowed to pass without reparation being made. A fine was awarded out
+of the property of the convict or of his _fine_ to the _fine_ of the
+person slain, in the proportions in which they were entitled to
+inherit his property, that being also according to their degrees of
+kinship and the degrees in which they were really sufferers. This
+gave every clan and every clansman, in addition to their moral
+interest, a direct monetary interest in the prevention and
+suppression of crime. Hence the whole public feeling of the country
+was entirely in support of the law, the honor and interest of
+community and individual being involved in its maintenance. The
+injured person or _fine_, if unable to recover the fine, might, in
+capital cases, seize and enslave, or even kill, the convict. Probably
+restrained by the fact that, there being no officers of criminal law,
+they had to inflict punishment themselves, they sometimes imprisoned
+a convict in a small island, or sent him adrift on the sea in a
+_currach_ or boat of hide. Law supported by public opinion, powerful
+because so inspired, powerful because unanimous, was difficult to
+evade or resist. It so strongly armed an injured person, and so
+utterly paralyzed a criminal, that escape from justice was hardly
+possible. The only way in which it was possible was by flight,
+leaving all one's property behind, and sinking into slavery in a
+strange place; and this in effect was a severe punishment rather than
+an escape.
+
+FOREIGN LAW. The Danes and other Norsemen were the buccaneers of
+northwestern Europe from the eighth to the eleventh century. They
+conquered and settled permanently in Neustria, from them called
+Normandy, and conquered and ruled for a considerable time England and
+part of Scotland and the Isles. In Ireland they were little more than
+marauders, having permanent colonies only round the coast; always
+subject, nominally at least, to the _ard-ri_ or to the local chief;
+paying him tribute when he was strong, raiding his territory when he
+was weak, and fomenting recurrent disorder highly prejudicial to law,
+religion, and civilization. They never made any pretence of extending
+their laws to Ireland, and their attempt to conquer the country was
+finally frustrated at Clontarf in 1014.
+
+The Anglo-Norman invaders also seized the seaports. The earlier of
+them who went inland partially adopted in the second generation the
+Gaelic language, laws, and customs; as many non-Celtic Lowlanders of
+Scotland about the same period adopted the Gaelic language, laws, and
+customs of the Highlanders. Hence they did not make much impression
+on the Gaelic system, beyond the disintegrating effect of their
+imperfect adoption of it.
+
+Into the eastern parts of Ireland, however, a fresh stream of English
+adventurers continued to flow, as aggressive and covetous as their
+means and prudence permitted; calling so much of the country as they
+were able to wrench from the Irish "the English Pale", which
+fluctuated in extent with their fortunes; and, when compelled to pay
+tribute to Irish chiefs, calling it "black rent", to indicate how
+they regarded it. Their greatest difficulty was to counteract the
+tendency of the earlier colonists to become Hibernicized--a most
+unwilling tribute to the superiority of the Irish race. They, and
+still more those in England who supported them, knew nothing of the
+Irish language, laws, and institutions but that they should all be
+impartially hated, uprooted, and supplanted by English people and
+everything English as soon as means enabled this to be done. This was
+the amiable purpose of the pompously-named "Statute of Kilkenny",
+passed by about a score of these colonists in 1367. Presuming to
+speak in the name of Ireland, the statute prohibited the English
+colonists from becoming Irish in the numerous ways they were
+accustomed to do, and excluded all Irish priests from preferment in
+the Church, partly because their superior virtue would by contrast
+amount to a censure. The purpose was not completely successful even
+within the Pale. Outside that precinct, the mass of the Irish were
+wholly unconscious of the existence of the "Statute of Kilkenny." But
+expressing, as the statute did correctly, the views of fresh
+adventurers, it became, in arrogance and in the pretension to speak
+for the whole of Ireland, a model for their future legislation and
+policy.
+
+Under King Henry VI. of England, Richard, Duke of York, being Lord
+Deputy, the Parliament of the Pale, assembled in Dublin, repudiated
+the authority of the English Parliament in Ireland, established a
+mint, and assumed an attitude of almost complete independence. On the
+other hand, in 1494, under Henry VII., the Parliament of the Pale,
+assembled at Drogheda, passed Poyning's Act, extending all English
+laws to Ireland and subjecting all laws passed in Ireland to revision
+by the English Council. This, extended to the whole of Ireland as
+English power extended, remained in force until 1782. Henry VIII. was
+the first English sovereign to take practical measures for the
+pacific and diplomatic conquest of the whole of Ireland and the
+substitution of English for Irish institutions and methods. His
+daughter, Queen Elizabeth, continued and completed the conquest; but
+it was by drenching the country in blood, by more than decimating the
+Irish people, and by reducing the remnant to something like the
+condition of the ancient _fuidre_. Her policy prepared the ground for
+her successor, James I., to exterminate the Irish from large tracts,
+in which he planted Englishmen and Scotchmen, and to extend all
+English laws to Ireland and abolish all other laws. James's English
+attorney-general in Ireland, Sir John Davies, in his work, _A
+Discoverie of the True Causes, etc._, says:
+
+"For there is no nation of people under the sunne that doth love
+equall and indifferent [= impartial] justice better than the Irish;
+or will rest better satisfied with the execution thereof, although it
+bee against themselves; so as they may have the protection and
+benefit of the law, when uppon just cause they do desire it."
+
+The ancient Irish loved their laws and took pride in obeying and
+enforcing them. The different attitude of the modern Irish towards
+foreign laws and administration is amply explained by the morally
+indefensible character of those laws and that administration, to be
+read in English statutes and ordinances and in the history of English
+rule in Ireland--a subject too vast and harrowing, and in every sense
+foreign to what has gone before, to be entered upon here. Though the
+Parliament of 1782-1800 was little more than a Pale Parliament, in
+which the mass of the Irish people had no representation whatever,
+one of its Acts, to its credit be it said, was an attempt to mitigate
+the Penal Laws and emancipate the oppressed Gaelic and Catholic
+population of Ireland. With the partial exception of that brief
+interval, law in Ireland has, during the last 360 years, meant
+English laws specially enacted for the destruction of any Irish trade
+or industry that entered into competition with a corresponding
+English trade or industry. In later times those crude barbarities
+have been gradually superseded by the more defensible laws now in
+force in Ireland, all of which can be studied in statutes passed by
+the Parliament, since the Union with Scotland, called British.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Pending the desirable work of a more competent Brehon Law Commission
+and translators, the subject must be studied in the six volumes of
+_Ancient Laws of Ireland_, produced by the first Commission, from
+1865 to 1901, ignoring the long introductions and many of the notes.
+Whitley Stokes: Criticism of Atkinson's Glossary (London, 1903); R.
+Dareste: Etudes d'histoire de droit (Paris, 1889); d'Arbois de
+Jubainville and Paul Collinet: Etudes sur le droit celtique, 2 vols.
+(Paris, 1895); Joyce: Social History of Ancient Ireland, 2 vols.
+(London, 1913); Laurence Ginnell: The Brehon Laws (London, 1894).
+
+
+
+IRISH MUSIC
+
+By W.H. GRATTAN FLOOD, Mus. D., M.R.I.A., K.S.G.
+
+
+Perhaps nothing so strikingly brings home the association of Ireland
+with music as the fact that the harp is emblazoned on the national
+arms. Ireland, "the mother of sweet singers", as Pope writes;
+Ireland, "where", according to St. Columcille, "the clerics sing like
+the birds"; Ireland can proudly point to a musical history of over
+2,000 years. The Milesians, the De Dananns, and other pre-Christian
+colonists were musical. Hecataeus (B.C. 540-475) describes the Celts
+of Ireland as singing songs to the harp in praise of Apollo, and
+Aethicus of Istria, a Christian philosopher of the early fourth
+century, describes the culture of the Irish. Certain it is that, even
+before the coming of St. Patrick, the Irish were a highly cultured
+nation, and the national Apostle utilized music and song in his work
+of conversion. In the early Lives of the Irish Saints musical
+references abound, and the Irish school of music attracted foreign
+scholars from the sixth to the ninth century.
+
+Hymnologists are familiar with the hymns written by early Irish
+saints and laics, _e.g._, St. Sechnall, St. Columcille, St. Molaise,
+St. Cuchuimne, St. Columbanus, St. Ultan, St. Colman, St. Cummain,
+St. Aengus, Dungal, Sedulius, Moengal, and others. Who has not heard
+of the great music school of San Gallen, founded by St. Gall, "the
+wonder and delight of Europe," whither flocked German students? One
+of the Irish monks, Tuathal (Tutilo), composed numerous sacred
+pieces, including the famous farced Kyrie, "Fons bonitatis", included
+in the Vatican edition of the _Kyriale_ (1906). Not alone did Irish
+monks propagate sacred and secular music throughout France, Italy,
+Switzerland, Austria, Germany, and the far North, but they made their
+influence felt In Lindisfarne, Malmesbury, Glastonbury, and other
+cities in England, as also in Scotland. St. Aldhelm, one of the
+pupils of St. Maeldubh, tells us that at the close of the seventh
+century, "Ireland, synonymous with learning, literally blazed like
+the stars of the firmament with the glory of her scholars."
+
+During the ninth century we meet with twelve different forms of
+instruments in use by the Irish, namely:--the _Cruit_ and
+_Clairseach_ (small and large harp); _Timpan_ (_Rotta_ or bowed
+_cruit_); _Buinne_ (oboe or bassoon); _Bennbuabhal_ and _Corn_
+(horn); _Cuisleanna_ and _Piob_ (bagpipes); _Feadan_ (flute or fife);
+_Guthbuinne_ (bass horn); _Stoc_ and _Sturgan_ (trumpet); _Pipai_
+(single and double pipes); _Craoibh cuil_ and _Crann cuil_
+(cymbalum); _Cnamha_ (castanet); and _Fidil_ (fiddle). The so-called
+"Brian Boru's Harp" really dates from the thirteenth century, and is
+now in Trinity College, Dublin, but there are numerous sculptured
+harps of the ninth and tenth centuries on the crosses at Graig,
+Ullard, Clonmacnois, Durrow, and Monasterboice.
+
+Donnchadh, an Irish bishop of the ninth century, who died as abbot of
+St. Remigius, wrote a commentary on Martianus Capella, a well-known
+musical text book. Towering above all his fellows, John Scotus
+Erigena, in 867, wrote a tract _De Divisione Naturae_, in which he
+expounds _organum_ or discant, nearly a hundred years before the
+appearance of the _Scholia Enchiriadis_ and the _Musica Enchiriadis_.
+He also wrote a commentary on Martianus Capella, now in a Paris MS.
+of the ninth century.
+
+The eulogy of Giraldus Cambrensis, or Gerald Barry, who came to
+Ireland in 1183, on Irish harpers and minstrels is too well known to
+be repeated, but Brompton and John of Salisbury are equally
+enthusiastic. Ground bass, or pedal point, and singing in parts, as
+well as bands of harpers and pipers, were in vogue in Ireland before
+the coming of the English. Dante, quoted by Galilei, testifies to the
+fact that Italy received the harp from Ireland; and, it may be added,
+the Irish harp suggested the pianoforte. In the Anglo-Norman ballad,
+"The Entrenchment of New Ross"--in 1265--allusion is made to pipes
+and flutes, and carols and dancing. Another poem, dating from about
+1320, refers to Irish dances in a flattering manner.
+
+John Garland (1190-1264) wrote a treatise on _Organum_, and outlined
+a scheme of dividing the interval, which developed into
+ornamentation, passing notes, and grace notes. The Dublin _Troper_ of
+the thirteenth century has a number of farced Kyries and Glorias,
+also a collection of Sequences. A Dublin _Processionale_ of the
+fourteenth century contains the most elaborate form of the _Officium
+Sepulchri_, with musical notation on a four-line stave--the
+foundation of the Miracle Play of the Resurrection. Another Dublin
+_Troper_ dates from 1360 and was used in St. Patrick's Cathedral. It
+contains the hymn, "Angelus ad Virginem", alluded to by Chaucer. The
+Christ Church Psaltery, about 1370, has musical notation and is
+exquisitely illuminated. Lionel Power, an Anglo-Irishman, wrote the
+first English treatise on music in 1395. Exactly a century later, in
+1495, a music school was founded in Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin.
+
+The Irish Annals of the thirteenth to the fifteenth century have
+numerous references to distinguished harpers and singers, and there
+are still sung many beautiful airs of this period, including "The
+Coulin" and "Eibhlin a ruin." John Lawless was a famous Irish
+organ-builder of the second half of the fifteenth century, and his
+successor, James Dempsey, built many fine organs between the years
+1530 and 1565.
+
+Notwithstanding the many penal enactments against Irish minstrels,
+all the great Anglo-Irish nobles of the Pale retained an Irish harper
+and piper in their service. Under date of 1480, we find Chief Justice
+Bermingham having an Irish harper to teach his family, as also "to
+harp and to dance." A century later "Blind Cruise, the
+harper"--Richard Cruise--composed a lamentation song on the fall of
+the Baron of Slane, the air of which is still popular. It is to the
+credit of the Irishman, William Bathe (who subsequently became a
+Jesuit), that he wrote the first printed English treatise on music,
+published in 1584--thus ante-dating by thirteen years Morley's work.
+Bathe wrote a second musical treatise in 1587, and he was the first
+to call measures by the name of bars. He also formulated methods of
+transposition and sight reading that may still be studied with
+profit.
+
+Thomas Campion, the poet and composer, was born in Dublin in 1567,
+but spent nearly all his life in England. Other Irish composers, to
+mention only the most distinguished, were William Costello
+(madrigalist), Richard Gillie, Edward Shergold, and Walter Kennedy.
+Strange as it may seem, Queen Elizabeth retained in her service an
+Irish harper, Cormac MacDermot, from 1591 to 1603, and on the death
+of the queen he was given an annual pension of £46 10s. 10d.--nearly
+£500 a year of our present money.
+
+Shakespeare refers to eleven Irish tunes, of which the famous
+"Callino Casturame" (_Cailin og a stuir me_) is still fresh. Irish
+dances were extremely popular at the English court from 1600 to 1603
+and were introduced into the Masks. Shakespeare's "intrinsic friend,"
+John Dowland of Dublin, was one of the greatest lutenists in Europe
+from 1590 to 1626. In the dedication of a song "to my loving
+countryman, Mr. John Foster the Younger, merchant of Dublin in
+Ireland," Dowland sufficiently indicates his nationality, and his
+compositions betray all the charm and grace of Irish melody. It is of
+interest to add that the earliest printed "Irish Dance" is in
+_Parthenia Inviolata_, of which work, published in 1613-4, there is
+only one copy known--now in the New York Public Library. From
+1600-1602, Charles O'Reilly was harpist to the court of Denmark at
+200 thalers a year. His successor was Donal _Dubh_ ("the black")
+O'Cahill (1602-1610), who followed Anne of Denmark to the English
+court. Walter Quin of Dublin was music master to King James's eldest
+son, Prince Henry, from 1608 to 1611. Other noted harpers of the
+first half of the seventeenth century are: Rory _dall_ ("the blind")
+O'Cahan; Nicholas _dall_ Pierce; Tadhg MacRory; John, Rory, and Henry
+Scott; Owen MacKeenan; Owen MacDermot; Tadhg O'Coffey; and Father
+Robert Nugent, S.J. Darby Scott was harper to the Danish Court from
+1621 till his death, at Copenhagen, on December 19, 1634. Pierce
+Ferriter, a "gentleman harper", was executed at Killarney in 1652.
+Myles O'Reilly and the two Connellans were famous harpers between the
+years 1660-1680. Evelyn, the English diarist, in 1668, praises the
+excellent performance on the harp of Sir Edward Sutton, who, in the
+following year, was granted by King Charles II. the lands of Confey,
+Co. Kildare. Two beautiful harps of this period are still
+preserved--the Fitzgerald Harp and the Fogarty Harp.
+
+There are many exquisite airs of the seventeenth century, some of
+which have been incorporated in Moore's _Irish Melodies_. The titles
+of several airs of this epoch are of historical interest, _e.g._,
+"Sarsfield's Lament," "Lament for Owen Roe O'Neill," "MacAlistrum's
+March," "Ned of the Hill," "The Breach of Aughrim," "Limerick's
+Lamentation," "Lilliburlero," "Ballinamona," "The Boyne Water," and
+"The Wild Geese." Irish tunes abound in the various editions of
+Playford's _Country Dances_ from 1651 to 1720.
+
+Turlogh O'Carolan (1670-1738), who has been styled "the last of the
+Irish bards", wrote and composed innumerable songs, also Planxties,
+Plearacas, and Lamentations. It is here merely necessary to note that
+twenty-six of O'Carolan's airs are included in Moore's _Irish
+Melodies_, although his claim to them has only recently been proved
+by the present writer. Goldsmith's eulogy of O'Carolan is well known.
+
+The Jacobite period from 1710 to 1750 considerably influenced Irish
+minstrelsy, and some of the most delightful airs were adapted to
+Jacobite lyrics. "Seaghan buidhe," "An Sean duine," "Lament for
+Kilcash," "Ormonde's Lament," "Morin ni Chullenain," "All the Way to
+Galway" (the air of "Yankee Doodle"), "Caitlin ni Houlihan," "Balance
+a straw" ("The Wearing of the Green"), "St. Patrick's Day," "Plancam
+Peirbhig," are amongst the tunes in vogue at this period.
+
+As early as 1685 the Hibernian Catch Club was established and still
+flourishes. Cecilian celebrations were held from 1727 to 1732, and a
+Dublin Academy of Music was founded in 1728. The Charitable and
+Musical Society (founded in 1723) built the Fishamble Street Music
+Hall in 1741, and assisted at the first performance of _The Messiah_,
+conducted by Handel himself, on 13th April, 1742. Kitty Clive, Peg
+Woffington, and Daniel Sullivan were noted Irish singers of this
+epoch, while John Clegg, Dr. Murphy, and Burke Thumoth were famous
+instrumentalists. In 1741 Richard Pockrich invented the Musical
+Glasses, for which Gluck wrote some pieces: it was afterwards
+improved by Benjamin Franklin. On the continent, Henry Madden was
+music director of the Chapel Royal at Versailles in 1744 (in
+succession to Campra), and was also canon of St. Quentin.
+
+In 1764 the Earl of Mornington, Mus. D., was appointed first
+professor of music in Dublin University. A few years later Charles
+Clagget invented the valve-horn. Michael Kelly of Dublin was
+specially selected by Mozart to create the parts of Basilio and Don
+Curzio at the first performance of the opera of _Figaro_, on May 1st,
+1786. Kane O'Hara, Samuel Lee, Owenson, Neale, Baron Dillon, Dr.
+Doyle, T.A. Geary, Mahon, and the Earl of Westmeath were
+distinguished musicians--while the fame of Carter, Mountain,
+Moorehead, and Dr. Cogan was not confined to Ireland.
+
+Among native minstrels, Jerome Duigenan, Dominic Mongan, Denis
+Hempson, Charles Byrne, James Duncan, Arthur Victory, and Arthur
+O'Neill were celebrated as harpers. The Belfast meeting of 1792
+revived the vogue of the national instrument. Nor was the bagpipe
+neglected. Even in America, in 1778, Lord Rawdon had a band of
+pipers, with Barney Thomson as Pipe Major. At home, Sterling,
+Jackson, MacDonnell, Moorehead, Kennedy, and Macklin sustained the
+reputation of this ancient instrument.
+
+Ere the close of the eighteenth century John Field of Dublin was a
+distinguished pianist. He subsequently (1814) invented the nocturne,
+developed by Chopin. Sir John Stevenson (the arranger of the _Irish
+Melodies_), Tom Cooke, William Southwell (inventor of the damper
+action for pianofortes), Henry Mountain, Andrew Ashe (flautist),
+Barton, Rooke, and Bunting were world-famed.
+
+Among the Irish musicians of the last century the following names are
+typical: Thomas Moore, J. A. Wade, Balle (_Bohemian Girl_), Wallace
+(_Maritana_), Osborne, Sir Frederick Ouseley, Scotson Clarke, Howard
+Glover, Horncastle, J. W. Glover, Sir Robert Stewart, Augusta Holmes,
+R. M. Levey, Joseph Robinson, Forde, Lover, Kearns, Allen, Barker,
+Torrance, Molloy, Guernsey, Gilmore, Thunder, Harvey, Goodman, Sir
+Arthur Sullivan (_Pinafore, Mikado_), Miss Davis, Halliday (inventor
+of the Kent bugle), Latham, Duggan, Gaskin, Lacy, Pontet
+(Piccolomini), Hudson, Pigot, Horan, Marks, and W. C. Levey. Famous
+vocalists like Catherine Hayes, Mrs. Scott Fennell, Signer Foli
+(Foley), Barton McGuckin, Denis O'Sullivan, and William Ludwig
+deserve inclusion.
+
+In our own day, it is only necessary to mention composers like Sir
+Charles Villiers Stanford, Dr. C. Woods, Victor Herbert, Mrs.
+Needham, Dr. Sinclair, Norman O'Neill, and Arthur O'Leary; singers
+like Egan, Burke, Plunket Greene, John MacCormack, P. O'Shea, Charles
+Manners, and Joseph O'Mara; violinists like Maud McCarthy, Emily
+Keady, Arthur Darley, and Patrick Delaney; organists like Dr. Charles
+Marchant, Brendan Rogers, Dr. Jozé, and Professor Buck; writers like
+Mrs. Curwen, Dr. Annie Patterson, Mrs. Milligan Fox, Professor
+Mahaffy, A.P. Graves, Dr. Collison, and G.B. Shaw; and conductors
+like Hamilton Harty and James Glover.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Walker: Irish Bards (1786); O'Curry: Lectures (1870); Hardiman: Irish
+Mistrelsy (2 vols., 1834); The Complete Petrie Collection (3 vols.,
+1902-1904); Grattan Flood: History of Irish Music (3rd ed., 1913),
+Story of the Harp (1906), Story of the Bagpipe (1911); Mrs. Milligan
+Fox: Annals of the Irish Harpers (1911); Mason: Song Lore of Ireland
+(1910); Armstrong: Musical Instruments (2 vols., 1904-1908); O'Neill:
+Irish Folk Music (1911), Irish Minstrels and Musicians (1913).
+
+
+
+IRISH METAL WORK
+
+By DIARMID GOFFEY.
+
+
+From the earliest times in the history of western Europe Ireland has
+been renowned for her work in metal. The first metal used was copper,
+and copper weapons are found in Ireland dating from 2,000 B.C., or
+even earlier, the beautiful designs of which show that the early
+inhabitants of the country were skilled workers in metal. Fields of
+copper exist all along the southern seaboard of Ireland. Numbers of
+flat copper celts, or axes, have been found modelled on the still
+earlier stone implements. By degrees the influence of the early stone
+axe disappears and axes of a true metal type are developed. Primitive
+copper knives and awls are also abundant. The fineness of the early
+Irish copper work is seen at its best in the numerous copper halberd
+blades found in Ireland. These blades, varying from nine to sixteen
+inches in length, were fastened at right angles by rivets into wooden
+shafts. The blades show a slight sickle-like curve and are of the
+highest workmanship. Halberds somewhat similar in type have been
+found in Spain, North Germany, and Scandinavia.
+
+Between the years 2000 and 1800 B.C. the primitive metalworkers
+discovered that bronze, a mixture of tin and copper, was a more
+suitable metal than pure copper for the manufacture of weapons; and
+the first period of the bronze age may be dated from 1800 to 1500
+B.C. The bronze celts at first differed little from those made of
+copper, but gradually the type developed from the plain wedge-shaped
+celt to the beautiful socketed celt, which appears on the scene in
+the last, or fifth, division of the bronze age (900-350 B.C.). It was
+during the age of bronze that spears came into general use, as did
+the sword and rapier. The early spear-heads were simply knife-shaped
+bronze weapons riveted to the ends of shafts, but by degrees the
+graceful socketed spear-heads of the late bronze age were developed.
+
+Stone moulds for casting the early forms of weapons have been found,
+but, as the art of metalworking became perfected, the use of sand
+moulds was discovered, with the result that there are no extant
+examples of moulds for casting the more developed forms of weapons.
+The bronze weapons--celts, swords, and spear-heads--are often highly
+decorated. In these decorations can be traced the connection between
+the early Irish civilization and that of the eastern Mediterranean.
+The bronze age civilization in Europe spread westward from the
+eastern Mediterranean either by the southern route of Italy, Spain,
+France, and thence to Ireland, or, as seems more probable, up the
+river Danube, then down the Elbe, and so to Scandinavia, whence
+traders by the north of Scotland introduced the motives and patterns
+of the Aegean into Ireland. Whichever way the eastern civilization
+penetrated into Ireland, it left England practically untouched in her
+primitive barbarity.
+
+Of gold work, for which Ireland is especially famous, the principal
+feature in the bronze age was the lunula, a crescent-shaped flat gold
+ornament generally decorated at the ends of the crescent. These
+lunulae are found in profusion all over Ireland. A few have been
+found in Cornwall and Brittany, and a few in Scotland and Denmark.
+One has been found in Luxemburg and one in Hanover.
+
+Gold collars are numerous in Ireland and also date from the bronze
+age. The earliest form of collar is the "torc" of twisted gold.
+Another type, later in date than the torc, is the gold ring-shaped
+collar. Two splendid examples of this latter type were found at
+Clonmacnois, the decoration of which, in _La Tène_, or trumpet,
+pattern, shows the connection between the Irish and continental
+designs.
+
+A find of prehistoric gold ornaments in county Clare should be
+mentioned. An immense number was there discovered in 1854 hidden
+together in a cist, the value of the whole being estimated at over
+£3,000.
+
+After the bronze age comes the iron age. The introduction of iron
+wrought a great change in metalworking, but, as iron is a metal very
+subject to oxidization, comparatively few early iron remains are
+found. There are some swords of an early pattern in the National
+Museum at Dublin.
+
+It has been shown that the pre-Christian metalwork of Ireland is well
+worthy of attention, but it is to the early Christian metalworkers
+that Ireland owes her pre-eminent fame in this field. In early
+Christian Ireland metalworking was brought to a pitch rarely equalled
+and never excelled. The remains found, such as the Tara Brooch, the
+Cross of Cong, and the Ardagh Chalice, are among the most beautiful
+metalwork in the world. The wonderful interlaced patterns, which are
+typically Celtic, bewildering in their intricacy, and fascinating in
+the freedom and boldness of their execution, lend themselves readily
+to metal work.
+
+The connecting link between the metalwork of the late pagan period
+and that of early Christian times is chiefly exemplified by the
+penannular brooches, of which great numbers have been found in
+Ireland. Examples of this characteristically Celtic ornament may be
+seen in all Celtic countries.
+
+In its earliest form this brooch is simply a ring, with a gap in it,
+to which a pin is loosely attached by a smaller ring. Gradually the
+open ends of the ring, which need some enlargement in order to
+prevent the pin slipping off, became larger and ornamented. In time
+these became regular trumpet-shaped ends, generally ornamented with
+characteristic "trumpet" patterns. The next stage was to close the
+gap, leaving a ring with a crescent-shaped disc at one side. Space
+does not permit of the description of the numerous brooches found. It
+will be sufficient to describe the Tara Brooch, which is the crowning
+glory not only of the Irish but of any metalworker's art.
+
+The Tara Brooch, whose only connection with Tara is its name, was
+found near Drogheda; it is about seven inches in diameter and the pin
+about fifteen inches long. It is made of bronze covered with the most
+elaborate interlaced ornament in gold. The fineness of the interlaced
+work may be compared with, and is quite equal to, that of the best
+illuminated manuscripts; the freedom of its execution is amazing.
+Besides panels of ribbon ornament, which include spirals, plaited
+work, human heads, and animal forms, the front of the brooch is
+decorated with enamel and settings of amber and colored glass. The
+back of the brooch is, as is often the case in Irish work, decorated
+in a bolder manner than the front, and the "trumpet" pattern is there
+very marked. The head of the pin is also elaborately decorated. The
+minute and intricate style of the work is strikingly shown by the
+fact that, even after prolonged study, some patterns escaped notice
+and have only lately been discovered. Further, each of the gold lines
+is made of tiny gold balls, so small as only to be seen by means of a
+magnifying glass.
+
+With the introduction of Christianity, the attention of artificers
+was turned to the manufacture of church vessels and shrines. Of these
+perhaps the most beautiful are the Ardagh Chalice, the Cross of Cong,
+and the Shrine of St. Patrick's Bell, though great numbers of other
+sacred ornaments, such as the Shrine of St. Lactan's Arm and the
+numerous bell shrines, are also fine examples of the work of an
+unsurpassed school of metalworkers.
+
+The date of the Tara Brooch is not easy to determine, but it may
+probably be placed in the eighth century of our era. The Ardagh
+Chalice belongs probably to about the same date. It was found in a
+rath at Ardagh, county Limerick, in 1868. It measures 7 inches in
+height and 9-1/2 in diameter. Around the cup is a band of fine
+filigree interlaced ornament in the form of panels divided by half
+beads of enamel. Below this are the names of the twelve Apostles in
+faint Celtic lettering. The two handles are beautifully decorated
+with panels of interwoven ornament, and on the sides are two circular
+discs divided into ornamented panels. The under side of the foot of
+the Chalice is also very beautifully decorated.
+
+The shrines of the bells of the Irish saints are interesting examples
+of Irish metal work. As is fitting, the finest of these is the Shrine
+of St. Patrick's Bell. This was made by order of King Domnall
+O'Lachlainn between the years 1091 and 1105 to contain St. Patrick's
+Bell, a square iron bell made of two plates of sheet iron riveted
+together. The shrine is made of bronze plates, to which gold filigree
+work and stones are riveted. The top of the shrine, curved to receive
+the handle of the bell, is of silver elaborately decorated. The back
+is overlaid with a plate of silver cut in cruciform pattern. Around
+the margin of the back is engraved the following inscription in
+Irish: "A prayer for Domnall Ua Lachlainn, by whom this bell [shrine]
+was made, and for Domnall, successor of Patrick, by whom it was made,
+and for Cathalan Ua Maelchallann, the keeper of the bell, and for
+Cudulig Ua Inmainen with his sons, who fashioned it." The whole is
+executed in a very fine manner and is the most beautiful object of
+its kind in existence. Another beautiful shrine, known as the Cross
+of Cong, made to enshrine a piece of the true cross presented by the
+pope in 1123, was made for King Turlogh O'Conor at about that date.
+It is 2 feet 6 inches high and 1 foot 6-3/4 inches wide. It is made
+of oak cased with copper and enriched with ornaments of gilded
+bronze. The ornamentation is of the typical Irish type, as on the
+Ardagh Chalice and the Shrine of St. Patrick's Bell. A quartz crystal
+set in the centre of the front of the cross probably held the relic.
+
+It is clear from the succession of beautiful work executed from the
+eighth to the twelfth century, that there must have existed in
+Ireland during that period a school of workers in metal such as has
+seldom been equalled by any individual worker or guild before or
+since, and never excelled. The examples described are only the more
+famous of the remains of early Irish Christian art in metal, but they
+are surrounded by numerous examples of pins, brooches, and shrines,
+each worthy to rank with the finest productions of the metalworker.
+The Shrine of St. Moedoc (date uncertain) ought perhaps to be
+mentioned. On it are found several figures, including three nuns, men
+with books, sceptres, and swords, and a lifelike figure of a harper.
+
+Besides articles of ornament, articles of use, such as bits for
+horses and household utensils, have been found, which show that the
+Irish smiths were as well able to produce articles for every-day use
+as the artificers were to create works of art in metal.
+
+With the landing of the English in 1169 the arts and sciences in
+Ireland declined. Indeed, from that time on and for long afterwards,
+almost the only metalworkers needed were makers of arms and weapons
+of offense and defense.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+British Museum, Bronze Age Guide; Coffey: Bronze Age in Ireland;
+Allen: Celtic Art; Abercrombie: Bronze Age Pottery; Wilde: Catalogue
+of the Royal Irish Academy's Collection; Allen: Christian Symbolism;
+Stokes: Christian Art in Ireland; Petrie: Ecclesiastical Architecture
+in Ireland; Coffey: Guide to the Celtic Antiquities of the Christian
+Period perserved in the National Museum, Dublin; Kane: Industrial
+Resources of Ireland; O'Curry: Manners and Customs of the Ancient
+Irish; Coffey: New Grange and other incised Tumuli in Ireland;
+Dechelette: Manuel d'Archéologie pré-historique; Ridgeway: Origin of
+Currency and Weight Standards.
+
+
+
+IRISH MANUSCRIPTS
+
+By LOUIS ELY O'CARROLL, B.A., B.L.
+
+
+In the dark ages of Europe, whilst new civilizations were in the
+making and all was unrest, art and religion, like the lamp of the
+sanctuary, burned brightly and steadily in Ireland, and their rays
+penetrated the outer gloom. Scattered through the libraries of Europe
+are the priceless manuscripts limned by Irish scribes. The earliest
+missionaries to the continent, disciples of St. Columbanus and St.
+Gall, doubtless brought with them into exile beautiful books which
+they or their brothers of the parent monastery had wrought in a labor
+of love; or mayhap many a monk crossed the seas bearing the treasured
+volumes into hiding from the spoiling hands of the Dane. Yet,
+fortunately, in the island home where their beauty was born the most
+superb volumes still remain.
+
+From almost prehistoric times the Irish were skilled artificers in
+gold and bronze, and, at the advent of Christianity, had already
+evolved and perfected that unique system of geometrical ornament
+which is known as Celtic design. The original and essential features
+of this system consisted in the use of spirals and interlacing
+strapwork, but later on this type was developed by transforming the
+geometrical fret into a scheme of imaginary or nondescript animals,
+portions of which, such as the tails and ears, were prolonged and
+woven in exquisite fancy through the border. The artistic features of
+Celtic book decoration consist chiefly of initial letters of this
+nature embellished with color. Amongst the ancient Irish there was a
+keen knowledge of color and an exceptional appreciation of color
+values. Thus it was that in the early centuries of Christian Ireland
+the learned monks, transcribing the Gospels and longing to make the
+book beautiful, were able to bring to their task an artistic skill
+which was hereditary and almost instinctive. The colors which they
+used were mostly derived from mineral substances and the black was
+carbon, made, it is conjectured, from charred fish-bones; but with
+them was combined some gummy material which made them cling softly to
+the vellum and has held for us their lustre for more than a thousand
+years. It is noteworthy that neither gold nor silver was used for
+book decoration, and this would appear to be a deliberate avoidance
+of the glitter and glare which distinguish eastern art.
+
+_The Book of Durrow _(in the Library of Trinity College, Dublin) is
+the oldest specimen of Celtic illumination and, if not the work of
+St. Columcille, is certainly of as early a date. Each of the Gospels
+opens with a beautiful initial succeeded by letters of gradually
+diminishing size, and there are full page decorations embodying such
+subjects as the symbols of the Evangelists. The colors are rich and
+vivid and all the designs are of the purest and most Celtic
+character.
+
+_The Gospels of MacRegol _(now in the Bodleian Library, Oxford) is
+the work of an Abbot of Birr who died A.D. 820. It is a volume of
+unusually large size, copiously ornamented with masterly designs and
+containing illuminated portraits of Saints Mark, Luke, and John. The
+first part of the book with the portrait of St. Matthew is missing.
+_The Book of Kells _(in the Library of T.C.D.) is the all-surpassing
+masterpiece of Celtic illuminative art and is acknowledged to be the
+most beautiful book in the world. This copy of the four Gospels was
+long deemed to have been made by the saintly hands of Columcille,
+though it probably belongs to the eighth century. Into its pages are
+woven such a wealth of ornament, such an ecstasy of art, and such a
+miracle of design that the book is today not only one of Ireland's
+greatest glories but one of the world's wonders. After twelve
+centuries the ink is as black and lustrous and the colors are as
+fresh and soft as though but the work of yesterday. The whole range
+of colors is there--green, blue, crimson, scarlet, yellow, purple,
+violet--and the same color is at times varied in tone and depth and
+shade, thereby achieving a more exquisite combination and effect. In
+addition to the numerous decorative pages and marvellous initials,
+there are portraits of the Evangelists and full-page miniatures of
+the Temptation of Christ, His Seizure by the Jews, and the Madonna
+and Child surrounded by Angels with censers. Exceptionally beautiful
+are these angels and other angelic figures throughout the book, their
+wings shining with glowing colors amid woven patterns of graceful
+design. The portraits and miniatures and the numerous faces centred
+in initial letters are not to be adjudged by the standard of
+anatomical drawing and delineation of the human figure, but rather by
+their effect as part of a scheme of ornamentation; for the Celtic
+illuminator was imaginative rather than realistic, and aimed
+altogether at achieving beauty by means of color and design. The Book
+of Kells is the Mecca of the illuminative artist, but it is the
+despair of the copyist. The patience and skill of the olden scribe
+have baffled the imitator; for, on an examination with a magnifying
+glass, it has been found that, in a space of a quarter of an inch,
+there are no fewer than a hundred and fifty-eight interlacements of a
+ribbon pattern of white lines edged by black ones on a black ground.
+Surely this is the manuscript which was shown to Giraldus Cambrensis
+towards the close of the twelfth century and of whose illuminations
+he speaks with glowing enthusiasm; "they were," he says, "supposed to
+have been produced by the direction of an angel at the prayer of St.
+Brigid."
+
+_The Gospels of MacDurnan _(now in the Archbishop's Library at
+Lambeth) is a small and beautiful volume which was executed by an
+abbot of Armagh who died in the year 891. A full-page picture of the
+Evangelist precedes each Gospel, and a composite border frames each
+miniature in a bewildering pattern of intertwining strapwork and
+wonderful designs of imaginary beasts. Ornamental capitals and rich
+borders give a special beauty to the initial pages of the Gospels.
+
+_The Book of Armagh _(in the Library of T.C.D.) was carefully guarded
+and specially venerated through the ages in the erroneous belief that
+it was in part the handiwork of St. Patrick. It was written about the
+year 800, and would appear to have been copied from documents
+actually written by the patron saint of Ireland. The book is
+exceptionally interesting by reason of the fact that it contains St.
+Patrick's Confession, that beautiful story of how he found his
+mission, how the captive grew to love his captors, and how, after his
+escape, he came back to them bearing the lamp of Holy Faith. Although
+the ornamentation of the manuscript is infrequent, there are
+occasional beautiful examples which compare in richness with those in
+the Book of Kells.
+
+_The Liber Hymnorum _(in the Franciscan Monastery, Dublin) contains a
+number of hymns associated with the names of Irish saints. The
+ornamentation consists of colored initials, designed with a striking
+use of fanciful animal figures interlaced and twined with delightful
+freedom around the main structural body.
+
+The _Garland of Howth_ and the _Stowe Missal_ (both in Trinity
+College Library) belong to the eighth century and are beautiful
+examples of early illuminative art. The former, which is very
+incomplete, has only two ornamental pages left, each containing
+figure-representations inserted in the decorative work.
+
+The _Gospels of St. Chad_ (in the Cathedral Library at Lichfield) and
+the _Gospels of Lindisfarne_, which are "the glory of the British
+Museum", form striking examples of the influence of Celtic art. St.
+Chad was educated in Ireland in the school of St. Finian, where he
+acquired his training in book decoration. The Gospels of Lindisfarne
+were produced by the monks of Iona, where St. Columcille founded his
+great school of religion, art, and learning. This latter manuscript
+is second only to the Book of Kells in its glory of illuminative
+design, and, from its distinctive scheme of colors, the tones of
+which are light and bright and gay, it forms a contrast to the
+quieter shades and the solemn dignity of the more famous volume.
+
+_The Book of the Dun Cow, The Book of Leinster_, and the other great
+manuscripts of the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries are
+interesting as literature rather than as art, for they tell the
+history of ancient Erin and have garnered her olden legends and
+romantic tales. It is only the Gospels and other manuscripts of
+religious subjects that are illuminated. In the apparel of the
+ancient Irish, the number of colors marked the social rank: the king
+might wear seven colors, poets and learned men six; five colors were
+permitted in the clothes of chieftains, and thus grading down to the
+servant, who might wear but one. All this the scribe knew well. We
+can picture the humble servant of God, clad in a coarse robe of a
+single color, deep in his chosen labor of recording the life and
+teachings of his Master, and striving to endow this record with the
+glory of the seven colors which were rightly due to a King alone. As
+we gaze on his work today its beauty is instinct with life, and the
+patient love that gave it birth seems to cling to it still. The white
+magic of the artist's holy hands has bridged the span of a thousand
+years.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+O'Curry: Lectures on the Manuscript Materials of Ancient Irish
+History (Dublin, 1861); Brunn: An Enquiry into the Art of the
+Illuminated Manuscripts of the Middle Ages, Part I, Celtic
+Illuminated Manuscripts (Edinburgh, 1897); Robinson: Celtic
+Illuminative Art in the Gospels of Durrow, Lindisfarne, and Kells
+(Dublin, 1908); Westwood: The Book of Kells, a lecture given in
+Oxford, November, 1886 (Dublin, 1887); Gougaud: Répertoire des
+fac-similés des manuscripts irlandais (Paris, 1913).
+
+
+
+THE RUINS OF IRELAND
+
+By FRANCIS JOSEPH BIGGER, M.R.I.A.
+
+
+The ruins of Ireland are her proudest monuments. They stand as a
+lasting revelation to all mankind--a distinct and definite
+proclamation that the Irish people, century after century, were able
+to raise and adorn some of the finest buildings in stone that western
+civilization has seen or known. It is recognized the world over that
+Irish art has a beauty and distinction all its own, in its own Irish
+setting unrivalled, throned in its own land, in its own natural
+surroundings. The shrines and gospels, the reliquaries and missals,
+the crosses and bells that are still existent, many in Ireland,
+others in every country in the world, attest beyond any dispute that
+Irish art-workers held a preëminent place in the early middle ages,
+and that works of Irish art are still treasured as unique in their
+day and time. No country has been plundered and desolated as Ireland
+has been. Dane, Norman, English--each in turn swept across the fair
+face of Ireland, carrying destruction in their train, yet withal
+Ireland has her art treasures and her ruins that bear favorable
+comparison with those of other civilizations.
+
+In Dublin and in many private Irish collections can be found
+hand-written books of parchment, illuminated with glowing colors that
+time has scarce affected or the years caused to fade. On one page
+alone of the Book of Kells, ornament and writing can be seen penned
+and painted in lines too numerous even to count. They are there by
+the thousand: a magnifying glass is required to reveal even a
+fragment of them. Ireland produced these in endless number--every
+great library or collection in Europe possesses one or more examples.
+
+As with books, so with reliquaries, crosses, and bells. When the
+Island of Saints and Scholars could produce books, it could make
+shrines and everything necessary to stimulate and hand down the piety
+and the patient skill of a people steeped in art-craft and religious
+feeling. What they could do on parchment--like the Books of Kells and
+Durrow--what they could produce in bronze and precious metals--like
+the Cross of Cong, the Shrine of Saint Patrick's Bell, the Tara
+Brooch, and the Chalice of Ardagh--not to write of the numberless
+bronze and gold articles of an age centuries long preceding their
+production--they could certainly vie with in stone.
+
+Of this earlier work a word must go down. In Ireland still at the
+present day, after all the years of plunder she has undergone, more
+ancient gold art-treasures remain than in any other country, museum,
+or collection, most of them pre-Christian, and what the other
+countries do possess are largely Irish or of Celtic origin. We must
+have this borne into the minds of every one of Irish birth or origin,
+that this great treasure was battered into shape by Irish hands on
+Irish anvils, designed in Irish studios, ornamented with Irish skill
+for Irish use.
+
+With such workmen, having such instincts and training, what of the
+housing and surroundings to contain them and give them a fit and
+suitable setting? The earliest stone structures in Ireland still
+remaining are the great stone cashels or circular walls enclosing
+large spaces--walls of great thickness, unmortared, in which there
+are vast quantities of masonry. Around their summits a chariot might
+be driven, inside their spaces horse races might be run. As a few
+examples, there are Staigue, in Kerry; Dun Angus, in Aran, off
+Galway; Aileach, above the walls of Derry. Of the earliest churches,
+cyclopean in construction and primitive in character, built of stone,
+with thick sloping walls from foundation to ridge, Gallerus still
+remains, and the Skelligs, those wondrous sea-girt rocks, preserve
+both church and cell almost perfect. There are many other examples,
+some of a later date, such as Temple Cronan and Maghera and Banagher
+in Derry, St. Finan's oratory in county Cork, St. Fechin's at Fore,
+and St. Molaise's at Devenish.
+
+From the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries, there are innumerable
+examples of oratories, some with stone roofs, others with roofs not
+so permanent, but all having the common features of an altar window
+facing the east, through which the sun fell at the beginning of the
+day to tell the early missioner that his hour of devotion had
+arrived, and a west door, through which the rays of the declining sun
+fell across the altar steps, speaking of a day that was closing. A
+south window was added close to the east end, and it, too, was a
+sun-dial; it told the hour of angelus, the mid-day, when the bell was
+rung and a calm reverence fell on all within its hearing. Such
+churches can still be seen at Aran and Inismurray, on the islands of
+Lough Derg, Lough Ri, and in many other places.
+
+A few years later these oratories were too small for the growing
+faith, and larger churches were built, some using the older structure
+as chancels. Where the west door was built a circular arch was made
+and the new and old united. This can well be seen at Inis-na-ghoill
+in Lough Corrib, on the Aran Islands off Galway, at Glendalough, at
+Inis-cleraun in Lough Ri, at Clonmacnois, at Iniscaltra, and on many
+another island and promontory of the south and west.
+
+During this time, and after, we find the most elaborate carvings on
+door and arch and window, equal in skill to what is found in book or
+metal work.
+
+It must have been at this time that the Galls, or strangers, first
+invaded Ireland, bearing havoc in their train, for then it was that
+the _cloicteach_, or Round Towers, were built. It is now admitted by
+all Irish authorities of any repute, and that beyond dispute, that
+the Round Towers, the glory of Ireland, were built by Irish people as
+Christian monuments from which the bells might be rung, and as places
+of strength for the preservation of the valued articles used in
+Christian worship; here they might be safely stored. They were also
+used for the preservation of life in case of sudden attack and
+onslaught by unexpected enemies. All the towers are on ecclesiastical
+sites, many are incorporated in church buildings, such as those of
+Glendalough in Wicklow and Clonmacnois on the Shannon, The records of
+the construction of some of them in the tenth and eleventh centuries
+are still extant, and this is conclusive. There are today about
+seventy Round Towers in Ireland, and many have been destroyed.
+
+      The pillar towers of Ireland, how wondrously they stand
+      By the lakes and rushing rivers through the valleys of our land;
+      In mystic file, through the isle, they lift their heads sublime,
+      These gray old pillar temples--these conquerors of time.
+
+      Here was placed the holy chalice that held the sacred wine,
+      And the gold cross from the altar, and the relics from the shrine,
+      And the mitre shining brighter with its diamonds than the east,
+      And the crozier of the pontiff, and the vestments of the priest.
+
+                                                _D.F. MacCarthy_.
+
+This was the time when the High Crosses of Ireland were carved and
+set up. They vie with the Round Towers in interest and in the display
+of skill. What the towers have in perfection, masonry and
+construction, the crosses have in artistic carving and symbolic
+design. No two crosses are alike; they are as varied as the clouds in
+an Irish sky or the pebbles on the beach or the flowers in a garden.
+They were carved in reverence by those who knew and esteemed their
+art, and lavished all their skill and knowledge on what they most
+valued and treasured. They were not set up as grave-marks
+merely--theirs was a higher and loftier mission. They were raised in
+places where some great event or period was to be commemorated--they
+were erected where some early disciple of the Cross could stand
+beside one of them and from any panel could tell the foundation of
+the Faith, for there in stone was story after story, from the Old
+Testament and the New, that gave him his text, and so, as at the
+Cross of the Scriptures at Clonmacnois, a missioner could preach on
+every recurring holy day from Christmas to Christmas, with ever his
+text in stone before him. Many a broken and mutilated cross has been
+set up in Ireland in recent years, proving that the heart of the
+Gael, no matter how rent and broken, is still inclined to bind up the
+broken wounds of her past glories.
+
+With the religious orders there came to Ireland a widespread desire
+to add something to the older sanctuaries of the Gael, to widen their
+borders and strengthen their cords, and so the abbeys were founded.
+Here and there we find them still--by winding rivers, on rich
+meadows, in glens and glades, by the sea margin, or on the slopes of
+the rugged mountain. Their crumbling walls and broken windows can
+still be traced, their towers are still to be seen over tree tops and
+in the centre of many a slumbering town. By the shores of Donegal Bay
+the old Franciscan house, where the Four Masters compiled what is
+perhaps the most remarkable record possessed by any nation, is still
+clothed in ivy. At Kilconnell, in Galway, their old place is almost
+as they left it, but roofless, with the tears of the friars upon the
+altar steps. Clare Galway has a tower worth travelling half a
+continent to see. By the Boniet River, at Drumahaire, on the banks of
+Lough Gill, are the mason marks of the cloister builders, and the
+figure of St. Francis talking to the birds is still there. The abbey
+is roofless and empty, and so the birds of the air are his constant
+companions.
+
+Space forbids, or endless abbeys might be described. The Black Abbey
+at Kilkenny, with its long row of Butler effigies, or the Cathedral
+of Saint Canice, still perfect, with its soaring round tower beside
+it, or the mystical seven light window of the Franciscan friary by
+the Nore, with the old mill-weirs running free to this day. How long
+could we ponder by the east window of Kilcooley, with tracery like a
+spider's web, and listen to the mystical bells, or gaze at the
+beautiful oriel at Feenagh, or stand at Jerpoint, with its spacious
+cloisters and stone-groined choir, with Saint Christopher in Irish
+marble beside us.
+
+Cashel, one of the wonders of the world, grows up suddenly into sight
+on a high rock rising from level land crowned with buildings. A great
+abbey dominates; beside it clings that carved gem of a stone-roofed
+church, Cormac's Chapel. Round Tower and Cross are there, and many a
+sculptured tomb.
+
+Not far from Cashel is the Abbey of Holy Cross, with its lovely
+mitred windows, shadowed in the river passing at its feet. The
+circular pillars and arches of Boyle Abbey are splendidly
+proportioned, whilst the cloisters of Sligo display in their long,
+shadowy recesses and ornamented pillars great dignity and beauty. The
+windows and monuments of Ennis Friary, founded by the O'Briens, are
+of unusual interest, the carving of figure-subjects being equal to
+the best of their age.
+
+We have Thomastown and Callan, Dunbrody and Tintern, all having an
+individual charm and interest that not only dim the eye and make the
+blood course freely in every one of Irish stock when he looks upon
+what is and thinks of what was, but even in the coldest light give
+food for thought to every one desirous of knowing something of the
+growth and civilization of a great people.
+
+Of the many castles and stout Irish strongholds it is hard to write
+in such a short paper as this. Those on the Boyne, such as Trim, for
+strong building and extent, excel in many ways. Carlingford,
+Carrickfergus, and Dunluce have by their size and picturesque
+situations ever appealed to visitors. They are each built on rocks
+jutting into the sea, Dunluce on a great perpendicular height, the
+Atlantic dashing below. Dunamace, near Maryborough, in the O'More
+country, appears like Cashel, but is entirely military. The famed
+walled cities of Kells, in Kilkenny, and Fore, in Westmeath, are
+remarkable. Each has an abbey, many towers, gates, and stout
+bastions. The great keeps of the midland lords, the towers of
+Granuaile on the west coast, and the traders' towers on the east
+coast, especially those of Down, afford ample material for a study of
+the early colonizing efforts of different invaders, as well as
+providing incidents of heroism and romance. These square battlemented
+towers can be seen here and there in every district.
+
+Every portion of Ireland has its ruins. Earthworks, stone forts,
+prehistoric monuments, circular stone huts, early churches, abbeys,
+crosses, round towers, castles of every size and shape are to be
+found in every county, some one in every parish, all over Ireland. It
+is almost invidious to name any in particular where the number is so
+great.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Proceedings of Royal Irish Academy (Dublin); Proceedings of Society
+of Antiquaries (Dublin); Ulster Journal of Archaeology, Old Series
+and New Series, edited by F.J. Bigger, Belfast; Wakeman: Handbook of
+Irish Antiquities (Dublin, 1891); Stokes: Early Christian Art in
+Ireland (Dublin, 1887); Petrie: Round Towers and Ancient Architecture
+of Ireland (Dublin, 1845).
+
+
+
+MODERN IRISH ART
+
+By D.J. O'DONOGHUE,
+
+_Librarian, University College, Dublin_.
+
+
+It would be difficult to dispute, in view of her innumerable and
+excellent artists, that there has always been in modern times an art
+consciousness in Ireland, but it is impossible to assert that there
+has been any artistic unity in her people. She has produced no
+school, but merely a great number of brilliant painters, sculptors,
+and engravers, chiefly for export. With all our acknowledged artistic
+capacity, we have not, except in one notable instance, produced a
+cumulative art effect. The history of Irish art is almost uniformly a
+depressing narrative. During a comparatively brief period in the
+eighteenth century--significantly enough, it was while the country
+enjoyed a short spell of national life--there was something like a
+national patronage of the artist, and the result is visible in the
+noble public buildings and beautiful houses of the Irish capital,
+with their universally admired mantelpieces, doors, ceilings,
+fanlights, ironwork, and carvings. In short, while Ireland had even a
+partly unfettered control of her own concerns, the arts were
+generously encouraged by her government and by the wealthy
+individual. When other European capitals were mere congeries of
+rookeries, Dublin, the centre of Irish political life, possessed
+splendid streets, grandly planned. But there was little solidarity
+among the artistic fraternity. Various associations of artists were
+formed, which held together fairly well until the flight of the
+resident town gentry after the Union, and many admirable artists were
+trained in the schools of the Royal Dublin Society, but, since the
+opening of the nineteenth century, there has been almost no visible
+art effort in Dublin. True, there have been many fine artists, who
+have made a struggle to fix themselves in Dublin, but, as with the
+Royal Hibernian Academy, of which the best of them were members, the
+struggle has been a painful agony. Usually the artist migrated to
+London to join the large group of Irishmen working there; a few
+others went to America and obtained an honored place in her art
+annals. Those who went to England secured in many cases the highest
+rewards of the profession. Several, like Barry, Hone, Barrett, and
+Cotes, were founders or early members of the Royal Academy; one, Sir
+Martin Shee, became its President. Nevertheless, many distinguished
+artists remained in Dublin, where the arts of portrait-painting and
+engraving were carried to a high pitch of excellence.
+
+This record must necessarily be of a chronological character, and can
+only take note of those whose works have actual value and interest,
+historical or other. Edward Luttrell (1650-1710) did some excellent
+work in crayon or pastel, while Garrett Murphy (fl. 1650-1716),
+Stephen Slaughter (d. 1765), Francis Bindon (d. 1765), and James
+Latham (1696-1747), have each left us notable portraits of the great
+Irish personages of their day. To fellow countrymen in London,
+Charles Jervas (1675?-1739), Thomas Hickey (d. 1816?), and Francis
+Cotes, R.A. (1725-1770), we owe presentments of other famous people.
+George Barrett, R.A. (1728-1784), one of the greatest landscapists of
+his time; Nathaniel Hone, R.A. (1718-1784), an eccentric but gifted
+painter, with an individuality displayed in all his portraits; James
+Barry, R.A. (1741-1806), still more eccentric, with grand conceptions
+imperfectly carried out in his great historical and allegorical
+pictures:--these, with Henry Tresham, R.A. (1749?-1814), and Matthew
+Peters, R.A. (1742-1814), historical painters of considerable merit,
+upheld the Irish claim to a high place in English eighteenth century
+art. A little later, miniaturists such as Horace Hone, A.R.A.
+(1756-1825), George Chinnery (1774-1852), and Adam Buck (1759-1844),
+also worked with remarkable success in London. Among resident Irish
+artists, the highest praise can be given to the miniature painters,
+John Comerford (1770?-1832) and Charles Robertson (1760-1821), and to
+the portrait-painters, Robert Hunter (fl. 1750-1803) and (especially)
+Hugh Douglas Hamilton (1739-1808), of whose work Ireland possesses
+many distinguished examples. Some day Hamilton's pictures will appeal
+to a far wider public than his countrymen can provide. One must omit
+the names of many clever Irish artists like the Wests, Francis and
+Robert, who were the most successful teachers of perhaps any time in
+Ireland, and come at once to that branch of art in which Ireland
+stands second to none--mezzotint-engraving.
+
+One of the earliest engravers in this style was Edward Luttrell,
+already named as a painter, but it was John Brooks (fl. 1730-1756)
+who is justly considered the real founder of that remarkable group of
+Irish engravers whose work may be more correctly described as
+belonging to a school than any other of the period. For many years in
+Dublin, and afterwards in London, a succession of first-rate artists
+of Irish birth produced work which remains and always must remain one
+of the glories of Ireland. Limits of space allow only the bare
+mention of the names of James McArdell (1728?-1765), Charles Spooner
+(d. 1767), Thomas Beard (fl. 1728), Thomas Frye (1710-1762), Edward
+Fisher (1722-1785?), Michael Ford (d. 1765), John Dixon (1740?-1811),
+Richard Purcell (fl. 1746-1766), Richard Houston (1721?-1775), John
+Murphy (1748?-1820), Thomas Burke (1749-1815), Charles Exshaw (fl.
+1747-1771), and Luke Sullivan (1705-1771)--artists of whom any
+country might be proud, and whose works have in most cases outlasted
+the remembrance of the persons whose likenesses they sought to
+reproduce. Separate monographs might be justifiably written on most
+of the gifted artists here enumerated, and one can only regret not
+being able in short space to compare and estimate their various
+qualities. Thomas Chambers, A.R.A. (1724?-1784), William Nelson
+Gardiner (1766-1814), James Egan (1799-1842), and William Humphreys
+(1794-1865) are other Irish engravers who cannot be overlooked in a
+survey of the art of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth
+centuries.
+
+Contemporaneously with the remarkable development of the art of
+engraving arose a group of Irish architects. Rather earlier in point
+of time was Sir Edward Lovat Pearce (d. 1733), who was one of the
+chief architects of the Irish Parliament House, and Thomas Burgh (d.
+1730), to whom we owe the Library of Trinity College, Dublin; but
+Thomas Cooley (1740-1784), designer of the handsome Royal Exchange of
+that city; Richard Castle (d. 1751), a foreigner who settled in
+Ireland and built a number of beautiful Irish residences; Francis
+Johnston (1761-1829), an excellent architect whose chief claim to
+remembrance, however, is as founder of the Royal Hibernian Academy;
+and, above all, James Gandon (1743-1823), whose superb Custom House,
+Four Courts, and part of the Irish Parliament House will perpetuate
+his name in Dublin while that city lasts--each helped to make the
+capital, even in its decay, one of the most interesting in Europe.
+Nor should we forget Thomas Ivory (d. 1786), whose Foundling Hospital
+is another of Dublin's many graceful edifices; nor Sir Richard
+Morrison (1767-1849) and his son William (1794-1838), much of whose
+work remains to testify to their skill and ingenuity.
+
+Ecclesiastical architecture in Ireland is indebted to Patrick Byrne
+(fl. 1840), James J. McCarthy (d. 1882), J.B. Keane (d. 1859), and
+James Murray (1831-1863), for many well designed churches and chapels
+throughout Ireland; but the great names in modern Irish architecture
+are those of Benjamin Woodward (1815-1861), whose premature death was
+a serious loss to Irish art; Sir Thomas Deane (1792-1871); and his
+son, Sir Thomas Newenham Deane (1828-1899). The elder Deane was, with
+Woodward, the architect of the Oxford Museum and of the splendid
+Engineering Hall of Trinity College, Dublin, buildings which have
+elicited enthusiastic praise from John Ruskin and other eminent
+critics. Deserving of respectful mention, too, to come down to our
+own days, are Sir Thomas Drew (1838-1910) and William H. Lynn, who is
+still living.
+
+In sculpture, again, Ireland has done memorable work. In the
+eighteenth century she gave us admirable craftsmen like Edward Smyth
+(1749-1812), John Hickey (1756-1795), and Christopher Hewitson (fl.
+1772-1794), whose dignified monument of Bishop Baldwin is one of the
+most distinguished pieces of sculpture in Trinity College, Dublin.
+But it was not till the appearance of a later group of sculptors,
+including John Hogan (1800-1858), John Edward Carew (1785-1868), John
+Henry Foley, R.A. (1818-1874), and Patrick MacDowell, R.A.
+(1799-1870), that Irish sculpture obtained more than local renown.
+Fortunately, most of the best work of Hogan and Foley remains in
+Ireland; that of Carew and MacDowell is chiefly to be found in the
+Houses of Parliament and other institutions in London. The
+incomparable "Goldsmith," "Burke," "Grattan," and other statues by
+Foley, together with an almost complete collection of casts of his
+other works, are in his native country. Hogan is represented in
+Dublin by his "Thomas Davis" and his "Dead Christ," to name but two
+of his principal works. The names at least of James Heffernan
+(1785-1847), of John Edward Jones (1806-1872), of Terence Farrell
+(1798-1876), of Samuel F. Lynn (1834-1876), and perhaps of
+Christopher Moore (1790-1863), an excellent sculptor of busts, may be
+set down here. Sir Thomas Farrell (1827-1900) and the living
+sculptors, John Hughes, Oliver Sheppard, and Albert Bruce Joy, are
+responsible for some of the more admirable of the public monuments of
+Dublin. It is much to be deplored that of the work of one of the
+greatest of Dublin-born artists, Augustus Saint Gaudens, we have only
+one example--the statue of Parnell. Ireland may surely claim him as
+one of her most gifted sons. And perhaps a word might be said in this
+place of some of the other Irishmen who made their home in America:
+of Hoban the architect who designed the White House at Washington,
+modelling it after Leinster House in Dublin; of painters like Charles
+Ingham, W.G. Wall, William Magrath, the Morans, James Hamilton, and
+Thomas Hovenden; and of sculptors like John Donoghue, John Flanagan,
+Andrew O'Connor, John F. Kelly, Jerome Connor, John J. Boyle, and
+Martin Milmore. But they belong rather to the history of American art
+than to that of Ireland.
+
+Before leaving the subject of Irish sculpture, the work of the
+medallists, an allied branch of the art in which Irishmen did much
+valued work, should not be overlooked. The medals of William Mossop
+(1751-1805), of his son, William Stephen Mossop (1788-1827), and of
+John Woodhouse (1835-1892), to mention only three of its chief
+representatives in Ireland, are greatly prized by collectors.
+
+Most modern Irish art of high importance has been largely produced
+out of Ireland, which has been perforce abandoned by those artists
+who have learned how little encouragement is to be met with at home.
+One can blame neither the artist nor the Irish public for this
+unfortunate result; there is sufficient reason in the political and
+economic condition of Ireland since the Union to explain the fact.
+But for this cause men like Daniel Maclise, R.A. (1806-1870), William
+Mulready, R.A. (1786-1863), Francis Danby, A.R.A. (1793-1861), and
+Alfred Elmore, R.A. (1815-1881), might have endeavored to emulate the
+spirit of James O'Connor (1792-1841), the landscapist, Richard
+Rothwell (1800-1868), a charming subject painter, and Sir Frederic W.
+Burton (1816-1900), one of the most distinguished artists of his
+time, who at least spent some of their active working career in their
+native land. The same words apply to artists who succeeded in other
+branches of the profession, men like John Doyle (1797-1868), a
+caricaturist with all the power, without the coarseness, of his
+predecessors; his son, Richard Doyle (1824-1883), a refined and
+delicate artist; John Leech (1817-1864), the humorist, a member of an
+Irish Catholic family; Paul Gray (1842-1866), who died before his
+powers had fully matured; and Matthew James Lawless (1837-1864), who
+also died too early. William Collins, R.A. (1788-1847) and Clarkson
+Stanfield, R.A. (1793-1867), both eminent representatives of English
+art, though of Irish extraction, more properly belong to England than
+to Ireland.
+
+Not discouraged by the melancholy history of many gifted Irish
+artists, Ireland still produces men who are not unworthy of
+association with the best who have gone before. Our most recent
+losses have been heavy--notably those of Walter F. Osborne
+(1859-1903) and Patrick Vincent Duffy (1832-1909), but we still have
+artists of genius in the persons of Nathaniel Hone, a direct
+descendant of his famous namesake; John Butler Yeats; John Lavery,
+A.R.A.; and William Orpen, A.R.A. Many other names might be given,
+but already this attempt at a survey suffers by its enumeration of
+artists, who, however, could hardly be neglected in such a record.
+
+Crowded as the list may be, it is a careful selection, and it
+demonstrates that, notwithstanding all the disadvantages under which
+Ireland suffers, the country has an almost unlimited capacity for
+fine achievement, and that, with prosperity and contentment, she may
+be expected to rival the most illustrious of art centres. It is only
+within living memory that any attempt has been made to direct the
+known artistic skill of the Irish people to industrial effort. But
+the remarkable success achieved in the modern designs for Irish lace
+in the English art competitions is an instance of what might be done
+generally in the applied arts. Though they are in their infancy, the
+new carpet and stained glass industries in Ireland also hold out
+considerable hope for the future. But one can only barely indicate
+what has been and might be done in the furtherance of Irish art. If
+we only had under one roof a judiciously made collection of all the
+best work done by Irish artists of all styles and periods, it would
+more eloquently justify our claim than endless columns of praise.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Anthony Pasquin [John Williams]: History of Professors of Painting in
+Ireland (1795); T.J. Mulvany: Life of James Gandon; John O'Keeffe:
+Reminiscences, vol. I; Taft: American Sculpture; W.G. Strickland:
+Dictionary of Irish Artists (2 vols., 1913).
+
+
+
+IRELAND AT PLAY
+
+By THOMAS E. HEALY,
+
+_Editor of "Sport," Dublin_.
+
+
+On the face of the earth there is no nation in which the love of
+clean and wholesome sport is more strongly developed than in the
+Irish. Against us it cannot be urged that we take our pleasures
+sadly. We enter into them with entire self-abandon, whole-hearted
+enthusiasm, and genuine exuberance of spirit. There is nothing
+counterfeit about the Irishman in his play. His one keen desire is to
+win, be the contest what it may; and towards the achievement of that
+end he will strain nerve and muscle even to the point of utter
+exhaustion. And how the onlookers applaud at the spectacle of a
+desperately contested race, whether between horses, men, motorcars,
+bicycles, or boats, or of a match between football, hurling, or
+cricket teams! It matters not which horse, man, car, cycle, boat, or
+team is successful: the sport is the thing that counts; the
+strenuousness of the contest is what stimulates and evokes the
+rapturous applause. At such a moment it is good to be alive. Scenes
+similar to those hinted at may be witnessed on any sports-field or
+racetrack in our dear little Emerald Isle almost any day of the year.
+All is good fellowship; all is in the cause of sport.
+
+No one can question that in some departments of horse-racing Ireland
+is today supreme. The Irish devotion to the horse is of no recent
+growth. Everybody knows how, in the dim and distant days when King
+Conor macNessa ruled at Emain, the war-steeds of the Ultonians
+neighed loudly in their stalls on the first dramatic appearance of
+Cuchulainn of Muirthemne at the northern court. Cuchulainn's own two
+steeds, Liath Macha, "the Roan of Macha", and Dub Sainglenn, "Black
+Sanglan", are celebrated in story and song:
+
+      Never hoofs like them shall ring,
+      Rapid as the winds of spring.
+
+To read of the performances of Cuchulainn and his war-horses and his
+charioteer and friend, Laeg macRiangahra, at the famous battle of
+Rosnaree, and again at the last fight between the Red Branch Knights
+and the forces of Queen Medb of Connacht, does truly, in the words
+used by Sir Philip Sidney in another connection, stir the heart like
+the sound of a trumpet.
+
+As time went on, the Irish war-horse became more and more famous, and
+always carried his rider in gallant style. Stout was the steed that,
+bestridden by Godfrey O'Donnell at the battle of Credan-Kille,
+withstood the shock of Lord Maurice Fitzgerald's desperate onslaught,
+and by his steadiness enabled the Tyrconnell chieftain to strike
+senseless and unhorse his fierce Norman foe. More celebrated still
+was the high-spirited animal which Art MacMurrogh rode in 1399 to his
+ineffectual parley with King Richard the Second's representative, the
+Earl of Gloucester. The French chronicler who was a witness of that
+historic scene tells us that a horse more exquisitely beautiful, more
+marvellously fleet, he had never seen. "In coming down," he says, "it
+galloped so hard that, in my opinion, I never saw hare, deer, sheep,
+or any other animal, I declare to you for a certainty, run with such
+speed as it did." Edmund Spenser, the poet of _The Faerie Queene_,
+writing in 1596, bears this striking testimony to the Irish
+horse-soldier and inferentially to the Irish horse: "I have hearde
+some greate warriours say, that, in all the services which they had
+seene abroade in forrayne countreys, they never sawe a more comely
+horseman than the Irish man, nor that cometh on more bravely in his
+charge." The feats performed at the Battle of the Boyne, in 1690, by
+the Irish horse-soldiers under Hamilton and Berwick were really
+wonderful, and well-nigh turned disaster into victory on that
+memorable day which decided the fate of nations as well as of
+dynasties. And surely those were fleet and stout-hearted steeds that,
+on August 12, 1690, carried Sarsfield and his chosen five hundred on
+their dare-devil midnight ride from the Keeper Hills to Ballyneety,
+where in the dim morning twilight they captured and destroyed William
+of Orange's wonderful siege-train, and thereby heartened the
+defenders of beleaguered Limerick.
+
+Writing in 1809, Lawrence, in his _History and Delineation of the
+Horse_, said: "From Ireland alone we import [into England] many
+saddle horses, as many perhaps as 1,500 in a year; upwards in some
+years. The Irish are the highest and steadiest leapers in the world.
+Ireland has bred some good racers, and the generality of Irish horses
+are, it appears, warmer tempered than our own; and, to use the
+expression, sharper and more frigate-built."
+
+It is not to be wondered at therefore if in such a country there
+developed an ardent love of the noble sport of horse-racing. The
+Curragh of Kildare, the long-standing headquarters of the Irish Turf
+Club, was celebrated far back in the eighteenth century as the venue
+of some great equine contests; and to this day, with its five
+important fixtures every year, it still holds pride of place. There
+are numerous other race-courses all over the country, from
+Punchestown, Leopardstown, Phoenix Park, and Baldoyle in the east to
+Galway in the west, and from The Maze in the north to rebel Cork in
+the south. Horse-racing has not inappropriately been termed the
+national pastime of Ireland. The number of people now giving their
+attention to it has called for a notable increase in the number of
+race-meetings, and stake-money is being put up on a more generous
+scale than at any previous time in the history of the sport. For
+example, the Irish Derby, run at the Curragh, was in 1914 worth
+£2,500; and there are besides several stakes of £1,500 and £1,000.
+The result of this forward policy is that increasing numbers come to
+our race-meetings and that the turf has never been more popular than
+it is today. Men and women of wealth and position find in the
+national pastime a pleasant method of employing their leisure, and in
+expending their surplus wealth in its pursuit and in the raising of
+horses of the highest class they realize that they confer a real
+benefit on the country.
+
+It is, of course, now universally known that Ireland has an
+international reputation as a country eminently fitted for
+horse-breeding. If proof were needed, it would be found in the
+extensive purchases effected by English, French, Italian, German,
+Russian, and American buyers at the great Dublin Horse Show held in
+August every year. Horses bought in Ireland have seldom failed to
+realize their promise. The English classic races and many of the
+principal handicaps on the flat have been often won by Irish-bred
+horses, such as Galtee More, Ard Patrick, Orby, Kilwarlin,
+Barcaldine, Umpire, Master Kildare, Kilsallaghan, Bendigo, Philomel,
+The Rejected, Comedy, Winkfield's Pride, Bellevin, Royal Flush,
+Victor Wild, Bachelor's Button, Irish Ivy, and Hackler's Pride. If
+only a few of the star performers are here set down, it is not from
+lack of means to continue, but merely from a desire to avoid the
+compilation of a mere string of names. In France, too, the Irish
+racer has made his mark. It is, however, in the four-and-a-half
+miles' Liverpool Grand National Steeplechase, the greatest
+cross-country race in the world, the supreme test of the leaper,
+galloper, and stayer, that Irish-bred horses have made perhaps the
+most wonderful record. The list of winners of that great event
+demonstrates in an unmistakable manner that we are second to none in
+the art of breeding steeplechase horses. Among many other noted
+Irish-bred winners of this race there stand boldly forth the names of
+The Lamb, Empress, Woodbrook, Frigate, Come Away, Cloister, Wild Man
+from Borneo, and Manifesto. In fact, it is the exception when another
+than an Irish-bred horse annexes the blue riband of steeplechasing.
+
+Closely allied to horse-racing is fox-hunting, and fox-hunting, as
+well as the hunting of the stag and of the hare, has flourished
+exceedingly in Ireland for a long time past. A great deal of needed
+employment is one of the results. Dogs are specially bred and trained
+for each of these branches of sport. Irish foxhounds, staghounds,
+harriers, and beagles have a high reputation. More native to the
+soil, and so interwoven with the history of the country that it is
+often used as one of its symbols, is the Irish wolfhound. This is
+probably the animal to which Aurelius Symmachus, a Roman consul in
+Britain, referred when, writing to his brother in Ireland in A.D.
+391, he acknowledged the receipt of seven Irish hounds. The wolfhound
+played a sinister part in the Irish history of the eighteenth
+century, for, as Davis says in his poem, "The Penal Days":
+
+      Their dogs were taught alike to run
+      Upon the scent of wolf and friar.
+
+The Irish wolfhound is now very scarce, and a genuine specimen is a
+valued and highly coveted possession. The greyhound, too, figures
+prominently in present-day sport, and in many parts of the country
+are held coursing meetings, which frequently result in several
+spirited contests. A famous Irish greyhound was Lord Lurgan's black
+and white dog, Master McGrath. Master McGrath achieved the rare
+distinction of winning the Waterloo Cup three times, in 1868, 1869,
+and 1871. When it is remembered that the Waterloo Cup is to coursing
+what the Liverpool Grand National is to steeplechasing, or the Epsom
+Derby to flat racing, the merit of this triple performance will at
+once be apparent.
+
+Compared with the sports in which horse and hound participate, all
+other outdoor pastimes in Ireland take rather a minor place. Still,
+the Irishman's love of sport is diversified. Few there are who have
+not many inclinations, and as a nation our taste in sport is
+catholic. We take part in nearly every pastime; in many we excel. The
+prize ring has fallen from its high estate, nor is it the intention
+here to try to cast any glamour over it. The subject is introduced,
+in a passing way, for the sole purpose of showing that, in what at
+least used to be the manly art of self-defense, Ireland in days gone
+by as well as at the present time has more than held her own. The
+most conspicuous of the representatives of her race in this
+department are perhaps Heenan, Ryan, Sullivan, Corbett, Maher,
+McAuliffe, McFarland, and McGoorty. There is one other prize-fighter,
+Dan Donnelly by name, who became a sort of national hero, of whom all
+Irishmen of his day were not a little proud, because he laid the
+English champion low, and whose performance, now haloed by the
+antiquity of more than a hundred years, we may with equanimity, as
+without offense, contemplate, with perhaps a sigh for the good old
+times. The famous encounter between Donnelly and Cooper took place on
+the Curragh, and after eleven rounds of scientific boxing Donnelly
+knocked his opponent over the ropes and won the world's championship
+for the Emerald Isle. The spot where the battle came off has ever
+since been known as Donnelly's Hollow, and a neat monument there
+erected commemorates the Dublin man's pluck and skill. A ballad
+recounting the incidents of the fight and, as ballads go, not badly
+composed, had a wonderful vogue, and was sung at fair and market and
+other meeting place within the memory of men who are not now more
+than middle-aged.
+
+A search in other domains of sport will be by no means barren of
+results. Take running, for instance. Who has not heard of the
+wondrous little Thomas Conneff from the short-grass county of
+Kildare? Who does not know of his brilliant performances on the
+track? We in Ireland, who had seen him defeat Carter, the great
+Canadian, over the four-mile course at Ballsbridge one summer's eve
+now nearly twenty golden years ago, knew his worth before he crossed
+the broad Atlantic to show to thousands of admiring spectators in
+America that Ireland was the breeder of fleet-footed sons, who lacked
+neither the courage, nor the thews and sinews, nor the staying power,
+to carry them at high speed over any distance of ground. May the
+earth lie light on Conneff, for in a small body he had a great heart!
+Then there was the mighty runner, James J. Daly, a true hero from
+Galway, the idol of the crowd in his native land as well as in the
+United States. Daly was the champion long distance cross-country
+runner of his day at home, and he showed before various nationalities
+in the Greater Ireland beyond the seas that he could successfully
+compete with the best from all countries.
+
+In high jumping, Patrick Davin, P. Leahy, and Peter O'Connor were for
+long in the foremost rank; Daniel Ahearne was famous for his
+hop-step-and-jump performance; Maurice Davin, Matthew McGrath, and
+Patrick Ryan have, each in his own day, thrown the 16-pound hammer to
+record distance; in shot-putting there are Sheridan, Horgan, John
+Flanagan, and others bearing true Irish names, who are right in
+front; and before their time we had a redoubted champion in W.J.M.
+Barry. All previous performances in the shot-putting line have,
+however, been recently eclipsed by Patrick J. McDonald, of the
+Irish-American Club, who at Celtic Park, Long Island, on May 30,
+1914, made a new world's record by putting the 18-pound shot 46 feet
+2-3/4 inches. The climax of achievement was reached when T.F. Kiely
+won the all-round championship of the world at New York. The
+distinguished part taken by Irishmen or sons of Irishmen in all
+departments of the Olympic games is so recent and so well known as to
+call for no comment. Ireland is far indeed from being degenerate in
+her athletes.
+
+In international strife with England, Scotland, Wales, and France at
+Rugby football, Ireland has likewise won her spurs. She has never
+been beaten by the representatives of Gaul; and though for long
+enough she had invariably to succumb in competition with the other
+three countries, such is not the case nowadays, nor has it been for
+many years past. The Irish team has ever to be reckoned with. In
+Association football, too, Ireland is coming into her own. This
+branch of the game has developed enormously within a comparatively
+few seasons. The people flock in their thousands to witness matches
+for the principal league contests or cup ties. But the greatest
+crowds of all go to see Gaelic football, the national game; and to
+hurling, also distinctively Irish, they foregather in serried masses.
+Since the Gaelic Athletic Association was founded both football and
+hurling have prospered exceedingly. They are essentially popular
+forms of sport, and the muscular manhood of city and country finds in
+them a natural outlet for their characteristic Celtic vigor. The
+Gaelic Association has fostered and developed these sports, and has
+organized them on so sound a basis that interest in them is not
+confined to any particular district but spreads throughout the length
+and breadth of Ireland.
+
+When the America Cup was to be challenged for, into the breach
+stepped the Earl of Dunraven and flung his gage to the holders of the
+trophy. This distinguished Irish nobleman furnished a contender in
+his Valkyrie II. in the fall of 1893, and his patriotic spirit in
+doing so stirred the sport-loving Irish nation to the greatest
+enthusiasm. His lordship was not successful, but he was not
+disheartened. He tried again with Valkyrie III., but again he was
+only second best, for, though his yacht sailed to victory in home
+waters, she proved unequal to the task of lifting the cup. No
+Englishman was prepared to tempt fortune, but not so that sterling
+Irishman, Sir Thomas Lipton, who, win or lose, would not have it laid
+to the charge of Ireland that an attempt should not be made. His
+Shamrock, Shamrock II., and Shamrock III.--surely a deep sense of
+patriotism prompted nomenclature such as that--each in succession
+went down to defeat; but Sir Thomas has not done yet. Like King
+Bruce, he is going to try again, and Shamrock IV. is to do battle
+with the best that America can range against her. All honor to Lord
+Dunraven and to Sir Thomas Lipton for their persistent efforts to
+engage in generous rivalry with the yachtsmen across the sea.
+
+Lawn-tennis, cricket, and golf we play, and play well; to rowing many
+of us are enthusiastically devoted; and at handball our young
+men--and some not so young--are signally expert. The champion
+handball player has always been of Irish blood. Baseball we
+invented--and called it rounders. It is significant that the great
+American ball game is still played according to a code which is
+scarcely modified from that which may be seen in force any summer day
+on an Irish school field or village green. Perhaps something of
+hereditary instinct is to be traced in the fact that many of the best
+exponents of American baseball are the bearers of fine old Irish
+names.
+
+This brief and cursory review of Ireland at Play must now conclude.
+It is scarcely more than a glossary, and not a complete one at that.
+It may, however, serve to show that Ireland's record in sport, like
+her record in so many other things set forth in this book, is great
+and glorious enough to warrant the insertion of this short chapter
+among those which tell of old achievements and feats of high emprize.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Racing--Irish Racing Calendar: 1790-1914, 124 vols. (Dublin, Brindley
+and Son); The Racing Calendar: 1774-1914 (London, Weatherby and
+Sons). Breeding--The General Stud Book: 1908-1913, 22 vols. (London,
+Weatherby and Sons). Racing and Breeding Generally--Cox: Notes on the
+History of the Irish Horse (Dublin, 1897). Boxing and
+Athletics--Files of _Sport_ and _Freeman's Journal_.
+
+
+
+THE FIGHTING RACE
+
+By JOSEPH I.C. CLARKE,
+
+_President, American Irish Historical Society_.
+
+
+I.--THE FIGHTING RACE AT HOME.
+
+"War was the ruling passion of this people," says MacGeoghegan,
+meaning the Milesians who were the latest of the peoples that overran
+ancient Ireland up to the coming of Christ. How many races had
+preceded them remains an enigma of history not profitable to examine
+here, but whoever they were, or in what succession they arrived, they
+must, like all migrating people, have been prepared to establish
+themselves at the point of the spear and the edge of the sword. Two
+races certainly were mingled in the ancient Irish, the fair or auburn
+haired with blue eyes, and the dark haired with eyes of gray or
+brown. The Milesians appear to have reached Ireland through Spain.
+They came swiftly to power, more than a thousand years before our
+Lord, and divided the country into four provinces or kingdoms, with
+an _ard-ri_, or high-king, ruling all in a loose way as to service,
+taxes, and allegiance. The economic life was almost entirely
+pastoral. Riches were counted in herds of cattle. "Robustness of
+frame, vehemence of passion, elevated imagination," Dr. Leland says,
+signalized this people. Robust, they became athletic and vigorous and
+excelled in the use of deadly weapons; passionate, they easily went
+from litigation to blows; imaginative, they leaned toward poetry and
+song and were strong for whatever religion they practised. The latter
+was a polytheism brought close to the people through the Druids. Some
+stone weapons were doubtless still used; they had also brazen or
+bronze swords, and spears, axes, and maces of various alloys of
+copper and tin. Socially they remained tribal. Heads of tribes were
+petty kings, each with his stronghold of a primitive character, each
+with his tribal warriors, bards, harpers, and druids, and the whole
+male population more or less ready to take part in war.
+
+The great heroes whose names have come down to us, such as Finn, son
+of Cumhal, and Cuchulainn, were reared in a school of arms. Bravery
+was the sign of true manhood. A law of chivalry moderated the excess
+of combat. A trained militia, the Fianna, gave character to an era;
+the Knights of the Red Branch were the distinguishing order of
+chevaliers. The songs of the bards were songs of battle; the great
+Irish epic of antiquity was the_ Táin Bó Cúalnge_, or Cooley
+Cattle-raid, and it is full of combats and feats of strength and
+prowess. High character meant high pride, always ready to give
+account of itself and strike for its ideals: "Irritable and bold", as
+one historian has it. They were jealous and quick to anger, but
+light-hearted laughter came easily to the lips of the ancient Irish.
+They worked cheerfully, prayed fervently to their gods, loved their
+women and children devotedly, clung passionately to their clan, and
+fought at the call with alacrity.
+
+Nothing, it will be seen, could be further from the minds of such a
+people than submission to what they deemed injustice. The habit of a
+proud freedom was ingrained. Their little island of 32,000 square
+miles in the Atlantic Ocean, the outpost of Europe, lay isolated save
+for occasional forays to and from the coasts of Scotland and England.
+The Roman invasions of western Europe never reached it. England the
+Romans overran, but never Scotland or Ireland. Self-contained,
+Ireland developed a civilization peculiarly its own, the product of
+an intense, imaginative, fighting race. War was not constant among
+them by any means, and occupied only small portions of the island at
+a time, but, since the bards' best work was war songs and war
+histories, with much braggadocio doubtless intermixed, a different
+impression might prevail. Half of their kings may have been killed in
+broil or battle, and yet great wars were few. If is undoubted that
+Scotic, that is, Irish, invasion and immigration peopled the western
+shores of Scotland and gave a name to the country. In the first
+centuries of the Christian era they were the men who with the Picts
+fought the Romans at the wall of Severus. The Britons, it will be
+remembered, enervated by Roman dominance, had failed to defend their
+"border" when Rome first withdrew her legions.
+
+At this time, too, began the first appearance of Ireland as a power
+on the sea. In the fourth century the high-king, Niall of the
+Hostages, commanding a large fleet of war galleys, invaded Scotland,
+ravaged the English coasts, and conquered Armorica (Brittany),
+penetrating as far as the banks of the Loire, where, according to the
+legend, he was slain by an arrow shot by one of his own men. One of
+the captives he brought from abroad on one of his early expeditions
+was a youth named Patrick, afterwards to be the Apostle of Ireland.
+Niall's nephew, Dathi, also ard-ri, was a great sea king. He invaded
+England, crossed to Gaul, and marched as far as the Alps, where he
+was killed by lightning. He was the last pagan king of Ireland. In
+perhaps a score of years after the death of Dathi, all Ireland had
+been converted to Christianity, and its old religion of a thousand
+years buried so deep that scholars find the greatest difficulty in
+recovering anything about it. This conservative, obstinate, jealous
+people overturned its pagan altars in a night, and, ever since, has
+never put into anything else the devotion, soul and body, of its
+sacrifices for religion. Christianity profoundly modified Irish life,
+softened manners, and stimulated learning. Not that the fighting
+propensities were obliterated. There were indeed many long and
+peaceful reigns, but the historians record neat little wars,
+seductive forays and "hostings", to use the new-old word, to the
+heart's content. The Irish character remained fixed in its
+essentials, but, under the influence of religious enthusiasm, Ireland
+progressed and prospered in the arts of peace. It would undoubtedly
+have shared the full progress of western Europe from this time on,
+but for its insularity. Hitherto its protection, it was now to be its
+downfall. A hostile power was growing of which it knew nothing.
+
+The Norsemen--the hardy vikings of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark--had
+become a nation of pirates. Undaunted fighters and able mariners,
+they built their shapely long ships and galleys of the northern pine
+and oak, and swept hardily down on the coasts of England, Ireland,
+France, Spain, and Italy, and the lands of the Levant, surprising,
+massacring, plundering. In France (Normandy), in England, and lastly
+in Ireland they planted colonies. Their greatest success was in
+England, which they conquered, Canute becoming king. Their greatest
+battles and final defeat were in Ireland. From the end of the eighth
+century to the beginning of the eleventh the four shores of Erin were
+attacked in turn, and sometimes all together, by successive fleets of
+the Norsemen. The waters that had been Ireland's protection now
+became the high roads of the invaders. By the river Shannon they
+pushed their conquests into the heart of the country. Dublin Bay,
+Waterford Harbor, Belfast Lough, and the Cove of Cork offered shelter
+to their vessels. They established themselves in Dublin and raided
+the country around. Churches and monasteries were sacked and burned.
+To the end these Norsemen were robbers rather than settlers. To these
+onslaughts by the myriad wasps of the northern seas, again and again
+renewed, the Irish responded manfully. In 812 they drove off the
+invaders with great slaughter, only to find fresh hordes descending a
+year or two later. In the tenth century, Turgesius, the Danish
+leader, called himself monarch of Ireland, but he was driven out by
+the Irish king, Malachi. The great effort which really broke the
+Danish power forever in Ireland was at the battle of Clontarf, on
+Dublin Bay, Good Friday, 1014, when King Brian Boru, at the head of
+30,000 men, utterly defeated the Danes of Dublin and the Danes of
+oversea. Fragments of the Northmen remained all over Ireland, but
+henceforth they gradually merged with the Irish people, adding a
+notable element to it's blood. One of the most grievous chapters of
+Irish history, the period of Norse invasion, literally shines with
+Irish valor and tenacity, undimmed through six fighting generations.
+As Plowden says:
+
+"Ireland stands conspicuous among the nations of the universe, a
+solitary instance in which neither the destructive hand of time, nor
+the devastating arm of oppression, nor the widest variety of changes
+in the political system of government could alter or subdue, much
+less wholly extinguish, the national genius, spirit, and character of
+its inhabitants." This is true not only of the Danish wars which
+ended nine hundred years ago, but of many a dreadful century since
+and to this very day.
+
+Now followed a troubled period, Ireland weakened by loss of blood and
+treasure, its government failing of authority through the defects of
+its virtues. It was inevitable, sooner or later, that England, as it
+became consolidated after its conquest by William the Norman, should
+turn greedy eyes on the fair land across the Irish sea. It was in
+1169 that "Strongbow"--Richard, earl of Pembroke--came from England
+at the invitation of a discontented Irish chieftain and began the
+conquest of Ireland. Three years later came Henry II. with more
+troops and a Papal bull. After a campaign in Leinster, he set himself
+up as overlord of Ireland, and then returned to London. It was the
+beginning only. An English Lord Deputy ruled the "Pale", or portion
+of Ireland that England held more or less securely, and from that
+vantage ground made spasmodic war upon the rest of Ireland, and was
+forever warred on, in large attacks and small, by Irish chieftains.
+
+The Irish were the fighting race now if ever. Without hope of outside
+assistance, facing a foe ever reinforced from a stronger, richer,
+more fully organized country, nothing but their stubborn character
+and their fighting genius kept them in the field. And century out and
+century in, they stayed, holding back the foreign foe four hundred
+years. It is worthy of note that it was the Norman English, racial
+cousins, as it were, of the Norsemen, who first wrought at the
+English conquest of Ireland. When some of these were seated in Irish
+places of pride, when a Butler was made Earl of Ormond and a
+Fitzgerald, Earl of Kildare, it was soon seen that they were merging
+rapidly in the Irish mass, becoming, as it was said, "more Irish than
+the Irish themselves." Many were the individual heroic efforts to
+strike down the English power. Here and there small Irish chiefs
+accepted the English rule, offsetting the Norman Irish families who
+at times were "loyal" and at times "rebel." The state of war became
+continuous and internecine, but three-fourths of Ireland remained
+unconquered. The idea of a united Ireland against England had,
+however, been lost except in a few exalted and a few desperate
+breasts. A gleam of hope came in 1316, when, two years after the
+great defeat of England by the Scotch under Robert the Bruce at
+Bannockburn, Edward, the victor-king's brother, came at the
+invitation of the northern Irish to Ireland with 6,000 Scots, landing
+near Carrickfergus. He was proclaimed king of Ireland by the Irish
+who joined him. Battle after battle was won by the allies. Edward was
+a brilliant soldier, lacking, however, the prudence of his great
+brother, Robert. The story of his two years of fighting, ravaging,
+and slaying, is hard at this distance to reconcile with intelligible
+strategy. In the end, in 1318, the gallant Scot fell in battle near
+Dundalk, losing at the same time two-thirds of his army. For two
+years Scot and Irish had fought victoriously side by side. That is
+the fact of moment that comes out of this dark period.
+
+The following century, like that which had gone before, was full of
+fighting. In 1399, on Richard II.'s second visit to Ireland, he met
+fierce opposition from the Irish septs. MacMorrough, fighting,
+harassing the king's army from the shelter of the Wicklow woods,
+fairly drove the king to Dublin. The sanguinary "Wars of the
+Roses"--that thirty years' struggle for the crown of England between
+the royal houses of York and Lancaster, 1455 to 1485--gave Ireland a
+long opportunity, which, however, she was too weak to turn to
+advantage; but fighting between Irish and English went on just the
+same, now in one province, now in another.
+
+In the reign of Henry VIII. a revolt against England started within
+the Pale itself, when Lord Thomas Fitzgerald, known as Silken Thomas,
+went before the Council in Dublin and publicly renounced his
+allegiance. He took the field--a brave, striking figure--in protest
+against the king's bad faith in dealing with his father, the Earl of
+Kildare. At one time it looked as if the rebellion (it was the first
+real Irish rebellion) would prosper. Lord Thomas made combinations
+with Irish chieftains in the north and west, and was victor in
+several engagements. He finally surrendered with assurances of
+pardon, but, as in many similar cases, was treacherously sent a
+prisoner to London, where he was executed.
+
+Queen Mary's reign was one of comparative quiet in Ireland. Her
+policy towards the Catholics was held to be of good augury for
+Ireland. The English garrison was reduced with impunity to 500 foot
+and a few horse: but another and darker day came with Elizabeth. Her
+coming to the throne, together with her fanatic devotion to the
+Reformation and an equal hatred of the old religion and all who clung
+to it, ushered in for Ireland two and a half centuries of almost
+unbroken misfortune. You cannot make people over. Some may take their
+opinions with their interest; others prefer to die rather than
+surrender theirs, and glory in the sacrifice. The proclamations of
+Elizabeth had no persuasion in them for the Irish. Her proscriptions
+were only another English sword at Ireland's throat. The disdain of
+the Irish maddened her. During her long reign one campaign after
+another was launched against them. Always fresh soldier hordes came
+pouring in under able commanders and marched forth from the Pale,
+generally to return shattered and worn down by constant harrying,
+sometimes utterly defeated with great slaughter. So of Henry Sidney's
+campaign, and so of the ill-fated Essex. Ulster, the stronghold of
+the O'Neills and the O'Donnells, remained unconquered down to the
+last years of Elizabeth's reign, although most of the greater battles
+were fought there. In Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, and "Red" Hugh
+O'Donnell, prince of Tyrconnell, Ireland had two really great
+soldiers on her side. The bravery, generalship, prudence, and
+strategy of O'Neill were worthy of all praise, and Red Hugh fell
+little short of his great compatriot. In battle after battle for
+twenty years they defeated the English with slaughter. Ireland, if
+more and more devastated by campaigns and forays, became the grave of
+tens of thousands of English soldiers and scores of high reputations.
+Writing from Cork, the Earl of Essex, after a disastrous march
+through Leinster and Munster, says:
+
+"I am confined in Cork ... but still I have been unsuccessful; my
+undertakings have been attended with misfortune.... The Irish are
+stronger and handle their arms with more skill than our people; they
+differ from us also in point of discipline. They likewise avoid
+pitched battles where order must be observed, and prefer skirmishes
+and petty warfare ... and are obstinately opposed to the English
+government."
+
+They did not like attacking or defending fortified places, he also
+believed. It was only his experience. The campaigns of Shane O'Neill,
+a bold but ill-balanced warrior, were full of such attacks, but one
+potent cause for Irish reluctance to make sieges a strong point of
+their strategy was that the strongest fortresses were on the sea. An
+inexhaustible, powerful enemy who held the sea was not in the end to
+be denied on sea or land, but the Irish in stubborn despair or
+supreme indifference to fate fought on. Religious rancor was added to
+racial hate. Most of the English settlers, or "garrison," as they
+came to be called, had become Protestants at the royal order. Ruin
+perched upon Ireland's hills and made a wilderness of her fertile
+valleys. The Irish chieftains with their faithful followers moved
+from place to place in woods and hollows of the hills. English
+colonists were settled on confiscated lands, and were harried by
+those who had been driven from their homes. It was war among graves.
+At last O'Neill made composition with the government when all was
+lost in the field, but the passionate Irish resolve never to submit
+still stalked like a ghost, as if it could not perish.
+
+When Elizabeth died it was thought that better things were coming to
+Ireland with James I., the son of Mary, Queen of Scots. Nothing of
+the kind. That curiously minded creature at once made an ingenuous
+proclamation:
+
+"Whereas his Majesty was informed that his subjects of Ireland had
+been deceived by _a false report that his Majesty was disposed to
+allow them liberty of conscience_ and the free choice of religion,
+now, etc." Fresh "transplanting" of English and Scotch settlers on
+the lands of the Irish was the gist of his answer to the "false
+reports." So again the war of surprise, ambush, raid, and foray went
+on in a hundred places at once, but the result was that the English
+power was even more firmly seated than before.
+
+In the time of Charles I. there were terrible slaughters both of
+Protestants and Catholics. Patriotism and loyalty as moving causes
+had disappeared, but religion fiercely took their place. With
+Cromwell, the religious persecution took on an apocalyptic note of
+massacre, but the Irish were still showing that they were there with
+arms in their hands. The names of Owen Roe O'Neill and his splendid
+victory, in 1646, at Benburb over the English and Scotch, where he
+slew more than 3,000 men, and of another Hugh O'Neill, who made such
+a brilliant defense at Clonmel against Cromwell, shine brightly out
+of the darkness. But Ireland, parcelled out among the victors, was
+always the weaker after every campaign. Waves of war swept over her.
+She became mixed up in the rivalries of the English royal families,
+religion playing the most important part in the differences. It had
+armed Henry and Elizabeth, James and Charles against her. It gave
+edge to Cromwell's sword, and it led her into a great effort on
+behalf of James II. When William of Orange crossed the Boyne, all
+that followed for a century was symbolized. Athlone, Aughrim,
+Limerick, all places of great and fierce contests, were decided
+against her. French support of a kind had James, but not enough.
+Bravery and enthusiasm may win battles, but they do not carry through
+great campaigns. Once again God marched with the heaviest, best-fed,
+best-armed battalions. The great Tyrone dying in exile at Rome, Red
+Hugh O'Donnell perishing in Spain in the early days of the
+seventeenth century, were to prefigure the fighting and dying of half
+a million Irish warriors on continental soil for a hundred years
+after the fall of Limerick as the seventeenth century neared its
+close.
+
+During that period the scattered bands of the Rapparees, half
+patriots, half robbers, hiding in mountain fastnesses, dispersing,
+reassembling, descending on the English estates for rapine or the
+killing of "objectionables," represented the only armed resistance of
+the Irish. It was generally futile although picturesque.
+
+After the close of the Revolutionary War in America, Ireland received
+a new stimulation. The success of the patriots of the Irish
+parliament under Grattan, backed as they were by 100,000 volunteers
+and 130 pieces of cannon, in freeing Irish industry and commerce from
+their trammels, evoked the utmost malignity in England. Ireland
+almost at once sprang to prosperity, but it was destined to be short
+lived. A great conspiracy, which did not at first show above the
+surface, was set on foot to destroy the Irish parliament. This is not
+the place to follow the sinister machinations of the English, save to
+note that they forced both the Presbyterians and the Catholics of the
+north into preparations for revolt. The Society of United Irishmen
+was formed, and drew many of the brightest and most cultivated men in
+Ireland into its councils. It numbered over 70,000 adherents in
+Ulster alone. The government was alarmed, and began a systematic
+persecution of the peasantry all over Ireland. English regiments were
+put at "free quarters," that is, they forced themselves under order
+into the houses and cabins of the people with demands for bed and
+board. The hapless people were driven to fury. Brutal murders and
+barbarous tortures of men and women by the soldiers, savage revenges
+by the peasantry, and every form of violent crime all at once
+prevailed in the lately peaceful valleys. Prosecutions of United
+Irishmen and executions were many. It was all done deliberately to
+provoke revolt. In 1798 the revolt came. In the greater part of
+Ulster and Munster the uprising failed, but a great insurrection of
+the peasantry of Wexford shocked the country. Poorly armed, utterly
+undisciplined, without munitions of war, but 40,000 strong, they
+literally flung themselves pike in hand on the English regiments,
+sweeping everything before them for a time. Father John Murphy, a
+priest and patriot, was one of their leaders, but Beauchamp Bagenal
+Harvey was soon their commander-in-chief. At one time the "rebels"
+dominated the entire county save for a fort in the harbor and a small
+town or two, but it was natural that the commissariat should soon be
+in difficulties and their ammunition give out. The British general,
+Lake, with an army of 20,000 men and a moving column of 13,000,
+attacked the rebels on Vinegar Hill, and although the fight was
+heroic and bloody while it lasted, it was soon over and the British
+army was victorious. The rest was retreat, dispersal, and widespread
+cruelties and burnings and a long succession of murders. The "Boys of
+Wexford" funder great difficulties had given a great account of
+themselves. Dark as was that page of history, it has been a glowing
+lamp to Irish disaffection ever since. It is the soul of the effort
+that counts, and the disasters do not discredit '98 in Irish eyes.
+
+Voltaire, in his _Century of Louis XIV._, made his reflection on the
+Irish soldier out of his limited knowledge of the Williamite war in
+Ireland. He says, "The Irish, whom we have seen such good soldiers in
+France and Spain, have always fought poorly at home"! They had not
+fought poorly at home. It took four hundred years of English effort
+to complete, merely on its face, the conquest of Ireland, and all of
+that long sweep of the sword of Time was a time of battle. The Irish
+were fought with every appliance of war, backed by the riches of a
+prospering, strongly organized country, and impelled persistently by
+the greed of land and love of mastery; but there was not a mountain
+pass in Ireland, not a square mile of plain, not a river-ford, scarce
+a hill that had not been piled high with English dead in that four
+hundred years at the hands of the Irish wielders of sword and spear
+and pike.
+
+The Irish had not made their environment or their natures, and no
+power on earth could change them. Over greater England had swept the
+Romans, the Jutes, the Saxons, the Angles, the Norsemen, and the
+Normans. All found lodgment and all went to the making of England.
+Well, one might say, it had been for Ireland if she had developed
+that assimilating power which made her successive conquerors in
+process of time the feeders of her greatness, but the Irish would not
+and could not. Instead, they developed the pride of race that no
+momentary defeat could down. They became inured to battle and dreamt
+of battle when the peace of an hour was given them. When the four
+kings of Ireland were feasted in Dublin by King Richard II. of
+England, an English chronicler remarked, "Never were men of ruder
+manners"; but neither the silken array and golden glitter of
+Richard's peripatetic court nor the brave display of his thousand
+knights and thirty thousand archers filled them with longing for the
+one or fear of the other. They went back to their Irish hills and
+plains and fastnesses as obstinately Irish as ever.
+
+They fought well at home, if unfortunately, the wonder being that
+they continued to fight. The heavens and the earth seemed combined
+against them.
+
+II.--THE FIGHTING RACE ABROAD.
+
+We next see Irish soldiers fighting abroad. The blood they had shed
+so freely for the Stuarts at the Boyne, at Athlone, at Aughrim, at
+Limerick was in vain. The king of France, if he sent armies to
+Ireland, demanded Irish troops in return. The transports that brought
+the French regiments over in May, 1690, took back over five thousand
+officers and men from Ireland, who formed the first Irish Brigade in
+the service of France. This, remember, was before the battle of the
+Boyne. The men were formed on their arrival in France into three
+regiments, those of Mountcashel, O'Brien, and Dillon, named after
+their commanders, and were sent to Savoy. The French aid to James in
+Ireland helped best in giving confidence to the raw Irish levies, but
+it was more than offset by the German troops brought over by William.
+The weakness, indecision, or worse, of James before Derry, his
+chicken-hearted failure to overwhelm Schomberg when he lay at his
+mercy before the arrival of William, ruined his chances. Remember
+that the Irish army, if defeated at the Boyne, was not broken, and
+was strong enough, when pursued by William, to repulse him with 500
+killed and 1,000 wounded and to compel him to raise the siege of
+Limerick. The dash and skill of Patrick Sarsfield, Earl of Lucan,
+backed by Irish desperation, won the day. The French troops sailed
+home after William's retreat. In the next year's campaign occurred
+the crowning disasters of the war, but in any other country or with
+any other people than the English the terms of capitulation at
+Limerick, which were formulated by Ginkel and showed a soldier's
+respect for a brave and still powerful foe, would have ushered in an
+era of peace.
+
+The Irish soldiers' distrust of the conquerors was shown in the fact
+that, since the stipulations allowed the free departure of the
+garrison with honors of war, 19,059 officers and men took service
+with France, and sailed in October, 1691, on the French fleet, which
+by the irony of fate had arrived in the Shannon too late, on the very
+day after the signing of the treaty of Limerick. Never in the whole
+course of the history of nations has more hideous treachery been
+shown than in the immediate breaking of that treaty; and dearly has
+England paid for it ever since, although, for the hundred years that
+followed, Ireland sank to the very depths under the penal laws, with
+her trade ruined, her lands stolen, her religion persecuted, and all
+education and enlightenment forbidden by abominable, drastic laws.
+
+If, as has been computed, 450,000 Irish fought and died in the
+service of France between 1690 and 1745, a further 30,000 are to be
+added down to 1793. A French writer estimates the whole Irish
+contingent at 750,000, but, for a roster of seekers of glory from an
+impoverished people, the more reasonable half-million should surely
+suffice.
+
+Long would be the story to follow the fighting fortunes of the Irish
+Brigades. Officered by Irish gentlemen and drilled to perfection,
+they soon came to hold in the French service the esteem that later
+was given to Irish regiments in the service of England. King Louis
+welcomed them heartily and paid them a higher wage than his native
+soldiers. No duty was too arduous or too dangerous for the Irish
+Brigades. Seldom were they left to rust in idleness. Europe was a
+caldron of wars of high ambitions.
+
+The Irish regiments fought through the war in Flanders. At Landen,
+July 29, 1693, the French under the duke of Luxembourg defeated the
+English under William III. with a slaughter of 10,473 men, losing
+8,000 men themselves. In the retreat, Ginkel, William's general in
+the Irish campaign, was almost drowned in the river Greete. The Irish
+Royal Regiment of Footguards, that of Dorrington, was the first corps
+to break through the English intrenchments, its gallant leader,
+Colonel Barrett, falling as he headed the charge. Here also was
+stricken Lieutenant-Colonel Nugent of Sheldon's Irish Regiment. Here
+also fell--saddest loss of all--Patrick Sarsfield, Earl of Lucan,
+brave, resourceful, a true unfaltering-soldier and lover of his
+country. The legend of his life blood flowing before his eyes and his
+utterance, "Would it had been shed for Ireland", may and should be
+true, although he lived three days after the battle. Would, indeed,
+it had been shed for Ireland--after such a day!
+
+It was in 1703 that the celebrated defence of Cremona lifted Irish
+renown to great heights throughout Europe. There were but 600 Irish
+troopers all told in that long day's work, and from the break of day
+till nightfall they held at bay Prince Eugene's army of 10,000 men.
+The two battalions of Bourke and Dillon were surprised at early morn
+to learn that the Austrians--and there were Irish officers among
+them--were in the town. Major O'Mahony and his men ran from their
+beds to the gates, and neither the foes without nor the foes within
+could make them budge. Terribly they suffered under concentrated
+attacks, but a withering fire from the Irish met every assault. It
+was nightfall before relief came, and then the sons of Ireland who
+had held Cremona for the French were acclaimed by all, but of their
+600 they had lost nearly 350. Small wonder that the honor list that
+day was long. In Bourke's battalion the specially distinguished were
+Captains Wauchop, Plunkett, Donnellan, MacAuliffe, Carrin, Power,
+Nugent, and Ivers; in Dillon's, Major O'Mahony, Captains Dillon,
+Lynch, MacDonough, and Magee, and Lieutenants Dillon and Gibbon, John
+Bourke and Thomas Dillon. Major O'Mahony was sent to Paris to carry
+the news of the victory to the king, who presented him with a purse
+of 1,000 louis d'or, a pension of 1,000 livres, and the brevet of
+colonel.
+
+So the history proceeds, the Irish regiments lost in the array of the
+French forces, but showing here and there a glint of charging
+bayonets, captured trenches, and gushes of Irish blood. In 1703 the
+brigade regiments fought in Italy and Germany under the Duc de
+Vendome. We hear of the regiments of Berwick, Bourke, Dillon, Galmoy,
+and Fitzgerald vigorously engaged. In Germany the story is of
+Sheldon's Horse and two battalions of the regiments of Dorrington and
+Clare. At the first battle of Blenheim, September 20, 1703, the
+regiment of Clare lost one of its colors, rallied, charged with the
+bayonet and recovered it, taking two colors from the enemy. This was
+a French victory. Not so the great battle of Blenheim, August, 1704,
+when Marlborough and Prince Eugene severely defeated the French and
+Bavarians. Three Irish battalions shared in the disaster. In 1705 at
+Cassano in Italy an Irish regiment, finding itself badly galled by
+artillery fire from the opposite bank of the Adda, declared they
+could stand it no longer, and thereupon jumped in, swam the river,
+and captured the battery. In 1705 Colonel O'Mahony of Cremona fame
+distinguished himself in Spain. In the next year at the battle of
+Ramillies, in which Marlborough with the Dutch defeated the French
+under Villeroi, Lord Clare's regiment captured the colors of the
+English Churchill regiment and of the Scottish regiment in the Dutch
+service. In the same year and the next, the Irish Brigade fought many
+battles in Spain. One cannot pursue the details of the engagements.
+Regiments ever decimated were ever recruited by the "Wild Geese" from
+Ireland--the adventurous Catholic youth of the country who sought
+congenial outlet for their love of adventure and glory. Many Irish
+also joined the French army after deserting from the English forces
+in Flanders.
+
+It was, however, at Fontenoy, May 11, 1745, that the Irish Brigade
+rendered their most signal service to France. The English under the
+Duke of Cumberland, son of George II., with 55,000 men including a
+large German and Dutch auxiliary, met the French under Marshal Saxe,
+and in the presence of the French king Louis XV., near Tournai in
+Belgium. Saxe had 40,000 men in action and 24,000 around Tournai,
+which town was the objective of the English advance. Among the troops
+on the field were the six Irish regiments of Clare, Dillon, Bulkeley,
+Roth, Berwick, and Lally, all under Charles O'Brien, Viscount Clare,
+afterwards Marshal Thomond of France. After fierce cannonading on
+both sides and a check to the allies on their right and left, a great
+column of English veterans advanced on the French centre, breaking
+through with sheer force. They had thus reached high ground when some
+cannonading halted them. It was at this moment of gravest peril to
+the French that the Irish regiments with unshotted guns charged
+headlong up the slope on their ancient enemies, crying, "Remember
+Limerick and British Faith!" The great English column, already
+roughly handled by the cannon, broke and fled in wild disorder before
+that irresistible onslaught, and France had won a priceless victory,
+but the six Irish regiments lost one-third of their gallant men by a
+single volley as they followed their steel into the English lines.
+
+When Charles Edward, the Stuart Pretender, landed in Scotland in
+1745, he was followed by a small French force, including 500 Irishmen
+from the Brigade. Colonel John O'Sullivan was much relied on by the
+prince in his extraordinary campaign. Sir Thomas Sheridan also
+distinguished himself. There were 475 Irish at the battle of
+Culloden, that foredoomed defeat of the Stuart cause, and two days
+later a score of Irish officers were among those who surrendered at
+Inverness.
+
+In Spain at the beginning of the 18th century there were hundreds of
+Irish officers in the military service, and eight Irish regiments.
+Among the officers were thirteen Kellys, thirteen Burkes, and four
+Sheas. It seemed that Ireland had soldiers for the world. Don
+Patricio, Don Miguel, Don Carlos, Don Tadeo took the place of
+Patrick, Michael, Charles, and Thadeus. O'Hart gives a list of sixty
+descendants of the "Wild Geese" in places of honor in Spain. General
+Prim was a descendant of the Princes of Inisnage in Kilkenny. An
+O'Donnell was Duke of Tetuan and field marshal of Spain. Ambrose
+O'Higgins, born in county Meath, Ireland, was the foremost Spanish
+soldier in Chile and Peru; Admiral Patricio Lynch was one of its most
+distinguished sailors; and James McKenna its greatest military
+engineer. The son of O'Higgins was foremost among those who fought
+for Chilean independence and gained it, and one of his ablest
+lieutenants was Colonel Charles Patrick O'Madden of Maryland.
+
+In Austria the Irish soldiers were particularly welcome. They count
+forty-one field-marshals, major-generals, generals of cavalry, and
+masters of ordnance of Irish birth in the Austrian service.
+O'Callaghan relates that on March 17, 1766, His Excellency Count
+Mahony (son of the O'Mahony of Cremona), ambassador from Spain to the
+court of Vienna, gave a grand entertainment in honor of St. Patrick,
+to which he invited all persons of condition who were of Irish
+descent. Among many others, there were present Count Lacy, President
+of the Council at War, the generals O'Donnell, McGuire, O'Kelly,
+Browne, Plunkett, and MacElligot, four chiefs of the Grand Cross, two
+governors, several knights military, six staff officers, and four
+privy councillors, with the principal officers of State. All wore
+Patrick's crosses in honor of the Irish nation, as did the whole
+court that day. Emperor Francis I. said: "The more Irish officers in
+the Austrian service the better; bravery will not be wanting; our
+troops will always be well disciplined." The Austrian O'Reillys and
+Taaffes were famous. It was the dragoon regiment of Count O'Reilly
+that by a splendid charge saved the remnant of the Austrian army at
+Austerlitz.
+
+In the American war of the Revolution, General Charles Geoghegan of
+the Irish Brigade made the campaigns of Rochambeau and Lafayette. He
+received the order of the Cincinnati from Washington and was ever
+proud of it. Lieutenant General O'Moran also served in America. He
+was afterwards executed in the French Revolution, for the "Brigade"
+remained royalist to the end. General Arthur Dillon, who served in
+the Brigade, was also guillotined in 1794, crying, "_Vive le roi!_"
+At the foot of the scaffold a woman, probably Mme. Hébert, also
+condemned, stood beside him. The executioner told her to mount the
+steps. "Oh, Monsieur Dillon," she said, "pray go first." "Anything to
+oblige a lady," he answered gaily, and so faced his God.
+
+Lord Macaulay, commenting upon these things and deploring the
+policies that brought them about, says with great significance:
+
+"There were Irish Catholics of great ability, but they were to be
+found everywhere except in Ireland--at Versailles, at St. Ildefonso,
+in the armies of Frederic, in the armies of Maria Theresa. One exile
+(Lord Clare) became a marshal of France, another (General Wall)
+became Prime Minister of Spain.... Scattered all over Europe were to
+be found brave Irish generals, dexterous Irish diplomatists, Irish
+counts, Irish barons, Irish knights of St. Louis and St. Leopold, of
+the White Eagle, and of the Golden Fleece, who if they remained in
+the house of bondage, could not have been ensigns of marching
+regiments or freemen of petty corporations."
+
+The old Irish brigades ended with the French monarchy. Battalions of
+the regiments of Dillon and Walsh were with the French fleet in the
+West Indies at Grenada and St. Eustache, also at Savannah, and under
+Rochambeau at Yorktown, but, except as to the officers, the surviving
+regiments of Berwick, Dillon, and Walsh were largely French. With the
+better times under Grattan's Parliament in Ireland, the soldier
+emigration to France had all but ceased. The Irish Volunteers of 1782
+numbered 100,000 men, of whom an appreciable proportion were
+Catholics. Many Irish went into the English army and navy, but there
+was another stream of fighting emigrants, that which flocked to the
+standard of revolt against England in America, of which much was to
+be heard thereafter.
+
+In the American colonies before the Revolution there were thousands
+of descendants of the Catholic Irish who had settled in Maryland and
+Pennsylvania during the seventeenth century, as well as hardy Irish
+Presbyterians from Ulster, who came in great multitudes during the
+first half of the eighteenth century. They had suffered persecution
+in Ireland for conscience sake from their fellow-Protestants. In
+Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and the Carolinas
+they constituted entire communities. The emigration of the Catholic
+or purely Celtic Irish to America in the seventeenth and eighteenth
+centuries was often compulsory. At any rate, after the middle of the
+eighteenth century it was large and became continuous--a true drift.
+Catholics and Presbyterians alike brought hostility to the English
+government with them, and their voices fed the storm of discontent.
+The Irish schoolmasters, of whom there were hundreds, were especially
+efficient in this. They came in every ship to the colonies. They had
+no love for England, for they had experienced in Ireland the tyranny
+of English law, and they would be more than human if they did not
+imbue the minds of the American children under their care with their
+own hatred of oppression and wrong and English domination. The log
+schoolhouse of the Irish teacher became the nursery of revolution.
+They were a very important factor, therefore, in the making of the
+Revolution, and many of them took an active part as soldiers in the
+field.
+
+The Irish, both Catholics and Protestants, poured into the patriot
+ranks once the standard of revolt was raised in 1775. The
+Pennsylvania line, which General Lee called "the line of Ireland,"
+was almost entirely Irish, and the rosters of several of the Maryland
+and Virginia regiments contain a remarkably large proportion of Irish
+names, in some cases running as high as 60 per cent. It is computed
+that the Irish furnished not less than a third of the whole American
+forces. A common cause blotted out all old religious prejudices
+between Irishmen in the American service. It was John Sullivan, of
+New Hampshire, son of a Limerick schoolmaster, who began the revolt
+by seizing the fort of William and Mary and its storehouses filled
+with that powder which charged the guns at Bunker Hill in the
+following year. It was Captain Jeremiah O'Brien, with his brothers,
+who made the first sea attack on the British off Machias, Maine, in
+May, 1775, an engagement which Fenimore Cooper calls "the Lexington
+of the Seas." There were fifteen Celtic Irish names among the Minute
+Men at the Battle of Lexington. Colonel Barrett, who commanded at
+Concord, was Irish. There were 258 Celtic Irish names on the rosters
+of the American forces at the battle of Bunker Hill. John Sullivan
+had been made a major-general, thereafter to be a notable figure in
+the war at Princeton, Trenton, Newport, and in his Indian campaign.
+The Connecticut line was thick with Irish names. Around Washington
+himself was a circle of brilliant Irishmen: Adjutant-General Edward
+Hand leading his rifles, Stephen Moylan his dragoons, General Henry
+Knox and Colonel Proctor at the head of his artillery, John Dunlop
+his body-guard, Andrew Lewis his brigadier-general, Ephraim Elaine
+his quartermaster, all of Irish birth or ancestry. Commodore John
+Barry, born in Wexford in 1739 and bred to the sea, was a ship
+captain in his early twenties, trading from Philadelphia. When the
+Continental Congress met, he at once volunteered, and was given
+command of the _Lexington_, the first American ship to capture a
+British war vessel. Later, after gallant fighting on sea and land, he
+was given command of the U.S. frigate _Alliance_, in which he crossed
+the Atlantic to France, and fought and captured in a rattling battle
+two British warships, the _Atlanta_ and the _Trepasay_. He was the
+Father of the American navy, holding captain's certificate No. 1,
+signed by Washington himself--the highest rank then issued.
+
+General Richard Montgomery, the brave and able soldier who fell at
+Quebec as he charged the heights, was an Irishman. General George
+Clinton, son of an Irishman, was a brigadier-general, governor of New
+York and twice Vice-President of the United States. Fifty-seven
+officers of New York regiments in the Revolution were Irish, and a
+large number of the officers in the Southern regiments of the line,
+as well as of the militia, were native Irish or of Irish descent. The
+rosters of the enlisted Irishmen of the New York regiments run into
+the thousands. Hundreds of Irish soldiers suffered in the prison
+ships of New York, the horrors of which served so conspicuously to
+stimulate American determination to carry the war to the only
+rightful conclusion. Washington always recognized America's debt to
+the Irish. "St. Patrick" he made the watchword in the patriot lines
+the night before the English evacuated Boston forever on the
+memorable 17th of March, 1776. After the war he was made, with his
+own consent, an honorary member of the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick.
+Major-General Richard Butler and his four brothers, all officers, and
+Brigadier-Generals John Armstrong, William Irvine, William Thompson,
+James Smith, and Griffith Rutherford all fought with distinction. All
+of these officers were Irish-born. It was in truth an Irish war, so
+far as Irish sentiment and whole-hearted service could make it. The
+record of Irish soldiers' names alone would fill volumes.
+
+The thirst of the Irish race for the glory of war is shown in the
+large enlistments in the last quarter of the eighteenth century, and
+since, in the English army and navy. Grattan, in pleading for
+Ireland, claimed that a large percentage of the British forces were
+Irish. Wolfe Tone avers that there were 210 Irishmen out of 220 in
+the crew of a British frigate that overhauled his ship on its way to
+America. Bonaparte had in his armies an Irish Legion that did good
+service in Holland, Spain, Portugal, and Germany. Marshal Clarke,
+Duke of Feltre, French Minister of War in 1809, was Irish. Up and
+down the Spanish Peninsula, Irish blood was shed in abundance in the
+armies of Wellington. Never was more brilliant fighting done than
+that which stands to Irish credit from the lines of Torres Vedras to
+Badajos and Toulouse. Of the Waterloo campaign volumes have been
+written in praise of Irish valor. As Maxwell says in his _Tales of
+Waterloo_:--"The victors of Marengo and Austerlitz reeled before the
+charge of the Connaught Rangers." Wellington himself was Irish, as in
+the later wars of England Lord Gough, Lord Wolseley, Lord Roberts,
+Lord Kitchener, and General French came from Ireland. The Irish
+soldiers in the English service by a pitiful irony of fate helped
+materially to fasten the chains of English domination on the peoples
+of India in a long series of wars.
+
+In America, the War of 1812 once more gave opportunity to the
+Fighting Race. The commanding figure of the war, which opened so
+inauspiciously for the United States, was General Andrew Jackson, the
+hero of the battle of New Orleans, and afterwards twice elected
+President of the United States. "Old Hickory", as he came to be
+lovingly called, was proud of his Irish father, and sympathized with
+the national longings of the Irish people. He was a splendid soldier,
+and his defeat of the English general, Pakenham, on January 8, 1815,
+which meant the control of the mouths of the Mississippi, as well as
+safeguarding the city of New Orleans, reflected the highest credit on
+his skill and unflagging energy. The English had superior numbers,
+between 8,000 and 9,000 men, against a scant 6,000 under Jackson, and
+their force was made up of veterans of the European wars. In command
+of the left of his line Jackson placed the gallant general William
+Carroll, born in Philadelphia, but of Irish blood, who was afterwards
+twice governor of Tennessee. The British general made the mistake of
+despising the soldier value of his enemy, yet before evening of that
+day he saw his artillery silenced and his lines broken, as he died of
+a wound on the field. The battle was actually fought after the
+signing of the treaty of peace at Ghent; it annihilated British
+pretensions in this part of the world, anyway.
+
+After Commodore Perry, the victor in the battle of Lake Erie, and
+himself the son of an Irish mother, the northern naval glory of the
+War of 1812 falls to Lieutenant Thomas MacDonough, of Irish descent,
+whose victory on Lake Champlain over the British squadron was almost
+as important as Perry's. Admiral Charles L. Stewart ("Old
+Ironsides"), who commanded the frigate _Constitution_ when she
+captured the _Cyane_ and the _Levant_, fighting them by moonlight,
+was a great and renowned figure. His parents came from Ireland, and
+Charles Stewart Parnell's mother was the great sea-fighter's
+daughter. Lieutenant Stephen Cassin commanded the _Ticonderoga_ and
+fought her well. Captain Johnston Blakely, who was born in Ireland,
+captured in the _Wasp_ of 18 guns the much larger British _Reindeer_
+of 20 guns and 175 men in a splendid fight, and later sank the
+_Avon_, an 18-gun brig. After capturing a great prize, which he sent
+to Savannah, he sailed for the Spanish main and was never heard of
+more. Captain Boyle, in the privateer _Comet_ of Baltimore, fought
+the _Hibernia_, of 18 guns, and later in the _Chasseur_, known as the
+phantom ship, so fast she sailed, took eighty prizes on the high
+seas. General A.E. Maccomb, who commanded victoriously at Plattsburg,
+was of Irish descent, and Colonel Robert Carr, who distinguished
+himself in the same campaign, was born in Ireland. Major George
+Croghan of Kentucky, the hero of Fort Stephenson, was the son of an
+Irish father who had been a soldier in the Revolution. Colonel Hugh
+Brady, of the 22nd Infantry, commanded at Niagara. He remained in the
+army and fought in Mexico. William McRee, of Irish descent, was
+General Browne's chief engineer in laying out the military works of
+the American army at Niagara.
+
+Let it not be forgotten that in this memorable company brave Mrs.
+Doyle has a place. Her husband, Patrick Doyle, an Irish artilleryman,
+had been taken prisoner by the British in the affair at Queenston and
+had been refused a parole. Accordingly, when the guns were trained on
+the English lines before Fort Niagara, Mary, emulating the example of
+her countrywoman, "Molly" Pitcher, at Monmouth, determined to take
+her husband's place, and, regardless of flying British balls, tended
+a blacksmith's bellows all day, providing red-hot shot for the
+American gun battery, and sending a prayer with every shot into the
+British lines.
+
+After the Queenston affair, it is well to note, the English doctrine
+of perpetual allegiance was abated. Twenty-three Irish-born men were
+among the captives of the English in that engagement. They were
+manacled to be sent to Ireland to be tried for treason, not as
+enemies taken in the field. Winfield Scott, then lieutenant-colonel,
+was also a prisoner with them. He protested loudly against this
+infamous course. Upon his release he laid aside twenty-three British
+prisoners to be treated like the Irishmen, eye for eye and tooth for
+tooth. As a result, the Irish prisoners were exchanged.
+
+Colonel John Allen, who fell at the head of the First Regiment of
+Kentucky Riflemen at the battle of the river Raisin on January 21,
+1813, was one of the Irish Allens of Kentucky. His father and mother
+were natives of Ireland.
+
+The Mexican War (1846-48) again showed Irish valor at the front. It
+was not a great war, though brilliantly fought and rich in
+territorial accessions. The campaigning comprised the work of two
+main expeditions and a subsidiary movement in California. One column,
+under General Zachary Taylor, penetrated northern Mexico and fought
+the battles of Matamoras, Palo Alto, and Resaca de la Palma, in May,
+1846, with a force of 2,200 men; forced the evacuation of Monterey in
+September, his army swelled to 5,000; and defeated Santa Anna at
+Buena Vista in February, 1847. General Winfield Scott, with a naval
+expediton, attacked Vera Cruz from the sea in March, 1847, and took
+up the march, 13,000 strong, to Mexico City, fighting the battles of
+Cerro Gordo, Contreras, Churubusco, Molino del Rey, and Chapultepec,
+and entered Mexico City on September 14. General James Shields, born
+in Tyrone, Ireland, in 1810, was in command with his brigade under
+Scott. A brilliant soldier, he was severely wounded at Cerro Gordo
+and again at Chapultepec. He served as United States Senator after
+the war and again took the field in the Civil War, his forces
+defeating Stonewall Jackson at the first battle of Winchester in
+1862. The glamour of chivalry lights the name of Phil Kearney. Here
+was a born soldier. He was a volunteer with the French in Algiers in
+1839-40. He also commanded under Scott with brilliant bravery, and
+was brevetted major on the field for "gallant and meritorious
+conduct" at the battles of Contreras and Churubusco. In the French
+war with Austria in 1859-60, Kearney fought with the French,
+distinguishing himself at the decisive and bloody battle of
+Solferino. In the Civil War he was brigadier-general of New Jersey
+troops in 1861 and major-general in 1863, taking distinguished part
+in the battles of the Peninsula and second Bull Run, and was killed
+while reconnoitring at Chantilly. General Stephen W. Kearney, with
+the Army of the West, by dint of long marches, secured California
+among the fruits of the war. General Bennet Riley, born in Maryland
+of Irish ancestry, commanded a brigade at Contreras, making a
+wonderful charge, and also fought brilliantly at Cerro Gordo and
+Churubusco, and was brevetted brigadier-general. He attained the army
+rank in 1858. Major-General William O. Butler, under Zachary Taylor,
+was one of the heroes of Monterey. Born in Kentucky, son of Percival
+Butler of Kilkenny, who was one of the famous five Butler brothers of
+the Revolutionary War whom Washington once toasted as "The Butlers
+and their five sons," General Butler succeeded General Scott in
+command of the entire American army in Mexico in February, 1848.
+Another of clear Irish descent who fought under Zachary Taylor was
+Major-General George Croghan, whose father, born in Sligo, Ireland,
+had fought in the Revolution. He himself took part, as we have seen,
+in the War of 1812, and now was at the front before Monterey. Once,
+when a Tennessee regiment wavered under a hot converging fire,
+Croghan rushed to the front and, taking off his hat, shouted, "Men of
+Tennessee, your fathers conquered with Jackson at New Orleans. Come,
+follow me!" and they followed in a successful assault. Major-General
+Robert Paterson, who was born at Strabane, Ireland, and was the son
+of a '98 man, saw service in 1812, and became major-general of
+militia in Pennsylvania, whence he went to the Mexican War. He also
+lived to serve in the War of the States.
+
+Among Irish-named officers mentioned honorably in official despatches
+are Major Edward H. Fitzgerald, Major Patrick J. O'Brien; Captain
+Casey, chosen to lead the first storming party at Chapultepec;
+Captains Hogan, Byrne, Kane, McElvin, McGill, Burke, Barny,
+O'Sullivan, McCarthy, McGarry, and McKeon. Captain Mayne Reid, the
+novelist, a native of Ireland, was in the storming of Chapultepec.
+Theodore O'Hara, the poet, served with the Kentucky troops and was
+brevetted major for gallantry at Contreras and Churubusco, while on
+the staff of General Franklin Pierce (afterwards President of the
+United States). O'Hara's magnificent poem, "The Bivouac of the Dead,"
+has made his name immortal. It was written on the occasion of the
+interment at Frankfort, Ky., of the Kentucky dead of the Mexican War,
+where
+
+      "Glory guards with solemn round
+      The bivouac of the dead."
+
+Irwin C. McDowell, who was brevetted captain at Buena Vista,
+commanded a corps in the Civil War. George A. McCall, brevetted
+lieutenant-colonel at Palo Alto, was a major-general in the Civil
+War. Francis T. Bryan was a hero of Buena Vista. Lieutenant-Colonel
+Thomas P. Moore and Captain James Hogan both won fame in the 3rd
+Dragoons. Lieutenant Thomas Claiborn of the Mounted Rifles became a
+colonel in the Confederate Army. Lieutenant-Colonel J.W. Geary fought
+brilliantly and was to be heard from later with renown.
+
+Colonel John F. Reynolds of the 3rd Artillery lived to be
+major-general in the Civil War, and to fall gloriously at Gettysburg.
+Nor must we forget Major Folliot Lally's bravery at Cerro Gordo;
+Second Lieutenant Thomas W. Sweeny, a brigadier-general of the Civil
+War and the planner of the Fenian invasion of Canada in 1866;
+Lieutenant Henry B. Kelly of the 2nd Infantry, afterwards a
+Confederate colonel; Captain Martin Burke of the 1st Artillery,
+killed at Churubusco; nor Lieutenant William F. Barry of the 2nd
+Artillery, a brigadier-general in the Civil War. There were scores of
+other Irish named officers. In the whole American force of 30,000
+engaged, the Irish born and Irish descended troops of all arms were
+numbered by thousands.
+
+It was, however, in the Civil War that the flood of Irish valor and
+loyalty to the American Republic was at its height. The 2,800,000
+enlistments on the Northern side stood probably for 1,800,000
+individual soldiers serving during the four years of the war. Not
+less than 40 per cent, of these were Irish born or of Irish descent.
+Of the 337,800 men furnished by the State of New York, 51,206 were
+natives of Ireland out of the total of 134,178 foreign born, or 38
+per cent, of the latter, while not less than 80,000 of Irish descent
+figured among the 203,600 native born soldiers. Of the 2,261
+engagements in the war, few there were that saw no Irishmen in arms,
+and certainly, in every one of the 519 engagements that made Virginia
+a great graveyard, the Irish figured largely. Of the 1,000,516
+mustered out in 1865, not less than 150,000 were natives of Ireland,
+while those of Irish descent numbered hundreds of thousands. They
+fought well everywhere, and it would require volumes to give the
+names and deeds of those who distinguished themselves more than their
+fellows.
+
+One name, however, shines with a great blaze above them all, the name
+of Philip H. Sheridan, one of the three supreme soldiers of the
+Union, Ulysses S. Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman being the
+others. Had Ireland furnished only Sheridan to the Union cause, her
+service would be beyond reward. He was born in Albany, N.Y., in
+March, 1831, the year after his parents, John and Mary Sheridan,
+arrived there from the Co. Cavan, in Ireland. The family moved to
+Somerset, Perry Co., Ohio, the following year. There Philip began
+village life. How he gained the beginning of an education; worked in
+a grocery store; became a bookkeeper; longed for a West Point
+nomination and got it; how he worked through the Academy in 1853;
+served as lieutenant on the frontier, in Texas, California, and
+Oregon, until the outbreak of the Civil War, when he was promoted
+captain and ordered east, can be quickly told. His history until the
+fall of the Confederacy would need many long chapters. His military
+genius included all the requirements of a great captain, and his
+opportunties of exhibiting all his qualities in action came in rapid
+succession. In every service from quartermaster to army commander his
+talents shone. His tremendous vigor, incredible mental alertness, and
+genius for detail, added to his skill and outreach, continually set
+him forward. He stood 5 feet 5 inches high, but somehow looked
+taller, owing to his erect, splendid bearing. There was something in
+the full chest, the thick muscular neck, the heavy head, the dark
+blazing eyes, and the quick bodily movements that arrested attention.
+His name has come down to this generation mainly as a great cavalry
+leader, but he was a natural commander of all arms, a great
+tactician, a born strategist. His campaign of the Shenandoah Valley
+was a whirlwind of success. His great battles around Richmond were
+wonderful. General Grant's opinion of Sheridan, given thirteen years
+after the war, sums up the man. It is here quoted from J.R. Young's
+book, _Around the World with General Grant_. It runs, in part, as
+follows:
+
+"As a soldier, as a commander of troops, as a man capable of doing
+all that is possible with any number of men, there is no man living
+greater than Sheridan. He belongs to the very first rank of soldiers,
+not only of our country but of the world. I rank Sheridan with
+Napoleon and Frederick and the great commanders in history. No man
+ever had such a faculty of finding things out as Sheridan, of knowing
+all about the enemy. He was always the best informed of his command
+as to the enemy. Then he had that magnetic quality of swaying men,
+which I wish I had, a rare quality in a general. I don't think anyone
+can give Sheridan too high praise."
+
+Praise from U.S. Grant is praise indeed. A peculiar feature of the
+Civil War was the growth of the generals: Grant, Sherman, Sheridan,
+Thomas, Meade, all conspicuously experienced it. With Sheridan,
+however, one point is notable, namely, that He triumphed in every
+branch in each successive extension of the field of his duties, and
+he went from captain to major-general in three years of the regular
+army. His care for his men was constant. His troops were always the
+best fed, best clothed, best rested in the armies en either side, but
+on no troops was there more constant call for endeavor, and they were
+never found to fail him. In action he is described as severe,
+peremptory, dominating, but his determinations were mighty things,
+not to be interfered with. He wanted things done and done at once.
+His men of all grades soon conceded that he knew best what to do, and
+set about doing it accordingly. Out of action he was joyous of
+spirit, but, in fight or out of it, his alertness and his
+lightning-like decisions marked him apart from every other commander.
+His career in the Tennessee campaign was meteoric. Of his score and
+more of great conflicts, the most picturesque was his wonderful
+battle at Cedar Creek, to fight which he rode at breakneck speed
+"from Winchester twenty miles away" through the dust and debris of a
+broken army to the extreme front, rallying the scattered regiments
+and turning a defeat into a crushing victory, which recovered all
+that had been lost, taking 25 cannon and 1,200 prisoners, and driving
+for miles the lately victorious enemy under Early. Captain P.J.
+O'Keefe was one of the two who made the ride beside him. The battles
+of Waynesboro, Five Forks, and Sailor's Creek showed the same
+brilliant generalship on the part of Sheridan. His hold on the
+affection of the army and the admiration of the people continued to
+the day of his death, August 5, 1888, when he held the headship of
+the United States army as general in succession to the great Sherman.
+
+General Sheridan, towards the end of the war, had a soldier's
+difference with Major-General George G. Meade, commander of the Army
+of the Potomac, but that did not blind "Little Phil" to the real
+merit of the victor in the tremendous three days' battle of
+Gettysburg, handling an army new to his hand against Robert E. Lee.
+The Meade family is of Irish descent. George Meade, the grandfather,
+came from Dublin and was a patriot in the American Revolutionary War.
+General Meade commanded a division at Antietam and a corps at
+Fredericksburg, and held command of the Army of the Potomac to the
+end of the war. He was a fine soldier and gentleman. Of quiet manners
+at most times, he was most irascible in the hour of battle, but his
+temper did not becloud his judgment. General James Shields and
+General Irwin McDowell, both fine Irish soldiers, have already been
+mentioned.
+
+It would be hard to compass in a brief article even the names of the
+general officers of Irish blood in the Civil War. General John Logan,
+who fought with the western armies, is worthy of high and honorable
+mention, as is General Thomas Francis Meagher, a patriot in Ireland,
+a prisoner in Australia, a soldier of dash in the Civil War.
+Meagher's Irish Brigade left a record of valor unsurpassed: their
+charge at Fredericksburg up Marye's Heights alone should give them
+full meed of fame. General Michael Corcoran, a native of Ireland,
+commanded the wholly Irish 69th Regiment when it departed for the war
+in 1861, and after his exchange from a Confederate prison raised and
+organized the Corcoran Legion. Major-General McDowell McCook
+commanded brilliantly in the western campaigns. Who has not heard of
+the Fighting McCooks?--a family of splendid men and hardy warriors.
+Brigadier-General Thomas C. Devin was a superb cavalry commander, who
+led the first division of Sheridan's Shenandoah army through all its
+great operations. General James Mulligan of Illinois was of the true
+fighting breed. Colonel Timothy O'Meara led his superb Irish Legion
+from Illinois up Missionary Ridge. Brigadier-General C.C. Sullivan of
+western army fame was one of the five generals, headed by Rosecrans,
+who recommended Phil Sheridan for promotion to brigadier-general
+after the battle of Booneville as "worth his weight in gold." General
+Brannan was a gallant division commander in the Middle Tennessee
+campaign. Colonel William P. Carlin made a name at Stone River.
+General James T. Boyle, of the Army of the Ohio under Buell, was the
+brave man whose promotion to division commander left a vacancy for
+"Little Phil", that was to be an immediate stepping stone to higher
+opportunity. Brigadier-General McMillan, who commanded the second
+brigide at Cedar Creek; Colonel Thomas W. Cahill, 9th Connecticut;
+Lieutenant-Colonel Alfred Neafie of the 156th New York; Captain
+Charles McCarthy of the 175th New York; Lieutenant-Colonel Alex. J.
+Kenny of the 8th Indiana; Lieutenant Terrence Reilly of the Horse
+Artillery, all won distinction in the Shenandoah Valley. Such
+splendid fighters as General James R. O'Beirne, Colonel Guiney,
+Colonel Cavanagh, Colonel John P. Byron, Colonel Patrick Gleason,
+General Denis F. Burke, wrote their names red over a score of battle
+fields, but one cannot hope to cover more than a fraction of the
+brilliant men of Irish blood who led and bled in the long, hard, and
+strenuous struggle. The 69th New York Regiment was the mother of a
+dozen Irish regiments, including the Irish Brigade of Meagher and the
+Corcoran Legion. The 9th, 28th, and 29th regiments of Massachusetts
+were all Irish. A gallant Irishman, born at Fermoy, was
+Brigadier-General Thomas Smyth, who made a name and died in the
+battles around Richmond. There was not a regiment from the middle
+western and western States that did not hold its quota of Irishmen
+and sons of the Irish. After the names of Porter and Farragut in the
+Navy stands next highest in honor that of Vice-Admiral Stephen C.
+Rowan, born in Dublin, of the famous family that produced Hamilton
+Rowan, one of the foremost of the United Irishmen. It was the son of
+the vice-admiral, a lieutenant in the army, who carried "the message
+to Garcia" from the United States War Department to the Cuban
+commander in the eastern jungle of Cuba, before the outbreak of the
+war with Spain, and did it so well and bravely through such
+difficulties and dangers that his name will stand for "the faithful
+messenger" forever.
+
+As a consequence of their stand with the American people in the Civil
+War, the position of the whole mass of the Irish and Irish-American
+people was vastly uplifted in American eyes. The unlettered poverty
+of scores of thousands of Irish immigrants, who came in multitudes
+from 1846 on, had made an unfavorable and false impression; their red
+blood on the battle field washed it out.
+
+On the southern side as well, Irish valor shone. While the great
+flood of the mid-century Irish immigration had spread itself mainly
+north, east, and west, the larger cities of the South also received a
+share. The slave system precluded the entry of free labor into the
+cotton, corn, lumber, and sugar lands of the South, but such cities
+as New Orleans, Mobile, Charleston, Savannah, Vicksburg, and Richmond
+gave varied employment to many of the Irish who made their homes in
+the Southland, and so they came to furnish thousands of recruits to
+the local Confederate levies. The "Louisiana Tigers", who fought so
+valiantly at Gettysburg on the Southern side, included many Irish.
+The Georgia brigade, that held the Confederate line atop of Marye's
+Heights at Fredericksburg, up which the Irish brigade so heroically
+charged, had whole companies of Irish. There were scores of Irish in
+many of the regiments that made Pickett's memorable charge at
+Gettysburg. All through the Confederate armies were valiant
+descendants of the earlier Irish immigration that settled the uplands
+of the Carolinas and Virginia and the blue grass region of Kentucky.
+Most famous, most glorious of these was "Stonewall"
+Jackson--Lieutenant-General Thomas Jonathan Jackson--next to Robert
+E. Lee the greatest soldier on the southern side. No more splendid
+soldier-figure rises out of the contest. Educated at West Point,
+serving in Mexico, then a professor of philosophy--and
+artillery--next a volunteer with his State when Virginia took arms
+against the Union, his long and brilliant service included a large
+share in the victories at Bull Run, Gaines Mill, Malvern Hill, Cedar
+Mountain, Harper's Ferry, Antietam, Fredericksburg, and
+Chancellorsville, where he was accidentally wounded by his own men.
+He was once defeated by General Shields, as has been noted. The piety
+and purity of his life belie the supposed necessity for the coarser
+traits that are thought to go with the terrible trade. General
+Patrick R. Cleburne was born in 1828, near Cork, Ireland. He was in
+the English army three years, and, coming to the United States,
+became a lawyer at Helena, Ark. He enlisted in the Confederate army
+as a private, rose rapidly to the command of a brigade, and made a
+great name at Shiloh. As major-general he led divisions at
+Murfreesboro and Chickamauga, and was thanked by the Confederate
+Congress. He fell at the battle of Franklin--a soldier of commanding
+presence, skill, and daring, beloved by the whole Army of the West.
+The gallant colonel Thomas Claiborne was a striking cavalryman. It
+was Lieutenant Thomas A. Claiborne of the 1st South Carolina who,
+with Corporal B. Brannan, lashed the broken flagstaff on Fort Sumter
+in June, 1864, when, under a withering fire, the flag of the
+Confederacy had been shot away. The fighting of Major-General Gary of
+South Carolina around Richmond was desperate. He was the last to
+leave the city when it fell, as told by Captain Sullivan: "He
+galloped at night through the burning city, and at the bridge over
+the James cried out, 'We are the rear guard. It is all over; blow the
+bridge to h--l!' and went on into the night"
+
+The story of the Civil War is a mine of honor to the Irish, and
+Irishmen should set it forth at length. Here it can be merely glanced
+at.
+
+The war of 1898 with Spain--that great patriotic efflorescence--was
+brief in its campaigning. Immediately provoked by the blowing up of
+the U.S.S. _Maine_ in Havana harbor on February 15, war was declared
+on April 19. Admiral Dewey sank the Spanish fleet in Manila Harbor,
+May 1. The first troops landed on Cuban soil June 1. The first--and
+last--real land battle before Santiago occurred on July 1-2, with
+13,500 troops on the American side against an available Spanish force
+somewhat less in number, but holding strongly fortified and
+entrenched positions around the town. The advance and charges uphill
+necessary to capture El Caney and the steep heights of San Juan
+called for desperate courage. It was there, however, and the Irish in
+the army exhibited dash and persistence, as duty demanded. In the
+second day's fighting the Spanish assaults on the American positions
+were repelled, and the land fighting was over. The Americans in the
+two days lost over 10 per cent killed and wounded. The destruction of
+Cervera's fleet on its attempt to escape from Santiago on July 3
+ended the struggle. With the regiment of Rough Riders, under Theodore
+Roosevelt--who says he reckons "an O'Brien, a Redmond, and a man from
+Ulster" among his for-bears--were many gallant Irishmen--Kellys,
+Murphys, Burkes, and Doyles, for instance. His favorite captain,
+"Bucky" O'Neill of Arizona, fell at the foot of San Juan. The white
+regiments of the regular army had their quota of Irish, as had most
+of the volunteers. The 9th Massachusetts was all Irish. The 69th New
+York, all Irish, never reached the front in the war, but shared the
+fate of the 150,000 troops cantoned through the Southern States,
+their only effective enemies being dysentery, typhoid, and malaria.
+
+A little splash of Irish blood came with the Fenian dash into Canada
+on June 1, 1866. There had been active preparations for a real
+invasion by some 50,000 Irish-born or Irish-fathered soldiers who had
+served in the Civil War. The American government, using its army
+force, intervened to prevent the bellicose movement, not, however,
+before Colonel John O'Neill, who had served in the cavalry with
+Sherman on his march to the sea, with Captain Starr, one of
+Kilpatrick's cavalry, Captain O'Brien, and about 700 well-armed men,
+all Civil War veterans, had slipped across the Niagara River at Fort
+Erie. They made short work of all in sight, threw out a couple of
+hundred men who burned a bridge and tore up the railroad tracks.
+Their scouts fired on a small British detachment, which ran. On the
+morning of June 2 news came of a larger Canadian force advancing, and
+O'Neill went out to meet them. Deploying his men in a field near the
+high road at a place called Ridgway, he sent his pickets forward.
+They found heavy ground in front and about three-quarters of a mile
+away some 1,400 men of the "Queen's Own" of Toronto and the Hamilton
+Volunteers advancing rapidly in line. O'Neill, after a few rounds,
+withdrew his pickets, and the Canadians, taking the movement for
+flight, came briskly on. As soon as they were clear of cover,
+O'Neill, firing a volley, gave orders for a charge. At it they went
+with a cheer, and the whole Canadian line gave way. They ran as fast
+as their legs could carry them, leaving some fifty killed and
+wounded. After chasing them for two miles, O'Neill halted his men and
+brought them back to Fort Erie, where they intrenched. The Canadians
+did not stop until they reached Colburne, eighteen miles away. The
+Fenian loss was twenty-five. In the night O'Neill learned that no
+help was coming from the United States' side, while news reached him
+that a force of 5,000 Canadian and British regulars was advancing on
+Fort Erie. Accordingly, at 2 a.m. on June 3, he surrendered to the
+United States forces with 400 of his men, who were detained for a few
+days on the U.S.S. _Michigan_ and then let go. The balance of his
+force, about 250 men, escaped in groups across the river. There was
+another little victorious skirmish with the Canadians lower down
+under Captain Spear, who also slipped back over the border unpursued.
+What fighting took place was workmanlike and creditable.
+
+There was a flicker of Irish fighting spirit in the Boer War. Many
+thousands, no doubt, were in the English army of 250,000 men brought
+against the 30,000 Boers, but there was a small "Irish Brigade" that
+fought on the Boer side, and was notably engaged at Spion Kop, where
+the English were driven so sweepingly from their position by
+desperate charges.
+
+In the War of 1870, between France and Prussia, the good wishes of
+the Irish went with France, for the sake of the old friendship,
+largely helped, no doubt, by the fact that at the summit of army
+command was Marshal MacMahon, a descendant of a warrior of the old
+Irish Brigade. His service in Algiers; his skill and daring in the
+Crimean War before Sebastopol, where he led the division which
+stormed the Malakoff; his victories in the Italian War of 1859
+against Austria, including the great battle of Magenta, all made him
+a striking, romantic figure. He failed in 1870 against the Prussians
+at Worth, and was made prisoner with his army at Sedan, but he
+suppressed the Commune after the war and was President of France from
+1873 to 1879. The device by which 300 Irishmen took part on the
+French side in the war with Germany has a grim humor. They went as
+aides in an ambulance corps fitted out in Dublin by subscription,
+but, once on French soil, enlisted in the army. "Maybe we can kill as
+well as we can cure," said one of them. The _Compagnie irlandaise_,
+as it was called, did creditable work, and was in the last combat
+with the Prussians at Montbellard. Their captain, M.W. Kirwan, was
+offered a Cross of the Legion of Honor, but for some reason declined
+it. Dr. Constantine J. McGuire, who won the decoration for bravery
+before Paris during the siege of the Commune, did, however, accept
+it, receiving the cross from the hands of Marshal MacMahon, and, hale
+and hearty, wears the red ribbon on occasion in New York today.
+
+Even as this chronicle of daring deeds and daring doers is being
+penned, in the ranks and as commanding officers on the side of the
+allies in the far-flung battle lines of the great European war, are
+men of Irish birth, and, let it not be forgotten, not a few of the
+opposing side are the descendants of the Irish military geniuses who,
+in days gone by, fought so gallantly across the continent "from
+Dunkirk to Belgrade". They are all, every man of them, bearing
+bravely, as of yore, their own part amid the dangers and chances of
+the fray.
+
+If the inspiring story is of necessity here barely sketched in
+outline, it nevertheless clearly indicates that, as it has been for
+two thousand years of Irish history, so it will be to the end of the
+human chapter--the Irish race is the Fighting Race, and willing, even
+eager, to risk life itself for vital issues.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Keating's, MacGeoghegan's, Mitchel's Histories of Ireland; J.C.
+O'Callaghan: The Irish Brigades in the Service of France, The Green
+Book; Lossing: Field Book of the Revolution, Field Book of the War of
+1812; Several Mexican War Histories; Battles and Leaders of the Civil
+War; The Irish at Home and Abroad (New York, 1856); Canon O'Hanlon:
+Irish-American History of the United States; O'Hart; Irish Pedigrees;
+Martin I. Griffin: Life of Commodore Barry; John D. Crimmins: Irish
+Miscellany; Joseph Denieffe: Fenian Recollections; Plowden:
+Historical Review of the State of Ireland (London, 1803); Hays:
+History of the Irish (1798) Rebellion; Macaulay: History of England;
+J. R. Young: Around the World with General Grant; several valuable
+articles and records of research by Michael J. O'Brien of New York.
+
+
+
+THE SORROWS OF IRELAND
+
+By JOHN JEROME ROONEY, A.M., LL.D
+
+
+"The sorrows of Ireland"! What a vision of woe the words conjure up.
+The late Goldwin Smith, himself an Englishman and a Unionist, in his
+_Irish History and the Irish Question_, finds that "of all histories,
+the history of Ireland is the saddest. For nearly seven centuries it
+was a course of strife between races, bloodshed, massacre,
+misgovernment, civil war, oppression, and misery."
+
+The first of the great scourges of Erin was the coming of the Danes,
+the bloodthirsty and conquest-loving Vikings of the North, the
+worshipers of Thor and Odin, the gods of thunder and of strife. These
+warriors, in never-ending invasions, had for four hundred years
+overrun Britain and finally conquered the northern provinces of Gaul.
+Until the end of the eighth century Ireland had been free from the
+Scandinavian scourge. About this time the invaders made lodgments
+along the caasts, passed inward through the island, burned and looted
+religious houses and schools of learning, levied tribute upon the
+inhabitants, and at length established themselves firmly at Limerick,
+Waterford, Dublin, Wexford, and Carlingford. Fortified towns were
+built, trading communications with Britain and the continent were set
+up, and the Northman, though not in actual possession of the interior
+of the island, was apparently in substantial control of its
+destinies. Brian Borumha, or Boru, brother of the king of Munster, of
+the Dalcassian race of O'Brien, refused to submit, roused his
+brother, fought the Danes of Limerick at Sulchoid (A.D. 968), and
+captured Limerick. Brian later succeeded his brother, became
+sovereign of all Ireland (A.D. 1001), and, on Good Friday, A.D.
+1014, joined battle with the Danes upon the famous field of Clontarf.
+Here the power of the Northmen was forever broken, Brian falling at
+the moment of victory, while in his tent, by the hand of a fugitive
+Dane.
+
+With the death of Brian the united government dissolved. The
+provincial kings, or princes, resumed separate authority and a
+struggle arose among them, with varying success, for the national
+sovereignty. The central government never had been strong, as the
+nation was organized on a tribal or family basis. In this weakened
+condition Dermot MacMurrough, king of Leinster, abducted the wife of
+O'Rourke, prince of Breffni, while the latter was on a pilgrimage.
+MacMurrough was compelled to fly to England. He sought the protection
+of the Angevin English king, Henry Plantagenet. As a result of this
+appeal, a small expedition, headed by Strongbow (A.D. 1169), was sent
+to Ireland, and Waterford, Wexford, and Dublin were taken. Then came
+Henry himself, in 1171, with a fleet of 240 ships, 400 knights, and
+4,000 men, landing at Waterford. This expedition was the beginning of
+the English attempted conquest of Ireland--a proceeding that, through
+all the ruin and bloodshed of 800 years, is not yet accomplished.
+Henry's first act was to introduce the feudal system into that
+southern half of the island which he controlled; he seized great
+tracts of land, which he in turn granted to his followers under
+feudal customs; he introduced the offices of the English feudal
+system and the English laws, and placed his followers in all the
+positions of power, holding their lands and authority under the
+feudal conditions of rendering him homage and military service.
+
+This was the root of the alien "landlordism" and foreign political
+control of future times which became the chief curses of Ireland, the
+prolific source of innumerable woes. The succeeding years till the
+reign of Henry VIII. witnessed the extension, and at times the
+decline, of the Anglo-Norman rule. When Henry VII. became king of
+England the Anglo-Norman colony or "Pale" had shrunk to two counties
+and a half around Dublin, defended by a ditch. Many of the original
+Norman knights had become "more Irish than the Irish themselves."
+Such was the great family of the Geraldines or Fitzgerald--the most
+powerful, with the O'Neills of the North, in Ireland. A united attack
+at this time would most certainly have driven out the invader; for it
+must be remembered that Dublin, the "Pale"--"the Castle government"
+of later times--was the citadel of the English foreign power, and
+before a united nation would most certainly have succumbed.
+
+When Henry VIII. ascended the throne of England, the policy of peace
+in Ireland was continued during the early portion of his reign. Then
+came Henry's break with the Pope over the royal divorce. The Irish
+beyond the Pale, and many within it, were loyal to the Church of
+their fathers, to the faith of Patrick, the faith of the Roman See.
+To Henry and his daughter Elizabeth, the daughter of Anne Boleyn, who
+displaced Henry's lawful wife, this was treason. Henceforth, to the
+bitterness of race hatred and the pride of the conqueror were to be
+added the blackest of religious feuds, the most cruel of religious
+persecutions in the history of the world. Again let Goldwin Smith,
+the English Unionist, describe the result: "Of all the wars waged by
+a civilized on a barbarous _(sic)_ and despised race these wars waged
+by the English on the Irish seem to have been the most hideous. No
+quarter was given by the invader to man, woman, or child. The
+butchering of women and children is repeatedly and brutally avowed.
+Nothing can be more horrible than the cool satisfaction with which
+English commanders report their massacres." Famine was deliberately
+added to the other horrors. What was called law was more cruel than
+war: it was death without the opportunity for defense and with the
+hypocrisy of the forms of justice added.
+
+Out of this situation came the infamous Penal Code, which, by the
+period of William the Third, about 1692, became a finished system.
+This is the "Irish Code" of which Lord Brougham said: "It was so
+ingeniously contrived that an Irish Catholic could not lift his hand
+without breaking it." And Edmund Burke said: "The wit of man never
+devised a machine to disgrace a realm or destroy a kingdom so perfect
+as this." Montesquieu, the great French jurist-philosopher, the
+author of the epoch-making _Spirit of the Laws_, commented: "It must
+have been contrived by devils; it ought to have been written in
+blood; and the only place to register it is in hell." Yet for two
+hundred years this code of death, national and individual, was the
+supreme law of Ireland.
+
+Wendell Phillips, the great American orator, in his lecture on
+"Daniel O'Connell," summed up this Penal Code in words that will not
+soon be forgotten by the world. His reference to Mr. Froude is to
+James Anthony Froude, the English historian. He says:
+
+"You know that, under it, an Irish Catholic could not sit in the
+House of Commons; he could not hold any commission from the Crown,
+either civil or military; he could be a common soldier--nothing more.
+He could neither vote, nor sit on a jury, nor stand on a witness
+stand, nor bring a suit, nor be a doctor, nor be a lawyer, nor travel
+five miles from his own home without a permit from a justice of the
+peace. The nearest approach that ever was made to him was a South
+Carolina negro before the war. He had no rights that a Protestant
+needed to respect. If he was a land-holder, if all his children were
+Catholics, he was obliged to divide the land equally between them.
+This was the English plan for eliminating the Catholic tenure of the
+land and letting it slip out of their hands. Then, if any of the
+children, during their father's life, concluded to become
+Protestants, in such case they took the whole estate; or, indeed,
+they might compel the father to put his estate in trust for their
+benefit. So, if the Catholic wife would not go to an Episcopalian
+church once a month--which she deemed it a sin to do--she forfeited
+her dower. But if she went regularly, she could have all the estate.
+If a Catholic had a lease, and it rose one-quarter in value, any
+Protestant could take it from him by bringing that fact to the notice
+of a justice of the peace. Three justices of the peace might summon
+any Catholic before them, and oblige him to give up his faith, or
+quit the realm. Four justices could oblige him to abjure his faith or
+sell his estates. If a Protestant paid one dollar tax, the Catholic
+paid two. If a Protestant lost a ship, when at war with a Catholic
+power--and at the time there was only _one_ Protestant power in
+Europe, besides Great Britain; that was Holland: so that the chances
+were nine to one that, in case of war, Great Britain would be at war
+with a Catholic power--in such a case, if a Protestant lost a ship,
+he went home and assessed the value on his Catholic neighbors, and
+was reimbursed. So, of education. We fret a great deal on account of
+a class of Irishmen who come to our shores and are lacking in
+education, in culture, and refinement. But you must remember the bad
+laws, you must remember the malignant legislation, that sentenced
+them to a life of ignorance, and made education a felony in Catholic
+Ireland. If an Irishman sent his child to a Protestant schoolmaster,
+all right; but if the parent would not do so, and sent him to a
+Catholic school, the father was fined ten pounds a week; and the
+schoolmaster was fined five pounds a week; and for the third offense
+he was hung! But, if the father determined that his child should be
+educated, and sent him across the Channel to France, the boy
+forfeited his citizenship and became an alien; and, if discovered,
+the father was fined one hundred pounds; and anybody, except the
+father, who harbored him, forfeited all civil rights--that is, he
+could not sue in a court of law, nor could he vote. Indeed, a
+Catholic could not marry! If he married a Protestant, the marriage
+was void; the children were illegitimate. And, if one Catholic
+married another, it required the presence of a priest, and if a
+priest landed in Ireland for twenty minutes, it was death! To this
+ferocious 'Code', Sir Robert Peel, in our own day, added the climax,
+that no Catholic should quit his dwelling between the hours of sunset
+and sunrise, an exaggeration of the 'Curfew Law' of William the
+Conqueror. Now, you will hardly believe that this was enacted as a
+law. But Mr. Froude alludes to this code. Yes; he was very honest; he
+would paint England as black as she deserved. He said of Queen
+Elizabeth that she failed in her duty as a magistrate; she failed
+towards Ireland in her capability of being a great ruler. And then he
+proceeded, after passing sentence, to give us the history of her
+reign, and showed that, in very many cases, she could not have done
+any different. For instance--oh! it is the saddest, blackest, most
+horrible statement of all history; it makes you doubt the very
+possibility of human nature--when you read that Spenser, the poet,
+who had the most ardent, most perfect ideas in English
+poetry--Spenser sat at the council board that ordered the wholesale
+butchery of a Spanish regiment captured in Ireland, and, to execute
+the order, he chose Sir Walter Raleigh, the scholar, the gentleman,
+the poet, the author, and the most splendid Englishman of his age!
+And Norris, a captain under Sidney, in whose veins flowed the blood
+of Sir Philip, writing home to Elizabeth, begs and persuades her to
+believe in O'Neill's crimes, and asks for leave to send a hired man
+to poison him! And the Virgin Queen makes no objection! Mr. Froude
+quotes a letter from Captain Norris, in which he states that he found
+himself in an island where five hundred Irish (all women and
+children; not a man among them) had taken refuge from the war; and he
+deliberately butchered every living soul! And Queen Elizabeth, in a
+letter still extant, answers by saying: 'Tell my good servant that I
+will not forget his good services.' He tells us that 'The English
+nobility and gentry would take a gun as unhesitatingly as a fowler,
+and go out to shoot an Irishman as an Indian would a buffalo.' Then
+he tells us, with amazement, that you never could make an Irishman
+respect an Englishman! He points to some unhappy Kildare, the sole
+relic of a noble house, whose four uncles were slaughtered in cold
+blood--that is the only word for this kind of execution,
+_slaughtered_--and he, left alone, a boy, grows up characterless and
+kills an archbishop. Every impetuous, impatient act is dragged before
+the prejudiced mind. But when Mr. Froude is painting Sir Walter and
+Spenser, blind no longer, he says: 'I regret--it is very sad to
+think--that such things should ever have been!'"
+
+Such was the cup from which Ireland drank even into the days of men
+now living. Nor was this all. The rise of English manufactures
+brought a new chapter of woes to Ireland. The Irish cattle trade had
+been killed by an Act of Charles II. for the benefit of English
+farmers. The Irish then took up the raising of wool and woolen
+manufactures. A flourishing trade grew up. An English law destroyed
+it. In succession the same greed killed the cotton, the glovemaking,
+the glassmaking, and the brewing trades. These were reserved for the
+English maker and merchant. These crimes upon Irish industry
+surpassed a thousand-fold the later English attempts upon the
+industries of the American colonies.
+
+Under the Code, and through the extreme poverty produced thereby,
+substantially all the land of Ireland passed out of the hands of the
+people. They became mere serfs upon the soil. Their tribute was paid
+through a rapacious agent to a foreign landlord. The improvement of
+the land by the labor of the tenant brought increase of rent. There
+was no fixity of tenure of the land. It was held at the will of the
+agent, reflecting the rapacity of the non-resident landlord. Upon
+these holdings the principal crop was the potato. A failure of this
+crop was a failure to pay rent, eviction on the roadside, and
+starvation. The results, after the enactment of the Penal Code, and
+during the greater part of the eighteenth century, are thus described
+by Goldwin Smith: "On such a scene of misery as the abodes of the
+Irish cotters the sun has rarely looked down. Their homes were the
+most miserable hovels, chimneyless, filthy. Of decent clothing they
+were destitute. Their food was the potato; sometimes they bled their
+cattle and mixed the blood with sorrel. The old and sick were
+everywhere dying by cold and hunger, and rotting amidst filth and
+vermin. When the potato failed, as it often did, came famine, with
+disease in its train. Want and misery were in every face, the roads
+were spread with dead and dying, there was sometimes none to bear the
+dead to the grave, and they were buried in the fields and ditches
+where they perished. Fluxes and malignant fevers followed, laying
+these villages waste. 'I have seen,' says a contemporaneous witness,
+'the laborer endeavoring to work at his spade, but fainting for want
+of food and forced to quit it. I have seen the helpless orphan
+exposed on the dunghill, and none to take him in for fear of
+infection. And I have seen the hungry infant sucking at the breast of
+the already expired parent.'"
+
+All these are not only the horrors of a hundred or two hundred years
+ago; they were repeated in ten thousand forms in the awful famine
+days of 1847. In 1841 the population of Ireland was 8,796,545
+persons. In 1851, after four years of famine, the population was
+6,551,970, leaving 2,244,575 persons to be accounted for, and taking
+no account of the natural increase of the population during the ten
+years. Not less than a million and a half of these died of starvation
+and the fevers brought on by famine. The remainder emigrated to
+foreign lands.
+
+In this account of the Sorrows of Ireland nothing has been said of
+the vast emigrations, thousands upon thousands of persons in the
+seventeenth and eighteenth centuries leaving Ireland under forced
+deportations, in a practical selling into slavery. The sum total of
+this loss to Ireland cannot be less than 5,000,000 souls. The earlier
+deportations were carried out under the most atrocious circumstances.
+Families were broken up and scattered to distant and separate
+colonies, such as Barbados, the New England States, and later to the
+South Pacific.
+
+This is but a glance at some of the wrongs to Ireland's religious,
+intellectual, and material welfare, wrongs that have plunged her into
+an age-long poverty. But one of the greatest of all her sorrows has
+been the denial of her national life, the attempt to strangle her
+rightful aspirations as a free people. Her autonomy was taken from
+her; her smallest legislative act was the act of a stranger; in fine,
+every mark of political slavery was put upon her. A foreign soldiery
+was, and still is, quartered upon her soil. The control of her
+revenues, of the system of taxation, was wrested from her. These
+became the function of a hateful resident oligarchy, alien in
+everything to the Irish people, and of the English parliament, to
+which she was not admitted until the days of Daniel O'Connell. And
+then she was admitted only through fear of revolution.
+
+The dawn has come. The dark night is almost past; the heroic struggle
+of Ireland is about to close in triumph. Her loyalty to her ideals of
+freedom and religion is to meet its reward. The epitaph of Robert
+Emmet will soon be written, for at last Ireland is certain of "taking
+her place among the nations of the earth."
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+D'Alton: History of Ireland; J.P. Prendergast: Cromwellian
+Settlement; Barrington: Rise and Fall of the Irish Nation; McNevin:
+Confiscation of Ulster; R.R. Madden: History of the Penal Laws;
+Murphy: Cromwell in Ireland; T.A. Emmet: Ireland under English Rule,
+2 vols.; Mrs. J.R. Green: Irish Nationality; Walpole: A Short History
+of the Kingdom of Ireland; A.M. Sullivan: Story of Ireland; Thomas
+Moore: History of Ireland; Edmund Spenser: View of the State of
+Ireland; C. Gavan Duffy: Four Years of Irish History, 1845-49; Isaac
+Butt: Land Tenure in Ireland; Justin McCarthy: History of our own
+Times; Johnston and Spencer: Ireland's Story; MacGeoghegan's History
+of Ireland and its continuation by John Mitchel; William Sampson:
+Memoirs of an Irish Exile, 1832; John Curry: A Historical and
+Critical Review of the Civil Wars in Ireland (1775); John Boyle: The
+Battlefields of Ireland (1879); Speeches of Edmund Burke, Daniel
+O'Connell, Henry Grattan; Wendell Phillips's Speech on Daniel
+O'Connell; Father Tom Burke: Lectures on Ireland.
+
+
+
+IRISH LEADERS
+
+By SHANE LESLIE.
+
+
+Irish leaders have proved far-famed but not long-lived. Their short
+and strenuous careers have burnt out in their prime, and their ends
+have been such as attend conflagrations. More often they have left a
+pall than a light in the heavens, for the most brilliant lives in
+Irish history have led to the most tragic deaths. The Destiny which
+allotted them impossible tasks has given them immortality on the
+scenes of their glorious failure.
+
+They differ from leaders of other countries, who divide the average
+pittances of success or ill success on the road to honored
+retirement. Few of the heroes among modern nations have left such
+vivid and lasting memory as "the strong men of Ireland." During the
+nineteenth century their lore and cult have traversed the whole world
+in the wake of the great emigrations. Whether they failed or
+succeeded in wresting the independence and ideals of Ireland for a
+while from the fell clutch of circumstance, they live with their race
+forever.
+
+Under Plantagenet and Tudor rule, the Irish leaders presented a
+sullen but armed resistance. A never completed invasion was met by
+sporadic raids and successive risings. A race of military outlaws was
+fashioned, which accounts for much in Irish character today.
+Previously the Irish, like all Celtic civilization, was founded on
+the arts, on speech, and on law, rather than on war and feudalism.
+
+Even Irish militancy was crushed in the Williamite wars, and the
+race, deprived of its original subsistence as well as of its acquired
+defense, sank into the stupor of penal times. Those who should have
+been leaders of Ireland became marshals of Austria and France.
+
+Gradually it was learnt that the pen is mightier than the sword and
+the human voice more potent than the sound of cannon--and the
+constitutional struggle developed, not without relapse and reverse.
+To Dean Swift must be attributed the change in the national weapon
+and the initiation of a leadership of resistance within the law,
+which has lasted into modern times. Accident made Swift an Irishman,
+and a chance attempt to circulate debased coins in Ireland for the
+benefit of a debased but royal favorite made him a patriot. Swift
+drove out Wood's halfpence at the pen-point. He shamed the
+government, he checked the all-powerful Walpole, and he roused the
+manhood of Ireland towards independence in legislation. He never
+realized what a position history would give him. To himself he seemed
+a gloomy failure, to his contemporaries a popular pamphleteer, but to
+posterity he is the creator of public conscience in Ireland. He was
+the father of patriotic journalism, and the first to defend Ireland's
+rights through literature. Though his popularity was quenched in
+lunacy, his impress upon Irish politics remains as powerful and
+lasting as upon English literature.
+
+Within the so-called Irish parliament sprang forth the first of a
+long line of orators, Henry Flood. He was the first to study the
+Constitution for purposes of opposition. He attacked vice-regal
+government in its own audit-house. Pension and corruption he laid
+bare, and upon the people he breathed a spirit of independence.
+Unfortunately he was not content with personal prominence. He
+accepted office, hoping thereby to benefit Ireland. His voice became
+lost to the higher cause, and another man rose in his stead, Henry
+Grattan. The American war tested the rival champions of Liberty.
+Flood favored sending Irish troops, "armed negotiators" he called
+them, to deal with the revolted colonists. Grattan nobly reviled him
+for standing--"with a metaphor in his mouth and a bribe in his
+pocket, a champion against the rights of America, the only hope of
+Ireland and the only refuge of the liberties of mankind." Flood
+collapsed under his ignoble honors. He was not restored by returning
+to patriotic opposition. Grattan's leadership proved permanent
+politically and historically. His name connotes the high water-mark
+of Irish statesmanship. The parliament which he created and whose
+rights he defined became a standard, and his name a talisman and a
+challenge to succeeding generations. The comparative oratory of
+Grattan and Flood is still debated. Both after a manner were unique
+and unsurpassed. Flood possessed staying power in sheer invective and
+sustained reasoning. Grattan was fluent in epigram and most inspiring
+when condensed, and he had an immense moral advantage. The parliament
+which made him a grant was independent, but it was from one of
+subservience that Flood drew his salary. Henceforth Grattan was
+haunted by the jealous and discredited herald of himself. A great
+genius, Flood lacked the keen judgment and careless magnanimity
+without which leadership in Ireland brings misunderstanding and
+disaster. In the English House he achieved total failure. Grattan
+followed him after the Union, but retained the attention if not the
+power of Dublin days. Neither influenced English affairs, and their
+eloquence curiously was considered cold and sententious. Their
+rhapsody appeared artificial, and their exposition labored. The
+failure of these men was no stigma. What is called "Irish oratory"
+arose with the inclusion of the Celtic under strata in politics.
+
+Burke's speeches were delivered to an empty house. Though he lived
+out of Ireland and never became an Irish leader in Ireland, Burke had
+an influence in England greater than that of any Irishman before or
+since. The beauty and diction of his speech fostered future
+parliamentary speaking. Macaulay, Gladstone, Peel, and Brougham were
+suckled on him. His farthest reaching achievement was his treatment
+of the French Revolution. His single voice rolled back that storm in
+Europe. But no words could retard revolution in Ireland herself.
+Venal government made the noblest conservative thinking seem treason
+to the highest interests of the country. The temporary success of
+Grattan's parliament had been largely won by the Volunteers. They had
+been drilled, ostensibly against foreign invasion, but virtually to
+secure reforms at home. Their power became one with which England had
+to reckon, and which she never forgave. Lord Charlemont, their
+president, was an estimable country gentleman, but not a national
+leader. A more dashing figure appeared in the singular Earl of
+Bristol. Though an Irish bishop and an English peer, he set himself
+in the front rank of the movement, assuming with general consent the
+demeanor and trappings of royalty. He would not have hesitated to
+plunge Ireland into war, had he obtained Charlemont's position. But
+it was not so fated.
+
+After forcing parliamentary independence the Volunteers meekly
+disbanded, and the United Irishmen took their place. The brilliancy
+of Grattan's parliament never fulfilled national aspirations. Bristol
+was succeeded by another recruit from the aristocracy--Lord Edward
+Fitzgerald. With Wolfe Tone and Robert Emmet he has become legendary.
+All three attained popular canonization, for all three sealed their
+brief leadership with death.
+
+Lord Edward was a dreamer, an Irish Bayard, too chivalrous to
+conspire successfully and too frankly courageous to match a
+government of guile. Tone was far more dangerous. He realized that
+foreign invasion was necessary to successful rebellion, and he
+allowed no scruple or obstacle in his path. He washed his hands of
+law and politics entirely. To divert Napoleon to Ireland was his
+object and the total separation of Ireland his ambition. The United
+Irishmen favored the invasion, which the Volunteers had been formed
+to repel. The feud between moral and physical force broke out. The
+failure of the sterner policy in 1798 did not daunt Emmet from his
+ill-starred attempt in 1803. He combined Lord Edward's chivalry with
+some abilities worthy of Tone, but he failed. The failure he redeemed
+by a swan-song from the dock and a demeanor on the scaffold which
+have become part of Irish tradition.
+
+After the Union, Irish leaders sprang up in the English House, which
+Pitt had unwittingly made the cockpit of the racial struggle. Far
+from absorbing the Irish element, the Commons found themselves forced
+to resist, rally, and finally succumb.
+
+The Irish House cannot be dismissed without mention of Curran. He was
+a brilliant enemy of corruption and servility. O'Connell said "there
+was never so honest an Irishman," which may account for his greater
+success as a lawyer than a politician. To be an Irish leader and a
+successful lawyer is given to no man. For the former the sacrifice of
+a great career is needed. This sacrifice Daniel O'Connell was
+prepared to make. His place in history will never be estimated, for
+few have been so loved or hated, or for stronger reasons. Never did a
+tribune rising to power lift his people to such sudden hope and
+success. Never did a champion leave his followers at his death and
+decline to more terrible despair. Friend and foe admit his immensity.
+He was the greatest Irishman that ever lived or seemingly could live.
+In his own person he contained the whole genius of the Celt. Ireland
+could not hold his emotions, which overflowed into the world for
+expression. He rose on the crest of a religious agitation, but,
+Emancipation won, he had the foresight to associate the Irish cause
+with the advent of Reform and Liberalism throughout Europe. He
+sounded the notes of free-trade and anti-slavery. What he said in
+parliament one day, Ireland re-echoed the next. To her he was all in
+all, her hero and her prophet, her Messias and her strong deliverer.
+On the continent he roughly personified Christian Democracy.
+
+In public oratory O'Connell introduced a new style. Torrential and
+overwhelming as Flood and Grattan had never been, he proved more
+successful if less polished. The exaggerations of Gaelic speech found
+outburst in his English. Peel's smile was "the silver plate on a
+coffin", Wellington "a stunted corporal", and Disraeli "the lineal
+descendant of the impenitent thief."
+
+It sounds bombastic, but in those feudal forties it rang more
+magnificent than war. Single-voiced he overawed the host of bigots,
+dullards, and reactionaries. Unhappily, he let his people abandon
+their native tongue, while teaching them how to balance the rival
+parties in England, the latter a policy that has proved Ireland's
+fortune since. He loosed the spirit of sectarianism in the tithe war,
+and he crushed the Young Ireland movement, which bred Fenianism in
+its death agony. But he made the Catholic a citizen. Results
+stupendous as far-reaching sprang from his steps every way.
+
+The finest pen-sketch of O'Connell is by Mitchel, who says, "besides
+superhuman and subterhuman passions, yet withal, a boundless fund of
+masterly affectation and consummate histrionism, hating and loving
+heartily, outrageous in his merriment and passionate in his
+lamentation, he had the power to make other men hate or love, laugh
+or weep, at his good pleasure."
+
+Yet during his lifetime there lived others worthy of national
+leadership. O'Brien, Duffy, and Davis played their part in England as
+well as in Ireland. Father Mathew founded the Temperance, as Feargus
+O'Conor the Chartist, movement. And there was an orator who
+fascinated Gladstone--Sheil.
+
+Father Mathew succeeded in keeping many millions of men sober during
+the forties until the great Famine engulfed his work as it did
+O'Connell's. To him is due, as a feature of Irish life, the brass
+band with banners, which he originally organized as a
+counter-intoxicant.
+
+Feargus O'Conor founded Radical Socialism in England. As the Lion of
+Freedom, he enjoyed a popularity with English workmen approaching
+that of O'Connell in Ireland. He ended in lunacy, but he had the
+credit of forwarding peasant proprietorship far in advance of his
+times.
+
+Sheil was a tragic orator--"an iambic rhapsodist", O'Connell called
+him--who might have been leader, did not a greater tragedian occupy
+the stage. And Sheil was content to be O'Connell's organizer. Without
+O'Connell's voice or presence, he was his rhetorical superior,
+excelling in irony and the by-plays of speech for which O'Connell was
+too exuberant. Shell's speeches touch exquisite though not the deep
+notes of O'Connell, whom he criticized for "throwing out broods of
+sturdy young ideas upon the world without a rag to cover them." He
+discredited his master and his cause by taking office. The fruits of
+Emancipation were tempting to those who had borne the heat of the
+day, but there was a rising school of patriots who refused
+acquiescence to anything less than total freedom.
+
+The Young Irelanders reincarnated the men of "ninety-eight." They
+were neither too late nor too soon. They snatched the sacred torch of
+Liberty from the dying hands of O'Connell, who summoned in vain old
+Ireland against his young rivals. But men like Davis and Duffy
+appealed to types O'Connell never swayed. He could carry the mob, but
+poet, journalist, and idealist were enrolled with Young Ireland. For
+this reason the history of their failure is brighter in literature
+than the tale of O'Connell's triumphs. To read Duffy's "Young
+Ireland" and Mitchel's "Jail Journal", with draughts from the _Spirit
+of the Nation_. is to relive the period. Without the Young
+Irelanders, Irish Nationalism might not have survived the Famine.
+
+Mitchel, as open advocate of physical force, became father to
+Fenianism. An honest conspirator and brilliant writer, he proved that
+the pen of journalism was sharper than the Irish pike. Carlyle
+described him as "a fine elastic-spirited young fellow, whom I
+grieved to see rushing on destruction palpable, by attack of
+windmills." Destruction came surely, but coupled with immortality. He
+was transported as a felon before the insurrection, while his
+writings sprang up in angry but unarmed men.
+
+Mitchel and O'Connell both sought the liberation of Ireland, but
+their viewpoint differed. Mitchel thought only of Liberty; O'Connell
+not unnaturally considered the "Liberator." His refusal to allow a
+drop of blood to be shed caused Young Ireland to secede. Only when
+death removed his influence could the pent-up feelings of the country
+break out under Smith O'Brien. If Mitchel was an Irish Robespierre,
+O'Brien was their Lafayette. His advance from the level of dead
+aristocracy had been rapid. From defending Whigs in Parliament he
+passed to opposition and "contempt of the House." He resigned from
+the Bench from which O'Connell had been dismissed, became a Repealer,
+adding the words "no compromise," and finally gloried in his treason
+before the House. His next step brought a price upon his head.
+
+Grave and frigid, but inwardly warmhearted and passionate, O'Brien
+had little aptitude for rebellion. But the death penalty (commuted to
+transportation) which he incurred went far to redeem his forlorn
+failure. Mitchel, who shared his Australian imprisonment, left a fine
+picture of "this noblest of Irishmen, thrust in among the
+off-scourings of England's gaols, with his home desolated and his
+hopes ruined, and defeated life falling into the sere and yellow
+leaf. A man, who cannot be crushed, or bowed, or broken; anchored
+immovably upon his own brave heart within; his clear eye and soul
+open as ever to all the melodies and splendors of heaven and earth,
+and calmly waiting for the angel, Death."
+
+The Irish cause was not revived until the Fenian movement. Disgust
+with the politicians drove the noblest into their ranks. In Stephens
+they found an organizing chief, in Boyle O'Reilly a poet, and in John
+O'Leary a political thinker, men who under other conditions had
+achieved mundane success. The Fenians were defended by Isaac Butt, a
+big-hearted, broad-minded lawyer, who afterwards organized a party to
+convince Englishmen that Repeal was innocuous, when called "Home
+Rule." The people stood his patient ways patiently, but when a more
+desperate leader arrived they transferred allegiance, and Butt died
+of a broken heart.
+
+Parnell took his place and began to marshal the broken forces of
+Irish democracy against his own class. Butt had been a polite
+parliamentarian, reverencing the courtesy of debate and at heart
+loving the British Constitution. Parnell felt that his mission lay in
+breaking rather than interpreting the law. The well-bred House stared
+and protested when he defied their chosen six hundred. Parnell faced
+them with their own marble callousness. He outdid them in political
+cynicism and out-bowed them in frigid courtesy, while maintaining a
+policy before which tradition melted and a time-honored system
+collapsed. In one stormy decade he tore the cloak from the Mother of
+Parliaments, reducing her to a plain-speaking democratic machine.
+Through the breach he made, the English labor party has since
+entered.
+
+He united priest and peasant, physical and moral force, under him. He
+could lay Ireland under storm or lull at his pleasure. His
+achievement equalled his self-confidence. He reversed the Irish land
+system and threw English politics out of gear. With the balance of
+power in his hand, he made Tory and Radical outbid each other for his
+support. He was no organizer or orator, but he fascinated able men to
+conduct his schemes, as Napoleon used his marshals. On a pregnant day
+he equaled the achievement of St. Paul and converted Gladstone, who
+had once been his gaoler. Gladstone became a Home Ruler, and
+henceforth English politics knew no peace.
+
+Parnell stood for the fall and rise of many. Under his banner Irish
+peasants became human beings with human rights. He felled the feudal
+class in Ireland and undermined them in England. Incalculable forces
+were set to destroy him. A forged letter in the _Times_ classed him
+with assassins, while an legal Commission was sent to try his whole
+movement. It is history that his triumphant vindication was followed
+by a greater fall. The happiness of Ireland was sucked into the
+maelstrom of his ruin. He refused to retire from leadership at
+Gladstone's bidding, and Ireland staggered into civil war. The end is
+known--Parnell died as he had lived. Of his moral fault there is no
+palliation, but it may be said he held his country's honor dearer
+than his own, for he could not bear to see her win even independence
+by obeying the word of an Englishman.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Lecky: Leaders of Irish Opinion; Mitchel: Jail Journal; Duffy: Young
+Ireland; O'Brien: Life of Parnell; D'Alton: History of Ireland.
+
+
+
+IRISH HEROINES
+
+By Alice Milligan
+
+
+The worth and glory of a nation may well be measured and adjudged by
+the typical character of its womanhood: not so much, I would say, by
+the eminence attained to by rarely gifted, exceptionally developed
+individuals, as by the prevalence of noble types at every period, and
+amongst all classes of the community, and by their recurrence from
+age to age under varying circumstances of national fortune.
+
+Judged by such a standard, Ireland emerges triumphant and points to
+the roll of her chequered history, the story of her ancient race,
+with confidence and pride. Gaze into the farthest vistas of her
+legendary past, into the remotest eras of which tradition preserves a
+misty memory, and the figure of some fair, noble woman stands forth
+glimmering like a white statue against the gloom. At every period of
+stern endeavor, through all the generations of recorded time, the
+pages of our annals are inscribed with the names of mothers, sisters,
+wives, not unworthy to stand there beside those of the world-renowned
+heroes of the Gael.
+
+In the ancient tales of Ireland we read of great female physicians
+and distinguished female lawyers and judges. There were _ban-file_,
+or women-poets, who, like the _file_, were at the same time
+soothsayers and poetesses, and there are other evidences of the high
+esteem in which women were held. There can be no doubt, to judge by
+the elaborate descriptions of garments in the saga-texts, that the
+women were very skilful in weaving and needlework. The Irish peasant
+girls of today inherit from them not a little of their gift for
+lace-making and linen-embroidery. Ladies of the highest rank
+practiced needlework as an accomplishment and a recreation. Some of
+the scissors and shears they used have come to light in excavations.
+
+In the stories of the loves of the ancient Irish, whether immortals
+or mortals, the woman's role is the more accentuated, while in
+Teutonic tradition man plays the chief part. Again, it has often been
+remarked that the feminine interest is absent from the earlier heroic
+forms of some literatures. Not so, however, in the earliest
+saga-texts of the Irish. Many are the famous women to whom the old
+tales introduce us and who stand out and compel attention like the
+characters of the Greek drama. Everyone knows of the faithful
+Deirdre, the heroine of the touching story of the "Exile of the Sons
+of Usnech", and of her death; of the proud and selfish Medb. the
+ambitious queen of Connacht, the most warlike and most expert in the
+use of weapons of the women of the Gael--far superior in combat and
+counsel to her husband, Ailill; of Emer, the faithful wife of
+Cuchulainn; of Etain of the Horses (that was her name in Fairyland);
+and of many others too numerous to mention.
+
+It is with the introduction of Christianity into Ireland that the
+Irish woman came into her rightful place, and attained the
+preponderating influence which she, ever since, has held among the
+Celtic people. In the period which followed the evangelization of the
+island many were the "women of worth" who upheld the honor and glory
+of "Inisfail the Fair", and women were neither the less numerous nor
+the less ardent who hung upon the lips of the Apostle of Ireland.
+
+Amid the galaxy of the saints, how lustrous, how divinely fair,
+shines the star of Brigid, the shepherd maiden of Faughard, the
+disciple of Patrick the Apostle, the guardian of the holy light that
+burned beneath the oak-trees of Kildare! Over all Ireland and through
+the Hebridean Isles, she is renowned above any other. We think of
+her, moreover, not alone, but as the centre of a great company of
+cloistered maidens, the refuge and helper of the sinful and
+sorrowful, who found in the gospel that Patrick preached a message of
+consolation and deliverance. Let it be remembered that the shroud of
+Patrick is deemed to have been woven by Brigid's hand; that when she
+died, in 525, Columcille, the future apostle of Scotland, was a child
+of four. So she stands midmost of that trilogy of saints whose dust
+is said to rest in Down.
+
+Who that hears of Columcille will forget how He won that name, "dove
+of the Church", because of his early piety, and that surely bespeaks
+a mother's guiding care. Ethne, mother of Columcille, remains a vague
+but picturesque figure, seen against the background of the rugged
+heath-clad hills of Tir-Conal by the bright blue waters of Gartan's
+triple lake. Her hearth-stone or couch is shown there to this day,
+where once in slumber, before the birth of her son, she saw in a
+glorious visionary dream a symbol of his future greatness. A vast
+veil woven of sunshine and flowers seemed to float down upon her from
+heaven: an exquisitely poetic thought, which gives us warrant to
+believe that Columcille's poetic skill was inherited from his mother.
+
+Ronnat, the mother of his biographer, St. Adamnan, plays a more
+notable part in history, for, according to an ancient Gaelic text
+recently published, it was to her that the women of Ireland owed the
+royal decree which liberated them from military service. The story
+goes that once, as she walked beside the Boyne, after some sanguinary
+conflict, she came upon the bodies of two women who had fallen in
+battle. One grasped a reaping hook, the other a sword, and dreadful
+wounds disfigured them. Horrified at the sight, she brought strong
+pressure to bear upon her son, and his influence in the councils of
+the land availed to bring about the promulgation of the decree which
+freed women from war-service.
+
+Our warrior kings had noble queens to rule their households, and of
+these none stands out so distinctly after long lapse of time as
+Gormlai, the daughter of Flann Siona, and wife of Nial Glondubh. Her
+story has in it that element of romance which touches the heart and
+wins the sympathy of all who hear it.
+
+Her father was king of the Meathan branch of the Clan Nial, and
+_ard-ri_ of Ireland for thirty-seven years. Nial Glondubh was king of
+Tir-Eoghain, and heir of Flann in the high kingship, for at that era
+it was the custom for the kings of Meath and of Tyrone to hold the
+supreme power alternately. In order to knit north and south, Flann
+betrothed his beautiful daughter to Cormac macCuillenan, king of
+Cashel, an ideal husband, one would have thought, for a poetess like
+Gormlai, for Cormac was the foremost scholar of the day; but his mind
+was so set on learning and religion that he took holy orders and
+became bishop-king of Cashel, repudiating his destined bride. Gormlai
+was then given as wife to Cearbhail, king of Leinster, and war was
+waged against Cormac who was killed in the battle of Ballymoon.
+Coming home wounded, Cearbhail lay on his couch, and while tended by
+Gormlai and her ladies told the story of the battle and boasted of
+having insulted the dead body of King Cormac. Gormlai reproached him
+for his ignoble conduct in such terms that his anger and jealousy
+flamed up, and striking her with his fist he hurled her to the
+ground.
+
+Gormlai rose indignant and left his house forever, returning to the
+palace of King Flann, and on Cearbhail's death she at last found a
+true lover and worthy mate in Nial Glondubh, who brought her
+northward to rule over the famous palace of Aileach. In 916 Nial
+became high king, but the place of honor was also the place of
+danger, and soon he led the mustered hosts of the north against the
+pagan foreigners, who held Dublin and Fingal, and he fell in battle
+at Rathfarnham.
+
+A poem, preserved for us ever since, tells us that Gormlai was
+present at his burial and chanted a funeral ode. Her long widowhood
+was a period of disconsolate mourning. At length it is said she had a
+dream or vision, in which King Nial appeared to her in such life-like
+shape that she spread her arms to embrace him, and thus wounded her
+breast against the carven head-post of her couch, and of that wound
+she died.
+
+Many saintly, many noble, many hospitable and learned women lightened
+the darkness that fell over Ireland after the coming of the Normans.
+
+I pass to the time when a sovereign lady filled the throne of
+England, "the spacious days of great Elizabeth," which were also the
+period of Ireland's greatest, sternest struggle against a policy of
+extermination towards her nobles and suppression of her ancient
+faith. Amid all the heroes and leaders of that wondrous age in
+Ireland, there appears, like a reincarnation of legendary Medb, a
+warlike queen in Connacht, Grace O'Malley, "Granuaile" of the
+ballads. Instead of a chariot, she mounts to the prow of a
+swift-sailing galley, and sweeps over the wild Atlantic billows, from
+isle to isle, from coast to coast, taking tribute (or is it plunder?)
+from the clans. First an O'Flaherty is her husband, then a Norman
+Burke. In Clare Island they show her castle tower, with a hole in the
+wall, through which they say she tied a cable from her ship, ready by
+day or night for a summons from her seamen. She voyaged as far as
+London town, and stood face to face with the ruffed and hooped
+Elizabeth, meeting her offer of an English title with the assertion
+that she was a princess in her own land.
+
+The mother of Red Hugh O'Donnell, Ineen-dubh, though daughter of the
+Scottish Lord of the Isles, was none the less of the old Irish stock.
+Her character is finely sketched for us by the Franciscan chronicler
+who wrote the story of the captivity and mighty deeds of her son.
+When the clans of Tir-Conal assembled to elect the youthful
+chieftain, he writes: "It was an advantage that she came to the
+gathering, for she was the head of the advice and counsel of the
+Cinel-Conail, and, though she was slow and deliberate and much
+praised for her womanly qualities, she had the heart of a hero and
+the soul of a soldier." Her daughter, Nuala, is the "woman of the
+piercing wail" in Mangan's translation of the bard's lament for the
+death of the Ulster chieftains in Rome.
+
+Modern critics like to interpret the "Dark Rosaleen" poem as an
+expression of Red Hugh's devotion to Ireland, but I think that Rose,
+O'Doherty's daughter, wife of the peerless Owen Roe, deserves
+recognition as she whose
+
+      "Holy delicate white hands should girdle him with steel."
+
+The record has come down to us that she prompted and encouraged her
+husband to return from the low-countries and a position of dignity in
+a foreign court to command the war in Ireland, and in her first
+letter, ere she followed him over sea, she asked eagerly: "How stands
+Tir-Conal?" True daughter of Ulster was Owen's wife, so let us
+henceforth acknowledge her as the _Roisin_ dubh, "dark Rosaleen", of
+the sublimest of all patriot songs.
+
+In the Cromwellian and Williamite wars, we see the mournful mothers
+and daughters of the Gaeldom passing in sad procession to Connacht,
+or wailing on Shannon banks for the flight of the "Wild Geese." But
+what of Limerick wall, what of the valorous rush of the women of the
+beleaguered city to stem the inroads of the besiegers and rally the
+defenders to the breach? The decree of St. Adamnan was quite
+forgotten then, and when manly courage for a moment was daunted,
+woman's fortitude replaced and reinspired it.
+
+And fortitude was sorely needed through the black years that
+followed--the penal days, when Ireland, crushed in the dust, bereft
+of arms, achieved a sublimer victory than did even King Brian
+himself, champion of the Cross, against the last muster of European
+heathendom.
+
+Yes, her women have done their share in making Ireland what she is, a
+heroic land, unconquered by long centuries of wrath and wrong, a land
+that has not abandoned its Faith through stress of direst persecution
+or bartered it for the lure of worldly dominion; no--nor ever yielded
+to despair in face of repeated national disaster.
+
+It was this fidelity to principle on the part of the Irish Catholic
+people which won for them the alliance of all that were worthiest
+among the Protestants of north and south in the days of the
+Volunteers and the United Irishmen. What interesting and pathetic
+portraits of Irishwomen are added to our roll at this period! None is
+more tenderly mournful than that of Sarah Curran, the beloved of
+Robert Emmet. The graceful prose of Washington Irving, the poignant
+verses of Moore, have enshrined the memory of her, weeping for him in
+the shadow of the scaffold, dying of heart-break at last in a far-off
+land. No more need be said of her, for whom the pity of the whole
+world has been awakened by song allied to sweetest, saddest music.
+What of Anne Devlin, Emmet's faithful servant, helping in his
+preparations for insurrection, aiding his flight, shielding him in
+hiding, even when tortured, scourged, half-hanged by a brutal
+soldiery, with stern-shut lips refusing to utter a word to compromise
+her "Master Robert"?
+
+What of the sister of Henry Joy McCracken, Mary, the friend and
+fellow-worker with the Belfast United Irishmen? An independent,
+self-reliant business woman, she earned the money which she gave so
+liberally in the good cause, or to help the poor and distressed,
+through the whole period of a long life. Some still living have seen
+Mary passing along the streets of Belfast, an aged woman, clad in
+sombre gown, to whom Catholic artisans raised their caps reverently,
+remembering how in '98 she had walked hand in hand with her brother
+to the steps of the scaffold, and how, in 1803, she had aided Thomas
+Russell in his escape from the north after Emmet's failure, had
+bribed his captors after arrest, provided for his defence, and
+preserved for futurity a record of his dying words. Madden's _History
+of the United Irishmen_, as far as it tells of the north, is mainly
+the record that she kept as a sacred trust in letters, papers,
+long-treasured memories of the men who fought and died to make
+Ireland a united nation.
+
+And now a scene in America comes last to my mind. Wolfe Tone, a
+political fugitive who has served Ireland well and come through
+danger to safety, is busy laying the foundations of a happy and
+prosperous future, with a beloved wife and sister and young children
+to brighten his home. An estate near Princeton, New Jersey, has been
+all but bought, possibilities of a career in the new republic open
+before him, when a letter comes from Belfast, asking him to return to
+the post of danger, to undertake a mission to France for the sake of
+Ireland. Let his own pen describe what happened: "I handed the letter
+to my wife and sister and desired their opinion.... My wife
+especially, whose courage and whose zeal for my honor and interest
+were not in the least abated by all her past sufferings, supplicated
+me to let no consideration of her or our children stand for a moment
+in the way of my duty to our country, adding that she would answer
+for our family during my absence and that the same Providence which
+had so often, as it were, miraculously preserved us would not desert
+us now."
+
+Inspired by the fortitude of this noble woman, Tone went forth on his
+perilous mission, and similarly the Young Ireland leaders, Mitchel
+and Smith O'Brien, were sustained by the courage of their nearest and
+dearest. "Eva," the poetess of the _Nation_, gave her troth-plight to
+one who had prison and exile to face ere he could claim her hand.
+Other names recur to me--"Speranza", with her lyric fire; Ellen
+O'Leary, fervent and still patient and wise; Fanny Parnell and her
+sister.
+
+And what of the women of Ireland today? Shall they come short of the
+high ideal of the past, falter and fail, if devotion and sacrifice
+are required of them? Never: whilst they keep in memory and honor the
+illustrious ones of whom I have written. The name of Irishwoman today
+stands for steadfast virtue, for hospitality, for simple piety, for
+cheerful endurance, and in a changing world let us trust it is the
+will of God that in this there will be no change.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+On Ethne, mother of St. Columcille: The Visions, Miracles, and
+Prophecies of St. Columba (Clarendon Press Series). On Ronnat: S. Mac
+an Bhaird, Life (in Irish) of Adamnan (Letterkenny); Reeves, St.
+Adamnan's Life of St. Columba; The Mother of St. Adamnan, an old
+Gaelic text, ed. by Kuno Meyer (Berlin). On Gormlai: Thomas
+Concannon, Gormflath (in Irish; The Gaelic League, Dublin). On
+Granuaile: Elizabethan State Papers (Record Office Series); William
+O'Brien, A Queen of Men. On Ineen-Dubh: O'Clery's Life of Red Hugh
+(contemporary), ed. by Denis Murphy, S. J. (Dublin, 1894); Standish
+O'Grady, The Flight of the Eagle, or Red Hugh's Captivity. On Rose,
+wife of Owen Roe O'Neill, see references in Father Meehan's The
+Flight of the Earls, and in Sir John Gilbert's History of the
+Confederate War (Dublin, 1885). On the wife of Wolfe Tone, see Wolfe
+Tone's Autobiography, ed. by R. Barry O'Brien (London, 1894). The
+American edition has a fuller account of Tone's wife, her courage and
+devotion in educating her son, and her interviews with Napoleon, and
+life in America. The women of the United Irish period are fully dealt
+with in K. R. Madden's Lives and Times of the United Irishmen. On
+Mary McCracken, see Mrs. Milligan Fox, The Annals of the Irish
+Harpers. On the women of the Young Ireland period, see C. Gavan
+Duffy's Young Ireland (Dublin), and John O'Leary's Fenians and
+Fenianism. On the women of Limerick, see Rev. James Dowd, Limerick
+and its Sieges (Limerick, 1890). For the women under Cromwellian
+Plantation persecutions and the Penal Laws, see Prendergast's
+Cromwellian Settlement, Rev. Denis Murphy's Cromwell in Ireland, and
+R. R. Madden's History of the Penal Laws.
+
+
+
+IRISH NATIONALITY
+
+By LORD ASHBOURNE
+
+
+[NOTE.--This chapter was written by Lord Ashbourne in French, because
+he is so strong an Irishman that he objects to write in English. The
+translation has been made by the Editors.]
+
+
+To those of us who are interested in the future of our country there
+is at this very moment presented a really serious problem. The
+political struggle of the last century has been so intense that many
+of our people have come to have none but a political solution in
+view. For them the whole question is one of politics, and they will
+continue to believe that Ireland will have found salvation the moment
+we get Home Rule or something like it. Such an attitude seems natural
+enough when we remember what our people have suffered in the past.
+Nevertheless, on a little reflection, this error--for error it is,
+and an enormous one, too--will be quickly dissipated. In the first
+place, the political struggle of today is only the continuation of a
+conflict which has lasted seven hundred years, and in point of fact
+we have a right to be proud that after so many trials there still
+remains to us anything of our national inheritance. We find ourselves
+indeed on the battlefield somewhat seriously bruised, but we can
+console ourselves with the thought that our opponent is in equally
+doleful case, that he is beginning to suffer from a fatal weariness,
+and that he is anxious to make peace with us.
+
+In order to place the present political situation in its true light
+and to take into account its comparatively limited importance, we
+must not lose sight of the fundamental fact that what Home Rule
+connotes is rather a tender of peace on the part of Ireland than a
+gift which England presents us of her own free will. In fact, our
+neighbor across the Channel has as much interest as ourselves, and
+perhaps even more, in bringing the struggle to an end. Through us,
+England has already lost much prestige, and that famous British
+Constitution, which in times past everyone admired while trying in
+vain to imitate it, has lost caste considerably. I am not now
+speaking of the danger which an Ireland discontented, and even
+hostile, and having nothing to lose, would constitute for England in
+case of war. It is especially from our neighbor's point of view that
+we can cry up Home Rule or any other solution that will bring peace.
+But let us leave to Great Britain the task of getting out of trouble
+as best she may. On our side, what shall we say of it?
+
+In our conflict with the English we are not wearied; rather are we
+hardened for the fray. We have acquired the habit of fighting, and
+many of us can now scarcely regulate our conduct in a manner suitable
+to a state of peace with England. Nevertheless, as I have already
+said, we have not emerged unscathed from this war of the centuries.
+National sentiment remains with us, no doubt, and our traditions are
+not wholly lost, especially among the country people of the West. But
+our commerce is almost ruined and the national language is no longer
+spoken throughout the greater part of the country. It is true that a
+continuation of the hitherto existing state of war cannot do us much
+more harm; that for purposes of mere destruction all the advantages
+are on our side; and that on the other hand we can begin a
+reconstruction at home without waiting for a treaty of peace to be
+signed. But we have some things to do for which a home government
+would be useful to us, and further, in the absence of such a
+government, it would be difficult to imagine what means could be
+employed to turn the people away from their too exclusive absorption
+in Anglo-Irish politics.
+
+It is, then, from a practical point of view that we wish for peace.
+But, we may lawfully ask, will not this peace bring with it a special
+danger, against which we ought to take precautions? As a matter of
+fact, there is such a danger, and it lies in the fact that the people
+have been to so great an extent obsessed by the political struggle
+that they run the risk, once their end is attained, of collapsing and
+of losing interest in the national question. Let us not forget that
+that question is to save our language and our civilization; without
+that, it is all over with our nationality. Let us endeavor to turn
+our parliament to account in order to work seriously on the
+reconstruction of our national life, and it is certain that Ireland
+will find therein her salvation.
+
+We can, therefore, take advantage either of England's prolonged
+resistance or of peace. If England decides to continue the contest,
+she will suffer more from it than we. Her empire, her institutions,
+her safety, will be more and more impaired, while, as for us, there
+will result a strong growth in patriotism and in anti-British
+bitterness. What we have to do, right now, is to take our bearings in
+such a way that, no matter what happens to England, our own future
+shall be assured. We can do it if we wish it: the question is, shall
+we wish it?
+
+Here it may be objected, _Cui bono_ The English language is quite
+enough for us. We have it now and we speak it, sometimes, even better
+than the English people themselves. We are proud of using the same
+language as Sheridan, Burke, and Grattan used. Such an opinion has
+its modicum of truth, though less now than a hundred years ago.
+Formerly there was in Ireland, and especially around Dublin, a little
+colony of Anglo-Irish. The members of this colony spoke a very pure
+and classic English, and this fact is largely responsible for the
+place which Ireland at one time held in English literature. But
+during the last century the remains of this colony have been swamped
+beneath a flood of half-Anglicized people, of Irishmen from the
+country districts, who were formerly excluded, and who brought with
+them such a mixture of expressions and of phonetic tendencies derived
+from the Gaelic that the language of Grattan, Sheridan, and Burke has
+well-nigh gone out of existence. The reason of this is that since the
+date of Catholic emancipation, most careers are open to everybody.
+The result has been that the newly enfranchised majority has
+ultimately absorbed the minority, and that the atmosphere of culture,
+of which we have just spoken, has disappeared. We thus reach an
+Ireland which, in a sense, has neither culture nor language, a
+country in which the Gaelic spoken by a people humiliated and deeply
+demoralized by an anti-Catholic legislation, which was both savage
+and degrading, tended to coalesce with an English already condemned
+to death. It is from the moment when the Catholics had finally
+triumphed over persecution that we must date the beginning of that
+political struggle with which we are familiar, a struggle which has
+resulted in absorbing all the energies of a great part of the
+population. That is why this tremendous problem presents itself to
+us, at the very time when we should be justified in feeling ourselves
+elated by triumph because of our victories in parliament. And let not
+England rejoice too much at our dilemma. If we are doomed to die, she
+will die with us, for before disappearing we shall prove to be a
+great destructive force, and out of the ruins of the British power we
+shall raise such a monument that future generations will know what it
+costs to murder a nation.
+
+But, if possible, we must live and let live. The elements of
+reconstruction are always at hand. Anglo-Irish culture is indeed
+dead, but Gaelic culture is only seriously sick, and on that side
+there is always room for hope. Sooth to say, its sickness consists
+above all in the fact that the Irish language is no longer spoken in
+a great part of the country. But, on the other hand, where it is
+preserved, that same language is spoken in all its purity. By going
+there to find it all Ireland will gradually become Gaelic.
+
+But, it will be objected, what a loss of time and energy! If it is a
+question of languages, why not learn one of the more useful ones? To
+this we may reply that, while English deforms the mouth and makes it
+incapable of pronouncing any language which is not spoken from the
+tip of the lips, Gaelic, on the contrary, so exercises the organs of
+speech that it renders easy the acquisition and the practice of most
+European idioms. Let us add, by way of example, that French, which is
+usually difficult for strangers, is much more within the compass of
+Irishmen who speak Irish, no less because of certain linguistic
+customs than from the original relationship between the two
+languages.
+
+This remark brings us to another objection which is often lodged
+against our movement. It is urged that Ireland is already isolated
+enough, and that by making it a Gaelic-speaking nation, we shall make
+that state of affairs still worse. English, say the objectors, is
+spoken more or less everywhere, while Gaelic will never be able to
+claim the position of a quasi-universal language. To this line of
+reasoning it might be answered, for one thing, that no one can tell
+how far Gaelic will go, in case our movement is a success, and that
+many a language formerly "universal" is today as dead as a door-nail.
+But we must look at the question from another point of view. John
+Bull's language is spread everywhere, while he himself retains the
+most exclusive insularity. He travels to every land and there finds
+his own language and his own customs. Now it goes without saying that
+from this very universalization his language is corrupted and becomes
+vulgarized. The idiom of Shakespeare and Milton gives place gradually
+to the idiom of the seaports. Furthermore, far from isolating us,
+Gaelic will tend to put us in touch with the civilization of the
+West. As a people Anglicised, and badly Anglicised at that, we share,
+and even exaggerate, the faults which I have just described. It is
+Anglo-Saxon speech which isolates us, and we wish on this ground to
+break with it and to hold out our hand to our brothers of the
+continent.
+
+But, it may be said, what a pity to dig yet another abyss between
+Ireland and Great Britain, for it is with the latter that our
+geographical position will always link us for common defense. For,
+while it is true that history does not show us a single case of an
+empire which has not sooner or later fallen to pieces, nevertheless,
+whatever happens, the two islands will be necessarily forced to
+co-operate for the common good. Well, let us take it that things will
+so fall out, and let us suppose an Anglicised Ireland called upon to
+face such a situation. It would be a revolutionary Ireland, a
+restless Ireland, an Ireland seeking vaguely for revenge on someone,
+deprived of really national character, and, in a general way,
+suspecting England of responsibility for the disappearance from our
+country of everything that constitutes the idea of nationality. And
+let us remark that we are no longer living in those good old times
+when entire nations allowed themselves to be absorbed by their
+conquerors. The art of printing has changed all that. Today a
+"suppressed" nation is one that will sooner or later have its
+revenge. Thus let us suppose that we are destined to make political
+peace with England and to enter of our own accord into a
+Hiberno-Britannic confederation. From our point of view, what would
+be the result of that arrangement? The result would be strange. Here
+again, as in the case of Home Rule, it is rather we who offer
+advantages to England than she who offers them to us. Only, in this
+latter case, the result depends on ourselves alone. If we die, it
+will be because we have wished it. Our language is not dead; on the
+contrary, although not widely spread, it is in itself much more alive
+than English, which as a literary language is in full decay. We may
+congratulate ourselves that our idiom is intact. Our civilization is
+old, but it has not yet lived its full life. If we wish, the future
+is ours. And let us truly believe that that is worth while, for the
+race which has produced epics like those of Ossian and all that
+magnificent literature which has been preserved for us through the
+ages, the race that gave to Europe that great impulse of missionary
+activity which is associated with the names of Columcille, Brendan,
+Columbanus, and Gall, not to mention men like the famous Scotus
+Erigena--that race is certainly called upon to play an important part
+in the modern world. But--let us repeat it--it must have the wish.
+
+
+
+FAMOUS IRISH SOCIETIES
+
+By JOHN O'DEA,
+
+_National Historian, A.O.H._.
+
+
+In the social organization of no nation of antiquity were societies
+of greater influence than in pagan Ireland. During many centuries
+these societies, composed of the bards, ollamhs, brehons, druids, and
+knights, contended for precedence. In no country did the literary
+societies display greater vigor and exercise a more beneficent power
+than in pagan Ireland. Although the Hebrews and other Asiatic nations
+had societies organized from among the professions, yet in Ireland
+alone these societies seem to have been constructed with a patriotic
+purpose, and in Ireland alone they seem to have had ceremonies of
+initiation, with constitutions and laws. These societies existed from
+the earliest times until after the coming of St. Patrick. Traces of
+them are visible during all the centuries from the conversion of
+Ireland down to the Anglo-Norman epoch, and it is apparent that the
+clan system and the introduction of the feudal system by the English
+failed to eliminate completely their influence.
+
+When the Irish emigration flowed towards the American colonies in the
+eighteenth century, the social instinct early found expression in
+societies. One of the earliest of these was founded in Boston, where,
+in 1737, twenty-six "gentlemen merchants and others, natives of
+Ireland or of Irish extraction", organized the Charitable Irish
+Society. In Pennsylvania, where the Irish emigration had been larger
+than in any other colony, the Hibernian Fire Company was organized in
+1751. The Friendly Sons of St. Patrick was founded in Philadelphia in
+1771, and about that time societies bearing this name were founded in
+Boston and New York, as convivial clubs welcoming Irish emigrants to
+their festive boards. These societies were formed upon the model of
+the Friendly Brothers of St. Patrick, which had existed in Dublin and
+other Irish cities a generation before, and was well and favorably
+known throughout Ireland.
+
+The Society of the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick in Philadelphia
+contained some of the most prominent merchants and leading citizens
+of the city, and in 1780 they subscribed £103,000, or one-third of
+the sum collected, to supply the Continental army with food. Among
+its members were Commodore Barry, the Father of the American Navy;
+General Stephen Moylan; General Anthony Wayne; and the great
+merchants, Blair McClenachan, Thomas Fitzsimons, and Robert Morris.
+Washington, who was an honorary member, described it "as a society
+distinguished for the firm adherence of its members to the glorious
+cause in which we are embarked." Whether upon the field or upon the
+sea, in council or in the sacrifice of their wealth, their names are
+foremost in the crisis of the Revolution.
+
+The Hibernian Society for the Relief of Emigrants from Ireland was
+founded in Philadelphia on March 3, 1790. Other Hibernian Societies,
+with the same title and organized for the same purpose, were founded
+in other cities along the Atlantic coast in the early years of the
+nineteenth century, but the Philadelphia Hibernian Society was, from
+the character of its members, the extent of its beneficence, and the
+length of its existence, the most famous. The emigrants from Ireland
+during the eighteenth century had pushed on to the frontier, or, in
+some instances, remained in the cities and engaged successfully in
+mercantile pursuits. The emigration which came after the Revolution
+was, however, in great part composed of families almost without
+means. Unable to subsist while clearing farms in the virgin forest,
+thousands were congested in the cities. The Hibernian Society
+extended a ready and strong hand to these helpless people, and not
+only aided the emigrants with gifts of money, but also secured for
+them employment, disseminated among them useful information, and
+provided them with medical attendance. While the Hibernian Society
+was regarded as the successor of the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick,
+yet the two societies, which contained largely a membership roll
+bearing the same names, flourished, in the work of patriotism, side
+by side. The first officers of the Hibernian Society for the Relief
+of Emigrants from Ireland were: President, Chief Justice Thomas
+McKean; Vice-President, General Walter Stewart; Secretary, Matthew
+Carey, the historian; Treasurer, John Taylor. It was said that no
+other society in America contained so many men distinguished in
+civil, military, and official life as the Hibernian Society. In
+almost every city where the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick and the
+Hibernian Society for the Relief of Emigrants were found, there was a
+close and intimate connection between them, which ultimately resulted
+in amalgamation.
+
+The Ancient Order of Hibernians traces its origin to those orders
+which flourished in pagan Ireland, and which exercised so potent an
+influence upon the history of the Celtic race. The order of
+knighthood was the first of these orders to be founded. It existed
+from the earliest times, and is visible in the annals of the nation,
+until the Anglo-Normans invaded the land in the twelfth century. In
+pagan Ireland the knightly orders became provincial standing armies,
+and there are many glorious pages describing the feats of the Clanna
+Deagha of Munster, the Clanna Morna of Connacht, the Feni of
+Leinster, and the Knights of the Red Branch of Ulster. When the
+island was Christianized, these knightly orders were among the
+staunchest supporters of the missionary priests, and were consecrated
+to the service of the church in the sixth century, assuming the cross
+as their distinctive emblem, and becoming the defenders of religion.
+
+Among the names which are upon the rolls of the ancient orders of
+knighthood are those of most of the kings, bards, saints, and
+statesmen, and in the long list there was no family of greater renown
+than that of Roderick the Great, to which belonged Conall Cearnach
+and Lugaidh, who, according to MacGeoghegan and others, were the
+direct ancestors of the O'Mores of Leix. In this family the ancient
+splendor of the knightly orders was a tradition which survived for
+centuries, and they were in almost continual rebellion against the
+English, from the siege of Dublin by Roderick O'Connor until the
+rebellion against Queen Elizabeth, led by Rory Oge O'More and his son
+Owen in the latter part of the sixteenth and the early seventeenth
+century. A nephew of Rory Oge, the sagacious and statesmanlike Rory
+O'More, revived the ancient orders in the Catholic Confederation of
+Kilkenny in 1642. A grandson of Rory O'More, Patrick Sarsfield, Earl
+of Lucan, was the most distinguished commander of Irish armies who
+opposed, in Ireland, the forces of William of Orange.
+
+There is no stranger story in all history than the intimate
+connection of the O'More family with the annals of the Ancient Order
+of Hibernians. The lineage of this family furnishes the links
+connecting the ancient orders of pagan Ireland through the centuries
+with the Ancient Order in modern times. Under the names of Rapparees,
+Whiteboys, Defenders, Ribbonmen, etc., the Confederation of Kilkenny
+was carried on through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries until
+the nineteenth. At various times the duties of these organizations
+were subject to local conditions. Thus the Defenders were occupied in
+protecting themselves and their priests against the hostility of the
+Penal Laws, engaging in armed conflict with the Orangemen in the
+north, while the Whiteboys were waging war against the atrocities of
+landlordism in the south. Between these two organizations there was a
+secret code, which operated until they were combined, under the name
+of Ribbonmen, in the early nineteenth century. The contentions of the
+Whiteboys regarding Irish landlordism have since been acknowledged to
+be just, and have been enacted into statutes. The Defenders joined
+with Wolfe Tone in the formation of the United Irishmen.
+
+About 1825 the Ribbonmen changed their name to St. Patrick's
+Fraternal Society, and branches were established in England and
+Scotland under the name of the Hibernian Funeral Society. In 1836 a
+charter was received by members in New York City, and in Schuylkill
+County, Pennsylvania. The headquarters were for some years in
+Pennsylvania, but in 1851 a charter was granted to the New York
+Divisions under the name of "The Ancient Order of Hibernians." New
+York thus became the American headquarters. National conventions were
+held there until 1878, since which year they have been held in many
+other cities biennially. Many of the most distinguished leaders of
+the Irish race in America have been members of the Order, and from a
+humble beginning, with a few emigrants gathered together in a strange
+land, the membership has grown to nearly 200,000. General Thomas
+Francis Meagher, Colonel Michael Doheny, General Michael Corcoran,
+and Colonel John O'Mahony were among the members in the late '50's.
+
+Among the organizations which have sprung from the ranks of the
+A.O.H. were the powerful Fenian Brotherhood, the Emmet Monument
+Association, and scores of smaller associations in all sections of
+the United States and Canada. During the Know Nothing riots, the
+Order furnished armed defenders for the Catholic churches in New
+York, Philadelphia, and Charleston, and it has ever been foremost in
+preserving its position as the hereditary defender of the faith. In
+1894, the Ladies' Auxiliary was founded, and this body of women
+numbered in 1914 over 63,000, and had donated great sums to charity,
+education, and religion. The A.O.H. had, in 1914, assets of
+$2,230,000. It pays annually, for charity, sick and death benefits,
+and maintenance, over $1,000,000, and during its existence in America
+has donated nearly $20,000,000 to works of beneficence. One of the
+most celebrated of the gifts of the Order was the endowment of the
+Chair of Celtic in the Catholic University of America, and one of its
+greatest gifts to charity was its contribution of $40,000 to the
+sufferers from the San Francisco earthquake.
+
+The Clan-na-Gael is a society organized to secure the independence of
+Ireland by armed revolution. Its organization is secret and it is the
+successor of the Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood, called in America
+the Fenian Brotherhood, which promoted many daring raids and risings
+in Ireland in 1867. The I.R.B. was perfected by James Stephens in
+Ireland, and by John O'Mahony in America, from 1857 to 1867. An
+invasion of Canada was made in great force under the general
+direction of Colonel William R. Roberts, president of the Fenian
+Brotherhood, but was unsuccessful owing to the attitude of the United
+States Government, which declared that the Fenians were violating the
+principles of neutrality. After the disorganization of the Fenian
+Brotherhood, the idea of revolution languished until revived by the
+founding of the Clan-na-Gael by Jerome J. Collins in 1869, and the
+membership during the twenty years from 1880 to 1900 included almost
+fifty thousand of the flower of the men of Irish blood in America.
+The principle of revolution was first given organized public
+expression in America through the formation in 1848 of the Irish
+Republican Union, which was succeeded by the Emmet Monument
+Association, these societies influencing the creation of the
+Sixty-Ninth and Seventy-Fifth Regiments of the New York State
+Militia, and the Ninth Massachusetts, which became so famous for
+valor during the Civil War. Although not putting forth all its
+strength, so as to allow full scope to the parliamentary efforts to
+ameliorate the state of the Irish people, the Clan-na-Gael is as
+vigorous a section as ever of the forces organized for the service of
+patriotism.
+
+The Land League, founded in Ireland in 1879, was transplanted to
+America in 1880, when the first branch was established in New York
+City through the efforts of Patrick Ford, John Boyle O'Reilly, John
+Devoy, and others. Michael Davitt soon after came to America and
+travelled through the country founding branches of the League. In a
+few years the whole American continent was organized, and in this
+organization Michael Davitt declared that the members of the Ancient
+Order of Hibernians and the Clan-na-Gael were everywhere foremost. To
+the enormous sums collected by the League in this country, and to the
+magnificent labors of Parnell, Davitt, Redmond, Ferguson, Dillon,
+Kettle, Webb, and others in Ireland, is due in a large measure the
+present improved state of the people, resulting from the sacrifices
+made by those who supported this greatest of leagues devoted to the
+amelioration of unbearable economic conditions. A Ladies' Auxiliary
+to the Land League was established by the sisters of Parnell, and was
+for some years a brilliant vindication of the power and justice of
+feminine participation in public questions.
+
+The Land League, the name of which was changed to the Irish National
+League in the early '80's, having prepared the path to eventual
+victory, declined in potency after the political movement was divided
+into Parnellites and Anti-Parnellites in 1890. The elements composing
+these rival parties were, through the initiative of William O'Brien,
+M.P., and in commemoration of the one hundredth anniversary of the
+United Irishmen of Wolfe Tone's day, joined in 1898 under the name of
+the United Irish League, John E. Redmond becoming the first
+president, and also the chairman of the Parliamentary Party which it
+had been instrumental in uniting. This organization is now a living,
+vital force in the affairs of Ireland on both sides of the Atlantic,
+Mr. Redmond being still its head, with Michael J. Ryan, of
+Philadelphia, as president of the American Branch.
+
+The Knights of Columbus were organized in 1881 by Rev. Michael
+McGivney, in New Haven, Connecticut, and a charter was granted by the
+Connecticut Legislature on March 29,1882. At first the activity of
+the organization was confined to Connecticut, but the time was ripe
+for its mission, and it soon spread rapidly throughout New England.
+In 1896 it began to attract the attention of Catholic young men in
+other parts of the nation, and during the next few years its appeal
+was made irresistibly in almost every State. It now exists in all the
+States of the Union, the Dominion of Canada, Nova Scotia,
+Newfoundland, Panama, Porto Rico, Mexico, Cuba, and the Philippine
+Islands, with a total membership of 328,000, of whom 108,000 are
+insurance members and 220,000 associate members. Its mortuary reserve
+fund is $4,500,000, being over $1,000,000 more than is required by
+law. It is one of the most successful fraternal societies ever
+organized, and the Irish-American Catholics have given to it the full
+strength of their enthusiasm and purpose.
+
+The temperance movement among Catholics was, from the visit of Father
+Mathew in 1849, largely Irish. The societies first formed were united
+by no bond until 1871, when the Connecticut societies formed a State
+Union. Other States formed unions and a national convention in
+Baltimore in 1872 created a National Union. In 1878 there were 90,000
+priests, laymen, women, and children in the Catholic Total Abstinence
+Benevolent Union. In 1883 the Union was introduced into Canada, and
+in 1895 there were 150,000 members on the American continent. From
+the C.T.A.B.U. were formed the Knights of Father Mathew, a total
+abstinence and semi-military body, first instituted in St. Louis in
+1872.
+
+The Catholic Knights of America, with a membership chiefly
+Irish-American, were organized in Memphis, Tennessee, in 1877, and
+the advantages offered for insurance soon attracted 20,000 members.
+The decade of the '70's was prolific of Irish Catholic associations.
+The Catholic Benevolent Legion was founded in 1873, shortly followed
+by the Catholic Mutual Benevolent Association, the Catholic Order of
+Foresters (which started in Massachusetts and spread to other
+States), the Irish Catholic Benevolent Union, and the Society of the
+Holy Name, which latter, although tracing its origin to Lisbon in
+1432, is yet dominantly Irish in America.
+
+In the large industrial centres there are scores of Irish county and
+other societies composed of Irishmen and Irish-Americans, organized
+for the service of country and faith, beneficence and education, and
+all dedicated to the uplifting of humanity and to the progress of
+civilization. The ancient genius for organization has not been lost,
+the spirit of brotherhood pulsates strongly in the Irish heart, and
+through its powerful societies the race retains its place in the
+advance of mankind.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+John M. Campbell: History of the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick and
+Hibernian Society; Maguire: The Irish in America; McGee: Irish
+Settlers in America; John O'Dea: History of the Ancient Order of
+Hibernians and Ladies' Auxiliary in America; Michael Davitt: The Fall
+of Feudalism in Ireland; Cashman: Life of Michael Davitt; T.P.
+O'Connor: The Parnell Movement; Joseph Denieffe: Recollections of the
+Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood; Articles in the Catholic
+Encyclopedia; Report of the Knights of Columbus, 1914; The Tidings,
+Los Angeles, 7th annual edition.
+
+
+
+THE IRISH IN THE UNITED STATES
+
+By MICHAEL J. O'BRIEN,
+
+_Historiographer, American Irish Historical Society_.
+
+
+Students of early American history will find in the Colonial records
+abundant evidence to justify the statement of Ramsay, the historian
+of South Carolina, when he wrote in 1789, that:
+
+"The Colonies which now form the United States may be considered as
+Europe transplanted. Ireland, England, Scotland, France, Germany,
+Holland, Switzerland, Sweden, Poland, and Italy furnished the
+original stock of the present population, and are generally supposed
+to have contributed to it in the order named. For the last seventy or
+eighty years, no nation has contributed so much to the population of
+America as Ireland."
+
+It will be astonishing to one who looks into the question to find
+that, in face of all the evidence that abounds in American annals,
+showing that our people were here on this soil fighting the battles
+of the colonists, and in a later day of the infant Republic, thus
+proving our claim to the gratitude of this nation, America has
+produced men so ignoble and disingenuous as to say that the Irish who
+were here in Revolutionary days "were for the most part heartily
+loyal," that "the combatants were of the same race and blood", and
+that the great uprising became, in fact, "a contest between
+brothers"!
+
+Although many writers have made inquiries into this subject, nearly
+all have confined themselves to the period of the Revolution. We are
+of "the fighting race", and in our enthusiasm for the fighting man
+the fact seems to have been overlooked that in other noble fields of
+endeavor, and in some respects infinitely more important, men of
+Irish blood have occupied prominent places in American history, for
+which they have received but scant recognition. The pioneers before
+whose hands the primeval forests fell prostrate; the builders, by
+whose magic touch have sprung into existence flourishing towns and
+cities, where once no sounds were heard save those of nature and her
+wildest offspring; the orators who roused the colonists into activity
+and showed them the way to achieve their independence; the
+schoolmasters who imparted to the American youth their first lessons
+in intellectuality and patriotism; all have their place in history,
+and of these we can claim that Ireland furnished her full quota to
+the American colonies.
+
+It must now be accepted as an indisputable fact that a very large
+proportion of the earliest settlers in the American colonies were of
+Irish blood, for the Irish have been coming here since the beginning
+of the English colonization. It has been estimated by competent
+authorities that in the middle of the seventeenth century the
+English-speaking colonists numbered 50,000. Sir William Petty, the
+English statistician, tells us that during the decade from 1649 to
+1659 the annual emigration from Ireland to the western continent was
+upwards of 6000, thus making, in that space of time, 60,000 souls, or
+about one-half of what the whole population must have been in 1659.
+And from 1659 to 1672 there emigrated from Ireland to America the
+yearly number of 3000 (Dobbs, on Irish Trade, Dublin, 1729).
+Prendergast, another noted authority, in the _Cromwellian Settlement
+of Ireland_, furnishes ample verification of this by the statistics
+which he quotes from the English records. Richard Hakluyt, the
+chronicler of the first Virginia expeditions, in his _Voyages,
+Navigations, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the English Nation_
+(London, 1600), shows that Irishmen came with Raleigh to Virginia in
+1587 and, in fact, the ubiquitous Celts were with Sir John Hawkins in
+his voyage to the Gulf of Mexico twenty years earlier. The famous
+work of John Camden Hotten, entitled "The Original Lists of Persons
+of Quality, Emigrants, Religious Exiles, Political Rebels, Serving
+Men sold for a term of years," etc., who were brought to the Virginia
+plantations between 1600 and 1700, as well as his "List of the
+Livinge and the Dead in Virginia in 1623," contains numerous Celtic
+names, and further evidence of these continuous migrations of the
+Irish is contained in "A Booke of Entrie for Passengers passing
+beyond the Seas", in the year 1632. The Virginia records also show
+that as early as 1621 a colony of Irish people sailed from Cork in
+the _Flying Harte_ under the patronage of Sir William Newce and
+located at what is now Newport News, and some few years later Daniel
+Gookin, a merchant of Cork, transported hither "great multitudes of
+people and cattle" from England and Ireland.
+
+In the "William and Mary College Quarterly," in the transcripts of
+the original records published by the Virginia Historical Society,
+and in all County histories of Virginia, there are numerous
+references to the Irish "redemptioners" who were brought to that
+colony during the seventeenth century. But the redemptioners were not
+the only class who came, for the colonial records also contain many
+references to Irishmen of good birth and education who received
+grants of land in the colony and who, in turn, induced many of their
+countrymen to emigrate. Planters named McCarty, Lynch, O'Neill,
+Sullivan, Farrell, McDonnell, O'Brien, and others denoting an ancient
+Irish lineage appear frequently in the early records. Much that is
+romantic is found in the lives of these men and their descendants.
+Some of them served in the Council chamber and the field, their sons
+and daughters were educated to hold place, with elegance and dignity,
+with the foremost of the Cavaliers, and when in after years the great
+conflict with England began, Virginians of Irish blood were among the
+first and the most eager to answer the call. Those historians who
+claim that the South was exclusively an "Anglo-Saxon" heritage would
+be completely disillusioned were they to examine the lists of
+Colonial and Revolutionary troops of Celtic name who held the Indians
+and the British at bay, and who helped in those "troublous times" to
+lay the foundations of a great Republic.
+
+There is no portion of the Atlantic seaboard that did not profit by
+the Irish immigrations of the seventeenth century. We learn from the
+"Irish State Papers" of the year 1595 that ships were regularly
+plying between Ireland and Newfoundland, and so important was the
+trade between Ireland and the far-distant fishing banks that "all
+English ships bound out always made provisions that the convoy out
+should remain 48 hours in Cork." In some of Lord Baltimore's accounts
+of his voyages to Newfoundland he refers to his having "sailed from
+Ireland" and to his "return to Ireland," and so it is highly probable
+that he settled Irishmen on his Avalon plantations. After Baltimore's
+departure, Lord Falkland also sent out a number of Irish colonists,
+and "at a later date they were so largely reinforced by settlers from
+Ireland that the Celtic part of the population at this day is not far
+short of equality in numbers with the Saxon portion"--(Hatton and
+Harvey, _History of Newfoundland_, page 32). Pedley attributes the
+large proportion of Irishmen and the influence of the Catholics in
+Newfoundland to Lord Falkland's company, and Prowse, in his History
+(pp. 200-201), refers to "the large number of Irishmen" in that
+colony who fled from Waterford and Cork "during the troubled times"
+which preceded the Williamite war (1688). Many of these in after
+years are known to have settled in New England.
+
+But it was to Maryland and Pennsylvania that the greatest flow of
+Irish immigration directed its course. In the celebrated "Account of
+the Voyage to Maryland," written in the year 1634 by Mutius
+Vitellestis, the general of the Jesuit Order, it is related that when
+the _Arke_ and the _Dove_ arrived in the West Indies in that year,
+they found "the island of Montserrat inhabited by a colony of
+Irishmen who had been banished from Virginia on account of their
+professing the Catholic faith." It is known also that there were many
+families in Ireland of substance and good social standing who, at
+their own expense, took venture in the enterprise of Lord Baltimore
+and afterwards in that of William Penn, and who applied for and
+received grants of land, which, as the deeds on record show, were
+afterwards divided into farms bought and settled by O'Briens,
+McCarthys, O'Connors, and many others of the ancient Gaelic race, the
+descendants of those heroic men whose passion for liberty, while
+causing their ruin, inspired and impelled their sons to follow
+westward "the star of empire."
+
+After the first English colonies in Maryland were founded, we find in
+all the proclamations concerning these settlements by the proprietary
+government, that they were limited to "persons of British or Irish
+descent." The religious liberty established in Maryland was the
+magnet which attracted Irish Catholics to that Province, and so they
+came in large numbers in search of peace and comfort and freedom from
+the turmoil produced by religious animosities in their native land.
+The major part of this Irish immigration seems to have come in
+through the ports of Philadelphia and Charleston and a portion
+through Chesapeake Bay, whence they passed on to Pennsylvania and the
+southern colonies.
+
+The "Certificates of Land Grants" in Maryland show that it was
+customary for those Irish colonists to name their lands after places
+in their native country, and I find that there is hardly a town or
+city in the old Gaelic strongholds in Ireland that is not represented
+in the nomenclature of the early Maryland grants. One entire section
+of the Province, named the "County of New Ireland" by proclamation of
+Lord Baltimore in the year 1684, was occupied wholly by Irish
+families. This section is now embraced in Cecil and Harford Counties.
+New Ireland County was divided into three parts, known as New
+Connaught, New Munster, and New Leinster. New Connaught was founded
+by George Talbot from Roscommon, who was surveyor-general of the
+Province; New Munster, by Edward O'Dwyer from Tipperary; and New
+Leinster, by Bryan O'Daly from Wicklow, all of whom were in Maryland
+prior to 1683. Among the prominent men in the Province may be
+mentioned Charles O'Carroll, who was secretary to the proprietor;
+John Hart from county Cavan, who was governor of Maryland from 1714
+to 1720; Phillip Conner from Kerry, known in history as the "Last
+Commander of Old Kent"; Daniel Dulany of the O'Delaney family from
+Queen's County, one of the most famous lawyers in the American
+Colonies; Michael Tawney or Taney, ancestor of the celebrated judge,
+Roger Brooke Taney; the Courseys from Cork, one of the oldest
+families in the State; the Kings from Dublin; and many others.
+
+The only place in the State bearing a genuine Irish name which has
+reached any prominence is Baltimore. Not alone has the "Monumental
+City" received its name from Ireland, but the tract of land on which
+the city is now situate was originally named (in 1695) "Ely
+O'Carroll," after the barony of that name in King's and Tipperary
+counties, the ancient home of the Clan O'Carroll. To subdivisions of
+the tract were given such names as Dublin, Waterford, Tralee, Raphoe,
+Tramore, Mallow, Kinsale, Lurgan, Coleraine, Tipperary, Antrim,
+Belfast, Derry, Kildare, Enniskillen, Wexford, Letterkenny, Lifford,
+Birr, Galway, Limerick, and so on, all indicating the nationality of
+the patentees, as well as the places from which they came.
+
+From such sources is the evidence available of the coming of the
+Irish to Maryland in large numbers, and so it is that we are not
+surprised to find on the rosters of the Maryland Revolutionary
+regiments 4633 distinctive Irish names, exclusive of the large
+numbers who joined the navy and the militia, as well as those who
+were held to guard the frontier from Indian raids, whose names are
+not on record. However, it is not possible now to determine the
+proportion of the Revolutionary soldiers who were of Irish birth or
+descent, for where the nationality is not stated in the rosters all
+non-Irish names must be left out of the reckoning. The first census
+of Maryland (1790), published by the United States Government,
+enumerates the names of all "Heads of Families" and the number of
+persons in each family. A count of the Irish names shows
+approximately 21,000 persons. This does not take into account the
+great number of people who could not be recorded under that head, as
+it is known there were many thousand Irish "redemptioners" in
+Maryland prior to the taking of the census, and while no precise data
+exist to indicate the number of Irish immigrants who settled in
+Maryland, I estimate that the number of people of Irish descent in
+the State in 1790 was not far short of 40,000.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The Land Records and Council Journals of Georgia of the last half of
+the seventeenth and the first half of the eighteenth century afford
+like testimony to the presence of the Irish, who crossed the sea and
+colonized the waste places of that wild territory, and whose
+descendants in after years contributed much of the strength of the
+patriot forces who confronted the armed cohorts of Carleton and
+Cornwallis. From the Colonial Records of Georgia, published under the
+auspices of the State Legislature, I have extracted a long list of
+people of Irish name and blood who received grants of land in that
+colony. They came with Oglethorpe as early as 1735 and continued to
+arrive for many years. It was an Irishman named Mitchell who laid out
+the site of Atlanta, the metropolis of the South; an O'Brien founded
+the city of Augusta; and a McCormick named the city of Dublin,
+Georgia.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+From the records of the Carolinas we obtain similar data, many of an
+absorbingly interesting character, and the number of places in that
+section bearing names of a decidedly Celtic flavor is striking
+evidence of the presence of Irish people, the line of whose
+settlements across the whole State of North Carolina may be traced on
+the high roads leading from Pennsylvania and Virginia. Hawk, one of
+the historians of North Carolina, refers to the "Irish Romanists" who
+were resident in that Province as early as 1700, and Williamson says
+that "the most numerous settlers in the northwestern part of the
+Province during the first half of the eighteenth century were from
+Ireland." The manuscript records in the office of the Secretary of
+State refer to "a ship load of immigrants" who, in the year 1761,
+came to the Carolinas from Dublin. The names of the Irish pioneers in
+the Carolinas are found in every conceivable connection, in the
+parochial and court records, in the will books, in the minutes of the
+general Assembly, in the quaint old records of the Land and
+Registers' offices, in the patents granted by the colonial
+Government, and in sundry other official records. In public affairs
+they seem to have had the same adaptability for politics which, among
+other things, has in later days brought their countrymen into
+prominence. Florence O'Sullivan from Kerry was surveyor-general of
+South Carolina in 1671. James Moore, a native of Ireland and a
+descendant of the famous Irish chieftain, Rory O'More, was governor
+of South Carolina in 1700; Matthew Rowan from Carrickfergus was
+president of the North Carolina Council during the term of office of
+his townsman, Governor Arthur Dobbs (1754 to 1764); John Connor was
+attorney-general of the Province in 1730, and was succeeded in turn
+by David O'Sheall and Thomas McGuire. Cornelius Hartnett, Hugh
+Waddell, and Terence Sweeny, all Irishmen, were members of the Court,
+and among the members of the provincial assembly I find such names as
+Murphy, Leary, Kearney, McLewean, Dunn, Keenan, McManus, Ryan,
+Bourke, Logan, and others showing an Irish origin. And, in this
+connection, we must not overlook Thomas Burke, a native of "the City
+of the Tribes", distinguished as lawyer, soldier, and statesman, who
+became governor of North Carolina in 1781, as did his cousin Aedanus
+Burke, also from Galway, who was judge of the Supreme Court of South
+Carolina in 1778. John Rutledge, son of Dr. John Rutledge from
+Ireland, was governor of South Carolina in 1776 and his brother
+Edward became governor of the State in 1788.
+
+But there were Irishmen in the Carolinas long before the advent of
+these, and indeed Irish names are found occasionally as far back as
+the records of those colonies reach. They are scattered profusely
+through the will books and records of deeds as early as 1676 and down
+to the end of the century, and in a list of immigrants from Barbados
+in the year 1678, quoted by John Camden Hotten in the work already
+alluded to, we find about 120 persons of Irish name who settled in
+the Carolinas in that year. In 1719, 500 persons from Ireland
+transported themselves to Carolina to take the benefit of an Act
+passed by the Assembly by which the lands of the Yemmassee Indians
+were thrown open to settlers, and Ramsay (_History of South
+Carolina_, vol. I, page 20) says: "Of all countries none has
+furnished the Province with so many inhabitants as Ireland."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In the Pennsylvania records one is also struck with the very frequent
+mention of Irish names. William Penn had lived in Ireland for several
+years and was acquainted with the sturdy character of its people, and
+when he arrived on board _The Welcome_ in 1682 he had with him a
+number of Irishmen, who are described as "people of property and
+people of consequence." In 1699 he brought over a brilliant young
+Irishman, James Logan from Lurgan, who for nearly half a century
+occupied a leading position in the Province and for some time was its
+governor. But the first Irish immigration to Pennsylvania of any
+numerical importance came in the year 1717. They settled in Lancaster
+County. "They and their descendants," says Rupp, an impartial
+historian, "have always been justly regarded as among the most
+intelligent people in the County and their progress will be found to
+be but little behind the boasted efforts of the Colony of Plymouth."
+In 1727, as the records show, 1155 Irish people arrived in
+Philadelphia and in 1728 the number reached the high total of 5600.
+"It looks as if Ireland is to send all her inhabitants hither," wrote
+Secretary Logan to the provincial proprietors in 1729, "for last week
+not less than six ships arrived. The common fear is that if they
+continue to come they will make themselves proprietors of the
+Province" (Rupp's _History of Dauphin County_).
+
+The continuous stream of Irish immigration was viewed with so much
+alarm by the Legislature, that in 1728 a law was passed "against
+these crowds of Irish papists and convicts who are yearly powr'd upon
+us"--(the "convicts" being the political refugees who fled from the
+persecutions of the English Government!). But the operations of this
+statute were wholly nullified by the captains of the vessels landing
+their passengers at Newcastle, Del., and Burlington, N, J., and, as
+one instance of this, I find in the Philadelphia _American Weekly
+Mercury_ of August 14, 1729, a statement to this effect: "It is
+reported from Newcastle that there arrived there this last week about
+2000 Irish and an abundance more daily expected." This expectation
+was realized, for according to "An Account of Passengers and Servants
+landed in Philadelphia between December 25, 1728, and December 25,
+1729", which I find in the _New England Weekly Journal_ for March 30,
+1730, the number of Irish who came in via the Delaware river in that
+year was 5655, while the total number of all other Europeans who
+arrived during the same period was only 553. Holmes, in his _Annals
+of America_, corroborates this. The Philadelphia newspapers down to
+the year 1741 also contained many similar references, indicating that
+the flood of Irish immigration was unceasing and that it was at all
+times in excess of that from other European countries. Later issues
+of the _Mercury_ also published accounts of the number of ships from
+Ireland which arrived in the Delaware, and from these it appears that
+from 1735 to 1738 "66 vessels entered Philadelphia from Ireland and
+50 cleared thereto." And in the _New York Gazette and Weekly
+Post-Boy_ of the years 1750 to 1752, I find under the caption,
+"Vessels Registered at the Philadelphia Custom House," a total of 183
+ships destined from or to Ireland, or an average of five sailings per
+month between Irish ports and the port of Philadelphia alone. A
+careful search fails to disclose any record of the number of persons
+who came in these ships, but, from the fact that it is stated that
+all carried passengers as well as merchandise from Irish ports, we
+may safely assume that the "human freight" must have been very large.
+
+Spencer, in his _History of the United States_, says: "In the years
+1771 and 1772 the number of emigrants to America from Ireland was
+17,350, almost all of whom emigrated at their own expense. A great
+majority of them consisted of persons employed in the linen
+manufacture or farmers possessed of some property, which they
+converted into money and brought with them. Within the first
+fortnight of August, 1773, there arrived at Philadelphia 3500
+immigrants from Ireland. As most of the emigrants, particularly those
+from Ireland and Scotland, were personally discontent with their
+treatment in Europe, their accession to the colonial population, it
+might reasonably be supposed, had no tendency to diminish or
+counteract the hostile sentiments toward Britain which were daily
+gathering force in America." Marmion, in his _Ancient and Modern
+History of the Maritime Ports of Ireland_, verifies this. He says
+that the number of Irish who came during the years 1771, 1772, and
+1773 was 25,000. The bulk of these came in by way of Philadelphia and
+settled in Pennsylvania and the Virginias.
+
+The Irish were arriving in the Province in such great numbers during
+this period as to be the cause of considerable jealousy on the part
+of other settlers from continental Europe. They were a vigorous and
+aggressive element. Eager for that freedom which was denied them at
+home, large numbers of them went out on the frontier. While the
+war-whoop of the savage still echoed within the surrounding valleys
+and his council fires blazed upon the hills, those daring adventurers
+penetrated the hitherto pathless wilderness and passed through
+unexampled hardships with heroic endurance. They opened up the roads,
+bridged the streams, and cut down the forests, turning the wilderness
+into a place fit for man's abode. With their sturdy sons, they
+constituted the skirmish line of civilization, standing as a bulwark
+against Indian incursions into the more prosperous and populous
+settlements between them and the coast. From 1740 down to the period
+of the Revolution, hardly a year passed without a fresh infusion of
+Irish blood into the existing population, and, as an indication that
+they distributed themselves all over the Province, I find, in every
+Town and County history of Pennsylvania and in the land records of
+every section, Irish names in the greatest profusion. They settled in
+great numbers chiefly along the Susquehanna and its tributaries; they
+laid out many prosperous settlements in the wilderness of western
+Pennsylvania, and in these sections Irishmen are seen occupying some
+of the foremost and most coveted positions, and their sons in after
+years contributed much to the power and commercial greatness of the
+Commonwealth. They are mentioned prominently as manufacturers,
+merchants, and farmers, and in the professions they occupied a place
+second to none among the natives of the State. In several sections,
+they were numerous enough to establish their own independent
+settlements, to which they gave the names of their Irish home places,
+several of which are preserved to this day. It is not to be wondered
+at then that General Harry Lee named the Pennsylvania line of the
+Continental army, "the Line of Ireland"!
+
+Ireland gave many eminent men to the Commonwealth, among whom may be
+mentioned: John Burns, its first governor after the adoption of the
+Constitution, who was born in Dublin; George Bryan, also a native of
+Dublin, who was its governor in 1788; James O'Hara, one of the
+founders of Pittsburgh; Thomas FitzSimmons, a native of Limerick,
+member of the first Congress under the Constitution which began the
+United States Government and father of the policy of protection to
+American industries; Matthew Carey from Dublin, the famous political
+economist; and many others who were prominent as nation-builders in
+the early days of the "Keystone State."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+While the historians usually give all the credit to England and to
+Englishmen for the early colonization of New England, whose results
+have been attended with such important consequences to America and
+the civilized world, Ireland and her sons can also claim a large part
+in the development of this territory, as is evidenced by the town,
+land, church, and other colonial records, and the names of the
+pioneers, as well as the names given to several of the early
+settlements. That the Irish had been coming to New England almost
+from the beginning of the English colonization is indicated by an
+"Order" entered in the Massachusetts record under date of September
+25, 1634, granting liberty to "the Scottishe and Irishe gentlemen who
+intend to come hither, to sitt down in any place upp Merimacke
+river." This, doubtless, referred to a Scotch and Irish company
+which, about that time, had announced its intention of founding a
+settlement on the Merrimac. It comprised in all 140 passengers, who
+embarked in the _Eagle Wing_, from Carrickfergus in September, 1636,
+bringing with them a considerable quantity of equipment and
+merchandise to meet the exigencies of their settlement in the new
+country. The vessel, however, never reached its destination and was
+obliged to return to Ireland on account of the Atlantic storms, and
+there is no record of a renewal of the attempt. In the Massachusetts
+records of the year 1640 (vol. I, p. 295) is another entry relating
+to "the persons come from Ireland," and in the Town Books of Boston
+may be seen references to Irishmen who were residents of the town in
+that year.
+
+From local histories, which in many cases are but verbatim copies of
+the original entries in the Town Books, we get occasional glimpses of
+the Irish who were in the colony of Massachusetts Bay between this
+period and the end of the century. For example, between 1640 and
+1660, such names as O'Neill, Sexton, Gibbons, Lynch, Keeney, Kelly,
+and Hogan appear on the Town records of Hartford, and one of the
+first schoolmasters who taught the children of the Puritans in New
+Haven was an Irishman named William Collins, who, in the year 1640,
+came there with a number of Irish refugees from Barbados Island. An
+Irishman named Joseph Collins with his wife and family came to Lynn,
+Mass., in 1635. Richard Duffy and Matthias Curran were at Ipswich in
+1633. John Kelly came to Newbury in 1635 with the first English
+settlers of the town. David O'Killia (or O'Kelly) was a resident of
+Old Yarmouth in 1657, and I find on various records of that section a
+great number of people named Kelley, who probably were descended from
+David O'Killia. Peter O'Kelly and his family are mentioned as of
+Dorchester in 1696. At Springfield in 1656 there were families named
+Riley and O'Dea; and Richard Burke, said to be of the Mayo family of
+that name, is mentioned prominently in Middlesex County as early as
+1670. The first legal instrument of record in Hampden County was a
+deed of conveyance in the year 1683 to one Patrick Riley of lands in
+Chicopee. With a number of his countrymen, Riley located in this
+vicinity and gave the name of "Ireland Parish" to their settlement.
+John Molooney and Daniel MacGuinnes were at Woburn in 1676, and
+Michael Bacon, "an Irishman", of Woburn, fought in King Philip's war
+in 1675. John Joyce was at Lynn in 1637, and I find the names of
+Willyam Heally, William Reyle, William Barrett, and Roger Burke
+signed to a petition to the General Court of Massachusetts on August
+17, 1664. Such names as Maccarty, Gleason, Coggan, Lawler, Kelly,
+Hurley, MackQuade, and McCleary also appear on the Cambridge Church
+records down to 1690. These are but desultory instances of the first
+comers among the Irish to Massachusetts, selected from a great mass
+of similar data.
+
+In the early history of every town in Massachusetts, without
+exception, I find mention of Irish people, and while the majority
+came originally as "poor redemptioners", yet, in course of time and
+despite Puritanical prejudices, not a few of them rose to positions
+of worth and independence. Perhaps the most noted of these was
+Matthew Lyon of Vermont, known as "the Hampden of Congress," who, on
+his arrival in New York in 1765, was sold as a "redemptioner" to pay
+his passage-money. This distinguished American was a native of county
+Wicklow. Other notable examples of Irish redemptioners who attained
+eminence in America were George Taylor, a native of Dublin, one of
+Pennsylvania's signers of the Declaration of Independence; Charles
+Thompson, a native of county Tyrone, "the perennial Secretary of the
+Continental Congress", and William Killen, who became chief justice
+and chancellor of Delaware. Some of the descendants of the Irish
+redemptioners in Massachusetts are found among the prominent New
+Englanders of the past hundred years. The Puritans of Massachusetts
+extended no welcoming hand to the Irish who had the temerity to come
+among them, yet, as an historical writer has truly said, "by one of
+those strange transformations which time occasionally works, it has
+come to pass that Massachusetts today contains more people of Irish
+blood in proportion to the total population than any other State in
+the Union."
+
+So great and so continuous was Irish immigration to Massachusetts
+during the early part of the eighteenth century that on Saint
+Patrick's Day in the year 1737 a number of merchants, who described
+themselves as "of the Irish Nation residing in Boston," formed the
+Charitable Irish Society, an organization which exists even to the
+present day. It was provided that the officers should be "natives of
+Ireland or of Irish extraction," and they announced that the Society
+was organized "in an affectionate and Compassionate concern for their
+countrymen in these Parts who may be reduced by Sickness, Shipwrack,
+Old Age, and other Infirmities and unforeseen Accidents." I have
+copied from the Town Books, as reproduced by the City of Boston, 1600
+Irish names of persons who were married or had declared their
+intentions of marriage in Boston between the years 1710 and 1790,
+exclusive of 956 other Irish names which appear on the minutes
+between 1720 and 1775.
+
+In 1718, one of the largest single colonies of Irish arrived in
+Boston. It consisted of one hundred families, who settled at
+different places in Massachusetts. One contingent, headed by Edward
+Fitzgerald, located at Worcester and another at Palmer under the
+leadership of Robert Farrell, while a number went to the already
+established settlement at Londonderry, N.H. About the same time a
+colony of fishermen from the west coast of Ireland settled on the
+Cape Cod peninsula, and I find a number of them recorded on the
+marriage registers of the towns in this vicinity between 1719 and
+1743. In 1720, a number of families from county Tyrone came to
+Shrewsbury, and eight years later another large contingent came to
+Leicester County from the same neighborhood, who gave the name of
+Dublin to the section where they located. The annals of Leicester
+County are rich in Irish names. On the Town Books of various places
+in this vicinity and on the rosters of the troops enrolled for the
+Indian war, Irishmen are recorded, and we learn from the records that
+not a few of them were important and useful men, active in the
+development of the settlements, and often chosen as selectmen or
+representatives. On the minutes of the meetings of the selectmen of
+Pelham, Spencer, Sutton, Charlestown, Canton, Scituate, Stoughton,
+Salem, Amesbury, Stoneham, and other Massachusetts towns, Irish names
+are recorded many years before the Revolution. In local histories
+these people are usually called "Scotch-Irish," a racial misnomer
+that has been very much overworked by a certain class of historical
+writers who seem to be unable to understand that a non-Catholic
+native of Ireland can be an Irishman. In an exhaustive study of
+American history, I cannot find any other race where such a
+distinction is drawn as in the case of the non-Catholic, or so-called
+"Scotch," Irish. In many instances, this hybrid racial designation
+obviously springs from prejudice and a desire to withhold from
+Ireland any credit that may belong to her, although, in some cases,
+the writers are genuinely mistaken in their belief that the Scotch as
+a race are the antithesis of the Irish and that whatever commendable
+qualities the non-Catholic Irish are possessed of naturally spring
+from the Scotch.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The first recorded Irish settlement in Maine was made by families
+named Kelly and Haley from Galway, who located on the Isles of Shoals
+about the year 1653. In 1692, Roger Kelly was a representative from
+the Isles to the General Court of Massachusetts, and is described in
+local annals as "King of the Isles." The large number of islands,
+bays, and promontories on the Maine coast bearing distinctive Celtic
+names attests the presence and influence of Irish people in this
+section in colonial times. In 1720, Robert Temple from Cork brought
+to Maine five shiploads of people, mostly from the province of
+Munster. They landed at the junction of the Kennebec and Eastern
+rivers, where they established the town of Cork, which, however,
+after a precarious existence of only six years, was entirely
+destroyed by the Indians. For nearly a century the place was
+familiarly known to the residents of the locality as "Ireland." The
+records of York, Lincoln, and Cumberland counties contain references
+to large numbers of Irish people who settled in those localities
+during the early years of the eighteenth century. The Town Books of
+Georgetown, Kirtery, and Kennebunkport, of the period 1740 to 1775,
+are especially rich in Irish names, and in the Saco Valley numerous
+settlements were made by Irish immigrants, not a few of whom are
+referred to by local historians as "men of wealth and social
+standing." In the marriage and other records of Limerick, Me., as
+published by the Maine Historical and Genealogical Recorder, in the
+marriage registers of the First Congregational Church of Scarborough,
+and in other similarly unquestionable records, I find a surprisingly
+large number of Irish names at various periods during the seventeenth
+and eighteenth centuries. In fact, there is not one town in the
+Province that did not have its quota of Irish people, who came either
+direct from Ireland or migrated from other sections of New England.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The records of New Hampshire and Rhode Island are also a fruitful
+source of information on this subject, and the Provincial papers
+indicate an almost unbroken tide of Irish immigration to this
+section, beginning as early as the year 1640. One of the most noted
+of Exeter's pioneer settlers was an Irishman named Darby Field, who
+came to that place in 1631 and who has been credited by Governor
+Winthrop as "the first European who witnessed the White Mountains."
+He is also recorded as "an Irish soldier for discovery," and I find
+his name in the annals of Exeter as one of the grantees of an Indian
+deed dated April 3, 1638, as well as several other Irish names down
+to the year 1664. In examining the town registers, gazeteers, and
+genealogies, as well as the local histories of New Hampshire, in
+which are embodied copies of the original entries made by the Town
+Clerks, I find numerous references to the Irish pioneers, and in many
+instances they are written down, among others, as "the first
+settlers." Some are mentioned as selectmen, town clerks,
+representatives, or colonial soldiers, and it is indeed remarkable
+that there is not one of these authorities that I have examined, out
+of more than two hundred, that does not contain Irish names. From
+these Irish pioneers sprang many men who attained prominence in New
+Hampshire, in the legislature, the professions, the military, the
+arts and crafts, and in all departments of civil life, down to the
+present time. In the marriage registers of Portsmouth, Boscawen, New
+Boston, Antrim, Londonderry, and other New Hampshire towns, are
+recorded, in some cases as early as 1716, names of Irish persons,
+with the places of their nativity, indicating that they came from all
+parts of Ireland. At Hampton, I find Humphrey Sullivan teaching
+school in 1714, while the name of John Sullivan from Limerick,
+schoolmaster at Dover and at Berwick, Me., for upwards of fifty
+years, is one of the most honored in early New Hampshire history.
+
+This John Sullivan was surely one of the grandest characters in the
+Colony of Massachusetts Bay, and the record of his descendants serves
+as an all-sufficient reply to the anti-Irish prejudices of some
+American historians. He was the father of a governor of New Hampshire
+and of a governor of Massachusetts; of an attorney-general of New
+Hampshire and of an attorney-general of Massachusetts; of New
+Hampshire's only major-general in the Continental army; of the first
+judge appointed by Washington in New Hampshire; and of four sons who
+were officers in the Continental army. He was grandfather of an
+attorney-general of New Hampshire, of a governor of Maine, and of a
+United States Senator from New Hampshire. He was great-grandfather of
+an attorney-general of New Hampshire, and great-great-grandfather of
+an officer in the Thirteenth New Hampshire regiment in the Civil War.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In Rhode Island, Irish people are on record as far back as 1640, and
+for many years after that date they continued to come. Edward Larkin
+was an esteemed citizen of Newport in 1655. Charles McCarthy was one
+of the founders of the town of East Greenwich in 1677, while in this
+vicinity as early as 1680 are found such names as Casey, Higgins,
+Magennis, Kelley, Murphy, Reylie, Maloney, Healy, Delaney, Walsh, and
+others of Irish origin. On the rosters of the Colonial militia who
+fought in King Philip's war (1675) are found the names of 110
+soldiers of Irish birth or descent, some of whom, for their services
+at the battle of Narragansett, received grants of land in New
+Hampshire and Massachusetts. The New England Historical and
+Genealogical Register for 1848 contains some remarkable testimony of
+the sympathy of the people of Ireland for the sufferers in this cruel
+war, and the "Irish Donation," sent out from Dublin in the year 1676,
+will always stand in history to Ireland's credit and as an instance
+of her intimate familiarity with American affairs, one hundred years
+prior to that Revolution which emancipated the people of this land
+from the same tyranny under which she herself has groaned. And yet,
+what a cruel travesty on history it reads like now, when we scan the
+official records of the New England colonies and find that the Irish
+were often called "convicts", and it was thought that measures should
+be taken to prevent their landing on the soil where they and their
+sons afterwards shed their blood in the cause of their fellow
+colonists! In the minutes of the provincial Assemblies and in the
+reports rendered to the General Court, as well as in other official
+documents of the period, are found expressions of the sentiment which
+prevailed against the natives of the "Island of Sorrows." Only twenty
+years before the outbreak of King Philip's war, the government of
+England was asked to provide a law "to prevent the importation of
+Irish Papists and convicts that are yearly pow'rd upon us and to make
+provision against the growth of this pernicious evil." And the
+colonial Courts themselves, on account of what they called "the cruel
+and malignant spirit that has from time to time been manifest in the
+Irish nation against the English nation," prohibited "the bringing
+over of any Irish men, women, or children into this jurisdiction on
+the penalty of fifty pounds sterling to each inhabitant who shall buy
+of any merchant, shipmaster, or other agent any such person or
+persons so transported by them." This order was promulgated by the
+General Court of Massachusetts in October, 1654, and is given in full
+in the American Historical Review for October, 1896.
+
+With the "convicts" and the "redemptioners" came the Irish
+schoolmaster, the man then most needed in America. And the fighting
+man, he too was to the fore, for when the colonies in after years
+called for volunteers to resist the tyranny of the British, the
+descendants of the Irish "convicts" were among the first and the most
+eager to answer the call.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Although it does not appear that Irish immigrants settled in the
+Province of New York in such large numbers as in other sections, yet,
+as far back as the third quarter of the seventeenth century, Irish
+names are found on the records of the Colony. O'Callaghan, the
+eminent archivist and historian, refers to "Dr. William Hayes,
+formerly of Barry's Court, Ireland," as one of New York's physicians
+in the year 1647, and from the same authority we learn that there
+were "settlers and Indian fighters in New Netherland" named Barrett,
+Fitzgerald, Dowdall, Collins, and Quinn in 1657. In records relating
+to the war with the Esopus Indians (1663), and in fact as early as
+1658, frequent references are made to "Thomas the Irishman", whose
+name was Thomas Lewis, a refugee from Ireland to Holland after the
+Cromwellian war. Lewis is on record in 1683 as one of the wealthiest
+merchants of New York and a large owner of real estate in the present
+downtown portion of the city. Such names as Patrick Hayes, John Daly,
+John Quigly, and Dennis McKarty appear among its business men between
+1666 and 1672, and in a "Census of the City of New York of the year
+1703" we find people named Flynn, Walsh, Dooley, Gillen, Carroll,
+Kenne, Gurney, Hart, Mooney, Moran, Lynch, Kearney, and others, all
+"Freemen of the City of New York." In the "Poll List" of the city
+from 1741 to 1761, more than one hundred such names appear, while
+among the advertisers in the New York newspapers all through the
+eighteenth century I find a large number of characteristic Irish
+names.
+
+One would scarcely expect to find an Irishman in the old Dutch
+settlement of Beverwyck as early as 1645. Yet such is the case, for
+"Jan Andriessen, de Iersman van Dublingh"--(John Anderson, the
+Irishman from Dublin)--is mentioned as the owner of considerable
+landed property in the neighborhood of Albany and Catskill, and in
+every mention of this ancient pioneer he is referred to as "the
+Irishman." At Albany, between 1666 and 1690, we find people named
+Connell, Daly, Larkin, Shaw, Hogan, and Finn, all Irishmen, and in
+Jonathan Pearson's "Genealogies of the First Settlers of the Ancient
+County of Albany" and in his "Genealogies of the First Settlers of
+the Patent and City of Schenectady", I find 135 distinctive Irish
+names. These were mostly merchants, farmers, artisans, millers, and
+backwoodsmen, the pioneers, who, with their Dutch neighbors, blazed
+the trail of civilization through that section, rolled back the
+savage redman, and marked along the banks of the Hudson and Mohawk
+rivers the sites of future towns and cities. In the rate lists of
+Long Island between 1638 and 1675, I find Kelly, Dalton, Whelan,
+Condon, Barry, Powers, Quin, Kane, Sweeney, Murphy, Reilly, as well
+as Norman-Irish and Anglo-Irish names that are common to Irish
+nomenclature. Hugh O'Neale was a prominent resident of Newtown, L.I.,
+in 1655. In a "Report to the Lord President," dated September 6,
+1687, Governor Dongan recommended "that natives of Ireland be sent to
+colonize here where they may live and be very happy." Numbers of them
+evidently accepted the invitation, for many Irishmen are mentioned in
+the public documents of the Province during the succeeding twenty
+years.
+
+That the Irish continued to settle in the Province all through the
+eighteenth century may be seen from the announcements in the New York
+newspapers of the time and other authentic records. The most
+important of these, in point of numbers and character of the
+immigrants, were those made in Orange County in 1729 under the
+leadership of James Clinton from Longford, and at Cherry Valley, in
+Otsego County, twelve years later. On the Orange County assessment
+and Revolutionary rolls, and down to the year 1800, there is a very
+large number of Irish names, and in some sections they constituted
+nearly the entire population. In the northwestern part of New York,
+Irishmen are also found about the time of the Franco-English war.
+They were not only among those settlers who followed the peaceful
+pursuits of tilling and building, but they were "the men behind the
+guns" who held the marauding Indians in check and repelled the
+advances of the French through that territory. In this war, Irish
+soldiers fought on both sides, and in the "Journals of the Marquis of
+Montcalm" may be seen references to the English garrison at Oswego,
+which, in August, 1756, surrendered to that same Irish Brigade by
+which they had been defeated eleven years before on the battlefield
+of Fontenoy. In the "Manuscripts of Sir William Johnson", are also
+found some interesting items indicating that Irishmen were active
+participants in the frontier fighting about that time, and in one
+report to him, dated May 28, 1756, from the commandant of an English
+regiment, reference is made to "the great numbers of Irish Papists
+among the Delaware and Susquehanna Indians who have done a world of
+prejudice to English interests."
+
+The early records, with hardly an exception, contain Irish names,
+showing that the "Exiles from Erin" came to the Province of New York
+in considerable numbers during the eighteenth century. The baptismal
+and marriage records of the Dutch Reformed and Protestant churches of
+New York City; of the Dutch churches at Kingston, Albany,
+Schenectady, and other towns; the muster rolls of the troops enrolled
+for the French, Indian, and Revolutionary wars; the Land Grants and
+other provincial records at Albany; the newspapers; the Town, County,
+and family histories, and other early chronicles, supplemented by
+authoritative publications such as those of the New York Historical
+and Genealogical and Biographical Societies--these are the
+depositories of the evidence that thousands of Irish people settled
+in the Province of New York and constituted no inconsiderable
+proportion of the total population.
+
+The majority of the Irish residents of New York whose marriages are
+recorded in the Dutch Reformed church were, doubtless, of the
+Catholic faith, but, as it was necessary to comply with the
+established law, and also so that their offspring might be
+legitimate, they could be bound in wedlock only by a recognized
+Minister of the Gospel. As there was no Catholic church in New York
+prior to 1786, the ceremony had to be performed in the Dutch Reformed
+or Protestant church. Many of these Catholics were refugees from
+Ireland on account of the religious persecutions. Like the people of
+Ireland in all ages, they were devoted to their religion, and while,
+no doubt, they eschewed for a while association with the established
+churches, yet, as time went on, they and their children were
+gradually drawn into religious intercourse with the other sects,
+until eventually they became regular communicants of those churches.
+The variations which from time to time were wrought in their names
+brought them further and further away from what they had been; in
+their new surroundings, both social and religious, they themselves
+changed, so that their children, who in many cases married into the
+neighboring Dutch and French families, became as wholly un-Irish in
+manner and sentiment as if they had sprung from an entirely different
+race. That fact, however, does not admit of their being now included
+in the category "Anglo-Saxon."
+
+In a work entitled "Names of Persons for whom Marriage Licenses were
+issued by the Secretary of the Province of New York, previous to
+1784," compiled by Gideon J. Tucker (when Secretary of State), and
+taken from the early records of the office of the Secretary of State
+at Albany, we find ample corroboration of the church records. Page
+after page of this book looks more like some record of the Province
+of Munster than of the Province of New York. It is a quarto volume
+printed in small type in double columns, and there are eleven pages
+wholly devoted to persons whose names commence with "Mac" and three
+to the "O's." Nearly every name common to Ireland is here
+represented.
+
+New York, as a Province and as a State, is much indebted to Irish
+genius. Ireland gave the Province its most noted governor in the
+person of Thomas Dongan from Co. Kildare, and in later years Sir
+William Johnson from Co. Meath, governor of the Indians from New York
+to the Mississippi. It gave the State its first governor, George
+Clinton, son of an immigrant from Co. Longford, and to the city its
+first mayor after the Revolution, James Duane, son of Anthony Duane
+from Co. Galway. Fulton, an Irishman's son, gave America priority in
+the "conquest of the seas." Christopher Colles, a native of Cork, was
+the originator of the grand scheme which united the waters of the
+Atlantic and the Lakes--one of the greatest works of internal
+improvement ever effected in the United States--while the gigantic
+project was carried to a successful end through the influence and
+direction of Governor DeWitt Clinton, the grandson of an Irishman.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Many of the pioneer settlers of New Jersey were Irish. As early as
+1683 "a colony from Tipperary in Ireland" located at Cohansey in
+Salem County, and in the same year a number of settlers, also
+described as "from Tipperary, Ireland," located in Monmouth County.
+In the County records of New Jersey, Irish names are met with
+frequently between the years 1676 and 1698. Several of the local
+historians testify to the presence and influence of Irishmen in the
+early days of the colony, and in the voluminous "New Jersey Archives"
+may be found references to the large numbers of Irish
+"redemptioners," some of whom, after their terms of service had
+expired, received grants of land and in time became prosperous
+farmers and merchants. Perhaps the most noted Irishman in New Jersey
+in colonial days was Michael Kearney, a native of Cork and ancestor
+of General Philip Kearney of Civil War fame, who was secretary and
+treasurer of the Province in 1723.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+All through the west and southwest, Irishmen are found in the
+earliest days of authentic history. Along the Ohio, Kentucky, Wabash,
+and Tennessee rivers they were with the pioneers who first trod the
+wilderness of that vast territory. As early as 1690, an Irish trader
+named Doherty crossed the mountains into what is now Kentucky, and we
+are told by Filson, the noted French historian and explorer of
+Kentucky, that "the first white man who discovered this region"
+(1754) was one James McBride, who, in all probability, was an
+Irishman. The first white child born in Cincinnati was a son of an
+Irish settler named John Cummins; the first house built on its site
+was erected by Captain Hugh McGarry, while "the McGarrys, Dentons,
+and Hogans formed the first domestic circle in Kentucky." Prior to
+the Revolution, Indian traders from Western Pennsylvania had
+penetrated into this region, and we learn from authentic sources that
+no small percentage of those itinerant merchants of the west were
+Irishmen. Among the leading and earliest colonists of the "Blue Grass
+State" who accompanied Daniel Boone, the ubiquitous Irish were
+represented by men bearing such names as Mooney, McManus, Sullivan,
+Drennon, Logan, Casey, Fitzpatrick, Dunlevy, Cassidy, Doran,
+Dougherty, Lynch, Ryan, McNeill, McGee, Reilly, Flinn, and the noted
+McAfee brothers, all natives of Ireland or sons of Irish immigrants.
+
+Irishmen and their sons figured prominently in the field of early
+western politics. In the Kentucky legislature, I find such names as
+Connor, Cassidy, Cleary, Conway, Casey, Cavan, Dulin, Dougherty,
+Geohegan, Maher, Morrison, Moran, McMahon, McFall, McClanahan,
+O'Bannon, Powers, and a number of others evidently of Irish origin.
+On the bench we find O'Hara, Boyle, and Barry. Among the many
+distinguished men who reflected honor upon the west, Judge William T.
+Barry of Lexington ranks high for great ability and lofty virtues.
+Simon Kenton, famed in song and story, who "battled with the Indians
+in a hundred encounters and wrested Kentucky from the savage," was an
+Irishman's son, while among its famous Indian fighters were Colonels
+Andrew Hynes, William Casey, and John O'Bannon; Majors Bulger,
+McMullin, McGarry, McBride, Butler, and Cassidy; and Captains
+McMahon, Malarkie, Doyle, Phelon, and Brady. Allen, Butler, Campbell,
+Montgomery, and Rowan counties, Ky., are named after natives of
+Ireland, and Boyle, Breckinridge, Carroll, Casey, Daviess, Magoffin,
+Kenton, McCracken, Meade, Menifee, Clinton, and Fulton counties were
+named in honor of descendants of Irish settlers.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In the councils of the first territorial legislature of Missouri were
+Sullivan, Cassidy, Murphy, McDermid, McGrady, Flaugherty, McGuire,
+Dunn, and Hogan, and among the merchants, lawyers, and bankers in the
+pioneer days of St. Louis there were a number of Irishmen, the most
+noted of whom were Mullanphy, Gilhuly, O'Fallon, Connor, O'Hara,
+Dillon, Ranken, Magennis, and Walsh. In all early histories of
+Missouri towns and counties, Irish names are mentioned, and in many
+instances they are on record as "the first settlers."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+And so it was all through the west. In Ohio, Indiana, Iowa, and
+Illinois, across the rolling prairies and the mountains, beyond the
+Mississippi and the Missouri, in the earliest days of colonization of
+that vast territory, we can follow the Irish "trek" in quest of new
+homes and fortunes. They were part of that irresistible human current
+that swept beyond the ranges of Colorado and Kansas and across the
+Sierra Nevada until it reached the Pacific, and in the forefront of
+those pathfinders and pioneers we find Martin Murphy, the first to
+open a wagon trail to California from the East. The names of Don
+Timoteo Murphy, of Jasper O'Farrell, of Dolans, Burkes, Breens, and
+Hallorins are linked with the annals of the coast while that
+territory was still under Spanish rule, and when Fremont crossed the
+plains and planted the "Bear flag" beyond the Sierras, we find
+Irishmen among his trusted lieutenants. An Irishman, Captain Patrick
+Connor, first penetrated the wilderness of Utah; a descendant of an
+Irishman, Hall J. Kelly, was the explorer of Oregon; Philip Nolan and
+Thomas O'Connor were foremost among those brave spirits "whose daring
+and persistency finally added the Lone Star State to the American
+Union"; and the famous Arctic explorer, scientist, and scholar, Dr.
+Elisha Kent Kane, was a descendant of John O'Kane who came from
+Ireland to the Province of New York in 1752.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+To form any reliable estimate of the numerical strength of the Irish
+and their descendants in the United States would, I believe, be a
+hopeless task, and while several have attempted to do so, I am of the
+opinion that all such estimates should be discarded as mere
+conjecture. Indeed, there is no standard, or fixed rule or principle,
+by which a correct judgment of the racial composition of the early
+inhabitants of the United States can now be formed, and the available
+statistics on the subject are incomplete and confusing. The greatest
+obstacle in determining this question is found in the names of the
+immigrants themselves. With names such as Smith, Mason, Carpenter,
+and Taylor; White, Brown, Black, and Gray; Forrest, Wood, Mountain,
+and Vail, and other names that are similarly derived, the first
+thought is that they are of English origin. Yet we know that for
+centuries past such names have been numerous in Ireland, and there
+are many Irish families so named who are of as pure Celtic blood as
+any bearing the old Gaelic patronymics. By a law passed in the second
+year of the reign of Edward IV., natives of Ireland were forced to
+adopt English surnames. This Act was, substantially, as follows: "An
+Act that Irishmen dwelling in the Counties of, etc.... shall go
+appareled like Englishmen and wear their beards in English manner,
+swear allegiance and take English sirnames, which sirnames shall be
+of one towne, as Sutton, Chester, Trim, Skryne, Cork, Kinsale; or
+colours, as white, black, brown; or arts, or sciences, as smith or
+carpenter; or office, as cook, butler, etc., and it is enacted that
+he and his issue shall use his name under pain of forfeyting of his
+goods yearly", etc.
+
+This Act could be enforced only upon those Irish families who dwelt
+within the reach of English law, and as emigrants from those
+districts, deprived of their pure Celtic names, came to America in an
+English guise and in English vessels, they were officially recorded
+as "English." Moreover, numbers of Irish frequently crossed the
+channel and began their voyage from English ports, where they had to
+take on new names, sometimes arbitrarily, and sometimes voluntarily
+for purposes of concealment, either by transforming their original
+names into English or adopting names similar to those above referred
+to. These names were generally retained on this side of the Atlantic
+so as not to arouse the prejudice of their English neighbors. In
+complying with the statute above quoted, some Irish families accepted
+the rather doubtful privilege of translating their names into their
+English equivalents. We have examples of this in such names as
+Somers, anglicised from McGauran (presumably derived from the Gaelic
+word signifying "summer"); Smith from McGowan (meaning "the son of
+the smith"); Jackson and Johnson, a literal translation from MacShane
+(meaning "the son of John"); and Whitcomb from Kiernan (meaning,
+literally, "a white comb").
+
+In addition to this, in the case of some of those Irish immigrants
+whose family names were not changed in Ireland, their descendants
+appear in a much disguised form in the colonial records. Through the
+mistakes of clergymen, court clerks, registrars, and others who had
+difficulty in pronouncing Gaelic names, letters became inserted or
+dropped and the names were written down phonetically. In the
+mutations of time, even these names became still further changed, and
+we find that the descendants of the Irish themselves, after the lapse
+of a generation or two, deliberately changed their names, usually by
+suppressing the Milesian prefixes, "Mac" and "O". Thus we have the
+Laflin and Claflin families, who are descended from a McLaughlin, an
+Irish settler in Massachusetts in the seventeenth century; the Bryans
+from William O'Brian, a captain in Sarsfield's army, who, after the
+fall of Limerick in 1691, settled in Pasquetank County, N.C., and one
+of whose descendants is William Jennings Bryan, now Secretary of
+State; the Dunnels of Maine, from an O'Donnell who located in the
+Saco Valley; and at the Land Office at Annapolis I have found the
+descendants of Roger O'Dewe, who came to Maryland about 1665,
+recorded under the surnames of "Roger", "Dew", and "Dewey". I find
+Dennis O'Deeve or O'Deere written down on the Talbot County (Md.)
+records of the year 1667 with his name reversed, and today his
+descendants are known as "Dennis". Many such instances appear in the
+early records, and when we find a New England family rejoicing in the
+name of "Navillus" we know that the limit has been reached, and while
+we cannot admire the attempt to disguise an ancient and honorable
+name, we are amused at the obvious transposition of "Sullivan".
+
+Thus we see, that, numerous though the old Irish names are on
+American records, they do not by any means indicate the extent of the
+Celtic element which established itself in the colonies, so that
+there is really no means of determining exactly what Ireland has
+contributed to the American Commonwealth. We only know that a steady
+stream of Irish immigrants has crossed the seas to the American
+continent, beginning with the middle of the seventeenth century, and
+that many of those "Exiles from Erin", or their sons, became
+prominent as leaders in every station in life in the new country.
+
+Nor is the "First Census of the United States" any criterion in this
+regard, for the obvious reason that the enumerators made no returns
+of unmarried persons. This fact is important when we consider that
+the Irish exodus of the eighteenth century was largely comprised of
+the youth of the country. Although the First Census was made in 1790,
+the first regular record of immigration was not begun until thirty
+years later, and it is only from the records kept after that time
+that we can depend upon actual official figures. During the decade
+following 1820, Ireland contributed more than forty per cent, of the
+entire immigration to America from all European countries, and the
+Irish Emigration Statistics show that between 1830 and 1907 the
+number of people who left Ireland was 6,049,432, the majority of whom
+came to America. The _Westminster Review_ (vol. 133, p. 293), in an
+article on "The Irish-Americans", puts a series of questions as
+follows: "Is the American Republic in any way indebted to those Irish
+citizens? Have they with their large numbers, high social standing,
+great places of trust, contributed aught to her glory or added aught
+to her commercial greatness, refined her social taste or assisted in
+laying the foundations of the real happiness of her people, the real
+security of her laws, the influence of her civic virtues, which more
+than anything else give power and permanency to a naissant and mighty
+nation? The answer is unquestionably affirmative. We have only to
+look back on the past, and to scan the present state of American
+affairs, to feel certain of this." If it be further asked: "Does this
+statement stand the test of strict investigation?" the answer must
+also be in the affirmative, for in almost every line of progress the
+Irish in America have contributed their share of leaders and
+pioneers, thus proving that there are characteristics among even the
+poor Irish driven to emigration for an existence that are as capable
+of development as those possessed by any other race. When we scan the
+intellectual horizon, we see many men of great force of character:
+preachers and teachers; statesmen and scholars; philanthropists and
+founders of institutions; scientists and engineers; historians and
+journalists; artists and authors; lawyers and doctors, of Celtic race
+and blood, while, in the industrial field, as builders of steamships
+and railroads and promoters of public works, as merchants,
+manufacturers, and bankers, and in all other fields of endeavor, we
+find the American Irish controlling factors in the upbuilding of the
+Republic.
+
+Of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, Thornton, Taylor,
+and Smith were natives of Ireland; McKean, Read, and Rutledge were of
+Irish parentage; Lynch and Carroll were grandsons of Irishmen;
+Whipple and Hancock were of Irish descent on the maternal side; and
+O'Hart (_Irish Pedigrees_) declares that Robert Treat Paine was a
+great-grandson of Henry O'Neill, hereditary prince of Ulster, who
+"changed his name to that of one of his maternal ancestors so as to
+save his estates". It was an Irishman who first read the immortal
+Document to the public; an Irishman first printed it; and an Irishman
+published it for the first time with facsimiles of the signatures.
+
+At least six American Presidents had more or less of the Celtic
+strain. President Jackson, whose parents came from Co. Down, more
+than once expressed his pride in his Irish ancestry. Arthur's parents
+were from Antrim, Buchanan's from Donegal, and McKinley's
+grandparents came from the same vicinity. Theodore Roosevelt boasts
+among his ancestors two direct lines from Ireland, and the first
+American ancestor of President Polk was a Pollock from Donegal. The
+present occupant of the White House, Woodrow Wilson, is also of Irish
+descent. Among the distinguished Vice-Presidents of the United States
+were George Clinton and John C. Calhoun, sons of immigrants from
+Longford and Donegal respectively, and Calhoun's successor as
+chairman of the committee on foreign relations was John Smilie, a
+native of Newtownards, Co. Down.
+
+Among American governors since 1800, we find such names as Barry,
+Brady, Butler, Carroll, Clinton, Conway, Carney, Connolly, Curtin,
+Collins, Donaghey, Downey, Early, Fitzpatrick, Flannegan, Geary,
+Gorman, Hannegan, Kavanagh, Kearney, Logan, Lynch, Murphy, Moore,
+McKinley, McGill, Meagher, McGrath, Mahone, McCormick, O'Neal,
+O'Ferrall, Orr, Roane, Filey, Sullivan, Sharkey, Smith, Talbot, and
+Welsh, all of Irish descent. Today we have as governors of States,
+Glynn in New York, Dunne in Illinois, Walsh in Massachusetts, O'Neal
+in Alabama, Burke in North Carolina, Carey in Wyoming, McGovern in
+Wisconsin, McCreary in Kentucky, and Tener in Pennsylvania, and not
+alone is the governor of the last-mentioned State a native of
+Ireland, but so also are its junior United States Senator, the
+secretary of the Commonwealth, and its adjutant-general.
+
+In the political life of America, many of the sons of Ireland have
+risen to eminence, and in the legislative halls at the National
+Capital, the names of Kelly, Fitzpatrick, Broderick, Casserly,
+Farley, Logan, Harlan, Hannegan, Adair, Barry, Rowan, Gorman,
+Kennedy, Lyon, Fitzgerald, Fair, Sewall, Kernan, Butler, Moore,
+Regan, Mahone, Walsh, and Flannegan, are still spoken of with respect
+among the lawmakers of the nation. William Darrah Kelly served in
+Congress for fifty years, and it remained for James Shields to hold
+the unique distinction of representing three different States, at
+different times, in the Senate of the United States. Senator Shields
+was a native of Co. Tyrone.
+
+In the judiciary have been many shining lights of Irish origin. The
+Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court is Edward D. White,
+grandson of a '98 rebel, and one of his ablest associates is Joseph
+McKenna. No more erudite or profound lawyer than Charles O'Conor has
+adorned his profession and it can be said with truth that his career
+has remained unrivalled in American history. James T. Brady, Daniel
+Dougherty, Thomas Addis Emmet, and Charles O'Neill were among the
+most eminent lawyers America has known, while the names of Dennis
+O'Brien, Chief Justice of the New York Court of Appeals, John D.
+O'Neill, who occupied a like elevated place on the bench of South
+Carolina, John D. Phelan of the Alabama Supreme Court, Richard
+O'Gorman, Charles P. Daly, Hugh Rutledge, Morgan J. O'Brien, and
+others of like origin, are household words in the legal annals of
+America. There is no State in the Union where an Irish-American
+lawyer has not distinguished himself.
+
+The history of medicine in the United States is adorned with the
+names of many physicians of Irish birth or blood. Several Irish
+surgeons rendered valuable services in the army of the Revolution,
+among whom are found Drs. McDonough, McHenry, McCloskey, McCalla,
+Burke, Irvine, and Williamson. Dr. John Cochran was appointed by
+Washington surgeon-general of the army. Dr. James Lynah of
+Charleston, a native of Ireland, became surgeon-general of South
+Carolina in recognition of his valuable services to the patriot army.
+Dr. John McKinley, a native of Ireland, who was a famous physician in
+his day, became the first governor of Delaware. Dr. Ephraim McDowell
+is known in the profession as the "Father of Ovariotomy", as is Dr.
+William J. McNevin the "Father of American Chemistry". Dr. John Byrne
+of New York had a world-wide fame, and his papers on gynecology have
+been pronounced by the medical press as "the best printed in any
+language". One of the most conspicuous figures in medicine in the
+United States was Dr. Jerome Cochran of Alabama. Drs. Junius F. Lynch
+of Florida; Charles McCreery of Kentucky; Hugh McGuire and Hunter
+McGuire of Virginia; Matthew C. McGannon of Tennessee; and James
+Lynch, Charles J. O'Hagan, and James McBride of South Carolina are
+mentioned prominently in the histories of their respective localities
+as the foremost medical men of their times, while in Wisconsin the
+pioneer physician was Dr. William H. Fox, and in Oregon, Dr. John
+McLoughlin. Among New York physicians who achieved high reputations
+in their profession were Drs. Thomas Addis Emmet, Frank A. McGuire,
+Daniel E. O'Neill, Charles McBurney, Isaac H. Reiley, Alfred L.
+Carroll, Howard A. Kelly, Joseph O'Dwyer, and James J. Walsh. These
+and many others of Irish descent have been honored by medical
+societies as leaders and specialists, while it can be said that no
+surgeon of the present day has achieved such a world-wide reputation
+as Dr. John B. Murphy of Chicago. Among experts in medico-legal
+science, the names of Drs. Benjamin W. McCreedy and William J.
+O'Sullivan of New York stand out prominently, and among the most
+noted contributors to medical journals in the United States, and
+recognized as men of great professional skill and authorities in
+their respective specialties, have been Drs. F.D. Mooney of St.
+Louis; Thomas Fitzgibbon of Milwaukee; John D. Hanrahan of Rutland;
+James McCann and James H. McClelland of Pittsburgh; John A. Murphy
+and John McCurdy of Cincinnati; John Keating of Philadelphia; John H.
+Murphy of St. Paul; John W.C. O'Neal of Gettysburg; and Arthur
+O'Neill of Meadville, Pa. Indeed, it can be said that American
+medical science owes an incalculable debt to Irish genius.
+
+Theodore Vail, the presiding genius of the greatest telephone system
+in the world, is Irish, and so is Carty, its chief engineer. Morse,
+the inventor of the telegraph, was the grandson of an Irishman; Henry
+O'Reilly built the first telegraph line in the United States; and
+John W. Mackey was the president of the Commercial Cable Company.
+John P. Holland, the inventor of the submarine torpedo boat, was a
+native of Co. Clare; and McCormick, the inventor of the reaping and
+mowing machine, was an Irishman's grandson.
+
+Sons of Irishmen have stood in the front rank of American statesmen
+and diplomats who represented their country abroad. To mention but a
+few: Richard O'Brien, appointed by Jefferson American representative
+at Algiers; James Kavanagh, Minister to Portugal; and Louis McLane,
+Minister to England in 1829 and afterwards Secretary of State in
+1832. In recent years, an O'Brien has represented American interests
+in Italy and Japan; a Kerens in Austria; an Egan in Chili and another
+of the same name in Denmark; an O'Shaughnessy in Mexico; a Sullivan
+in Santo Domingo; and an O'Rear in Bolivia.
+
+Among historians were John Gilmary Shea, author of numerous
+historical works; Dr. Robert Walsh, a learned historian and
+journalist of the last century, whose literary labors were extensive;
+McMahon and McSherry, historians of Maryland; Burk, of Virginia;
+O'Callaghan, Hastings, and Murphy of New York; Ramsay of South
+Carolina; and Williamson of North Carolina, all native Irishmen or
+sons of Irish immigrants.
+
+In the field of American journalism have been many able and forcible
+writers of Irish birth or descent. Hugh Gaine, a Belfast man, founded
+the New York _Mercury_ in 1775. John Dunlap founded the first daily
+paper in Philadelphia, John Daly Burk published the first daily paper
+in Boston, and William Duane edited the _Aurora_ of Philadelphia in
+1795. All these were born in Ireland. William Coleman, founder of the
+New York _Evening Post_ in 1801, was the son of an Irish rebel of
+1798; Thomas Fitzgerald founded the Philadelphia _Item_; Thomas Gill,
+the New York _Evening Star_; Patrick Walsh, the Augusta _Chronicle_;
+Joseph Medill, the Chicago _Tribune_. Henry W. Grady edited the
+Atlanta _Constitution_; Michael Dee edited the Detroit _Evening News_
+for nearly fifty years; Richard Smith, the Cincinnati _Gazette_;
+Edward L. Godkin, the New York _Evening Post_; William Laffan, the
+New York _Sun_; and Horace Greeley, the New York _Tribune_. All of
+these were either natives of Ireland or sprung from immigrant
+Irishmen, as were Oliver of the Pittsburgh _Gazette_, O'Neill of the
+Pittsburgh _Despatch_, John Keating of Memphis, William D. O'Connor,
+and many other shining lights of American journalism during the last
+century. Fitz James O'Brien was "a bright, particular star" in the
+journalistic firmament; John MacGahan achieved fame as a war
+correspondent; Patrick Barry of Rochester, an extensive writer on
+horticultural and kindred subjects, was the recognized leader of his
+craft in the United States; and William Darby, son of Patrick and
+Mary Darby, and Michael Twomey were the ablest American geographers
+and writers on abstruse scientific subjects.
+
+In the field of poetry, we have had Theodore O'Hara, the author of
+that immortal poem, "The Bivouac of the Dead"; John Boyle O'Reilly;
+Thomas Dunn English, author of "Ben Bolt"; Father Abram Ryan, "the
+poet priest of the South"; James Whitcomb Riley; Eleanor Donnelly;
+M.F. Egan; T.A. Daly; and Joseph I.C. Clarke, president of the
+American Irish Historical Society.
+
+To recount the successful men of affairs of Irish origin it would be
+necessary to mention every branch of business and every profession.
+Recalling but a few, Daniel O'Day, Patrick Farrelly, John and William
+O'Brien, Alexander T. Stewart, John Castree, Joseph J. O'Donohue,
+William R. Grace, John McConville, Hugh O'Neill, Alexander E. Orr,
+William Constable, Daniel McCormick, and Dominick Lynch, all of New
+York, were dominant figures in the world of business. Thomas Mellon
+of Pittsburgh; John R. Walsh and the Cudahy brothers of Chicago;
+James Phelan, Peter Donahue, Joseph A. Donohoe, and John Sullivan of
+San Francisco; William A. Clark and Marcus Daly of Montana; George
+Meade, the Meases and the Nesbits, Thomas FitzSimmons and Thomas
+Dolan of Philadelphia; Columbus O'Donnell and Luke Tiernan of
+Baltimore, all these have been leading merchants in their day. Few
+American financiers occupy a more conspicuous place than Thomas F.
+Ryan, and no great industrial leader has reached the pinnacle of
+success upon which stands the commanding figure of James J. Hill,
+both sons of Irishmen. The names of Anthony N. Brady, Eugene Kelly,
+James S. Stranahan, and James A. Farrell, president of the United
+States Steel Corporation, are household words in business and
+financial circles.
+
+John Keating, the first paper manufacturer in New York (1775); Thomas
+Faye, the first to manufacture wall-paper by machinery, who won for
+this distinction the first gold medal of the American Institute; John
+and Edward McLoughlin of New York, for many years the leading
+publishers of illustrated books; and John Banigan of Providence, one
+of the largest manufacturers of rubber goods in America, were natives
+of Ireland. John O'Fallon and Bryan Mullanphy of St. Louis, and John
+McDonough of Baltimore, who amassed great wealth as merchants, were
+large contributors to charitable and educational institutions;
+William W. Corcoran, whose name is enshrined in the famous Art
+Gallery at Washington, contributed during his lifetime over five
+million dollars to various philanthropic institutions; and one of the
+most noted philanthropists in American history, and the first woman
+in America to whom a public monument was erected, was an Irishwoman,
+Margaret Haughery of New Orleans.
+
+Irishmen have shown a remarkable aptitude for the handling of large
+contracts, and in this field have been prominent John H. O'Rourke,
+James D. Leary, James Coleman, Oliver Byrne, and John D. Crimmins in
+New York; John B. McDonald, the builder of New York's subways; George
+Law, projector and promoter of public works, steamship and railroad
+builder; and John Roach, the famous ship-builder of Chester, Pa. John
+Sullivan, a noted American engineer one hundred years ago, completed
+the Middlesex Canal; and John McL. Murphy, whose ability as a
+constructing engineer was universally recognized, rendered valuable
+service to the United States during the Civil War. Among pioneer
+ship-builders in America are noted Patrick Tracy fron Wexford and
+Simon Forrester from Cork, who were both at Salem, Mass., during the
+period of the Revolution and rendered most valuable service to the
+patriot cause; and the O'Briens, Kavanaghs, and Sewalls in Maine.
+
+But it is not in the material things of life alone that the Irish
+have been in the van. Thousands of Americans have been charmed by the
+operas of Victor Herbert, a grandson of Samuel Lover, and with lovers
+of music the strains of Patrick Sarsfield Gilmore's band still linger
+as a pleasant memory. Edward A. MacDowell, America's most famous
+composer, was of Irish descent. The colossal statute of "America" on
+the dome of the National Capitol was executed by Thomas Crawford, who
+was born in New York of Irish parents in 1814; Henry Inman, one of
+the very best of portrait painters, was also born in New York of
+Irish parents; John Singleton Copley, the distinguished artist, came
+to Boston from Co. Clare in 1736; Thompson, the sculptor, was born in
+Queen's Co.; another noted sculptor was William D. O'Donovan of
+Virginia; and Augustus Saint Gaudens, one of the greatest sculptors
+of modern times, was born in Dublin. Other sculptors of Irish race
+have been elsewhere mentioned. Among America's most talented artists
+and portrait painters may be mentioned George P. Healy, William J.
+Hennessy, Thomas Moran, Henry Pelham, Henry Murray, John Neagle, and
+William Magrath, all of Irish birth or descent.
+
+Ireland has given many eminent churchmen to the United States. The
+three American Cardinals, Gibbons, Farley, and O'Connell, stand out
+prominently, as do Archbishops Carroll, Hughes, McCloskey, Kenrick,
+Ryan, Ireland, Glennon, Corrigan, and Keane, all of whom have shed
+lustre on the Church. History has given to an Irishman, Francis
+Makemie of Donegal, the credit of founding Presbyterianism in
+America, while among noted Presbyterian divines of Irish birth were
+James Waddell, known as "the blind preacher of the wilderness,"
+Thomas Smyth, John Hall, Francis Allison, William Tennant, and James
+McGrady, all men of great ability and influence in their day. Samuel
+Finley, President of Princeton College in 1761, was a native of
+Armagh, and John Blair Smith, famous as a preacher throughout the
+Shenandoah Valley and the first president of Union College (1795),
+was of Irish descent. Among the pioneer preachers of the western
+wilderness were McMahon, Dougherty, Quinn, Burke, O'Cool, Delaney,
+McGee, and many others of Irish origin.
+
+Irishmen and their sons have founded American towns and cities, and
+the capital of the State of Colorado takes its name from General
+James Denver, son of Patrick Denver, an emigrant from county Down in
+the year 1795. Sixty-five places in the United States are named after
+people bearing the Irish prefix "O" and upwards of 1000 after the
+"Macs", and there are 253 counties of the United States and
+approximately 7000 places called by Irish family or place names.
+There are 24 Dublins, 21 Waterfords, 18 Belfasts, 16 Tyrones, 10
+Limericks, 9 Antrims, 8 Sligos, 7 Derrys, 6 Corks, 5 Kildares, and so
+on.
+
+Immigrant Irishmen have also been the founders of prominent American
+families. One of the most ancient of Irish patronymics, McCarthy, is
+found in the records of Virginia as early as 1635 and in
+Massachusetts in 1675, and all down through the successive
+generations descendants of this sept were among the leading families
+of the communities where they located. In Virginia, the McCormick,
+Meade, Lewis, Preston, and Lynch families; in the Carolinas, the
+Canteys, Nealls, Bryans, and Butlers; and in Maryland, the Carrolls
+and Dulanys are all descended from successful Irish colonizers.
+
+Even from this very incomplete summary, we can see that Irish blood,
+brain, and brawn have been a valuable acquisition to the building of
+the fabric of American institutions, and that the sons of Ireland
+merit more prominent recognition than has been accorded them in the
+pages of American history. The pharisees of history may have withheld
+from Ireland the credit that is her due, but, thanks to the
+never-failing guidance of the records, we are able to show that at
+all times, whether they came as voluntary exiles or were driven from
+their homes by the persecutions of government, her sons have had an
+honorable part in every upward movement in American life. Testimony
+adduced from the sources from which this imperfect sketch is drawn
+cannot be called into question, and its perusal by those who so
+amusingly glorify the "Anglo-Saxon" as the founder of the American
+race and American institutions would have a chastening influence on
+their ignorance of early American history, and would reopen the long
+vista of the years, at the very beginning of which they would see
+Celt and Teuton, Saxon and Gaul, working side by side solidifying the
+fulcrum of the structure on which this great nation rests.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+The archives, registers, records, reports, and other official
+documents mentioned in the text; the various Town, County, and State
+Histories; the collections and publications of the following
+societies: Massachusetts Historical Society, Genealogical Society of
+Pennsylvania, New York Historical Society (34 vols.), New York
+Genealogical and Biographical Society (44 vols.), Maine Historical
+Society, Rhode Island Historical Society, Connecticut Historical
+Society, South Carolina Historical Society, and American Historical
+Society; New England Historical and Genealogical Register (67 vols.,
+Boston, 1847-1913); New England Historical and Biographical Record;
+Hakluyt: Voyages, Navigations, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the
+English Nation (London, 1607); Dobbs: The Trade and Improvement of
+Ireland (Dublin, 1729); Hutchinson: History of Massachusetts from the
+First Settlement in 1628 until 1750 (Salem, 1795); Proud: History of
+Pennsylvania, 1681-1770 (Philadelphia, 1797-1798); Savage:
+Genealogical Dictionary of the First Settlers of New England (Boston,
+1860-1862); Morris (ed.): The Makers of New York (Philadelphia,
+1895); Pope: The Pioneers of Massachusetts (Boston, 1900), The
+Pioneers of Maine and New Hampshire (Boston, 1908); Richardson:
+Side-lights on Maryland History (Baltimore, 1913); Spencer: History
+of the United States; Ramsay: History of the United States;
+Prendergast: Cromwellian Settlement of Ireland.
+
+
+
+THE IRISH IN CANADA
+
+By JAMES J. WALSH, M.D., Ph.D., Litt.D., Sc.D.
+
+
+When Wolfe captured Quebec and Canada came under British rule, some
+of the best known of his officers and several of his men were Irish.
+After the Peace was signed many of them settled in Canada, not a few
+of them marrying French wives, and as a consequence there are
+numerous Irish, Scotch, and English names among the French speaking
+inhabitants of Lower Canada. Two of Wolfe's officers, Colonel Guy
+Carleton, born at Strabane in the county Tyrone, and General Richard
+Montgomery, born only seven miles away at Convoy, in the same county,
+were destined to play an important role in the future history of
+Canada. Montgomery was in command of the Revolutionary Army from the
+Colonies, when it attempted to take Quebec, and Carleton, who had
+been a trusted friend of General Wolfe, was in command of the
+Canadian forces. The two men were the lives of their respective
+commands, and with the death of Montgomery Carleton's victory was
+assured.  Carleton was made Governor-in-Chief of Canada, and during
+the trying years of the early British rule of New France and the
+American Revolution, his tact did more than anything else to save
+Canada for the British. Bibaud, the French historian, says, "the man
+to whom the administration of the government was entrusted had known
+how to make the Canadians love him, and this contributed not a little
+to retain at least within the bounds of neutrality those among them
+who might have been able, or who believed themselves able, to
+ameliorate their lot by making common cause with the insurgent
+colonies." Shortly after being made governor, Carleton went to
+England and secured the passage of the Quebec Act through the English
+parliament, which gave the Canadian French assurance that they were
+to be ruled without oppression by the British Government.
+Subsequently, in 1786, Carleton, as Lord Dorchester, became the first
+governor-general of Canada, being given jurisdiction over Nova Scotia
+and New Brunswick as well as Upper and Lower Canada, and to him more
+than to any other is due the early loyalty to the British crown in
+the Dominion.
+
+After the army the next important source of Irish population in
+Canada were the loyalists who after the Revolution removed from the
+United States to the British Dominions in America. There were
+probably many thousands of them, more than enough to make up for the
+French who left Canada for France when the territory passed over to
+England. Among the Irish loyalists who went to Canada was the Rev.
+John Stuart, who had become very well known as a missionary in the
+Mohawk Valley before the Revolution, and who, though born a
+Presbyterian, was destined to win the title of the "Father of the
+Church of England in Upper Canada." When the first Canadian
+parliament met in December 1792, Edward O'Hara was returned for
+Gaspé, in Lower Canada, and D'Arcy McGee could boast that
+henceforward Lower Canada was never without an Irish representative
+in its legislative councils.
+
+When the question of settling Upper Canada with British colonists
+came up, Colonel Talbot, a county Dublin man, was the most important
+factor. He obtained a large grant of land near what is now London and
+attracted settlers into what was at that time a wilderness. The tract
+settled under his superintendence now comprises twenty-nine townships
+in the most prosperous part of Canada.
+
+The maritime Provinces had been under British rule before the fall of
+Quebec and contained a large element of Irish population. In
+Newfoundland in 1753 out of a total population of some thirteen
+thousand, Davin says that there were nearly five thousand Catholics,
+chiefly Irish. In 1784 a great new stimulus to Irish immigration to
+Newfoundland was given by Father O'Connell, who in 1796 was made
+Catholic bishop of the island. Newfoundland, for its verdure, the
+absence of reptiles, and its Irish inhabitants, was called at this
+time "Transatlantic Ireland", and Bonnycastle says that more than one
+half of the population was Irish.
+
+In 1749 Governor Cornwallis brought some 4,000 disbanded soldiers to
+Nova Scotia and founded Halifax. Ten years later it was described as
+divided into Halifax proper, Irishtown or the southern, and Dutchtown
+or the northern, suburbs. The inhabitants numbered 3,000, one-third
+of whom were Irish. They were among the most prominent men of the
+city and province. In the Privy Council for 1789 were Thomas Corcoran
+and Charles Morris. Morris was president of the Irish Society and
+Matthew Cahill the sheriff of Halifax in that year. A large number of
+Irish from the north of Ireland settled in Nova Scotia in 1763,
+calling their settlement Londonderry. They provided a fortunate
+refuge for the large numbers of Irish Presbyterians who were expelled
+from New England by the intolerant Puritans the following year. They
+also welcomed many loyalists who came from New York and the New
+England States after the acknowledgment of the independence of the
+American Colonies by Great Britain. Between the more eastern settlers
+around Halifax and those in the interior, the greater part of the
+population of Nova Scotia was probably Irish in origin.
+
+It was in the Maritime Provinces that the first step in political
+emancipation for Catholics under British rule was made. In 1821
+Lawrence Cavanaugh, a Roman Catholic, was returned to the Assembly of
+the Province for Cape Breton. He would not subscribe to the
+declaration on Transubstantiation in the oath of office tendered him,
+and as a consequence was refused admittance to the Assembly. But he
+was elected again and again, and six years afterwards Judge
+Haliburton, better known by his _nom de plume_ of "Sam Slick", in an
+able speech, seconded the motion to dispense with the declaration,
+and Cavanaugh was permitted to take the oath without the declaration.
+
+The War of 1812 brought over from Ireland a number of Irish soldiers
+serving in the British army, many of whom after the war settled down
+and became inhabitants of the country. They were allotted farm lands
+and added much to Canada's prosperity. A type of their descendants
+was Sir William Hingston, whose father was at this time a lieutenant
+adjutant in the Royal 100th Regiment, "the Dublins." Sir William's
+father died when his son was a mere boy, but the lad supported his
+mother, worked his way through the medical school, saved enough money
+to give himself two years in Europe, and became a great surgeon. He
+was elected three times mayor of Montreal, serving one term with
+great prestige under the most trying circumstances. He afterwards
+became a senator of the Dominion and was knighted by Queen Victoria.
+
+Prince Edward Island was settled mainly by the Scotch and French, and
+yet many Irish names are to be found among its old families. It was
+ceded to Great Britain in 1763, and the first Governor appointed was
+Captain Walter Patterson, whose niece, Elizabeth Patterson, was
+married to Jerome Bonaparte in Baltimore in 1803. Captain Patterson
+was so ardent an Irishman that through his influence he had an act
+passed by the Assembly changing the name of the island to New
+Ireland, but the home Government refused to countenance the change.
+At this time the island was known as St. John's, and the name Prince
+Edward was given to it in honor of the Duke of Kent in 1789. One of
+the most popular governors of the island was Sir Dominick Daly,
+knighted while in office. He was a member of a well known Galway
+family, and first came to America as secretary to one of the
+governors. He afterwards became provincial secretary for Lower
+Canada.
+
+Canada suffered from the aftermath of the revolutions which took
+place in Europe during the early part of the nineteenth century. The
+year 1837 saw two revolutions, one in Upper, the other in Lower,
+Canada, though neither of them amounted to more than a flash in the
+pan. As might be expected, there were not a few Irish among the
+disaffected spirits who fostered these revolutions. Their experience
+at home led them to know how little oppressed people were likely to
+obtain from the British Government except by a demonstration of
+force. There were serious abuses, especially "the Family Compact",
+the lack of anything approaching constitutional guarantees in
+government, and political disabilities on the score of religion.
+However, most of the Irish in Canada were ranged on the side of the
+government. Sir Richard Bonnycastle, writing in 1846, said "The
+Catholic Irish who have been long settled in the country are by no
+means the worst subjects in this transatlantic realm, as I can
+personally testify, having had the command of large bodies of them
+during the border troubles of 1837-8. They are all loyal and true."
+Above all Bonnycastle pledged himself for the loyalty of the Irish
+Catholic priesthood.
+
+One of the Irishmen who came into prominence in the rebellions of
+1837 was Edmund Bailey O'Callaghan, the editor of the _Vindicator_,
+the newspaper by means of which Papineau succeeded in arousing much
+feeling among the people of Lower Canada and fomented the Revdlution.
+O'Callaghan escaped to the United States and settled at Albany, where
+he became the historian of New York State. To him, more than to any
+other, we owe the preservation of the historical materials out of
+which the early history of the State can be constructed. Rare volumes
+of the Jesuit Relations, to the value of which for historical
+purposes he had called special attention, were secured from his
+library for the Canadian library at Ottawa.
+
+Towards the middle of the nineteenth century, when the population of
+Ireland reached its highest point of over 8,000,000, the pressure on
+the people caused them to emigrate in large numbers, and then the
+famine came to drive out great crowds of those who survived. In
+proportion to its population Canada received a great many more of
+these Irish emigrants than did the United States. Unfortunately the
+conditions on board the emigrant sailing vessels in those days cost
+many lives. They were often becalmed and took months to cross the
+ocean. My grandmother coming in the thirties was ninety-three days in
+crossing, landing at Quebec after seven weeks on half rations, part
+of the time living on nothing but oatmeal and water. Ship fever, the
+dreaded typhus, broke out on her vessel as on so many others, and
+more than half the passengers perished. Many, many thousands of the
+Irish emigrants thus died on ship-board or shortly after landing. In
+1912, the Ancient Order of Hibernians erected near Quebec a monument
+to the victims. In spite of the untoward conditions, emigration
+continued unabated, and in 1875, in the population of Ontario,
+Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, it was calculated that the
+Irish numbered 846,414 as compared with 706,369 English and 549,946
+Scotch (Hatton, quoted by Davin in _The Irishman In Canada_).
+
+It had become clear that Canada would prosper more if united than in
+separate provinces jealous of each other. The first move in this
+direction came from the Maritime Provinces, where the Irish element
+was so much stronger than elsewhere, and when a conference of the
+leading statesmen of these Provinces was appointed to be held at
+Charlottetown, P.E.I., September 1864, representatives of Upper and
+Lower Canada asked to be allowed to be present to bring forward a
+plan for a Federation of all the British Provinces in North America.
+The British North America Act was passed, and received the royal
+assent, the queen appointing July 1, 1867 as the formal beginning of
+the Dominion of Canada.
+
+Among the men who were most prominent in bringing about federation
+and who came to be known as the Fathers of Confederation were several
+distinguished Irishmen. Thomas D'Arcy McGee was the best known and
+probably did more than any other Canadian to make the idea of
+confederation popular by his writings and speeches. He had come to
+Canada as a stranger, edited a newspaper in Montreal, and was elected
+to the Assembly after a brief residence, in spite of the opposition
+cries of "Irish adventurer" and "stranger from abroad," was
+subsequently elected four times by acclamation, and was Minister of
+Agriculture and Education and Canadian Commissioner to the Paris
+Exposition of 1867. His letters to the Earl of Mayo, pleading for the
+betterment of conditions in Ireland, were quoted by Gladstone during
+the Home Rule movement as "a prophetic voice from the dead coming
+from beyond the Atlantic."
+
+Another of the Fathers of Confederation was the Honorable Edward
+Whalen, born in the county Mayo, who as a young man went to Prince
+Edward Island, where he gained great influence as a popular
+journalist. He was an orator as well as an editor, and came to have
+the confidence of the people of the island, and hence was able to do
+very much for federation. A third of the Fathers of Confederation
+from the Maritime Provinces was the Honorable, afterwards Sir, Edward
+Kenny, who, when the first Cabinet of the New Dominion was formed,
+was offered and accepted one of the portfolios in recognition of the
+influence which he had wielded for Canadian union.
+
+At all times in the history of Canada the Catholic hierarchy has been
+looked up to as thoroughly conservative factors for the progress and
+development of the country. After the Irish immigration most of the
+higher ecclesiastics were Irish by birth or descent, and they all
+exerted a deep influence not only on their own people but on their
+city and province. One of the Fathers of Confederation was Archbishop
+Connolly, of Halifax, of whom the most distinguished Presbyterian
+clergyman of the Lower Provinces said the day after his death: "I
+feel that I have not only lost a friend, but as if Canada had lost a
+patriot; in all his big-hearted Irish fashion he was ever at heart,
+in mind, and deed, a true Canadian." Among his colleagues of the
+hierarchy were such men as his predecessor Archbishop Walsh,
+Archbishop Lynch, the first Metropolitan of Upper Canada when Toronto
+was erected into an archbishopric, Bishop Hogan of Kingston,
+Archbishop Hannan of Halifax, Archbishop Walsh of Toronto, and
+Archbishop O'Brien of Halifax, all of whom were esteemed as faithful
+Canadians working for the benefit of their own people more
+especially, but always with the larger view of good for the whole
+commonwealth of Canada.
+
+The Irish continued to furnish great representative men to Canada.
+The first governor, Guy Carleton, was Irish, and his subsequent
+governor-generalship as Lord Dorchester did much to make Canada loyal
+to Great Britain. During the difficult times of the Civil War in the
+United States, Lord Monck, a Tipperary man, was the tactful
+governor-general, "like other Irish Governors singularly successful
+in winning golden opinions" (Davin). Probably the most popular and
+influential of Canada's governors-general was Lord Dufferin, another
+Irishman. Some of the most distinguished of Canadian jurists,
+editors, and politicians have been Irishmen, and Irishmen have been
+among her great merchants, contractors, and professional men. In our
+own time Sir William Hingston among the physicians, Sir Charles
+Fitzpatrick among the jurists, and Sir Thomas George Shaughnessy
+among the administrative financiers are fine types of Irish
+character.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Davin: The Irishman in Canada (Toronto, 1877); McGee: Works; Tracy:
+The Tercentenary History of Canada (New York, 1908); Walsh: Sir
+William Hingston, in the Amer. Catholic Quarterly (January, 1911),
+Edmund Bailey O'Callaghan, in the Records of the Amer. Catholic
+Historical Society (1907); McKenna: A Century of Catholicity in
+Canada, in the Catholic World, vol. 1, p. 229.
+
+
+
+THE IRISH IN SOUTH AMERICA
+
+By MARION MULHALL.
+
+
+I.--FROM THE SPANISH CONQUEST TO THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.
+
+South America, although comparatively little known until recent times
+to the outside world, contains much to interest the missionary, the
+scientist, the historian, the traveler, and the financier. The
+twentieth century will probably see hundreds following in the
+footsteps of their predecessors. In the meantime, the brilliant
+achievements of numerous Irish men and women in that part of the
+world are falling into oblivion, and call for a friendly hand to
+collect the fragments of historical lore connected with their
+exploits.
+
+This paper will cover three periods:--
+
+(1). From the Spanish Conquest to the War of Independence: here the
+principal actors were maritime explorers, buccaneers, and mercantile
+adventurers;
+
+(2). The War of Independence from 1810 to 1826: in this period
+Irishmen performed feats of valor worthy to rank with those in Greek
+or Roman history.
+
+(3). Since the Independence; a period of commercial and industrial
+development, in which Irishmen have played a foremost part.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It has been said that George Barlow, the companion of Sebastian
+Cabot, was an Irishman. Cabot was the first Britisher to sail up the
+Rio de la Plata, and gave it its name just thirty-five years after
+the discovery of America. Barlow was in the service of the king of
+Spain, and in that country met Cabot, who had been appointed Pilot
+Major to his Majesty in the year 1518. In 1577 we read of the famous
+Admiral Drake's expedition to the River Plate, which he reached on
+April 14, 1578. Evidently it was a successful one in the opinion of
+Queen Elizabeth, for on Drake's return to Plymouth, September 26,
+1580, she came aboard his ship and knighted him. There seem to have
+been three Irishmen on this expedition, Fenton, Merrick, and Ward.
+Fenton, who was in command of two vessels, was attacked by a Spanish
+squadron between Brazil and the River Plate, and the battle continued
+by moonlight until one of the Spaniards was sunk. The Spanish
+historian adds that Fenton might have sunk another of the enemy's
+ships, but refrained because there were several women on board.
+
+Lozana in his _History_ mentions a revolution in Paraguay in 1555,
+which was headed by an Irishman named Nicholas Colman. This
+revolution was quickly suppressed by the Spanish viceroy, Yrala, but
+Colman led a second revolution in 1570, when Captain Rigueline was
+governor of Guayra. The mutineers named Colman for their chief, put
+their treasures into canoes, and floated down the Parana until their
+boats were capsized by some rapids, probably the falls of Apipe in
+Misiones. The viceroy, on hearing of the revolt, sent troops to bring
+back the fugitives, and the latter were treated with unusual
+clemency. Lozana describes Colman as a daring, turbulent buccaneer.
+For fifteen years he seems to have played an important part in
+Guayra; his subsequent fate is unknown.
+
+In 1626 an expedition commanded by James Purcell, an Irishman,
+established itself on the island of Tocujos, in the mouth of the
+Amazon.
+
+Captain Charles O'Hara was sent by Governor Arana from Montevideo in
+March, 1761, to destroy the old landmarks of Rio Negro and Ching
+between the dominions of Portugal and Spain. The officer next under
+him was Lieutenant Charles Murphy, afterwards governor of Paraguay.
+This expedition suffered great hardships.
+
+Several of the expeditions of the privateers of the eighteenth
+century sailed from Ireland. Dampier, a skilful navigator, went on a
+cruise to intercept the Spanish galleons returning from the River
+Plate with booty supposed to be worth £600,000 sterling. He sailed
+from Kinsale in September, 1703, with two vessels, and no doubt
+amongst the crews were many Irishmen. It was on this expedition that
+Alexander Selkirk, a Scotch sailor, was put on shore at Juan
+Fernandez in 1704, where he remained until rescued by Captain Rogers,
+who commanded the _Duke_, a vessel of 320 tons, which sailed from
+Cork on September 1, 1708, touched by chance at Juan Fernandez, and
+found the original of Defoe's remarkable story, _Robinson Crusoe_,
+who presented a wild appearance dressed in his goatskins.
+
+In 1765 Captain Macnamara, with two vessels called the _Lord Clive_
+and the _Ambuscade_, mounting between them 104 guns, attempted to
+take Colonia, in front of Buenos Ayres, from the Spaniards. Having
+shelled the place for four hours, Macnamara expected every moment to
+see a white flag hoisted, when, by some mishap, the _Lord Clive_ took
+fire, and 262 persons perished. The Spaniards fired upon the poor
+fellows in the water, only 78 escaping to land. Macnamara was seen to
+sink. His sword was found a few years ago by a Colonia fisherman, who
+presented it to the British consul at Montevideo. Most of the Irish
+names still extant in the Argentine provinces, such as Sarsfield,
+Carrol, and Butler, are probably derived from these captives. Among
+the descendants of the survivors of Macnamara's expedition may be
+mentioned the ablest lawyer ever known in Buenos Ayres and for many
+years Prime Minister, the late Dr. Velez Sarsfield, and also Governor
+O'Neill.
+
+The year 1586 saw an expedition of a very different character,
+consisting of the first Jesuits sent to convert Paraguay, under the
+direction of Father Thomas Field, an Irishman, and son of a Limerick
+doctor. Their vessel fell into the hands of English privateers off
+the Brazilian coast, but the sea rovers respected their captives, and
+after sundry adventures the latter landed at Buenos Ayres, whence
+they proceeded over land to Cordoba. The year following they set out
+for Paraguay, where Father Field and his companions laid the
+foundation of the Jesuit commonwealth of Misiones, which had such
+wonderful development in the following two centuries as to cause
+Voltaire to admit that "the Jesuit establishment in Paraguay seems to
+be the triumph of humanity."
+
+Another Irish Jesuit, Father Thaddeus Ennis, appears in authority in
+Misiones shortly before the downfall. In 1756, when Spain ceded San
+Miguel and other missions to Portugal, Father Ennis was entrusted
+with the removal lower down to Parana of such tribes as refused to
+become Portuguese subjects.
+
+Yet another Jesuit, Father Falkiner, son of an Irish Protestant
+doctor in Manchester, who had himself studied medicine, was one of
+the most successful travellers and missionaries of the 18th century.
+Among his friends in London was a ship-captain who traded from the
+coast of Guinea to Brazil, carrying slaves for the company recently
+established by Queen Anne's patent, and he it doubtless was who
+prevailed on the young physician to try a seafaring life. In one of
+his voyages as ship surgeon, from Guinea to Buenos Ayres, he fell ill
+at the latter port, and, there being no hotels, he had the good
+fortune to enjoy the hospitality of the Jesuit superior, Father
+Mahony, whose name proclaims his Irish nationality. Such was the
+impression made on Falkiner by the kindness of the Jesuits that he
+shortly afterwards was received into the Church and entered as a
+novice in the College of St. Ignatius at Buenos Ayres. He spent the
+first years of his missionary career in Misiones and Tucuman. Later
+on he was despatched by his superior to Patagonia, and his success
+there during 27 years was almost equal to what has already been
+mentioned of Father Field in Paraguay. He converted many tribes, and
+traversed nearly every part of Patagonia from Rio Negro to Magellan's
+Straits, and as far inland as the Andes. He knew most of the Indian
+tongues, and by his winning manners and knowledge of medicine gained
+a great influence over the savages. When he published his life and
+travels, such was the effect of his book upon the king of Spain that
+he at once ordered surveys and settlements to be made along the
+Patagonian coast, which Father Falkiner represented as exposed to
+seizure by the first adventurer who should land there. Father
+Falkiner's book has been translated into French, German, and Spanish.
+He returned to England and died at Spetchly, Worcestershire, near the
+end of the 18th century.
+
+In 1774 the bishop of Ayachucho was Dr. James O'Phelan, who rebuilt
+the old Cathedral of Pasco. His father was an Irish officer in the
+Spanish army.
+
+II.--THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.
+
+Towards the close of the 18th century the Pitt administration lent a
+willing ear to a Venezuelan patriot, General Miranda, who proposed
+that Great Britain should aid South America to expel the Spanish
+rulers and set up a number of independent states. Spain being the
+ally of France and paying an annual subsidy to Napoleon, it became
+moreover the object of England to seize the treasure-ships
+periodically arriving from the River Plate.
+
+Hostilities having broken out in Europe in 1803, an English squadron
+under an Irish commander, Captain Moore, captured in the following
+year some Spanish galleons laden with treasure at the mouth of the
+River Plate. In June, 1806, Major General William Carr Beresford with
+a British squadron cast anchor about twelve miles from Buenos Ayres,
+and with a force of only 1635 men took possession of that city of
+60,000 inhabitants. The indignation which such a humiliation at first
+caused among the people was in large measure calmed by the manifesto
+which the conquering commander issued on the occasion. In the
+_Memoirs_ of General Belgrano we read: "It grieved me to see my
+country subjugated in this manner, but I shall always admire the
+gallantry of the brave and honorable Beresford in so daring an
+enterprise." Beresford was, however, unable to hold his ground, for
+the Spaniards got together an army of 10,000 men, and re-took the
+city. Beresford was made prisoner, but after five months' detention
+he and his brother-officers, among whom was another Irishman, Major
+Fahy, managed to escape. Thus ended the expedition of this brave
+general, who nevertheless had covered himself and his little army
+with glory, for he held Buenos Ayres as a British colony for 45 days,
+and had he been properly supported from home the result would in all
+probability have been vastly different.
+
+General Beresford was one of the most distinguished men of his time.
+He was the illegitimate son of the Marquis of Waterford, entered the
+army at 16, and served in every quarter of the globe. After his
+defeat at Buenos Ayres he captured Madeira, and was made governor of
+that island. In 1808 he successfully covered the retreat of Sir John
+Moore to Corunna, a difficult feat, for which he received a marshal's
+baton, and was made commander-in-chief in Portugal. In 1811 he
+defeated Marshal Soult at Albuera, and subsequently took part in the
+victories of Salamanca and Vittoria. For these services he was made
+Duke of Elvas, and the British government conferred on him in 1814
+the title of Baron Beresford of Albuera and Dungannon. The same year
+he was sent as minister to Brazil, and on his return was created
+viscount. He married the widow of Thomas Hope the banker, and settled
+down on his estates in Kent, where he died in 1854.
+
+The brilliancy of Beresford's achievement in capturing Buenos Ayres
+with a handful of men had dazzled the minds of English statesmen, who
+felt that 10,000 British troops were enough to subdue the whole of
+the vast continent of South America. In May, 1807, an expedition
+comprising several frigates and transports with 5,000 troops appeared
+off Montevideo from England. A month later Lieutenant-General
+Whitelock arrived with orders to assume the chief command, and among
+his officers were the gallant Irishmen, Major Vandeleur, who
+commanded a wing of the 88th Regiment, and Lieutenant-Colonel Nugent,
+of the 38th. Whitelock endeavored, but failed, to retake Buenos
+Ayres. During the siege a small detachment of Spanish troops under
+Colonel James Butler, after a terrific conflict, in which they sold
+their lives dearly, were all killed. Agreeably to Colonel Butler's
+request his remains were buried on the spot he had so valiantly
+defended, and his tombstone was visible there until 1818.
+
+It is a remarkable fact that several of the South American countries,
+Mexico, Peru, and Chile, were governed by viceroys of Irish birth in
+the critical period preceding the Independence, although Spanish law
+forbade such office to any but Spaniards born. It was in recognition
+of gallant services in Spain, in combination with the Duke of
+Wellington, that General O'Donoghue was made viceroy of Mexico in
+1821, but the elevation of the great viceroy of Peru, Ambrose
+O'Higgins, was due to the splendid talents of administration already
+displayed by him during twenty years of service in Chile. He was born
+at Summerhill, Co. Meath, about 1730. An uncle of his was one of the
+chaplains at the court of Madrid, and at his expense O'Higgins was
+educated at a college in Cadiz. He then entered the Spanish engineer
+corps, and in 1769 was given the command of the commission sent to
+Chile to strengthen the fortifications of Valdivia. He was made
+captain-general of Chile in 1788, was subsequently created marquis of
+Osorno, and in 1796 was nominated viceroy of Peru, a position which
+he held until his death in 1801.
+
+The great viceroy left only one son, Bernard O'Higgins, who succeeded
+General Carreras in the supreme command of the patriot army against
+the Spaniards in 1813. In 1817 O'Higgins took a principal part in the
+victory of Chacabuco, and was almost immediately appointed supreme
+director of Chile, with dictatorial powers. During his
+administration, which lasted six years, he gave every proof of his
+fitness for the position. But, alas! it was the misfortune of South
+America to surpass the republics of antiquity in the ingratitude
+shown towards its greatest benefactors. It is then not surprising to
+find that the Father of his Country, as O'Higgins is affectionately
+styled, was deposed by a military revolution, and obliged to take
+refuge in Peru, from which country he never returned. General Miller
+and Lord Cochrane, in their _Memoirs_, give frequent testimony to the
+honesty and zeal of Bernard O'Higgins. He was always treated as an
+honored guest in Lima, in which city he died on October 24, 1842. He
+left a son, Demetrio O'Higgins, a wealthy land-owner, who contributed
+large sums for the patriot army against Spain.
+
+Among other Irish commanders in Chile and Peru, who, during the War
+of Independence, fought their way to dignity and rank, was General
+MacKenna, the hero of Membrillar. He was born in 1771, at Clogher,
+Co. Tyrone; his mother belonged to the ancient Irish sept of
+O'Reilly, whose estates were confiscated after the fall of Limerick
+in 1691.
+
+General Thomond O'Brien, who won his spurs at the battle of
+Chacabuco, seems to have been born in the south of Ireland about
+1790. He joined the army of San Martin, and accompanied that general
+through the campaigns of Chile and Peru until the overthrow of the
+Spanish régime and the proclamation of San Martin as protector of
+Peru. On the day (July 28, 1821) when independence was declared at
+Lima, the protector took in his hand the standard of Pizarro and
+said, "This is my portion of the trophies." Then, taking the state
+canopy of Pizarro, a kind of umbrella always borne over the viceroys
+in processions, he presented it to General O'Brien, saying, "This is
+for the gallant comrade who fought so many years by my side in the
+cause of South America." The inscription on the canopy, in O'Brien's
+hand, says that it was brought to Peru on Pizarro's second journey
+from Spain. Little did the viceroys think that its last owner would
+be an Irishman.
+
+General O'Connor, one of the most distinguished soldiers of the War
+of Independence, played an important part in the final victory of
+Ayachucho. For his gallantry on that day he was promoted to the rank
+of general by the commander-in-chief, General Bolivar. After the War
+of Independence he became Minister of War in Bolivia. General
+O'Connor went to South America as an ensign in the Irish Legion under
+General Devereux. He claimed direct descent from Roderic O'Conor,
+last king of Ireland, 1186.
+
+Captain Esmonde also fought in the War of Independence. He was
+brother to the then baronet, Sir Thomas Esmonde, of Co. Wexford. In
+later years Captain Esmonde was employed by the Peruvian government
+to report on some proposed canals at Tarapaca. The vessel in which he
+embarked was never more heard of.
+
+Colonel Charles Carroll had served in Spain, but joined the Chilian
+army after independence was gained. He was one of the most popular
+officers in the army, and met with a sad fate. Being sent with too
+small a detachment against the savage Indians, their commander,
+Benavides, cut his forces in pieces and murdered all the officers in
+a most cruel manner. O'Carroll had his tongue cut out and was then
+butchered.
+
+Lieutenant Colonel Moran, who commanded the Colombian legion at the
+battle of Ayachucho, probably came out in the legion of General
+Devereux.
+
+Colonel (afterwards General) O'Leary was first aide-decamp to General
+Bolivar, the Liberator, and received his last breath. He was nephew
+to the famous Father Arthur O'Leary. Bolivar employed him on various
+missions of great trust and says "he acquitted himself with great
+ability." After the war, General O'Leary was appointed British chargé
+d'affaires at Bogota, and died in Rome in 1868. General Arthur
+Sandes, a native of Dublin, was entrusted with an important garrison
+in Peru on the close of the War of Independence.
+
+Admiral Brown, the distinguished commander and hero of the War of
+Independence, whose exploits may be ranked, like those of Nelson,
+"above all Greek, above all Roman fame," was born at Foxford, Co.
+Mayo, Ireland, on the 22nd of June, 1777. His father emigrated with
+his family to Pennsylvania. A ship captain who was about to sail from
+Philadelphia offered to take the intelligent Irish boy with him, and
+the offer was promptly accepted. During twenty years he seems to have
+voyaged to many countries; at one time we find him at Archangel.
+Brown had been in Buenos Ayres just two years when the patriot
+government offered him command of a squadron to commence hostilities
+against the Spanish navy, then mistress of all the coasts and waters
+of South America. On the memorable 8th of March, 1814, Brown sailed
+out of the port of Buenos Ayres with three ships to commence a
+campaign, which was destined to destroy the Spanish navy in this part
+of the waters of the New World. With him went his fellow-countrymen,
+Captains Seaver and Kearney. Brown's next exploits were against
+Spanish shipping in the Pacific, and his entirely successful campaign
+at sea against Brazil, in which he gained the mastery by his
+wonderful skill, courage, and perseverance, keeping at bay the great
+naval power of that country (which consisted at one time of fifty war
+vessels) with his few, small, ill-supplied, and ill-armed craft.
+After these great exploits Brown spent some months among the wild
+scenery of Mayo, so dear to him in boyhood, and, returning to Buenos
+Ayres, devoted himself to the quiet life of a country gentleman. He
+died surrounded by his family and friends on May 3, 1857, and the day
+of his funeral was one of national mourning. His widow erected a
+monument to his memory in the Recoleta cemetery, and in 1872 the
+municipality of Buenos Ayres granted a site for a public statue on
+the Pasco Julio, which so often rang with the plaudits of the people
+as they welcomed this great Irishman returning from victory.
+
+No brighter pages occur in the history of the New World than those
+which commemorate the gallantry and self-devotion of the Irish
+soldiers who aided South Americans to throw off the yoke of Spain. In
+1819 an Irish Legion of 1729 men arrived under the command of General
+Devereux, a Wexford landowner, called the Lafayette of South America,
+to fight in the campaign of General Bolivar. Devereux was
+distinguished for his great bravery. After the War of Independence he
+returned to Europe, being commissioned to form a company for mining
+operations in Colombia, which country had appointed him envoy
+extraordinary to various European courts.
+
+Colonel Ferguson and Captain Talbot were both Irishmen and among the
+last survivors of Devereux's Legion. It is computed that one-third of
+the Irish who came out under General Devereux died in hospital. It
+was this legion which won the decisive battle of Carabobo, June 26,
+1821, going into action 1100 strong and leaving 600 on that
+hard-fought field.
+
+Among the officers who composed Bolivar's Albion Rifles we find the
+Irish names of Pigott, Tallon, Peacock, Phelan, O'Connell, McNamara,
+Fetherstonhaugh, French, Reynolds, Byrne, and Haig, and the medical
+officer was Dr. O'Reilly. We find mention in General Millar's
+_Memoirs_ of Dr. Moore, an Irishman, who attended Bolivar in most of
+his campaigns and was devotedly attached to the person of the
+Liberator. Lieutenant-Colonel Hughes, Major Maurice Hogan, Lieutenant
+William Keogh, Captain Laurence McGuire, Lieutenant-Colonel S.
+Collins also served in the struggle for independence.
+
+The period of independence found a small number of Irish residents in
+Buenos Ayres, mostly patrician families, such as Dillon, MacMurrough,
+Murphy, French, O'Gorman, Orr, Butler, O'Shee, who had been exiled or
+had fled from Ireland and obtained the king of Spain's permission to
+settle in Spanish America. The descendants of these families are now
+so intermarried in the country that they have mostly forgotten the
+language and traditions of their ancestors; but they occupy high
+positions in political, legal, and commercial circles.
+
+III.--THE PERIOD AFTER THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.
+
+A remarkable influx of settlers from Ireland occurred between 1825
+and 1830, to work in the _saladeros_, or salt mines, of the Irish
+merchants, Brown, Dowdall, and Armstrong. Previous to this a few
+Irish mechanics and others had come from the United States. In 1813
+Bernard Kiernan came from New Brunswick. He seems to have devoted
+himself to science, as the papers mention his discovery of a comet in
+the Magellan clouds on March 19, 1830. His son, James Kiernan, became
+editor of the government paper, _Gaceta Mercantil_, in 1823, and held
+this post for twenty years; his death occurred in 1857. There is
+reason to believe that the first Irishman who landed in Buenos Ayres
+in the 19th century, exclusive of Beresford's soldiers, was James
+Coyle, a native of Tyrone, who came in the _Agréable_ in 1807, and
+died in 1876 at the age of 86.
+
+In 1830 some survivors of an Irish colony of 300 persons in Brazil
+made their way to Buenos Ayres. They had come out from Europe in the
+barque _Reward_ in 1829.
+
+The banker, Thomas Armstrong, who arrived in Buenos Ayres in 1817,
+occupied the foremost place for half a century in the commerce of
+that city. He was of the ancient family of Armstrong in the King's
+county, one of whose members was General Sir John Armstrong, founder
+of Woolwich arsenal. Having married into the wealthy family of
+Villanueva he became intimately connected with all the leading
+enterprises of the day, such as railways, banks, loans, etc. He took
+no part in politics, but interested himself in charities of every
+kind.
+
+In 1865 another Irishman, James P. Cahill, introduced into Peru from
+the United States the first complete machinery for sugar growing and
+refining.
+
+Still another Irishman, Peter Sheridan, was one of the chief founders
+of the sheep farming industry in Argentina. His family claimed
+descent from the same stock in Co. Cavan as Richard Brinsley
+Sheridan, the great statesman and dramatist. Sheridan died at the age
+of 52, in 1844, and was succeeded in the _estancia_ or sheep-farming
+business by his nephew, James, whose brother Dr. Hugh Sheridan had
+served under Admiral Brown.
+
+The number and wealth of the Irish _estancieros_, or sheep-farmers,
+in Argentina have never been exactly ascertained, but after the old
+Spanish families they are the most important. It would be impossible
+to give all the Irish names to be met with. Some of them own immense
+tracts of land. Men whose fathers arrived in Argentina without a
+shilling are today worth millions. Their _estancia_ houses display
+all the comforts of an American or English home; their hospitality is
+proverbial; and most of them have built on their land fine schools
+and beautiful little chapels, in which the nearest Irish priest
+officiates.
+
+Many of the _partidos_ or districts of the various provinces of
+Argentina may be compared to Irish counties, the railway stations
+being called after the owners of the land on which they are situated.
+Among the earliest families settled in Argentina in the farming
+industries, we find Duggans, Torneys, Harringtons, O'Briens,
+Dowlings, Gaynors, Murphys, Moores, Dillons, O'Rorkes, Kennys, Raths,
+Caseys, Norrises, O'Farrells, Brownes, Hams, Duffys, Ballestys,
+Gahans, and Garaghans.  Dr. Santiago O'Farrell, son of one of the
+earliest Irish pioneers, holds a foremost position among the
+distinguished lawyers of the present day. An Irish engineer, Mr. John
+Coghlan, gave Buenos Ayres its first waterworks. The British hospital
+has at present for its leading surgeon a distinguished Irishman, Dr.
+Luke O'Connor. A son of Peter Sheridan, educated in England, has left
+the finest landscapes of South America by any artist born in America.
+He died at Buenos Ayres in his 27th year, 1861. Among the public men
+of Irish descent, fifty years ago, in Buenos Ayres, are to be
+mentioned the distinguished lawyer and politician, Dalmacio Velez
+Sarsfield, and John Dillon, commissioner of immigration. Dillon was
+the first to start a brewery in Buenos Ayres, for which purpose he
+brought out workmen and machinery from Europe. All of his sons
+occupied distinguished positions. Richard O'Shee, president of the
+Chamber of Commerce in Buenos Ayres, was born at Seville of an old
+Irish family banished by William III. Among the many valuable
+citizens of Buenos Ayres who perished during the cholera of 1868 was
+Dr. Leslie, a native of Cavan, whose benevolence to the poor was
+unceasing. Henry O'Gorman, for some years chief of police in Buenos
+Ayres and afterwards governor of the penitentiary, was descended from
+an Irish family which went to Buenos Ayres in the eighteenth century.
+His brother, Canon O'Gorman, was one of the dignitaries of the
+archdiocese, and director of the boys' reformatory. General Donovan,
+son of an Irish Dr. Donovan of Buenos Ayres, had command of one of
+the sections of the new Indian frontier.
+
+The first Irish chaplain was Father Burke, a venerable friar
+mentioned by Mr. Love in 1820 as over 70 years of age and much
+esteemed. When Rivadavia suppressed the Orders in 1822, he allowed
+Father Burke to remain in the convent of Santo Domingo. After his
+death the Irish residents, in 1828, petitioned Archbishop Murray of
+Dublin for a chaplain. Accordingly the Rev. Patrick Moran was
+selected, and he arrived in Buenos Ayres in 1829. He died in the
+following year, and was succeeded by the Rev. Patrick O'Gorman from
+Dublin, who continued as chaplain during 16 years till his death in
+1847.
+
+The year 1843 is memorable for the arrival of Rev. Anthony Fahy, with
+whose name the advancement of the Irish in Argentina will be forever
+identified. This great patriarch was born at Loughrea, Co. Galway, in
+1804, and made his ecclesiastical studies at St. Clement's convent of
+Irish Dominicans at Rome. Being sent to the western states of
+America, he passed ten years in Ohio and Kentucky, after which, on
+the invitation of the Irish community of Buenos Ayres and by
+permission of the superior of his Order, he came to the river Plate
+at a time when the prospects of the country and of the Irish
+residents were far from promising. The history of the Irish community
+since that time is in some measure a recital of the labors of Father
+Fahy. He it was who helped his countrymen to choose and buy their
+lands which now are of such enormous value. Their increasing numbers
+and prosperity in the camp districts obliged him to endow each of the
+provincial _partidos_ was a resident chaplain. Most of these
+clergymen were educated in Dublin, and soon showed their zeal not
+merely in religious, but also in social spheres. Irish reading-rooms,
+libraries, and schools sprang up and laid the foundation for the
+refined Irish life of the present day in those districts. Among other
+services, Father Fahy founded the Irish convent, bringing out some
+Sisters of Mercy under Mrs. Mary Evangelist Fitzpatrick from Dublin,
+to whom he gave it in charge. Father Fahy died in harness in 1871 of
+yellow fever; he attended a poor Italian woman and on returning home
+was at once taken ill. He lasted only three days and expired
+peacefully, a martyr to his sacred calling. He died so poor that Mr.
+Armstrong had to discharge for him some small debts, and five others
+of his countrymen paid his funeral expenses. A fitting memorial of
+the deceased priest, the Fahy College for Irish orphan boys in
+Argentina, has been erected in Buenos Ayres, and a magnificent
+monument of Irish marble, carved in Ireland, also perpetuates his
+fame.
+
+The priests, still living, who were co-workers with Father Fahy and
+appointed by him to various _partidos_, are Monsignor Samuel
+O'Reilly, deservedly beloved by his parishioners, and the Rev. Father
+Flannery, whose appointment to San Pedro brought a great influx of
+Irish farmers into that district. Among those who have gone to enjoy
+their eternal reward are the brothers, Rev. Michael and Rev. John
+Leahy, both of whom were indefatigable during the yellow fever in
+Buenos Ayres. Rev. Father Mulleady, Rev. Patrick Lynch, Rev. James
+Curran, and Monsignor Curley were also among the Irish priests of
+that time.
+
+The Fahy College is entrusted to the care of the Marist Brothers, who
+are largely Irish. The community of Holy Cross of the Passionist
+Fathers, who have as provincial the distinguished North American
+scholar Father Fidelis Kent Stone, is almost entirely composed of
+Irish and Irish-Americans. They have several establishments in
+various provinces of Argentina. Irish priests are to be met with all
+over the country. In Patagonia and the Chaco we also find a number of
+Protestant missionaries sent out by the Irish branch of the South
+American Missionary Society.
+
+Archdeacon Dillon succeeded Father Fahy as Irish chaplain in Buenos
+Ayres, and, although by birth and education an Irishman, he became
+one of the principal dignitaries of the archdiocese. He was for some
+time professor of theology in the ecclesiastical seminary of Buenos
+Ayres, and accompanied Archbishop Escalada as theologian to the
+Vatican Council in 1869. He was the founder of the _Southern Cross_
+in 1874, the Irish weekly paper which is now so ably edited by the
+gifted Irishman, Mr. Gerald Foley.
+
+The first daily paper to appear in English in South America was the
+_Standard_, founded in 1861 by Michael G. Mulhall, the distinguished
+statistician, and it is still one of the leading papers in the
+country. In conducting it Michael G. Mulhall was joined by his
+brother, Edward T. Mulhall, in 1862, and for many years it was
+continuously under their care. The _Standard_ still remains in the
+Mulhall family, and has for its editor a cousin of the former
+editor's, Mr. John Mulhall, who wisely directs its course. The
+_Argentina_, an important paper in Spanish, was founded a few years
+since by Edward T. Mulhall, Jr., a brilliant son of the late Edward
+Mulhall of the _Standard_. The _Hyberno-Argentine Review_, a new
+Irish weekly, is edited by another able Irishman, James B. Sheridan.
+In Rio Janeiro the _Anglo-Brasilian Times_ was founded in 1864 by an
+Irishman, Mr. Scully, who also wrote an important book on Brazil.
+
+Ireland had also its representatives in South American diplomacy and
+the making of treaties. As early as 1809 Colonel James Burke was sent
+by Lord Strangford, British minister at Rio, on a confidential
+mission to Buenos Ayres to negotiate the establishment of a separate
+kingdom on the river Plate, with the Princess Charlotte as queen. In
+1867 Mr. Gould, an Irishman, British chargé d'affaires, endeavored to
+mediate between the allies, Brazil and Argentina, and President Lopez
+of Paraguay, but without success. Stephen H. Sullivan, British chargé
+d'affaires for Chile, signed the treaty of commerce and navigation
+between England and Chile on the 10th of May, 1852. He was afterwards
+appointed British minister at Lima, where he was murdered. The late
+Chilian ministers to Buenos Ayres and London, William Blest Gana and
+Albert Blest Gana, were the sons of an Irish Doctor Blest from Sligo,
+who settled in Chile. In 1859 George Fagan signed a treaty with
+General Guido for compensation of losses to British subjects during
+the civil wars after the Independence.
+
+The mining industry had among its pioneers brave sons of Erin. J. O.
+French went to Buenos Ayres in 1826, and after an arduous mountain
+journey arrived at the foot of the Cerro Morado, where he found
+auriferous ores. Chevalier Edmond Temple, an Irish gentleman who had
+served in Spain in a dragoon regiment, also landed in Buenos Ayres in
+1826, and started across the Pampas, then almost uninhabited, until
+he came to the mountainous country where the Potosi mines were
+situated. In one of the defiles he lost his favorite horse, and in
+his book he bids a touching farewell to the friendly steed which had
+shared with him so many toils and dangers. Temple's successor in the
+Argentine mining provinces was Major Rickard Seaver, a member of an
+old Co. Dublin family.
+
+Several books of travel in South America have been published by Irish
+writers during the last fifty years. MacCann's _Travels in the
+Argentine Provinces_, 1846-49, contains much that is valuable
+concerning the history and manners of the country. Major Rickard
+Seaver issued in 1863 an interesting narrative of his crossing the
+Andes. Consul Hutchinson, an Irishman, published in 1864 his book
+_Argentine Gleanings_, which was followed by another in 1869 called
+_South American Recollections_. Robert Crawford, an Irish engineer,
+led an expedition from Buenos Ayres in November, 1871, across the
+Indian Pampas and over the pass of the Planchon in the Andes, to
+survey an overland route to Chile, and subsequently published an
+interesting account of his journey. The first book printed and
+published in English, in South America, was the _Handbook of the
+River Plate_, written by Michael G. Mulhall and published by the
+_Standard_, in 1861. The same author also published the _Rural Code
+of Buenos Ayres_ in 1867, and the _Handbook of Brazil_ in 1877. In
+1871 he published an account of his travels among the German colonies
+in Rio Grande do Sul. Twenty years ago the writer of this sketch
+published _Between the Amazon and the Andes_ and the _Story of the
+Jesuit Missions of Paraguay_. These books derive special interest
+from the fact that she was the first foreign woman ever seen in
+Cuyaba, the capital of Matto Grosso, whither she accompanied her
+husband, 2500 miles from either the Atlantic or the Pacific seaboard.
+They arrived as far as the Diamantina Mountains, beyond Cuyaba, and
+saw the little rivers which form the sources of the mighty Amazon.
+
+Casting a glance over South America, we see in every country and
+province evidences of Irish genius employed not only in fighting but
+in the development of natural resources. To quote Consul Cowper's
+report to the Foreign Office in London: "The progress of Buenos Ayres
+is mainly due to the industrious Irish sheep farmers." No other
+nationality contributed so largely to the export trade of the
+country. At one time it was shown by the tables of Mr. Duggan and
+other wool exporters that the quantity of this staple industry yearly
+sold by Irishmen in Buenos Ayres exceeded that sold by all other
+nationalities. In later years the Irish sheep farmers in the province
+of Buenos Ayres have turned their lands into wheat lands, and the
+great industries of the country, sheep and cattle, have been moved to
+the outside camps, especially to that wonderful grazing region in the
+Andine valleys recently visited by Col. Roosevelt and his party. It
+may be interesting to mention that at the first English races ever
+held in South America, on November 6, 1826, the principal event, in
+which ten horses ran, was easily won by an Irish horse with the
+appropriate name of "Shamrock."
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Beaumont: Travels In Buenos Ayres (1828); Wilson: Travels In South
+America (1796); Pinkerton: Travels (1808), Captain Weddell: Cape Horn
+and South Atlantic Surveys; Major Gillesple: Buenos Ayres and
+Provinces; Mrs. Williams, on Humboldt's Travels (1826); Captain
+Master: At Home with the Patagonians (1891); Hadfield: Notes of
+Travel in Brazil and La plata (1863); Hinchcliff: South American
+Sketches (1862); Captain Burton: Highlands of Brazil; Ross Johnston:
+A Vacation in the Argentine Alps (1867); MacCann: Travels in the
+Argentine Provinces (1846-1849); Hutchinson: Argentine Gleanings and
+South American Recollections; Major Seaver: Crossing the Andes;
+Crawford: Across the Pampas; V. MacKenna: Life of O'Higgins; Life of
+Diego Rimagro; History of Santiago; History of Valparaiso; MacKenna:
+Archives of Spanish America, 50 vols.; Miller: Memoirs; Lives of
+Belgrano and San Martin; Mulhall; English In South America.
+
+
+
+THE IRISH IN AUSTRALASIA
+
+By BROTHER LEO, F.S.C., M.A.
+
+
+Should one be called upon to give in brief the history of the Irish
+in the land of the Southern Cross, he could do nothing more to the
+purpose than to relate the story of the "Holy House of Australia."
+The episode, indeed, is characteristic, not merely of the Irish in
+Australia, but of the Irish in every land and clime where they have
+striven and conquered.
+
+On the fourteenth of November, 1817, there landed in Sydney an Irish
+Cistercian Father, Jeremiah F. Flynn. He had heard in Rome of the
+spiritual destitution of the Irish Catholics in Australia, and he
+secured the permission of his superiors to minister to the needs of
+his compatriots in the Antipodes. Shortly after his arrival he
+celebrated Mass in the house of an Irishman named William Davis, who
+had been transported for making pikes for the insurgents in the days
+of '98, and then, on the first opportunity that presented itself, he
+sought the authorization of the colonial governor to exercise the
+functions of his sacred ministry. Far from hospitable was the
+reception accorded him by Governor Macquarie. The priest was told,
+with the bluntness characteristic of British officialdom, that the
+presence of no "popish missionary" would be tolerated in the
+settlement, and that the profession of the Protestant form of belief
+was obligatory on every person in the penal colony.
+
+With the example of the "priesthood hunted down like wolves" before
+him, Father Flynn saw but one consistent course to pursue. His fellow
+Catholics, his fellow Irishmen, were in sore need of his help; that
+help they must receive, even though the civil powers refused their
+sanction. So for several months he went about as secretly as he
+could, hearing confessions, offering the Holy Sacrifice, and breaking
+the bread of good counsel. During this trying period, Davis was his
+host and defender and friend. Eventually the presence of the priest
+was detected; he was arrested and promptly sent back to England.
+Before the ship sailed he tried repeatedly to return to the house of
+Davis where the Blessed Sacrament was preserved in a cedar
+clothes-press, but the surveillance of his captors was strict and
+unsleeping. So in the dwelling of the convict Irishman the Sacred
+Species remained. Before this unwonted repository Davis kept a light
+ever burning day and night; and day and night crept the loyal
+Irishmen of the settlement to kneel in prayer before the improvised
+shrine. The "Holy House of Australia", as the Davis dwelling came to
+be known, remained the only Catholic church in the colony until 1821,
+when two Irish priests, Father John Joseph Therry of Cork and Father
+Philip Connolly of Kildare, were permitted to attend to the spiritual
+needs of the Irish Catholics. Their coming marked the beginning of
+religious toleration in Australia and the termination of the
+sufferings and sacrifices of the Irish colonists, several of whom had
+had to pay dearly for their religious convictions. Davis himself had
+been twice flogged and once imprisoned for refusing to attend
+Protestant service.
+
+Today, on the site of the "Holy House of Australia", stands the
+church of St. Patrick. Davis gave the land and the sum of one
+thousand pounds to the church, and his fellow exiles contributed
+according to their means. This episode in the history of the Irish in
+Australia pays a touchingly eloquent tribute to the spirit of loyalty
+to God and country which has characterized the sons and daughters of
+St. Patrick everywhere whither their feet have strayed. It is the
+spirit which has embodied itself in the imposing cathedral of St.
+Patrick in Melbourne and the splendidly equipped college of St.
+Patrick in Sydney. It is the spirit which has made the Irish play so
+conspicuous a role in the civic and commercial history of
+Australasia.
+
+Originally known as New Holland, Australia became an English penal
+colony after the outbreak of the Revolutionary War in the United
+States of America. An Irish element came into the colony in the last
+decade of the eighteenth century when, during the Orange reign of
+terror, upwards of a thousand people from the west of Ireland were
+deported by the Ulster magistrates and by Lord Carhampton, the
+notorious "Satanides", who was charged with the pacification of
+Connacht. And during the first three decades of the nineteenth
+century the stream of Irish transportation flowed on. As a result of
+the Tithes agitation, the Charter and Reform movements, the
+Combination Laws and the Corn Laws, many more Irishmen were forced
+across the sea. It was not until 1868 that the convict system was
+permanently abolished.
+
+It is difficult for us of a later day to realize the meaning of that
+word, transportation. Let us form some conception of what the Irish
+exiles suffered from the graphic picture painted in colors, somber
+but not untrue, by one who knew from firsthand experience the lot of
+the political prisoner. Writes Dr. Ullathorne in _The Horrors of
+Transportation_:
+
+"Take any one of you, my dear readers; separate him from his wife,
+from his children, from all those whose conversation makes life dear
+to him; cast him on the ends of the earth; let him there fall amongst
+reprobates who are the last stain and disgrace of our common nature;
+give him those obscene-mouthed monsters for his constant companions
+and consolers; let the daily vision of their progress from infamy to
+infamy, until the demon that inspires them has exhausted invention
+and the powers of nature together, be his only example; house him, at
+night, in a bark hut on a mud floor, where he has less comfort than
+your cattle in their stalls; awake him from the troubled dreams of
+his wretched wife and outcast children, to feel how far he is from
+their help, and take him out at sunrise; work him under a burning
+sun, and a heartless overseer, and the threat of the lash until the
+night fall; give him not a penny's wages but sorrow; leave him no
+hope but the same dull, dreary round of endless drudgery for many
+years to come; let him see no opening by which to escape, but through
+a long, narrow prospect of police courts, of gaols, of triangles, of
+death cells, and of penal settlements; let him all the while be
+clothed in a dress of shame, that shows to every living soul his
+degradation; and if he dare to sell any part of that clothing, then
+flog him worse than any dog! And thus, whilst severed from all
+kindness and all love, whilst the stern harsh voice of his
+task-master is grating in incessant jars within his ear, take all
+rest out of his flesh, and plant the thorn; take all feeling out of
+his heart, and leave the withered core; take all peace out of his
+conscience, and leave the worm of remorse; and then let any one come
+and dare to tell me that the man is happy because he has bread and
+meat. Is it not here, if ever there was such a case, where the taste
+of bread is a taste of misery, and where to feed and prolong life is
+to feed and lengthen our sorrow? And in pondering these things, do
+not those strong words of Sacred Scripture bring down their load of
+truth in heavy trouble to our thoughts, that, 'Their bread is
+loathsome to their eye, and their meat unto their soul.'"
+
+But the bright side of the story of the Irish in Australia and New
+Zealand unfolds in the subsequent years. The men who had been sent
+forth from Erin with the brand of the convict upon them became the
+founders of a new commonwealth. To them were joined the numerous
+voluntary settlers who, attracted by the natural resources of the
+island-continent and especially by the gold discoveries of the
+fifties, migrated to Queensland, Victoria, and New South Wales. When
+in 1858 William E. Gladstone sought to establish a new colony to be
+known as North Australia, he opened a fresh field for Irish
+initiative. As a result of his effort there stands today, on a
+terrace overlooking Port Curtis, the city of Gladstone, the terminal
+of the Australian railway system. It was here, according to Cardinal
+Moran, that in 1606, Mass was first celebrated in Australia, when the
+Spaniards sought shelter in the "Harbor of the Holy Cross." The first
+government resident at Gladstone was Sir Maurice Charles O'Connell, a
+relative of the great Liberator; he was four times acting-governor of
+Queensland.
+
+The list of Irish pioneer settlers in Australasia is a lengthy one.
+The name of Thomas Poynton stands out prominently. He was a New
+Zealand pioneer who had married an Irish girl in Sydney. The devotion
+of Poynton and his wife to the faith of their fathers is evidenced by
+the fact that he several times made the long journey from his home to
+Sydney to interest the church authorities in the wants of the New
+Zealand Irish Catholics, and that she twice made the same arduous
+trip to have her children baptized. Thomas Mooney has the distinction
+of being the first Irish pioneer in Western Australia; and yet
+another Irishman, Cassidy by name, carried out a policy of benevolent
+assimilation by marrying the daughter of a Maori chief.
+
+Among the pioneer ecclesiastics were Father William Kelly of
+Melbourne and Father John McEncroe, a native of Tipperary and a
+Maynooth man, who for thirty years and more was a prominent figure in
+the religious and civic life of New South Wales. Father John Brady,
+another pioneer priest, became Bishop of Perth. Irish names occupy a
+conspicuous and honored place in the roster of the Australian
+episcopate. Notable on the list are Bishop Francis Murphy of
+Adelaide, who was born in Co. Meath, and Archbishop Daniel Murphy of
+Sydney, a native of Cork, the man who delivered the eulogy on the
+occasion of Daniel O'Connell's funeral at Rome. But scant reference
+can here be made to the illustrious primate of Australia, Cardinal
+Moran, archbishop of Sydney from 1884 to 1911, who was such a potent
+force in the land of his adoption, and whose masterly _History of the
+Catholic Church in Australasia_ puts him in the forefront of
+ecclesiastical historians. On his death he was succeeded in the see
+of Sydney by another Irishman, Archbishop Michael Kelly of Waterford.
+Archbishop O'Reily of Adelaide is a recognized authority on music,
+and has written several pamphlets on that subject. A Galway man, Dr.
+T. J. Carr, a great educator, is now (1914) archbishop of Melbourne,
+and a Clare man, Dr. J. P. Clune, holds sway in Perth.
+
+Irishmen in Australia have figured largely in the iron and coal
+industries, in the irrigation projects, in the manufacturing
+activities, and in the working of the gold mines. But they have
+likewise distinguished themselves in other fields of endeavor.
+Prominent on the beadroll of Australian fame stand the names of Sir
+Charles Gavan Duffy (1816-1903), founder of the _Nation_ newspaper in
+Dublin, member of the British house of commons, and afterwards
+premier of Victoria and speaker of the legislative assembly, and his
+sons, John Gavan Duffy and Frank Gavan Duffy, public-spirited
+citizens and authorities on legal matters. The Currans, father and
+son, active in the public life of Sydney, were afterwards members of
+the British parliament. Distinguished in the records of the
+Australian judiciary are Judges Quinlan, Casey, Brennan, and O'Dowd.
+The Rev. J. Milne Curran, F.G.S., is a geologist who has achieved
+more than local fame. Other Irishmen who have loomed large in
+Australasian affairs are Daniel Brophy, John Cumin, Augustus Leo
+Kenny, James Coghlan, Sir Patrick Buckley, Sir John O'Shannessy, and
+Nicholas Fitzgerald. Louis C. Brennan, C.B., who was born in Ireland
+in 1852, emigrated to Australia when a boy and while working in a
+civil engineer's office in Melbourne conceived the idea of the
+"Brennan Torpedo", which he afterwards perfected, and then in 1897
+sold the invention to the British Admiralty for £110,000. Another
+Brennan, Frank by name, is president of the Knights of Our Lady of
+the Southern Cross and has been a labor member of the federal
+parliament since 1911; a third, Christopher John, is assistant
+lecturer in modern literature in the University of Sydney; and a
+fourth, James, of the diocese of Perth, was made a Knight of St.
+Silvester by Pius X. in 1912. Young Australia and New Zealand may be
+as the world goes, but already both have much to their credit in the
+domains of music, art, and literature; and here, as usual, the Irish
+have been to the fore. In the writing of poetry, history, and fiction
+the Celtic element has been especially distinguished. Not to speak of
+the writers mentioned elsewhere in this sketch, scores of Irish men
+and women have been identified with the development of an Australian
+literature which, though delightfully redolent of the land whence it
+sprang, nevertheless possesses the universal note which makes it a
+truly human product. Many years ago one of the most gifted of
+Irish-Australian singers, "Eva"' of the _Nation_, voiced a tentative
+plaint:
+
+      "O barren land! O blank, bright sky!
+         Methinks it were a noble duty
+      To kindle in that vacant eye
+         The light of spirit--beauty--
+      To fill with airy shapes divine
+         Thy lonely plains and mountains,
+      The orange grove, the bower of vine,
+         The silvery lakes and fountains;
+      To wake the voiceless, silent air
+         To soft, melodious numbers;
+      To raise thy lifeless form so fair
+         From those deep, spell-bound slumbers.
+      Oh, whose shall be the potent hand
+         To give that touch informing,
+      And make thee rise, O Southern Land,
+         To life and poesy warming?"
+
+Mrs. O'Doherty herself, who long lived in that Queensland which she
+thus apostrophized, helped in no uncertain way to answer her own
+question. So did John Farrell, the author of the truly remarkable
+"Jubilee Ode" of 1897 and of a collection of poems which include the
+well known "How He Died." And so, long before, had the non-Catholic
+Irishman, Edward O'Shaughnessy, who went to Australia as a convict,
+but who laughed in lockstep and made music with his chains.
+
+James Francis Hogan, author and journalist, was born in Tipperary in
+1855 and shortly afterward was brought by his parents to Melbourne
+where he received his education. On his return to Ireland he was
+elected to represent his native county in parliament. He is an
+authority on Australian history and in his book on _The Gladstone
+Colony_ has given us a fine specimen of modern historical method.
+With him must be mentioned Roderick Flanagan, whose _History of New
+South Wales_ appeared in 1862.
+
+Other Irish names distinguished in Australasian literature are those
+of the New Zealand poet, Thomas Bracken; Roderick Quinn; Desmond
+Byrne; J.B. O'Hara; the eccentric convict-writer, George "Barrington"
+Waldron; Victor J. Daley; Bernard O'Dowd; Edwin J. Brady; the Rev.
+J.J. Malone; and the Rev. W. Kelly.
+
+Finally, the Irish in Australia have done more than their share in
+the work of education and social service. Under Irish auspices
+several of the Catholic teaching congregations, including the
+Christian Brothers and the Presentation Nuns, were introduced, and
+their work has borne goodly fruit. A mighty power for good is the
+Hibernian Australasian Benefit Society. The organization, which was
+founded in 1871, has spread rapidly and has a large active
+membership.
+
+Truly the land of the Southern Cross is not the dimmest jewel in the
+coronet of Ireland's glories.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Hogan: The Irish in Australia (1888), The Gladstone Colony (1898);
+Mennell: Dictionary of Australian Biography (1892); Duffy: Life in
+Two Hemispheres (1903); Kenny: The Catholic Church in Australia to
+the Year 1840; Moran: History of the Catholic Church in Australasia
+(1898); Davitt: Life and Progress in Australasia (1898); Bonwick: The
+First Twenty Years of Australia (1883); Flanagan: History of New
+South Wales (1862); Byrne: Australian Writers (1896); Wilson: The
+Church in New Zealand (1910); Hocken: A Bibliography of the
+Literature Relating to New Zealand (1909).
+
+
+
+THE IRISH IN SOUTH AFRICA
+
+By A. MILLIARD ATTERIDGE.
+
+
+The tide of emigration from Ireland has set chiefly towards America
+and Australia. In South Africa, therefore, the Irish element among
+the colonists has never been a large one. But, despite its
+comparatively small numbers, it has been an important factor in the
+life of South Africa. Here, as in so many other countries, it has
+been the glory of the sons of Erin to be a missionary people. To
+their coming is due the very existence of the Catholic Church in
+these southern lands.
+
+When Dr. Ullathorne touched at the Cape on his way to Australia in
+1832, he found at Cape Town "a single priest for the whole of South
+Africa," an English Benedictine, who soon afterwards returned to
+Europe in broken health. Few Irish immigrants had by that time found
+their way to the Cape. They began to arrive in numbers only after the
+famine year.
+
+The founder of the Catholic hierarchy in South Africa was the Irish
+Dominican, Patrick R. Griffith, who, in 1837, was sent to Cape Town
+by Gregory XVI. as the first Vicar Apostolic of Cape Colony. His
+successors at the Cape, Bishops Grimley, Leonard, and Rooney, have
+all been Irishmen, and nine in every ten of their flock have from the
+first been Irish by birth or descent. In the earlier years of Bishop
+Griffith's episcopate there was a large garrison in South Africa on
+account of the Kaffir wars. Many of these soldiers were Irishmen. At
+Grahamstown in 1844 the soldiers of an Irish regiment stationed there
+did most of the work of building St. Patrick's Church, one of the
+oldest Catholic churches in South Africa. They worked without wages
+or reward of any kind, purely out of their devotion to their Faith,
+giving up most of their leisure to this voluntary labor.
+
+Ten years after Bishop Griffith's appointment, Pius IX. separated
+Natal and the eastern districts of Cape Colony from Cape Town, and
+erected the Eastern Vicariate Apostolic. Once more an Irish prelate
+was the first Bishop--Aidan Devereux, who was consecrated by Bishop
+Griffith at Cape Town in the Christmas week of 1847. The great
+emigration from Ireland had now begun, and a stream of immigrants was
+arriving at the Cape. Bishop Devereux fixed his residence at Port
+Elizabeth, and of his four successors up to the present day three
+have been Irish. Bishop Moran, who went out to Port Elizabeth in
+1854, was consecrated at Carlow in Ireland by Archbishop (afterwards
+Cardinal) Cullen. The third Vicar Apostolic was Bishop Ricards, and
+the present bishop is another Irishman, Dr. Hugh McSherry, who
+received his consecration from the hands of Cardinal Logue in St.
+Patrick's Cathedral at Armagh.
+
+Until the discovery of the diamond deposits in what is now the
+Kimberley district, some forty years ago, the Irish immigrants had
+chiefly settled in the ports and along the coast. But among the
+crowds who went to seek their fortunes at the diamond fields were
+large numbers of adventurous Irishmen. The mission church established
+at Kimberley became the centre of a new bishopric in 1886, when the
+Vicariate of Kimberley, which for some time included the Orange Free
+State, was established, and an Irish Oblate, Father Anthony Gaughran,
+was appointed its first bishop. He was succeeded in 1901 by his
+namesake and fellow countryman, the present Bishop Matthew Gaughran.
+
+The gold discoveries on the Witwatersrand about Johannesburg produced
+another rush into the interior in the days after the first Transvaal
+war. A great city of foreign immigrants--the "Uitlanders"--grew up
+rapidly on the upland, where a few months before there had been only
+a few scattered Boer farms. Irishmen from Cape Colony and Natal, from
+Ireland itself, and from the United States formed a large element in
+the local mining and trading community. They were mostly workers. Few
+of them found their way into the controlling financier class, which
+was largely Jewish. The Irish were better out of this circle of
+international gamblers, whose intrigues finally produced the terrible
+two years' bloodshed of the great South African war. Many engineers
+of the mines were Irish-Americans. Huge consignments of mining
+machinery arrived from the United States, and many of the engineers
+who came to fit it up remained in the employ of the mining companies.
+Until after the war, the Transvaal and Johannesburg had depended
+ecclesiastically on the Vicar Apostolic of Natal, but in 1904 a
+Transvaal Vicariate was erected, and once more the first bishop was
+an Irishman, Dr. William Miller, O.M.I.
+
+We have seen how Irish the South African episcopate has been from the
+very outset. Most of the clergy belong to the same missionary race,
+as also do the nuns of the various convents, and the Christian
+Brothers, who are in charge of many of the schools. Of the white
+Catholic population of the various states of the South African Union,
+the greater part are Irish. There are about 25,000 Irish in Cape
+Colony in a total population of over two millions. There are some
+7,000 in Natal, I,500 in Kimberley, and about 2,000 in the Orange
+River Colony. In the Transvaal, chiefly in and about Johannesburg,
+there are some 12,000 Irish. A few thousand more are to be found
+scattered in Griqualand and Rhodesia.
+
+As has been already said, the total numbers are not large in
+proportion to that of the population generally, and they belong
+chiefly to the industrial and trading classes. The most notable names
+among them are those of prelates, priests, and missionaries, who have
+founded and built up the organization of the Catholic Church in South
+Africa. But there are some names of note also in civil life. Sir
+Michael Gallwey was for many years Chief Justice of Natal; the Hon.
+A. Wilmot, who has not only held high official posts, but has also
+done much to clear up the early history of South Africa, is Irish on
+the mother's side; Mr. Justice Shiel is a judge of the Cape Courts;
+Eyre and Woodbyrne are Irish names among the makers of Rhodesia; and
+amongst those who have done remarkable work in official life may also
+be named Sir Geoffrey Lagden, Sir William St. John Carr, and the Hon.
+John Daverin. Lagden was for many years British Resident in
+Basutoland, the Switzerland of South Africa, where the native tribes
+are practically independent under a British protectorate. Griffith,
+the paramount chief of the Basuto nation, has been a Catholic since
+1911. Sir Geoffrey's tactful policy and wise counsels did much to
+promote the prosperity of this native state, and during the trying
+days of the South African War, he was able to secure the neutrality
+of the tribesmen.
+
+In the Boer wars, Irishmen fought with distinction on both sides.
+General Colley, who fell at Majuba in the first Boer War, was a
+distinguished Irish soldier. Another great Irishman, General Sir
+William Butler, has written the story of Colley's life. Butler
+himself was in command of the troops at the Cape before the great
+war. If his wise counsels had been followed by the Government, the
+war would undoubtedly have been avoided. He refused to have any part
+in the war-provoking policy of Rhodes and Chamberlain, and warned the
+Home Government that an attack on the Dutch republics would be a
+serious and perilous enterprise. When the war came, England owed much
+to the enduring valor of Irish soldiers and to the leadership of
+Irish generals. One need only name General Hart, of the Irish
+Brigade; General French, who relieved Kimberley, and who is now
+(1914) Field-Marshal and Commander-in-Chief of the British army in
+France; General Mahon, who raised the siege of Mafeking; Colonel
+Moore, of the famous Connaught Rangers, now (1914) commandant and
+chief military organizer of the Irish National Volunteers; and,
+finally, Lord Roberts, who took over the chief command and saved the
+situation after the early disasters. Lord Kitchener, who acted as
+Roberts's chief-of-staff, succeeded him in the command, and brought
+the war to an end by an honorable treaty with the Boer leaders, is a
+native of Ireland, but of English descent, and he passed most of his
+boyhood in Ireland, in Co. Kerry, where his father had bought a small
+property. I used to know an Irish Franciscan lay brother who told me
+he had taught the future soldier "many games" when he was quite a
+little fellow.
+
+Of the regiments which took part in the war none won a higher fame
+than the Munster and the Dublin Fusiliers and the Connaught Rangers.
+It was in recognition of their splendid valor that the new regiment
+of Irish Guards was added to the British Army.
+
+But the majority of Irishmen sympathized with the Boer republics, and
+many of them fought under the Boer flag, of these were legally
+British subjects, but many were naturalized burghers of the
+Transvaal, and many more were United States citizens, Irish-Americans
+from the Rand gold mines. There were two small Irish brigades under
+the Boer flag, those of McBride and Lynch (the latter now a member of
+the British House of Commons), and an engineer corps commanded by
+Colonel Blake, an American. At the first battle before Ladysmith it
+was one of the Irish brigades that kept the Boer guns in action,
+bringing up ammunition under a rain of shellfire. During the Boer
+retreat and Roberts's advance on Pretoria, Blake's engineers were
+always with the Boer rearguard and successfully destroyed every mile
+of the railway as they went back. Blake had served in the United
+States cavalry, had learned mining while on duty in Nevada, and had
+then gone to seek his fortune at Johannesburg. The great leader of
+the Boer armies, now the Prime Minister of the new South Africa which
+has happily arisen out of the storm of war, has Irish connections.
+Louis Botha lived before the war in the southeast Transvaal, not far
+from Laings Nek, and near neighbors of his were a family of Irish
+settlers bearing the honored name of Emmet. The Emmets and the Bothas
+were united by ties of friendship and intermarriage, and one of the
+Emmets served with Louis Botha during the war.
+
+The Irish colonists of South Africa keep their love for faith and
+fatherland, but, as in the United States, they have thoroughly and
+loyally thrown in their lot with the new country of which they have
+become citizens. Few in number though they are, they are an important
+factor in the new Dominion, for their national tradition inspires
+them with civic patriotism, and their religion gives them a high
+standard of conduct and puts before them, as guides in the work of
+life and the solution of the problems of the day, the Christian
+principles of justice and charity.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Government Census Returns, South Africa; Catholic Directory for
+British South Africa (Cape Town, since 1904); The Catholic Magazine,
+Cape Town; Wilmot and Chase: History of Cape Colony (London, 1896);
+Theal: History of South Africa (5 vols., London, 1888-1893); for the
+war period, the _Times_ History of the South African War, and the
+British Official History.
+
+
+
+IRISH LANGUAGE AND LETTERS
+
+By DOUGLAS HYDE, LL.D., M.R.I.A.
+
+
+The Celtic languages consist of two divisions, (a) the Gaelic or
+Irish division, and (b) the Kymric or Welsh division. Between them
+they comprise (a) Irish, Scotch-Gaelic, and Manx, and (b) Welsh,
+Armorican, and Cornish. All these languages are still alive except
+Cornish, which died out about a hundred years ago.
+
+Of all these languages Irish is the best preserved, and it is
+possible to follow its written literature back into the past for some
+thirteen hundred years; while much of the most interesting matter has
+come down to us from pagan times. It has left behind it the longest,
+the most luminous, and the most consecutive literary track of any of
+the vernacular languages of Europe, except Greek alone.
+
+For centuries the Irish and their language were regarded by the
+English as something strange and foreign to Europe. It was not
+recognized that they had any relationship with the Greeks or Romans,
+the French, the Germans, or the English. The once well-known
+statesman, Lord Lyndhurst, in the British parliament denounced the
+Irish as aliens in religion, in blood, and in language. Bopp, in his
+great Comparative Grammar, refused them recognition as
+Indo-Europeans, and Pott in 1856 also denied their European
+connection. It was left for the great Bavarian scholar, John Caspar
+Zeuss, to prove to the world in his epoch-making "Grammatica Celtica"
+(published in Latin in 1853) that the Celts were really
+Indo-Europeans, and that their language was of the highest possible
+value and interest. From that day to the present it is safe to say
+that the value set upon the Irish language and literature has been
+steadily growing amongst the scholars of the world, and that in the
+domain of philology Old Irish now ranks close to Sanscrit for its
+truly marvellous and complicated scheme of word-forms and
+inflections, and its whole verbal system.
+
+The exact place which the Celtic languages (of which Irish is
+philologically far the most important) hold in the Indo-European
+group has often been discussed. It is now generally agreed upon that,
+although both the Celtic and Teutonic languages may claim a certain
+kinship with each other as being both of them Indo-European, still
+the Celtic is much more nearly related to the Greek and the Latin
+groups, especially to the Latin.
+
+All the Indo-European languages are more or less related to one
+another. We Irish must acknowledge a relationship, or rather a very
+distant connecting tie, with English. But, to trace this home, Irish
+must be followed back to the very oldest form of its words, and
+English must be followed back to Anglo-Saxon and when possible to
+Gothic. The hard mutes (p, t, c) of Celtic (and, for that matter, of
+Sanscrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, Slavonic, and Lithuanian) will be
+represented in Gothic by the corresponding soft mutes (b, d, g), and
+the soft mutes in Celtic by the corresponding, hard mutes in Gothic.
+Thus we find the Irish _dia_ (god) in the Anglo-Saxon _tiw_, the god
+of war, whose name is perpetuated for all time in Tiwes-däg, now
+"Tuesday", and we find the Irish _déad_ in the Anglo-Saxon "toth",
+now "tooth", and so on. But of all the Indo-European languages Old
+Irish possesses by far the nearest affinity to Latin, and this is
+shown in a great many ways, not in the vocabulary merely, but in the
+grammar, which for philologists is of far more importance,--as, for
+example, the _b_-future, the passive in-_r_, the genitive singular
+and nominative plural of "o stems", etc. Thus the Old Irish for
+"man", nom. _fer_, gen. _fir_, dat. _fiur_, acc. _fer n_--, plur.
+nom. _fir_, gen. _fer n_--, is derived from the older forms _viros,
+viri, viro, viron_, nom. plur. _viri_, gen. plur. _viron_, which
+everyone who knows Latin can see at a glance correspond very closely
+to the Latin inflections, _vir, viri, viro, virum_, nom. plur.
+_viri_, etc.
+
+So much for the language. When did this language begin to be used in
+literature? This question depends upon another--When did the Irish
+begin to have a knowledge of letters; when did they begin to commit
+their literature to writing; and whence did they borrow their
+knowledge of this art?
+
+The oldest alphabet used in Ireland of which remains exist appears to
+have been the Ogam, which is found in numbers of stone inscriptions
+dating from about the third century of our era on. About 300 such
+inscriptions have already been found, most of them in the southwest
+of Ireland, but some also in Scotland and Wales, and even in Devon
+and Cornwall. Wherever the Irish Gael planted a colony, he seems to
+have brought his Ogam writing with him.
+
+The Irishman who first invented the Ogam character was probably a
+pagan who obtained a knowledge of Roman letters. He brought back to
+Ireland his invention, or, as is most likely, invented it on Irish
+soil. Indeed, the fact that no certain trace of Ogam writing has been
+found upon the European continent indicates that the alphabet was
+invented in Ireland itself. An inscription at Killeen Cormac, Co.
+Kildare, survives which seems to show that the Roman alphabet was
+known in Ireland in pagan times. Ogam is an alphabet suitable enough
+for chiselling upon stones, but too cumbrous for the purposes of
+literature. For this the Roman alphabet must have been used. The Ogam
+script consists of a number of short lines straight or slanting, and
+drawn either below, above, or through one long stem-line. This
+stem-line is generally the sharp angle between two faces or sides of
+a long upright rectangular stone. Thus four cuts to the right of the
+long line stand for S; to the left of it they mean C; passing through
+it, half on one side and half on the other, they mean Z. The device
+was rude, but it was applied with considerable skill, and it was
+undoubtedly framed with much ingenuity. The vowels occurring most
+often are also the easiest to cut, being scarcely more than notches
+on the edge of the stone. The inscription generally contains the name
+of the dead warrior over whom the memorial was raised; it usually
+begins on the left corner of the stone facing the reader and is to be
+read upwards, and it is often continued down on the right hand
+angular line as well.
+
+The language of the Ogam inscriptions is very ancient and nearly the
+same forms occur as in what we know of Old Gaulish. The language, in
+fact, seems to have been an antique survival even when it was first
+engraved, in the third or fourth century. The word-forms are probably
+far older than those used in the spoken language of the time. This is
+a very important conclusion, and it must have a far-reaching bearing
+upon the history of the earliest epic literature. Because if forms of
+language much more ancient than any that were then current were
+employed on pillar-stones in the third or fourth century, it follows
+that this obsolescent language must have survived either in a written
+or a regularly recited form. This immediately raises the probability
+that the substance of Irish epic literature (which was written down
+on parchment in the sixth or seventh century) really dates from a
+period much more remote, and that all that is purely pagan in it was
+preserved for us in the same antique language as the Ogam
+inscriptions before it was translated into what we now call "Old
+Irish."
+
+The following is the Ogam alphabet as preserved on some 300 ancient
+pillars and stones, in the probably ninth-century treatise in the
+Book of Ballymote, and elsewhere:
+
+[Illustration: Ogam Alphabet]
+
+There are a great many allusions to this Ogam writing in the ancient
+epics, especially in those that are purely pagan in form and
+conception, and there can be no doubt that the knowledge of letters
+must have reached Ireland before the island became Christianized.
+With the introduction of Christianity and of Roman letters, the old
+Ogam inscriptions, which were no doubt looked upon as flavoring of
+paganism, quickly fell into disuse and disappeared, but some
+inscriptions at least are as late as the year 600 or even 800. In the
+thoroughly pagan poem, _The Voyage of Bran_, which such authorities
+as Zimmer and Kuno Meyer both consider to have been committed to
+parchment in the seventh century, we find it stated that Bran wrote
+the fifty or sixty quatrains of the poem in Ogam. Cuchulainn
+constantly used Ogam writing, which he cut upon wands and trees and
+standing stones for Queen Medb's army to read, and these were always
+brought to his friend Fergus to decipher. Cormac, king of Cashel, in
+his glossary tells us that the pagan Irish used to inscribe the wand
+they kept for measuring corpses and graves with Ogam characters, and
+that it was a source of horror to anyone even to take it in his hand.
+St. Patrick in his Confession, the authenticity of which no one
+doubts, describes how he dreamt that a man from Ireland came to him
+with innumerable letters.
+
+In Irish legend Ogma, one of the Tuatha De Danann who was skilled in
+dialects and poetry, seems to be credited with the invention of the
+Ogam alphabet, and he probably was the equivalent of the Gaulish god
+Ogmios, the god of eloquence, so interestingly described by Lucian.
+
+We may take it then that the Irish pagans knew sufficient letters to
+hand down to Irish Christians the substance of their pagan epics,
+sagas, and poems. We may take it for granted also that the greater
+Irish epics (purely pagan in character, utterly untouched in
+substance by that Christianity which so early conquered the country)
+really represent the thoughts, manners, feelings, and customs of
+pagan Ireland.
+
+The effect of this conclusion must be startling indeed to those who
+know the ancient world only through the medium of Greek and Roman
+literature. To the Greek and to his admiring master, the Roman, all
+outside races were simply barbarians, at once despised,
+misinterpreted, and misunderstood.
+
+We have no possible means of reconstructing the ancient world as it
+was lived in by the ancestors of some of the leading races in Europe,
+the Gauls, Spaniards, Britons, and the people of all those countries
+which trace themselves back to a Celtic ancestry, because these races
+have left no literature or records behind them, and the Greeks and
+Romans, who tell us about them, saw everything through the false
+medium of their own prejudices. But now since the discovery and
+publication of the Irish sagas and epics, the descendants of these
+great races no longer find it necessary to view their own past
+through the colored and distorting glasses of the Greek or the Roman,
+since there has now opened for them, where they least expected to
+find it, a window through which they can look steadily at the life of
+their race, or of one of its leading offshoots, in one of its
+strongholds, and reconstruct for themselves with tolerable accuracy
+the life of their own ancestors. It is impossible to overrate the
+importance of this for the history of Europe, because neither Teutons
+nor Slavs have preserved pictures of their own heroic past, dating
+from pagan times. It is only the Celts, and of these the Irish, who
+have handed down such pictures drawn with all the fond intimacy of
+romance, and descriptions which exhibit the life of western Europeans
+at an even earlier culture-stage in the evolution of humanity than do
+the poems of Homer.
+
+This conclusion, to which a study of the literature invites us, falls
+in exactly with that arrived at from purely archaeological sources.
+Professor Ridgeway of Cambridge University, working on archaeological
+lines, expresses himself as follows: "From this survey of the
+material remains of the _la Tern_ period found actually in Ireland,
+and from the striking correspondence between this culture and that
+depicted in the _Táin Bó Cúalnge_, and from the circumstance that the
+race who are represented in the epic as possessing this form of
+culture resemble in their physique the tall, fair-haired, grey-eyed
+Celts of Britain and the continent, we are justified in inferring (1)
+that there was an invasion (or invasions) of such peoples from Gaul
+in the centuries immediately before Christ, as is ascribed by the
+Irish traditions, and (2) that the poems themselves originally took
+shape when the _la Tène_ culture was still flourishing in Ireland.
+But as this could hardly have continued much later than A.D. 100, we
+may place the first shaping of the poems not much later than that
+date and possibly a century earlier."
+
+This conclusion would make the earliest putting together of the Irish
+epics almost contemporaneous with Augustus Cæsar.
+
+So much for the history and growth of Irish letters.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Brash: Ogam inscribed Monuments of the Gaedhil (1879); MacAlister:
+Studies in Irish Epigraphy, vol. 1 (1897), vol. 2 (1902), vol. 3
+(1907); Rhys: in Proceedings of the Scottish Society of Antiquaries
+(Edinburgh, 1892); Ridgeway: Date of the First Shaping of the
+Cuchulain Saga (1905), in Proceedings of the British Academy, vol.
+II; Joyce: Social History of Ancient Ireland, vol. I, Chap. 2;
+Preface to fac-simile edition of the Book of Ballymote.
+
+
+
+NATIVE IRISH POETRY
+
+By PROFESSOR GEORGES DOTTIN.
+
+
+[Note.--This chapter was written in French by M. Dottin, who is a
+distinguished professor and dean at the University of Renacs, France.
+The translation into English has been made by the Editors.]
+
+By the year 1200 of the Christian era, a time at which the other
+national literatures of Europe were scarcely beginning to develop,
+Ireland possessed, and had possessed for several centuries, a Gaelic
+poetry, which was either the creation of the soul of the people or
+else was the work of the courtly bards. This poetry was at first
+expressed in rhythmical verses, each containing a fixed number of
+accented syllables and hemistichs separated by a pause:
+
+
+
+
+      _Crist_ lim,    |  _Crist_ reum,   |  _Crist_ in degaid
+      _Crist_ indium  |  _Crist_ issum   |  _Crist_ úasum
+                      |  _Crist_ dessum  |  _Crist_ úasum
+
+This versification, one of the elements of which was the repetition
+of words or sounds at regular intervals, was transformed about the
+eighth century into a more learned system. Thenceforward
+alliteration, assonance, rhyme, and a fixed number of syllables
+constituted the characteristics of Irish verse:
+
+      Mésse ocus Pángur bÁN
+      cechtar náthar fria sáindAN
+      bith a _ménma_ sam fri SEILGG
+      mu _ménma_ céin im sáinchEIRDD.
+
+As we see, the consonants in the rhyme-words were merely related: _l,
+r, n, ng, m, dh, gh, bh, mh, ch, th, f_ could rime together just as
+could _gg, dd, bb_. Soon the poets did not limit themselves to
+end-rhymes, which ran the risk of becoming monotonous, but introduced
+also internal rhyme, which set up what we may call a continuous chain
+of melody:
+
+      is aire caraim DOIRE
+      ar a reidhe ar a ghlOINE
+      's ar iomad a aingel fIND
+      ó 'n CIND go aoich arOILE.
+
+This harmonious versification was replaced in the seventeenth century
+by a system in which account was no longer taken of consonantal rhyme
+or of the number of syllables.
+
+The rules of Irish verse have nothing in common with classical Latin
+metres, which were based on the combination of short and long
+syllables. In Low-Latin, indeed, we find occasionally alliteration,
+rhyme, and a fixed number of syllables, but these novelties are
+obviously of foreign origin, and date from the time when the Romans
+borrowed them from the nations which they called barbarous. We cannot
+prove beyond yea or nay that they are of Celtic origin, but it is
+extremely probable that they are, for it is among the Celts both of
+Ireland and of Wales that the harmonizing of vowels and of consonants
+has been carried to the highest degree of perfection.
+
+This learned art was not acquired without long study. The training of
+a poet (_filé_) lasted twelve years, or more. The poets had a regular
+hierarchy. The highest in rank, the _ollamh_, knew 350 kinds of verse
+and could recite 250 principal and 100 secondary stories. The
+_ollamhs_ lived at the court of the kings and the nobles, who granted
+them freehold lands; their persons and their property were sacred;
+and they had established in Ireland schools in which the people might
+learn history, poetry, and law. The bards formed a numerous class, of
+a rank inferior to the _filé_; they did not enjoy the same honors and
+privileges; some of them even were slaves; according to their
+standing, different kinds of verse were assigned to them as a
+monopoly.
+
+The Danish invasions in the ninth century set back for some time the
+development of Irish poetry, but, when the Irish had driven the
+fierce and aggressive sea-rovers from their country, there was a
+literary renascence. This was in turn checked by the Anglo-Norman
+invasion in the twelfth century, and thereafter the art of
+versification was no longer so refined as it had formerly been.
+Nevertheless, the bardic schools still existed in the seventeenth
+century, more than four hundred years after the landing of Strongbow,
+and, in them, students followed the lectures of the _ollamhs_ for six
+months each year, or until the coming of spring, exercising both
+their talents for composition and their memory.
+
+A catalogue of Irish poets, which has recently been made out, shows
+that there were more than a thousand of them. We have lost many of
+the oldest poems, but the Irish scribes often modernized the texts
+which they were copying. Hence the language is not always a
+sufficient indication of date, and it is possible that, under a
+comparatively modern form, some very ancient pieces may have been
+preserved. Even if the poems attributed to Amergin do not go back to
+the tenth century B.C., as has been claimed for them, they are in any
+case old enough to be archaic, and certain poems of the mythological
+cycle are undoubtedly anterior to the Christian era.
+
+We have reason to believe that there have been preserved some genuine
+poems of Finn macCumaill (third century), a hymn by St. Patrick (d.
+461), some greatly altered verses of St. Columcille (d. 597), and
+certain hymns written by saints who lived from the seventh to the
+ninth century. The main object of the most celebrated of the ancient
+poets up to the end of the twelfth century was to render history,
+genealogy, toponomy, and lives of saints readier of access and easier
+to retain by putting them into verse-form; and it is the names of
+those scholars that have been rescued from oblivion, while lyric
+poetry, having as its basis nothing more than sentiment, has remained
+for the most part anonymous. After the Anglo-Norman invasion, the
+best poet seems to have been Donnchadh Mór O'Daly (d. 1244). Of later
+date were Teig MacDaire (1570-1652), Teig Dall O'Higinn (d. 1615),
+and Eochaidh O'Hussey, who belonged to the seventeenth and eighteenth
+centuries. The new school, which abandoned the old rules and whose
+inspiration is now personal, now patriotic, is represented by
+_caoine_ (keens or laments), _abran_ (hymns), or _aislingi_
+(visions), composed, among others, by Geoffrey Keating (d. c. 1650),
+David O'Bruadair (c. 1625-1698), Egan O'Rahilly (c. 1670-c. 1734),
+John MacDonnell (1691-1754), William O'Heffernan (fl. 1750), John
+O'Tuomy (1706-1775), and Andrew MacGrath (d. c. 1790). The greatest
+of the eighteenth century Irish poets was Owen Roe O'Sullivan (c.
+1748-1784), whose songs were sung everywhere, and who, in the opinion
+of his editor, Father Dinneen, is the literary glory of his country
+and deserves to be ranked among the few supreme lyric poets of all
+time.
+
+If, in order to study the subjects treated by the poets, we lay aside
+didactic poetry and confine ourselves to the ancient poems from the
+seventh to the eleventh century, we shall find in the latter a
+singular variety. They were at first dialogues or monologues, now
+found incorporated with the sagas, of which they may have formed the
+original nucleus. Thus, in the _Voyage of Bran_, we have the account
+of the Isles of the Blessed and the discourse of the King of the Sea;
+in the _Expedition of Loégaire MacCrimthainn_, the brilliant
+description of the fairy hosts; in _The Death of the Sons of Usnech_,
+the touching farewell of Deirdre to the land of Scotland and her
+lamentation over the dead bodies of the three warriors; and in the
+_Lay of Fothard Canann_, the strange and thrilling speech of the dead
+lover, returning after the battle to the tryst appointed by his
+sweetheart. Other poems seem never to have figured in a saga, like
+the Song of Crede, daughter of Guaire, in which she extols the memory
+of her friend Dinertach, and the affecting love-scenes between Liadin
+and Curithir; or like the bardic songs designed to distribute praise
+or blame: the funeral panegyric on King Niall, in alternate verses,
+the song of the sword of Carroll, and the satire of MacConglinne
+against the monks of Cork.
+
+Religious poetry comprised lyric fragments, which were introduced
+into the lives of the saints and there formed a kind of Christian
+saga, or else were based on Holy Writ, like the _Lamentation of Eve_;
+hymns in honor of the saints, like _The Hymn to St. Michael_, by Mael
+Isu; pieces such as the famous Hymn of St. Patrick; and philosophic
+poems like that keen analysis of the flight of thought which dates
+from the tenth century.
+
+At a time when the poets of other lands seem wholly engrossed in the
+recital of the deeds of men, one of the great and constant
+distinguishing marks of poetry in Ireland, whether we have to do with
+a short note set down by a scribe on the margin of a manuscript or
+with a religious or profane poem, is a deep, personal, and intimate
+love of nature expressed not by detailed description, but more often
+by a single picturesque and telling epithet. Thus we have the hermit
+who prays God to give him a hut in a lonely place beside a clear
+spring in the wood, with a little lark to sing overhead; or we have
+Marban, who, rich in nuts, crab-apples, sloes, watercress, and honey,
+refuses to go back to the court to which the king, his brother,
+presses him to return. Now, we have the description of the summer
+scene, in which the blackbird sings and the sun smiles; now, the song
+of the sea and of the wind, which blows tempestuously from the four
+quarters of the sky; again, the winter song, when the snow covers the
+hills, when every furrow is a streamlet and the wolves range
+restlessly abroad, while the birds, numbed to the heart, are silent;
+or yet again the recluse in his cell, humorously comparing his quest
+of ideas to the pursuit of the mice by his pet cat. This deep love of
+inanimate and animate things becomes individualized in those poems in
+which every tree, every spring, every bird is described with its own
+special features.
+
+If we remember that these original poems, which, before the twelfth
+century, expressed thoughts that were scarcely known to the
+literature of Europe before the eighteenth, are, besides, clothed in
+the rich garb of a subtle harmony, what admiration, what respect, and
+what love ought we not to show to that ancient Ireland which, in the
+darkest ages of western civilization, not only became the depositary
+of Latin knowledge and spread it over the continent, but also had
+been able to create for herself new artistic and poetic forms!
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Hyde: Love Songs of Connacht (Dublin, 1893), Irish Poetry, an Essay
+in Irish with Translation in English and a Vocabulary (Dublin, 1902),
+The Religious Songs of Connacht (London, 1906); Meyer: Ancient Gaelic
+Poetry (Glasgow, 1906), a Primer of Irish Metrics with a Glossary and
+an Appendix containing an Alphabetical List of the Poets of Ireland
+(Dublin, 1909); Dottin-Dunn: The Gaelic Literature of Ireland
+(Washington, 1906); Meyer: Selections from Ancient Irish Poetry (2d
+edition, London, 1913); Best: Bibliography of Irish Philology and of
+Printed Irish Literature (Dublin, 1913); Loth: La métrique galloise
+(Paris, 1902); Thurneysen: Mittelirische Verslehren, Irische Texte
+III.; Buile Suibhne (Dublin, 1910).
+
+
+
+IRISH HEROIC SAGAS
+
+By ELEANOR HULL.
+
+
+Ireland has the unique distinction of having preserved for mankind a
+full and vivid literary record of a period otherwise, so far as
+native memorials are concerned, clouded in obscurity. A few
+fragmentary suggestions, derived from ancient stone monuments or from
+diggings in tumuli and graves, are all that Gaul or Britain have to
+contribute to a knowledge of that important period just before and
+just after the beginning of our era, when the armies of Rome were
+overrunning western Europe and were brought, for the first time, into
+direct contact with the Celtic peoples of the West. Almost all that
+we know of the early inhabitants of these countries comes to us from
+the pens of Roman writers and soldiers--Poseidonius, Caesar,
+Diodorus, Tacitus. We may give these observers credit for a desire to
+be fair to peoples they sometimes admired and often dreaded, but
+conquerors are not always the best judges of the races they are
+engaged in subduing, especially when they are ignorant of their
+language, unversed in their lore and customs, and unused to their
+ways. Valuable as are the reports of Roman authorities, we feel at
+every point the need of checking them by native records; but the
+native records of Gaul, and in large part also those of Britain and
+Wales, have been swept away. Caesar is probably right in saying that
+the Druids, who were the learned men of their race and day, committed
+nothing to writing; if they did, whatever they wrote has been
+irrecoverably lost.
+
+But Ireland was exempt from the sweeping changes brought about
+through long periods of Roman and Saxon occupation; no great upheaval
+from without disturbed the native political and social conditions up
+to the coming of the Norse and Danes about the beginning of the ninth
+century. Agricola, standing on the western coast of Britain, looked
+across the dividing channel, and reflected upon "the beneficial
+connection that the conquest of Ireland would have formed between the
+most powerful parts of the Roman Empire," but, fortunately for the
+literature of Ireland, if not for her history, he never came. The
+early incursions of the Scotti or Irish were eastward into England,
+Wales, and Gaul, and there seem to have been few return movements
+towards the west. Ireland pursued her path of native development
+undisturbed. It is to this circumstance that she owes the
+preservation of so much of her native literature, a great body of
+material, historical, religious, poetic, romantic, showing marks of
+having originated at a very early time, and of great variety and
+interest.
+
+At what period this literature first began to be written down we do
+not know. Orosius tells us that a traveler named Aethicus spent a
+considerable time in Ireland early in the fifth century "examining
+their volumes", which tends to prove that there was writing in
+Ireland before St. Patrick. But the native bard must have made
+writing superfluous. The man who could, at a moment's notice, recite
+any one out of the 350 stories which might be called for, besides
+poetry, genealogies, and tribal records, was worth many books. Only a
+few were expert enough to read his writings, but all could enjoy his
+tales.
+
+The earliest written records that we have now existing date from the
+seventh or eighth century; but undoubtedly there is preserved for us,
+in these materials, a picture of social conditions going back to the
+very beginning of our era, and coeval with the stage of civilization
+known in archaeology as _La Tène_ or "Late Celtic".
+
+To help his memory the early "shanachie" or story-teller grouped his
+romantic story-store under different heads, such as "Táins" or
+Cattle-spoils, Feasts, Elopements, Sieges, Battles, Destructions,
+Tragical Deaths; but it is easier for us now to group them in another
+way, and to class together the series of tales referring to the
+Tuatha De Danann or ancient deities, those belonging to the Red
+Branch cycle of King Conchobar and Cuchulainn, those relating to
+Finn, and the Legends of the Kings. The hundred or more tales
+belonging to the second group are especially valuable for social
+history on account of the detailed descriptions they give of customs,
+dress, weapons, habits of life, and ethical ideas. To the historian,
+folklorist, and student of primitive civilizations they are documents
+of the highest importance.
+
+It seems likely that the Red Branch cycle of tales, including the
+epic tale of the Táin or Cattle-spoil of Cualnge, which has gathered
+round itself a number of minor tales, had some basis of historical
+fact, and arose in the period of Ulster's predominance to celebrate
+the deeds of a band of warlike champions who flourished in the north
+about the beginning of the Christian era. No one who has visited the
+raths of Emain Macha, near Armagh, where stood the traditional site
+of the ancient capital of Ulster, or has followed the well-defined
+and massive outworks of Rath Celtchair and the forts of the other
+heroes whose deeds the tales embody, could doubt that they had their
+origin in great events that once happened there. The topography of
+the tales is absolutely correct. Or again, when we cross over into
+Connacht, the remains at Rath Croghan, near the ancient palace of the
+Amazonian queen, Medb, testify to similar events. She it was who in
+her "Pillow Talk" with her husband Ailill declared that she had
+married him only because in him did she find the "strange bride-gift"
+which her imperious nature demanded, "a man without stinginess,
+without jealousy, without fear." It was in her desire to surpass her
+husband in wealth that she sent the combined armies of the south and
+west into Ulster to carry off a famous bull, the Brown Bull of
+Cooley, the only match in Ireland for one possessed by her spouse.
+This raid forms the central subject of the _Táin Bó Cúalnge_. The
+motif of the tale and the kind of life described in it alike show the
+primitive conditions out of which it had its rise. It belongs to a
+time when land was plenty for the scattered inhabitants to dwell
+upon, but stock to place upon it was scarce. The possession of herds
+was necessary, not only for food and the provisioning of troops, but
+as a standard of wealth, a proof of position, and a means of
+exchange. Everything was estimated, before the use of money, by its
+value in kine or herds. When Medb and Ailill compare their
+possessions, to find out which of them is better than the other,
+their herds of cattle, swine, and horses are driven in, their
+ornaments and jewels, their garments and vats and household
+appliances are displayed. The pursuit of the cattle of neighboring
+tribes was the prime cause of the innumerable raids which made every
+man's life one of perpetual warfare, much more so than the
+acquisition of land or the avenging of wrongs. Hence a motif that may
+seem to us insufficient and remote as the subject of a great epic
+arose out of the necessities of actual life. Cattle-driving is the
+oldest of all occupations in Ireland.
+
+The conditions we find described in these tales show us an open
+country, generally unenclosed by hedges or walls. The chariots can
+drive straight across the province. There are no towns, and the
+stopping places are the large farmers' dwellings, open inns known as
+"houses of hospitality", fortified by surrounding raths or earthen
+walls, the only private property in land, in a time when the
+tribe-land was common, that we hear of at this period. Within these
+borders lay the pleasure grounds and gardens and the cattle-sheds for
+the herds, which the great landowner or chief loaned out to the
+smaller men in return for services rendered. Here were trained in
+arts of industry and fine needlework the daughters of the chief men
+of the tribe and their foster-sisters, drawn from the humbler
+families around them. The rivers as a rule formed the boundaries of
+the provinces, and the fords were constantly guarded by champions who
+challenged every wayfarer to single combat, if he could not show
+sufficient reason for crossing the borderland. These combats were
+fought actually in the ford itself, and all wars began in a long
+series of single hand-to-hand combats between equal champions before
+the armies as a whole engaged each other.
+
+To fight was every man's prime duty, and the man who had slain the
+largest number of his fellows was acclaimed as the greatest hero. It
+was the proud boast of Conall Cernach, "the Victorious", that seldom
+had a day passed in which he had not challenged a Connachtman, and
+few nights in which a Connachtman's head had not formed his pillow.
+It shows the primitive savagery of the period that skulls of enemies
+were worn dangling from the belt, and were stored up in one of the
+palaces of Emain Macha as trophies of valor. So warlike were the
+heroes that even during friendly feasts their weapons had to be hung
+up in a separate house, lest they should spring to arms in rivalry
+with their own fellows.
+
+Yet in spite of this rude barbarism of outward life, the warriors had
+formed for themselves a high and exacting code of honor, which may be
+regarded as the first steps toward what in later times and other
+countries became known as "chivalry"; save that there is in the acts
+of the Irish heroes a simplicity and sincerity which puts them on a
+higher level than the obligatory courtesies of more artificial ages.
+Generosity between enemies was carried to an extraordinary pitch.
+Twice over in fights with different foes, Conall Cernach binds his
+right hand to his side in order that his enemy, who had lost one
+hand, may fight on equal terms with him. The two severest combats
+sustained by Cuchulainn, the youthful Ulster champion, in the long
+war of the Táin are those with Loch the Great and Ferdiad, both
+first-rate warriors, who had been forced by the wiles of Medb into
+unwilling conflict against their young antagonist. In their youth
+they had been fellow-pupils in the school of the Amazon Scathach, who
+had taught them both alike the arts of war. When Loch the Great, as a
+dying request, prays Cuchulainn to permit him to rise, "so that he
+may fall on his face and not backwards towards the men of Erin," lest
+hereafter it should be said that he fell in flight, Cuchulainn
+replies: "That will I surely, for it is a warrior's boon thou
+cravest," and he steps back to allow the wounded man to reverse his
+position in the ford. The tale of Cuchulainn's combat with Ferdiad
+has become classic; nothing more pathetic or more full of the true
+spirit of chivalry is to be found in any literature. Each warrior
+estimates nobly the prowess of the other, each sorrowfully recalls
+the memory of old friendships and expeditions made together. When
+Ferdiad falls, his ancient comrade pours out over him a passionate
+lament. Each night, when the day's combat is over, they throw their
+arms round each other's neck and embrace. Their horses are put up in
+the same paddock and their charioteers sleep beside the same fire;
+each night Cuchulainn sends to his wounded friend a share of the
+herbs that are applied to his own wounds, while to Cuchulainn Ferdiad
+sends a fair half of the pleasant delicate food supplied to him by
+the men of Erin. We may recall, too, Cuchulainn's act of compassion
+towards Queen Medb near the close of the Táin. Her army is flying in
+rout homeward across the Shannon, closely pursued by Cuchulainn. As
+he approaches the ford he finds Queen Medb lying prostrate on the
+bank, unable any longer to guard the retreat of her army. She appeals
+to her enemy to aid her; and Cuchulainn, with that lovable boyish
+delight in acts of supreme generosity which is always ascribed to
+him, undertakes to shield the retreat of the disordered host from his
+own troops and to see them safely across the river, while Medb
+reposes peacefully in a field hard by. The spirit which actuates the
+heroes is well expressed by Cuchulainn when his friends would
+restrain him from going forth to his last fight, knowing that in that
+battle he must fall: "I had rather than the whole world's gold and
+than the earth's riches that death had ere now befallen me, so would
+not this shame and testimony of reproach now stand recorded against
+me; for in every tongue this noble old saying is remembered, 'Fame
+outlives life.'"
+
+The Irish tales surpass those of the Arthurian cycle in simplicity,
+in humor, and in human interest; the characters are not mere types of
+fixed virtues and vices, they have each a strongly marked
+individuality, consistently adhered to through the multitude of
+different stories in which they play a part. This is especially the
+case with regard to the female characters. Emer, Deirdre, Etain,
+Grainne may be said to have introduced into European literature new
+types of womanhood, quite unlike, in their sprightliness and humor,
+their passionate affection and heroic qualities, to anything found
+elsewhere. Stories about women play a large part in ancient Irish
+literature; their elopements, their marriages, their griefs and
+tragedies, form the subject of a large number of tales. Among the
+list of tales that any bard might be called upon to recite, the
+"Courtships" or "Wooings" probably formed a favorite group; they are
+of great variety and beauty. The Irish, indeed, may be called the
+inventors of the love-tale for modern Europe.
+
+The gravest defect of this literature (a defect which is common to
+all early literature before coming under the chastening hand of the
+master) is undoubtedly its tendency to extravagance; though much
+depended upon the individual writer, some being stylists and some
+not, all were prone to frequent and grotesque exaggerations. The lack
+of restraint and self-criticism is everywhere apparent; the old Irish
+writer seems incapable of judging how to shape his material with a
+view to presenting it in its best form. Thus, we have the feeling,
+even with regard to the _Táin Bó Cúalnge_, that what has come down to
+us is rather the rough-shaped material of an epic than a completed
+design. The single stories and the groups of stories have been
+handled and rehandled at different times, but only occasionally, as
+in the Story of Deirdre (the "Sorrowful Tale of the Sons of Usnech"),
+or in the later versions of the "Wooing of Emer", or the Book of
+Leinster version of the "Wooing of Ferb", do we feel that a competent
+artist has so formed his story that the best possible value has been
+extracted from it. Yet, in spite of their defects, the old heroic
+sagas of Ireland have in them a stimulating force and energy, and an
+element of fine and healthy optimism, which is strangely at variance
+with the popular conception of the melancholy of Irish literature,
+and which, wherever they are known, make them the fountain-head of a
+fresh creative inspiration. This stimulating of the imagination is
+perhaps the best gift that a revived interest in the old native
+romance of Ireland has to bestow.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+The originals of many of the Tales of the Cuchulainn cycle of
+romances will be found, usually accompanied by English or German
+translations, in the volumes of _Irische Texte; Revue Celtique;
+Zeitschrift für Celt. Phil.; Eriu_; Irish Texts Society, vol. II;
+_Atlantis_; Proceed. of the R. Irish Academy (Irish MSS. Series and
+Todd Lecture Series). English translations: of the Táin Bó Cúalnge
+(LU. and Y.B.L. versions), by Miss Winifred Faraday (1904); (LL.
+version with conflate readings), by Joseph Dunn (1914); of various
+stories: E. Hull, The Cuchulain Saga in Irish Literature (1898); A.
+H. Leahy, Heroic Romances of Ireland (1905-6), the Courtship of Ferb
+(1902). French translations in Arbois de Jubainville's _Epopée
+celtique en Irlande_; German translations in Thurneysen's _Sagen aus
+dem alien Irland_ (1901); free rendering by S. O'Grady in The Coming
+of Cuchullain (1904), and in his History of Ireland, the Heroic
+Period (1878). For full bibliography, see R. I. Best's Bibliography
+of Irish Philology and Printed Literature (1913), and Joseph Dunn's
+_Táin Bó Cúalnge_, pp. xxxii-xxxvi (1914).
+
+
+
+IRISH PRECURSORS OF DANTE
+
+By SIDNEY GUNN, M.A.
+
+
+One of the supreme creations of the human mind is the _Divine Comedy_
+of Dante, and undoubtedly one of its chief sources is the literature
+of ancient Ireland. Dante himself was a native of Florence, Italy,
+and lived from 1265 to 1321. Like many great men, he incurred the
+hatred of his countrymen, and he spent, as a result, the last twenty
+years of his life in exile with a price on his head. He had been
+falsely accused of theft and treachery, and his indignation at the
+wrong thus done him and at the evil conduct of his contemporaries led
+him to write his poem, in which he visits Hell, Purgatory, and
+Paradise, and learns how God punishes bad actions, and how He rewards
+those who do His will.
+
+To the writing of his poem Dante brought all the learning of his
+time, all its science, and an art that has never been surpassed,
+perhaps never equalled. Of course, he did not know any Irish, but he
+knew Italian and the then universal tongue of the learned--Latin, in
+both of which were tales of visits to the other world; and the
+greater part of these tales, as well as those most resembling Dante's
+work in form and spirit, were Irish in origin.
+
+All peoples have traditions of persons visiting the realms of the
+dead. Homer tells of Odysseus going there; Virgil does the same of
+Aeneas; and the Oriental peoples, as well as the Germanic races, have
+similar tales; but no people have so many or such finished accounts
+of this sort as the ancient Irish. In pagan times in Ireland one of
+the commonest adventures attributed to a hero was a visit to "tír na
+m-beó," the land of the living, or to "tír na n-óg," the land of the
+young; and this supernatural world was reached in some cases by
+entering a fairy mound and going beneath the ground to it, and in
+others by sailing over the ocean.
+
+Of the literature of pagan Ireland, though much has come down to us,
+we have only a very small fraction of what once existed, and what we
+have has been transmitted and modified by persons of later times and
+different culture, who, both consciously and unconsciously, have
+changed it, so that it is very different from what it was in its
+original form; but the subject and the main outlines still remain,
+and we have many accounts of both voyages and underground journeys to
+the other world.
+
+The oldest voyage is, perhaps, that of Maelduin, which, Tennyson has
+transmuted into English under the title _The Voyage of Maeldune_.
+This is a voyage undertaken for revenge; but vengeance, as Sir Walter
+Scott has pointed out in his preface to _The Two Drovers_, springs in
+a barbarous society from a passion for justice; and it is this
+instinct for justice that inspires the Irish hero to endure and to
+achieve what he does. Christianity has preserved this legend and
+added to it its own peculiar quality of mercy; and this illustrates
+one of the characteristics of Ireland's pagan literature--it is
+imperfectly Christian and can readily be made to express the
+Christian point of view.
+
+Another voyage of pagan Irish literature is the _Voyage of Bran_. In
+this tale idealism is the inspiration that leads the hero into the
+unknown world. A woman appears who is invisible to all but Bran, and
+whose song of the beauteous supernatural land beyond the wave is
+heard by none but him; so that, after refusing to go with her the
+first time she appears, at length he steps into her boat of glass and
+sails away to view the wonders and taste the joys of the other world.
+
+In these tales we have two main elements, one real and one ideal. The
+real element is the fact that the ancient Irish unquestionably made
+voyages and visited lands which the fervid Celtic imagination and the
+lapse of time transformed into the wonderful regions of the legends.
+The stories are thus early geographies, and they show unmistakably a
+knowledge of western Europe and of the Canary Islands or some other
+tropical regions; perhaps also, some have gone so far as to claim,
+they are reminiscent of voyages to America.
+
+The ideal element is no less important as indicating achievement, for
+it shows that the Irish poets of pagan times had not only realized,
+but had succeeded in making their national traditions embody, the
+fact that love of justice and aspiration for knowledge are the
+foundations of all enduring human achievement and all perfect human
+joy. Christianity therefore found moral and spiritual ideas of a
+highly developed order in pagan Ireland, and it did not hesitate to
+adopt whatever in the literature of the country illustrated its own
+teachings, and not only were these stories of visits to the other
+world full of suggestions as to ways of enforcing Christian doctrine,
+but the Irish church and men of Irish birth were the most active in
+spreading the faith in the early centuries of its conquest of western
+Europe.
+
+For these reasons it is not strange that all the earliest Christian
+visions of the spirit-world were of Irish origin. We find the
+earliest in the _Ecclesiastical History_ of the "Venerable Bede," who
+died in 735. It is the story of how an Irishman of great sanctity,
+Furseus by name, was taken in spirit by three angels to a place from
+which he looked down and saw the four fires that are to consume the
+world: those of falsehood, avarice, discord, fraud and impiety. In
+this there is the germ of some very fundamental things in Dante's
+poem, and we know that Dante knew Bede and had probably read his
+history, for he places him in Paradise and mentions him elsewhere in
+his works.
+
+In Bede's work there is also another vision, and though in this
+second case the man who visits the spirit-world is not an Irishman,
+but a Saxon named Drithelm, yet the story came to Bede through an
+Irish monk named Haemgils; so it, too, is connected with Ireland, and
+it also contains much that is developed further in the _Divine
+Comedy_.
+
+One of the most celebrated of the works belonging to this class of
+so-called "visionary" writings is the _Fis_ or "Vision" which goes
+under the name of the famous Irish saint, Adamnan, who was poetically
+entitled the "High Scholar of the Western World." This particular
+vision, the _Fis Adamnáin_, is remarkable among other things for its
+literary quality, which is far superior to anything of the time, and
+for the fact that it represents "the highest level of the school to
+which it belonged," and that it is "the most important contribution
+made to the growth of the legend within the Christian Church prior to
+the advent of Dante."
+
+Another Irish vision of great popularity all over Europe in the
+Middle Ages is the _Voyage of Saint Brendan_. This is known as the
+Irish Odyssey, and it is similar to the pagan tales of Maelduin and
+Bran, except that instead of its hero being a dauntless warrior
+seeking vengeance or a noble youth seeking happiness, he is a
+Christian saint in quest of peace; and instead of the perils of the
+way being overcome by physical force or the favor of some capricious
+pagan deity, they are averted by the power of faith and virtue.
+
+The _Voyage of Saint Brendan_, like its pagan predecessors, has a
+real and an ideal basis; and in both respects it shows an advancement
+over its prototypes. It contains some very poetic touches, and is
+credited with being the source of some of the most effective features
+of Dante's poem. Its great popularity is shown by the fact that
+Caxton, the first English printer, published a translation of it in
+1483; so that it was among the first books printed in English, and
+for that reason must have been one of the best-known works of the
+time. Dante undoubtedly knew it, for he was a great scholar in the
+learning of his day, and especially in ecclesiastical history and the
+biography of saints.
+
+Another vision of Irish origin that Dante and other writers have
+borrowed from is that of an Irish soldier named Tundale. He is said
+to have been a very wicked and proud man, who refused to a friend who
+owed him for three horses an extension of time in which to pay for
+them. For this he was struck down by an invisible hand so that he
+remained apparently dead from Wednesday till Saturday, when he
+revived and told a story of a visit to the world of the dead that has
+many features later embodied in the _Divine Comedy_. Tundale's vision
+is said to have taken place in 1149; Dante probably wrote his poem
+between 1314 and 1321.
+
+The Irish also produced another legend of this sort that was
+enormously and universally popular, and became the chief authority on
+the nature of heaven and hell, in the story of _Saint Patrick's
+Purgatory_. Saint Patrick was said to have been granted a view of
+heaven and hell, and a certain island in Lough Derg in Donegal was
+reputed to be the spot in which he had begun his journey; and there,
+it was said, those who desired to purge themselves of their sins
+could enter as he had entered and come back to the world again,
+provided their faith was strong enough.
+
+This legend was probably known in Ireland from a very early time, but
+it had spread over all western Europe by the twelfth century. Henry
+of Saltrey, a Benedictine monk of the Abbey of that name in England,
+wrote an account in Latin of the descent of an Irish soldier named
+Owen into Saint Patrick's Purgatory in 1153; and this story soon
+became the subject of poetic treatment all over Europe. We have
+several French versions, one by the celebrated French poetess Marie
+de France, who lived about 1200; and there are others in all the
+languages of Europe, besides evidence of its wide circulation in the
+original Latin. Its importance is shown by the fact that it is
+mentioned by Matthew Paris, the chief English historian of the
+thirteenth century, and also by Froissart, the well-known French
+annalist of the fourteenth while Calderon, the great Spanish
+dramatist, has written a play based on the legend. Dante undoubtedly
+knew of Marie de France's version as well as the original of Henry of
+Saltrey and probably others besides.
+
+From what has been said it will be seen that Dante's masterpiece is
+largely based on literature of Irish origin; but there are other
+superlative exhibitions of human genius of which the same is true.
+One of these is the story of Tristan and Isolde. Tristan is the
+paragon of all knightly accomplishments, the most versatile figure in
+the entire literature of chivalry; while Isolde is an Irish princess.
+By a trick of fate these two drink a love potion inadvertently and
+become irresistibly enamored of each other, although Isolde is
+betrothed to King Mark of Cornwall, and Tristan is his nephew and
+ambassador. The story that follows is infinitely varied, intensely
+dramatic, delicately beautiful, and tenderly pathetic. It has been
+treated by several poets of great genius, among them Gottfried of
+Strassburg, the greatest German poet of his time, and Richard Wagner;
+but all the beauty and power in the works of these men existed in the
+original Celtic form of the tale, and the later writers have only
+discovered it and brought it to light.
+
+The same thing is true of the Arthurian Legend and the story of the
+Holy Grail. Dante knew of King Arthur's fame, and mentions him in the
+_Inferno_. To Dante he was a Christian hero, and the historical
+Arthur may have been a Christian; but much in the story goes back to
+the pagan Celtic religion. We can find in Irish literature many
+references that indicate a belief in a self-sustaining, miraculous
+object similar to the Holy Grail, and the fact that this object was
+developed into a symbol of some of the deepest and most beautiful
+Christian truths shows the high character of the civilization and
+literature of ancient Ireland.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Wright: St. Patrick's Purgatory (London, 1844); Krapp: The Legend of
+St. Patrick's Purgatory (Baltimore, 1900); Becker: Mediaeval Visions
+of Heaven and Hell (Baltimore, 1899); Shackford: Legends and Satires
+(Boston, 1913); Meyer and Nutt: The Voyage of Bran, edited and
+translated by K. Meyer, with an Essay on the Irish Version of the
+Happy Other World and the Celtic Doctrine of Rebirth, by A. Nutt, 2
+vols. (London, 1895); Boswell: An Irish Precursor of Dante (London,
+1908).
+
+
+
+IRISH INFLUENCE ON ENGLISH LITERATURE
+
+By E.C. QUIGGIN, M.A.
+
+
+Among the literary peoples of the west of Europe, the Irish, in late
+medieval and early modern times, were singularly little affected by
+the frequent innovations in taste and theme which influenced Romance
+and Teutonic nations alike. To such an extent is this true, that one
+is often inclined to think that far-off Iceland was to a greater
+degree in the general European current than the much more accessible
+Erin. During the age of chivalry, conditions in Ireland were not
+calculated to promote the growth of epic and lyric poetry after the
+continental manner. Some considerable time elapsed before the Norman
+barons became fully Hibernicised, previous to which their interest
+may be assumed to have turned to the compositions of the trouvères.
+In the early Norman period, the poets of Ireland might well have
+begun to imitate Romance models. But, strange to say, they did not,
+and, for this, various reasons might be assigned. The flowing verses
+of the Anglo-Norman were impossible for men who delighted in the
+trammels of the native prosody; and in the heyday of French
+influence, the patrons of letters in Ireland probably insisted on
+hearing the foreign compositions in their original dress, as these
+nobles were doubtless sufficiently versed in Norman-French to be able
+to appreciate them. But a still more potent factor was the
+conservatism of the hereditary Irish poet families. A close
+corporation, they appear to have resented every innovation, and were
+content to continue the tradition of their ancestors. The direct
+consequence of this tenacious clinging to the fashions of by-gone
+days rendered it impossible, nay almost inconceivable, that the
+literary men of Ireland should have exerted any profound or immediate
+influence upon England or western Europe. Yet, nowadays, few serious
+scholars will be prepared to deny that the island contributed in
+considerable measure to the common literary stock of the Middle Ages.
+
+We might expect to find that direct influence, as a general rule, can
+be most easily traced in the case of religious themes. Here, in the
+literature of vision, so popular in Ireland, a chord was struck which
+continued to vibrate powerfully until the time of the Reformation. In
+this branch the riotous fancy of the Celtic monk caught the medieval
+imagination from an early period. Bede has preserved for us the story
+of Fursey, an Irish hermit who died in France, A.D. 650. The greatest
+Irish composition of this class with which we are acquainted, the
+_Vision of Adamnan_, does not appear to have been known outside the
+island, but a later work of a similar nature met with striking
+success. This was the _Vision of Tundale_ (Tnudgal), written in Latin
+by an Irishman named Marcus at Regensburg, about the middle of the
+twelfth century. It seems probable that this work was known to Dante,
+and, in addition to the numerous continental versions, there is a
+rendering of the story into Middle English verse.
+
+Closely allied to the Visions are the _Imrama_ or "voyages" (Lat.
+_navigationes_). The earliest romances of this class are secular,
+_e.g., Imram Maelduin_, which provided Tennyson with the frame-work
+of his well-known poem. However, the notorious love of adventure on
+the part of the Irish monks inevitably led to the composition of
+religious romances of a similar kind. The most famous story of this
+description, the_ Voyage of St. Brendan_, found its way into every
+Christian country in Europe, and consequently figures in the South
+English Legendary, a collection of versified lives of saints made in
+the neighborhood of Gloucester towards the end of the thirteenth
+century. The episode of St. Brendan and the whale, moreover, was
+probably the ultimate source of one of Milton's best known similes in
+his description of Satan. Equally popular was the visit of Sir Owayn
+to the Purgatory of St. Patrick, which is also included in the same
+Middle English Legendary. Ireland further contributed in some measure
+to the common stock of medieval stories which were used as
+illustrations by the preachers and in works of an edifying character.
+
+When we turn to purely secular themes, we find ourselves on much less
+certain ground. Though the discussion as to the origins of the
+"romance of Uther's son", Arthur, continues with unabated vigor, many
+scholars have come think that the Celtic background of these stories
+contains much that is derived from Hibernian sources. Some writers in
+the past have argued in favor of an independent survival of common
+Celtic features, in Wales and Ireland, but now the tendency is to
+regard all such coincidences as borrowings on the part of Cymric
+craftsmen. At the beginning of the twelfth century a new impulse
+seems to have been imparted to native minstrelsy in Wales under'the
+patronage of Gruffydd ap Cynan, a prince of Gwynedd, who had spent
+many years in exile at the court of Dublin. Some of the Welsh
+rhapsodists apparently served a kind of apprenticeship with their
+Irish brethren, and many things Irish were assimilated at this time
+which, through this channel, were shortly to find their way into
+Anglo-French. Thus it may now be regarded as certain that the name of
+the "fair sword" Excalibur, by Geoffrey called Caliburnus (Welsh
+_caletfwlch_), is taken from Caladbolg, the far-famed broadsword of
+Fergus macRoig. It does not appear that the whole framework of the
+Irish sagas was taken over, but, as Windisch points out, episodes
+were borrowed as well as tricks of imagery. So, to mention but one,
+the central incident of _Syr Gawayn and the Grene Knyght_ is
+doubtless taken from the similar adventure of Cuchulainn in
+_Bricriu's Feast_. The share assigned to Irish influence in the
+_matière de Bretagne_ is likely to grow considerably with the
+progress of research.
+
+The fairy lore of Great Britain undoubtedly owes much to Celtic
+phantasy. Of this Chaucer, at any rate, had little doubt, as he
+writes:
+
+      In th' olde dayes of the King Arthour,
+      Of which that Britons speken greet honour,
+      Al was this land fulfild of fayerye;
+      The elf-queen, with hir joly companye,
+      Daunced ful ofte in many a grene med.
+
+And here again there is a reasonable probability that certain
+features were borrowed from the wealth of story current in the
+neighboring isle. Otherwise it is difficult to understand why the
+queen of fayerye should bear an Irish name (Mab, from Irish Medb),
+and curiously enough the form of the name rathef suggests that it was
+borrowed through a written medium and not by oral tradition. On the
+other hand it is incorrect to derive Puck from Irish _puca_, as the
+latter is undoubtedly borrowed from some form of Teutonic speech.
+
+So all embracing a mind as that of the greatest English dramatist
+could not fail to be interested in the gossip that must have been
+current in London at the time of the wars in Ulster. References to
+kerns and gallowglasses are fairly frequent. He had evidently heard
+of the marvellous powers with which the Irish bards were credited,
+for, in _As You Like It_, Rosalind exclaims:
+
+"I was never so be-rhymed since Pythagoras' time, that I was an Irish
+rat, which I can hardly remember."
+
+Similarly, in _King Richard III_, mention is made of the prophetic
+utterance of an Irish bard, a trait which does not appear in the
+poet's source. Any statements as to Irish influence in Shakespeare
+that go beyond this belong to the realm of conjecture. Professor
+Kittredge has attempted to show that in Syr Orfeo, upon which the
+poet drew for portions of the plot of _A Midsummer Night's Dream_,
+the Irish story of Etain and Mider was fused with the medieval form
+of the classical tale of Orpheus and Eurydice. Direct influence is
+entirely wanting, and it is difficult to see how it could have been
+otherwise.
+
+Even in the case of the Elizabethan poet who spent many years in the
+south of Ireland, there is no trace of Hibernian lore or legend.
+Spenser, indeed, tells us himself that he had caused some of the
+native poetry to be translated to him, and had found that it
+"savoured of sweet wit and good invention." But Ireland plays an
+infinitesimal part in the _Faerie Queene_. The scenery round
+Kilcolman Castle forms the background of much of the incident in Book
+V. "Marble far from Ireland brought" is mentioned in a simile in the
+second Book, where we also read:
+
+      As when a swarme of gnats at eventide
+      Out of the fennes of Allan do arise.
+
+But Ireland supplied no further inspiration.
+
+The various plantations of the seventeenth century produced an
+Anglo-Irish stock which soon asserted itself in literature. As a
+typical example, we may take the author of _The Vicar of Wakefield_.
+At his first school at Lissoy, Oliver Goldsmith came under Thomas
+Byrne, a regular shanachie, possessed of all the traditional lore,
+with a remarkable gift for versifying. It was under this man that the
+boy made his first attempts at verse, and his memory is celebrated in
+_The Deserted Village_:
+
+      There, in his noisy mansion, skilled to rule,
+      The village master taught his little school.
+      A man severe he was, and stern to view.
+
+Unfortunately Goldsmith was removed to Elphin at the age of nine, and
+although he retained an affection for Irish music all his life, his
+intimate connection with Irish Ireland apparently ceased at this
+point. "Sweet Auburn! loveliest village of the plain" is doubtless
+full of reminiscences of the poet's early years in Westmeath, but the
+sentiments, the rhythm, and the language are entirely cast in an
+English mould. We may mention, in passing, that it has been suggested
+that Swift derived the idea of the kingdom of Lilliput from the Irish
+story of the Adventures of Fergus macLeide amongst the leprechauns.
+All that can be said is that this derivation is not impossible,
+though the fact that the tale is preserved only in a single
+manuscript rather points to the conclusion that the story did not
+enjoy great popularity in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
+
+We have seen that Goldsmith was removed from an Irish atmosphere at a
+tender age, and this is not the only instance of the frowning of
+fortune upon the native literature. When the fame of the ancient
+bards of the Gael was noised from end to end of Europe, it was
+through the medium of Macpherson's forgeries. _Fingal_ caught the
+fleeting fancy of the moment in a manner never achieved by the true
+Ossianic lays of Ireland. The _Reliques of Irish Poetry_, published
+by Miss Brooke by subscription in Dublin in 1789 to vindicate the
+antiquity of the literature of Erin, never went into a second
+edition. And although some of the pieces contained in that volume
+have been reprinted in such undertakings of a learned character as
+the volumes of the Dublin Ossianic Society, J.F. Campbell's _Leabhar
+na Feinne_, and Cameron's _Reliquiae Celticae_, they have aroused
+little interest amongst those ignorant of the Irish tongue.
+
+During the nineteenth century, the number of poets who drew upon
+Ireland's past for their themes increased considerably. The most
+popular of all is unquestionably the author of the _Irish Melodies_.
+But, here again, the poet owes little or nothing to vernacular
+poetry, the mould is English, the sentiments are those of the poet's
+age. Moore's acquaintance with the native language can have been but
+of the slightest, and in the case of Mangan we are told that he had
+to rely upon literal versions of Irish pieces furnished him by
+O'Donovan or O'Curry. Of the numerous attempts to reproduce the
+overelaboration of rhyme to which Irish verse has ever been prone,
+Father Prout's _Bells of Shandon_ is perhaps the only one that is at
+all widely known. When the legendary lore of Ireland became
+accessible to men of letters, owing to the labors of O'Curry,
+O'Donovan, and Hennessy, and the publication of various ancient texts
+by the Irish Archaeological Society, it was to be expected that an
+attempt would be made by some poet of Erin to do for his native land
+what the Wizard of the North had accomplished for Scotland. The task
+was undertaken by Sir Samuel Ferguson, who met with conspicuous
+success. His most ambitious effort, _Congal_, deals in epic fashion
+with the story of the battle of Moyra. Others in similar strain treat
+the story of Conaire Mór and Deirdre, whilst others such as the
+_Tain-Quest_ are more in the nature of ballads. Ferguson did more to
+introduce the English reading public to Irish story than would have
+been accomplished by any number of bald translations. His diction is
+little affected by the originals, and he sometimes treats his
+materials with great freedom, but his achievement was a notable one,
+and he has not infrequently been acclaimed as the national poet.
+
+Is it perhaps invidious to single out any living author for special
+mention, but this brief survey cannot close without noticing the
+dramatic poems of W.B. Yeats, the latest poet who attempts to present
+the old stories in an English dress. His plays _On Baile's Strand,
+Deirdre_, and others, have become familiar to English audiences
+through the excellent acting of the members of the Abbey Theatre
+Company. The original texts are now much better known than they were
+in Ferguson's day, and Mr. Yeats consequently cannot permit himself
+the same liberties. Similarly, it is only during the last twenty-five
+years that the language of Irish poetry has been carefully studied,
+and Mr. Yeats has this advantage over his predecessors that on
+occasion, e.g., in certain passages in _The King's Threshold_, he is
+able to introduce with great effect reminiscences of the
+characteristic epithets and imagery which formed so large a part of
+the stock-in-trade of the medieval bard.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Friedel and Meyer: La Vision de Tondale (Paris, 1907); Boswell: An
+Irish Precursor of Dante (London, 1908); Cambridge History of English
+Literature, vol. I, chaps, xii and xvi; Windisch: _Das Keltische
+Brittannien_ (Leipzig, 1912), more especially chap. xxxvii;
+Dictionary of National Biography; Gwynn: Thos. Moore ("English Men of
+Letters" Series, London, 1905).
+
+
+
+IRISH FOLKLORE
+
+By ALFRED PERCEVAL GRAVES.
+
+
+Among savage peoples there is at first no distinction of a definite
+kind between good and bad spirits, and when a distinction has been
+reached, a great advance in a spiritual direction has been made. For
+the key to the religion of savages is fear, and until such terror has
+been counteracted by belief in beneficent powers, civilization will
+not follow. But the elimination of the fear of the unseen is a slow
+process; indeed, it will exist side by side with the belief in
+Christianity itself, after a modification through various stages of
+better pagan belief.
+
+Ireland still presents, in its more out-of-the-way districts,
+evidence of that strong persistence in the belief in maleficent or
+malicious influences of the pre-Christian powers of the air, which it
+seems difficult to eradicate from the Celtic imagination. In the
+celebrated poem entitled _The Breastplate of St. Patrick_, there is
+much the same attitude on the part of Patrick towards the Druids and
+their powers of concealing and changing, of paralyzing and cursing,
+as was shown by Moses towards the magicians of Egypt. Indeed, in
+Patrick's time a belief in a world of fairies existed even in the
+king's household, for "when the two daughters of King Leary of
+Ireland, Ethnea the fair and Fedelma the ruddy, came early one
+morning to the well of Clebach to wash, they found there a synod of
+holy bishops with Patrick. And they knew not whence they came, or in
+what form, or from what people, or from what country; but they
+supposed them to be _Duine Sidh_, or gods of the earth, or a
+phantasm."
+
+Colgan explains the term _Duine Sidh_ thus: "Fantastical spirits," he
+writes, "are by the Irish called men of the _Sidh_, because they are
+seen, as it were, to come out of the beautiful hills to infest men,
+and hence the vulgar belief that they reside in certain subterranean
+habitations: and sometimes the hills themselves are called, by the
+Irish, _Sidhe_ or _Siodha_."
+
+No doubt, when the princesses spoke of the gods of the earth,
+reference was made to such pagan deities as Beal; Dagda the great or
+the good god; Aine, the Moon, goddess of the water and of wisdom;
+Manannan macLir, the Irish Neptune; Crom, the Irish Ceres; and
+Iphinn, the benevolent, whose relations to the Irish Oirfidh
+resembled those of Apollo towards Orpheus; and to the allegiance they
+owed to the Elements, the Wind, and the Stars. But besides these
+pagan divinities and powers, and quite apart from them, the early
+Irish believed in two classes of fairies: in the first place, a
+hierarchy of fairy beings, well and ill disposed, not differing in
+appearance, to any great degree at any rate, from human beings--good
+spirits and demons, rarely visible during the daytime; and, in the
+second place, there was the magic race of the De Danann, who, after
+conquest by the Milesians, transformed themselves into fairies, and
+in that guise continued to inhabit the underworld of the Irish hills,
+and to issue thence in support of Irish heroes, or to give their aid
+against other fairy adversaries.
+
+There is another theory to account for the fairy race. It is that
+they are angels who revolted with Satan and were excluded from heaven
+for their unworthiness, but were not found evil enough for hell, and
+therefore were allowed to occupy that intermediate space which has
+been called "the Other World." It is still a moot point with the
+Irish peasantry, as it was with the Irish saints of old, whether,
+after being compelled to dwell without death among rocks and hills,
+lakes and seas, bushes and forest, till the day of judgment, the
+fairies then have the chance of salvation. Indeed, the fairies are
+themselves believed to have great doubts of a future existence,
+though, like many men, entertaining undefined hopes of happiness; and
+hence the enmity which some of them have for mankind, who, they
+acknowledge, will live eternally. Thus their actions are balanced
+between generosity and vindictiveness towards the human race.
+
+Mr. W.Y. Evans Wentz, A.M., of Leland Stanford University,
+California, and Jesus College, Oxford, has received an honorary
+degree from the latter university for his thesis, "The Fairy Faith in
+Celtic Countries: Its Psychical Origin and Nature", a most laborious
+as well as ingenious work, whose object is to prove "that the origin
+of the fairy faith is psychical, and that fairyland, being thought of
+as an invisible world within which the visible world is immersed as
+an island in an unexplored ocean, actually exists, and that it is
+peopled by more species of living beings than this world, because
+incomparably more vast and varied in its possibilities." This may be
+added as a fourth theory to account for the existence of fairies, and
+it may be further stated here that the Irish popular belief in ghosts
+attributes to some of their departed spirits much of the same
+violence and malice with which fairies are credited. Mr. Jeremiah
+Curtin gives striking instances of this kind in his book, the _Folk
+Lore of West Kerry_.
+
+It became necessary, therefore, for the Gaels who believed in the
+preternatural powers of the fairies for good and ill to propitiate
+them as far as possible. On May eve, accordingly, cattle were driven
+into raths and bled there, some of the blood being tasted, the rest
+poured out in sacrifice. Men and women were also bled on these
+occasions. The seekers for buried treasure, over which fairies were
+supposed to have influence, immolated a black cock or a black cat to
+propitiate them. Again, a cow, suffering from sickness believed to be
+due to fairy malice, was bled and then devoted to St. Martin. If it
+recovered, it was never sold or killed. The first new milk of a cow
+was poured out on the ground to propitiate the fairies, and
+especially on the ground within a fairy rath. The first drop of any
+drink is also thrown out by old Irish people. If a child spills milk,
+the mother says, "that's for the fairies, leave it to them and
+welcome." Slops should never be thrown out of doors without the
+warning, "Take care of water!" lest fairies should be passing
+invisibly and get soiled by the discharge. Eddies of dust upon the
+road are supposed to be caused by the fairies, and tufts of grass,
+sticks, and pebbles are thrown into the centre of the eddy to
+propitiate the unseen beings. Some fairies of life size, who live
+within the green hills or under the raths, are supposed to carry off
+healthy babes to be made fairy children, their abstractors leaving
+weak changelings in their place. Similarly, nursing mothers are
+sometimes supposed to be carried off to give the breast to fairy
+babes, and handsome young men are spirited away to become bridegrooms
+to fairy brides. Again, folk suffering from falling sickness are
+supposed to be in that condition owing to the fatigue caused by
+nocturnal rides through the air with the fairies, whose steeds are
+bewitched rushes, blades of grass, straws, fern roots, and cabbage
+stalks. The latter, to be serviceable for the purpose, should be cut
+into the rude shapes of horses before the metamorphosis can take
+place.
+
+Iron of every kind keeps away malignant fairies: thus, a horseshoe
+nailed to the bottom of the churn prevents butter from being
+bewitched. Here is a form of charm against the fairies who have
+bewitched the butter: "Every window should be barred, a great turf
+fire should be lit upon which nine irons should be placed, the
+bystanders chanting twice over in Irish, 'Come, butter, come; Peter
+stands at the gate waiting for a buttered cake.' As the irons become
+heated the witch will try to break in, asking the people to take the
+irons, which are burning her, off the fire. On their refusing, she
+will go and bring back the butter to the churn. The irons may then be
+removed from the fire and all will go well."
+
+If a neighbor or stranger should enter a cottage during the churning,
+he should put his hand to the dash, or the butter will not come. A
+small piece of iron should be sewed into an infant's clothes and kept
+there until the child is baptized, and salt should be sprinkled over
+his cradle to preserve the babe from abduction. The fairies are
+supposed to have been conquered by an iron-weaponed race, and hence
+their dread of the metal.
+
+To recover a spell-bound friend, stand on All Hallows' eve at cross
+roads or at a spot pointed out by a wise woman or fairy doctor. When
+you have rubbed fairy ointment on your eyelids, the fairies will
+become visible as the host sweeps by with its captive, whom the gazer
+will then be able to recognize. A sudden gust announces their
+approach. Stooping down, you will then throw dust or milk at the
+procession, whose members are then obliged to surrender your
+spell-bound friend. If a man leaves home after his wife's
+confinement, some of his clothes should be spread over the mother and
+infant, or the fairies may carry them off. It is good for a woman,
+but bad for a man, to dream of fairies. It betokens marriage for a
+girl, misfortune for a man, who should not undertake serious business
+for some time after such dreaming.
+
+Fairy changelings may be recognized by tricky habits, constant
+crying, and other unusual characteristics. It was customary to
+recover the true child in the following way: The changeling was
+placed upon an iron shovel over the fire, when it would go shrieking
+up the chimney, and the _bona fide_ human child would be restored. It
+was believed that fairy changelings often produced a set of small
+bagpipes from under the clothes and played dance music upon them,
+till the inmates of the cottage dropped with exhaustion from the
+effects of the step dancing they were compelled to engage in.
+
+On Samain eve, the night before the first of November, or, as it is
+now called, All Hallows' night or Hallowe'en, all the fairy hills or
+_shees_ are thrown wide open and the fairy host issues forth, as
+mortals who are bold enough to venture near may see. Naturally
+therefore people keep indoors so as not to encounter the spectral
+host. The superstition that the fairies are abroad on Samain night
+still exists in Ireland and Scotland, and there is a further belief,
+no doubt derived from it, that the graves are open on that night and
+that the spirits of the dead are abroad.
+
+Salt, as already suggested, is regarded to be so lucky that if a
+child falls, it should always be given three pinches of salt, and if
+a neighbor calls to borrow salt, it should not be refused, even
+though it be the last grain in the house.
+
+An infant born with teeth should have them drawn by the nearest
+smith, and the first teeth when shed should be thrown into the fire,
+lest the fairies should get hold of what had been part of you.
+
+Those who hear fairy music are supposed to be haunted by the melody,
+and many are believed to go mad or commit suicide in consequence.
+
+The fairies are thought to engage in warfare with one another, and in
+the year 1800 a specially sanguinary battle was believed to have been
+fought between two clans of the fairies in county Kilkenny. In the
+morning the hawthorns along the fences were found crushed to pieces
+and drenched with blood.
+
+In popular belief fairies often go hunting, and faint sounds of fairy
+horns, the baying of fairy hounds, and the cracking of fairy whips
+are supposed to be heard on these occasions, while the flight of the
+hunters is said to resemble in sound the humming of bees.
+
+Besides the life-sized fairies who are reputed to have these direct
+dealings with human beings, there are diminutive preternatural beings
+who are also supposed to come into close touch with men. Among these
+is the Luchryman (_Leithphrogan_), or brogue maker, otherwise known
+as Leprechaun. He is always found mending or making a shoe, and, if
+grasped firmly and kept constantly in view, will disclose hidden
+treasure to you, or render up his _sparan na sgillinge_, or purse of
+the (inexhaustible) shilling. He can only be bound by a plough chain
+or woolen thread. He is the symbol of industry which, if steadily
+faced, leads to fortune, but, if lost sight of, is followed by its
+forfeiture.
+
+Love in idleness is personified by another pigmy, the _Geancanach_
+(love-talker). He does not appear, like the Leprechaun, with a purse
+in one of his pockets, but with his hands in both of them, and a
+_dudeen_ (short pipe) in his mouth, as he lazily strolls through
+lonely valleys making love to the foolish country lasses and
+"gostering" with the idle "boys." To meet him meant bad luck, and
+whoever was ruined by ill-judged love was said to have been with the
+_Geancanach_.
+
+Another evil sprite was the _Clobher-ceann_, "a jolly, red-faced,
+drunken little fellow," always "found astride of a wine-butt" singing
+and drinking from a full tankard in a hard drinker's cellar, and
+bound by his appearance to bring its owner to speedy ruin.
+
+Then there were the _Leannan-sighes_, or native Muses, to be found in
+every place of note to inspire the local bard, and the _Beansighes_
+(Banshees, fairy women) attached to each of the old Irish families
+and giving warning of the death of one of its members with piteous
+lamentations.
+
+Black Joanna of the Boyne (_Siubhan Dubh na Boinne_) appeared on
+Hallowe'en in the shape of a great black fowl, bringing luck to the
+home whose _Banithee_ (woman of the house) kept the dwelling
+constantly clean and neat.
+
+The Pooka, who appeared in the shape of a horse, and whom Shakespeare
+is by many believed to have adapted as "Puck," was a goblin who
+combined "horse-play" with viciousness, but also at times helped with
+the housework.
+
+The _Dullaghan_ was a churchyard demon whose head was of a movable
+kind. Dr. Joyce writes: "You generally meet him with his head in his
+pocket, under his arm, or absent altogether; or if you have the
+fortune to light upon a number of _Dullaghans_, you may see them
+amusing themselves by flinging their heads at one another or kicking
+them for footballs."
+
+An even more terrible churchyard demon is the fascinating phantom
+that waylays the widower at his wife's very tomb, and poisons him by
+her kiss when he has yielded to her blandishments.
+
+Of monsters the Irish had, and still believe in, the _Piast_ (Latin
+_bestia_), a huge dragon or serpent confined to lakes by St. Patrick
+till the day of judgment, but still occasionally seen in their
+waters. In old Fenian times, namely, the days of Finn and his
+companion knights, the _Piasts_, however, roamed the country,
+devouring men and women and cattle in large numbers, and some of the
+early heroes are recorded to have been swallowed alive by them and
+then to have hewed their way out of their entrails.
+
+Merrows, or Mermaids, are also still believed in, and many folk tales
+exist describing their intermarriage with mortals.
+
+According to Nicholas O'Kearney, "It is the general opinion of many
+old persons versed in native traditional lore, that, before the
+introduction of Christianity, all animals possessed the faculties of
+human reason and speech; and old story-tellers will gravely inform
+you that every beast could speak before the arrival of St. Patrick,
+but that the saint having expelled the demons from the land by the
+sound of his bell, all the animals that, before that time, had
+possessed the power of foretelling future events, such as the Black
+Steed of _Binn-each-labhra_, the Royal Cat of _Cloughmagh-righ-cat_
+(Clough), and others, became mute, and many of them fled to Egypt and
+other foreign countries."
+
+Cats are said to have been appointed to guard hidden treasures; and
+there are few who have not heard old Irish people tell about strange
+meetings of cats and violent battles fought by them in the
+neighborhood. "It was believed," adds O'Kearney, "that an evil spirit
+in the shape of a cat assumed command over these animals in various
+districts, and that when those wicked beings pleased they could
+compel all the cats belonging to their division to attack those of
+some other district. The same was said of rats; and rat-expellers,
+when commanding a colony of those troublesome and destructive animals
+to emigrate to some other place, used to address their 'billet' to
+the infernal rat supposed to hold command over the rest. In a curious
+pamphlet on the power of bardic compositions to charm and expel rats,
+lately published, Mr. Eugene O'Curry states that a degraded priest,
+who was descended from an ancient family of hereditary bards, was
+enabled to expel a colony of rats by the force of satire!"
+
+Hence, of course, Shakespeare's reference to rhyming Irish rats to
+death.
+
+It will thus be seen that Irish Fairy Lore well deserves to have been
+called by Mr. Alfred Nutt, one of the leading authorities on the
+subject, "as fair and bounteous a harvest of myth and romance as ever
+flourished among any race."
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Alex. Carmichael: Carmina Gadelica; David Comyn: The Boyish Exploits
+of Finn; the Periodical, "Folklore"; Lady Gregory: Cuchulain of
+Muirthemne, Gods and Fighting Men; Miss Eleanor Hull: The Cuchulain
+Saga in Irish Literature; Douglas Hyde: Beside the Fire, (a
+collection of Irish Gaelic Folk Stories), _Leabhar Sgeulaicheachta_,
+(Folk Stories in Irish); "Irish Penny Journal"; Patrick Kennedy: The
+Fireside Stories of Ireland, Legendary Fictions of the Irish Celt;
+Standish Hayes O'Grady: Silva Gadelica; Wood-Martin: Traces of the
+Elder Faiths in Ireland, Pagan Ireland; W.Y. Wentz: The Fairy Faith
+in Celtic Countries; Lady Wilde: Charms, Incantations, etc.; Celtic
+articles in Hastings' Dictionary of Religion and Ethics.
+
+
+
+IRISH WIT AND HUMOR
+
+By Charles L. Graves.
+
+
+No record of the glories of Ireland would be complete without an
+effort, however inadequate, to analyze and illustrate her wit and
+humor. Often misunderstood, misrepresented, and misinterpreted, they
+are nevertheless universally admitted to be racial traits, and for an
+excellent reason. Other nations exhibit these qualities in their
+literature, and Ireland herself is rich in writers who have furnished
+food for mirth. But her special pre-eminence resides in the
+possession of what, to adapt a famous phrase, may be called an _anima
+naturaliter jocosa_. Irish wit and Irish humor are a national
+inheritance. They are inherent in the race as a whole, independent of
+education or culture or comfort. The best Irish sayings are the
+sayings of the people; the greatest Irish humorists are the nameless
+multitude who have never written books or found a place in national
+dictionaries of biography. None but an Irishman could have coined
+that supreme expression of contempt: "I wouldn't be seen dead with
+him at a pig-fair," or rebuked a young barrister because he did not
+"squandher his carcass" (_i.e._, gesticulate) enough. But we cannot
+trace the paternity of these sayings any more than we can that of the
+lightning retort of the man to whom one of the "quality" had given a
+glass of whisky. "That's made another man of you, Patsy," remarked
+the donor. "'Deed an' it has, sor," Patsy flashed back, "an' that
+other man would be glad of another glass." It is enough for our
+purpose to note that such sayings are typically Irish and that their
+peculiar felicity consists in their combining both wit and humor.
+
+To what element in the Irish nature are we to attribute this joyous
+and illuminating gift? No one who is not a Gaelic scholar can venture
+to dogmatize on this thorny subject. But, setting philology and
+politics aside, it is hard to avoid the conclusion that Ireland has
+gained rather than lost in this respect by the clash of races and
+languages. Gaiety, we are told, is not the predominating
+characteristic of the Celtic temperament, nor is it reflected in the
+prose and verse of the "old ancient days" that have come down to us.
+Glamour and magic and passion abound in the lays and legends of the
+ancient Gael, but there is more melancholy than mirth in these tales
+of long ago. Indeed, it is interesting to note in connection with
+this subject that the younger school of Irish writers associated with
+what is called the Celtic Renascence have, with very few exceptions,
+sedulously eschewed anything approaching to jocosity, preferring the
+paths of crepuscular mysticism or sombre realism, and openly avowing
+their distaste for what they consider to be the denationalized
+sentiment of Moore, Lever, and Lover. To say this is not to disparage
+the genius of Yeats and Synge; it is merely a statement of fact and
+an illustration of the eternal dualism of the Irish temperament,
+which Moore himself realized when he wrote of "Erin, the tear and the
+smile in thine eye."
+
+A reaction against the Donnybrook tradition was inevitable and to a
+great extent wholesome, since the stage Irishman of the transpontine
+drama or the music-halls was for the most part a gross and unlovely
+caricature, but, like all reactions, it has tended to obscure the
+real merits and services of those who showed the other side of the
+medal. Lever did not exaggerate more than Dickens, and his portraits
+of Galway fox-hunters and duellists, of soldiers of fortune, and of
+Dublin undergraduates were largely based on fact. At his best he was
+a most exhilarating companion, and his pictures of Irish life, if
+partial, were not misleading. He held no brief for the landlords, and
+in his later novels showed a keen sense of their shortcomings. The
+plain fact is that, in considering the literary glories of Ireland,
+we cannot possibly overlook the work of those Irishmen who were
+affected by English influences or wrote for an English audience.
+
+Anglo-Irish humorous literature was a comparatively late product, but
+its efflorescence was rapid and triumphant. The first great name is
+that of Goldsmith, and, though deeply influenced in technique and
+choice of subjects by his association with English men of letters and
+by his residence in England, in spirit he remained Irish to the
+end--generous, impulsive, and improvident in his life; genial, gay,
+and tender-hearted in his works. The Vicar of Wakefield was Dr.
+Primrose, but he might just as well have been called Dr. Shamrock. No
+surer proof of the pre-eminence of Irish wit and humor can be found
+than in the fact that, Shakespeare alone excepted, no writers of
+comedy have held the boards longer or more triumphantly than
+Goldsmith and his brother Irishman, Sheridan. _She Stoops to Conquer,
+The Rivals, The School for Scandal_, and _The Critic_ represent the
+sunny side of the Irish genius to perfection. They illustrate, in the
+most convincing way possible, how the debt of the world to Ireland
+has been increased by the fate which ordained that her choicest
+spirits should express themselves in a language of wider appeal than
+the ancient speech of Erin.
+
+On the other hand, English literature and the English tongue have
+gained greatly from the influence exerted by writers familiar from
+their childhood with turns of speech and modes of expression which,
+even when they are not translations from the Gaelic, are
+characteristic of the Hibernian temper. The late Dr. P.W. Joyce, in
+his admirable treatise on English as spoken in Ireland, has
+illustrated not only the essentially bilingual character of the
+Anglo-Irish dialect, but the modes of thought which it enshrines.
+There is no better known form of Irish humor than that commonly
+called the "Irish bull," which is too often set down to lax thinking
+and faulty logic. But it is the rarest thing to encounter a genuine
+Irish "bull" which is not picturesque and at the same time highly
+suggestive. Take, for example, the saying of an old Kerry doctor who,
+when conversing with a friend on the high rate of mortality,
+observed, "Bedad, there's people dyin' who never died before." Here a
+truly illuminating result was attained by the simple device of using
+the indicative for the conditional mood--as in Juvenal's famous
+comment on Cicero's second Philippic: _Antoni gladios potuit
+contemnere si sic omnia dixisset_. The Irish "bull" is a heroic and
+sometimes successful attempt to sit upon two stools at once, or, as
+an Irishman put it, "Englishmen often make 'bulls,' but the Irish
+'bull' is always pregnant."
+
+Though no names of such outstanding distinction as those of Goldsmith
+and Sheridan occur in the early decades of the nineteenth century,
+the spirit of Irish comedy was kept vigorously alive by Maria
+Edgeworth, William Maginn, Francis Mahony (Father Prout), and William
+Carleton. Sir Walter Scott's splendid tribute to the genius of Maria
+Edgeworth is regarded by some critics as extravagant, but it is
+largely confirmed in a most unexpected quarter. Turgenief, the great
+Russian novelist, proclaimed himself her disciple, and has left it on
+record that but for her example he might never have attempted to give
+literary form to his impressions of the classes in Russia
+corresponding to the poor Irish and the squireens and the squires of
+county Longford. Maginn and Mahony were both scholars--the latter
+happily called himself "an Irish potato seasoned with Attic
+salt"--wrote largely for English periodicals, and spent most of their
+lives out of Ireland. In the writings of all three an element of the
+grotesque is observable, tempered, however, in the case of Mahony,
+with a vein of tender pathos which emerges in his delightful "Bells
+of Shandon." Maginn was a wit, Mahony was the hedge-schoolmaster _in
+excelsis_, and Carleton was the first realist in Irish peasant
+fiction. But all alike drew their best inspiration from essentially
+Irish themes. The pendulum has swung back slowly but steadily since
+the days when Irish men of letters found it necessary to accommodate
+their genius to purely English literary standards. Even Lever, though
+he wrote for the English public, wrote mainly about Ireland. So, too,
+with his contemporary Le Fanu, whose reputation rests on a double
+basis. He made some wonderful excursions into the realm of the
+bizarre, the uncanny, and the gruesome. But in the collection known
+as _The Purcell Papers_ will be found three short stories which for
+exuberant drollery and "diversion" have never been excelled. That the
+same man could have written _Uncle Silas_ and _The Quare Gander_ is
+yet another proof of the strange dualism of the Irish character.
+
+The record of the last fifty years shows an uninterrupted progress in
+the invasion of English _belles lettres_ by Irish writers. Outside
+literature, perhaps the most famous sayer of good things of our times
+was a simple Irish parish priest, the late Father Healy. Of his
+humorous sayings the number is legion; his wit may be illustrated by
+a less familiar example--his comment on a very tall young lady named
+Lynch: "Nature gave her an inch and she took an ell." In the House of
+Commons today there is no greater master of irony and sardonic humor
+than his namesake, Mr. Tim Healy. On one occasion he remarked that
+Lord Rosebery was not a man to go tiger-shooting with--except at the
+Zoo. On another, being anxious to bring an indictment against the
+"Castle" _régime_ in Dublin and finding the way blocked by a debate
+on Uganda, he successfully accomplished his purpose by a judicious
+geographical transference of names, and convulsed the House by a
+speech in which the nomenclature of Central Africa was applied to the
+government of Ireland.
+
+But wit and humor are the monopoly of no class or calling in Ireland.
+They flourish alike among car-drivers and K.C.'s, publicans and
+policemen, priests and parsons, beggars and peers. It is a
+commonplace of criticism to deny these qualities in their highest
+form to women. But this is emphatically untrue of Ireland, and was
+never more conclusively disproved than by the recent literary
+achievements of her daughters. The partnership of two Irish ladies,
+Miss Edith Somerville and Miss Violet Martin, has given us, in _Some
+Experiences of an Irish R.M._ (_i.e._, Resident Magistrate), the most
+delicious comedy, and in _The Real Charlotte_ the finest
+tragi-comedy, that have come out of Great Britain in the last thirty
+years. The _R.M._, as it is familiarly called, is already a classic,
+but the Irish _comédie humaine_--to use the phrase in the sense of
+Balzac--is even more vividly portrayed in the pages of _The Real
+Charlotte_. Humor, genuine though intermittent, irradiates the
+autumnal talent of Miss Jane Barlow, and the long roll of gifted
+Irishwomen who have contributed to the gaiety of nations may be
+closed with the names of Miss Hunt, author of _Folk Tales of
+Breffny_; of Miss Purdon and Miss Winifred Letts, who in prose and
+verse, respectively, have moved us to tears and laughter by their
+studies of Leinster peasant life; and of "Moira O'Neill" (Mrs.
+Skrine), the incomparable singer of the Glens of Antrim. To give a
+full list of the living Irish writers, male and female, who are
+engaged in the benevolent work of driving dull care away would be
+impossible within the space at our command. But we cannot end without
+recognition of the exhilarating extravaganzas of "George A.
+Birmingham" (Canon Hannay), the freakish and elfin muse of James
+Stephens, and the coruscating wit of F.P. Dunne, the famous
+Irish-American humorist, whose "Mr. Dooley" is a household word on
+both sides of the Atlantic.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Goldsmith: Vicar of Wakefield, She Stoops to Conquer; Sheridan: The
+Rivals, The School for Scandal, The Critic; R. Edgeworth: Essay on
+Irish Bulls; M. Edgeworth: Castle Rackrent, The Absentee; Maginn:
+Miscellanies in Prose and Verse; Carleton: Traits and Stories of the
+Irish Peasantry; Mahony (Father Prout): Reliques of Father Prout;
+John and Michael Banim: Tales of the O'Hara Family; Lover: Legends
+and Stories of Ireland, Handy Andy; Lever: Harry Lorrequer, Charles
+O'Malley, Lord Kilgobbin; Le Fanu: The Purcell Papers; Barlow:
+Bogland Studies, Irish Idylls, Irish Neighbours; Birmingham: The
+Seething Pot, Spanish Gold, The Major's Niece, The Red Hand of
+Ulster, General John Regan; Stephens: The Crock of Gold, Here are
+Ladies; Hunt: The Folk Tales of Breffny; Purdon: The Folk of Furry
+Farm; Somerville and Ross: The Real Charlotte, Some Experiences of an
+Irish R.M., All on the Irish Shore, Dan Russel the Fox.
+
+
+
+THE IRISH THEATRE
+
+By JOSEPH HOLLOWAY.
+
+
+The Irish theatre and secular drama may be said to begin with the
+production of James Shirley's historical play, _St. Patrick for
+Ireland_, in Werburgh Street Theatre, about 1636-7; and though Dublin
+was a great school for acting, and supplied many of the best players
+to the English stage, such as Quin, Macklin, Peg Woffington, Miss
+O'Neill, and hosts of others, it never really possessed a creative
+theatre (save at the Capel Street Theatre for a few years during the
+Grattan Parliament) until the modern movement in Ireland came into
+being and the Abbey Theatre became its headquarters.
+
+Of course, innumerable plays by Irish writers were written, but most
+of them were not distinctively Irish in character; and the names of
+Goldsmith, Sheridan, O'Keeffe, Farquhar, Sheridan Knowles, Oscar
+Wilde, and dozens of others will always be remembered as great Irish
+writers for the stage. And when fine impersonators of Irish character
+like Tyrone Power, John Drew, or Barney Williams arrived, there were
+always to be found several clever writers to fit them with parts, the
+demand always creating the supply.
+
+Even before Dion Boucicault took to writing Irish dramas of a more
+palatable and less "stage-Irish" character than those of his
+immediate predecessors, some excellent plays, Irish in character and
+tone, had from time to time found their way to the stage. However,
+Boucicault sweetened our stage by the production of _The Colleen
+Bawn, Arrah-na-Pogue_, and _The Shaughraun_, and showed by his
+rollicking impersonations of Myles, Shan, and Conn, how good-humored,
+hearty, and self-sacrificing Irish boys in humble life can be. He had
+great technical knowledge of stagecraft, and that has helped to make
+his Irish plays live in the popular goodwill right up to today.
+
+A revolt against Boucicault's Irish boys, all fun and frolic, and
+charming colleens, who could do no wrong, has made our modern
+playwrights go to the other extreme; so that now we find our stage
+peopled with peasants, cruel, hard, and forbidding for the most part,
+and with colleens who are the reverse of lovable in thought or act.
+Neither picture is quite true of our people. What is really wanted is
+the happy medium, which few, if any, of our new playwrights have yet
+given us.
+
+If our great popular Irish drama has yet to come, I think the Fays
+have made it possible to say that a distinct and really fine dramatic
+school has arisen in Ireland, evolved out of their wonderful skill in
+teaching, producing, and acting; and if we are not always really
+delighted with what our playwrights give us, the almost perfect way
+in which the plays are served up by the actors invariably wholly
+satisfies. It is the actors who have made the Abbey Theatre famous,
+and not the plays. Such acting as theirs cast a spell over all who
+see them. What pleasing memories do the names of W.G. Fay, Frank J.
+Fay, Dudley Digges, Sara Allgood, Arthur Sinclair, Maire O'Neill,
+Maire ni Shuiblaigh, J.M. Kerrigan, Fred O'Donovan, Eileen O'Doherty,
+Una O'Connor, Eithne Magee, Nora Desmond, and John Connolly recall!
+
+With the production of W.B. Yeats's poetic one-act play, _The Land of
+Heart's Desire_, at the Avenue Theatre, London, on March 29, 1894,
+began the modern Irish dramatic movement. When the poet had tasted
+the joys of the footlights, he longed to see an Irish Literary
+Theatre realized in Ireland. Five years later, in the Antient Concert
+Rooms, Dublin, on May 9, 1899, his play, _The Countess Cathleen_, was
+produced, and his desire gratified. The experiment was tried for
+three years and then dropped; plays by Yeats, Edward Martyn, George
+Moore, and Alice Milligan were staged with English-trained actors in
+the casts; and a Gaelic play--the first ever presented in a theatre
+in Ireland--was also given during the third season. It was _The
+Twisting of the Rope_, by Dr. Douglas Hyde, and was played at the
+Gaiety Theatre, Dublin, on October 21, 1901, by a Gaelic Amateur
+Dramatic Society coached by W.G. Fay. The author filled the principal
+part with distinction.
+
+It was while rehearsing this play that the thought came to Fay: "Why
+not have my little company of Irish-born actors--the Ormond Dramatic
+Society--appear in plays by Irish writers instead of in the ones they
+have been giving for years?" And the thought soon ripened into
+realization. His brother, Frank, had dreamed of such a company since
+he read of the small beginnings out of which the Norwegian Theatre
+had grown; and just then, seeing some of "Æ's" (George Russell's)
+play, _Deirdre_, in the _All Ireland Review_, he asked the author if
+he would allow them to produce it, and, consent being given, the
+company put it into rehearsal at once. "Æ" got for them from Yeats
+_Kathleen-Ni-Houlihan_, to make up the programme. Thus it was that
+this company of amateurs and poets, now known as the Abbey Players,
+came into existence, and at St. Teresa's Hall, Clarendon Street,
+Dublin, gave their first performance on April 2, 1902.
+
+Shortly afterwards they took a hall at the back of a shop in Camden
+Street, where they rehearsed and gave a few public performances. On
+"Æ" declining to be their president, Frank Fay suggested the name of
+W.B. Yeats, and he was elected, and in that way came again into the
+movement in which he has figured so largely ever since.
+
+The company played occasionally in the Molesworth Hall, and produced
+there, among other pieces, Synge's _In the Shadow of the Glen_
+(October 8, 1903) and _Riders to the Sea_ (February 25, 1904);
+Yeats's _The Hour Glass_ (March 14, 1903) and _The King's Threshold_
+(October 8, 1903); Lady Gregory's _Twenty-five_ (March 14,1903); and
+Padraic Colum's _Broken Soil_ (December 3, 1903).
+
+On March 26, 1904, the company paid a flying one-day visit to the
+Royalty, London, and Miss A.E.F. Horniman, who had given Shaw, Yeats,
+and Dr. John Todhunter their first real start as playwrights at the
+Avenue, London, in March-April, 1894 (Shaw had had his first play,
+_Widowers' Houses_, played by the Independent Theatre in 1892), saw
+the performance, and was so impressed that she thought she would like
+to find a suitable home for such talent in Dublin, and fixed upon the
+old Mechanics' Institute and its surrounding buildings, and there the
+Abbey Theatre soon afterwards--on December 27, 1904--came into
+existence.
+
+In writing of this Irish dramatic movement, one must always bear in
+mind that it was Yeats who first conceived the idea of such a
+movement; the Fays who founded the school of Irish acting; and Miss
+Horniman who, like a fairy godmother, waved the wand, and gave it a
+habitation and a name--the Abbey Theatre--and endowed it for six
+years.
+
+Play followed play with great rapidity, and dramatic societies sprang
+up all over the country, playing home-made productions in Gaelic and
+English. All Ireland seemed to be play-acting and play-writing; so
+much so that Frank Fay was heard to say that "he thought everyone had
+a play in his pocket, and that anyone in the street could be picked
+up and shaped into an actor or actress with a little training,
+Ireland was so teeming with talent!"
+
+Dramatic Ireland had slumbered for a long while, and awoke with
+tremendous vigor for work. New dramatists sprang up in all parts of
+Ireland; The Ulster Literary Theatre started in Belfast; The Cork
+Dramatic Society, in Cork; The Theatre of Ireland, in Dublin; and
+others in Galway and Waterford soon followed. In Dublin at present
+more than half a dozen dramatic societies are continually producing
+new plays and discovering new acting talent. There are also two
+Gaelic dramatic societies. And nearly every town in Ireland now has
+its own dramatic class and its own dramatists. All this activity has
+come about within the last ten or twelve years, where, before, in
+many places, drama and acting were almost unknown.
+
+Many Gaelic societies throughout the country put on Gaelic plays by
+Dr. Douglas Hyde, Pierce Beasley, Thomas Haynes, Canon Peter O'Leary,
+and others; and the _Oireachtas_ (the Gaelic musical and literary
+festival) held each year in Dublin usually presents several Irish
+plays and offers prizes for new ones at each festival.
+
+Of all the Irish playwrights who have arisen in recent years, Lady
+Gregory has produced most and W.B. Yeats is the most poetic. He is
+more a lyric poet than a dramatist, and is never satisfied with his
+work for the stage, but keeps eternally chopping and changing it. His
+_Kathleen-Ni-Houlihan_, though a dream-play, always appeals to an
+audience of Irish people. Perhaps his one-act _Deirdre_ is the
+nearest approach to real drama he has done. Some of Lady Gregory's
+earlier one-act farces, such as _The Workhouse-Ward_, are very
+amusing; _The Rising of the Moon_ is a little dramatic gem, and _The
+Gaol Gate_ is touched with genuine tragedy. Synge wrote only one
+play--_Riders to the Sea_--that acts well. The others are admired by
+critics for the strangeness of their diction and the beauty of the
+nature-pictures scattered through them. His much-discussed _Playboy
+of the Western World_ has become famous for the rows it has created
+at home and abroad from its very first production on January 26,
+1907. William Boyle, who gets to the heart of those he writes about,
+has produced the most popular play of the movement in _The Eloquent
+Dempsey_, and a perfectly constructed one in _The Building Fund_.
+W.F. Casey's two plays--_The Man Who Missed the Tide_ and _The
+Suburban Groove_--are both popular and actable. Padraic Colum's
+plays--_The Land_ and _Broken Soil_ (the latter rewritten and renamed
+_The Fiddler's House_)--are almost idyllic scenes of country life.
+Lennox Robinson's plays are harsh in tone, but dramatically
+effective, and T.C. Murray's _Birthright_ and _Maurice Harte_ are
+fine dramas, well constructed and full of true knowledge of the
+people he writes about. Seumas O'Kelly has written two strong dramas
+in _The Shuiler's Child_ and _The Bribe_, and Seumas O'Brien one of
+the funniest Irish farces ever staged in _Duty_. R.J. Ray's play,
+_The Casting Out of Martin Whelan_, is the best this dramatist has as
+yet given us, and George Fitzmaurice's _The Country Dressmaker_ has
+the elements of good drama in it. St. John G. Ervine has written a
+very human drama in _Mixed Marriage_. He hails from the north of
+Ireland; but Rutherford Mayne is the best of the Northern
+playwrights, and his plays, _The Drone_ and _The Turn of the Road_,
+are splendid homely county Down comedies.
+
+Bernard Shaw's _John Bull's Other Island_, as Irish plays go, is a
+fine specimen; Canon Hannay has written two successful comedies,
+_Eleanor's Enterprise_ and _General John Regan_--the latter not
+wholly to the taste of the people of the west. James Stephens and
+Jane Barlow have also tried their hands at playwriting, with but
+moderate success. Perhaps the modern drama that made the most
+impression when first played was _The Heather Field_, by Edward
+Martyn. It gripped and remains a lasting memory with all who saw it
+in 1899. But I think I have written enough to show that the Irish
+Theatre of today is in a very alive condition, and that if the great
+National Dramatist has not yet arrived, he is sure to emerge. When
+that time comes, the actors are here ready to interpret such work to
+perfection.
+
+An article, however brief, on the Irish Theatre, would be incomplete
+without mention of the world-famous tragedians, John Edward
+MacCullough, Lawrence Patrick Barrett, and Barry Sullivan; of genial
+comedians like Charles Sullivan and Hubert O'Grady; of sterling
+actors like Shiel Barry, John Brougham, Leonard Boyne, J.D.
+Beveridge, and Thomas Nerney; or of operatic artists like Denis
+O'Sullivan and Joseph O'Mara--many of whom have passed away, but
+some, fortunately, are with us still.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+John Genest: Some Account of the English Stage from the Restoration
+to 1830 (1832; vol. 10 is devoted to the Irish Stage); Chetwood:
+General History of the Stage, more particularly of the Irish Theatre
+(Dublin, 1749); Molloy: Romance of the Irish Stage; Baker: Biographia
+Dramatica (Dublin, 1782); Hitchcock: An Historical View of the Irish
+Stage from its Earliest Period down to the Season of 1788; Doran:
+Their Majesties' Servants, or Annals of the English Stage (London,
+1865); Hughes: The Pre-Victorian Drama in Dublin; The History of the
+Theatre Royal, Dublin (Dublin, 1870); Levey and O'Rourke: Annals of
+the Theatre Royal (Dublin, 1880); O'Neill: Irish Theatrical History
+(Dublin, 1910); Brown: A Guide to Books on Ireland (Dublin, 1912);
+Lawrence: The Abbey Theatre (in the Weekly Freeman, Dublin, Dec.,
+1912), Origin of the Abbey Theatre (in Sinn Fein, Dublin, Feb. 14,
+1914); Weygandt: Irish Plays and Playwrights (London, 1913); Lady
+Gregory: Our Irish Theatre (London, 1914); Bourgeois: John M. Synge
+and the Irish Theatre (London, 1913); Moore: Hail and Farewell, 3
+vols. (London, 1911-1914); Esmore: The Ulster Literary Theatre (in
+the Lady of the House, Dublin, Nov. 15, 1913); the Reviews, Beltaine
+(1899-1900) and Samhain (1901-1903).
+
+
+
+IRISH JOURNALISTS
+
+By MICHAEL MACDONAGH.
+
+
+The most splendid testimony to the Irish genius in journalism is
+afforded by the London press of the opening decades of the twentieth
+century. One of the greatest newspaper organizers of modern times is
+Lord Northcliffe. As the principal proprietor and guiding mind of
+both the _Times_ and the _Daily Mail_, he directly influences public
+opinion, from the steps of the Throne and the door of the Cabinet, to
+the errand boy and the servant maid. T.P. O'Connor, M.P., is the most
+popular writer on current social and political topics, and so amazing
+is his versatility that every subject he touches is illumined by
+those fine qualities, vision and sincerity. The most renowned of
+political writers is J.L. Garvin of the _Pall Mall Gazette_ and the
+_Observer_. By his leading articles he has done as much as the late
+Joseph Chamberlain by his speeches to democratize and humanize the
+old Tory party of England. The authoritative special correspondent,
+studying at first hand all the problems which divide the nations of
+Europe, and knowing personally most of its rulers and statesmen, is
+E.J. Dillon of the _Daily Telegraph_. And when the quarrels of
+nations are transferred from the chancelleries to the stricken field
+there is no one among the war correspondents more enterprising and
+intrepid in his methods, or more picturesque and vivid with his pen,
+than M.H. Donohoe of the _Daily Chronicle_. All these men are Irish.
+Could there be more striking proof of the natural bent and aptitude
+of the Irish mind for journalism?
+
+Dean Swift was the mightiest journalist that ever stirred the
+sluggish soul of humanity. Were he alive today and had he at his
+command the enormous circulation of a great daily newspaper, he would
+keep millions in a perpetual mental ferment, such was the ferocious
+indignation into which he was aroused by wrong and injustice and his
+gift of savage ironical expression. Swift, as a young student in
+Trinity College, Dublin, saw the birth of the first offspring of the
+Irish mind in journalism. The _Dublin News Letter_ made its
+appearance in June, 1685, and was published every three or four days
+for the circulation of news and advertisements. Only one copy of the
+first issue of this, the earliest of Irish newspapers, is extant. It
+is included in the Thorpe collection of tracts in the Royal Dublin
+Society. Dated August 26, 1685, it consists of a single leaf of paper
+printed on both sides, and contains just one item of news, a letter
+brought by the English packet from London, and two local
+advertisements. As I reverently handled it, I was thrilled by the
+thought that from this insignificant little seed sprang the great
+national organ, the _Freeman's Journal_; the _Press_ of the United
+Irishmen; the _Nation_ of the Young Irelanders; the _United Ireland_
+of the Land League; the _Irish World_ and the _Boston Pilot_ of the
+American Irish; and the _Irish Independent_, the first half-penny
+Dublin morning paper, and the most widely circulated of Irish
+journals. If Swift did not write for the _Dublin News Letter_, he
+certainly wrote for the _Examiner_, a weekly miscellany published in
+the Irish capital from 1710 to 1713, and the first journal that
+endeavored to create public opinion in Ireland. It was at Swift's
+instigation that this paper was started, and he was doubtless
+encouraged to suggest it by the success that attended his articles in
+the contemporary London publication of the same name, the Tory
+_Examiner_, in which his journalistic genius was fully revealed. As
+it has been expressively put, he wrote his friends, Harley and St.
+John, into a firm grip of power, and thus, as in other ways,
+contributed his share to the inauguration and maintenance of that
+policy which in the last four years of Queen Anne so materially
+recast the whole European situation. About the same time there
+appeared in London the earliest forms of the periodical essay in the
+_Tatler_ and the _Spectator_, which exhibit the comprehensiveness of
+the Irish temperament in writing by affording a contrast between the
+Irish force and vehemence of Swift and the Irish play of kindly wit
+and tender pathos in the deft and dainty periods of Richard Steele.
+
+Dr. Charles Lucas was, even more than Swift perhaps, the precursor of
+that type of Irish publicist and journalist, of which there have been
+many splendid examples since then in Ireland, England, and America.
+Lucas first started the _Censor_, a weekly journal, in 1748. Within
+two years his paper was suppressed for exciting discontent with the
+government, and to avoid a prosecution he fled to England. In 1763
+the _Freeman's Journal_ was established by three Dublin merchants.
+Lucas, who had returned from a long exile and was a member of the
+Irish parliament, contributed to it, sometimes anonymously but
+generally over the signature of "A Citizen" or "Civis." The editor
+was Henry Brooks, novelist, poet, and playwright. His novel, _The
+Fool of Quality_, is still read. His tragedy, _The Earl of Essex_,
+was, wrongly, supposed to contain a precept, "Who rules o'er freemen
+should himself be free," which led to the more famous parody of Dr.
+Samuel Johnson, "Who drives fat oxen should himself be fat." The
+object of Lucas and Brooke, as journalists, was to awaken national
+sentiment, by teaching that Ireland had an individuality of her own
+independently of England. But they were more concerned with the
+assertion of the constitutional rights of the parliament of the
+Protestant colony as against the domination of England. Therefore,
+the first organ of Irish Nationality, representative of all creeds
+and classes, was the _Press_, the newspaper of the United Irishmen,
+which was started in Dublin in 1797, by Arthur O'Connor, the son of a
+rich merchant who had made his money in London. Its editor was Peter
+Finnerty, born of humble parentage at Loughrea, afterwards a famous
+parliamentary reporter for the London _Morning Chronicle_, and its
+most famous contributor was Dr. William Drennan, the poet, who first
+called Ireland "the Emerald Isle."
+
+Irishmen did not become prominently associated with American
+journalism until after the Famine and the collapse of the Young
+Ireland movement in 1848. The journalist whom I regard as having
+exercised the most fateful influence on the destinies of Ireland was
+Charles Gavan Duffy, the founder and first editor of the _Nation_, a
+newspaper of which it was truly and finely said that it brought a new
+soul into Erin. Among its contributors, who afterwards added lustre
+to the journalism of the United States, was John Mitchel. In the
+_Southern Citizen_ and the _Richmond Enquirer_ he supported the South
+against the North in the Civil War. The Rev. Abram Joseph Ryan, who
+was associated with journalism in New Orleans, not only acted as a
+Catholic chaplain with the Confederate army, but sang of its hopes
+and aspirations in tuneful verse. Serving in the army of the North
+was Charles G. Halpine, whose songs signed "Private Miles O'Reilly"
+were very popular in those days of national convulsion in the United
+States. Halpine's father had edited the Tory newspaper, the Dublin
+_Evening Mail_; and Halpine himself, after the war, edited the
+_Citizen_ of New York, famous for its advocacy of reforms in civic
+administration. Perhaps the two most renowned men in Irish-American
+journalism were John Boyle O'Reilly of the _Boston Pilot_ and Patrick
+Ford of the _Irish World_. O'Reilly was a troop-sergeant in the 10th
+Hussars (Prince of Wales's Own), and during the Fenian troubles of
+1866 had eighty of his men ready armed and mounted to take out of
+Island Bridge Barracks, Dublin, at a given signal, to aid the
+projected insurrection. Detected, he was brought to trial, summarily
+convicted, and sentenced to be shot. This sentence was commuted to
+twenty-five years' penal servitude; but O'Reilly survived it all to
+become a brilliant man of letters and make the _Boston Pilot_ one of
+the most influential Irish and Catholic newspapers in the United
+States. Ford, who had served his apprenticeship as a compositor in
+the office of William Lloyd Garrison at Boston, founded the _Irish
+World_ in 1870. This newspaper gave powerful aid to the Land League.
+A special issue of 1,650,000 copies of the _Irish World_ was printed
+on January 11, 1879, for circulation in Ireland; and money to the
+amount of $600,000 altogether was sent by Ford to the headquarters of
+the agitation in Dublin. A journalist of a totally different kind was
+Edwin Lawrence Godkin. Born in County Wicklow, the son of a
+Presbyterian clergyman, Godkin in 1865 established the _Nation_ in
+New York as an organ of independent thought; and for thirty-five
+years he filled a unique position, standing aside from all parties,
+sects, and bodies, and yet permeating them all with his sane and
+restraining philosophy.
+
+In Canada, Thomas D'Arcy Magee won fame as a journalist on the _New
+Era_ before he became even more distinguished as a parliamentarian.
+When the history of Australian journalism is written it will contain
+two outstanding Irish names: Daniel Henry Deniehy, who died in 1865,
+was called by Bulwer Lytton "the Australian Macaulay" on account of
+his brilliant writings as critic and reviewer in the press of
+Victoria. Gerald Henry Supple, another Dublin man, is also remembered
+for his contributions to the _Age_ and the _Argus_ of Melbourne. In
+India one of the first--if not the first--English newspapers was
+founded by a Limerick man, named Charles Johnstone, who had
+previously attained fame as the author of _Chrysal, or the Adventures
+of a Guinea_, and who died at Calcutta about 1800.
+
+Stirring memories of battle and adventure leap to the mind at the
+names of those renowned war correspondents, William Howard Russell,
+Edmond O'Donovan, and James J. O'Kelly. Russell, a Dublin man, was
+the first newspaper representative to accompany an army into the
+field. He saw all the mighty engagements of the Crimea--Alma,
+Balaclava, Inkerman, Sebastopol--not from a distance of 60 or 80
+miles, which is the nearest that correspondents are now allowed to
+approach the front, but at the closest quarters, riding through the
+lines on his mule, and seeing the engagements vividly, so that he was
+able to describe them in moving detail for readers of the _Times_.
+O'Donovan--son of Dr. John O'Donovan, the distinguished Irish scholar
+and archaeologist--was in the service of the London _Daily News_.
+That dashing campaigner--as his famous book, _The Merv Oasis_, shows
+him to have been--perished with Hicks Pasha's Army in the Sudan in
+November, 1883. At the same time James O'Kelly, also of the _Daily
+News_, was lost in the desert, trying to join the forces of the
+victorious Sudanese under the Madhi. Ten years before that he had
+accomplished, for the New York _Herald_, the equally daring and
+hazardous feat of joining the Cuban rebels in revolt against Spain.
+He escaped the perils of the Mambi Land and the Sudan, and survived
+to serve Ireland for many years as a Nationalist member in the
+British parliament. John Augustus O'Shea, better known, perhaps, as
+"The Irish Bohemian", also deserves remembrance for his quarter of a
+century's work as special correspondent in Europe--including Paris
+during the siege--for the London _Standard_.
+
+Indeed, no matter to what side of journalism we turn, we find
+Irishmen filling the foremost and the highest places. John Thaddeus
+Delane, under whose editorship the _Times_ became for a time the most
+influential newspaper in the world, was of Irish parentage. The first
+editor of the _Illustrated London News_ (1842)--one of the pioneers
+in the elucidation of news by means of pictures--was an Irishman,
+Frederick Bayley. Among the projectors of _Punch_, and one of its
+earliest contributors, was a King's county man, Joseph Sterling
+Coyne. The founder of the _Liverpool Daily Post_ (1855), the first
+penny daily paper in Great Britain, was Michael Joseph Whitty, a
+Wexford man. His son, Edward M. Whitty, was the originator of that
+interesting feature of English and Irish journalism, the sketch of
+personalities and proceedings in parliament. Of the editors of the
+_Athenaeum_--for many years the leading English organ of literary
+criticism--one of the most famous was Dr. John Doran, who was of
+Irish parentage. "Dod" is a familiar household word in the British
+Parliament. It is the name of the recognized guide to the careers and
+political opinions of Lords and Commons. Its founder was an Irishman,
+Charles Roger Dod, who for twenty-three years was a parliamentary
+reporter for the _Times_. And what name sheds a brighter light on the
+annals of British journalism for intellectual and imaginative force
+than that of Justin MacCarthy, novelist and historian, as well as
+newspaper writer?
+
+At home in Ireland the name of Gray is inseparably associated with
+the _Freeman's Journal_. Under the direction of Dr. John Gray this
+newspaper became in the sixties and seventies the most powerful organ
+of public opinion in Ireland; and in the eighties it was raised still
+higher in ability and influence by his son and successor, Edmund
+Dwyer Gray. In the south of Ireland the most influential daily
+newspaper is the _Cork Examiner_, which was founded in 1841 by John
+Francis Maguire, who wrote in 1868 _The Irish in America_. It is
+doubtful whether any country ever produced a more militant and able
+political journal than was _United Ireland_ in the stormy years
+during which it was edited by William O'Brien as the organ of the
+Land League.
+
+The Irish mood is gregarious, expansive, glowing, and eager to keep
+in intimate touch with the movements and affairs of humanity. That, I
+think, is the secret of its success in journalism.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Madden: Irish Periodical Literature (1867); Andrews: English
+Journalism (1855); North: Newspaper and Periodical Press of the
+United States (1884); MacDonagh: The Reporter's Gallery (1913).
+
+
+
+THE IRISH LITERARY REVIVAL
+
+By HORATIO S. KRANS, Ph.D.
+
+
+In the closing decade of the nineteenth century and in the opening
+years of the twentieth, no literary movement has awakened a livelier
+interest than the Irish Literary Revival, a movement which, by its
+singleness and solidarity of purpose, stood alone in a time of
+confused literary aims and tendencies. Movements, like individuals,
+have their ancestry, and that of the Irish Literary Revival is easily
+traced. It descends from Callanan and Walsh, and from the writers of
+'48. It is to this descent that the lines in William Butler Yeats's
+"To Ireland in Coming Times" allude:
+
+      Know that I would accounted be
+      True brother of that company,
+      Who sang to sweeten Ireland's wrong,
+      Ballad and story, rann and song.
+
+With the passing of the mid-nineteenth-century writers, the old
+movement waned, and in the field of Irish letters there was, in the
+phrase of a famous bull, nothing stirring but stagnation. A witty
+critic of the period, commenting upon this unhappy state of affairs,
+declared that, though the love of learning in Ireland might still be,
+as the saying went, indestructible, it was certainly imperceptible.
+But after the fall of Parnell a new spirit was stirring. Politics no
+longer absorbed the whole energy of the nation. Groups of men
+inspired with a love of the arts sprang up here and there. In 1890
+Yeats proved himself a real prophet when he wrote: "A true literary
+consciousness--national to the centre--seems gradually to be forming
+out of all this disguising and prettifying, this penumbra of
+half-culture. We are preparing likely enough for a new Irish literary
+movement--like that of '48--that will show itself in the first lull
+in politics."
+
+Responsive to the need of the young writers associated with Yeats,
+the National Literary Society was founded in Dublin in 1892, and a
+year later London Irishmen, among them men already distinguished in
+letters, founded in the English metropolis the Irish Literary
+Society. From the presses in Dublin, in London, and in New York as
+well, books began to appear in rapid succession--slender volumes of
+verse, novels, short stories, essays, plays, translations, and
+remakings of Irish myths and legends, all inspired by, and closely
+related to, the past or the present of Ireland, voicing an
+essentially national spirit and presenting the noblest traits of
+Irish life and character.
+
+Not content with the organization of the two literary societies,
+Yeats, with courage and relentless tenacity, cast about to realize
+his long-cherished dream of a theatre that should embody the ideals
+of the Revival. In Lady Gregory, and in Edward Martyn, an Irishman of
+large means, who with both pen and purse lent a willing hand, he
+found two ardent laborers for his vineyard. George Moore, who in the
+event proved a fish out of water in Ireland, Yeats and Martyn
+contrived to lure from his London lodgings and his cosmopolitan ways,
+and to enlist in the theatrical enterprise. The practical knowledge
+of the stage which this gifted _enfant terrible_ of literature
+contributed was doubtless of great value in the early days of the
+dramatic adventure, though Moore's free thoughts, frank speech, and
+mordant irony brought an element of discord into Dublin literary
+circles, which may well have left Yeats and his associates with a
+feeling that they had paid too dear for a piper to whose tunes they
+refused to dance. Be that as it may, in 1899 Yeats's dream was
+measurably realized, and the Irish Literary Theatre established, to
+be succeeded a little later by the Irish National Theatre Society.
+Enough, however, of the dramatic aspect of the Revival, which
+receives separate treatment elsewhere in these pages, as does also
+the dramatic work of certain of the authors considered here.
+
+From what has already been said, it should be plain that in the last
+decade of the last century the ranks of the Irish Literary
+Revivalists filled rapidly, and that the movement was really under
+way. The renascent spirit took various forms. To one group of poets
+the humor, pathos, and tragedy of peasant life deeply appealed, and
+found expression in a poetry distinctively and unmistakably national,
+from which a kind of pleasure could be drawn unlike anything else in
+other literatures. In this group Alfred Perceval Graves and Moira
+O'Neill cannot pass unmentioned. Who would ask anything racier in its
+kind than the former's "Father O'Flynn"?
+
+      Of priests we can offer a charmin' variety,
+      Far renowned for larnin' and piety,
+      Still I'd advance you without impropriety,
+      Father O'Flynn as the flower of them all.
+         Here's a health to you, Father O'Flynn,
+         Slainte,[1] and slainte, and slainte agin.
+            Powerfullest preacher,
+            And tinderest teacher,
+      And kindliest creature in Old Donegal.
+
+[Footnote 1: "Your health."]
+
+Or was the homing instinct, the homesick longing for the old sod,
+ever more truly rendered than in Moira O'Neill's song of the Irish
+laborer in England?
+
+      Over here in England I'm helpin' wi' the hay,
+      An' I wish I was in Ireland the livelong day;
+      Weary on the English, an' sorra take the wheat!
+      Och! Corrymeela an' the blue sky over it.
+
+      D'ye mind me now, the song at night is mortial hard to raise,
+      The girls are heavy-goin' here, the boys are ill to plase;
+      When ones't I'm out this workin' hive, 'tis I'll be back again--
+      Aye, Corrymeela in the same soft rain.
+
+Here, too, should be named Jane Barlow, whose poems and stories are
+faithful imaginative transcripts of the face of nature and the hearts
+of men as she knew them in Connemara. Finally there is William Butler
+Yeats, who, on the whole, is the representative man of the Revival.
+Except in the translator's sphere, his writings have given him a
+place in almost all the activities of this movement. As a lyric poet,
+he has expressed the moods of peasant and patriot, of mystic,
+symbolist, and quietist, and it is safe to say that in lyric poetry
+no one of his generation writing in English is his superior. We
+cannot resist the pleasure of quoting here from his "Innisfree",
+which won the praise of Robert Louis Stevenson, and which, if not the
+high mark of Yeats's achievement, is still a flawless thing in its
+way:
+
+      I will arise and go now, and go to Innisfree,
+         And a small cabin build there, of clay and wattles made;
+      Nine bean rows will I have there, a hive for the honey bee,
+         And live alone in the bee-loud glade.
+
+      And I shall have some peace there, for peace comes dropping slow,
+         Dropping from the veils of the morning to where the cricket sings;
+      There midnight's all a glimmer, and noon a purple glow,
+         And evening full of the linnets' wings.
+
+In this place, and for convenience sake, it may be permitted to speak
+of aspects of Yeats's work other than that by virtue of which he is
+to be classed with the group we have just considered. In his
+narrative poem, "The Wanderings of Usheen", as well as in his plays
+and lyrics, he is of the best of those--among them we may mention by
+the way Dr. John Todhunter, Nora Hopper (Mrs. W.H. Chesson), and
+William Larminie--who have revealed to our day the strange beauty of
+the ancient creations of the Gaelic imagination. In prose he has
+written short stories, a novelette, _John Sherman and Dhoya_, and
+essays that reveal a subtle critical insight, and a style of
+beautiful finish and grace, suggestive of the style of Shelley's
+_Defence of Poetry_. Yeats's plays constitute a considerable and an
+important part of his work, but these must be reserved for treatment
+elsewhere in this book. In prefaces to anthologies of prose and verse
+of his editing, in the pages of reviews, and elsewhere, he appears as
+the chief apologist of the aims of the Literary Revival, and in
+particular of the methods of the dramatists of the Revival. Whatever
+he has touched he has lifted into the realm of poetry, and this is in
+large measure true of his prose, which proceeds from the poet's point
+of view and breathes the poetic spirit. A man of rare versatility, a
+finished artist with a scrupulous artistic conscience, he has done
+work of high and sustained quality, and is certain to exert a good
+and lasting influence upon the literature of his country.
+
+In a literary movement in the "Isle of Saints", we look naturally for
+religious poetry, and we do not look in vain. This poetry, chiefly
+Catholic, has a quality of its own as distinctive as that of the
+writers of the group we have just left. Now it voices a naïve,
+devoted simplicity of Christian faith; now it attains to a high and
+keen spirituality; now it is mystic and pagan. Among the religious
+poets, Lionel Johnson easily stands first--perhaps the Irish poet of
+firmest fibre and most resonant voice of his generation. A note of
+high courage and of spiritual triumph rings through his verse, even
+from the shadow of the wings of the dark angel that gives a title to
+one of the saddest of his poems. Often he strikes a note of genuine
+religious ecstasy and exaltation rarely heard in English, as in "Te
+Martyrum Candidatus":
+
+      Ah, see the fair chivalry come, the companions of Christ!
+         White Horsemen, who ride on white horses, the Knights of God!
+      They, for their Lord and their Lover who sacrificed
+         All, save the pleasure of treading where He first trod.
+
+      These through the darkness of death, the dominion of night,
+         Swept, and they woke in white places at morning tide:
+      They saw with their eyes, and sang for joy of the sight,
+         They saw with their eyes the Eyes of the Crucified.
+
+Among the men of the Revival, no personality is stronger or more
+attractive than that of G.W. Russell--"Æ", as he is always
+called--who may be regarded as the hero of George Moore's _Hail and
+Farewell_, and who alone in that gallery of wonderful pen-portraits
+looks forth with complete amiability. He is a pantheist, a mystic,
+and a visionary, with what would seem a literal and living faith in
+many gods, though strongly prepossessed in favor of the ancient
+divinities of the Gael, now long since in exile. Impressive and
+striking by a certain spiritual integrity, so to say, "Æ" unites
+gifts and faculties seldom combined. He is a poet of rare subtlety, a
+painter in whose genius so good a judge as George Moore believed, and
+a most practical man of affairs, who, as assistant to Sir Horace
+Plunkett, held up the latter's hands in his labors on behalf of
+co-operative dairies and the like. His poems have their roots in a
+pantheism which half reveals the secrets of an indwelling spirit,
+speaking alike "from the dumb brown lips of earth" and from the
+passions of the heart of man.
+
+Of novelists, both men and women, the Irish Revival can, in the words
+of "Father O'Flynn", offer a charming variety, and among their novels
+and short stories are some books of high quality and not a few in a
+high degree interesting and entertaining. To Standish O'Grady we turn
+for tales, with a kind of bardic afflatus about them, of the hero age
+of legendary Ireland--tales which drew attention to the romantic
+Celtic past of myth and saga, and must have been an inspiration to
+more than one writer of the younger generation. In contrast to the
+broad epic sweep and remote romantic backgrounds of O'Grady, are the
+stories of Jane Barlow, whose _genre_ pictures of peasant life in the
+west of Ireland, like her poems mentioned above, show how
+sympathetically she understands the ways of thinking, feeling, and
+acting of her humble compatriots. A like minute and faithful
+knowledge is evident in the work of two story-tellers of the north,
+Seumas MacManus and Shan Bullock. The former's outlook is humorous
+and pathetic. He tells fairy and folk tales well, and is a past
+master of the dialect and idiom that combine to give his old-wives'
+yarns an honest smack of the soil. Let him who doubts it read
+_Through the Turf Smoke_ or _Donegal Fairy Stories_. If Shan Bullock
+walks the same fields as Seumas MacManus, he does so with a different
+air and with a more definite purpose. Sometimes he turns to the
+squireens, small farmers, or small country gentry, and lays bare the
+hardness and narrowness that are a part of their life. Or, again, in
+pictures whose sadness and gloom are lightened, to be sure, with
+humor or warmed with love, he studies the necessitous life of the
+poor. _The Squireen, The Barrys_, and _Irish Pastorals_ are some of
+his representative books.
+
+In the novel as in poetry the ladies have worked side by side with
+their literary brethren. Miss Hermione Templeton, in her _Darby
+O'Gill_, and elsewhere, has written pleasantly and gracefully of the
+fairies. In a very different vein are the novels of the
+collaborators, Miss Somerville and "Martin Ross" (Miss Violet
+Martin), over which English and American readers have laughed as
+heartily as their own fellow countrymen. _The Experiences of an Irish
+R.M._remains, perhaps, their best book. The work of these ladies, be
+it said by the way, is in the line of descent from that group of
+older Irish novelists who wrote in the spirit of the devil-may-care
+gentry, the novelists from Maxwell to Lover and Lever, who were ever
+questing "divilment and divarshion," and who in their moods of
+boisterous fun forgot the real Irishman, and presented in his place a
+caricature--him of the Celtic screech and the exhilarating whack of
+the shillelagh, the famous stage Irishman who has made occasional
+appearances in English literature from the time of Shakespeare's
+_Henry V._, on through the works of Fielding and the plays of
+Sheridan, to the present moment of writing.
+
+Of a very different stripe from the work of the collaborating ladies
+just mentioned are the novels of the recently deceased Canon
+Sheehan--notable among them _Luke Delmege_ and _My New
+Curate_--rambling, diffuse, and a trifle provincial from the artistic
+standpoint, but interesting as studies of manners, and for the
+pictures they afford of the priesthood of modern Ireland in the
+pleasantest light. If the stories of Miss Somerville and "Martin
+Ross" are related to the comic stories of the old novelists of the
+gentry, those of Canon Sheehan must be associated with the work of
+the older novelists who wrote more or less in the spirit of the
+peasantry, that is, with Gerald Griffin, the Banim brothers, and
+William Carleton, less famous than he deserves to be by his _Traits
+and Stories_ and a long line of novels and tales.
+
+No survey of Irish novelists, however brief, can afford to forget the
+Rev. James Owen Hannay ("George A. Birmingham"), canon of St.
+Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, whose work is as distinctively
+Protestant in its point of view as Father Sheehan's is Catholic. His
+more substantial novels are a careful transcript of the actualities
+of Irish life today, and in them one meets, incognito but easily
+recognizable, many Irishmen now prominent in literature or politics
+in Ireland. Of his numerous books may be mentioned _The Seething Pot,
+Hyacinth_, and _Northern Iron_.
+
+Finally there is George Moore, whose enlistment in the Revival was
+responsible for the novel _The Lake_ and the short stories of _The
+Unfilled Field_, and for a largely autobiographic and entirely
+indiscreet trilogy entitled _Hail and Farewell_, the separate volumes
+appearing as _Ave, Salve, Vale_, and the last of them as late as
+1914. George Moore's anti-Catholic bias is strong, but his is the pen
+of an accomplished artist. He has the story-teller's beguiling gift,
+and he bristles with ideas which his books cleverly embody and to
+which the dramatic moments of his novels give point and relief.
+
+Not the least important work of the Irish Literary Revival has been
+done by translators, who have put into English the old Gaelic
+romances and the folklore still current among the little remnant of
+Irish-speaking country folk. Dr. Douglas Hyde is in the forefront of
+this group. He it was who organized the Gaelic League, a band of
+enthusiasts zealous for the revival of the Irish language both as a
+spoken tongue and as the medium for a national literature, and eager,
+also, to breed up a race of Celtic scholars. The lyrics in his _Love
+Songs of Connacht_ are full of grace, tenderness, and fire, and
+indicate the kind of gems which he and his fellow laborers have added
+to the treasury of poetry in English. But it is Lady Gregory,
+especially in her _Cuchulain of Muirthemne_ and _Gods and Fighting
+Men_, who more than any other has found a way to stir the blood of
+readers of to-day by the romantic hero tales of Ireland. From the
+racy idiom of the dwellers on or about her own estate in Galway, she
+happily framed a style that gave her narratives freshness, novelty,
+and a flavor of the soil. Upon the work of scholars she drew heavily
+in making her own renderings, but she has justified all borrowings by
+breathing into her books the breath and the warmth of life, and her
+adaptation to epic purposes of the dialect of those who still retain
+the expiring habit of thinking in Gaelic was a real literary
+achievement. She has, indeed, in sins of commission and of omission,
+taken liberties with the old legends, but this may render them not
+less, and perhaps more, delightful to the general reader, however
+just complaints may be from the standpoint of the scholar.
+
+Even so brief a sketch as this may suffice to bring home to those not
+already aware of it a realization of the delights to be drawn from
+the creations of a living literary movement, which is perhaps the
+most notable of its generation, and which has gathered together a
+remarkable group of poets, novelists, and dramatists, who, as men and
+women, are a most interesting company--a fact to which even George
+Moore's _Hail and Farewell_, with its quick eye for defects and
+foibles and its ironic wit, bears abundant testimony.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Brooke and Rolleston: Treasury of Irish Poetry (New York and London,
+1900); Krans: William Butler Yeats and the Irish Literary Revival
+(New York and London, 1904); Yeats: Ideas of Good and Evil (London,
+1903); Moore: Hail and Farewell, 3 vols. (London and New York,
+1912-1914); Lady Gregory: Our Irish Theatre (New York and London,
+1913); Weygandt: Irish Plays and Playwrights (New York, 1913); Yeats:
+Introduction to Fairy and Folk Tales of the Irish Peasantry (London,
+1889), Representative Irish Tales (London, 1890), Book of Irish Verse
+(London, 1895). There is much of interest, though chiefly as regards
+the drama, in the reviews, Beltaine (London and Dublin, 1899-1900)
+and Samhain (London and Dublin, 1901-1903).
+
+
+
+IRISH WRITERS OF ENGLISH
+
+By P.J. LENNOX, B.A., Litt.D.
+
+
+The Gaelic literature of Ireland is not only of wonderful volume and
+priceless worth, but is also of great antiquity, whereas the English
+literature of Ireland, while also of considerable extent and high
+value, is of comparatively modern origin. The explanation of this
+fact is that for more than six centuries after the Anglo-Norman
+invasion of 1169 the Irish language continued to be both the spoken
+and, with Latin, the written organ of the great mass of the Irish
+people, and that for nearly the whole of that period those English
+settlers who did not become, as the well-known phrase has it, more
+Irish than the Irish themselves by adopting the native language,
+customs, and sentiments, were kept too busy in holding, defending,
+and extending their territory to devote themselves to literary
+pursuits. Hence we need not wonder if, leaving out of account merely
+technical works like Lionel Power's treatise on music, written in
+1395, we find that the English literature of Ireland takes its
+comparatively humble origin late in the sixteenth century. For more
+than two centuries thereafter, owing to the fact that the native
+Irish, because they were Catholics, were debarred by law from an
+education, the writing of English remained almost exclusively in the
+hands of members or descendants of the Anglo-Irish colony, who, with
+scarcely an exception, were Protestants and had as their principal
+Irish seat of learning the then essentially Protestant institution,
+Trinity College, Dublin. Alien in race and creed though these writers
+mainly were, they have nevertheless spread a halo of glory around
+their adopted country, and have won the admiration, and often the
+affection, of Irishmen of every shade of religious and political
+belief. For example, there is no Irishman who is not proud of
+Molyneux and Swift, of Goldsmith and Burke, of Grattan and Sheridan.
+From the nineteenth century onward Irish Catholics have taken their
+full share in the production of English literature. Here, however, it
+will be necessary to consider the writers of none but the sixteenth,
+seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, as in other pages of this
+volume considerable attention has been given to those of later date.
+
+I. SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+Richard Stanyhurst (1547-1618), born in Dublin but educated at
+Oxford, is the first representative of the sixteenth century with
+whom we are called upon to deal. He belonged to a family long settled
+in or near Dublin and of some note in municipal annals. Under the
+direction of the Jesuit martyr, Edmund Campion, Stanyhurst wrote a
+_Description_, as well as a portion of the _History_, of Ireland for
+Holinshed's _Chronicles_, published in 1577. He also translated
+(1582) the first four books of _Virgil his Aeneis_ into quantitative
+hexameters, on the unsound pedantic principles which Gabriel Harvey
+was at that time trying so hard to establish in English prosody; but
+the experiment, which turned out so badly in the master's hands,
+fared even worse in those of the disciple, and Stanyhurst's lines
+will always stand as a noted specimen of inept translation and
+ridiculous versification. Equally inartistic was his version of some
+of the Psalms in the same metre. In Latin he wrote a profound
+commentary on Porphyry, the Neo-Platonic mystic. Stanyhurst, who was
+uncle to James Ussher, the celebrated Protestant archbishop of
+Armagh, was himself a convert to Catholicity, and on the death of his
+second wife became a priest and wrote in Latin some edifying books of
+devotion. Two of his sons joined the Jesuit order. He died at
+Brussels in 1618. Stanyhurst viewed Ireland entirely from the English
+standpoint, and in his _Description_ and _History_ is, consciously or
+unconsciously, greatly biased against the native race.
+
+If we may take it as certain that modern investigation is correct in
+asserting that Thomas Campion was a native of Dublin, a notable
+addition will have been made to the ranks of Irish-born writers of
+English at this period. Thomas Campion (1567-1620), wherever born,
+spent most of his life in London. He was a versatile genius, for,
+after studying law, he took up medicine, and, although practising as
+a physician, he yet found time to write four masques and many lyrics
+and to compose a goodly quantity of music. Some of his songs appeared
+as early as 1591. Among his works is a treatise entitled
+_Observations in the Art of English Poesie_ (1602), in which, strange
+to say, he, a born lyrist, advocated unrhymed verse and quantitative
+measures, but fortunately his practice did not usually square with
+his theory. His masques were written for occasions, such as the
+marriage of Lord Hayes (1607), the nuptials of the Princess Elizabeth
+and the Elector Palatine (1613), and the ill-starred wedding of
+Somerset and the quondam Countess of Essex in the same year. In these
+masques are embedded some of his best songs; others of his lyrics
+appeared in several _Bookes of Ayres_ between 1601 and 1617. Many of
+them were written to music, sometimes music of his composing. Such
+dainty things as "Now hath Flora robb'd her bowers" and "Harke, all
+you ladies that do sleep" possess the charms of freshness and
+spontaneity, and his devotional poetry, especially "Awake, awake,
+thou heavy Spright" and "Never weather-beaten Saile more willing bent
+to shore", makes almost as wide an appeal.
+
+II. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+Passing by with regret the illustrious seventeenth century names of
+Philip O'Sullivan Beare, Sir James Ware, Luke Wadding, Hugh Ward,
+John Colgan, and John Lynch, because their bearers wrote in Latin,
+and those of "The Four Masters" and Geoffrey Keating, because they
+wrote in Irish, we are first brought to a pause in the seventeenth
+century by the imposing figure of him, whom, in a later day, Johnson
+justly called the "great luminary of the Irish [Protestant] church",
+none other than the archbishop of Armagh and primate of Ireland,
+James Ussher himself. James Ussher (1581-1656), born in Dublin and
+among the earliest students of the newly-founded Trinity College, was
+in intellect and scholarship one of the greatest men that Ireland has
+ever produced. Selden describes him as "learned to a miracle" (_ad
+miraculum doctus_), and Canon D'Alton in his _History of Ireland_
+says of him that "he was not unworthy to rank even with Duns Scotus,
+and when he died he left in his own Church neither an equal nor a
+second." Declining the high office of provost of Trinity, Ussher was
+made bishop of Meath and was afterwards promoted to the primatial
+see. His fine intellect was unfortunately marred by narrow religious
+views, and in many ways he displayed his animus against those of his
+countrymen who did not see eye to eye with him in matters of faith
+and doctrine. For example, it was he who in 1626 drew up the Irish
+Protestant bishops' protest against toleration for Catholics, therein
+showing a bigotry which consorted badly with his reputation as a
+scholar. On account of his well-known attitude towards Catholicism,
+he was naturally unpopular with those who professed the ancient
+creed, and hence, when the rebellion of 1641 broke out, much of his
+property was destroyed by the enraged insurgents. His person escaped
+violence, for he happened to be in England at the time engaged in the
+vain task of trying to effect an accommodation between Charles I. and
+the English parliament. He never returned to his see and died in
+London.
+
+Ussher's collected works fill seventeen stately volumes. His _magnum
+opus_ is undoubtedly the _Annales Veteris et Novi Testamenti_. It is
+written in Latin, and is a chronological compendium of the history of
+the world from the Creation to the dispersion of the Jews under
+Vespasian. Published at Leyden, London, Paris, and Oxford, it gained
+for its author a European fame. His books written in English deal
+mostly with theological or controversial subjects, and while they
+display wide reading, great acumen, and keen powers of argumentation,
+they yet do not do full justice to his genius. Those which he
+published in Dublin are _A Discourse of the Religion anciently
+professed by the Irish and British_ (1622), in which he tried to show
+that the ritual and discipline of the Church as originally
+established in the British Isles were in agreement with the Church of
+England and opposed to the Catholic Church on the matters in dispute
+between them; _An Answer to a Challenge made by a Jesuite in Ireland_
+(1624), in which his aim was to disprove the contention set forth
+earlier in the same year by a Jesuit that uniformity of doctrine had
+always been maintained by the Catholic Church; and _Immanuel, or the
+Mysterie of the Incarnation_. He published in England _The Originall
+of Bishops, A Body of Divinitie, The Principles of Christian
+Religion_, and other works. So great was Ussher's reputation that
+when he died Cromwell relaxed in his favor one of the strictest laws
+of the Puritans and allowed him to be buried with the full service of
+the Church of England, and with great pomp, in Westminster Abbey.
+
+Among Ussher's other claims to distinction, it should be noted that
+it was he who in 1621 discovered the celebrated Book of Kells, which
+had long been lost. This marvel of the illuminator's art passed with
+the remainder of his collection of books and manuscripts to Trinity
+College, Dublin, in 1661, and to this day it remains one of the most
+treasured possessions of the noble library of that institution.
+
+Sir John Denham (1615-1669), a Dublin man by birth, took an active
+part on the side of Charles I. against the parliament during the
+Civil War, and subsequently was conspicuous in the intrigues that led
+to the restoration of Charles II. In his own day he had a great
+reputation as a poet. His tragedy, _The Sophy_, and his translation
+of the Psalms are now forgotten, but he is still remembered for one
+piece, _Cooper's Hill_, in which occur the well-known lines addressed
+to the River Thames:
+
+      O could I flow like thee, and make thy stream
+      My great example, as it is my theme!
+      Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull;
+      Strong, without rage; without o'erflowing, full.
+
+Another Dublin-born man was Wentworth Dillon, Earl of Roscommon
+(1633-1684). He had the good fortune to win encomiums both from
+Dryden and from Pope. One of his merits, as pointed out by the
+latter, is that
+
+                      In all Charles's days
+      Roscommon only boasts unspotted bays.
+
+He translated from Virgil, Lucan, Horace, and Guarini; wrote
+prologues, epilogues, and other occasional verses; but is now
+principally remembered for his poetical _Essay on Translated Verse_
+(1681), in which he develops principles previously laid down by
+Cowley and Denham. To his credit be it said, he condemns indecency,
+both as want of sense and bad taste. He was honored with a funeral in
+Westminster Abbey. Johnson records that, at the moment of his death,
+Roscommon uttered with great energy and devotion the following two
+lines from his own translation of the _Dies Irae_:
+
+      My God, my Father, and my Friend,
+      Do not forsake me in my end!
+
+Robert Boyle (1627-1691), one of the founders of the Royal Society
+(1662), was son of the "great" Earl of Cork and was born at Lismore,
+Co. Waterford. He takes rank among the principal experimental
+philosophers of his age, and he certainly rendered valuable services
+to the advancement of science. Most of his writings, which are very
+voluminous, are naturally of a technical character and therefore do
+not properly belong to literature; but his _Occasional Reflections on
+Several Subjects_ (1665), a strange mixture of triviality and
+seriousness, was germinal in this sense that it led to two celebrated
+_jeux d'esprit_, namely, Butler's _Occasional Reflection on Dr.
+Charlton's feeling a Dog's Pulse at Gresham College_ and Swift's
+_Pious Meditation upon a Broomstick, in the Style of the Honourable
+Mr. Boyle_. Indeed, one of Boyle's _Reflections_, that "Upon the
+Eating of Oysters", is reputed to have rendered a still more signal
+service to literature, for in its two concluding paragraphs is
+contained the idea which, under the transforming hand of the master
+satirist, eventually took the world by storm when it appeared, fully
+developed, as _Gulliver's Travels_.
+
+His brother, Roger Boyle (1621-1679), who figures largely as a
+soldier and a statesman in Irish and English history under his title
+of Lord Broghill, was an alumnus of Trinity College, Dublin. During
+the Civil War he was a royalist until the death of Charles I., when
+he changed sides and aided Cromwell materially in his Irish campaign.
+When the Lord Protector died, Broghill made another right-about-face,
+and crossing to his native country worked so energetically and
+successfully that he made Ireland solid for the restoration of
+Charles II. For this service he was rewarded by being created Earl of
+Orrery. He was the author of six tragedies and two comedies, some of
+which when produced proved gratifyingly popular. He is noted for
+having been the first to write tragedy in rhyme, thereby setting an
+example that was followed with avidity for a time by Dryden and
+others. He also wrote poems, a romance called _Parthenissa_ (1654),
+and a _Treatise on the Art of War_ (1677). From whatever point of
+view considered, Lord Orrery was a remarkable member of a remarkable
+family. His son, John Boyle, Earl of Cork and Orrery (1707-1762), in
+virtue of his translation of Pliny's _Letters_, his _Remarks on the
+Life and Writings of Swift_, and his _Letters from Italy_, has some
+claims to recognition in the field of literature.
+
+Charles Leslie (1650-1722), a Dubliner by birth, was son of that John
+Leslie, bishop of Raphoe and Clogher, who lived through a whole
+century, from 1571 to 1671, and who was 79 years of age when Charles,
+his sixth son, was born. Educated first at Enniskillen and afterwards
+at Trinity College, Dublin, Charles Leslie studied law in London, but
+eventually abandoned that profession and entered the ministry. He was
+of a disputatious character and in particular went to great lengths
+in opposing the pro-Catholic activities of James II. Nevertheless,
+when the Revolution of 1688 came, he took the side of the deposed
+monarch, and loyally adhered to his Jacobite principles for the
+remainder of his life. He even joined the Old Pretender on the
+continent, and endeavored to convert him to Protestantism, but,
+failing therein, he returned to Ireland, where he died at Glasslough
+in county Monaghan. Many years of Leslie's life were devoted to
+disputes with Catholics, Quakers, Socinians, and Deists, and the
+seven volumes which his writings fill prove that he was an extremely
+able controversialist. His best known work is the famous treatise, _A
+Short and Easy Method with the Deists_, published in 1698.
+
+The Irish note, tone, or temper is not conspicuous in any of the
+writings so far named unless when it is conspicuous by its absence;
+but it appears plainly, for the first time, in Molyneux's _Case of
+Ireland being bound by Laws [made] in England Stated_ (1698). William
+Molyneux (1656-1698) has always ranked as an Irish patriot. His was
+one of the spirits invoked by Grattan in his great speech (1782) on
+the occasion on which he carried his celebrated Declaration of
+Independence in the Irish parliament. When the English Act of 1698,
+which was meant to destroy, and did destroy, the Irish woolen
+industry, came before the Irish house of commons for ratification,
+Molyneux's was the only voice raised against its adoption. His
+protest was followed by the publication of his _Case Stated_, which
+is a classic on the general relations between Ireland and England,
+and contained arguments so irrefutable that it drove the English
+parliament to fury and was by that body ordered to be burned by the
+common hangman. It is a remarkable coincidence that Molyneux opens
+his argument by laying down in almost identical words the principles
+which stand at the beginning of the American Declaration of
+Independence.
+
+John Toland (1669-1722) was born near Redcastle, in Co. Derry, and
+was at first a Catholic but subsequently became a free-thinker. His
+_Christianity not Mysterious_ (1696) marks an epoch in religious
+disputes, for it started the deistical controversy which was so
+distinctive a feature of the first half of the eighteenth century. It
+shared a similar fate to that of the _Case Stated_, though on very
+different grounds, and was ordered by the Irish parliament to be
+burned by the hangman. Toland wrote many other books, among which are
+_Amyntor_ (1699); _Nazarenus_ (1702); _Pantheisticon; History of the
+Druids_; and _Hypatia_. All his books show versatility and wide
+reading and are characterized by a pointed, vigorous, and aggressive
+style.
+
+George Farquhar (1678-1707), a Derry man, and Thomas Southerne
+(1660-1746), born near Dublin, were distinguished playwrights, who
+began their respective careers in the seventeenth century. Farquhar
+left Trinity College, Dublin, as an undergraduate and became an
+actor, but owing to his accidental killing of another player he left
+the stage and secured a commission in the army. He soon turned his
+attention to the writing of plays, and was responsible in all for
+eight comedies. He has left us some characters that are very humorous
+and at the same time true to life, such as Scrub the servant in _The
+Beaux' Stratagem_ and Sergeant Kite in _The Recruiting Officer_. His
+Boniface, the landlord in the former of these two plays, has become
+the type, as well as the ordinary quasi-facetious nickname, of an
+innkeeper. He was advancing in his art, for his last comedy, _The
+Beaux' Stratagem_ (1707), is undoubtedly his best, and had he lived
+longer--he died before he was thirty--he might have bequeathed to
+posterity something even more noteworthy. As Leigh Hunt says of him:
+"He was becoming gayer and gayer, when death, in the shape of a sore
+anxiety, called him away as if from a pleasant party, and left the
+house ringing with his jest."
+
+Southerne was also a student of Trinity College, Dublin. At the age
+of eighteen, however, he left his _alma mater_, and went to London to
+study law. This profession he in turn abandoned for the drama. His
+first play, _The Persian Prince, or the Loyal Brother_, had
+remarkable success when performed, and secured him an ensign's
+commission in the army (1685). Here promotion came to him rapidly and
+by 1688 he had risen to captain's rank. The Revolution of that year,
+however, cut off all further hope of advancement, and he once more
+turned his attention to the writing of plays. His productions number
+ten. His tragedies _Isabella, or the Fatal Marriage_ (1694) and
+_Oroonoko_ (1696), both founded on tales by Mrs. Aphra Behn, are
+powerful presentations of human suffering. His comedies are amusing,
+but gross. Southerne had business ability enough to make play-writing
+pay, and the amounts he received for his productions fairly staggered
+his friend Dryden. It is to this faculty that Pope alludes when he
+says that Southerne was one whom
+
+                 heaven sent down to raise
+      The price of prologues and of plays.
+
+He was apparently of amiable and estimable character, for he secured
+and retained the friendship not only of Dryden--a comparatively easy
+matter--but also that of Pope, a much more difficult task. Known as
+"the poets' Nestor", Southerne spent his declining years in peaceful
+retirement and in the enjoyment of the fortune which he had amassed
+by his pen.
+
+Nahum Tate (1652-1715), a Dubliner by birth, and Nicholas Brady
+(1659-1726), a Bandon man, have secured a certain sort of twin
+immortality by their authorized metrical version of the Psalms
+(1696), which gradually took the place of the older rendering by
+Sternhold and Hopkins. Tate became poet-laureate in 1690 in
+succession to Shadwell and was appointed historiographer-royal in
+1702. He wrote the bulk of the second part of _Absalom and
+Achitophel_ with a wonderfully close imitation of Dryden's manner,
+besides several dramatic pieces and poems. Between Tate, Shadwell,
+Eusden, and Pye lies the unenviable distinction of being the worst of
+the laureates of England. Brady was a clergyman who, after the
+pleasant fashion of that day, was a pluralist on a small scale, for
+he had the living of Richmond for thirty years from 1696, and while
+holding that held also in succession the livings of Stratford-on-Avon
+and Clapham. He added further to his income, and doubtless to his
+anxieties, by keeping a school at Richmond. He wrote a tragedy
+entitled _The Rape_, a _History of the Goths and Vandals_, a
+translation of the _Aeneid_ into blank verse, and an _Ode for St.
+Cecilia's Day_; but, unless for his share in the version of the
+Psalms, his literary reputation is well nigh as dead as the dodo.
+
+Ireland somewhat doubtfully claims to have given birth to Mrs.
+Susannah Centlivre (c. 1667-1723), who, after a rather wild youth,
+settled down to literary pursuits and domestic contentment when, in
+1706, she married Queen Anne's head-cook, Joseph Centlivre, with whom
+she lived happily ever after. Her first play, _The Provoked Husband_,
+a tragedy, was produced in 1700, and then she went on the stage as an
+actress. She wrote in all nineteen dramatic pieces, some of which had
+the honor of being translated into French and German. Her most
+original play was _A Bold Stroke for a Wife_ (1717).
+
+III. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+We have now fairly crossed the border of the eighteenth century, and,
+as we met Ussher early in the seventeenth, so we are here confronted
+with the colossal intellect and impressive personality of Swift, one
+of the greatest, most peculiar, and most original geniuses to be
+found in the whole domain of English literature. Jonathan Swift
+(1667-1745), born in Dublin, was educated at Trinity College, where
+he succeeded in graduating only by special favor. After some years
+spent in the household of Sir William Temple in England, he entered
+the ministry of the Irish Church. During the early years of the
+century he spent much time in London, and took an active part in
+bringing about that political revolution which seated the Tories
+firmly in power during the last four years of the reign of Queen
+Anne. His services in that connection on the _Examiner_ newspaper
+were so great that it would be difficult to dispute the assertion,
+which has been made, that he was one of the mightiest journalists
+that ever wielded a pen. He also stood loyally by his party in his
+great pamphlets, _The Conduct of the Allies_ (1711), _The Barrier
+Treaty_ (1712), and _The Public Spirit of the Whigs_ (1714). When the
+time came for his reward, he received not, as he had hoped, an
+English bishopric, but the deanery of St. Patrick's in Dublin. On
+resuming his residence in Ireland he was at first very unpopular, but
+his patriotic spirit as shown in the _Drapier Letters_ (1723-1724),
+written in connection with a coinage scheme known as "Wood's
+halfpence", not only caused the withdrawal of the obnoxious project
+but also made Swift the idol of all classes of his countrymen. In
+many others of his writings he showed that pro-Irish leaning which
+caused Grattan to invoke his spirit along with that of Molyneux on
+the occasion already referred to. Nothing more mordant than the irony
+contained in his _Modest Proposal_ has ever been penned. In his plea
+for native manufactures he struck a keynote that has vibrated down
+the ages when he advised Irishmen to burn everything English except
+coal!
+
+Swift's greater works are _The Battle of the Books_, his contribution
+to the controversy concerning the relative merits of the ancients and
+the moderns; the _Tale of a Tub_, in which he attacked the three
+leading forms of Christianity; and, above all, _Gulliver's Travels_.
+In this last work he let loose the full flood of his merciless satire
+and lashed the folly and vices of mankind in the most unsparing way.
+He also wrote verses which are highly characteristic and some of them
+not without considerable merit. His life was unhappy and for the last
+five years of it he was to all intents and purposes insane. His
+relations with Stella (Hester Johnson) and Vanessa (Esther
+Vanhomrigh) have never been quite satisfactorily explained. The
+weight of evidence would seem to show that he was secretly married to
+Stella, but that they never lived together as husband and wife. Many
+novels and plays have been written round those entanglements. He lies
+buried in his own cathedral, St. Patrick's, Dublin, and beside him
+lies Stella. Over his tomb there is an epitaph in Latin, written by
+himself, in which, after speaking of the _saeva indignatio_ which
+tore his heart, he bids the wayfarer go and imitate, if he can, the
+energetic defender of his native land.
+
+Contemporary with the Dean there was another Anglo-Irishman, who
+fills a large space in the history of English literature, and of whom
+his countrymen are justly proud. Sir Richard Steele (1672-1729), who
+was born in Dublin and educated at the Charterhouse in London and
+afterwards at Oxford, started the _Tatler_ in 1709, and thereby
+popularized, though he did not exactly originate, the periodical
+essay. Aided by his friend, Addison, he carried the work to
+perfection in the _Spectator_ (1711-1712) and the _Guardian_ (1713).
+Since then these essays have enlightened and amused each succeeding
+generation. Of the two, Addison's is the greater name, but Steele was
+the more innovating spirit, for it is to him, and not to Addison,
+that the conception and initiation of the plan of the celebrated
+papers is due. Steele had had a predecessor in Defoe, whose _Review_
+had been in existence since 1704, but the more airy graces which
+characterized the _Tatler_ and the _Spectator_ gave the
+"lucubrations" of "Isaac Bickerstaffe" and of "Mr. Spectator" a
+greater hold on the public than Defoe's paper was ever able to
+establish. Steele was responsible for many more periodicals, such as
+the _Englishman_, the _Lover_, the _Reader_, _Town Talk_, the
+_Tea-Table, Chit-Chat_, the _Plebeian_, and the _Theatre_, most of
+which had a rather ephemeral existence. Among his other services to
+literature he helped to purify the stage of some of its grossness,
+and he became the founder of that sentimental comedy which in the
+days of the early Georges took the place of the immoral comedy of the
+Restoration period, when, in Johnson's famous phrase,
+
+      Intrigue was plot, obscenity was wit.
+
+Steele's four comedies are _The Funeral; or Grief à la mode_ (1701);
+_The Lying Lover_ (1703); _The Tender Husband_ (1705); and _The
+Conscious Lovers_ (1722). Although he held various lucrative offices,
+Steele was never really prosperous and was frequently in debt; like
+most of the contemporary Englishmen with whom his lot was thrown, he
+was rather addicted to the bottle; but, on the whole, it may fairly
+be advanced that unnecessary stress has been laid on these aspects of
+his life by Macaulay, Thackeray, and others. After a chequered
+career, he died near Carmarthen, in Wales, on September 1, 1729.
+
+Member of a family and bearer of a name destined to secure immense
+fame in later Irish history, Thomas Parnell (1679-1718) was born in
+Dublin and educated at Trinity College. Entering the ministry in
+1700, he was rapidly promoted to be archdeacon of Clogher and some
+years later was made rector of Finglas. An accomplished scholar and a
+delightful companion, he was one of the original members of the
+famous Scriblerus Club and wrote or helped to write several of its
+papers, he contributed to the _Spectator_ and the _Guardian_, and he
+rendered sterling assistance to Pope in the translation of Homer. As
+will be inferred, he spent much of his time in England, and on one of
+his journeys to Ireland he died in his thirty-ninth year at Chester,
+where he was buried. He wrote a great deal of verse--songs, hymns,
+epistles, eclogues, translations, tales, and occasional trifles; but
+three poems, _A Hymn to Contentment_, which is fanciful and
+melodious, _A Night-piece on Death_, in which inquisitorial research
+seems to have found the first faint dawn of Romanticism, and _The
+Hermit_, which has been not inaptly styled "the apex and _chef
+d'oeuvre_ of Augustan poetry in England", constitute his chief claim
+to present remembrance.
+
+Francis Hutcheson (1694-1746), the son of a Presbyterian minister,
+was born at Armagh, and studied at Glasgow University. He opened in
+Dublin a private academy, which succeeded beyond expectation. The
+publication of his _Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty
+and Virtue_ (1720) and his _Essay on the Nature and Conduct of the
+Passions_ (1728) brought him great fame, and in 1729 he was elected
+to the professorship of moral philosophy in the University of
+Glasgow. Others of his works are a treatise on _Logic_ and _A System
+of Moral Philosophy_, the latter not published till 1755, nine years
+after his death. Hutcheson fills a large space in the history of
+philosophy, both as a metaphysician and as a moralist. He is in some
+respects a pioneer of the "Scotch school" and of "common sense"
+philosophy. He greatly developed the doctrine of "moral sense", a
+term first used by the third Earl of Shaftesbury; indeed, much of his
+whole moral system may be traced to Shaftesbury. Hutcheson's
+influence was widely felt: it is plainly perceptible in Hume, Adam
+Smith, and Reid. He was greater as a speaker even than as a writer,
+and his lectures evoked much enthusiasm.
+
+George Berkeley (1685-1753), bishop of Cloyne, was born at Dysert
+Castle, near Thomastown, Co. Kilkenny, and was educated first at
+Kilkenny school and afterwards at Trinity College, Dublin. Having
+taken Anglican orders, he visited London, where he wrote nine papers
+for the _Guardian_ and was admitted to the companionship and
+friendship of the leading literary men of the age--Swift, Pope,
+Addison, Steele, and Arbuthnot. This connection proved of great
+assistance to him, for Pope not only celebrated him as possessing
+"every virtue under heaven", but also recommended him to the Duke of
+Grafton, Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, who appointed him his chaplain
+and subsequently obtained for him the deanery of Derry. In
+furtherance of a great scheme for "converting the savage Americans to
+Christianity", Berkeley and some friends, armed with a royal charter,
+came to this country, landing at Newport in Rhode Island in January,
+1729. All went well for a while: Berkeley bought a farm and built a
+house; but when the hard-hearted prime minister refused to forward
+the £20,000 which had been promised, the project came to an end, and
+Berkeley returned to London in February, 1732. In 1734 he was
+appointed bishop of Cloyne, and later refused the see of Clogher,
+though its income was fully double that of his own diocese. In 1752
+he resigned his bishopric and settled at Oxford, where he died in
+1753.
+
+Berkeley's works are very numerous. His _Essay towards a New Theory
+of Vision_ (1709), which was long regarded in the light of a
+philosophical romance, in reality contains speculations which have
+been incorporated in modern scientific optics. In his _Three
+Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous_ (1713) he sets forth his
+famous demonstration of the immateriality of the external world, of
+the spiritual nature of the soul, and of the all-ruling and direct
+providence of God. His tenets on immateriality have always been
+rejected by "common-sense" philosophers; but it should be remembered
+that the whole work was written at a time when the English-speaking
+world was disturbed by the theories of sceptics and deists, whose
+doctrines the pious divine sought as best he could to confute. In
+1732 appeared his _Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher_, in which,
+dialogue-wise, he presents nature from a religious point of view and
+in particular gives many pleasing pictures of American scenery and
+life. These dialogues have frequently been compared to the dialogues
+of Plato. To Berkeley's credit be it said that while he ruled in
+Cloyne he devoted much thought to the amelioration of conditions in
+his native land. Many acute suggestions in that direction are found
+in the _Querist_ (1735-1737). By some extraordinary ratiocinative
+process he convinced himself that tar-water was a panacea for human
+ills, and in 1744 he set forth his views on that subject in the tract
+called _Siris_, and returned to the charge in 1752 in his _Further
+Thoughts on Tar-Water_. Whatever may be thought of the value of
+Berkeley's philosophical or practical speculations, there is only one
+opinion of his style. It is distinguished by lucidity, ease, and
+charm; it has the saving grace of humor; and it is shot through with
+imagination. Taken all in all, this eighteenth century bishop is a
+notable figure in literary annals.
+
+Charles Macklin (c. 1697-1797), whose real name was MacLaughlin, was
+a Westmeath man, who took to the stage in early life and remained on
+the boards with considerable and undiminished reputation for some
+seventy years, not retiring until 1789 when he was at least 92 years
+old. To him we are indebted for what is now the accepted presentation
+of the character of Shylock in _The Merchant of Venice_. He wrote a
+tragedy and many comedies and farces: those by which he is now best
+remembered are the farce, _Love-à-la-Mode_ (1760), and his
+masterpiece, the farcical comedy, _The Man of the World_ (1764). In
+Sir Pertinax MacSycophant, Macklin has given us one of the
+traditional burlesque characters of the English stage.
+
+Thomas Amory (1691?-1788), if not born in Ireland, was at least of
+Irish descent and was educated in Dublin. He is known in literature
+for two books. The first, with the very mixed title of _Memoirs
+containing the Lives of several Ladies of Great Britain; A History of
+Antiquities; Observations on the Christian Religion_, was published
+in 1755, and the second, _The Life of John Buncle, Esq._, came out in
+two volumes in 1756-1766. It appears to have been the author's aim in
+both works to give us a hotch-potch in which he discourses _de
+omnibus rebus et quibusdam aliis_. We have dissertations on the cause
+of earthquakes and of muscular motion, on the Athanasian Creed, on
+fluxions, on phlogiston, on the physical cause of the Deluge, on
+Irish literature, on the origin of language, on the evidences for
+Christianity, and on all other sorts of unrelated topics. Hazlitt
+thought that the soul of Rabelais had passed into Amory, while a more
+recent critic can see in his long-winded discussions naught but the
+"light-headed ramblings of delirium." If we try to read _John Buncle_
+consecutively, the result is boredom; but if we open the book at
+random, we are pretty sure to be interested and even sometimes
+agreeably entertained.
+
+The bizarre figure of Laurence Sterne (1713-1768) next claims our
+attention. The son of a captain in the British army, he was born at
+Clonmel, Co. Tipperary. Of him almost more than of any of the writers
+so far dealt with, it may be said that he was Irish only by the
+accident of birth. His parents were English on both sides, and
+practically the whole life of their son was spent out of Ireland. He
+was sent to school at Halifax, in Yorkshire, and thence went to
+Cambridge University, where he graduated in due season. Taking
+Anglican orders in 1738, he was immediately appointed to the benefice
+of Sutton-in-the-Forest, near York, and on his marriage in 1741 with
+Elizabeth Lumley he received the additional living of Stillington. He
+was also given sundry prebendal and other appointments in connection
+with the chapter of the archdiocese of York. He spent nearly twenty
+years in the discharge of his not very onerous duties and in reading,
+painting, shooting, and fiddling, without showing the least sign of
+any literary leanings. Then suddenly, in 1760, he took the world by
+storm with the first two volumes of _Tristram Shandy_. He at once
+became the lion of the hour, was fêted and dined to his heart's
+content, and had his nostrils tickled with the daily incense of
+praise from his numerous worshippers. He repeated the experiment with
+equal success the following year with two more volumes of _Tristram_,
+and so at intervals until 1767, when he published the ninth and last
+volume of this most peculiar story. In 1768 he brought out _A
+Sentimental Journey_, and within three weeks he died in his lodgings
+in London. His other publications include _Sermons_ and _Letters_.
+_Tristram Shandy_ is unique in English literature--it stands _sui
+generis_ for all time. There is scarcely any consecutive narrative,
+and what there is is used merely as a peg on which to hang endless
+digressions. But while there are many faults of taste and morals,
+there are also genuine humor and pathos, and without Walter Shandy,
+Dr. Slop, the Widow Wadman, Yorick, Uncle Toby, and Corporal Trim,
+English literature would certainly be very much the poorer.
+
+Hugh Kelly (1739-1777), born in Dublin, was the son of a publican and
+himself became a staymaker, a trade from which he developed through
+the successive stages of attorney's clerk, newspaper-writer,
+theatrical critic, and essayist, into a novelist and playwright. His
+novel, _Memoirs of a Magdalen_ (1767), was translated into French.
+His first comedy, a sentimental one entitled _False Delicacy_ (1768),
+achieved a remarkable success on the stage and was even a greater
+success in book form, 10,000 copies being sold in a year, so that its
+author was raised from poverty to comparative affluence. In addition,
+it gave him a European reputation, for it was translated into German,
+French, and Portuguese. Strange to say, his later comedies, _A Word
+to the Wise, A School for Wives_, and _The Man of Reason_, were
+practically failures, and the same is true of his tragedy,
+_Clementina_. Kelly ultimately withdrew from stage work, and for the
+last three years of his life practised as a barrister without,
+however, achieving much distinction in his new profession.
+
+Charles Coffey (d. 1745), an Irishman, was the author of several
+farces, operas, ballad operas, ballad farces, and farcical operas,
+the best known of which was _The Devil to Pay, or the Wives
+Metamorphosed_ (1731).
+
+Henry Brooke (1703?-1783), a county Cavan man and the son of a
+clergyman, was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and afterwards
+studied law in London. Becoming guardian to his cousin, a girl of
+twelve, he put her to school for two years and then secretly married
+her. Of his large family of twenty-two children, three of whom were
+born before their mother was eighteen years old, but one survived
+him. Appointed by Lord Chesterfield barrack-master at Mullingar,
+Brooke afterwards settled in Co. Kildare. It was there that he wrote
+his celebrated work, _The Fool of Quality, or the History of the Earl
+of Moreland_ (5 vols., 1766-1770), which won the commendations of men
+so widely different as John Wesley and Charles Kingsley. It is,
+indeed, a remarkable book, combining, as it does, many of the
+characteristics of Sterne, Mackenzie, Borrow, and George Meredith. It
+is not very well known nowadays, but it will always bear, and will
+well repay, perusal. Brooke also wrote a poem on _Universal Beauty_
+(1735) and the tragedies _Gustavus Vasa_ (1739), the production of
+which was forbidden in London but which was afterwards staged in
+Dublin as _The Patriot_, and _The Earl of Essex_ (1749), which was
+played both in London and in Dublin, and has been made famous by the
+parody of one line in it by Samuel Johnson. Another novel, _Juliet
+Grenville, or the History of the Human Heart_, published in 1774, was
+not nearly up to the standard of _The Fool of Quality_. Brooke was a
+busy literary man. He made a translation of part of Tasso, drafted
+plans for a History of Ireland, projected a series of old Irish
+tales, wrote one fragment in a style very like that subsequently
+adopted by Macpherson in his _Ossian_, and for a while was editor of
+the _Freeman's Journal_. In the beginning, Brooke was violently
+anti-Catholic; but, as time progressed, he became more
+liberal-minded, and advocated the relaxation of the penal laws and a
+more humane treatment of his Catholic fellow-countrymen. Like Swift
+and Steele, he fell into a state of mental debility for some years
+before his death. His daughter, Charlotte Brooke (1740-1793),
+deserves mention as a pioneer of the Irish literary revival, for she
+devoted herself to the saving of the stores of Irish literature which
+in her time were rapidly disappearing. One of the fruits of her
+labors was _The Reliques of Irish Poetry_, published in 1789. She
+also wrote _Emma, or the Foundling of the Wood_, a novel, and
+_Belisarius_, a tragedy.
+
+Charles Johnstone (c. 1719-1800), a Co. Limerick man, was educated in
+Dublin and called to the English bar, but owing to deafness was more
+successful as a chamber counsel than as a pleader. Emigrating to
+India in 1782, he became joint proprietor of a newspaper in Calcutta,
+and there he died. He wrote several satirical romances, such as
+_Chrysal, or the Adventures of a Guinea; The Reverie, or a Flight to
+the Paradise of Fools_; and _The History of Arsaces, Prince of
+Betlis_. Of these the first was the best. Samuel Johnson, who read it
+in manuscript, advised its publication, and his opinion was
+vindicated, for it proved a huge success. Sir Walter Scott afterwards
+said that the author of _Chrysal_ deserved to rank as a prose
+Juvenal. Johnstone also wrote _The Pilgrim, or a Picture of Life_ and
+a picaresque novel, _The History of John Juniper, Esquire, alias
+Juniper Jack_.
+
+Arthur Murphy (1727-1805), born at Cloonquin, Co. Roscommon, was
+educated at St. Omer. At first an actor, he afterwards studied law
+and was called to the English bar in 1762. He made a translation of
+Tacitus, and wrote several farces and comedies, among which may be
+mentioned _The Apprentice; The Spouter; The Upholsterer; The Way to
+Keep Him_; and _All in the Wrong_. He also wrote three tragedies,
+namely, _The Orphan of China; The Grecian Daughter_; and _Arminius_.
+For the last-named, which was produced in 1798, and which had a
+strongly political cast, he received a pension of £200 a year. His
+plays long held the stage.
+
+Oliver Goldsmith (1728-1774), essayist, poet, novelist, playwright,
+historian, biographer, and editor, was a many-sided genius, who, as
+Johnson said in his epitaph, left scarcely any kind of writing
+untouched, and touched none that he did not adorn. Born, probably, in
+Co. Longford, the son of a poor clergyman, he was educated at various
+country schools until, in 1744, he secured a sizarship in Trinity
+College, Dublin. There he had a somewhat stormy career, but
+eventually took his degree in 1749. He then lounged at home for a
+while in his widowed mother's cottage at Ballymahon, until he was
+persuaded to take orders, but spoiled his already sufficiently poor
+chances of ordination by appearing before the bishop of Elphin in
+scarlet breeches. After other adventures in search of a profession,
+he went to Edinburgh in 1752 to study medicine, and two years later
+transferred himself to Leyden for the same purpose. It was from
+Leyden that, with one guinea in his pocket, one shirt on his person,
+and a flute in his hand, he started on his celebrated walking tour of
+Europe, during which he gained those impressions which he was
+afterwards to embody in some of his greater works. In 1756 he arrived
+in England, where for three years he had very varied experiences--as
+a strolling player, an apothecary's journeyman, a practising
+physician, a reader for the press, an usher in an academy, and a
+hack-writer. In 1759 he published anonymously his _Enquiry into the
+Present State of Polite Learning in Europe_, which was well received
+and helped him to other literary work. _The Bee_, a volume of essays
+and verses, appeared in the same year. He was made editor of the
+_Lady's Magazine_; he published _Memoirs of Voltaire_ (1761), a
+_History of Mecklenburgh_ (1762), and a _Life of Richard Nash_
+(1762). In 1762 also he brought out his _Citizen of the World_, a
+collection of essays, which takes an extremely high rank. In 1764 his
+poem, _The Traveller, or a Prospect of Society_, made its appearance;
+and in 1766 he gave to the world his famous novel, _The Vicar of
+Wakefield_. His reputation as a writer was now established; he was
+received into Johnson's circle and was a member of the Literary Club;
+Reynolds and Burke were proud to call him friend. In 1768 he had his
+comedy, _The Good Natured Man_, produced at Covent Garden Theatre,
+where it achieved a fair measure of success and brought him in £400.
+In 1770 he repeated his triumph as a poet with _The Deserted
+Village_. He wrote a _History of Animated Nature_, a _History of
+England_, and a _History of Rome_, all compilations couched in that
+easy style of which he was master. He also wrote a _Life of Parnell_
+and a _Life of Bolingbroke_. Finally, in 1773, his great comedy, _She
+Stoops to Conquer_, was staged at Covent Garden, and met with
+wonderful success. A little more than a year later Goldsmith died of
+a nervous fever, the result of overwork and anxiety, and was buried
+in the burial ground of the Temple Church. His unfinished poem,
+_Retaliation_, a series of epigrams in epitaph form on some of his
+distinguished literary and artistic friends, was issued a few days
+after his death, and added greatly to his reputation as a wit and
+humorist, a reputation which was still further enhanced when, in
+1776, _The Haunch of Venison_ made its appearance. In the latter year
+a monument, with a medallion and Johnson's celebrated Latin epitaph
+attached, was erected to his memory in Westminster Abbey.
+
+Goldsmith's renown, great in his own day, has never since diminished.
+His essays, his novel, and his poems are still read with avidity and
+pleasure; his comedy is still acted. It is his statue that stands
+along with Burke's at the entrance gate to Trinity College, Dublin,
+the _alma mater_ seeking to commemorate in a striking manner two of
+her most distinguished sons by placing their effigies thus in the
+forefront of her possessions and in full view of all the world.
+Personally, Goldsmith was a very amiable and good-hearted man, dear
+to his own circle and dear to that "Mr. Posterity" to whom he once
+addressed a humorous dedication. He had his faults, it is true, but
+they are hidden amid his many perfections. Everyone will be disposed
+to agree with what Johnson wrote of him: "Let not his frailties be
+remembered; he was a very great man."
+
+Edmund Burke (1729-1797), born in Dublin, the son of a Protestant
+father and a Catholic mother whose name was Nagle, was educated first
+at a Quaker school in Ballitore, Co. Kildare, and afterwards at
+Trinity College, Dublin. He became a law student in London, but he
+did not eventually adopt the law as a profession. He brought out in
+1756 a _Vindication of Natural Society_, in which he so skilfully
+imitated the style and the paradoxical reasoning of Bolingbroke that
+many were deceived into the belief that the _Vindication_ was a
+posthumously published production of the viscount's pen. In the
+following year Burke published in his own name _A Philosophical
+Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful_,
+which attracted widespread attention, was translated into German and
+French, and brought its author into touch with all the leading
+literary men of London. He was instrumental with Dodsley the
+publisher in starting the _Annual Register_ in 1759, and for close on
+thirty years he continued to supply it with the "Survey of Events."
+He entered public life in 1760 by accompanying "Single-Speech"
+Hamilton to Dublin when the latter was appointed Chief Secretary for
+Ireland. In 1765 he was made private secretary to the prime minister,
+the Marquis of Rockingham, and, as member for Wendover, entered
+parliament, where he speedily made a name for himself. During Lord
+North's long tenure of office (1770-1782) Burke was one of the
+minority and opposed the splendid force of his genius to the
+corruption, extravagance, and mal-administration of the government.
+To this period belong, in addition to lesser works, his great
+speeches _On American Taxation_ (1774) and _On Conciliation with
+America_ (1775), as well as his spirited _Letter to the Sheriffs of
+Bristol_ (1777). He had been elected member of parliament for Bristol
+in 1774, but he lost his seat in 1780 because he had advocated the
+relaxation of the restrictions on the trade of Ireland with Great
+Britain and of the penal laws against Catholics. In the second
+administration of Rockingham (1782) and in that of Portland (1783) he
+was paymaster of the forces, a position which he lost on the downfall
+of the Whigs in the latter year, and he never again held public
+office. His speech on the impeachment of Warren Hastings in 1788 is
+universally and justly ranked as a masterpiece of eloquence. When the
+French Revolution broke out, he opposed it with might and main. His
+_Reflections on the French Revolution_ (1790) had an enormous
+circulation, reached an eleventh edition inside of a year, was read
+all over the continent as well as in the British Isles, and helped
+materially not only to keep England steady in the crisis, but also to
+incite the other powers to continue their resistance to French
+aggression. He continued his campaign in _Thoughts on French Affairs_
+and _Letters on a Regicide Peace_. He was given two pensions in 1794,
+and would have been raised to the peerage as Lord Beaconsfield, had
+not the succession to the title been cut off by the premature death
+of his only son. He himself died in 1797 and was buried at
+Beaconsfield, where, as far back as 1768, he had purchased a small
+estate.
+
+As an orator and a deep political thinker, Burke holds a foremost
+place among those of all time who distinguished themselves in the
+British parliament. His keen intellect, his powerful imagination, his
+sympathy with the fallen, the downtrodden, and the oppressed, and his
+matchless power of utterance of the thoughts that were in him have
+made an impression that can never be effaced. His wise and
+statesman-like views on questions affecting the colonies ought to
+endear him to all Americans, although, if his counsels had been
+hearkened to, it is probable that the separation from the mother
+country would not have occurred as soon as it did. For his native
+land he used his best endeavors when and how he could, and although,
+as her defender, he was faced by obloquy as well as by the loss of
+that parliamentary position which was as dear to him as the breath of
+his nostrils, he did not flinch or shrink from supporting her
+material and spiritual interests in his own generous, manly,
+whole-hearted way. Trinity College, Dublin, has done well in placing
+his statue at her outer gates as representing the greatest Irishman
+of his generation.
+
+A political associate of Burke's for many years was Richard Brinsley
+Sheridan (1751-1816). Of Co. Cavan descent, Sheridan was born in
+Dublin, and was educated partly in his native city and partly at
+Harrow, and the remainder of his life was spent in England. He was
+distinguished first as a playwright and afterwards as a parliamentary
+orator. In 1775 his comedy, _The Rivals_, was produced at Covent
+Garden Theatre; his farce, _St. Patrick's Day, or the Scheming
+Lieutenant_, and his comic opera, _The Duenna_, were staged in the
+same year. His greatest comedy, _The School for Scandal_, was acted
+at Drury Lane Theatre in 1777, and it was followed in 1779 by _The
+Critic_. His last dramatic composition was the tragedy, _Pizarro_,
+produced in 1799. Elected to parliament in 1780, Sheridan was made
+under-secretary for foreign affairs in the Rockingham administration
+of 1782, and in 1783 he was secretary to the treasury in the
+Coalition Ministry. He sprang into repute as a brilliant orator
+during the impeachment of Warren Hastings, 1787-1794. His speech on
+the Begums of Oude was one of the greatest ever delivered within the
+walls of the British parliament. In 1806, on the return of the Whigs
+to power, he was appointed treasurer in the navy. In 1812 his long
+parliamentary career came to a close when he was defeated for the
+borough of Westminster. He died in 1816, and was honored with a
+magnificent funeral in Westminster Abbey.
+
+To give an idea as to how Sheridan's oratorical powers impressed his
+contemporaries, it is perhaps enough to repeat what Burke said of his
+second speech against Warren Hastings, namely, that it was "the most
+astonishing effort of eloquence, argument, and wit united of which
+there is any record or tradition", and to add that when, after three
+hours of impassioned pleading, he brought his first speech against
+Hastings to an end, the effect produced was so great that it was
+agreed to adjourn the house immediately and defer the final decision
+until the members should be in a less excited mood. As a dramatist
+Sheridan is second in popularity to Shakespeare alone. _The School
+for Scandal_ and _The Rivals_ are as fresh and as eagerly welcomed
+today as they were a hundred and forty years ago. Like Burke, he was
+true to the land of his birth and his oppressed Catholic
+fellow-countrymen. Almost his last words in the house of commons were
+these: "Be just to Ireland. I will never give my vote to any
+administration that opposes the question of Catholic emancipation."
+
+Sheridan belonged to a family that was exceptionally distinguished in
+English literature. Among those who preceded him as litterateurs were
+his grandfather, the Rev. Thomas Sheridan, D.D.; his father, Thomas
+Sheridan; and his mother, Frances Sheridan. Rev. Dr. Sheridan
+(1684-1738), the friend and confidant of Dean Swift, kept a
+fashionable school in Dublin, edited the _Satires_ of Persius in
+1728, wrote a treatise on _The Art of Punning_, and figures largely
+in Swift's correspondence. Thomas Sheridan (1721-1788) was at first
+an actor of considerable reputation, both in Dublin and in London;
+was next a teacher of elocution; and finally came forward with an
+improved system of education, in which oratory was to have a
+conspicuous part. In this connection he published an elaborate _Plan
+of Education_ in 1769, but his ideas, some of which are in accord
+with modern practice, were not taken up, He also compiled a
+pronouncing _Dictionary of the English Language_, with a prosodic
+grammar, and in 1784 published an entertaining _Life of Swift_.
+Frances Sheridan (1724-1766), wife of Thomas and mother of Richard
+Brinsley, who as Frances Chamberlaine had been known as a poetess,
+wrote after her marriage two plays, _The Discovery_ and _The Dupe_,
+and two novels, _The Memoirs of Miss Sidney Biddulph_, which was a
+great success and was translated by the Abbé Prévost into French, and
+_The History of Nourjahad_, an Oriental tale. In 1775 the singular
+spectacle was presented of the son's play running at Covent Garden
+while the mother's was being acted at Drury Lane.
+
+Among Sheridan's descendants who earned a niche in the temple of
+literary fame were his grand-daughters, the Countess of Dufferin
+(1807-1867) and the Hon. Mrs. Norton, afterwards Lady Stirling
+Maxwell (1808-1877), and his great-grandson, the first Marquis of
+Dufferin and Ava (1826-1902). Lady Dufferin's _Lament of the Irish
+Emigrant_ ("I'm sittin' on the style, Mary") has moved the hearts and
+brought tears to the eyes of countless thousands since it was
+published more than fifty years ago.
+
+Sir Philip Francis (1740-1818), born in Dublin, was the son of a
+clergyman of like name who attained some literary eminence as the
+translator of Horace and as a political writer. After filling various
+important government positions, Philip Francis, the son, was in 1773
+made a member of the Council of Bengal, where his relations with the
+governor-general, Warren Hastings, were of an extremely strained
+character, amounting at times almost to a public scandal. He returned
+to England in 1781, entered parliament, made a name as a speaker,
+took part in the impeachment of Hastings, and composed numerous
+political pamphlets. He is generally supposed to have been the writer
+of the celebrated _Letters of Junius_, which appeared at intervals in
+the _Public Advertiser_ between January 21, 1769, and January 21,
+1772. These letters are distinguished for their polished style, their
+power of invective, their galling sarcasm, their knowledge of state
+secrets, and their unparalleled boldness. Every prominent man
+connected with the government was attacked: even the king himself was
+not spared. As revised by their pseudonymous writer in a reprint made
+in 1772, they number 70; a later edition, in 1812, contained 113
+more. Their authorship has been the subject of much controversy, nor
+is the question yet finally settled. In his _Essay on Warren
+Hastings_, written in 1841, Macaulay went to considerable trouble to
+prove, by the cumulative method, that Francis was the writer, and
+since then that opinion has been generally, but not universally,
+maintained.
+
+Isaac Bickerstaffe (c. 1735-c. 1812) was an Irishman, whose name,
+strange to say, had no connection with the _nom de guerre_ of the
+same style under which Swift had masqueraded in his outrageously
+satirical attacks on Partridge the almanac maker, or with the more
+celebrated imaginary Isaac Bickerstaffe under cover of whose
+personality Steele conducted the _Tatler_. The real Bickerstaffe was
+a prolific playwright. His best known pieces are _The Sultan_, _The
+Maid of the Mill_, _Lionel and Clarissa_, and _Love in a Village_. In
+the last-mentioned occurs the famous song, beginning "We all love a
+pretty girl--under the rose."
+
+William Drennan (1754-1820), who has been called the Tyrtaeus of the
+United Irishmen, was the son of a Presbyterian clergyman, was born in
+Belfast, and was educated at Glasgow and Edinburgh universities,
+taking a medical degree from the latter. He practised his profession
+in the north of Ireland. When the Irish Volunteers were established,
+Drennan entered heart and soul into the movement. Removing to Dublin
+in 1789, he associated with Tone and other revolutionary spirits, and
+became one of the founders of the Society of United Irishmen, the
+first statement of whose objects was the product of his pen. His
+_Letters of Orellana_ helped materially to enlist the men of Ulster
+in the ranks of the Society. He also wrote a series of stirring
+lyrics which, voicing as they did the general sentiment in Ireland at
+the time, became extremely popular and had a widespread effect. These
+were afterwards (1815) collected under the title of _Fugitive
+Pieces_. All his political hopes being blasted with the failure of
+the rebellion of 1798 and of Emmet's insurrection in 1803, Drennan
+returned in 1807 to Belfast and there founded the _Belfast Magazine_.
+"The Wake of William Orr", a series of noble and affecting stanzas
+commemorating the judicial murder of a young Presbyterian Irish
+patriot in 1798, is one of his best known pieces. He also celebrated
+the ill-fated brothers Sheares. His song "Erin" was considered by
+Moore to be one of the most perfect of modern songs. It was in this
+piece that he fixed upon Ireland the title of the Emerald Isle:
+
+      When Erin first rose from the dark swelling flood,
+      God bless'd the green island, and saw it was good;
+      The em'rald of Europe, it sparkled and shone--
+      In the ring of the world the most precious stone.
+
+Mary Tighe (1772-1810), whose maiden name was Blachford, was born,
+the daughter of a clergyman, in Co. Wicklow. She contracted an
+unhappy marriage with her cousin who represented Kilkenny in the
+Irish house of commons. By all accounts she was of great beauty and
+numerous accomplishments. She wrote many poems: her best, and best
+known, is _Psyche, or the Legend of Love_, an adaptation of the story
+of Cupid and Psyche from the _Golden Ass_ of Apuleius. The metre she
+employed in this piece was the Spenserian stanza, which she handled
+with great power, freedom, and melody. _Psyche_, which first appeared
+in 1795, had a wonderful vogue, running rapidly through edition after
+edition. Among others to whom it appealed and who were influenced by
+it was Keats. Mrs. Tighe's talent drew from Moore a delicate
+compliment in "Tell me the witching tale again"; and in "The Grave of
+a Poetess" and "I stood where the life of song lay low", Mrs. Hemans
+bewailed her untimely death.
+
+Edmund Malone (1741-1813), the son of an Irish judge, was born in
+Dublin and studied at Trinity College. He was called to the Irish bar
+in 1767, but coming into a fortune, he abandoned his profession and
+gave himself over to literary work. In 1790 he brought out an edition
+of Shakespeare which was deservedly praised for its learning and
+research. His critical acumen led him to doubt the genuineness of
+Chatterton's _Rowley Poems_, and he was one of the first to expose
+Ireland's Shakespearean forgeries in 1796. Among other services to
+literature he wrote a _Life of Sir Joshua Reynolds_ and edited
+Dryden. He also left a quantity of materials afterwards utilized for
+the "Variorum Shakespeare" by James Boswell the younger in 1821.
+
+John O'Keeffe (1747-1833), a Dublin man, was at first an art student,
+but soon became an actor, and then developed into a playwright. His
+pen was most prolific; he published a collection of over fifty pieces
+in 1798. His plays are mostly comic operas or farces, and some of
+them had great success. Lingo, the schoolmaster in _The Agreeable
+Surprise_, is a very amusing character. _The Positive Man, The
+Son-in-Law, Wild Oats, Love in a Camp_, and _The Poor Soldier_ are
+among his compositions. His songs are well known, such as "I am a
+friar of orders grey", and there are few schoolboys who have not
+sooner or later made the acquaintance of his "Amo, amas, I loved a
+lass". For the last fifty-two years of his life O'Keeffe was blind,
+an affliction which he bore with unfailing cheerfulness. In 1826 he
+was given a pension of one hundred guineas a year from the king's
+privy purse.
+
+George Canning (1770-1827), prime minister of England, properly
+belongs here, for, although born in London, he was a member of an
+Irish family long settled at Garvagh in Co. Derry. Entering
+parliament on the side of Pitt in 1796, he was made secretary of the
+navy in 1804 and in 1812 secretary of State for foreign affairs. He
+became prime minister in 1827, but died within six months, leaving a
+record for scarcely surpassed eloquence. In addition to his speeches,
+he is known in literature for his contributions to the _Anti-Jacobin,
+or Weekly Examiner_, which ran its satirical and energetic career for
+eight months (November, 1797-July, 1798.) Some of the best things
+that appeared in this ultra-conservative organ were from Canning's
+pen. Few there are who have not laughed at his _Loves of the
+Triangles_, in which he caricatured Erasmus Darwin's _Loves of the
+Plants_; at _The Needy Knife-Grinder_; or at the song of Rogero in
+_The Rovers_, with its comic refrain of the
+
+                          U--
+      niversity of Gottingen.
+
+Like most of the great Anglo-Irishmen of his time, Canning favored
+Catholic emancipation. It is interesting to note that it was a letter
+of Canning's that led to the formulation of the Monroe Doctrine.
+
+Henry Grattan (1746-1820), the hero of Grattan's parliament, was born
+in Dublin and studied at Trinity College. His history belongs to that
+of his country. Suffice it here to say that not only did he by great
+eloquence and real statesmanship secure a free parliament for Ireland
+In 1782, but also that he fought energetically, if unavailingly,
+against the abolition of that parliament in 1800, and that
+thenceforward he devoted his abilities to promoting the cause of
+Catholic emancipation. Dying in London, he was honored by being
+buried in Westminster Abbey. In an age of great orators he stands out
+among the very foremost. His speeches have become classics, and are
+constantly quoted.
+
+Another brilliant Irish orator, as well as an eminent wit, of this
+period, was John Philpot Curran (1750-1817), who, born at Newmarket,
+Co. Cork, and educated at Trinity College, Dublin, achieved a
+wonderful success at the Irish bar. He defended with rare insight,
+eloquence, and patriotism those who were accused of complicity in the
+rebellion of 1798. As a member of Grattan's parliament, he voiced the
+most liberal principles, and, though a Protestant himself, he worked
+hard in the Catholic cause. He held the great office of Master of the
+Rolls in Ireland from 1806 to 1814. The memory of few Irish orators,
+wits, or patriots is greener today than that of Curran. His daughter
+Sarah, whose fate is so inextricably blended with that of the
+ill-starred Robert Emmet, has been rendered immortal by Moore in his
+beautiful song, "She is far from the land where her young hero
+sleeps".
+
+Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin (1759-1797), the first advocate of the
+rights of women, though born in London, was of Irish extraction. Into
+the details of her extraordinary and chequered career it is not
+possible, or necessary, here to enter. Her published works include
+_Thoughts on the Education of Daughters_ (1787); _Answer to Burke's
+Reflections on the French Revolution_ (1791); _Vindication of the
+Rights of Women_ (1792); and an unfinished _Historical and Moral View
+of the French Revolution_ (Vol. I., 1794). Having in August, 1797,
+borne to her husband, William Godwin, a daughter who afterwards
+became Shelley's second wife, Mary Godwin died in the following
+month. Whatever her faults--and they were perhaps not greater than
+her misfortunes--she had something of the divine touch of genius,
+and, in a different environment, might easily have left some great
+literary memento which the world would not willingly let die.
+
+Maria Edgeworth (1767-1849), though born at Blackbourton in England,
+belonged to a family which had been settled in different parts of
+Ireland and finally at Edgeworthstown, Co. Longford, for nearly two
+hundred years. She was the daughter of Richard Lovell Edgeworth
+(1744-1817), who was distinguished for his inventions, for his
+eccentricity, and for his varied matrimonial experiences, and who
+himself figures in literature as the author of _Memoirs_,
+posthumously published in 1820, and as the partner with his daughter
+in _Practical Education_ (1798) and in an _Essay on Irish Bulls_
+(1802). Maria had a busy literary career and was before the public
+for fifty-two years from 1795 to 1847. She wrote _Moral Tales;
+Popular Tales; Tales from Fashionable Life_; and _Harrington_; but
+she is now best remembered for her three masterpieces dealing with
+Irish life and conditions, namely, _Castle Rackrent_ (1800); _The
+Absentee_ (1812); and _Ormond_ (1817). By these works she inspired
+Scott, as he himself tells us, to attempt for his own country
+something "of the same kind with that which she had so fortunately
+achieved for Ireland", and in a later day she inspired Turgenief to
+do similarly for Russia. She excels in wit and pathos and gives a
+true and vivid presentation of the times and conditions as she viewed
+them.
+
+Andrew Cherry (1763-1821), born in Limerick, became an actor, a
+theatrical manager, and a playwright. He wrote nine or ten plays,
+several of which were moderately successful. The one that is now
+remembered is _The Soldier's Daughter_. Some of his songs, such as
+"The Bay of Biscay", "Tom Moody, the Whipper-in", and, especially,
+"The Green Little Shamrock of Ireland", bid fair to be immortal.
+
+Other Irish song-writers were Thomas Duffet (fl. 1676), author of
+"Come all you pale lovers"; Arthur Dawson (1700?-1775), author of
+"Bumpers, Squire Jones"; George Ogle (1742-1814), author of "Molly
+Asthore"; Richard Alfred Millikin (1767-1815), author of the
+grotesque "Groves of Blarney"; Edward Lysaght (1763-1811), author of
+"Our Ireland", "The Gallant Man who led the van Of the Irish
+Volunteers", and "Kate of Garnavilla"; George Nugent Reynolds
+(1770?-1802), author of "Kathleen O'More"; Thomas Dermody
+(1775-1802), author of the collection of poems and songs known as
+_The Harp of Erin_; James Orr (1770-1816), author of "The Irishman";
+Henry Brereton Code (d. 1830), author of "The Sprig of Shillelah";
+Charles Wolfe (1791-1823), author of "If I had thought thou couldst
+have died", and of "The Burial of Sir John Moore"; and Charles Dawson
+Shanly (1811-1875), author of "Kitty of Coleraine".
+
+Theobald Wolfe Tone (1763-1798), born in Dublin, educated at Trinity
+College, and called to the Irish bar in 1789, fills a large space in
+the history of his country from 1790 to his death in 1798. Intrepid,
+daring, and resourceful, he was one of the most dangerous of the
+enemies to English domination in Ireland that arose at any time
+during the troubled relations between the two countries. Taken
+prisoner on board a French ship of the line bound for Ireland on a
+mission of freedom, he committed suicide in prison rather than submit
+to the ignominy of being hanged to which he had been condemned. He
+sleeps his last sleep in Bodenstown churchyard, in that county of
+Kildare to which he was connected by many ties. His grave is still
+the Mecca of many a pilgrimage, and the corner-stone of a statue to
+his memory has been laid for some years on a commanding site in the
+city of his birth. He is known in literature for his _Journals_ and
+his _Autobiography_, both containing sad, but inspiring, reading for
+the Irishman of today.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Here this rapid survey of Irish writers of English must close. To
+tell in any sort of appropriate detail the story of the English
+literature of Ireland in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries would
+require a separate volume--a volume which is now under way and will,
+it is hoped, be speedily forthcoming. There is all the less need to
+attempt the agreeable task here, because in other portions of this
+book much more than passing reference is made to the chief Irish
+authors who, in the last hundred and fifteen years, have
+distinguished themselves and shed lustre on their country. During
+that period Irish poets, playwrights, novelists, essayists,
+historians, biographers, humorists, critics, and scholars have fully
+held their own both in the quantity and the quality of the work
+produced, and have left an impression of power and personality, of
+graceful style and vivifying imagination, that in itself constitutes,
+and must for ever constitute, one of the distinctive Glories of
+Ireland.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Irish Literature (10 vols., New York, 1904); Chambers's Cyclopaedia
+of English Literature (3 vols., Philadelphia and London, 1902-1904);
+Dictionary of National Biography; Encyclopaedia Britannica; Cambridge
+History of English Literature; D'Alton: History of Ireland (London,
+1910); Lennox: Early Printing in Ireland (Washington, 1909), Addison
+and the Modern Essay (Washington, 1912), Lessons in English
+Literature (21st edition, Baltimore, 1913); Macaulay: Essays, History
+of England; Brown: A Reader's Guide to Irish Fiction (London, 1910),
+A Guide to Books on Ireland (Dublin, 1912).
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Glories of Ireland
+by Edited by Joseph Dunn and P.J. Lennox
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GLORIES OF IRELAND ***
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+</head>
+<body>
+
+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Glories of Ireland
+by Edited by Joseph Dunn and P.J. Lennox
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Glories of Ireland
+
+Author: Edited by Joseph Dunn and P.J. Lennox
+
+Release Date: April 22, 2004 [EBook #12111]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GLORIES OF IRELAND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by GF Untermeyer, Brendan Lane, and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<h1>THE GLORIES<br>
+OF<br>
+IRELAND</h1>
+
+<h2>EDITED BY<br>
+JOSEPH DUNN, Ph.D.,<br>
+AND<br>
+P.J. LENNOX. Litt.D.,</h2>
+
+<h3>PROFESSORS AT THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA</h3>
+
+<h3>1914</h3>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2>TO THE IRISH RACE<br>
+IN EVERY LAND</h2>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p><i>Ireland</i>:</p>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>"All thy life has been a symbol; we can only read a part:</p>
+<p>God will flood thee yet with sunshine for the woes that drench thy heart."</p>
+</div>
+<p>JOHN BOYLE O'REILLY.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2>PREFACE</h2>
+
+<p>We had at first intended that this should be a book without a
+preface, and indeed it needs none, for it speaks in no uncertain tones
+for itself; but on reconsideration we decided that it would be more
+seemly to give a short explanation of our aim, our motives, and our
+methods.</p>
+
+<p>As a result of innumerable inquiries which have come to us during
+our experience as educators, we have been forced to the conclusion
+that the performances of the Irish race in many fields of endeavor are
+entirely unknown to most people, and that even to the elect they are
+not nearly so well known as they deserve to be. Hence there came to us
+the thought of placing on record, in an accessible, comprehensive, and
+permanent form, an outline of the whole range of Irish achievement
+during the last two thousand years.</p>
+
+<p>In undertaking this task we had a twofold motive. In the first
+place, we wished to give to people of Irish birth or descent
+substantial reason for that pride of race which we know is in them, by
+placing in their hands an authoritative and unassailable array of
+facts as telling as any nation in the world can show. Our second
+motive was that henceforward he who seeks to ignore or belittle the
+part taken by men and women of Irish birth or blood in promoting the
+spread of religion, civilization, education, culture, and freedom
+should sin, not in ignorance, but against the light, and that from a
+thousand quarters at once champions armed with the panoply of
+knowledge should be able to spring to his confutation.</p>
+
+<p>To carry out in a satisfactory manner over a field so immense our
+lawfully ambitious aim was, as we realized at the outset, not possible
+to any two men who are primarily engaged, as we are, in other work of
+an exacting nature. Therefore, to render feasible the execution of our
+undertaking, we decided to invite the collaboration of many scholars
+and specialists, each of whom could, out of the fullness of
+information, speak with authority on some particular phase of the
+general subject. We are glad to say that the eminent writers to whom
+we addressed ourselves answered with promptitude and alacrity to our
+call, and have supplied us with such a body of material as to enable
+us to bring out a book that is absolutely unique.</p>
+
+<p>From each contributor we asked nothing but a plain verifiable
+statement of facts, and that, we think, is exactly what they have
+given us, for, while we do not make ourselves personally responsible
+for everything set down in the following pages, we believe that what
+stands written therein bears every mark of careful research and of
+absolute reliability.</p>
+
+<p>Although on many of our subjects little more remains to be said
+than what appears in the text, yet the treatment on the whole does not
+claim to be exhaustive, and therefore each writer has, at our request,
+appended to his contribution a short and carefully selected
+bibliography, so that those who are interested may have a guide for
+further reading. For our part, we consider these lists of works of
+reference to be a highly useful feature.</p>
+
+<p>It is a glorious thing for us, who are proud, one of us of his
+Irish descent and the other of his Irish birth, to think that the sons
+and daughters of mother Erin have so conspicuously distinguished
+themselves in such varied spheres of activity in every age and in so
+many lands, and that we were privileged to make public the record of
+their achievements in a form never before attempted.</p>
+
+<p>We have other works in contemplation, and some actually in
+preparation, which will go far to strengthen the claims put forward in
+this book. In the meantime, we trust that the reception accorded to it
+will be such as to encourage us to persevere in making still better
+known the Glories of Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>JOSEPH DUNN<br>
+P.J. LENNOX</p>
+
+<p><i>Catholic University of America,<br>
+Washington, D.C.,<br>
+November, 1914.</i></p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+<h3><a href="#T01">THE ROMANCE OF IRISH HISTORY</a></h3>
+<h4>Sir Roger Casement, C.M.G.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T02">THE ISLAND OF SAINTS AND SCHOLARS</a></h3>
+<h4>Very Rev. Canon D'Alton, M.R.I.A., LL.D.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T03">IRISH MONKS IN EUROPE</a></h3>
+<h4>Rev. Columba Edmonds, O.S.B.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T04">THE IRISH AND THE SEA</a></h3>
+<h4>William H. Babcock, LL.B.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T05">IRISH LOVE OF LEARNING</a></h3>
+<h4>Rev. P.S. Dinneen, M.A., R.U.I.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T06">IRISH MEN OF SCIENCE</a></h3>
+<h4>Sir Bertram C.A. Windle, Sc.D., M.D.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T07">LAW IN IRELAND</a></h3>
+<h4>Laurence Ginnell, B.L., M.P.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T08">IRISH MUSIC</a></h3>
+<h4>W.H. Grattan Flood, Mus.D.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T09">IRISH METAL WORK</a></h3>
+<h4>Diarmid Coffey</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T10">IRISH MANUSCRIPTS</a></h3>
+<h4>Louis Ely O'Carroll, B.A., B.L.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T11">THE RUINS OF IRELAND</a></h3>
+<h4>Francis J. Bigger, M.R.I.A.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T12">MODERN IRISH ART</a></h3>
+<h4>D.J. O'Donoghue</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T13">IRELAND AT PLAY</a></h3>
+<h4>Thomas E. Healy</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T14">THE FIGHTING RACE</a></h3>
+<h4>Joseph I.C. Clarke</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T15">THE SORROWS OF IRELAND</a></h3>
+<h4>John Jerome Rooney, A.M., LL.D.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T16">IRISH LEADERS</a></h3>
+<h4>Shane Leslie</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T17">IRISH HEROINES</a></h3>
+<h4>Alice Milligan</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T18">IRISH NATIONALITY</a></h3>
+<h4>Lord Ashbourne</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T19">FAMOUS IRISH SOCIETIES</a></h3>
+<h4>John O'Dea</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T20">THE IRISH IN THE UNITED STATES</a></h3>
+<h4>Michael J. O'Brien</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T21">THE IRISH IN CANADA</a></h3>
+<h4>James J. Walsh, M.D.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T22">THE IRISH IN SOUTH AMERICA</a></h3>
+<h4>Marion Mulhall</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T23">THE IRISH IN AUSTRALASIA</a></h3>
+<h4>Brother Leo, F.S.C., M.A.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T24">THE IRISH IN SOUTH AFRICA</a></h3>
+<h4>A. Hilliard Atteridge</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T25">THE IRISH LANGUAGE AND LETTERS</a></h3>
+<h4>Douglas Hyde, LL.D.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T26">NATIVE IRISH POETRY</a></h3>
+<h4>Georges Dottin</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T27">IRISH HEROIC SAGAS</a></h3>
+<h4>Eleanor Hull</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T28">IRISH PRECURSORS OF DANTE</a></h3>
+<h4>Sidney Gunn, M.A.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T29">IRISH INFLUENCE ON ENGLISH LITERATURE</a></h3>
+<h4>Edmund C. Quiggin, M.A.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T30">IRISH FOLK LORE</a></h3>
+<h4>Alfred Perceval Graves</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T31">IRISH WIT AND HUMOR</a></h3>
+<h4>Charles L. Graves</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T32">THE IRISH THEATRE</a></h3>
+<h4>Joseph Holloway</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T33">IRISH JOURNALISTS</a></h3>
+<h4>Michael MacDonagh</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T34">THE IRISH LITERARY REVIVAL</a></h3>
+<h4>Horatio S. Krans, Ph.D.</h4>
+
+<h3><a href="#T35">IRISH WRITERS OF ENGLISH</a></h3>
+<h4>P.J. Lennox, B.A., Litt. D.</h4>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h1>THE GLORIES OF IRELAND</h1>
+
+<h2><a name="T01"></a>THE ROMANCE OF IRISH HISTORY</h2>
+<h4>By SIR ROGER CASEMENT, C.M.G.</h4>
+
+<p>The history of Ireland remains to be written, for the purpose of
+Irishmen remains yet to be achieved. </p>
+
+<p>The struggle for national realization, begun so many centuries ago,
+is not ended; and if the long story offers a so frequent record of
+failure, it offers a continuous appeal to the highest motives and a
+constant exhibition of a most pathetic patriotism linked with the
+sternest courage.</p>
+
+<p>Irish wars, throughout all time, have been only against one enemy,
+the invader, and, ending so often in material disaster, they have
+conferred always a moral gain. Their memory uplifts the Irish heart;
+for no nation, no people, can reproach Ireland with having wronged
+them.</p>
+
+<p>When, at the dawn of the Christian era, we first hear of Ireland
+from external sources, we learn of it as an island harboring free men,
+whose indomitable love of freedom was hateful to the spirit of
+imperial exploitation.</p>
+
+<p>Agricola's advice to the empire-builders of his day was that Rome
+should "war down and take possession of Ireland, so that freedom might
+be put out of sight."</p>
+
+<p>It was to meet this challenge of despotism that the Scotic clans of
+Alba turned to their motherland for help, and the sea was "white with
+the hurrying oars" of the men of Erin speeding to the call of their
+Highland kinsmen, threatened with imperial servitude.</p>
+
+<p>The first external record we possess thus makes it clear that when
+the early Irish went forth to carry war abroad, it was not to impose
+their yoke on other peoples, or to found an empire, but to battle
+against the Empire of the World in the threatened cause they held so
+dear at home.</p>
+
+<p>In this early Roman reference to Ireland we get the keynote to all
+later Irish history&mdash;a warring down on the one hand, so that
+freedom might be put out of sight; an eternal resistance, on the
+other, so that it might be upheld.</p>
+
+<p>It was this struggle that Ireland sought to maintain against every
+form of attack, down through Danish, Norman, Tudor, Stuart, and
+Cromwellian assault, to the larger imperialism of the nineteenth
+century, when, as Thierry, the historian of the Norman Conquest, tells
+us, it still remained the one "lost cause" of history that refused to
+admit defeat. "This indomitable persistency, this faculty of
+preserving through centuries of misery the remembrance of lost liberty
+and of never despairing of a cause always defeated, always fatal to
+those who dared to defend it, is perhaps the strangest and noblest
+example ever given by any nation."</p>
+
+<p>The resources Ireland opposed to her invaders have been unequal to
+the founding of a great state, but have preserved a great tradition.
+The weakness of Ireland lay in the absence of a central organization,
+a state machine that could mobilize the national resources to defend
+the national life. That life had to depend for its existence, under
+the stress of prolonged invasion, on the spontaneous patriotism and
+courage of individuals. At times one clan alone, or two clans,
+maintained the struggle. Arrayed against them were all the resources
+of a mighty realm&mdash;shipping, arms, munitions of war, gold,
+statecraft, a widespread and calculating diplomacy, the prestige of a
+great Sovereign and a famous Court&mdash;and the Irish clan and its
+chieftain, by the sheer courage of its members, by their bodily
+strength and hardihood and feats of daring, for years kept the issue
+in doubt.</p>
+
+<p>When Hugh O'Neill, leagued with Red Hugh O'Donnell, challenged the
+might of Elizabeth, he had nothing to rely upon but the stout hearts
+and arms of the men of Tir-owen and Tir-Conail. Arms and armaments
+were far from Ulster. They could be procured only in Spain or
+elsewhere on the continent. English shipping held the sea; the English
+mint the coinage. The purse of England, compared to that of the Ulster
+princes, was inexhaustible. Yet for nine years the courage, the
+chivalry, the daring and skill of these northern clansmen, perhaps
+20,000 men in all, held all the might of England at bay. Had the
+Spanish king at any time during the contest made good his promise to
+lend effective aid to the Irish princes, O'Neill would have driven
+Elizabeth from Ireland, and a sovereign State would today be the
+guardian of the freedom of the western seas for Europe and the world.
+It took "the best army in Europe" and a vast treasure, as Sir John
+Davies asserted, to conquer two Ulster clans three hundred years ago.
+The naked valor of the Irishman excelled the armed might of Tudor
+England; and the struggle that gave the empire of the seas to Britain
+was won not in the essay of battle, but in the assay of the mint.</p>
+
+<p>It is this aspect of the Irish fight for freedom that dignifies an
+otherwise lost cause. Ever defeated, yet undefeated, a
+long-remembering race believes that these native qualities must in the
+end prevail. The battle has been from the first one of manhood against
+might. The State Papers, the official record of English rule in
+Ireland, leave us rarely in doubt. We read in that record that, where
+the appeal was to the strength or courage of the opposing men, the
+Irish had nothing to fear from English arms.</p>
+
+<p>Thus the Earl of Essex, in a despatch to Elizabeth, explained the
+failure of his great expedition in 1599 against O'Neill and O'Donnell.
+"These rebels ... have (though I do unwillingly confess it) better
+bodies and perfecter use of their arms than those men whom your
+Majesty sends over." The flight of the Earls in 1607 left Ireland
+leaderless, with nothing but the bodies and hearts of the people to
+depend on. In 1613 we read, in the same records, a candid admission
+that, although the clan system had been destroyed and the great chiefs
+expropriated, converted, or driven to flight, the people still trusted
+to their own stout arms and fearless hearts:</p>
+
+<p>"The next rebellion, whenever it shall happen, doth threaten more
+danger to the State than any heretofore, when the cities and walled
+towns were always faithful; (1) because they have the same bodies they
+ever had and therein they had and have advantage of us; (2) from
+infancy they have been and are exercised in the use of arms; (3) the
+realm by reason of the long peace was never so full of youths; (4)
+that they are better soldiers than heretofore their continental
+employment in wars abroad assures us, and they do conceive that their
+men are better than ours."</p>
+
+<p>And when that "next rebellion" came, the great uprising of the
+outraged race in 1641, what do we find? Back from the continent sails
+the nephew of the great O'Neill, who had left Ireland a little boy in
+the flight of the Earls, and the dispossessed clansmen, robbed of all
+but their strength of body and heart, gathered to the summons of Owen
+Roe.</p>
+
+<p>Again it was the same issue: the courage and hardihood of the
+Irishman to set against the superior arms, equipment, and wealth of a
+united Britain. Irish valor won the battle; a great state organization
+won the campaign. England and Scotland combined to lay low a resurgent
+Ireland; and again the victory was not to the brave and skilled, but
+to the longer purse and the implacable mind. Perhaps the most vivid
+testimony to these innate qualities of the Irishman is to be found in
+a typically Irish challenge issued in the course of this ten years'
+war from 1641 to 1651. The document has a lasting interest, for it
+displays not only the "better body" of the Irishman, but something of
+his better heart and chivalry of soul.</p>
+
+<p>One Parsons, an English settler in Ireland, had written to a friend
+to say, among other things, that the head of a colonel of an Irish
+regiment then in the field against the English would not be allowed to
+stick long on its shoulders. The letter was intercepted by the very
+regiment itself, and a captain in it, Felim O'Molloy, wrote back to
+Parsons:</p>
+
+<p>"I will doe this, if you please. I will pick out 60 men and fight
+against 100 of your choise men, if you do but pitch your campe one
+mile out of your towne, and then, if you have the victory, you may
+threaten my colonel; otherwise do not reckon your chickens before they
+be hatched."</p>
+
+<p>It was this same spirit of daring, this innate belief in his own
+manhood, that for three hundred years made every Irishman the
+custodian of his country's honor.</p>
+
+<p>An Irish state had not been born; that battle had still to be
+fought; but the romantic effort to achieve it reveals ever an
+unstained record of personal courage. Freedom has not come to Ireland;
+it has been "warred down and kept out of sight"; but it has been kept
+in the Irish heart, from Brian Boru to Robert Emmet, by a long tale of
+blood shed always in the same cause. Freedom is kept alive in man's
+blood only by the shedding of that blood. It was this they were
+seeking, those splendid "scorners of death", the lads and young men of
+Mayo, who awaited with a fearless joy the advance of the English army
+fresh from the defeat of Humbert in 1798. Then, if ever, Irishmen
+might have run from a victorious and pitiless enemy, who having
+captured the French general and murdered, in cold blood, the hundreds
+of Killala peasants who were with his colors, were now come to Killala
+itself to wreak vengeance on the last stronghold of Irish
+rebellion.</p>
+
+<p>The ill-led and half-armed peasants, the last Irishmen in Ireland
+to stand in open, pitched fight for their country's freedom, went to
+meet the army of General Lake, as the Protestant bishop who saw them
+says, "running upon death with as little appearance of reflection or
+concern as if they were hastening to a show."</p>
+
+<p>The influences that begot this reverence for freedom lie in the
+island itself no less than in the remote ancestry of the people.
+Whoever looks upon Ireland cannot conceive it as the parent of any but
+freemen. Climate and soil here unite to tell man that brotherhood, and
+not domination, constitutes the only nobility for those who call this
+fair shore their motherland. The Irish struggle for liberty owes as
+much, perhaps, to the continuing influence of the same lakes and
+rivers and the same mountains as to the survival of any political
+fragments of the past. Irish history is inseparably the history of the
+land, rather than of a race; and in this it offers us a spectacle of a
+continuing national unity that long-continuing disaster has not been
+able wholly to efface or wholly to disrupt.</p>
+
+<p>To discover the Europe that existed before Rome we must turn to the
+East, Greece, and to the West, Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>Ireland alone among western lands preserves the recorded tradition,
+the native history, the continuity of mind, and, until yesterday, of
+speech and song, that connect the half of Europe with its ancestral
+past. For early Europe was very largely Celtic Europe, and nowhere can
+we trace the continuous influence of Celtic culture and idealism,
+coming down to us from a remote past, save in Ireland only.</p>
+
+<p>To understand the intellect of pre-Roman Gaul, of Spain, of
+Portugal, and largely of Germany, and even of Italy, we must go to
+Ireland. Whoever visits Spain or Portugal, to investigate the past of
+those countries, will find that the record stops where Rome began.
+Take England in further illustration. The first record the inhabitants
+of England have of the past of their island comes from Roman invasion.
+They know of Boadicea, of Cassivelaunus, the earliest figures in their
+history, from what a foreign destroyer tells them in an alien
+tongue.</p>
+
+<p>All the early life of Celtiberians and Lusitanians has passed away
+from the record of human endeavor, save only where we find it recorded
+by the Italian invaders in their own speech, and in such terms as
+imperial exploitation ever prescribes for its own advancement and the
+belittlement of those it assails. Ireland alone among all western
+nations knows her own past, from the very dawn of history and before
+the romance of Romulus began, down to the present day, in the tongue
+of her own island people and in the light of her own native mind.
+Early Irish history is not the record of the clan-strivings of a petty
+and remote population, far from the centre of civilization. It is the
+authentic story of all western civilization before the warm solvent of
+Mediterranean blood and iron melted and moulded it into another and
+rigid shape.</p>
+
+<p>The Irishman called O'Neill, O'Brien, O'Donnell, steps out of a
+past well-nigh co-eval with the heroisms and tragedies that uplifted
+Greece and laid Troy in ashes, and swept the Mediterranean with an
+Odyssey of romance that still gives its name to each chief island,
+cape, and promontory of the mother sea of Europe. Ireland, too, steps
+out of a story just as old. Well nigh every hill or mountain, every
+lake or river, bears the name today it bore a thousand, two thousand,
+years ago, and one recording some dramatic human or semi-divine
+event.</p>
+
+<p>The songs of the Munster and Connacht poets of the eighteenth and
+nineteenth centuries gave to every cottage in the land the ownership
+as well as the tale of an heroic ancestry. They linked the Ireland of
+yesterday with the Ireland of Finn and Oscar, of Diarmid and Grainne,
+of Deirdre and the Sons of Usnech, of Cuchulainn the Hound of Ulster.
+A people bred on such soul-stirring tales as these, linked by a
+language "the most expressive of any spoken on earth" in thought and
+verse and song with the very dawn of their history, wherein there
+moved, as familiar figures, men with the attributes of
+gods&mdash;great in battle, grand in danger, strong in loving,
+vehement in death&mdash;such a people could never be vulgar, could
+never be mean, but must repeat, in their own time and in their own
+manhood, actions and efforts thus ascribed as a vital part of their
+very origin. Hence the inspiration that gave the name of Fenian, in
+the late nineteenth century, to a band of men who sought to achieve by
+arms the freedom of Ireland. The law of the Fenian of the days of
+Marcus Aurelius was the law of the Fenian in the reign of
+Victoria&mdash;to give all&mdash;mind, body, and strength of
+purpose&mdash;to the defense of his country, "to speak truth and
+harbor no greed in his heart."</p>
+
+<p>Some there are who may deny to Finn and his Fenians of the second
+and third centuries corporeal existence; yet nothing is surer than
+that Ireland claims these ancestral embodiments of an heroic tradition
+by a far surer title of native record than gives to the Germans
+Arminius, to the Gauls, Ariovistus, to the British, Caractacus. This
+conception of a national life, one with the land itself, was very
+clear to the ancient Irish, just as it has been and is the foundation
+of all later national effort.</p>
+
+<p>"If ever the idea of nationality becomes the subject of a thorough
+and honest study, it will be seen that among all the peoples of
+antiquity, not excluding the Hellenes and the Hebrews, the Irish held
+the clearest and most conscious and constant grasp of that idea; and
+that their political divisions, instead of disproving the existence of
+the idea, in their case intensely strengthen the proof of its
+existence and emphasize its power.</p>
+
+<p>In the same way the remarkable absence of insular exclusiveness,
+notwithstanding their geographical position, serves to bring their
+sense of nationality into higher relief.</p>
+
+<p>Though pride of race is evident in the dominant Gaelic stock, their
+national sentiment centres not in the race, but altogether in the
+country, which is constantly personified and made the object of a sort
+of cult.</p>
+
+<p>It is worth noting that just as the Brehon Laws are the laws of
+Ireland without distinction of province or district; as the language
+of Irish literature is the language of Ireland without distinction of
+dialects; as the Dindshenchus contains the topographical legends of
+all parts of Ireland, and the Festilogies commemorate the saints of
+all Ireland; so the Irish chronicles from first to last are histories
+of the Irish nation. The true view of the Book of Invasions is that it
+is the epic of Irish Nationality." (Professor Eoin MacNeill, in a
+letter to Mrs. A.S. Green, January, 1914.)</p>
+
+<p>The "Book of Invasions", which Professor MacNeill here speaks of,
+was compiled a thousand years ago. To write the history of later
+Ireland is merely to prolong the "Book of Invasions", and thus bring
+the epic of Irish resistance down to our own day. All Irish valor and
+chivalry, whether of soul or of body, have been directed for a
+thousand years to this same end. It was for this that Sarsfield died
+at Landen no less than Brian at Clontarf. The monarch of Ireland at
+the head of a great Irish army driving back the leagued invaders from
+the shores of Dublin Bay in 1014, and the exiled leader in 1693,
+heading the charge that routed King William's cause in the
+Netherlands, fell on one and the same battlefield. They fought against
+the invader of Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>We are proudly told that the sun never sets on the British Empire.
+Wherever an Irishman has fought in the name of Ireland it has not been
+to acquire fortune, land, or fame, but to give all, even life itself,
+not to found an empire, but to strike a blow for an ancient land and
+assert the cause of a swordless people. Wherever Irishmen have gone,
+in exile or in fight, they have carried this image of Ireland with
+them. The cause of Ireland has found a hundred fields of foreign fame,
+where the dying Irishman might murmur with Sarsfield, "Would that this
+blood were shed for Ireland", and history records the sacrifice as
+made in no other cause.</p>
+
+<p>Ireland, too, owns an empire on which the sun never sets.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+<p>Sigerson: Bards of the Gael and Gall; O'Callaghan: History of the
+Irish Brigades; Mitchel: Life of Hugh O'Neill; Green: The Making of
+Ireland and its Undoing, Irish Nationality, The Old Irish World;
+Taylor: Life of Owen Roe O'Neill; Todhunter: Life of Patrick
+Sarsfield; Hyde: Love Songs of Connacht, Religious Songs of Connacht;
+O'Grady: Bog of Stars, Flight of the Eagle; Ferguson: Hibernian
+Nights' Entertainment; Mitchel: History of Ireland, in continuation of
+MacGeoghegan's History.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+<h2><a name="T02"></a>THE ISLAND OF SAINTS AND SCHOLARS</h2>
+<h4>CANON D'ALTON, M.R.I.A., LL.D.</h4>
+
+<p>Unlike the natives of Britain and Scotland, the Irish in
+pre-Christian times were not brought into contact with Roman
+institutions or Roman culture. In consequence they created and
+developed a civilization of their own that was in some respects
+without equal. They were far advanced in the knowledge of metal-work
+and shipbuilding; they engaged in commerce; they loved music and had
+an acquaintance with letters; and when disputes arose among them,
+these were settled in duly constituted courts of justice, presided
+over by a trained lawyer, called a brehon, instead of being settled by
+the stern arbitrament of force. Druidism was their pagan creed. They
+believed in the immortality and in the transmigration of souls; they
+worshipped the sun and moon, and they venerated mountains, rivers, and
+wells; and it would be difficult to find any ministers of religion who
+were held in greater awe than the Druids.</p>
+
+<p>Commerce and war brought the Irish into contact with Britain and
+the continent, and thus was Christianity gradually introduced into the
+island. Though its progress at first was not rapid, there were, by
+431, several Christian churches in existence, and in that year
+Palladius, a Briton and a bishop, was sent by Pope Celestine to the
+Irish who already believed in Christ. Discouraged and a failure,
+Palladius returned to Britain after a brief stay on his mission, and
+then, in 432, the same Pope sent St. Patrick, who became the Apostle
+of Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>Because of the great work he did, St. Patrick is one of the
+prominent figures of history; and yet, to such an extent has the dust
+of time settled down on his life and acts that the place and year of
+his birth, the schools in which he was educated, and the year of his
+death, are all matters of dispute. There is, however, no good reason
+to depart from the traditional account, which is, that the Apostle was
+born at Dumbarton in Scotland, in the year 372; that in 388 he was
+captured by the Irish king Niall, who had gone on a plundering raid
+into Scotland; that he was brought to Ireland and sold as a slave, and
+that as such he served a pagan chief named Milcho who lived in what is
+now the county of Antrim; that from Antrim he escaped and went back to
+his own country; that he had many visions urging him to return to
+Ireland and preach the Gospel there; that, believing these were from
+God, he went to France, and there was educated and ordained priest,
+and later consecrated bishop; and then, accompanied by several
+ecclesiastics, he was sent to Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>From Wicklow, where he landed, he proceeded north and endeavored,
+but in vain, to convert his old pagan master Milcho; thence he
+proceeded south by Downpatrick and Dundalk to Slane in Meath, where,
+in sight of Tara, the high-king's seat, he lighted the paschal fire.
+At Tara he confounded the Druids in argument, baptized the high-king
+and the chief poet; and then, turning north and west, he crossed the
+Shannon into Connacht, where he spent seven years. From Connacht he
+passed into Donegal, and thence through Tyrone and Antrim, after which
+he entered Munster, and remained there seven years. Finally, he
+returned to Armagh, which he made his episcopal see, and died at Saul,
+near Downpatrick, in 493.</p>
+
+<p>St. Patrick wrote two short works, both of which have survived, his
+<i>Confession</i> and his <i>Epistle to Coroticus</i>. In neither are
+there any graces of style, and the Latin is certainly not that of
+Cicero or Livy. But in the <i>Confession</i> the character of the
+author himself is completely revealed&mdash;his piety, his zeal, his
+self-sacrifice, his courage in face of every danger and every trial.
+Not less remarkable was the skill with which he handled men and used
+pagan institutions for the purposes of Christianity; and equally so
+was the success with which his bloodless apostolate was crowned.</p>
+
+<p>One great difficulty which St. Patrick had was to provide the
+people with a native ministry. At first he selected the chief
+men&mdash;princes, brehons, bards&mdash;and these, with little
+training and little education, he ordained. Thus, slenderly equipped
+with knowledge, the priest, with his ritual, missal, and a catechism,
+and the bishop, with his crozier and bell, went forth to do battle for
+the Lord. This condition of things was soon ended. In 450 a college
+was founded at Armagh, which in a short time grew to be a famous
+school, and attracted students from afar. Other schools were founded
+in the fifth century, at Noendrum, Louth, and Kildare. In the sixth
+century arose the famous monastic schools of Clonfert, Clonard,
+Clonmacnois, Arran, and Bangor; while the seventh century saw the rise
+of Glendalough and Lismore.</p>
+
+<p>St. Patrick was educated in Gaul, at the monasteries of Marmoutier
+and Lerins; and, perhaps as a result, the monastic character of the
+early Irish church was one of its outstanding features; moreover it
+was to the prevalence of the monastic spirit, the desire for solitude
+and meditation, that so many of the great monastic establishments owed
+their existence. Fleeing from society and its attractions, and wishing
+only for solitude and austerity, some holy man sought out a lonely
+retreat, and there lived a life of mortification and prayer. Others
+came to share his poverty and vigils; a grant of land was then
+obtained from the ruling chief, the holy man became abbot and his
+followers his monks; and a religious community was formed destined
+soon to acquire fame. It was thus that St. Finnian established Clonard
+on the banks of the Boyne, and St. Kieran, Clonmacnois by the waters
+of the Shannon; and thus did St. Enda make the wind-swept Isles of
+Arran the home and the resting place of so many saints. Before the
+close of the sixth century, 3,000 monks followed the rule of St.
+Corngall at Bangor; and in the seventh century, St. Carthage made
+Lismore famous and St. Kevin attracted pious men from afar to his
+lonely retreat in the picturesque valley of Glendalough.</p>
+
+<p>And there were holy women as well as holy men in Ireland. St.
+Brigid was held in such honor that she is often called the Mary of the
+Gael. Even in St. Patrick's day, she had founded a convent at Kildare,
+beside which was a monastery of which St. Conleth was superior; and
+she founded many other convents in addition to that at Kildare. Her
+example was followed by St. Ita, St. Fanchea, and many others; and if
+at the close of the sixth century there were few districts which had
+not monasteries and monks, there were few also which had not convents
+and nuns.</p>
+
+<p>Nor was this all. Fired with missionary zeal, many men left Ireland
+to plant the faith in distant lands. Thus did St. Columcille settle in
+Iona, whence he converted the Picts. Under his successors, St. Aidan
+and his friends went south to Lindisfarne to convert Northumbria in
+England; and the ninth abbot of Iona was the saintly Adamnan, whose
+biography of St. Columcille has been declared by competent authority
+to be the best of its kind of which the whole Middle Ages can boast.
+Nor must it be forgotten that the monasteries of Luxeuil and Bobbio
+owed their origin to St. Columbanus; that St. Gall gave his name to a
+town and canton in Switzerland; that St. Fridolin labored on the Rhine
+and St. Fursey on the Marne; and that St. Cathaldus was Bishop of
+Tarentum, and is still venerated as the patron of that Italian
+see.</p>
+
+<p>And if we would know what was the character of the schools in which
+these men were trained, we have only to remember that Colgu, who had
+been educated at Clonmacnois, was the master of Alcuin; that Dicuil
+the Geographer came from the same school; that Cummian, Abbot and
+Bishop of Clonfert, combated the errors about the paschal computation
+with an extent of learning and a wealth of knowledge amazing in a monk
+of the seventh century; and that at the close of the eighth century
+two Irishmen went to the court of Charlemagne and were described by a
+monk of St. Gall as "men incomparably skilled in human learning". The
+once pagan Ireland had by that time become a citadel of Christianity,
+and was rightfully called the School of the West, the Island of Saints
+and Scholars.</p>
+
+<p>With this state of progress and prosperity the Danes played sad
+havoc. Animated with the fiercest pagan fanaticism, they turned with
+fury against Christianity, and especially against monks and religious
+foundations. Armagh, Clonmacnois, Bangor, Kildare, and many other
+great monastic establishments thus fell before their fury. Ignorance,
+neglect of religion, and corruption of manners followed, and from the
+eighth to the twelfth century there was a noted falling off in the
+number of Irish scholars. At home indeed were Cormac and Maelmurra,
+O'Hartigan and O'Flynn, and abroad was John Scotus Erigena, whose
+learning was so great that it excited astonishment even at Rome. The
+love of learning and zeal for religion lived on through this long
+period of accumulated disasters. After the triumph of Brian Boru at
+Clontarf, there was a distinct revival of piety and learning; and,
+when a century of turmoil followed Brian's fall and religion again
+suffered, nothing was wanted to bring the people back to a sense of
+their duty but the energy and reforming zeal of St. Malachy.</p>
+
+<p>Gerald Barry, the notorious Anglo-Norman, who visited Ireland
+towards the close of the twelfth century, has been convicted out of
+his own mouth when he states that Ireland was a barbarous nation when
+his people came there. He forgot that a people who could illuminate
+the Book of Kells and build Cormac's Chapel could not be called
+savages, nor could a church be lost to a sense of decency and dignity
+that numbered among its children such a man as St. Laurence O'Toole.
+Abuses there were, it is true, consequent on long continued war,
+though these abuses were increased rather than lessened by the coming
+of the Anglo-Normans, and to such an extent that for more than two
+centuries there is not a single great name among Irish scholars except
+Duns Scotus.</p>
+
+<p>The fame of Duns Scotus was European, and the Subtle Doctor, as he
+was called, became the great glory of the Franciscan, as his rival St.
+Thomas was the great glory of the Dominican, order. But he left no
+successor, and from his death, at the opening of the fourteenth
+century, till the seventeenth century the number of Irish scholars or
+recognized Irish saints was small. Yet, in the midst of disorders
+within, and despite oppression from without, at no time did the love
+of learning disappear in Ireland; nor was there ever in the Irish
+church either heresy or schism.</p>
+
+<p>The attempted reformation by Henry VIII and his daughter Elizabeth
+produced martyrs like O'Hurley and O'Hely; and there were many more
+martyrs in the time of the Stuarts, and especially under the short but
+sanguinary rule of Cromwell.</p>
+
+<p>Those were the days of the penal laws, when they who clung to the
+old religion suffered much. But nothing could shake their faith;
+neither the proclamations of Elizabeth and James, the massacres of
+Cromwell, nor the ferocious proscriptions of the eighteenth century.
+The priest said Mass, though his crime was punishable by death, and
+the people heard Mass, though theirs also was a criminal offence; and
+the schoolmaster, driven from the school, taught under a sheltering
+hedge. The clerical student, denied education at home, crossed the
+sea, to be educated at Louvain or Salamanca or Seville, and then,
+perhaps loaded with academic honors, he returned home to face poverty
+and persecution and even death. The Catholic masses, socially
+ostracised, degraded, and impoverished, shut out from every avenue to
+ambition or enterprise, deprived of every civil right, knowing nothing
+of law except when it oppressed them and nothing of government except
+when it struck them down, yet clung to the religion in which they were
+born. And when, in the latter half of the eighteenth century, the tide
+turned and the first dawn of toleration appeared on the horizon, it
+was found that the vast majority of the people were unchanged, and
+that, after two centuries of the most relentless persecution since the
+days of Diocletian, Ireland was, in faith and practice, a strongly
+Catholic nation still.</p>
+
+<p>On a soil constantly wet with the blood and tears of its children,
+it would be vain to expect that scholarship could flourish. And yet
+the period had its distinguished Irish scholars both at home and
+abroad. At Louvain, in the sixteenth century, were Lombard and Creagh,
+who both became Archbishops of Armagh, and O'Hurley who became
+Archbishop of Cashel. An even greater scholar than these was Luke
+Wadding, the eminent Franciscan who founded the convent of St. Isidore
+at Rome. At Louvain was John Colgan, a Franciscan like Wadding, a man
+who did much for Irish ecclesiastical history. And at home in Ireland,
+as parish priest of Tybrid in Tipperary, was the celebrated Dr.
+Geoffrey Keating the historian, once a student at Salamanca. John
+Lynch, the renowned opponent of Gerald Barry the Welshman, was
+Archdeacon of Tuam. And in the ruined Franciscan monastery of Donegal,
+the Four Masters, aided and encouraged by the Friars, labored long and
+patiently, and finally completed the work which we all know as the
+<i>Annals of the Four Masters</i>. This work, originally written in
+Irish, remained in manuscript in Louvain till the middle of the
+nineteenth century, when it was edited and translated into English by
+John O'Donovan, one of Ireland's greatest Irish scholars, with an
+ability and completeness quite worthy of the original.</p>
+
+<p>On the Anglo-Irish side there were also some great names, and
+especially in the domain of history, notably Stanyhurst and Hammer,
+Moryson and Campion and Davies, and, above all, Ussher and Ware. James
+Ware died in 1666, and though a Protestant and an official of the
+Protestant government, and living in Ireland in an intolerant age and
+in an atmosphere charged with religious rancor, he was, to his credit
+be it said, to a large extent free from bigotry. He dealt with history
+and antiquities, and wrote in no party spirit, wishing only to be fair
+and impartial, and to set out the truth as he found it. James Ussher,
+Archbishop of Armagh, was a much abler man and a much greater scholar
+than Ware. His capacity for research, his profound scholarship, the
+variety and extent of his learning raised him far above his
+co-religionists, and he has been rightly called the Great Luminary by
+the Irish Protestant church. It is regrettable that his fine intellect
+was darkened by bigotry and intolerance.</p>
+
+<p>Far different was the character of another Protestant bishop, the
+great Berkeley, of Cloyne, a patriot, a philosopher, and a scholar,
+who afterwards left money and books for a scholarship, which is still
+in existence, at the then infant Yale College in New England. He lived
+in the first half of the eighteenth century, when the whole machinery
+of government was ruthlessly used to crush the Catholics. But Berkeley
+had little sympathy with the penal laws; he had words of kindness for
+the Catholics, and undoubtedly wished them well. Nor must Swift be
+forgotten, for though he took little pride in being an Irishman, he
+hated and despised those who oppressed Ireland, and is rightly
+regarded as one of the greatest of her sons.</p>
+
+<p>The short period during which Grattan's parliament existed was one
+of great prosperity. It was then that Maynooth College was established
+for the education of the Irish priesthood. But Catholics, though free
+to set up schools, were still shut out from the honors and emoluments
+of Trinity College, the one university at that time in Ireland. Still,
+Charles O'Connor, MacGeoghegan, and O'Flaherty were great Catholic
+scholars in the latter part of the eighteenth century.</p>
+
+<p>In the following century, while Protestant ascendancy was still
+maintained, the Catholics had greater scope. Away back in the days of
+Queen Elizabeth, Campion found Latin widely spoken among the
+peasantry, and Father Mooney met country lads familiar with Virgil and
+Homer. In 1670, Petty had a similar story to tell, in spite of all the
+savageries of Cromwell and the ruin which necessarily followed. And in
+the eighteenth century the schoolmaster, though a price was set on his
+head, was still active. With an inherited love of learning, the Irish
+in the nineteenth century would have made rapid progress had they been
+rich. But their impoverishment by the penal laws made it impossible
+for them to set up an effective system of primary education, and until
+the national school system came into existence in 1831, they had to
+rely on the hedge-schools. Secondary education fared better, for the
+bishops, relying with confidence on the generosity of their flocks,
+were soon able to establish diocesan colleges. And in higher
+education, equally determined efforts were made by the establishment
+of the Catholic University under Cardinal Newman. But in this field of
+intellectual effort, in spite of the energy and zeal of the bishops,
+in spite of the great generosity of the people, so many of whom were
+poor, and in spite of the fame of Newman, it is failure rather than
+success which the historian has to record.</p>
+
+<p>Nor has the love of the Irish for religion, any more than their
+love of learning, been lessened or enfeebled by time. The mountain
+side as the place for Mass in the penal days gradually gave way to the
+rude stone church without steeple or bell; and when steeple and bell
+ceased to be proscribed, and the people were left free to erect
+suitable houses of sacrifice and prayer, the fine churches of the
+nineteenth century began gradually to appear. The unfettered exercise
+of freedom of religious worship, the untiring efforts of a zealous
+clergy and episcopate, the unstinted support of a people, who out of
+their poverty grudged nothing to God or to God's house, formed an
+irresistible combination, and all over the country beautiful churches
+are now to be found.</p>
+
+<p>In every diocese in Ireland, with scarcely an exception, there is
+now a stately cathedral to perpetuate the renown of the patron saint
+of that diocese, and even parish churches have been built not unworthy
+to be the churches of an ancient see. At Armagh, a cathedral has been
+built which does honor to Irish architecture, and worthily
+commemorates the life and labors of St. Patrick, the founder of the
+primatial see; at Thurles, a cathedral stands, the chief church of the
+southern province, statelier far than any which ever stood on the Rock
+of Cashel; at Tuam, a noble building, associated with the memory of
+John MacHale, the Lion of the Fold of Judah, perpetuates the name of
+St. Jarlath; at Queenstown, the traveller, going to America or
+returning from it to the old land, has his attention attracted to the
+splendid cathedral pile sacred to St. Colman, the patron saint of the
+diocese of Cloyne; and if we would see how splendid even a parish
+church may be, let us visit the beautiful church in Drogheda,
+dedicated to the memory of Oliver Plunkett.</p>
+
+<p>Nor are these things the only evidence we have that zeal for
+religion among the Irish has survived centuries of persecution.
+Columbanus and Columcille have still their successors, eager and ready
+as they were to bring the blessings of the Gospel to distant lands. In
+recent years an Irish-born Archbishop of Sydney has been succeeded by
+an Irish-born Archbishop; an Irishman rules the metropolitan see of
+Adelaide; and an Irish-born Archbishop of Melbourne has as his
+coadjutor a former president of the College of Maynooth. In South
+Africa, the work of preaching and teaching and ruling the church is
+largely the work of Irish-born men. In the great Republic of the West
+the three cardinal-archbishops at the head of the Catholic Church have
+the distinctively Irish names of Gibbons and Farley and O'Connell; and
+in every diocese throughout the United States the proportion of
+priests of Irish birth or descent is large.</p>
+
+<p>Nor must the poorer Irish be forgotten. How much does the Catholic
+Church, both in Ireland and in America, owe to the generosity of
+Irish-American laborers and servant girls! Out of their scanty and
+hard-earned pay they have contributed much not only towards the
+building of the plain wooden church in the rural parishes, but also of
+the stately cathedrals of American cities. And many a church in old
+Ireland owes its completion and its adornment to the dollars given by
+the poor but generous Irish exiles.</p>
+
+<p>And if the zeal of the Irish for religion has thus survived to the
+twentieth century, so also in an equally remarkable degree has their
+zeal for learning. We have evidence of this in the numerous primary
+schools in every parish, filled with eager pupils and presided over by
+hard working teachers; in the colleges where the sciences and the
+classics are studied with the same energy as in the ancient monastic
+schools; and in Maynooth College, which is the foremost ecclesiastical
+college in the world. And if there are now new universities, the
+National and the Queen's, sturdy and vigorous in their youth, this
+does not imply that Trinity College suffers from the decreptitude of
+age. For among those whom she sent forth in recent times are Dowden
+and Mahaffy and Lecky, to name but three, and these would do credit to
+any university in Europe.</p>
+
+<p>It would be difficult to find in any age of Irish history a greater
+pulpit orator than the famous Dominican, Father Tom Burke, or a more
+delightful essayist than Father Joseph Farrell; and who has depicted
+Irish clerical life more faithfully than the late Canon Sheehan, whose
+fame as a novelist has crossed continents and oceans? O'Connell was a
+great orator as well as a great political leader, and Dr. Doyle and
+Archbishop John MacHale were scholars as well as statesmen and
+bishops. We have thus an unbroken chain of great names, a series of
+Irishmen whom the succeeding ages have brought forth to enlighten and
+instruct lesser men; and Ireland, in the twentieth century, is not
+less attached to religion and learning than she was when Clonmacnois
+flourished and the saintly Carthage ruled at Lismore.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+<p>Joyce: Social History of Ancient Ireland (Dublin, 1903); Lanigan:
+Ecclesiastical History of Ireland (Dublin, 1822); Healy: Ireland's
+Ancient Schools and Scholars (Dublin, 1896), Life and Writings of St.
+Patrick (Dublin, 1905); Bury: St. Patrick and his Place in History
+(London, 1905); Ussher's Works (Dublin, 1847); Reeves: Adamnan's Life
+of St. Columba (Dublin, 1851); Worsae: The Danes in Ireland (London,
+1852); Moran: Essays on the Early Irish Church (Dublin, 1864); Stokes:
+Ireland and the Anglo-Norman Church (London, 1897); Mant: History of
+the Church of Ireland (London, 1841); Bagwell: Ireland under the
+Tudors (London, 1885-90); Moran: Persecutions under the Puritans
+(Callan, 1903); Murphy: Our Martyrs (Dublin, 1896); Meehan: Franciscan
+Monasteries of the Seventeenth Century (Dublin, 1870); Lecky: History
+of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century (London, 1902); O'Connell's
+Correspondence (London, 1888); Wyse: History of the Catholic
+Association (London, 1829); Doyle: Letters on the State of Ireland
+(Dublin, 1826); O'Rorke: Irish Famine (Dublin, 1902); Gavan Duffy:
+Young Ireland (London, 1880); Plunkett: Ireland in the New Century
+(London, 1904); O'Riordan: Catholicity and Progress in Ireland
+(London, 1905); MacCaffery: History of the Church in the Nineteenth
+Century (Dublin, 1909); Healy: Centenary History of Maynooth College
+(Dublin, 1905); D'Alton: History of Ireland (London, 1910).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T03"></a>IRISH MONKS IN EUROPE</h2>
+<h4>By Rev. Columba Edmonds, O.S.B.</h4>
+
+<p>St. Patrick's work in Ireland was chiefly concerned with preaching
+the faith and establishing monasteries which served as centres of
+education. The great success that attended these efforts earned for
+Ireland the double title of Island of Saints and a Second Thebaid.</p>
+
+<p>The monastic institutions organized by St. Patrick were
+characterized from their commencement by an apostolic zeal that knew
+no bounds. Sufficient scope was not to be found at home, so it was
+impatient to diffuse itself abroad.</p>
+
+<p><b>SCOTLAND:</b> Hence in the year 563 St. Columcille, a Donegal
+native of royal descent, accompanied by twelve companions, crossed the
+sea in currachs of wickerwork and hides, and sought to land in
+Caledonia. They reached the desolate Isle of Iona on the day preceding
+Whitsunday.</p>
+
+<p>Many years before, colonies of Irishmen had settled along the
+western parts of the present Scotland. The settlement north of the
+Clyde received the name of the Kingdom of Dalriada. These Dalriadan
+Irish were Christian at least in name, but their neighbors in the
+Pictish Highlands were still pagans. Columcille's apostolate was to be
+among both these peoples. Adamnan says that Columcille came to
+Caledonia "for the love of Christ's name", and well did his after-life
+prove the truth of this statement. He had attained his forty-fourth
+year when King Conall, his kinsman, bestowed Iona upon him and his
+brethren. The island, situated between the Dalriadans and the Picts of
+the Highlands, was conveniently placed for missionary work. A numerous
+community recruited from Ireland, with Columcille as its Abbot, soon
+caused Iona to become a flourishing centre from which men could go
+forth to preach Christianity. Monasteries and hermitages rapidly
+sprang up in the adjacent islands and on the mainland. These, together
+with the Columban foundations in Ireland, formed one great religious
+federation, in which the Celtic apostles of the northern races were
+formed under the influence of the holy founder.</p>
+
+<p>St. Columcille recognized the need of securing permanence for his
+work by obtaining the conversion of the Pictish rulers, and thus he
+did not hesitate to approach King Brude in his castle on the banks of
+the River Ness. St. Comgall and St. Canice were Columcille's
+companions on his journey through the great glen, now famous for the
+Caledonian Canal. The royal convert Brude was baptized, and by degrees
+the people followed the example set them. Opposition, however, was
+keen and aggressive, and it came from the official representatives of
+Pictish paganism&mdash;the Druids.</p>
+
+<p>Success, too, attended Columcille's ministrations among the
+Dalriadans, and on the death of their king, Aidan Gabhran, who
+succeeded to the throne, sought regal consecration from the hands of
+Columcille. In 597 the saint died, but not before he had won a whole
+kingdom to Christ and covered the land with churches and monasteries.
+Today his name is held in honor not by Irishmen alone, but by the
+Catholics and non-Catholics of the land of his adoption.</p>
+
+<p>There are other saints who either labored in person with Columcille
+or perpetuated the work he accomplished in Caledonia; and their names
+add to the glory of Ireland, their birth-land. Thus St. Moluag (592)
+converted the people of Lismore, and afterwards died at Rosemarkie;
+St. Drostan, St. Columcille's friend and disciple, established the
+faith in Aberdeenshire and became abbot of Deer; St. Kieran (548)
+evangelized Kintyre; St. Mun (635) labored in Argyleshire; St. Buite
+(521) did the same in Pictland; St. Maelrubha (722) preached in
+Ross-shire; St. Modan and St. Machar benefited the dwellers on the
+western and eastern coasts respectively; and St. Fergus in the eighth
+century became apostle of Forfar, Buchan, and Caithness.</p>
+
+<p><b>DISTANT ISLANDS:</b> But Irish monks were mariners as well as
+apostles. Their hide-covered currachs were often launched in the hope
+of discovering solitudes in the ocean. Adamnan records that Baitan set
+out with others in search of a desert in the sea. St. Cormac sought a
+similar retreat and arrived at the Orkneys. St. Molaise's holy isle
+guards Lamlash Bay, off Arran. The island retreats of the Bass,
+Inchkeith, May, and Inchcolm, in the Firth of Forth, are associated
+with the Irish saints Baldred, Adamnan, Adrian, and Columcille. St.
+Maccaldus, a native of Down, became bishop of the Isle of Man.</p>
+
+<p>Remarkable, too, is the fact that Irish monks sailed by way of the
+Faroe Islands to distant Iceland. These sailor-clerics, who settled on
+the southeast of the island, were spoken of by later Norwegians as
+"papar." After their departure&mdash;they were probably driven away by
+Norwegian pagans&mdash;these Icelandic apostles "left behind them
+Irish books, bells, and croziers, wherefrom one could understand they
+were Irishmen."</p>
+
+<p>But St. Brendan, the voyager, is the most wonderful of the mariner
+monks of Ireland. He accomplished apostolic work in both Wales and
+Scotland, but his seafaring instincts urged him to make missionary
+voyages to regions hitherto unknown. Some writers, not without reason,
+have actually maintained that he and his followers traveled as far as
+the American shore. Be this as it may, the tradition of the
+discoveries of this Irish monk kept in mind the possibly existing
+western land, and issued at last in the discovery of the great
+continent of America by Columbus.</p>
+
+<p><b>NORTHUMBRIA:</b> Turn now to Northumbria. Adamnan writes that
+St. Columcille's name was honored not only in Gaul, Spain, and Italy,
+but in Rome itself. England, however, owes to it a special veneration,
+because of the widespread apostolic work accomplished within her
+borders by Columcille's Irish disciples. The facts are as follows:
+Northumbrian Christianity was well-nigh exterminated through the
+victory of Penda the pagan over Edwin the Christian, A.D. 633. St.
+Paulinus, its local Roman apostle, was driven permanently from his
+newly founded churches. Meanwhile Oswald and his brother Edwith sought
+refuge among the Irish monks of lona, and received baptism at their
+hands. Edwith died and Oswald became heir to the throne. A battle was
+fought. The day before he met the pagan army, between the Tyne and the
+Solway, Oswald beheld St. Columcille in vision saying to him: "Be
+strong and of good faith; I will be with thee." The result of this
+vision of the abbot of Iona was that a considerable part of England
+received the true faith. Oswald was victorious; he united the kingdoms
+of Deira and Bernicia, and became overlord of practically all England,
+with the exception of Kent. There was evangelization to be done, and
+St. Oswald turned to Iona. In response to his appeal, the Irish
+bishop, St. Aidan, was sent with several companions. They were
+established on the island of Lindisfarne, in sight of the royal
+residence at Bamborough. These monks labored in union with, and even
+seemed to exceed in zeal, the Roman missionaries in the south under
+St. Augustine. However great the enthusiasm they had displayed for
+conversions in Iona, they displayed still greater on the desolate isle
+of Lindisfarne. In the first instance St. Aidan and his monks
+evangelized Northumbria. Want of facility in preaching in the
+Anglo-Saxon tongue was at first an obstacle, but it was speedily
+overcome, for king Oswald himself, who knew both Gaelic and English,
+came forward and acted as interpreter.</p>
+
+<p>When St. Aidan died in 651, Iona sent St. Finan, another Irish
+bishop, to succeed him. Finan spread the faith beyond the borders of
+Northumbria and succeeded so well that he himself baptized Penda, king
+of the Mid-Angles, and Sigebert, king of the East Saxons. Diuma and
+Cellach, Irish monks, assisted by three Anglo-Saxon disciples of St.
+Aidan, consolidated the mission to the Mercians.</p>
+
+<p><b>ANGLIA:</b> While Christianity was thus being restored in
+Northumbria, other Irish apostles were teaching it in East Anglia. St.
+Fursey, accompanied by his brother St. Foillan and St. Ultan and the
+priests Gobham and Dicuil, landed in England in 633, and began to
+labor in the eastern portions of Anglia. In his monastery at
+Burghcastle, in Suffolk, the convert king Sigebert made his monastic
+profession, and in the same house many heavenly visions were
+vouchsafed to its founder.</p>
+
+<p>The South Saxons had in Dicuil an apostle who founded the monastery
+of Bosham in Sussex, whence originated the episcopal see of
+Chichester. Another Irish monk named Maeldubh settled among the West
+Saxons and became the founder of Malmesbury Abbey and the instructor
+of the well-known St. Aldhelm.</p>
+
+<p>Thus did Irish monks contribute to the conversion of Great Britain
+and its many distant islands. They built up the faith by their holy
+lives, their preaching, and their enthusiasm, and wisely provided for
+its perpetuation by educating a native clergy and by the founding of
+monastic institutions.</p>
+
+<p>They were not yet satisfied, so they turned towards other lands to
+bring to other peoples the glad tidings of salvation.</p>
+
+<p><b>GAUL:</b> In 590 St. Columbanus, a monk of Bangor in Ireland,
+accompanied by twelve brethren, arrived in France, having passed
+through Britain. After the example of St. Columcille in Caledonia,
+they traveled to the court of Gontram, king of Burgundy, in order to
+secure his help and protection. During the course of the journey they
+preached to the people, and all were impressed with their modesty,
+patience, and devotion. At that epoch Gaul was sadly in need of such
+missionaries, for, owing partly to the invasion of barbarians and
+partly to remissness on the part of the clergy, vice and impiety
+everywhere prevailed. Columbanus, because of his zeal, sanctity, and
+learning, was well fitted for the task that lay before him. One of his
+early works in Burgundy was the founding of the monastery of Luxeuil,
+which became the parent of many other monasteries founded either by
+himself or by his disciples. Many holy men came from Ireland to join
+the community, and so numerous did the monks of Luxeuil become that
+separate choirs were formed to keep up perpetual praise&mdash;the
+"laus perennis". But Columbanus did not remain at Luxeuil. In his
+strict uncompromising preaching he spared not even kings, and he
+preferred to leave his flourishing monastery rather than pass over in
+silence the vices of the Merovingians. He escaped from the malice of
+Brunehaut, and, being banished from Burgundy, made his way to
+Neustria, and thence to Metz. Full of zeal, he resolved to preach the
+faith to the pagans along the Rhine, and with this purpose set out
+with a few of his followers. They proceeded as far as the Lake of
+Zurich, and finally established themselves at Bregentz, on the Lake of
+Constance.</p>
+
+<p>By this time his disciple St. Gall had learned the Alemannian
+dialect, which enabled him to push forward the work of evangelization.
+But Columbanus felt that he was called to labor in other lands while
+vigor remained to him, so, bidding his favorite follower farewell, he
+crossed the Alps and arrived at Milan in northern Italy. King Agilulph
+and his queen, Theodelinda, gave the Irish abbot a reverent and kind
+welcome. His zeal was still unspent, and he worked much for the
+conversion of the Lombard Arians. Here he founded, between Milan and
+Genoa, the monastery of Bobbio, which as a centre of knowledge and
+piety was long the light of northern Italy. In this monastery he died
+in the year 615, but not before the arrival of messengers from King
+Clothaire, inviting him to return to Luxeuil, as his enemies were now
+no more. But he could not go; all he asked was protection for his dear
+monks at Luxeuil.</p>
+
+<p>It has been said most truly that Ireland never sent a greater son
+to do God's work in foreign lands than Columbanus. The fruit of his
+labors remained; and for centuries after his death his influence was
+widely felt throughout Europe, especially in France and Italy. His
+zeal for the interests of God was unbounded, and this was the secret
+of his immense power. Some of his writings have come down to us, and
+comprise his Rule for Monks, his Penitential, sixteen short sermons,
+six letters, and several poems, all in Latin. His letters are of much
+value as evidence of Ireland's ancient belief in papal supremacy.</p>
+
+<p><b>SWITZERLAND:</b> Gall, Columbanus's disciple, remained in
+Switzerland. In a fertile valley, lying between two rivers and
+surrounded by hills, he laid the beginnings of the great abbey which
+afterwards bore his name and became one of the most famous monasteries
+in Christendom. St. Gall spent thirty years of his life in Helvetia,
+occupying himself in teaching, preaching, and prayer. He succeeded
+where others had failed, and that which was denied to Columbanus was
+reserved for Gall, his disciple, and the latter is entitled the
+Apostle of Alemannia.</p>
+
+<p>Other districts had their Irish missionaries and apostles. Not far
+from St. Gall, at Seckingen, near Basle, St. Fridolin was a pioneer in
+the work of evangelization.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the seventh century St. Kilian, an Irishman,
+with his companions, Totnan and Colman, arrived in Franconia. He was
+martyred in W&uuml;rtzburg, where he is honored as patron and
+apostle.</p>
+
+<p>Sigisbert, another Irish follower of St. Columbanus, spread the
+faith among the half-pagan people of eastern Helvetia, and founded the
+monastery of Dissentis in Rhaetia.</p>
+
+<p>St. Ursanne, a little town on the boundaries of Switzerland, took
+its origin from another disciple of St. Columbanus.</p>
+
+<p><b>OTHER APOSTLES AND FOUNDERS:</b> Desire for solitary life drew
+St. Fiacre to a hermitage near Meaux, where he transformed wooded
+glades into gardens to provide vegetables for poor people. This
+charity has earned for Fiacre the title of patron saint of
+gardeners.</p>
+
+<p>St. Fursey, the illustrious apostle of East Anglia, crossed over to
+France, where he travelled and preached continuously. He built a
+monastery at Lagny-sur-Marne, and was about to return to East Anglia
+when he died at M&eacute;zerolles, near Doullens. St. Gobham followed
+his master's example, and like him evangelized and founded
+monasteries. St. Etto (Z&eacute;) acted in like manner. St. Foillan
+and St. Ultan, brothers of St. Fursey, became apostles in southern
+Brabant.</p>
+
+<p>The monastery of Honau, on an island near Strasburg, and that of
+Altom&uuml;nster, in Bavaria, owe their foundation to the Irish monks
+Tuban and Alto, respectively.</p>
+
+<p>Not far from Luxeuil was the Abbey of Lure, another great Irish
+foundation, due to Deicolus (Desle, Dichuill), a brother of St. Gall
+and a disciple of St. Columbanus. So important was this house
+considered in later times that its abbot was numbered among the
+princes of the Holy Roman Empire.</p>
+
+<p>Rouen, in Normandy, felt the influence of the Irish monks through
+the instrumentality of St. Ouen; and the monasteries of Jouarre,
+Rebais, Jumi&egrave;ges, Leuconaus, and St. Vandrille were due at
+least indirectly to Columbanus or his disciples.</p>
+
+<p>Turning to Belgium, it is recorded that St. Romold preached the
+faith in Mechlin, and St. Livinus in Ghent. Both came from
+Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>St. Virgilius, a voluntary exile from Erin, "for the love of
+Christ", established his monastery at Salzburg, in Austria. He became
+bishop there, and died in 781.</p>
+
+<p>Moreover, the Celtic Rule of Columbanus was carried into Picardy by
+St. Valery, St. Omer, St. Bertin, St. Mummolin, and St. Valdelenus;
+but the Irish Caidoc and Fricor had already preceded them, their work
+resulting in the foundation of the Abbey of St. Riquier.</p>
+
+<p><b>ITALY:</b> Something yet remains to be said of the monks of
+Ireland in Italy. Anterior to St. Columbanus's migration, his fellow
+countryman, St. Frigidian (or Fridian), had taken up his abode in
+Italy at Monte Pisana, not far from the city of Lucca, where he became
+famed for sanctity and wisdom. On the death of the bishop of Lucca,
+Frigidian was compelled to occupy the vacant see. St. Gregory the
+Great wrote of him that "he was a man of rare virtue". His teachings
+and holy life not only influenced the lives of his own flock, but
+brought to the faith many heretics and pagans. In Lucca this Celtic
+apostle is still honored under the name of St. Frediano.</p>
+
+<p>St. Pellegrinus is another Irish saint who sought solitude at
+Garfanana in the Apennines; and Cathaldus, a Waterford saint, in 680,
+became Bishop of Taranto, which he governed for many years with zeal
+and great wisdom. His co-worker was Donatus, his brother, who founded
+the church at Lecce in the Kingdom of Naples.</p>
+
+<p>Of the two learned Irishmen, Clemens and Albinus, who resided in
+France in the eighth century, Albinus was sent into Italy, where at
+Pavia he was placed at the head of the school attached to St.
+Augustine's monastery. Dungal, his compatriot, was a famous teacher in
+the same city. Lothair thus ordained concerning him: "We desire that
+at Pavia, and under the superintendence of Dungal, all students should
+assemble from Milan, Brescia, Lodi, Bergamo, Novara, Vercelli,
+Tortona, Acqui, Genoa, Asti, Como."</p>
+
+<p>It was this same Dungal who presented the Bangor psalter to Bobbio;
+therefore it may be reasonably conjectured that he came from the very
+monastery that produced Columbanus, Gall, and Comgall.</p>
+
+<p>Fiesole, in Tuscany, venerates two Irish eighth-century saints,
+Donatus and Andrew. The former was educated at Iniscaltra, and Andrew
+was his friend and disciple. After visiting Rome, they lingered at
+Fiesole. Donatus was received with great honor by clergy and people
+and was requested to fill their vacant bishopric. With much hesitation
+he took upon himself ihe burden, which he bore for many years. His
+biographer says of him that "he was liberal in almsgiving, sedulous in
+watching, devout in prayer, excellent in doctrine, ready in speech,
+holy in life." Andrew, who was his deacon, founded the church and
+monastery of St. Martin in Mensola, and is known in Fiesole as St.
+Andrew of Ireland, or St. Andrew the Scot, that is, the Irishman.</p>
+
+<p><b>HOSPITALIA:</b> Thus Irish monks were to be found in France,
+Belgium, Switzerland, Germany, and Italy, and even in Bulgaria. So
+numerous were they and so frequent their travels through the different
+countries of Europe that hospices were founded to befriend them. These
+institutions were known as "Hospitalia Scottorum" ("Hospices for the
+Irish"), and their benefactors were not only pious laymen but the
+highest ecclesiastical authorities. Sometimes the hospices were
+diverted to purposes other than those originally intended, and then
+Church Councils would intervene in favor of the lawful inheritors.
+Thus in 845 we read that the Council of Meaux ordered the hospices in
+France to be restored to the dispossessed Irishmen. In the twelfth
+century Ireland still continued to send forth a constant succession of
+monk-pilgrims, renowned for faith, austerity, and piety.</p>
+
+<p><b>RATISBON:</b> Special monasteries were erected to be peopled by
+the Irish. The most renowned of these dates from 1067, when Marianus
+Scotus ("Marianus the Irishman"), with his companions, John and
+Candidus, left his native land and arrived in Bavaria. These holy men
+were welcomed at Ratisbon by the Bishop Otto; and on the advice of
+Murcherat, an Irish recluse, took up their residence near St. Peter's
+church at the outskirts of the city. Novices flocked from Ireland to
+join them and a monastery was erected to receive the community. In a
+short time this had to be replaced by a still larger one, which was
+known to future ages as the Abbey of St. James's of the Scots (that
+is, Irish) at Ratisbon. How prolific was this parent foundation is
+evidenced from its many offshoots, the only surviving monasteries on
+the continent for many centuries intended for Irish brethren. These,
+besides St. James's at Erfurt and St. Peter's at Ratisbon, comprised
+St. James's at W&uuml;rtzburg, St. Giles's at Nuremberg, St. Mary's at
+Vienna, St. James's at Constance, St. Nicholas's at Memmingen, Holy
+Cross at Eichstatt, a Priory at Kelheim and another at Oels in
+Silesia, all of which were founded during the twelfth or thirteenth
+century, and formed a Benedictine congregation approved of by Pope
+Innocent III., and presided over by the Abbot of Ratisbon. These Irish
+houses, with their long lines of Celtic abbots, in the days of their
+prosperity did much work that was excellent and civilizing, and
+rightly deserve a remembrance in the achievements of Ireland's ancient
+missionaries.</p>
+
+<p>Ratisbon and its dependent abbeys, as is set forth in the papal
+briefs of 1218, possessed priories in Ireland, and, from these,
+novices were usually obtained.</p>
+
+<p>But evil days came for the Congregation of St. James, and now it is
+extinct. The subjugation of Ireland to England, says Wattenbach,
+contributed no doubt to the rapid decline of the Scotic (that is,
+Irish) monasteries. For from Ireland they had up till then been
+continually receiving fresh supplies of strength. In this their
+fatherland the root of their vitality was to be found. Loss of
+independence involved loss of enterprise.</p>
+
+<p><b>SCHOLARSHIP AND INFLUENCE:</b> Irish monks were not only
+apostles of souls, but also masters of intellectual life. Thus in the
+seventh century the Celtic monastery of Luxeuil became the most
+celebrated school in Christendom. Monks from other houses and sons of
+the nobility crowded to it. The latter were clearly not intended for
+the cloister, but destined for callings in the world.</p>
+
+<p>There were outstanding men among these missionaries from Ireland.
+St. Virgilius of Salzburg in the eighth century taught the sphericity
+of the earth and the existence of the Antipodes. It was this same
+teaching that Copernicus and later astronomers formulated into the
+system now in vogue.</p>
+
+<p>St. Columcille himself was a composer of Latin hymns and a penman
+of no mean order, as the Book of Kells, if written by him,
+sufficiently proves. In all the monasteries which he founded,
+provision was made for the pursuit of sacred learning and the
+multiplication of books by transcription. The students of his schools
+were taught classics, mechanical arts, law, history, and physics. They
+improved the methods of husbandry and gardening; supplied the people,
+whom they helped to civilize, with implements of labor; and taught
+them the use of the forge, an accomplishment belonging to almost every
+Irish monk.</p>
+
+<p>The writings of Adamnan, who spent most of his life outside his
+native land, show that he was familiar with the best Latin authors,
+and had a knowledge of Greek as well. His "Vita S. Columbae" ("Life of
+St. Columcille") has made his name immortal as a Latin writer. His
+book "De Locis Sanctis" ("On the Holy Places") contains information he
+received from the pilgrim bishop Arculfus, who had been driven by a
+tempest to take refuge with the monks of Iona. On account of the
+importance of the writings of Adamnan and because of his influence in
+secular and ecclesiastical affairs of importance, few will question
+his right to a distinguished place among the saintly scholars of the
+West.</p>
+
+<p>Irish monks, abroad as well as at home, were pre-eminently students
+and exponents of Holy Scripture. Sedulius wrote a commentary on the
+Epistles of St. Paul; John Scotus Erigena composed a work, "De
+Praedestinatione" ("Concerning Predestination"); Dungal was not only
+an astronomer, but also an excellent theologian, as is clear from his
+defence of Catholic teaching on the invocation of saints and the
+veneration of their relics. His knowledge of Sacred Scripture and of
+the Fathers is exceedingly remarkable.</p>
+
+<p>St. Columbanus, besides other works, is said to have composed an
+exposition of the Psalms, which is mentioned in the catalogue of St.
+Gall's library, but which cannot now be identified with certainty. The
+writings of this abbot are said to have brought about a more frequent
+use of confession both in the world and in monasteries; and his
+legislation regarding the Blessed Sacrament fostered eucharistic
+devotion.</p>
+
+<p>Marianus Scotus is the author of a commentary on the Psalms, so
+precious that rarely was it allowed to pass beyond the walls of the
+monastic library. His commentary on St. Paul's Epistles is regarded as
+his most famous production. Herein he shows acquaintance with Saints
+Jerome, Augustine, Gregory, and Leo, with Cassiodorus, Origen, Alcuin,
+Cassian, and Peter the Deacon. He completed the work on the 17th May,
+1079, and ends the volume by asking the reader to pray for the
+salvation of his soul.</p>
+
+<p><b>TRANSCRIPTION:</b> In all the monasteries a vast number of
+scribes were continually employed in multiplying copies of the Sacred
+Scriptures. These masterpieces of calligraphy, written by Irish hands,
+have been scattered throughout the libraries of Europe, and many
+fragments remain to the present day. The beauty of these manuscripts
+is praised by all, and the names of the best transcribers often find
+mention in monastic annals. The work was irksome, but it was looked
+upon as a privilege and meritorious.</p>
+
+<p>It remains to speak of that glorious monument of the Irish monks,
+the abbey of St. Gall, in Switzerland. It was here that Celtic
+influence was most felt and endured the longest. Within its walls for
+centuries the sacred sciences were taught and classic authors studied.
+Many of its monks excelled as musicians and poets, while others were
+noted for their skill in calligraphy and the fine arts. The library
+was only in its infancy in the eighth century, but gradually it grew,
+and eventually became one of the largest and richest in the world. The
+brethren were in correspondence with all the learned houses of France
+and Italy, and there was constant mutual interchange of books, sacred
+and scientific, between them.</p>
+
+<p>They manufactured their own parchment from the hides of the wild
+beasts that roamed in the forests around them, and bound their books
+in boards of wood clamped with iron or ivory.</p>
+
+<p>Such was the monastery of St. Gall, which owes its inception to the
+journey through Europe of the great Columbanus and his
+monk-companions&mdash;men whose lives, according to Bede, procured for
+the religious habit great veneration, so that wherever they appeared
+they were received with joy, as God's own servants. "And what will be
+the reward," asks the biographer of Marianus Scotus, "of these
+pilgrim-monks who left the sweet soil of their native land, its
+mountains and hills, its valleys and its groves, its rivers and pure
+fountains, and went like the children of Abraham without hesitation
+into the land which God had pointed out to them?" He answers thus:
+"They will dwell in the house of the Lord with the angels and
+archangels of God forever; they will behold the God of gods in Sion,
+to whom be honor and glory for ever and ever."</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+<p>Lanigan: Ecclesiastical History of Ireland (Dublin, 1829);
+Montalembert: Monks of the West (Edinburgh, 1861); Moran: Irish Saints
+in Great Britain (Dublin, 1903); Dalgairns: Apostles of Europe
+(London, 1876); Healy: Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars (Dublin,
+1890); Barrett: A Calendar of Scottish Saints (Fort Augustus, 1904);
+Stokes: Six Months in the Apennines (London, 1892), Three Months in
+the Forests of France (London, 1895); Fowler: Vita S. Columbae
+(Oxford, 1894); Wattenbach: Articles in Ulster Journal of Archaeology,
+vol. 7 (Belfast, 1859); Gougaud: Les Chr&eacute;tient&eacute;s
+celtiques (Paris, 1911); Hogan: Articles in Irish Ecclesiastical
+Record, 1894, 1895; Drane: Christian Schools and Scholars (London,
+1881).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T04"></a>THE IRISH AND THE SEA</h2>
+<h4>By WILLIAM H. BABCOCK, LL.B.</h4>
+
+<p>The beginning of Irish navigation, like the beginning of everything
+else, is hidden in the mist of antiquity. Vessels of some kind
+obviously must have borne the successive waves of immigrants or
+invaders to the island. Naturally they would remain in use afterwards
+for trade, travel, exploration, and war. Irish ships may have been
+among those of the Breton fleet that C&aelig;sar dispersed at Vannes
+after an obstinate struggle. Two or three centuries later we find
+Niall of the Nine Hostages making nautical descents on the neighboring
+shores, especially Britain: and there is every probability that ships
+of the island conveyed some at least of the "Scots" (Irish) whom
+Gildas in the sixth century describes as joining the Picts in
+furiously storming the Roman wall.</p>
+
+<p>The equally adventurous but more pacific work of exploration went
+on also, if we may judge by that extraordinary series of Irish
+sea-sagas, the <i>Imrama</i>, comprising the Voyages of Bran,
+Maelduin, the Hui Corra, and St. Brendan&mdash;the last-mentioned
+deservedly the most famous. These vary in their literary merits and in
+the merits of their several parts, for they have been successively
+rewritten at different periods, receiving always something of the
+color, belief, and adornment which belonged to the writer's time; but
+under all may be dimly traced, as in a palimpsest, the remote pagan
+original. At their best they embody a lofty and touching poetry very
+subtle and significant, as when we read of Bran's summoning by a
+visitant of supernatural beauty to the isles of undying delight, where
+a thousand years are but as a day; his return with a companion who had
+been overcome by longing for Ireland and home; the man's falling to
+ashes at the first touch of the native soil, as though he had been
+long dead; and the flight of Bran and his crew from the real living
+world to the islands of the blessed. At least equally fine and
+stirring is St. Brendan's interview with the exiled spirit of Heaven,
+whose "sin was but little", so that he and his fellows were given only
+the pleasing penance of singing delightfully, in the guise of
+beautiful birds, the praises of the God who showed them mercy and
+grace, amid the charms of an earthly paradise. "Then all the birds
+sang evensong, so that it was an heavenly noise to hear."</p>
+
+<p>It is not very surprising that St. Brendan's legend, with such
+qualities in prose and verse, made itself at home in many lands and
+languages, and became for centuries a widespread popular favorite and
+matter of general belief, also influencing the most permanent
+literature of a high contemplative cast, which we might suppose to be
+out of touch with it altogether. Certain of its more unusual incidents
+are found even in Arab writings of romance founded on fact, as in
+Edrisi's narrative of the Magrurin explorers of Lisbon and the
+adventures of Sinbad related in the Arabian Nights; but perhaps here
+we have a case of reciprocal borrowing such as may well occur when
+ships' companies of different nations meet.</p>
+
+<p>The most conspicuous, insistent, and repeated feature of all these
+<i>Imrama</i> is a belief in Atlantic islands fair enough or wonderful
+enough to tempt the shore dwellers of Ireland far away and hold them
+spell-bound for years. It is easy to ascribe these pictures to sunset
+on the ocean, or the wonders of mirage; but all the time, within long
+sailing distance, there actually were islands of delightful climate
+and exceeding beauty. These had been occasionally reached from the
+Mediterranean ever since early Carthaginian times, as classical
+authors seem to tell us; why not also from Ireland, perhaps not quite
+so distant? It is undoubted that the Canary Islands were never really
+altogether forgotten, and the same is probably true of the Madeiras
+and all three groups of Azores, though the knowledge that lingered in
+Ireland was a distorted glimmering tradition of old voyages,
+occasionally inciting to new ventures in the same field.</p>
+
+<p>Some have supposed, though without sufficient evidence, that Saint
+Brendan even made his way to America, and parts of that shore line in
+several different latitudes have been selected as the scene of the
+exploit. His first entry into serious geography is in the fine maps of
+Dulcert, 1339, and the Pizigani, 1367, both of which plainly label
+Madeira, Porto Santo, and Las Desertas&mdash;"The Fortunate Islands of
+St. Brandan." That there may be no possibility of misunderstanding,
+the Pizigani brothers present a full-length portrait of the holy
+navigator himself bending over these islands with hands of
+benediction. The inscription, though not the picture, was common, thus
+applied, on the maps of the next century or two, and no other
+interpretation of his voyage found any place until a later time.</p>
+
+<p>Of course the fourteenth century was a long way from the sixth,
+when the voyage was supposed to have been made, and we cannot take so
+late a verdict as convincing proof of any fact. But it at least
+exhibits the current interpretation of the written narrative among
+geographers and mariners, the people best able to judge; and here the
+interval was much less. The story itself seems to corroborate them in
+a general way, if read naturally. One would say that it tells of a
+voyage to the Canaries, of which one is unmistakably "the island under
+Mount Atlas", and that this was undertaken by way of the Azores and
+Madeira, with inevitable experience of great beauty in some islands
+and volcanic terrors in others. Madeira may well have been pitched
+upon by the interpreters as the suitable scene of a particularly long
+tarrying by the way. Of course magic filled out all gaps of real
+knowledge, and wonders grew with each new rewriting.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever Brendan did, there is no doubt that Irish mariner-monks,
+incited by the great awakening which followed St. Patrick's mission,
+covered many seas in their frail vessels during the next three or four
+centuries. They set up a flourishing religious establishment in
+Orkney, made stepping stones of the intervening islands, and reached
+Iceland some time in the eighth century, if not earlier. The Norsemen,
+following in their tracks as always, found them there, and the
+earliest Icelandic writings record their departure, leaving behind
+them books, bells, and other souvenirs on an islet off shore which
+still bears their name.</p>
+
+<p>Did they keep before the Norsemen to America too? At least the
+Norsemen thought so. For centuries the name Great Ireland or
+Whitemen's Land was accepted in Norse geography as meaning a region
+far west of Ireland, a parallel to Great Sweden (Russia), which lay
+far east of Sweden. The saga of Thorfinn Karlsefni, first to attempt
+colonizing America, makes it plain that his followers believed Great
+Ireland to be somewhere in that region, and it is explicitly located
+near Wineland by the twelfth century Landnamabok. Also there were
+specific tales afloat of a distinguished Icelander lost at sea, who
+was afterward found in a western region by an Irish vessel long driven
+before the storm. The version most relied on came through one Rafn,
+who had dwelt in Limerick; also through Thorfinn, earl of the
+Orkneys.</p>
+
+<p>Brazil, the old Irish <i>Breasail</i>, was another name for land
+west of Ireland&mdash;where there is none short of America&mdash;on
+very many medieval maps, of which perhaps a dozen are older than the
+year 1400, the earliest yet found being that of Dalorto, 1325. Usually
+it appears as a nearly circular disc of land opposite Munster, at
+first altogether too near the Irish coast, as indeed the perfectly
+well-known Corvo was drawn much too near the coast of Spain, or as
+even in the sixteenth century, when Newfoundland had been repeatedly
+visited, that island was shifted by divers mapmakers eastward towards
+Ireland, almost to the conventional station of Brazil. Also, not long
+afterwards, the maps of Nicolay and Zaltieri adopted the reverse
+treatment of transferring Brazil to Newfoundland waters, as if
+recognizing past error and restoring its proper place.</p>
+
+<p>The name Brazil appears not to have been adopted by the Norsemen,
+but there is one fifteenth century map, perhaps of 1480, preserved in
+Milan, which shows this large disc-form "Brazil" just below Greenland
+("Illa Verde"), in such relation that the mapmaker really must have
+known of Labrador under the former name and believed that it could be
+readily reached from that Norse colony.</p>
+
+<p>It seems altogether likely that "Brazil" was applied to the entire
+outjutting region of America surrounding the Gulf of St.
+Lawrence&mdash;that part of this continent which is by far the nearest
+Ireland. Besides the facts above stated, certain coincidences of real
+geography and of these old maps favor that belief, and they are quite
+unlikely to have been guessed or invented. Thus certain maps,
+beginning with 1375, while keeping the circular external outline of
+Ireland, reduce the land area to a mere ring, enclosing an expanse of
+water dotted with islands; and certain other maps show it still nearly
+circular externally, and solid, but divided into two parts by a curved
+channel nearly from north to south. The former exposition is possible
+enough to one more concerned with the nearly enclosed Gulf of St.
+Lawrence and its islands than with its two comparatively narrow
+outlets; the second was afterward repeated approximately by Gastoldi's
+map illustrating Ramusio when he was somehow moved to minimize the
+width of the Gulf, though well remembering the straits of Belle Isle
+and Cabot. There are some other coincidences, but it is unnecessary to
+dwell on them. Land west of Ireland must be either pure fancy or the
+very region in question, and it is hardly believable that fancy could
+guess so accurately as to two different interpretations of real though
+unusual geography and give them right latitude, with such an old Irish
+name (Brazil) as might naturally have been conferred in the early
+voyaging times. That an extensive region, chiefly mainland, should be
+represented as an island is no objection, as anyone will see by
+examining the maps which break up everything north of South America in
+the years next following the achievements of Columbus and Cabot. There
+was a natural tendency to expect nothing but islands short of
+Asia.</p>
+
+<p>It seems likely, therefore, that America was actually reached by
+the Irish even before the Norsemen and certainly long before all other
+Europeans.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+<p>Babcock: Early Norse Visits to North America, Smithsonian
+Publication 2138 (1913); Baring-Gould: Curious Myths of the Middle
+Ages; Beauvois: The Discovery of the New World by the Irish; Cantwell:
+Pre-Columbian Discoveries of America; Daly: The Legend of St. Brandan,
+Celtic Review, vol. I, A Sequel to the Voyage of St. Brandan, Celtic
+Review, Jan. 13, 1909; Hardiman: The History of Galway; Hull: Irish
+Episodes of Icelandic History; Joyce: The Voyage of Maelduin; Nutt:
+The Voyage of Bran; Stokes: The Voyage of Maelduin (<i>Revue
+Celtique</i>, vol. 9), Voyage of Snedgus (<i>Revue Celtique</i>, vol.
+9), Voyage of the Hui Corra (<i>Revue Celtigue</i>, vol. 14); Moran:
+Brendaniana.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T05"></a>IRISH LOVE OF LEARNING</h2>
+<h4>By REV. P.S. DINNEEN, M.A., R.U.I.</h4>
+
+<p>"The distinguishing property of man," says Cicero, "is to search
+for and follow after truth. Therefore, when disengaged from our
+necessary cares and concerns, we desire to see, to hear, and to learn,
+and we esteem knowledge of things obscure or wonderful as
+indispensable to our happiness." (<i>De Officiis</i> I., 4).</p>
+
+<p>I claim for the Irish race that throughout their history they have
+cut down their bodily necessities to the quick, in order to devote
+time and energy to the pursuit of knowledge; that they have engaged in
+intellectual pursuits, not infrequently of a high order, on a low
+basis of material comfort; that they have persevered in the quest of
+learning under unparalleled hardships and difficulties, even in the
+dark night of "a nation's eclipse", when a school was an unlawful
+assembly and school-teaching a crime. I claim, moreover, that, when
+circumstances were favorable, no people have shown a more adventurous
+spirit or a more chivalrous devotion in the advancement and spread of
+learning.</p>
+
+<p>Love of learning implies more than a natural aptitude for acquiring
+information. It connotes a zest for knowledge that is recondite and
+attainable only at the expense of ease, of leisure, of the comforts
+and luxuries of life, and a zeal for the cultivation of the mental
+faculties. It is of the soul and not of the body; it refines,
+elevates, adorns. It is allied to sensibility, to keenness of vision,
+to the close observation of mental phenomena. Its possessor becomes a
+citizen of the known world. His mind broadens; he compares, contrasts,
+conciliates; he brings together the new and the old, the near and the
+distant, the permanent and the transitory, and weaves from them all
+the web of systematized human thought.</p>
+
+<p>I am not here concerned with the extent of Ireland's contribution
+to the sum of human learning, nor with the career of her greatest
+scholars; I am merely describing the love of learning which is
+characteristic of the race, and which it seems best to present in a
+brief study of distinct types drawn from various periods of Irish
+history.</p>
+
+<p>In the pre-Christian period the Druid was the chief representative
+of the learning of the race. He was the adviser of kings and princes,
+and the instructor of their children. His knowledge was of the
+recondite order and beyond the reach of ordinary persons. The esteem
+in which he was held by all classes of the people proves their love
+for the learning for which he stood.</p>
+
+<p>Patrick came: and with him came a wider horizon of learning and
+greater facilities for the acquisition and diffusion of knowledge.
+Monastic schools sprang up in all directions&mdash;at Clonard, Armagh,
+Clonmacnois, Bangor, Lismore, Kildare, Innisfallen. These schools were
+celebrated throughout Europe in the earlier middle ages, and from the
+fifth to the ninth century Ireland led the nations of Europe in
+learning and deserved the title of the "Island of Saints and
+Scholars." Our type is the student in one of these monastic schools.
+He goes out from his parents and settles down to study in the environs
+of the monastery. He is not rich; he resides in a hut; his time is
+divided between study, prayer, and manual labor. He becomes a monk,
+only to increase in devotion to learning and to accentuate his
+privations. He copies and illuminates manuscripts. He memorizes the
+Psalms. He glosses the Vulgate Scriptures with vernacular notes. He
+receives ordination, and, realizing that there are benighted countries
+ten times as large as his native land beyond the seas, and, burning
+with zeal for the spread of the Gospel and the advancement of
+learning, sails for Britain, or passes into Gaul, or reaches the
+slopes of the Apennines, or the outskirts of the Black Forest. The
+rest of his life is devoted to the foundation of monasteries to which
+schools are attached, to the building of churches, and to the
+diffusion around him of every known branch of knowledge. He may have
+taken books from Ireland over seas, and, of these, relics are now to
+be found among the treasures of the ancient libraries of Europe.
+Columcille, Columbanus, Adamnan, Gall, Virgilius occur to the mind in
+dwelling on this type.</p>
+
+<p>The hereditary <i>seanchaidhe</i>, who treasured up the traditional
+lore of the clan and its chief, was held in high honor and enjoyed
+extraordinary privileges. He held a freehold. He was high in the
+graces of the chief, and officiated at his inauguration.</p>
+
+<p>An important type is the Irish ecclesiastical student abroad in the
+penal days. School teaching, unless at the sacrifice of Faith, was a
+crime in Ireland, and the training required for the priesthood had to
+be obtained on the continent. The Irish out of their poverty
+established colleges in Rome (1628), Salamanca (1593), Seville (1612),
+Alcala (1590), Lisbon (1593), Louvain (1634), Antwerp (1629), Douai
+(1577), Lille (1610), Bordeaux (1603), Toulouse (1659), Paris (1605),
+and elsewhere. As late as 1795 these colleges contained 478 students,
+and some of them are still in existence. The young student in going
+abroad risked everything. He often returned watched by spies, with his
+life in danger. Yet the supply never failed; the colleges flourished;
+and those who returned diffused around them not only learning but the
+urbanity and refinement which were a striking fruit and mark of their
+studies abroad.</p>
+
+<p>Another type is the Irish scribe. In the days of Ireland's fame and
+prosperity and of the flood-tide of her native language, he was a
+skilled craftsman, and the extant specimens of his work are
+unsurpassed of their kind. But I prefer to look at him at a later
+period, when he became our sole substitute for the printer and when
+his diligence preserved for us all that remains of a fading
+literature. He was miserably poor. He toiled through the day at the
+spade or the plough, or guided the shuttle through the loom. At night,
+by the flare of the turf-fire or the fitful light of a splinter of
+bogwood, he made his copy of poem or tract or tale, which but for him
+would have perished. The copies are often ill-spelt and ill-written,
+but with all their faults they are as noble a monument to national
+love of learning as any nation can boast of.</p>
+
+<p>In our gallery of types we must not forget the character whom
+English writers contemptuously called the "hedge-schoolmaster." The
+hedge-school in its most elemental state was an open-air daily
+assemblage of youths in pursuit of knowledge. Inasmuch as the law had
+refused learning a fitting temple in which to abide and be honored,
+she was led by her votaries into the open, and there, beside the
+fragrant hedge, if you will, with the green sward for benches, and the
+canopy of heaven for dome, she was honored in Ireland, even as she had
+been honored ages before in Greece, in Palestine, and by our
+primordial Celtic ancestors themselves. The hedge-schoolmaster
+conducted the rites, and the air resounded with the sonorous
+hexameters of Virgil and the musical odes of Horace.</p>
+
+<p>In the Irish-speaking portions of the country the
+hedge-schoolmaster was often also a poet who wrote mellifluous songs
+in Irish, which were sung throughout the entire district and sometimes
+earned him enduring fame. Eoghan Ruadh O'Sullivan and Andrew MacGrath,
+called <i>An Mangaire Sugach</i> or "the Jolly Pedlar," are well-known
+instances of this type.</p>
+
+<p>The poor scholar is another type that under varying forms and under
+various circumstances has ever trod the stage of Irish history. From
+an ancient Irish manuscript (See O'Curry, <i>Manners and Customs</i>,
+II, 79, 80) we learn that Adamnan, the biographer of St. Columcille,
+and some other youths studied at Clonard and were supported by the
+neighborhood. The poor scholar more than any other type embodies the
+love of learning of the Irish race. In the schools which preceded the
+National, he appeared in a most interesting stage of development. He
+came from a distance, attracted by the reputation of a good teacher
+and the regularity of a well-conducted school. He came, avowedly poor.
+His only claim on the generosity of his teacher and of the public was
+a marked aptitude for learning and an ardent desire for study and
+cultivation of mind. He did not look for luxuries. He was satisfied,
+if his bodily wants were reasonably supplied, even with the
+inconveniences of frequent change of abode. A welcome was extended to
+him on all sides. His hosts and patrons honored his thirst for
+knowledge and tenacity of purpose. He was expected to help the
+students in the house where he found entertainment, and it may not
+have been unpleasing to him on occasion to display his talents before
+his host. When school was over, it was not unusual to find him
+surrounded by a group of school-companions, each pressing his claim to
+entertain him for the night.</p>
+
+<p>Despite the hospitality of his patrons, the poor scholar often felt
+the bitterness of his dependent state, but he bore it with equanimity,
+his hand ever eagerly stretched out for the prize of learning. What
+did learning bring him? Why was he so eager to bear for its sake</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p class="i10">"all the thousand aches</p>
+<p>That patient merit of the unworthy takes"?</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Sometimes he became a priest; sometimes his life was purposeless
+and void. But he was ever urged onward by the fascination of learning
+and of the cultivation of the nobler part of his nature.</p>
+
+<p>As might have been expected, the Irish who have emigrated to the
+American and Australian continents have given touching proof of their
+devotion to the cause of learning. I have space only for a few
+pathetic examples.</p>
+
+<p>An Irish workman in the United States, seeing my name in connection
+with an Irish Dictionary, wrote to me a few years ago to ask how he
+might procure one, as, he said, an Italian in the works had asked him
+the meaning of <i>Erin go bragh</i>, and he felt ashamed to be unable
+to explain it.</p>
+
+<p>A man who, at the age of three, had emigrated from Clare in the
+famine time, wrote to me recently from Australia in the Irish language
+and character.</p>
+
+<p>An old man named John O'Regan of New Zealand, who had been twelve
+years in exile in the United States and forty-eight on the Australian
+continent, with failing eyesight, in a letter that took him from
+January to June of the year 1906 to write, endeavored to set down
+scraps of Irish lore which he had carried with him from the old
+country and which had clung to his memory to the last.</p>
+
+<p>"In my digging life in the quarries," he says, "books were not a
+part of our swag (prayerbook excepted). In 1871, when I had a long
+seat of work before me, I sent for McCurtin's Dictionary to Melbourne.
+It is old and wanting in the introductory part, but for all was
+splendid and I loved it as my life." (See <i>Gaelic Journal</i>, Dec.,
+1906.)</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+<p>Joyce: A Social History of Ancient Ireland (2 vols., 2d ed.,
+Dublin, 1913); Healy: Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars (Dublin,
+1890), Maynooth College Centenary History (Dublin, 1895); O'Curry:
+Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish, (3 vols., Dublin and London,
+1873), Manuscript Materials of Irish History, reissue (Dublin, 1873);
+Carleton: Traits and Stories of the Irish Peasantry, especially vol.
+3, The Poor Scholar; Montalembert: The Monks of the West, authorized
+translation, (7 vols., London, 1861); Meyer: Learning in Ireland in
+the Fifth Century (Dublin, 1913); Dinneen: Poems of Eoghan Ruadh
+O'Sullivan, Introduction (Dublin, 1902), The Maigue Poets,
+Introduction (Dublin, 1906); Boyle: The Irish College in Paris
+1578-1901, with a brief sketch of the other Irish Colleges in France
+(Dublin, 1901); Irish Ecclesiastical Record, new series, vol. VIII,
+307, 465; 3rd series, vol. VII, 350, 437, 641.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T06"></a>IRISH MEN OF SCIENCE</h2>
+<h4>By SIR BERTRAM C.A. WINDLE, Sc.D., M.D.,<br>
+<i>President, University College, Cork</i>.</h4>
+
+<p>We may divide our survey of the debt owed to Ireland by science
+into three periods: the earliest, the intermediate, and the
+latest.</p>
+
+<p>In the earliest period the names which come before us are chiefly
+those of compilers such as Augustin, a monk and an Irishman who wrote
+at Carthage, in Africa, in the seventh century, a Latin treatise on
+<i>The Wonderful Things of the Sacred Scripture</i>, still extant, in
+which, in connection with Joshua's miracle, a very full account of the
+astronomical knowledge of the period, Ptolemaic, but in many ways
+remarkably accurate, is given. There are, however, three distinguished
+names. Virgil the Geometer, <i>i.e.</i>, Fergil (O'Farrell), was Abbot
+of Aghaboe, went to the continent in 741, and was afterwards Bishop of
+Salzburg. He died in 785. He is remembered by his controversies with
+St. Boniface, one of which is concerned with the question of the
+Antipodes. Virgil is supposed to have been the first to teach that the
+earth is spherical. So celebrated was he that it has been thought that
+a part of the favor in which the author of the <i>Aeneid</i> was held
+by medieval churchmen was due to a confusion between his name and that
+of the geometer, sometimes spoken of as St. Virgil.</p>
+
+<p>Dicuil, also an Irish monk, was the author of a remarkable work on
+geography, <i>De Mensura Provinciarum Orbis Terrae</i>, which was
+written in 825, and contains interesting references to Iceland and
+especially to the navigable canal which once connected the Nile with
+the Red Sea. He wrote between 814 and 816 a work on astronomy which
+has never been published. It is probable, but not certain, that he
+belonged to Clonmacnois.</p>
+
+<p>Dungal, like the two others named above, was an astronomer. He
+probably belonged to Bangor, and left his native land early in the
+ninth century. In 811 he wrote a remarkable work, <i>Dungali Reclusi
+Epistola de duplici solis eclipsi anno 810 ad Carolum Magnum</i>. This
+letter, which is still extant, was written at the request of
+Charlemagne, who considered its author to be the most learned
+astronomer in existence and most likely to clear up the problem
+submitted to him.</p>
+
+<p>Before passing to the next period, a word should be said as to the
+medieval physicians, often if not usually belonging to families of
+medical men, such as the Leahys and O'Hickeys, and attached
+hereditarily to the greater clans. These men were chiefly compilers,
+but such works of theirs as we have throw light upon the state of
+medical knowledge in their day. Thus there is extant a treatise on
+<i>Materia Medica</i> (1459); written by Cormac MacDuinntsleibhe
+(Dunleavy), hereditary physician to the clan of O'Donnell in Ulster. A
+more interesting work is the <i>Cursus Medicus</i>, consisting of six
+books on Physiology, three on Pathology, and four on Semeiotica,
+written in the reign of Charles I. of England by Nial O'Glacan, born
+in Donegal, and at one time physician to the king of France.</p>
+
+<p>O'Glacan's name introduces us to the middle period, if indeed it
+does not belong there. <i>Inter arma silent leges</i>, and it may be
+added, scientific work. The troublous state of Ireland for many long
+years fully explains the absence of men of science in any abundance
+until the end of the eighteenth century. Still there are three names
+which can never be forgotten, belonging to the period in question. Sir
+Hans Sloane was born at Killileagh, in Ulster, in 1660. He studied
+medicine abroad, went to London where he settled, and was made a
+Fellow of the Royal Society. He published a work on the West Indies,
+but his claim to undying memory is the fact that it was the bequest of
+his most valuable and extensive collections to the nation which was
+the beginning and foundation of the British Museum, perhaps the most
+celebrated institution of its kind in the world. Sloane's collection,
+it should be added, contained an immense number of valuable books and
+manuscripts, as well as of objects more usually associated with the
+idea of a museum. He died in 1753.</p>
+
+<p>The Hon. Robert Boyle was born at Lismore, in the county Waterford,
+in 1627, being the fourteenth child of the first Earl of Cork. On his
+tombstone he is described as "The Father of Chemistry and the Uncle of
+the Earl of Cork", and, indeed, in his <i>Skyptical Chimist</i>
+(1661), he assailed, and for the time overthrew, the idea of the
+alchemists that there was a <i>materia prima</i>, asserting as he did
+that theory of chemical "elements" which held good until the
+discoveries in connection with radium led to a modification in
+chemical teaching. This may be said of Boyle, that his writings
+profoundly modified scientific opinion, and his name will always stand
+in the forefront amongst those of chemists. He made important
+improvements in the air-pump, was one of the earliest Fellows of the
+Royal Society, and founded the "Boyle Lectures." He died in 1691.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Thomas Molyneux was born in Dublin, in 1661, of a family which
+had settled in Ireland about 1560-70. He practised as a physician in
+his native city, was the first person to describe the Irish Elk and to
+demonstrate the fact that the Giant's Causeway was a natural and not,
+as had been previously supposed, an artificial production. He was the
+author of many other scientific observations. He died in 1733.</p>
+
+<p>We may now turn to more recent times, and it will be convenient to
+divide our subjects according to the branch of science in which they
+were distinguished, and to commence with</p>
+
+<h4>MATHEMATICIANS,</h4>
+
+<p>of whom Ireland may boast of a most distinguished galaxy.</p>
+
+<p>Sir William Rowan Hamilton (b. in Dublin 1805, d. 1865), belonged
+to a family, long settled in Ireland, but of Scottish extraction. He
+was a most precocious child. He read Hebrew at the age of seven, and
+at twelve, had studied Latin, Greek, and four leading continental
+languages, as well as Persian, Syriac, Arabic, Sanscrit, and other
+tongues. In 1819 he wrote a letter to the Persian ambassador in that
+magnate's own language. After these linguistic contests, he early
+turned to mathematics, in which he was apparently self-taught; yet, in
+his seventeenth year he discovered an error in Laplace's
+<i>M&eacute;canique C&eacute;leste</i>. He entered Trinity College
+where he won all kinds of distinctions, being famous not merely as a
+mathematician, but as a poet, a scholar, and a metaphysician. He was
+appointed Professor of Astronomy and Astronomer Royal whilst still an
+undergraduate. He predicted "conical refraction," afterwards
+experimentally proved by another Irishman, Humphrey Lloyd. He twice
+received the Gold Medal of the Royal Society: (i) for optical
+discoveries; (ii) for his theory of a general method of dynamics,
+which resolves an extremely, abstruse problem relative to a system of
+bodies in motion. He was the discoverer of a new calculus, that of
+Quaternions, which attracted the attention of Professor Tait of
+Edinburgh, and was by him made comprehensible to lesser
+mathematicians. It is far too abstruse for description here.</p>
+
+<p>Sir George Gabriel Stokes (born in Sligo 1819, d. 1903) was, if not
+the greatest mathematician, at least among the greatest, of the last
+hundred years. He was educated in Cambridge, where he spent the rest
+of his life, being appointed Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in
+1849, and celebrating the jubilee of that appointment in 1899. He was
+member of parliament for his University, and for a time occupied the
+presidential chair of the Royal Society. He devoted himself, <i>inter
+alia</i>, to optical work, and is perhaps best known by those
+researches which deal with the undulatory theory of light. It was on
+this subject that he delivered the Burnett lectures in Aberdeen
+(1883-1885).</p>
+
+<p>James McCullagh, the son of a poor farmer, was born in Tyrone in
+1809, d. 1847. His early death, due to his own hand in a fit of
+insanity, cut short his work, but enough remains to permit him to rank
+amongst the great mathematicians of all time, his most important work
+being his memoir on surfaces of the second order.</p>
+
+<p>Humphrey Lloyd (b. in Dublin 1800, d. 1881), F.R.S. His father was
+Provost of Trinity College, Dublin, a position subsequently occupied
+also by the son. Lloyd's work was chiefly concerned with optics and
+magnetism, and it was in connection with the former that he carried
+out what was probably the most important single piece of work of his
+life, namely, the experimental proof of the phenomenon of conical
+refraction which had been predicted by Sir William Hamilton. He was
+responsible for the erection of the Magnetic Observatory in Dublin,
+and the instruments used in it were constructed under his observation
+and sometimes from his designs or modifications. He was also a
+meteorologist of distinction.</p>
+
+<p>George Salmon (b. in Dublin 1819, d. 1904), like the last mentioned
+subject, was, at the time of his death, Provost of Trinity College,
+Dublin. Besides theological writings, he contributed much to
+mathematical science, especially in the directions of conic sections,
+analytic geometry, higher plane curves, and the geometry of three
+dimensions. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society, and received the
+Copley and Royal medals, as well as distinctions from many
+universities and learned societies.</p>
+
+<p>John Casey (b. Kilkenny 1820, d. 1891), F.R.S., was educated at a
+National School and became a teacher in one in later years. Entirely
+self-taught as a mathematician, he raised himself from the humble
+position which he occupied to be a university professor (in the
+Catholic University of Ireland, and afterwards in the Royal
+University), and earned the highest reputation as one of the greatest
+authorities on plane geometry. He was a correspondent of eminent
+mathematicians all over the world.</p>
+
+<p>Henry Hennessey (b. in Cork 1826, d. 1901), F.R.S., was also a
+professor in the Catholic University of Ireland and afterwards in the
+Royal College of Science in Dublin. He was a writer on mathematics,
+terrestrial physics, and climatology.</p>
+
+<p>Benjamin Williamson (b. in Cork 1827), F.R.S., is a Senior Fellow
+of Trinity College, Dublin, and a distinguished writer on mathematical
+subjects, especially on the differential, integral, and infinitesimal
+calculuses.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Joseph Larmor (b. in Antrim 1857), F.R.S., was educated at
+Queen's College, Belfast, and in Cambridge, in which last place he has
+spent his life as a professor. He now represents the University in
+parliament and is secretary to the Royal Society. He is well-known for
+his writings on the ether and on other physical as well as
+mathematical subjects.</p>
+
+<h4>ASTRONOMERS.</h4>
+
+<p>William Parsons, Earl of Rosse (b. in York 1800, d. 1867), F.R.S.,
+was a very distinguished astronomer who experimented in fluid lenses
+and made great improvements in casting specula for reflecting
+telescopes. From 1842-45 he was engaged upon the construction, in his
+park at Parsonstown, of his great reflecting telescope 58 feet long.
+This instrument, which cost &pound;30,000, long remained the largest
+in the world. He was president of the Royal Society from 1848 to
+1854.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Howard Grubb (b. 1844), F.R.S., is known all over the world for
+his telescopes and for the remarkable advances which he has made in
+the construction of lenses for instruments of the largest size.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Robert Ball (b. in Dublin 1840, d. 1913), F.R.S. Originally
+Lord Rosse's astronomer at Parsonstown, he migrated as professor to
+Trinity College, Dublin, and subsequently became Lowndean Professor of
+Astronomy at Cambridge. He was a great authority on the mathematical
+theory of screws, and his popular works on astronomy have made him
+known to a far wider circle of readers than those who can grapple with
+his purely scientific treatises.</p>
+
+<p>William Edward Wilson (b. Co. Westmeath 1851, d. 1908), F.R.S. A
+man of independent means, he erected, with the help of his father, an
+astronomical observatory at his residence. In this well-equipped
+building he made many photographic researches, especially into the
+nature of nebulae. He also devoted himself to solar physics, and wrote
+some remarkable papers on the sudden appearance in 1903 of the star
+Nova Persei. He was the first to call attention to the probability
+that radium plays a part in the maintenance of solar heat. In fact,
+the science of radio-activity was engaging his keenest interest at the
+time of his early death.</p>
+
+<p>A.A. Rambaut (b. Waterford 1859), F.R.S., formerly Astronomer Royal
+for Ireland and now Radcliffe Observer at Oxford, is one of the
+leading astronomers of the day.</p>
+
+<h4>PHYSICISTS.</h4>
+
+<p>Lord Kelvin, better known as Sir William Thompson (b. Belfast 1824,
+d. 1907), F.R.S. Amongst the greatest physicists who have ever lived,
+his name comes second only to that of Newton. He was educated at
+Cambridge, became professor of natural philosophy in Glasgow
+University in 1846, and celebrated the jubilee of his appointment in
+1896. To the public his greatest achievement was the electric cabling
+of the Atlantic Ocean, for which he was knighted in 1866. His
+electrometers and electric meters, his sounding apparatus, and his
+mariners' compass are all well-known and highly valued instruments. To
+his scientific fellows, however, his greatest achievements were in the
+field of pure science, especially in connection with his thermodynamic
+researches, including the doctrine of the dissipation or degradation
+of energy. To this brief statement may be added mention of his work in
+connection with hydrodynamics and his magnetic and electric
+discoveries. His papers in connection with wave and vortex movements
+are also most remarkable. He was awarded the Royal and Copley medals
+and was an original member of the Order of Merit. He received
+distinctions from many universities and learned societies.</p>
+
+<p>George Francis Fitzgerald (b. Dublin 1851, d. 1901), F.R.S., was
+fellow and professor of natural philosophy in Trinity College, Dublin,
+where he was educated. He was the first person to call the attention
+of the world to the importance of Hertz's experiment. Perhaps his most
+important work, interrupted by his labors in connection with education
+and terminated by his early death, was that in connection with the
+nature of the ether.</p>
+
+<p>George Johnston Stoney (b. King's Co. 1826, d. 1911), F.R.S., after
+being astronomer at Parsonstown and professor of natural philosophy at
+Galway, became secretary to the Queen's University and occupied that
+position until the dissolution of the university in 1882. He wrote
+many papers on geometrical optics and on molecular physics, but his
+great claim to remembrance is that he first suggested, "on the basis
+of Faraday's law of Electrolysis, that an absolute unit of quantity of
+electricity exists in that amount of it which attends each chemical
+bond or valency and gave the name, now generally adopted, of electron
+to this small quantity." He proposed the electronic theory of the
+origin of the complex ether vibrations which proceed from a molecule
+emitting light.</p>
+
+<p>John Tyndall (b. Leighlin Bridge, Co. Carlow, 1820, d. 1893),
+F.R.S., professor at the Royal Institution and a fellow-worker in many
+ways with Huxley, especially on the subject of glaciers. He wrote also
+on heat as a mode of motion and was the author of many scientific
+papers, but will, perhaps, be best remembered as the author of a
+Presidential Address to the British Association in Belfast (1874),
+which was the highwater mark of the mid-Victorian materialism at its
+most triumphant moment.</p>
+
+<h4>CHEMISTS.</h4>
+
+<p>Richard Kirwan (b. Galway 1733, d. 1812), F.R.S. A man of
+independent means, he devoted himself to the study of chemistry and
+mineralogy and was awarded the Copley medal of the Royal Society. He
+published works on mineralogy and on the analysis of mineral waters,
+and was the first in Ireland to publish analyses of soils for
+agricultural purposes, a research which laid the foundation of
+scientific agriculture in Great Britain and Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>Maxwell Simpson (b. Armagh 1815, d. 1902), F.R.S., held the chair
+of chemistry in Queen's College, Cork, for twenty years and published
+a number of papers in connection with his subject and especially with
+the behavior of cyanides, with the study of which compounds his name
+is most associated.</p>
+
+<p>Cornelius O'Sullivan (b. Brandon, 1841, d. 1897), F.R.S., was for
+many years chemist to the great firm of Bass &amp; Co., brewers at
+Burton-on-Trent, and in that capacity became one of the leading
+exponents of the chemistry of fermentation in the world.</p>
+
+<p>James Emerson Reynolds (b. Dublin 1844), F.R.S., professor of
+chemistry, Trinity College, Dublin, for many years, discovered the
+primary thiocarbamide and a number of other chemical substances,
+including a new class of colloids and several groups of organic and
+other compounds of the element silicon.</p>
+
+<p>Among others only the names of the following can be
+mentioned:&mdash;Sir Robert Kane (b. Dublin 1809, d. 1890), professor
+of chemistry in Dublin and founder and first director of the Museum of
+Industry, now the National Museum. He was president of Queen's
+College, Cork, as was William K. Sullivan (b. Cork 1822, d. 1890),
+formerly professor of chemistry in the Catholic University. Sir
+William O'Shaughnessy Brooke, F.R.S. (b. Limerick 1809, d. 1889),
+professor of chemistry and assay master in Calcutta, is better known
+as the introducer of the telegraphic system into India and its first
+superintendent.</p>
+
+<h4>BIOLOGISTS.</h4>
+
+<p>William Henry Harvey (b. Limerick 1814, d. 1866), F.R.S., was a
+botanist of very great distinction. During a lengthy residence in
+South Africa, he made a careful study of the flora of the Cape of Good
+Hope and published <i>The Genera of South African Plants</i>. After
+this he was made keeper of the Herbarium, Trinity College, Dublin,
+but, obtaining leave of absence, travelled in North and South America,
+exploring the coast from Halifax to the Keys of Florida, in order to
+collect materials for his great work, <i>Nereis Boreali-Americana</i>,
+published by the Smithsonian Institution. Subsequently he visited
+Ceylon, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, and the Friendly and Fiji
+Islands, collecting algae. The results were published in his
+<i>Phycologia Australis</i>. At the time of his death he was engaged
+on his <i>Flora Capensis</i>, and was generally considered the first
+authority on algae in the world.</p>
+
+<p>William Archer (b. Co. Down 1837, d. 1897), F.R.S., devoted his
+life to the microscopic examination of freshwater organisms,
+especially desmids and diatoms. He attained a very prominent place in
+this branch of work among men of science. Perhaps his most remarkable
+discovery was that of Chlamydomyxa labyrinthuloides (in 1868), "one of
+the most remarkable and enigmatical of all known microscopic
+organisms."</p>
+
+<p>George James Allman (b. Cork 1812, d. 1898), F.R.S., professor of
+botany in Trinity College, Dublin, and afterwarls Regius Professor of
+natural history in the University of Edinburgh, published many papers
+on botanical and zoological subjects, but his great work was that on
+the gymnoblastic Hydrozoa, "without doubt the most important
+systematic work dealing with the group of Coelenterata that has ever
+been produced."</p>
+
+<p>Amongst eminent living members of the class under consideration may
+be mentioned Alexander Macalister (b. Dublin 1844), F.R.S., professor
+of anatomy, first in Dublin and now in Cambridge, an eminent
+morphologist and anthropologist, and Henry Horatio Dixon (b. Dublin),
+F.R.S., professor of botany in Trinity College, an authority on
+vegetable physiology, especially problems dealing with the sap.</p>
+
+<h4>GEOLOGISTS.</h4>
+
+<p>Samuel Haughton (b. Carlow 1821, d. 1897), F.R.S., after earning a
+considerable reputation as a mathematician and a geologist, and taking
+Anglican orders, determined to study medicine and entered the school
+of that subject in Trinity College. After graduating he became the
+reformer, it might even be said the re-founder, of that school. He
+devoted ten years to the study of the mechanical principles of
+muscular action, and published his <i>Animal Mechanism</i>, probably
+his greatest work. He will long be remembered as the introducer of the
+"long drop" as a method of capital execution. He might have been
+placed in several of the categories which have been dealt with, but
+that of geologist has been selected, since in the later part of his
+most versatile career he was professor of geology in Trinity College,
+Dublin.</p>
+
+<p>Valentine Ball (b. Dublin 1843, d. 1894), F.R.S., a brother of Sir
+Robert, joined the Geological Survey of India, and in that capacity
+became an authority not only on geology but also on ornithology and
+anthropology. His best known work is <i>Jungle-Life in India</i>. In
+later life he was director of the National Museum, Dublin.</p>
+
+<h4>MEDICAL SCIENCE.</h4>
+
+<p>Very brief note can be taken of the many shining lights in Irish
+medical science. Robert James Graves (1796-1853), F.R.S., after whom
+is named "Graves's Disease", was one of the greatest of clinical
+physicians. His <i>System of Clinical Medicine</i> was a standard work
+and was extolled by Trousseau, the greatest physician that France has
+ever had, in the highest terms of appreciation.</p>
+
+<p>William Stokes (1804-1878), Regius Professor of Medicine in Trinity
+College, and the author of a <i>Theory and Practice of Medicine</i>,
+known all over the civilized world, was equally celebrated.</p>
+
+<p>To these must be added Sir Dominic Corrigan (1802-1880), the first
+Catholic to occupy the position of President of the College of
+Physicians in Dublin, an authority on heart disease, and the first
+adequate describer of aortic patency, a form of ailment long called
+"Corrigan's Disease". "Colles's Fracture" is a familiar term in the
+mouths of surgeons. It derives its name from Abraham Colles
+(1773-1843), the first surgeon in the world to tie the innominate
+artery, as "Butcher's Saw", a well-known implement, does from another
+eminent surgeon; Richard Butcher, Regius Professor in Trinity College
+in the seventies of the last century.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Rupert Boyce (1863-1911), F.R.S., though born in London, had an
+Irish father and mother. Entering the medical profession, he was
+assistant professor of pathology at University College, London, and
+subsequently professor of pathology in University College, Liverpool,
+which he was largely instrumental in turning into the University of
+Liverpool. He was foremost in launching and directing the Liverpool
+School of Tropical Medicine, which has had such widespread results all
+over the world in elucidating the problems and checking the ravages of
+the diseases peculiar to hot countries. It was for his services in
+this direction that he was knighted in 1906.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Richard Quain (b. Mallow 1816, d. 1898), F.R.S., spent most of
+his life in London, where he was for years the most prominent
+physician. He wrote on many subjects, but the <i>Dictionary of
+Medicine</i>, which he edited and which bears his name, has made
+itself and its editor known all over the world.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Almroth Wright (b. 1861), F.R.S., is the greatest living
+authority on the important subject of vaccino-therapy, which, indeed,
+may be said to owe its origin to his researches, as do the methods for
+measuring the protective substances in the human blood. He was the
+discoverer of the anti-typhoid injection which has done so much to
+stay the ravages of that disease.</p>
+
+<h4>ENGINEERING.</h4>
+
+<p>Bindon Blood Stoney (1828-1909), F.R.S., made his reputation first
+as an astronomer by discovering the spiral character of the great
+nebula in Andromeda. Turning to engineering, he was responsible for
+the construction of many important works, especially in connection
+with the port of Dublin. He was brother of G. J. Stoney.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Charles Parsons (b. 1854), F.R.S., fourth son of the third Earl
+of Rosse, is the engineer who developed the steam turbine system and
+made it suitable for the generation of electricity, and for the
+propulsion of war and mercantile vessels. If he has revolutionized
+traffic on the water, so on the land has John Boyd Dunlop (still
+living), who discovered the pneumatic tire with such wide-spread
+results for motorcars, bicycles, and such means of locomotion.</p>
+
+<h4>MISCELLANEOUS.</h4>
+
+<p>Admiral Sir Leopold McClintock (b. Dundalk 1819, d. 1907), F.R.S.,
+was one of the great Arctic explorers, having spent eleven navigable
+seasons and six winters in those regions. He was the chief leader and
+organizer of the Franklin searches. From the scientific point of view
+he made a valuable collection of miocene fossils from Greenland, and
+enabled Haughton to prepare the geological map and memoir of the Parry
+Archipelago.</p>
+
+<p>John Ball (b. Dublin 1818, d. 1889), F.R.S., educated at Oscott,
+passed the examination for a high degree at Cambridge, but, being a
+Catholic, was excluded from the degree itself and any other honors
+which a Protestant might have attained to. He travelled widely and
+published many works on the natural history of Europe and South
+America from Panama to Tierra del Fuego. He was the first to suggest
+the utilization of the electric telegraph for meteorological purposes
+connected with storm warnings.</p>
+
+<p>Space ought to be found for a cursory mention of that strange
+person, Dionysius Lardner (1793-1859), who by his <i>Lardner's
+Cyclopaedia</i> in 132 vols., his <i>Cabinet Library</i>, and his
+<i>Museum of Science and Art</i>, did much to popularize science in an
+unscientific day.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>The principal sources of information are the National Dictionary of
+Biography; the Obituary Notices of the Royal Society (passages in
+inverted commas are from these); "Who's Who" (for living persons);
+Healy: Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars; Hyde: Literary History
+of Ireland; Joyce: Social History of Ancient Ireland; Moore: Medicine
+in the British Isles.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T07"></a>LAW IN IRELAND</h2>
+<h4>By LAURENCE GINNELL, B.L., M.P.</h4>
+
+<p><b>A DISTINCTION.</b> Ireland having been a self-ruled country for
+a stretch of some two thousand years, then violently brought under
+subjection to foreign rule, regaining legislative independence for a
+brief period toward the close of the eighteenth century, then by
+violence and corruption deprived of that independence and again
+brought under the same foreign rule, to which it is still subject, the
+expression "Law in Ireland" comprises the native and the foreign, the
+laws devised by the Irish Nation for its own governance and the laws
+imposed upon it from without: two sets, codes, or systems proper to
+two entirely distinct social structures having no relation and but
+little resemblance to each other. Whatever may be thought of either as
+law, the former is Irish in every sense, and vastly the more
+interesting historically, archaeologically, philologically, and in
+many other ways; the latter being English law in Ireland, and not
+truly Irish in any sense.</p>
+
+<p><b>ORIGIN AND CHARACTER OF IRISH LAW.</b> <i>Seanchus agus
+F&eacute;ineachus na hEireann</i> == <i>Hiberniae Antiquitates et
+Sanctiones Legales</i>&mdash;The Ancient Laws and Decisions of the
+<i>F&eacute;ini</i>, of Ireland. <i>Sen</i> or <i>sean</i> (pronounced
+shan) == "old," differs from most Gaelic adjectives in preceding the
+noun it qualifies. It also tends to coalesce and become a prefix.
+<i>Seanchus</i> (shanech-us) == "ancient law."
+<i>F&eacute;ineachus</i> (fainech-us) == the law of the
+<i>F&eacute;ini</i>, who were the Milesian farmers, free members of
+the clans, the most important class in the ancient Irish community.
+Their laws were composed in their contemporary language, the <i>Bearla
+F&eacute;ini</i>, a distinct form of Gaelic. Several nations of the
+Aryan race are known to have cast into metre or rhythmical prose their
+laws and such other knowledge as they desired to communicate,
+preserve, and transmit, before writing came into use. The Irish went
+further and, for greater facility in committing to memory and
+retaining there, put their laws into a kind of rhymed verse, of which
+they may have been the inventors. By this device, aided by the
+isolated geographical position of Ireland, the sanctity of age, and
+the apprehension that any change of word or phrase might change the
+law itself, these archaic laws, when subsequently committed to
+writing, were largely preserved from the progressive changes to which
+all spoken languages are subject, with the result that we have today,
+embedded in the Gaelic text and commentaries of the <i>Senchus
+M&oacute;r</i>, the <i>Book of Aicill</i>, and other law works,
+available in English translations made under a Royal Commission
+appointed by Government in 1852, and published, at intervals extending
+over forty years, in six volumes of "Ancient Laws and Institutions of
+Ireland," a mass of archaic words, phrases, law, literature, and
+information on the habits and manners of the people, not equalled in
+antiquity, quantity, or authenticity in any other Celtic source. In
+English they are commonly called Brehon Laws, from the genitive case
+singular of <i>Brethem</i> = "judge", genitive <i>Brethemain</i>
+(pronounced brehun), as Erin is an oblique case of Eire, and as Latin
+words are sometimes adopted in the genitive in modern languages which
+themselves have no case distinctions. It is not to be inferred from
+this name that the laws are judge-made. They are rather case law, in
+parts possibly enacted by some of the various assemblies at which the
+laws were promulgated or rehearsed, but for the most part simple
+declarations of law originating in custom and moral justice, and
+records of judgments based upon "the precedents and commentaries", in
+the sort of cases common to agricultural communities of the time, many
+of the provisions being as inapplicable to modern life as modern laws
+would be to ancient life. A reader is impressed by the extraordinary
+number and variety of cases with their still more numerous details and
+circumstances accumulated in the course of long ages, the manner in
+which the laws are inextricably interwoven with the interlocking clan
+system, and the absence of scientific arrangement or guiding principle
+except those of moral justice, clemency, and the good of the
+community. This defect in arrangement is natural in writings intended,
+as these were, for the use of judges and professors, experts in the
+subjects with which they deal, but makes the task of presenting a
+concise statement of them difficult and uncertain.</p>
+
+<p><b>SOCIETY LAW.</b> The law and the social system were inseparable
+parts of a complicated whole, mutually cause and consequence of each
+other. <i>Tuath, clann, cinel, cine</i>, and <i>fine</i> (pronounced
+thooah, clong, kinnel, kineh, and fin-yeh) were terms used to denote a
+tribe or set of relatives, in reality or by adoption, claiming descent
+from a common ancestor, forming a community occupying and owning a
+given territory. <i>Tuath</i> in course of time came to be applied
+indifferently to the people and to their territory. <i>Fine</i>,
+sometimes designating a whole tribe, more frequently meant a part of
+it, occupying a distinct portion of the territory, a potential
+microcosm or nucleus of a clan, having limited autonomy in the conduct
+of its own immediate affairs. The constitution of this organism,
+whether as contemplated by the law or in the less perfect actual
+practice, is alike elusive, and underwent changes. For the purpose of
+illustration, the <i>fine</i> may be said to consist, theoretically,
+of the "seventeen men" frequently mentioned throughout the laws,
+namely, the <i>flaithfine</i> = chief of the <i>fine</i>; the
+<i>geilfine</i> = his four fullgrown sons or other nearest male
+relatives; the <i>deirbhfine, tarfine</i>, and <i>innfine</i>, each
+consisting of four heads of families in wider concentric circles of
+kinship, say first, second, and third cousins of the
+<i>flaithfine</i>. The <i>fine</i> was liable, in measure determined
+by those circles, for contracts, fines, and damages incurred by any of
+its members so far as his own property was insufficient, and was in
+the same degree entitled to share advantages of a like kind accruing.
+Intermarriage within this <i>fine</i> was prohibited. The modern term
+"sept" is applied sometimes to this group and sometimes to a wider
+group united under a <i>flaith</i> (flah) = "chief", elected by the
+<i>flaithfines</i> and provided, for his public services, with free
+land proportionate to the area of the district and the number of
+clansmen in it. <i>Clann</i> might mean the whole Irish nation, or an
+intermediate homogeneous group of <i>fines</i> having for wider
+purposes a <i>flaith</i> or <i>ri-tuatha</i> = king of one
+<i>tuath</i>, elected by the <i>flaiths</i> and <i>flaithfines</i>,
+subject to elaborate qualifications as to person, character, and
+training, which limited their choice, and provided with a larger
+portion of free land. This was the lowest chief to whom the title
+<i>ri, righ</i> (both pr. ree) = <i>rex</i>, or "king", was applied. A
+group of these kinglets connected by blood or territory or policy, and
+their <i>flaiths</i>, elected, from a still narrower circle of
+specially trained men within their own rank, the
+<i>ri-mor-tuatha</i>&mdash;king of the territory so composed, to whose
+office a still larger area of free land was attached. In turn, kings
+of this class, with their respective sub-kings and <i>flaiths</i>,
+elected from among the <i>riogh-dhamhna</i> (ree-uch-dhowna)
+= <i>materia principum</i> or "king-timber", a royal <i>fine</i>
+specially educated and trained, a <i>r&igrave;-cuighidh</i> (ree
+coo-ee-hee) supreme over five <i>ri-mor-tuathas</i>&mdash;roughly, a
+fourth of Ireland. These, with their respective principal supporters,
+elected the ard-ri&mdash;"supreme king", of Ireland, who for ages held
+his court and national assemblies at Tara and enjoyed the kingdom of
+Meath for his mensal land. Usually the election was not direct to the
+kingship, but to the position of <i>tanaiste</i>&mdash;"second" (in
+authority), heir-apparent to the kingship. This was also the rule in
+the learned professions and "noble" arts, which were similarly endowed
+with free land. The most competent among those specially trained,
+whether son or outsider, should succeed to the position and land. All
+such land was legally indivisible and inalienable and descended in its
+entirety to the successor, who might, or might not, be a relative of
+the occupant. The beneficiaries were, however, free to retain any land
+that belonged to them as private individuals.</p>
+
+<p>Membership of the clan was an essential qualification for every
+position; but occasionally two clans amalgamated, or a small
+<i>fine</i>, or desirable individual, was co-opted into the
+clan&mdash;in other words, naturalized. The rules of kinship
+determined <i>eineachlann</i> (ain-yach-long)&mdash;"honor value", the
+assessed value of status, with its correlative rights, obligations,
+and liabilities in connection with all matters civil and criminal;
+largely supplied the place of contract; endowed members of the clan
+with birthrights; and bound them into a compact social, political, and
+mutual insurance copartnership, self-controlled and self-reliant.
+<i>Eineachlann</i> rested on the two-fold basis of kinship and
+property, expanding as a clansman by acquisition of property and
+effluxion of time progressed upward from one grade to another;
+diminishing if he sank; vanishing if for crime he was expelled from
+the clan.</p>
+
+<p><b>FOSTERAGE.</b> To our minds, one of the most curious customs
+prevalent among the ancient Irish was that of <i>iarrad</i>, called
+also <i>altar</i> = "fosterage"&mdash;curious in itself and in the
+fact that in all the abundance of law and literature relating to it no
+logically valid reason is given why wealthy parents normally put out
+their children, from one year old to fifteen in the case of a daughter
+and to seventeen in the case of a son, to be reared in another family,
+while perhaps receiving and rearing children of other parents sent to
+them. As modern life does not comprise either the custom or a reason
+for it, we may assume that fosterage was a consequence of the clan
+system, and that its practice strengthened the ties of kinship and
+sympathy. This conjecture is corroborated by the numerous instances in
+history and in story of fosterage affection proving, when tested,
+stronger than the natural affection of relatives by birth. What is
+more, long after the dissolution of the clans, fosterage has continued
+stealthily in certain districts in which the old race of chiefs and
+clansmen contrived to cling together to the old sod; and the affection
+generated by it has been demonstrated, down to the middle of the
+nineteenth century. The present writer has heard it spoken of
+lovingly, in half-Irish, by simple old people, whom to question would
+be cruel and irreverent.</p>
+
+<p><b>LAND LAW.</b> The entire territory was originally, and always
+continued to be, the absolute property of the entire clan. Not even
+the private residence of a clansman, with its <i>maighin digona</i> =
+little lawn or precinct of sanctuary, within which himself and his
+family and property were inviolable, could be sold to an outsider.
+Private ownership, though rather favored in the administration of the
+law, was prevented from becoming general by the fundamental ownership
+of the clan and the birthright of every free-born clansman to a
+sufficiency of the land of his native territory for his subsistence.
+The land officially held as described was not, until the population
+became numerous, a serious encroachment upon this right. What remained
+outside this and the residential patches of private land was
+classified as cultivable and uncultivable. The former was the common
+property of the clansmen, but was held and used in severalty for the
+time being, subject to <i>gabhail-cine</i>
+(gowal-kinneh)&mdash;clan-resumption and redistribution by authority
+of an assembly of the clan or <i>fine</i> at intervals of from one to
+three years, according to local customs and circumstances, for the
+purpose of satisfying the rights of young clansmen and dealing with
+any land left derelict by death or forfeiture, compensation being paid
+for any unexhausted improvements. The clansmen, being owners in this
+limited sense, and the only owners, had no rent to pay. They paid
+tribute for public purposes, such as the making of roads, to the
+<i>flaith</i> as a public officer, as they were bound to render, or
+had the privilege of rendering&mdash;according to how they regarded
+it&mdash;military service when required, not to the <i>flaith</i> as a
+feudal lord, which he was not, but to the clan, of which the
+<i>flaith</i> was head and representative.</p>
+
+<p>The uncultivable, unreclaimed forest, mountain, and bog-land was
+common property in the wider sense that there was no several
+appropriation of it even temporarily by individuals. It was used
+promiscuously by the clansmen for grazing stock, procuring fuel,
+pursuing game, or any other advantage yielded by it in its natural
+state.</p>
+
+<p>Kings and <i>flaiths</i> were great stock-owners, and were allowed
+to let for short terms portions of their official lands. What they
+more usually let to clansmen was cattle to graze either on private
+land or on a specified part of the official land, not measured, but
+calculated according to the number of beasts it was able to support. A
+<i>flaith</i> whose stock for letting ran short hired some from a king
+and sublet them to his own people. A <i>f&eacute;ine, aithech</i>, or
+<i>ceile</i> (kailyeh), as a farmer was generally called, might hire
+stock in one of two distinct ways: <i>saer</i>&mdash;"free", which was
+regulated by the law, left his status unimpaired, could not be
+terminated arbitrarily or unjustly, under which he paid one-third of
+the value of the stock yearly for seven years, at the end of which
+time what remained of the stock became his property, and in any
+dispute relating to which he was competent to sue or defend even
+though the <i>flaith</i> gave evidence; or <i>daer</i>&mdash;"bond",
+which was matter of bargain and not of law, was subject to onerous
+conditions and contingencies, including maintenance of kings,
+<i>flaiths</i>, or brehons, with their retinues, on visitations, of
+disbanded soldiers, etc., under which the stock always remained the
+property of the <i>flaith</i>, regarding which the
+<i>ceile</i> could not give evidence against that of the
+<i>flaith</i>, which degraded the <i>ceile</i> and his <i>fine</i> and
+impaired their status; a bargain therefore which could not be entered
+into without the sanction of the <i>fine</i>. This prohibition was
+rendered operative by the legal provision that in case of default the
+<i>flaith</i> could not recover from the <i>fine</i> unless their
+consent had been obtained. The letting of stock, especially of
+<i>daer</i>-stock, increased the <i>flaith's</i> power as a lender
+over borrowers, subject, however, to the check that his rank and
+<i>eineachlann</i> depended on the number of independent clansmen in
+his district.</p>
+
+<p>Though workers in precious metals, as their ornaments show, the
+ancient Irish did not coin or use money. Sales were by barter. All
+payments, tribute, rent, fulfilment of contract, fine, damages, wages,
+or however else arising, were made in kind&mdash;horses, cows, store
+cattle, sheep, pigs, corn, meal, malt, bacon, salt beef, geese,
+butter, honey, wool, flax, yarn, cloth, dye-plants, leather,
+manufactured articles of use or ornament, gold, and
+silver&mdash;whatever one party could spare and the other find a use
+for.</p>
+
+<p>Tributes and rent, being alike paid in kind and to the same person,
+were easily confused. This tempted the <i>flaith</i>, as the system
+relaxed, to extend his official power in the direction of ownership;
+but never to the extent of enabling him to evict a clansman. For a
+crime a clansman might be expelled from clan and territory; but, apart
+from crime, the idea of eviction from one's homestead was
+inconceivable. Not even when a <i>daer-ceile</i>, or "unfree peasant",
+failed to make the stipulated payments could the <i>flaith</i> do more
+than sue as for any other debt; and, if successful, he was bound, in
+seizing, to leave the family food-material and implements necessary
+for living and recovering.</p>
+
+<p><b>LAW OF DISTRAINING.</b> <i>Athgabail</i> (&#259;h-gowil) =
+"distress", was the universal legal mode of obtaining anything due, or
+justice or redress in any matter, whether civil or criminal, contract
+or tort. Every command or prohibition of the law, if not obeyed, was
+enforced by <i>athgabail</i>. The brehons reduced all liabilities of
+whatsoever origin to material value to be recovered by this means.
+Hence its great importance, the vast amount of space devoted to it in
+the laws, and the fact that the law of distress deals incidentally
+with every other branch of law and reveals best the customs, habits,
+and character of the people. A claimant in a civil case might either
+summon his debtor before a brehon, get a judgment, and seize the
+amount adjudged, or, by distraining first at his own risk, force the
+defendant either to pay or stop the seizure by submitting the matter
+in dispute to trial before a brehon, whom he then could choose. There
+was no officer corresponding to a sheriff to distrain and realize the
+amount adjudged; the person entitled had to do it himself, accompanied
+by a law-agent and witnesses, after, in "distress with time",
+elaborate notices at intervals of time sufficient to allow the
+defendant to consider his position and find means of satisfying the
+claim if he could. In a proper case his hands were strengthened by
+very explicit provisions of the law. "If a man who is sued evades
+justice, knowing the debt to be due of him, double the debt is payable
+by him." In urgent cases "immediate distress" was allowed. In either
+case the property seized&mdash;usually cattle&mdash;was not taken to
+the plaintiff's home, but put into a pound, and by similar easy stages
+became his property to the amount of the debt. The costs were paid out
+of what remained, and any ultimate remainder was returned. On a
+<i>fuidir</i> (foodyir) = serf or other unfree person resident in the
+territory incurring liability to a clansman, the latter might proceed
+against the <i>flaith</i> on whose land the defendant lived, or might
+seize immediately any property the defendant owned, and if he owned
+none, might seize him and make him work off the debt in slavery.</p>
+
+<p>Seizure of property of a person of higher rank than the plaintiff
+had to be preceded by <i>troscead</i> (truscah) = fasting upon him.
+This consisted in waiting at the door of the defendant's residence
+without food until the debt was paid or a pledge given. The laws
+contained no process more strongly enforced than this. A defendant who
+allowed a plaintiff properly fasting to die of hunger was held by law
+and by public opinion guilty of murder, and completely lost his
+<i>eineachlann</i>. Both text and commentary declare that whoever
+refuses to cede a just demand when fasted upon shall pay double that
+amount. If the faster, having accepted a pledge, did not in due course
+receive satisfaction of his claim, he forthwith distrained, taking and
+keeping double the amount of the debt. The law did not allow those
+whom it at first respected to trifle with justice.</p>
+
+<p><i>Troscead</i> is believed to have been of druidical origin, and
+it retained throughout, even in Christian times, a sort of
+supernatural significance. Whoever disregarded it became an outcast
+and incurred risks and dangers too grave to be lightly faced. Besides
+being a legal process, it was resorted to as a species of elaborate
+prayer, or curse,&mdash;a kind of magic for achieving some difficult
+purpose. This mysterious character enhanced its value in a legal
+system deficient in executive power.</p>
+
+<p><b>NON-CITIZENS.</b> From what precedes it will be understood that
+there were in ancient Ireland from prehistoric times people not
+comprised in the clan organization, and therefore not enjoying its
+rights and advantages or entitled to any of its land, some of whom
+were otherwise free within certain areas, while some were serfs and
+some slaves. Those outsiders are conjectured to have originated in the
+earlier colonists subdued by the Milesians and reduced to an inferior
+condition. But the distinction did not wholly follow racial lines.
+Persons of pre-Milesian race are known to have risen to eminence,
+while Milesians are known to have sunk, from crime or other causes, to
+the lowest rank of the unfree. Here and there a <i>daer-tuath</i> =
+"bond community", of an earlier race held together down to the Middle
+Ages in districts in which conquest had left them and to which they
+were restricted. Beyond that restriction, exclusion from the clan and
+its power, some peculiarities of dialect, dress, and manners, and a
+tradition of inferiority such as still exists in certain parishes,
+they were not molested, provided they paid tribute, which may have
+been heavy.</p>
+
+<p>There were also <i>bothachs</i> = cottiers, and <i>sen-cleithes</i>
+= old adherents of a <i>flaith</i>, accustomed to serve him and obtain
+benefits from him. If they had resided in the territory for three
+generations, and been industrious, thrifty, and orderly, on a few of
+them joining their property together to the number of one hundred head
+of cattle, they could emancipate themselves by appointing a
+<i>flaithfine</i> and getting admitted to the clan. Till this was
+done, they could neither sue nor defend nor inherit, and the
+<i>flaith</i> was answerable for their conduct.</p>
+
+<p>There being no prisons or convict settlements, any person of
+whatever race convicted of grave crime, or of cowardice on the field
+of battle, and unable to pay the fines imposed, captives taken in
+foreign wars, fugitives from other clans, and tramps, fell into the
+lowest ranks of the <i>fuidre</i>&mdash;"serfs." It was as a captive
+that Saint Patrick was brought in his youth to Ireland. The law
+allowed, rather than entitled, a <i>flaith</i> to keep unfree people
+for servile occupations and the performance of unskilled labor for the
+public benefit. In reality they worked for his personal profit,
+oftentimes at the expense of the clan. They lived on his land, and he
+was responsible for their conduct. By analogy, the distinctions
+<i>saer</i> and <i>daer</i> were recognized among them, according to
+origin, character, and means. Where these elements continued to be
+favorable for three generations, progress upward was made; and
+ultimately a number of them could club together, appoint a
+<i>flaithfine</i>, and apply to be admitted to the clan.</p>
+
+<p>A <i>mog</i> was a slave in the strict sense, usually purchased as
+such from abroad, and legally and socially lower than the lowest
+<i>fuidir</i>. Giraldus Cambrensis, writing towards the close of the
+twelfth century, tells us that English parents then frequently sold
+their surplus children and other persons to the Irish as slaves. The
+Church repeatedly intervened for the release of captives and
+mitigation of their condition. The whole institution of slavery was
+strongly condemned as un-Christian by the Synod held in Armagh in
+1171.</p>
+
+<p><b>CRIMINAL LAW.</b> Though there are numerous laws relating to
+crime, to be found chiefly in the <i>Book of Aicill</i>, criminal law
+in the sense of a code of punishment there was none. The law took
+cognizance of crime and wrong of every description against person,
+character, and property; and its function was to prevent and restrict
+crime, and when committed to determine, according to the facts of the
+case and the respective ranks of the parties, the value of the
+compensation or reparation that should be made. It treated crime as a
+mode of incurring liability; entitled the sufferer, or, if he was
+murdered, his <i>fine</i>, to bring the matter before a brehon, who,
+on hearing the case, made the complicated calculations and adjustments
+rendered necessary by the facts proved and by the grades to which the
+respective parties belonged, arrived at and gave judgment for the
+amount of the compensation, armed with which judgment, the plaintiff
+could immediately distrain for that amount the property of the
+criminal, and, in his default, that of his <i>fine</i>. The
+<i>fine</i> could escape part of its liability by arresting and giving
+up the convict, or by expelling him and giving substantial security
+against his future misdeeds.</p>
+
+<p>From the number of elements that entered into the calculation of a
+fine, it necessarily resulted that like fines by no means followed
+like crimes. Fines, like all other payments, were adjudged and paid in
+kind, being, in some cases of the destruction of property,
+generic&mdash;a quantity of that kind of property. Large fines were
+usually adjudged to be paid in three species, one-third in each, the
+plaintiff taking care to inform correctly the brehon of the kinds of
+property the defendant possessed, because he could seize only that
+named, and if the defendant did not possess it, the judgment was "a
+blind nut." Crime against the State or community, such as wilful
+disturbance of an assembly, was punished severely. These were the only
+cases to which the law attached a sentence of death or other corporal
+punishment. For nothing whatsoever between parties did the law
+recognize any duty of revenge, retaliation, or the infliction of
+personal punishment, but only the payment of compensation. Personal
+punishment was regarded as the commission of a second crime on account
+of a first. There was no duty to do this; but the right to do it was
+tacitly recognized if a criminal resisted or evaded payment of an
+adjudged compensation. Criminal were distinguished from civil cases
+only by the moral element, the sufferer's right in all cases to choose
+a brehon, the loss of <i>eineachlann</i>, partial or whole according
+to the magnitude of the crime, the elements used in calculating the
+amount of fine, and the technical terms employed. <i>Dire</i>
+(djeereh) was a general name for a fine, and there were specific names
+for classes of fines. <i>Eric</i> = reparation, redemption, was the
+fine for killing a human being, the amount being affected by the
+distinction between murder and manslaughter and by other
+circumstances; but in no case was a violent death, however innocent,
+allowed to pass without reparation being made. A fine was awarded out
+of the property of the convict or of his <i>fine</i> to the
+<i>fine</i> of the person slain, in the proportions in which they were
+entitled to inherit his property, that being also according to their
+degrees of kinship and the degrees in which they were really
+sufferers. This gave every clan and every clansman, in addition to
+their moral interest, a direct monetary interest in the prevention and
+suppression of crime. Hence the whole public feeling of the country
+was entirely in support of the law, the honor and interest of
+community and individual being involved in its maintenance. The
+injured person or <i>fine</i>, if unable to recover the fine, might,
+in capital cases, seize and enslave, or even kill, the convict.
+Probably restrained by the fact that, there being no officers of
+criminal law, they had to inflict punishment themselves, they
+sometimes imprisoned a convict in a small island, or sent him adrift
+on the sea in a <i>currach</i> or boat of hide. Law supported by
+public opinion, powerful because so inspired, powerful because
+unanimous, was difficult to evade or resist. It so strongly armed an
+injured person, and so utterly paralyzed a criminal, that escape from
+justice was hardly possible. The only way in which it was possible was
+by flight, leaving all one's property behind, and sinking into slavery
+in a strange place; and this in effect was a severe punishment rather
+than an escape.</p>
+
+<p><b>FOREIGN LAW.</b> The Danes and other Norsemen were the
+buccaneers of northwestern Europe from the eighth to the eleventh
+century. They conquered and settled permanently in Neustria, from them
+called Normandy, and conquered and ruled for a considerable time
+England and part of Scotland and the Isles. In Ireland they were
+little more than marauders, having permanent colonies only round the
+coast; always subject, nominally at least, to the <i>ard-ri</i> or to
+the local chief; paying him tribute when he was strong, raiding his
+territory when he was weak, and fomenting recurrent disorder highly
+prejudicial to law, religion, and civilization. They never made any
+pretence of extending their laws to Ireland, and their attempt to
+conquer the country was finally frustrated at Clontarf in 1014.</p>
+
+<p>The Anglo-Norman invaders also seized the seaports. The earlier of
+them who went inland partially adopted in the second generation the
+Gaelic language, laws, and customs; as many non-Celtic Lowlanders of
+Scotland about the same period adopted the Gaelic language, laws, and
+customs of the Highlanders. Hence they did not make much impression on
+the Gaelic system, beyond the disintegrating effect of their imperfect
+adoption of it.</p>
+
+<p>Into the eastern parts of Ireland, however, a fresh stream of
+English adventurers continued to flow, as aggressive and covetous as
+their means and prudence permitted; calling so much of the country as
+they were able to wrench from the Irish "the English Pale", which
+fluctuated in extent with their fortunes; and, when compelled to pay
+tribute to Irish chiefs, calling it "black rent", to indicate how they
+regarded it. Their greatest difficulty was to counteract the tendency
+of the earlier colonists to become Hibernicized&mdash;a most unwilling
+tribute to the superiority of the Irish race. They, and still more
+those in England who supported them, knew nothing of the Irish
+language, laws, and institutions but that they should all be
+impartially hated, uprooted, and supplanted by English people and
+everything English as soon as means enabled this to be done. This was
+the amiable purpose of the pompously-named "Statute of Kilkenny",
+passed by about a score of these colonists in 1367. Presuming to speak
+in the name of Ireland, the statute prohibited the English colonists
+from becoming Irish in the numerous ways they were accustomed to do,
+and excluded all Irish priests from preferment in the Church, partly
+because their superior virtue would by contrast amount to a censure.
+The purpose was not completely successful even within the Pale.
+Outside that precinct, the mass of the Irish were wholly unconscious
+of the existence of the "Statute of Kilkenny." But expressing, as the
+statute did correctly, the views of fresh adventurers, it became, in
+arrogance and in the pretension to speak for the whole of Ireland, a
+model for their future legislation and policy.</p>
+
+<p>Under King Henry VI. of England, Richard, Duke of York, being Lord
+Deputy, the Parliament of the Pale, assembled in Dublin, repudiated
+the authority of the English Parliament in Ireland, established a
+mint, and assumed an attitude of almost complete independence. On the
+other hand, in 1494, under Henry VII., the Parliament of the Pale,
+assembled at Drogheda, passed Poyning's Act, extending all English
+laws to Ireland and subjecting all laws passed in Ireland to revision
+by the English Council. This, extended to the whole of Ireland as
+English power extended, remained in force until 1782. Henry VIII. was
+the first English sovereign to take practical measures for the pacific
+and diplomatic conquest of the whole of Ireland and the substitution
+of English for Irish institutions and methods. His daughter, Queen
+Elizabeth, continued and completed the conquest; but it was by
+drenching the country in blood, by more than decimating the Irish
+people, and by reducing the remnant to something like the condition of
+the ancient <i>fuidre</i>. Her policy prepared the ground for her
+successor, James I., to exterminate the Irish from large tracts, in
+which he planted Englishmen and Scotchmen, and to extend all English
+laws to Ireland and abolish all other laws. James's English
+attorney-general in Ireland, Sir John Davies, in his work, <i>A
+Discoverie of the True Causes, etc.</i>, says:</p>
+
+<p>"For there is no nation of people under the sunne that doth love
+equall and indifferent [= impartial] justice better than the Irish; or
+will rest better satisfied with the execution thereof, although it bee
+against themselves; so as they may have the protection and benefit of
+the law, when uppon just cause they do desire it."</p>
+
+<p>The ancient Irish loved their laws and took pride in obeying and
+enforcing them. The different attitude of the modern Irish towards
+foreign laws and administration is amply explained by the morally
+indefensible character of those laws and that administration, to be
+read in English statutes and ordinances and in the history of English
+rule in Ireland&mdash;a subject too vast and harrowing, and in every
+sense foreign to what has gone before, to be entered upon here. Though
+the Parliament of 1782-1800 was little more than a Pale Parliament, in
+which the mass of the Irish people had no representation whatever, one
+of its Acts, to its credit be it said, was an attempt to mitigate the
+Penal Laws and emancipate the oppressed Gaelic and Catholic population
+of Ireland. With the partial exception of that brief interval, law in
+Ireland has, during the last 360 years, meant English laws specially
+enacted for the destruction of any Irish trade or industry that
+entered into competition with a corresponding English trade or
+industry. In later times those crude barbarities have been gradually
+superseded by the more defensible laws now in force in Ireland, all of
+which can be studied in statutes passed by the Parliament, since the
+Union with Scotland, called British.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Pending the desirable work of a more competent Brehon Law
+Commission and translators, the subject must be studied in the six
+volumes of <i>Ancient Laws of Ireland</i>, produced by the first
+Commission, from 1865 to 1901, ignoring the long introductions and
+many of the notes. Whitley Stokes: Criticism of Atkinson's Glossary
+(London, 1903); R. Dareste: Etudes d'histoire de droit (Paris, 1889);
+d'Arbois de Jubainville and Paul Collinet: Etudes sur le droit
+celtique, 2 vols. (Paris, 1895); Joyce: Social History of Ancient
+Ireland, 2 vols. (London, 1913); Laurence Ginnell: The Brehon Laws
+(London, 1894).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T08"></a>IRISH MUSIC</h2>
+<h4>By W.H. GRATTAN FLOOD, Mus. D., M.R.I.A., K.S.G.</h4>
+
+<p>Perhaps nothing so strikingly brings home the association of
+Ireland with music as the fact that the harp is emblazoned on the
+national arms. Ireland, "the mother of sweet singers", as Pope writes;
+Ireland, "where", according to St. Columcille, "the clerics sing like
+the birds"; Ireland can proudly point to a musical history of over
+2,000 years. The Milesians, the De Dananns, and other pre-Christian
+colonists were musical. Hecataeus (B.C. 540-475) describes the Celts
+of Ireland as singing songs to the harp in praise of Apollo, and
+Aethicus of Istria, a Christian philosopher of the early fourth
+century, describes the culture of the Irish. Certain it is that, even
+before the coming of St. Patrick, the Irish were a highly cultured
+nation, and the national Apostle utilized music and song in his work
+of conversion. In the early Lives of the Irish Saints musical
+references abound, and the Irish school of music attracted foreign
+scholars from the sixth to the ninth century.</p>
+
+<p>Hymnologists are familiar with the hymns written by early Irish
+saints and laics, <i>e.g.</i>, St. Sechnall, St. Columcille, St.
+Molaise, St. Cuchuimne, St. Columbanus, St. Ultan, St. Colman, St.
+Cummain, St. Aengus, Dungal, Sedulius, Moengal, and others. Who has
+not heard of the great music school of San Gallen, founded by St.
+Gall, "the wonder and delight of Europe," whither flocked German
+students? One of the Irish monks, Tuathal (Tutilo), composed numerous
+sacred pieces, including the famous farced Kyrie, "Fons bonitatis",
+included in the Vatican edition of the <i>Kyriale</i> (1906). Not
+alone did Irish monks propagate sacred and secular music throughout
+France, Italy, Switzerland, Austria, Germany, and the far North, but
+they made their influence felt In Lindisfarne, Malmesbury,
+Glastonbury, and other cities in England, as also in Scotland. St.
+Aldhelm, one of the pupils of St. Maeldubh, tells us that at the close
+of the seventh century, "Ireland, synonymous with learning, literally
+blazed like the stars of the firmament with the glory of her
+scholars."</p>
+
+<p>During the ninth century we meet with twelve different forms of
+instruments in use by the Irish, namely:&mdash;the <i>Cruit</i> and
+<i>Clairseach</i> (small and large harp); <i>Timpan</i> (<i>Rotta</i>
+or bowed <i>cruit</i>); <i>Buinne</i> (oboe or bassoon);
+<i>Bennbuabhal</i> and <i>Corn</i> (horn); <i>Cuisleanna</i> and
+<i>Piob</i> (bagpipes); <i>Feadan</i> (flute or fife);
+<i>Guthbuinne</i> (bass horn); <i>Stoc</i> and <i>Sturgan</i>
+(trumpet); <i>Pipai</i> (single and double pipes);
+<i>Craoibh cuil</i> and <i>Crann cuil</i> (cymbalum); <i>Cnamha</i>
+(castanet); and <i>Fidil</i> (fiddle). The so-called "Brian Boru's
+Harp" really dates from the thirteenth century, and is now in Trinity
+College, Dublin, but there are numerous sculptured harps of the ninth
+and tenth centuries on the crosses at Graig, Ullard, Clonmacnois,
+Durrow, and Monasterboice.</p>
+
+<p>Donnchadh, an Irish bishop of the ninth century, who died as abbot
+of St. Remigius, wrote a commentary on Martianus Capella, a well-known
+musical text book. Towering above all his fellows, John Scotus
+Erigena, in 867, wrote a tract <i>De Divisione Naturae</i>, in which
+he expounds <i>organum</i> or discant, nearly a hundred years before
+the appearance of the <i>Scholia Enchiriadis</i> and the <i>Musica
+Enchiriadis</i>. He also wrote a commentary on Martianus Capella, now
+in a Paris MS. of the ninth century.</p>
+
+<p>The eulogy of Giraldus Cambrensis, or Gerald Barry, who came to
+Ireland in 1183, on Irish harpers and minstrels is too well known to
+be repeated, but Brompton and John of Salisbury are equally
+enthusiastic. Ground bass, or pedal point, and singing in parts, as
+well as bands of harpers and pipers, were in vogue in Ireland before
+the coming of the English. Dante, quoted by Galilei, testifies to the
+fact that Italy received the harp from Ireland; and, it may be added,
+the Irish harp suggested the pianoforte. In the Anglo-Norman ballad,
+"The Entrenchment of New Ross"&mdash;in 1265&mdash;allusion is made to
+pipes and flutes, and carols and dancing. Another poem, dating from
+about 1320, refers to Irish dances in a flattering manner.</p>
+
+<p>John Garland (1190-1264) wrote a treatise on <i>Organum</i>, and
+outlined a scheme of dividing the interval, which developed into
+ornamentation, passing notes, and grace notes. The Dublin
+<i>Troper</i> of the thirteenth century has a number of farced Kyries
+and Glorias, also a collection of Sequences. A Dublin
+<i>Processionale</i> of the fourteenth century contains the most
+elaborate form of the <i>Officium Sepulchri</i>, with musical notation
+on a four-line stave&mdash;the foundation of the Miracle Play of the
+Resurrection. Another Dublin <i>Troper</i> dates from 1360 and was
+used in St. Patrick's Cathedral. It contains the hymn, "Angelus ad
+Virginem", alluded to by Chaucer. The Christ Church Psaltery, about
+1370, has musical notation and is exquisitely illuminated. Lionel
+Power, an Anglo-Irishman, wrote the first English treatise on music in
+1395. Exactly a century later, in 1495, a music school was founded in
+Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish Annals of the thirteenth to the fifteenth century have
+numerous references to distinguished harpers and singers, and there
+are still sung many beautiful airs of this period, including "The
+Coulin" and "Eibhlin a ruin." John Lawless was a famous Irish
+organ-builder of the second half of the fifteenth century, and his
+successor, James Dempsey, built many fine organs between the years
+1530 and 1565.</p>
+
+<p>Notwithstanding the many penal enactments against Irish minstrels,
+all the great Anglo-Irish nobles of the Pale retained an Irish harper
+and piper in their service. Under date of 1480, we find Chief Justice
+Bermingham having an Irish harper to teach his family, as also "to
+harp and to dance." A century later "Blind Cruise, the
+harper"&mdash;Richard Cruise&mdash;composed a lamentation song on the
+fall of the Baron of Slane, the air of which is still popular. It is
+to the credit of the Irishman, William Bathe (who subsequently became
+a Jesuit), that he wrote the first printed English treatise on music,
+published in 1584&mdash;thus ante-dating by thirteen years Morley's
+work. Bathe wrote a second musical treatise in 1587, and he was the
+first to call measures by the name of bars. He also formulated methods
+of transposition and sight reading that may still be studied with
+profit.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas Campion, the poet and composer, was born in Dublin in 1567,
+but spent nearly all his life in England. Other Irish composers, to
+mention only the most distinguished, were William Costello
+(madrigalist), Richard Gillie, Edward Shergold, and Walter Kennedy.
+Strange as it may seem, Queen Elizabeth retained in her service an
+Irish harper, Cormac MacDermot, from 1591 to 1603, and on the death of
+the queen he was given an annual pension of &pound;46 10s.
+10d.&mdash;nearly &pound;500 a year of our present money.</p>
+
+<p>Shakespeare refers to eleven Irish tunes, of which the famous
+"Callino Casturame" (<i>Cailin og a stuir me</i>) is still fresh.
+Irish dances were extremely popular at the English court from 1600 to
+1603 and were introduced into the Masks. Shakespeare's "intrinsic
+friend," John Dowland of Dublin, was one of the greatest lutenists in
+Europe from 1590 to 1626. In the dedication of a song "to my loving
+countryman, Mr. John Foster the Younger, merchant of Dublin in
+Ireland," Dowland sufficiently indicates his nationality, and his
+compositions betray all the charm and grace of Irish melody. It is of
+interest to add that the earliest printed "Irish Dance" is in
+<i>Parthenia Inviolata</i>, of which work, published in 1613-4, there
+is only one copy known&mdash;now in the New York Public Library. From
+1600-1602, Charles O'Reilly was harpist to the court of Denmark at 200
+thalers a year. His successor was Donal <i>Dubh</i> ("the black")
+O'Cahill (1602-1610), who followed Anne of Denmark to the English
+court. Walter Quin of Dublin was music master to King James's eldest
+son, Prince Henry, from 1608 to 1611. Other noted harpers of the first
+half of the seventeenth century are: Rory <i>dall</i> ("the blind")
+O'Cahan; Nicholas <i>dall</i> Pierce; Tadhg MacRory; John, Rory, and
+Henry Scott; Owen MacKeenan; Owen MacDermot; Tadhg O'Coffey; and
+Father Robert Nugent, S.J. Darby Scott was harper to the Danish Court
+from 1621 till his death, at Copenhagen, on December 19, 1634. Pierce
+Ferriter, a "gentleman harper", was executed at Killarney in 1652.
+Myles O'Reilly and the two Connellans were famous harpers between the
+years 1660-1680. Evelyn, the English diarist, in 1668, praises the
+excellent performance on the harp of Sir Edward Sutton, who, in the
+following year, was granted by King Charles II. the lands of Confey,
+Co. Kildare. Two beautiful harps of this period are still
+preserved&mdash;the Fitzgerald Harp and the Fogarty Harp.</p>
+
+<p>There are many exquisite airs of the seventeenth century, some of
+which have been incorporated in Moore's <i>Irish Melodies</i>. The
+titles of several airs of this epoch are of historical interest,
+<i>e.g.</i>, "Sarsfield's Lament," "Lament for Owen Roe O'Neill,"
+"MacAlistrum's March," "Ned of the Hill," "The Breach of Aughrim,"
+"Limerick's Lamentation," "Lilliburlero," "Ballinamona," "The Boyne
+Water," and "The Wild Geese." Irish tunes abound in the various
+editions of Playford's <i>Country Dances</i> from 1651 to 1720.</p>
+
+<p>Turlogh O'Carolan (1670-1738), who has been styled "the last of the
+Irish bards", wrote and composed innumerable songs, also Planxties,
+Plearacas, and Lamentations. It is here merely necessary to note that
+twenty-six of O'Carolan's airs are included in Moore's <i>Irish
+Melodies</i>, although his claim to them has only recently been proved
+by the present writer. Goldsmith's eulogy of O'Carolan is well
+known.</p>
+
+<p>The Jacobite period from 1710 to 1750 considerably influenced Irish
+minstrelsy, and some of the most delightful airs were adapted to
+Jacobite lyrics. "Seaghan buidhe," "An Sean duine," "Lament for
+Kilcash," "Ormonde's Lament," "Morin ni Chullenain," "All the Way to
+Galway" (the air of "Yankee Doodle"), "Caitlin ni Houlihan," "Balance
+a straw" ("The Wearing of the Green"), "St. Patrick's Day," "Plancam
+Peirbhig," are amongst the tunes in vogue at this period.</p>
+
+<p>As early as 1685 the Hibernian Catch Club was established and still
+flourishes. Cecilian celebrations were held from 1727 to 1732, and a
+Dublin Academy of Music was founded in 1728. The Charitable and
+Musical Society (founded in 1723) built the Fishamble Street Music
+Hall in 1741, and assisted at the first performance of <i>The
+Messiah</i>, conducted by Handel himself, on 13th April, 1742. Kitty
+Clive, Peg Woffington, and Daniel Sullivan were noted Irish singers of
+this epoch, while John Clegg, Dr. Murphy, and Burke Thumoth were
+famous instrumentalists. In 1741 Richard Pockrich invented the Musical
+Glasses, for which Gluck wrote some pieces: it was afterwards improved
+by Benjamin Franklin. On the continent, Henry Madden was music
+director of the Chapel Royal at Versailles in 1744 (in succession to
+Campra), and was also canon of St. Quentin.</p>
+
+<p>In 1764 the Earl of Mornington, Mus. D., was appointed first
+professor of music in Dublin University. A few years later Charles
+Clagget invented the valve-horn. Michael Kelly of Dublin was specially
+selected by Mozart to create the parts of Basilio and Don Curzio at
+the first performance of the opera of <i>Figaro</i>, on May 1st, 1786.
+Kane O'Hara, Samuel Lee, Owenson, Neale, Baron Dillon, Dr. Doyle, T.A.
+Geary, Mahon, and the Earl of Westmeath were distinguished
+musicians&mdash;while the fame of Carter, Mountain, Moorehead, and Dr.
+Cogan was not confined to Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>Among native minstrels, Jerome Duigenan, Dominic Mongan, Denis
+Hempson, Charles Byrne, James Duncan, Arthur Victory, and Arthur
+O'Neill were celebrated as harpers. The Belfast meeting of 1792
+revived the vogue of the national instrument. Nor was the bagpipe
+neglected. Even in America, in 1778, Lord Rawdon had a band of pipers,
+with Barney Thomson as Pipe Major. At home, Sterling, Jackson,
+MacDonnell, Moorehead, Kennedy, and Macklin sustained the reputation
+of this ancient instrument.</p>
+
+<p>Ere the close of the eighteenth century John Field of Dublin was a
+distinguished pianist. He subsequently (1814) invented the nocturne,
+developed by Chopin. Sir John Stevenson (the arranger of the <i>Irish
+Melodies</i>), Tom Cooke, William Southwell (inventor of the damper
+action for pianofortes), Henry Mountain, Andrew Ashe (flautist),
+Barton, Rooke, and Bunting were world-famed.</p>
+
+<p>Among the Irish musicians of the last century the following names
+are typical: Thomas Moore, J. A. Wade, Balle (<i>Bohemian Girl</i>),
+Wallace (<i>Maritana</i>), Osborne, Sir Frederick Ouseley, Scotson
+Clarke, Howard Glover, Horncastle, J. W. Glover, Sir Robert Stewart,
+Augusta Holmes, R. M. Levey, Joseph Robinson, Forde, Lover, Kearns,
+Allen, Barker, Torrance, Molloy, Guernsey, Gilmore, Thunder, Harvey,
+Goodman, Sir Arthur Sullivan (<i>Pinafore, Mikado</i>), Miss Davis,
+Halliday (inventor of the Kent bugle), Latham, Duggan, Gaskin, Lacy,
+Pontet (Piccolomini), Hudson, Pigot, Horan, Marks, and W. C. Levey.
+Famous vocalists like Catherine Hayes, Mrs. Scott Fennell, Signer Foli
+(Foley), Barton McGuckin, Denis O'Sullivan, and William Ludwig deserve
+inclusion.</p>
+
+<p>In our own day, it is only necessary to mention composers like Sir
+Charles Villiers Stanford, Dr. C. Woods, Victor Herbert, Mrs. Needham,
+Dr. Sinclair, Norman O'Neill, and Arthur O'Leary; singers like Egan,
+Burke, Plunket Greene, John MacCormack, P. O'Shea, Charles Manners,
+and Joseph O'Mara; violinists like Maud McCarthy, Emily Keady, Arthur
+Darley, and Patrick Delaney; organists like Dr. Charles Marchant,
+Brendan Rogers, Dr. Joz&eacute;, and Professor Buck; writers like Mrs.
+Curwen, Dr. Annie Patterson, Mrs. Milligan Fox, Professor Mahaffy,
+A.P. Graves, Dr. Collison, and G.B. Shaw; and conductors like Hamilton
+Harty and James Glover.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Walker: Irish Bards (1786); O'Curry: Lectures (1870); Hardiman:
+Irish Mistrelsy (2 vols., 1834); The Complete Petrie Collection (3
+vols., 1902-1904); Grattan Flood: History of Irish Music (3rd ed.,
+1913), Story of the Harp (1906), Story of the Bagpipe (1911); Mrs.
+Milligan Fox: Annals of the Irish Harpers (1911); Mason: Song Lore of
+Ireland (1910); Armstrong: Musical Instruments (2 vols., 1904-1908);
+O'Neill: Irish Folk Music (1911), Irish Minstrels and Musicians
+(1913).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T09"></a>IRISH METAL WORK</h2>
+<h4>By DIARMID GOFFEY.</h4>
+
+<p>From the earliest times in the history of western Europe Ireland
+has been renowned for her work in metal. The first metal used was
+copper, and copper weapons are found in Ireland dating from 2,000
+B.C., or even earlier, the beautiful designs of which show that the
+early inhabitants of the country were skilled workers in metal. Fields
+of copper exist all along the southern seaboard of Ireland. Numbers of
+flat copper celts, or axes, have been found modelled on the still
+earlier stone implements. By degrees the influence of the early stone
+axe disappears and axes of a true metal type are developed. Primitive
+copper knives and awls are also abundant. The fineness of the early
+Irish copper work is seen at its best in the numerous copper halberd
+blades found in Ireland. These blades, varying from nine to sixteen
+inches in length, were fastened at right angles by rivets into wooden
+shafts. The blades show a slight sickle-like curve and are of the
+highest workmanship. Halberds somewhat similar in type have been found
+in Spain, North Germany, and Scandinavia.</p>
+
+<p>Between the years 2000 and 1800 B.C. the primitive metalworkers
+discovered that bronze, a mixture of tin and copper, was a more
+suitable metal than pure copper for the manufacture of weapons; and
+the first period of the bronze age may be dated from 1800 to 1500 B.C.
+The bronze celts at first differed little from those made of copper,
+but gradually the type developed from the plain wedge-shaped celt to
+the beautiful socketed celt, which appears on the scene in the last,
+or fifth, division of the bronze age (900-350 B.C.). It was during the
+age of bronze that spears came into general use, as did the sword and
+rapier. The early spear-heads were simply knife-shaped bronze weapons
+riveted to the ends of shafts, but by degrees the graceful socketed
+spear-heads of the late bronze age were developed.</p>
+
+<p>Stone moulds for casting the early forms of weapons have been
+found, but, as the art of metalworking became perfected, the use of
+sand moulds was discovered, with the result that there are no extant
+examples of moulds for casting the more developed forms of weapons.
+The bronze weapons&mdash;celts, swords, and spear-heads&mdash;are
+often highly decorated. In these decorations can be traced the
+connection between the early Irish civilization and that of the
+eastern Mediterranean. The bronze age civilization in Europe spread
+westward from the eastern Mediterranean either by the southern route
+of Italy, Spain, France, and thence to Ireland, or, as seems more
+probable, up the river Danube, then down the Elbe, and so to
+Scandinavia, whence traders by the north of Scotland introduced the
+motives and patterns of the Aegean into Ireland. Whichever way the
+eastern civilization penetrated into Ireland, it left England
+practically untouched in her primitive barbarity.</p>
+
+<p>Of gold work, for which Ireland is especially famous, the principal
+feature in the bronze age was the lunula, a crescent-shaped flat gold
+ornament generally decorated at the ends of the crescent. These
+lunulae are found in profusion all over Ireland. A few have been found
+in Cornwall and Brittany, and a few in Scotland and Denmark. One has
+been found in Luxemburg and one in Hanover.</p>
+
+<p>Gold collars are numerous in Ireland and also date from the bronze
+age. The earliest form of collar is the "torc" of twisted gold.
+Another type, later in date than the torc, is the gold ring-shaped
+collar. Two splendid examples of this latter type were found at
+Clonmacnois, the decoration of which, in <i>La T&egrave;ne</i>, or
+trumpet, pattern, shows the connection between the Irish and
+continental designs.</p>
+
+<p>A find of prehistoric gold ornaments in county Clare should be
+mentioned. An immense number was there discovered in 1854 hidden
+together in a cist, the value of the whole being estimated at over
+&pound;3,000.</p>
+
+<p>After the bronze age comes the iron age. The introduction of iron
+wrought a great change in metalworking, but, as iron is a metal very
+subject to oxidization, comparatively few early iron remains are
+found. There are some swords of an early pattern in the National
+Museum at Dublin.</p>
+
+<p>It has been shown that the pre-Christian metalwork of Ireland is
+well worthy of attention, but it is to the early Christian
+metalworkers that Ireland owes her pre-eminent fame in this field. In
+early Christian Ireland metalworking was brought to a pitch rarely
+equalled and never excelled. The remains found, such as the Tara
+Brooch, the Cross of Cong, and the Ardagh Chalice, are among the most
+beautiful metalwork in the world. The wonderful interlaced patterns,
+which are typically Celtic, bewildering in their intricacy, and
+fascinating in the freedom and boldness of their execution, lend
+themselves readily to metal work.</p>
+
+<p>The connecting link between the metalwork of the late pagan period
+and that of early Christian times is chiefly exemplified by the
+penannular brooches, of which great numbers have been found in
+Ireland. Examples of this characteristically Celtic ornament may be
+seen in all Celtic countries.</p>
+
+<p>In its earliest form this brooch is simply a ring, with a gap in
+it, to which a pin is loosely attached by a smaller ring. Gradually
+the open ends of the ring, which need some enlargement in order to
+prevent the pin slipping off, became larger and ornamented. In time
+these became regular trumpet-shaped ends, generally ornamented with
+characteristic "trumpet" patterns. The next stage was to close the
+gap, leaving a ring with a crescent-shaped disc at one side. Space
+does not permit of the description of the numerous brooches found. It
+will be sufficient to describe the Tara Brooch, which is the crowning
+glory not only of the Irish but of any metalworker's art.</p>
+
+<p>The Tara Brooch, whose only connection with Tara is its name, was
+found near Drogheda; it is about seven inches in diameter and the pin
+about fifteen inches long. It is made of bronze covered with the most
+elaborate interlaced ornament in gold. The fineness of the interlaced
+work may be compared with, and is quite equal to, that of the best
+illuminated manuscripts; the freedom of its execution is amazing.
+Besides panels of ribbon ornament, which include spirals, plaited
+work, human heads, and animal forms, the front of the brooch is
+decorated with enamel and settings of amber and colored glass. The
+back of the brooch is, as is often the case in Irish work, decorated
+in a bolder manner than the front, and the "trumpet" pattern is there
+very marked. The head of the pin is also elaborately decorated. The
+minute and intricate style of the work is strikingly shown by the fact
+that, even after prolonged study, some patterns escaped notice and
+have only lately been discovered. Further, each of the gold lines is
+made of tiny gold balls, so small as only to be seen by means of a
+magnifying glass.</p>
+
+<p>With the introduction of Christianity, the attention of artificers
+was turned to the manufacture of church vessels and shrines. Of these
+perhaps the most beautiful are the Ardagh Chalice, the Cross of Cong,
+and the Shrine of St. Patrick's Bell, though great numbers of other
+sacred ornaments, such as the Shrine of St. Lactan's Arm and the
+numerous bell shrines, are also fine examples of the work of an
+unsurpassed school of metalworkers.</p>
+
+<p>The date of the Tara Brooch is not easy to determine, but it may
+probably be placed in the eighth century of our era. The Ardagh
+Chalice belongs probably to about the same date. It was found in a
+rath at Ardagh, county Limerick, in 1868. It measures 7 inches in
+height and 9-1/2 in diameter. Around the cup is a band of fine
+filigree interlaced ornament in the form of panels divided by half
+beads of enamel. Below this are the names of the twelve Apostles in
+faint Celtic lettering. The two handles are beautifully decorated with
+panels of interwoven ornament, and on the sides are two circular discs
+divided into ornamented panels. The under side of the foot of the
+Chalice is also very beautifully decorated.</p>
+
+<p>The shrines of the bells of the Irish saints are interesting
+examples of Irish metal work. As is fitting, the finest of these is
+the Shrine of St. Patrick's Bell. This was made by order of King
+Domnall O'Lachlainn between the years 1091 and 1105 to contain St.
+Patrick's Bell, a square iron bell made of two plates of sheet iron
+riveted together. The shrine is made of bronze plates, to which gold
+filigree work and stones are riveted. The top of the shrine, curved to
+receive the handle of the bell, is of silver elaborately decorated.
+The back is overlaid with a plate of silver cut in cruciform pattern.
+Around the margin of the back is engraved the following inscription in
+Irish: "A prayer for Domnall Ua Lachlainn, by whom this bell [shrine]
+was made, and for Domnall, successor of Patrick, by whom it was made,
+and for Cathalan Ua Maelchallann, the keeper of the bell, and for
+Cudulig Ua Inmainen with his sons, who fashioned it." The whole is
+executed in a very fine manner and is the most beautiful object of its
+kind in existence. Another beautiful shrine, known as the Cross of
+Cong, made to enshrine a piece of the true cross presented by the pope
+in 1123, was made for King Turlogh O'Conor at about that date. It is 2
+feet 6 inches high and 1 foot 6-3/4 inches wide. It is made of oak
+cased with copper and enriched with ornaments of gilded bronze. The
+ornamentation is of the typical Irish type, as on the Ardagh Chalice
+and the Shrine of St. Patrick's Bell. A quartz crystal set in the
+centre of the front of the cross probably held the relic.</p>
+
+<p>It is clear from the succession of beautiful work executed from the
+eighth to the twelfth century, that there must have existed in Ireland
+during that period a school of workers in metal such as has seldom
+been equalled by any individual worker or guild before or since, and
+never excelled. The examples described are only the more famous of the
+remains of early Irish Christian art in metal, but they are surrounded
+by numerous examples of pins, brooches, and shrines, each worthy to
+rank with the finest productions of the metalworker. The Shrine of St.
+Moedoc (date uncertain) ought perhaps to be mentioned. On it are found
+several figures, including three nuns, men with books, sceptres, and
+swords, and a lifelike figure of a harper.</p>
+
+<p>Besides articles of ornament, articles of use, such as bits for
+horses and household utensils, have been found, which show that the
+Irish smiths were as well able to produce articles for every-day use
+as the artificers were to create works of art in metal.</p>
+
+<p>With the landing of the English in 1169 the arts and sciences in
+Ireland declined. Indeed, from that time on and for long afterwards,
+almost the only metalworkers needed were makers of arms and weapons of
+offense and defense.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>British Museum, Bronze Age Guide; Coffey: Bronze Age in Ireland;
+Allen: Celtic Art; Abercrombie: Bronze Age Pottery; Wilde: Catalogue
+of the Royal Irish Academy's Collection; Allen: Christian Symbolism;
+Stokes: Christian Art in Ireland; Petrie: Ecclesiastical Architecture
+in Ireland; Coffey: Guide to the Celtic Antiquities of the Christian
+Period perserved in the National Museum, Dublin; Kane: Industrial
+Resources of Ireland; O'Curry: Manners and Customs of the Ancient
+Irish; Coffey: New Grange and other incised Tumuli in Ireland;
+Dechelette: Manuel d'Arch&eacute;ologie pr&eacute;-historique;
+Ridgeway: Origin of Currency and Weight Standards.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T10"></a>IRISH MANUSCRIPTS</h2>
+<h4>By LOUIS ELY O'CARROLL, B.A., B.L.</h4>
+
+<p>In the dark ages of Europe, whilst new civilizations were in the
+making and all was unrest, art and religion, like the lamp of the
+sanctuary, burned brightly and steadily in Ireland, and their rays
+penetrated the outer gloom. Scattered through the libraries of Europe
+are the priceless manuscripts limned by Irish scribes. The earliest
+missionaries to the continent, disciples of St. Columbanus and St.
+Gall, doubtless brought with them into exile beautiful books which
+they or their brothers of the parent monastery had wrought in a labor
+of love; or mayhap many a monk crossed the seas bearing the treasured
+volumes into hiding from the spoiling hands of the Dane. Yet,
+fortunately, in the island home where their beauty was born the most
+superb volumes still remain.</p>
+
+<p>From almost prehistoric times the Irish were skilled artificers in
+gold and bronze, and, at the advent of Christianity, had already
+evolved and perfected that unique system of geometrical ornament which
+is known as Celtic design. The original and essential features of this
+system consisted in the use of spirals and interlacing strapwork, but
+later on this type was developed by transforming the geometrical fret
+into a scheme of imaginary or nondescript animals, portions of which,
+such as the tails and ears, were prolonged and woven in exquisite
+fancy through the border. The artistic features of Celtic book
+decoration consist chiefly of initial letters of this nature
+embellished with color. Amongst the ancient Irish there was a keen
+knowledge of color and an exceptional appreciation of color values.
+Thus it was that in the early centuries of Christian Ireland the
+learned monks, transcribing the Gospels and longing to make the book
+beautiful, were able to bring to their task an artistic skill which
+was hereditary and almost instinctive. The colors which they used were
+mostly derived from mineral substances and the black was carbon, made,
+it is conjectured, from charred fish-bones; but with them was combined
+some gummy material which made them cling softly to the vellum and has
+held for us their lustre for more than a thousand years. It is
+noteworthy that neither gold nor silver was used for book decoration,
+and this would appear to be a deliberate avoidance of the glitter and
+glare which distinguish eastern art.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Book of Durrow</i>(in the Library of Trinity College,
+Dublin) is the oldest specimen of Celtic illumination and, if not the
+work of St. Columcille, is certainly of as early a date. Each of the
+Gospels opens with a beautiful initial succeeded by letters of
+gradually diminishing size, and there are full page decorations
+embodying such subjects as the symbols of the Evangelists. The colors
+are rich and vivid and all the designs are of the purest and most
+Celtic character.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Gospels of MacRegol</i>(now in the Bodleian Library, Oxford)
+is the work of an Abbot of Birr who died A.D. 820. It is a volume of
+unusually large size, copiously ornamented with masterly designs and
+containing illuminated portraits of Saints Mark, Luke, and John. The
+first part of the book with the portrait of St. Matthew is
+missing.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Book of Kells</i>(in the Library of T.C.D.) is the
+all-surpassing masterpiece of Celtic illuminative art and is
+acknowledged to be the most beautiful book in the world. This copy of
+the four Gospels was long deemed to have been made by the saintly
+hands of Columcille, though it probably belongs to the eighth century.
+Into its pages are woven such a wealth of ornament, such an ecstasy of
+art, and such a miracle of design that the book is today not only one
+of Ireland's greatest glories but one of the world's wonders. After
+twelve centuries the ink is as black and lustrous and the colors are
+as fresh and soft as though but the work of yesterday. The whole range
+of colors is there&mdash;green, blue, crimson, scarlet, yellow,
+purple, violet&mdash;and the same color is at times varied in tone and
+depth and shade, thereby achieving a more exquisite combination and
+effect. In addition to the numerous decorative pages and marvellous
+initials, there are portraits of the Evangelists and full-page
+miniatures of the Temptation of Christ, His Seizure by the Jews, and
+the Madonna and Child surrounded by Angels with censers. Exceptionally
+beautiful are these angels and other angelic figures throughout the
+book, their wings shining with glowing colors amid woven patterns of
+graceful design. The portraits and miniatures and the numerous faces
+centred in initial letters are not to be adjudged by the standard of
+anatomical drawing and delineation of the human figure, but rather by
+their effect as part of a scheme of ornamentation; for the Celtic
+illuminator was imaginative rather than realistic, and aimed
+altogether at achieving beauty by means of color and design. The Book
+of Kells is the Mecca of the illuminative artist, but it is the
+despair of the copyist. The patience and skill of the olden scribe
+have baffled the imitator; for, on an examination with a magnifying
+glass, it has been found that, in a space of a quarter of an inch,
+there are no fewer than a hundred and fifty-eight interlacements of a
+ribbon pattern of white lines edged by black ones on a black ground.
+Surely this is the manuscript which was shown to Giraldus Cambrensis
+towards the close of the twelfth century and of whose illuminations he
+speaks with glowing enthusiasm; "they were," he says, "supposed to
+have been produced by the direction of an angel at the prayer of St.
+Brigid."</p>
+
+<p><i>The Gospels of MacDurnan</i>(now in the Archbishop's Library at
+Lambeth) is a small and beautiful volume which was executed by an
+abbot of Armagh who died in the year 891. A full-page picture of the
+Evangelist precedes each Gospel, and a composite border frames each
+miniature in a bewildering pattern of intertwining strapwork and
+wonderful designs of imaginary beasts. Ornamental capitals and rich
+borders give a special beauty to the initial pages of the Gospels.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Book of Armagh</i>(in the Library of T.C.D.) was carefully
+guarded and specially venerated through the ages in the erroneous
+belief that it was in part the handiwork of St. Patrick. It was
+written about the year 800, and would appear to have been copied from
+documents actually written by the patron saint of Ireland. The book is
+exceptionally interesting by reason of the fact that it contains St.
+Patrick's Confession, that beautiful story of how he found his
+mission, how the captive grew to love his captors, and how, after his
+escape, he came back to them bearing the lamp of Holy Faith. Although
+the ornamentation of the manuscript is infrequent, there are
+occasional beautiful examples which compare in richness with those in
+the Book of Kells.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Liber Hymnorum</i>(in the Franciscan Monastery, Dublin)
+contains a number of hymns associated with the names of Irish saints.
+The ornamentation consists of colored initials, designed with a
+striking use of fanciful animal figures interlaced and twined with
+delightful freedom around the main structural body.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Garland of Howth</i> and the <i>Stowe Missal</i> (both in
+Trinity College Library) belong to the eighth century and are
+beautiful examples of early illuminative art. The former, which is
+very incomplete, has only two ornamental pages left, each containing
+figure-representations inserted in the decorative work.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Gospels of St. Chad</i> (in the Cathedral Library at
+Lichfield) and the <i>Gospels of Lindisfarne</i>, which are "the glory
+of the British Museum", form striking examples of the influence of
+Celtic art. St. Chad was educated in Ireland in the school of St.
+Finian, where he acquired his training in book decoration. The Gospels
+of Lindisfarne were produced by the monks of Iona, where St.
+Columcille founded his great school of religion, art, and learning.
+This latter manuscript is second only to the Book of Kells in its
+glory of illuminative design, and, from its distinctive scheme of
+colors, the tones of which are light and bright and gay, it forms a
+contrast to the quieter shades and the solemn dignity of the more
+famous volume.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Book of the Dun Cow, The Book of Leinster</i>, and the other
+great manuscripts of the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries
+are interesting as literature rather than as art, for they tell the
+history of ancient Erin and have garnered her olden legends and
+romantic tales. It is only the Gospels and other manuscripts of
+religious subjects that are illuminated. In the apparel of the ancient
+Irish, the number of colors marked the social rank: the king might
+wear seven colors, poets and learned men six; five colors were
+permitted in the clothes of chieftains, and thus grading down to the
+servant, who might wear but one. All this the scribe knew well. We can
+picture the humble servant of God, clad in a coarse robe of a single
+color, deep in his chosen labor of recording the life and teachings of
+his Master, and striving to endow this record with the glory of the
+seven colors which were rightly due to a King alone. As we gaze on his
+work today its beauty is instinct with life, and the patient love that
+gave it birth seems to cling to it still. The white magic of the
+artist's holy hands has bridged the span of a thousand years.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>O'Curry: Lectures on the Manuscript Materials of Ancient Irish
+History (Dublin, 1861); Brunn: An Enquiry into the Art of the
+Illuminated Manuscripts of the Middle Ages, Part I, Celtic Illuminated
+Manuscripts (Edinburgh, 1897); Robinson: Celtic Illuminative Art in
+the Gospels of Durrow, Lindisfarne, and Kells (Dublin, 1908);
+Westwood: The Book of Kells, a lecture given in Oxford, November, 1886
+(Dublin, 1887); Gougaud: R&eacute;pertoire des fac-simil&eacute;s des
+manuscripts irlandais (Paris, 1913).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T11"></a>THE RUINS OF IRELAND</h2>
+<h4>By FRANCIS JOSEPH BIGGER, M.R.I.A.</h4>
+
+<p>The ruins of Ireland are her proudest monuments. They stand as a
+lasting revelation to all mankind&mdash;a distinct and definite
+proclamation that the Irish people, century after century, were able
+to raise and adorn some of the finest buildings in stone that western
+civilization has seen or known. It is recognized the world over that
+Irish art has a beauty and distinction all its own, in its own Irish
+setting unrivalled, throned in its own land, in its own natural
+surroundings. The shrines and gospels, the reliquaries and missals,
+the crosses and bells that are still existent, many in Ireland, others
+in every country in the world, attest beyond any dispute that Irish
+art-workers held a pre&euml;minent place in the early middle ages, and
+that works of Irish art are still treasured as unique in their day and
+time. No country has been plundered and desolated as Ireland has been.
+Dane, Norman, English&mdash;each in turn swept across the fair face of
+Ireland, carrying destruction in their train, yet withal Ireland has
+her art treasures and her ruins that bear favorable comparison with
+those of other civilizations.</p>
+
+<p>In Dublin and in many private Irish collections can be found
+hand-written books of parchment, illuminated with glowing colors that
+time has scarce affected or the years caused to fade. On one page
+alone of the Book of Kells, ornament and writing can be seen penned
+and painted in lines too numerous even to count. They are there by the
+thousand: a magnifying glass is required to reveal even a fragment of
+them. Ireland produced these in endless number&mdash;every great
+library or collection in Europe possesses one or more examples.</p>
+
+<p>As with books, so with reliquaries, crosses, and bells. When the
+Island of Saints and Scholars could produce books, it could make
+shrines and everything necessary to stimulate and hand down the piety
+and the patient skill of a people steeped in art-craft and religious
+feeling. What they could do on parchment&mdash;like the Books of Kells
+and Durrow&mdash;what they could produce in bronze and precious
+metals&mdash;like the Cross of Cong, the Shrine of Saint Patrick's
+Bell, the Tara Brooch, and the Chalice of Ardagh&mdash;not to write of
+the numberless bronze and gold articles of an age centuries long
+preceding their production&mdash;they could certainly vie with in
+stone.</p>
+
+<p>Of this earlier work a word must go down. In Ireland still at the
+present day, after all the years of plunder she has undergone, more
+ancient gold art-treasures remain than in any other country, museum,
+or collection, most of them pre-Christian, and what the other
+countries do possess are largely Irish or of Celtic origin. We must
+have this borne into the minds of every one of Irish birth or origin,
+that this great treasure was battered into shape by Irish hands on
+Irish anvils, designed in Irish studios, ornamented with Irish skill
+for Irish use.</p>
+
+<p>With such workmen, having such instincts and training, what of the
+housing and surroundings to contain them and give them a fit and
+suitable setting? The earliest stone structures in Ireland still
+remaining are the great stone cashels or circular walls enclosing
+large spaces&mdash;walls of great thickness, unmortared, in which
+there are vast quantities of masonry. Around their summits a chariot
+might be driven, inside their spaces horse races might be run. As a
+few examples, there are Staigue, in Kerry; Dun Angus, in Aran, off
+Galway; Aileach, above the walls of Derry. Of the earliest churches,
+cyclopean in construction and primitive in character, built of stone,
+with thick sloping walls from foundation to ridge, Gallerus still
+remains, and the Skelligs, those wondrous sea-girt rocks, preserve
+both church and cell almost perfect. There are many other examples,
+some of a later date, such as Temple Cronan and Maghera and Banagher
+in Derry, St. Finan's oratory in county Cork, St. Fechin's at Fore,
+and St. Molaise's at Devenish.</p>
+
+<p>From the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries, there are
+innumerable examples of oratories, some with stone roofs, others with
+roofs not so permanent, but all having the common features of an altar
+window facing the east, through which the sun fell at the beginning of
+the day to tell the early missioner that his hour of devotion had
+arrived, and a west door, through which the rays of the declining sun
+fell across the altar steps, speaking of a day that was closing. A
+south window was added close to the east end, and it, too, was a
+sun-dial; it told the hour of angelus, the mid-day, when the bell was
+rung and a calm reverence fell on all within its hearing. Such
+churches can still be seen at Aran and Inismurray, on the islands of
+Lough Derg, Lough Ri, and in many other places.</p>
+
+<p>A few years later these oratories were too small for the growing
+faith, and larger churches were built, some using the older structure
+as chancels. Where the west door was built a circular arch was made
+and the new and old united. This can well be seen at Inis-na-ghoill in
+Lough Corrib, on the Aran Islands off Galway, at Glendalough, at
+Inis-cleraun in Lough Ri, at Clonmacnois, at Iniscaltra, and on many
+another island and promontory of the south and west.</p>
+
+<p>During this time, and after, we find the most elaborate carvings on
+door and arch and window, equal in skill to what is found in book or
+metal work.</p>
+
+<p>It must have been at this time that the Galls, or strangers, first
+invaded Ireland, bearing havoc in their train, for then it was that
+the <i>cloicteach</i>, or Round Towers, were built. It is now admitted
+by all Irish authorities of any repute, and that beyond dispute, that
+the Round Towers, the glory of Ireland, were built by Irish people as
+Christian monuments from which the bells might be rung, and as places
+of strength for the preservation of the valued articles used in
+Christian worship; here they might be safely stored. They were also
+used for the preservation of life in case of sudden attack and
+onslaught by unexpected enemies. All the towers are on ecclesiastical
+sites, many are incorporated in church buildings, such as those of
+Glendalough in Wicklow and Clonmacnois on the Shannon, The records of
+the construction of some of them in the tenth and eleventh centuries
+are still extant, and this is conclusive. There are today about
+seventy Round Towers in Ireland, and many have been destroyed.</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p class="p">The pillar towers of Ireland, how wondrously they stand</p>
+<p class="p">By the lakes and rushing rivers through the valleys of our
+land;</p>
+<p class="p">In mystic file, through the isle, they lift their heads
+sublime,</p>
+<p class="p">These gray old pillar temples&mdash;these conquerors of time.</p>
+<br>
+<p class="p">Here was placed the holy chalice that held the sacred wine,</p>
+<p class="p">And the gold cross from the altar, and the relics from the
+shrine,</p>
+<p class="p">And the mitre shining brighter with its diamonds than the
+east,</p>
+<p class="p">And the crozier of the pontiff, and the vestments of the
+priest.</p>
+</div>
+<p><i>D.F. MacCarthy</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This was the time when the High Crosses of Ireland were carved and
+set up. They vie with the Round Towers in interest and in the display
+of skill. What the towers have in perfection, masonry and
+construction, the crosses have in artistic carving and symbolic
+design. No two crosses are alike; they are as varied as the clouds in
+an Irish sky or the pebbles on the beach or the flowers in a garden.
+They were carved in reverence by those who knew and esteemed their
+art, and lavished all their skill and knowledge on what they most
+valued and treasured. They were not set up as grave-marks
+merely&mdash;theirs was a higher and loftier mission. They were raised
+in places where some great event or period was to be
+commemorated&mdash;they were erected where some early disciple of the
+Cross could stand beside one of them and from any panel could tell the
+foundation of the Faith, for there in stone was story after story,
+from the Old Testament and the New, that gave him his text, and so, as
+at the Cross of the Scriptures at Clonmacnois, a missioner could
+preach on every recurring holy day from Christmas to Christmas, with
+ever his text in stone before him. Many a broken and mutilated cross
+has been set up in Ireland in recent years, proving that the heart of
+the Gael, no matter how rent and broken, is still inclined to bind up
+the broken wounds of her past glories.</p>
+
+<p>With the religious orders there came to Ireland a widespread desire
+to add something to the older sanctuaries of the Gael, to widen their
+borders and strengthen their cords, and so the abbeys were founded.
+Here and there we find them still&mdash;by winding rivers, on rich
+meadows, in glens and glades, by the sea margin, or on the slopes of
+the rugged mountain. Their crumbling walls and broken windows can
+still be traced, their towers are still to be seen over tree tops and
+in the centre of many a slumbering town. By the shores of Donegal Bay
+the old Franciscan house, where the Four Masters compiled what is
+perhaps the most remarkable record possessed by any nation, is still
+clothed in ivy. At Kilconnell, in Galway, their old place is almost as
+they left it, but roofless, with the tears of the friars upon the
+altar steps. Clare Galway has a tower worth travelling half a
+continent to see. By the Boniet River, at Drumahaire, on the banks of
+Lough Gill, are the mason marks of the cloister builders, and the
+figure of St. Francis talking to the birds is still there. The abbey
+is roofless and empty, and so the birds of the air are his constant
+companions.</p>
+
+<p>Space forbids, or endless abbeys might be described. The Black
+Abbey at Kilkenny, with its long row of Butler effigies, or the
+Cathedral of Saint Canice, still perfect, with its soaring round tower
+beside it, or the mystical seven light window of the Franciscan friary
+by the Nore, with the old mill-weirs running free to this day. How
+long could we ponder by the east window of Kilcooley, with tracery
+like a spider's web, and listen to the mystical bells, or gaze at the
+beautiful oriel at Feenagh, or stand at Jerpoint, with its spacious
+cloisters and stone-groined choir, with Saint Christopher in Irish
+marble beside us.</p>
+
+<p>Cashel, one of the wonders of the world, grows up suddenly into
+sight on a high rock rising from level land crowned with buildings. A
+great abbey dominates; beside it clings that carved gem of a
+stone-roofed church, Cormac's Chapel. Round Tower and Cross are there,
+and many a sculptured tomb.</p>
+
+<p>Not far from Cashel is the Abbey of Holy Cross, with its lovely
+mitred windows, shadowed in the river passing at its feet. The
+circular pillars and arches of Boyle Abbey are splendidly
+proportioned, whilst the cloisters of Sligo display in their long,
+shadowy recesses and ornamented pillars great dignity and beauty. The
+windows and monuments of Ennis Friary, founded by the O'Briens, are of
+unusual interest, the carving of figure-subjects being equal to the
+best of their age.</p>
+
+<p>We have Thomastown and Callan, Dunbrody and Tintern, all having an
+individual charm and interest that not only dim the eye and make the
+blood course freely in every one of Irish stock when he looks upon
+what is and thinks of what was, but even in the coldest light give
+food for thought to every one desirous of knowing something of the
+growth and civilization of a great people.</p>
+
+<p>Of the many castles and stout Irish strongholds it is hard to write
+in such a short paper as this. Those on the Boyne, such as Trim, for
+strong building and extent, excel in many ways. Carlingford,
+Carrickfergus, and Dunluce have by their size and picturesque
+situations ever appealed to visitors. They are each built on rocks
+jutting into the sea, Dunluce on a great perpendicular height, the
+Atlantic dashing below. Dunamace, near Maryborough, in the O'More
+country, appears like Cashel, but is entirely military. The famed
+walled cities of Kells, in Kilkenny, and Fore, in Westmeath, are
+remarkable. Each has an abbey, many towers, gates, and stout bastions.
+The great keeps of the midland lords, the towers of Granuaile on the
+west coast, and the traders' towers on the east coast, especially
+those of Down, afford ample material for a study of the early
+colonizing efforts of different invaders, as well as providing
+incidents of heroism and romance. These square battlemented towers can
+be seen here and there in every district.</p>
+
+<p>Every portion of Ireland has its ruins. Earthworks, stone forts,
+prehistoric monuments, circular stone huts, early churches, abbeys,
+crosses, round towers, castles of every size and shape are to be found
+in every county, some one in every parish, all over Ireland. It is
+almost invidious to name any in particular where the number is so
+great.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Proceedings of Royal Irish Academy (Dublin); Proceedings of Society
+of Antiquaries (Dublin); Ulster Journal of Archaeology, Old Series and
+New Series, edited by F.J. Bigger, Belfast; Wakeman: Handbook of Irish
+Antiquities (Dublin, 1891); Stokes: Early Christian Art in Ireland
+(Dublin, 1887); Petrie: Round Towers and Ancient Architecture of
+Ireland (Dublin, 1845).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T12"></a>MODERN IRISH ART</h2>
+<h4>By D.J. O'DONOGHUE,<br>
+<i>Librarian, University College, Dublin</i>.</h4>
+
+<p>It would be difficult to dispute, in view of her innumerable and
+excellent artists, that there has always been in modern times an art
+consciousness in Ireland, but it is impossible to assert that there
+has been any artistic unity in her people. She has produced no school,
+but merely a great number of brilliant painters, sculptors, and
+engravers, chiefly for export. With all our acknowledged artistic
+capacity, we have not, except in one notable instance, produced a
+cumulative art effect. The history of Irish art is almost uniformly a
+depressing narrative. During a comparatively brief period in the
+eighteenth century&mdash;significantly enough, it was while the
+country enjoyed a short spell of national life&mdash;there was
+something like a national patronage of the artist, and the result is
+visible in the noble public buildings and beautiful houses of the
+Irish capital, with their universally admired mantelpieces, doors,
+ceilings, fanlights, ironwork, and carvings. In short, while Ireland
+had even a partly unfettered control of her own concerns, the arts
+were generously encouraged by her government and by the wealthy
+individual. When other European capitals were mere congeries of
+rookeries, Dublin, the centre of Irish political life, possessed
+splendid streets, grandly planned. But there was little solidarity
+among the artistic fraternity. Various associations of artists were
+formed, which held together fairly well until the flight of the
+resident town gentry after the Union, and many admirable artists were
+trained in the schools of the Royal Dublin Society, but, since the
+opening of the nineteenth century, there has been almost no visible
+art effort in Dublin. True, there have been many fine artists, who
+have made a struggle to fix themselves in Dublin, but, as with the
+Royal Hibernian Academy, of which the best of them were members, the
+struggle has been a painful agony. Usually the artist migrated to
+London to join the large group of Irishmen working there; a few others
+went to America and obtained an honored place in her art annals. Those
+who went to England secured in many cases the highest rewards of the
+profession. Several, like Barry, Hone, Barrett, and Cotes, were
+founders or early members of the Royal Academy; one, Sir Martin Shee,
+became its President. Nevertheless, many distinguished artists
+remained in Dublin, where the arts of portrait-painting and engraving
+were carried to a high pitch of excellence.</p>
+
+<p>This record must necessarily be of a chronological character, and
+can only take note of those whose works have actual value and
+interest, historical or other. Edward Luttrell (1650-1710) did some
+excellent work in crayon or pastel, while Garrett Murphy (fl.
+1650-1716), Stephen Slaughter (d. 1765), Francis Bindon (d. 1765), and
+James Latham (1696-1747), have each left us notable portraits of the
+great Irish personages of their day. To fellow countrymen in London,
+Charles Jervas (1675?-1739), Thomas Hickey (d. 1816?), and Francis
+Cotes, R.A. (1725-1770), we owe presentments of other famous people.
+George Barrett, R.A. (1728-1784), one of the greatest landscapists of
+his time; Nathaniel Hone, R.A. (1718-1784), an eccentric but gifted
+painter, with an individuality displayed in all his portraits; James
+Barry, R.A. (1741-1806), still more eccentric, with grand conceptions
+imperfectly carried out in his great historical and allegorical
+pictures:&mdash;these, with Henry Tresham, R.A. (1749?-1814), and
+Matthew Peters, R.A. (1742-1814), historical painters of considerable
+merit, upheld the Irish claim to a high place in English eighteenth
+century art. A little later, miniaturists such as Horace Hone, A.R.A.
+(1756-1825), George Chinnery (1774-1852), and Adam Buck (1759-1844),
+also worked with remarkable success in London. Among resident Irish
+artists, the highest praise can be given to the miniature painters,
+John Comerford (1770?-1832) and Charles Robertson (1760-1821), and to
+the portrait-painters, Robert Hunter (fl. 1750-1803) and (especially)
+Hugh Douglas Hamilton (1739-1808), of whose work Ireland possesses
+many distinguished examples. Some day Hamilton's pictures will appeal
+to a far wider public than his countrymen can provide. One must omit
+the names of many clever Irish artists like the Wests, Francis and
+Robert, who were the most successful teachers of perhaps any time in
+Ireland, and come at once to that branch of art in which Ireland
+stands second to none&mdash;mezzotint-engraving.</p>
+
+<p>One of the earliest engravers in this style was Edward Luttrell,
+already named as a painter, but it was John Brooks (fl. 1730-1756) who
+is justly considered the real founder of that remarkable group of
+Irish engravers whose work may be more correctly described as
+belonging to a school than any other of the period. For many years in
+Dublin, and afterwards in London, a succession of first-rate artists
+of Irish birth produced work which remains and always must remain one
+of the glories of Ireland. Limits of space allow only the bare mention
+of the names of James McArdell (1728?-1765), Charles Spooner (d.
+1767), Thomas Beard (fl. 1728), Thomas Frye (1710-1762), Edward Fisher
+(1722-1785?), Michael Ford (d. 1765), John Dixon (1740?-1811), Richard
+Purcell (fl. 1746-1766), Richard Houston (1721?-1775), John Murphy
+(1748?-1820), Thomas Burke (1749-1815), Charles Exshaw (fl.
+1747-1771), and Luke Sullivan (1705-1771)&mdash;artists of whom any
+country might be proud, and whose works have in most cases outlasted
+the remembrance of the persons whose likenesses they sought to
+reproduce. Separate monographs might be justifiably written on most of
+the gifted artists here enumerated, and one can only regret not being
+able in short space to compare and estimate their various qualities.
+Thomas Chambers, A.R.A. (1724?-1784), William Nelson Gardiner
+(1766-1814), James Egan (1799-1842), and William Humphreys (1794-1865)
+are other Irish engravers who cannot be overlooked in a survey of the
+art of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries.</p>
+
+<p>Contemporaneously with the remarkable development of the art of
+engraving arose a group of Irish architects. Rather earlier in point
+of time was Sir Edward Lovat Pearce (d. 1733), who was one of the
+chief architects of the Irish Parliament House, and Thomas Burgh (d.
+1730), to whom we owe the Library of Trinity College, Dublin; but
+Thomas Cooley (1740-1784), designer of the handsome Royal Exchange of
+that city; Richard Castle (d. 1751), a foreigner who settled in
+Ireland and built a number of beautiful Irish residences; Francis
+Johnston (1761-1829), an excellent architect whose chief claim to
+remembrance, however, is as founder of the Royal Hibernian Academy;
+and, above all, James Gandon (1743-1823), whose superb Custom House,
+Four Courts, and part of the Irish Parliament House will perpetuate
+his name in Dublin while that city lasts&mdash;each helped to make the
+capital, even in its decay, one of the most interesting in Europe. Nor
+should we forget Thomas Ivory (d. 1786), whose Foundling Hospital is
+another of Dublin's many graceful edifices; nor Sir Richard Morrison
+(1767-1849) and his son William (1794-1838), much of whose work
+remains to testify to their skill and ingenuity.</p>
+
+<p>Ecclesiastical architecture in Ireland is indebted to Patrick Byrne
+(fl. 1840), James J. McCarthy (d. 1882), J.B. Keane (d. 1859), and
+James Murray (1831-1863), for many well designed churches and chapels
+throughout Ireland; but the great names in modern Irish architecture
+are those of Benjamin Woodward (1815-1861), whose premature death was
+a serious loss to Irish art; Sir Thomas Deane (1792-1871); and his
+son, Sir Thomas Newenham Deane (1828-1899). The elder Deane was, with
+Woodward, the architect of the Oxford Museum and of the splendid
+Engineering Hall of Trinity College, Dublin, buildings which have
+elicited enthusiastic praise from John Ruskin and other eminent
+critics. Deserving of respectful mention, too, to come down to our own
+days, are Sir Thomas Drew (1838-1910) and William H. Lynn, who is
+still living.</p>
+
+<p>In sculpture, again, Ireland has done memorable work. In the
+eighteenth century she gave us admirable craftsmen like Edward Smyth
+(1749-1812), John Hickey (1756-1795), and Christopher Hewitson (fl.
+1772-1794), whose dignified monument of Bishop Baldwin is one of the
+most distinguished pieces of sculpture in Trinity College, Dublin. But
+it was not till the appearance of a later group of sculptors,
+including John Hogan (1800-1858), John Edward Carew (1785-1868), John
+Henry Foley, R.A. (1818-1874), and Patrick MacDowell, R.A.
+(1799-1870), that Irish sculpture obtained more than local renown.
+Fortunately, most of the best work of Hogan and Foley remains in
+Ireland; that of Carew and MacDowell is chiefly to be found in the
+Houses of Parliament and other institutions in London. The
+incomparable "Goldsmith," "Burke," "Grattan," and other statues by
+Foley, together with an almost complete collection of casts of his
+other works, are in his native country. Hogan is represented in Dublin
+by his "Thomas Davis" and his "Dead Christ," to name but two of his
+principal works. The names at least of James Heffernan (1785-1847), of
+John Edward Jones (1806-1872), of Terence Farrell (1798-1876), of
+Samuel F. Lynn (1834-1876), and perhaps of Christopher Moore
+(1790-1863), an excellent sculptor of busts, may be set down here. Sir
+Thomas Farrell (1827-1900) and the living sculptors, John Hughes,
+Oliver Sheppard, and Albert Bruce Joy, are responsible for some of the
+more admirable of the public monuments of Dublin. It is much to be
+deplored that of the work of one of the greatest of Dublin-born
+artists, Augustus Saint Gaudens, we have only one example&mdash;the
+statue of Parnell. Ireland may surely claim him as one of her most
+gifted sons. And perhaps a word might be said in this place of some of
+the other Irishmen who made their home in America: of Hoban the
+architect who designed the White House at Washington, modelling it
+after Leinster House in Dublin; of painters like Charles Ingham, W.G.
+Wall, William Magrath, the Morans, James Hamilton, and Thomas
+Hovenden; and of sculptors like John Donoghue, John Flanagan, Andrew
+O'Connor, John F. Kelly, Jerome Connor, John J. Boyle, and Martin
+Milmore. But they belong rather to the history of American art than to
+that of Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>Before leaving the subject of Irish sculpture, the work of the
+medallists, an allied branch of the art in which Irishmen did much
+valued work, should not be overlooked. The medals of William Mossop
+(1751-1805), of his son, William Stephen Mossop (1788-1827), and of
+John Woodhouse (1835-1892), to mention only three of its chief
+representatives in Ireland, are greatly prized by collectors.</p>
+
+<p>Most modern Irish art of high importance has been largely produced
+out of Ireland, which has been perforce abandoned by those artists who
+have learned how little encouragement is to be met with at home. One
+can blame neither the artist nor the Irish public for this unfortunate
+result; there is sufficient reason in the political and economic
+condition of Ireland since the Union to explain the fact. But for this
+cause men like Daniel Maclise, R.A. (1806-1870), William Mulready,
+R.A. (1786-1863), Francis Danby, A.R.A. (1793-1861), and Alfred
+Elmore, R.A. (1815-1881), might have endeavored to emulate the spirit
+of James O'Connor (1792-1841), the landscapist, Richard Rothwell
+(1800-1868), a charming subject painter, and Sir Frederic W. Burton
+(1816-1900), one of the most distinguished artists of his time, who at
+least spent some of their active working career in their native land.
+The same words apply to artists who succeeded in other branches of the
+profession, men like John Doyle (1797-1868), a caricaturist with all
+the power, without the coarseness, of his predecessors; his son,
+Richard Doyle (1824-1883), a refined and delicate artist; John Leech
+(1817-1864), the humorist, a member of an Irish Catholic family; Paul
+Gray (1842-1866), who died before his powers had fully matured; and
+Matthew James Lawless (1837-1864), who also died too early. William
+Collins, R.A. (1788-1847) and Clarkson Stanfield, R.A. (1793-1867),
+both eminent representatives of English art, though of Irish
+extraction, more properly belong to England than to Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>Not discouraged by the melancholy history of many gifted Irish
+artists, Ireland still produces men who are not unworthy of
+association with the best who have gone before. Our most recent losses
+have been heavy&mdash;notably those of Walter F. Osborne (1859-1903)
+and Patrick Vincent Duffy (1832-1909), but we still have artists of
+genius in the persons of Nathaniel Hone, a direct descendant of his
+famous namesake; John Butler Yeats; John Lavery, A.R.A.; and William
+Orpen, A.R.A. Many other names might be given, but already this
+attempt at a survey suffers by its enumeration of artists, who,
+however, could hardly be neglected in such a record.</p>
+
+<p>Crowded as the list may be, it is a careful selection, and it
+demonstrates that, notwithstanding all the disadvantages under which
+Ireland suffers, the country has an almost unlimited capacity for fine
+achievement, and that, with prosperity and contentment, she may be
+expected to rival the most illustrious of art centres. It is only
+within living memory that any attempt has been made to direct the
+known artistic skill of the Irish people to industrial effort. But the
+remarkable success achieved in the modern designs for Irish lace in
+the English art competitions is an instance of what might be done
+generally in the applied arts. Though they are in their infancy, the
+new carpet and stained glass industries in Ireland also hold out
+considerable hope for the future. But one can only barely indicate
+what has been and might be done in the furtherance of Irish art. If we
+only had under one roof a judiciously made collection of all the best
+work done by Irish artists of all styles and periods, it would more
+eloquently justify our claim than endless columns of praise.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Anthony Pasquin [John Williams]: History of Professors of Painting
+in Ireland (1795); T.J. Mulvany: Life of James Gandon; John O'Keeffe:
+Reminiscences, vol. I; Taft: American Sculpture; W.G. Strickland:
+Dictionary of Irish Artists (2 vols., 1913).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T13"></a>IRELAND AT PLAY</h2>
+<h4>By THOMAS E. HEALY,<br>
+<i>Editor of "Sport," Dublin</i>.</h4>
+
+<p>On the face of the earth there is no nation in which the love of
+clean and wholesome sport is more strongly developed than in the
+Irish. Against us it cannot be urged that we take our pleasures sadly.
+We enter into them with entire self-abandon, whole-hearted enthusiasm,
+and genuine exuberance of spirit. There is nothing counterfeit about
+the Irishman in his play. His one keen desire is to win, be the
+contest what it may; and towards the achievement of that end he will
+strain nerve and muscle even to the point of utter exhaustion. And how
+the onlookers applaud at the spectacle of a desperately contested
+race, whether between horses, men, motorcars, bicycles, or boats, or
+of a match between football, hurling, or cricket teams! It matters not
+which horse, man, car, cycle, boat, or team is successful: the sport
+is the thing that counts; the strenuousness of the contest is what
+stimulates and evokes the rapturous applause. At such a moment it is
+good to be alive. Scenes similar to those hinted at may be witnessed
+on any sports-field or racetrack in our dear little Emerald Isle
+almost any day of the year. All is good fellowship; all is in the
+cause of sport.</p>
+
+<p>No one can question that in some departments of horse-racing
+Ireland is today supreme. The Irish devotion to the horse is of no
+recent growth. Everybody knows how, in the dim and distant days when
+King Conor macNessa ruled at Emain, the war-steeds of the Ultonians
+neighed loudly in their stalls on the first dramatic appearance of
+Cuchulainn of Muirthemne at the northern court. Cuchulainn's own two
+steeds, Liath Macha, "the Roan of Macha", and Dub Sainglenn, "Black
+Sanglan", are celebrated in story and song:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>Never hoofs like them shall ring,</p>
+<p>Rapid as the winds of spring.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>To read of the performances of Cuchulainn and his war-horses and
+his charioteer and friend, Laeg macRiangahra, at the famous battle of
+Rosnaree, and again at the last fight between the Red Branch Knights
+and the forces of Queen Medb of Connacht, does truly, in the words
+used by Sir Philip Sidney in another connection, stir the heart like
+the sound of a trumpet.</p>
+
+<p>As time went on, the Irish war-horse became more and more famous,
+and always carried his rider in gallant style. Stout was the steed
+that, bestridden by Godfrey O'Donnell at the battle of Credan-Kille,
+withstood the shock of Lord Maurice Fitzgerald's desperate onslaught,
+and by his steadiness enabled the Tyrconnell chieftain to strike
+senseless and unhorse his fierce Norman foe. More celebrated still was
+the high-spirited animal which Art MacMurrogh rode in 1399 to his
+ineffectual parley with King Richard the Second's representative, the
+Earl of Gloucester. The French chronicler who was a witness of that
+historic scene tells us that a horse more exquisitely beautiful, more
+marvellously fleet, he had never seen. "In coming down," he says, "it
+galloped so hard that, in my opinion, I never saw hare, deer, sheep,
+or any other animal, I declare to you for a certainty, run with such
+speed as it did." Edmund Spenser, the poet of <i>The Faerie
+Queene</i>, writing in 1596, bears this striking testimony to the
+Irish horse-soldier and inferentially to the Irish horse: "I have
+hearde some greate warriours say, that, in all the services which they
+had seene abroade in forrayne countreys, they never sawe a more comely
+horseman than the Irish man, nor that cometh on more bravely in his
+charge." The feats performed at the Battle of the Boyne, in 1690, by
+the Irish horse-soldiers under Hamilton and Berwick were really
+wonderful, and well-nigh turned disaster into victory on that
+memorable day which decided the fate of nations as well as of
+dynasties. And surely those were fleet and stout-hearted steeds that,
+on August 12, 1690, carried Sarsfield and his chosen five hundred on
+their dare-devil midnight ride from the Keeper Hills to Ballyneety,
+where in the dim morning twilight they captured and destroyed William
+of Orange's wonderful siege-train, and thereby heartened the defenders
+of beleaguered Limerick.</p>
+
+<p>Writing in 1809, Lawrence, in his <i>History and Delineation of the
+Horse</i>, said: "From Ireland alone we import [into England] many
+saddle horses, as many perhaps as 1,500 in a year; upwards in some
+years. The Irish are the highest and steadiest leapers in the world.
+Ireland has bred some good racers, and the generality of Irish horses
+are, it appears, warmer tempered than our own; and, to use the
+expression, sharper and more frigate-built."</p>
+
+<p>It is not to be wondered at therefore if in such a country there
+developed an ardent love of the noble sport of horse-racing. The
+Curragh of Kildare, the long-standing headquarters of the Irish Turf
+Club, was celebrated far back in the eighteenth century as the venue
+of some great equine contests; and to this day, with its five
+important fixtures every year, it still holds pride of place. There
+are numerous other race-courses all over the country, from
+Punchestown, Leopardstown, Phoenix Park, and Baldoyle in the east to
+Galway in the west, and from The Maze in the north to rebel Cork in
+the south. Horse-racing has not inappropriately been termed the
+national pastime of Ireland. The number of people now giving their
+attention to it has called for a notable increase in the number of
+race-meetings, and stake-money is being put up on a more generous
+scale than at any previous time in the history of the sport. For
+example, the Irish Derby, run at the Curragh, was in 1914 worth
+&pound;2,500; and there are besides several stakes of &pound;1,500 and
+&pound;1,000. The result of this forward policy is that increasing
+numbers come to our race-meetings and that the turf has never been
+more popular than it is today. Men and women of wealth and position
+find in the national pastime a pleasant method of employing their
+leisure, and in expending their surplus wealth in its pursuit and in
+the raising of horses of the highest class they realize that they
+confer a real benefit on the country.</p>
+
+<p>It is, of course, now universally known that Ireland has an
+international reputation as a country eminently fitted for
+horse-breeding. If proof were needed, it would be found in the
+extensive purchases effected by English, French, Italian, German,
+Russian, and American buyers at the great Dublin Horse Show held in
+August every year. Horses bought in Ireland have seldom failed to
+realize their promise. The English classic races and many of the
+principal handicaps on the flat have been often won by Irish-bred
+horses, such as Galtee More, Ard Patrick, Orby, Kilwarlin, Barcaldine,
+Umpire, Master Kildare, Kilsallaghan, Bendigo, Philomel, The Rejected,
+Comedy, Winkfield's Pride, Bellevin, Royal Flush, Victor Wild,
+Bachelor's Button, Irish Ivy, and Hackler's Pride. If only a few of
+the star performers are here set down, it is not from lack of means to
+continue, but merely from a desire to avoid the compilation of a mere
+string of names. In France, too, the Irish racer has made his mark. It
+is, however, in the four-and-a-half miles' Liverpool Grand National
+Steeplechase, the greatest cross-country race in the world, the
+supreme test of the leaper, galloper, and stayer, that Irish-bred
+horses have made perhaps the most wonderful record. The list of
+winners of that great event demonstrates in an unmistakable manner
+that we are second to none in the art of breeding steeplechase horses.
+Among many other noted Irish-bred winners of this race there stand
+boldly forth the names of The Lamb, Empress, Woodbrook, Frigate, Come
+Away, Cloister, Wild Man from Borneo, and Manifesto. In fact, it is
+the exception when another than an Irish-bred horse annexes the blue
+riband of steeplechasing.</p>
+
+<p>Closely allied to horse-racing is fox-hunting, and fox-hunting, as
+well as the hunting of the stag and of the hare, has flourished
+exceedingly in Ireland for a long time past. A great deal of needed
+employment is one of the results. Dogs are specially bred and trained
+for each of these branches of sport. Irish foxhounds, staghounds,
+harriers, and beagles have a high reputation. More native to the soil,
+and so interwoven with the history of the country that it is often
+used as one of its symbols, is the Irish wolfhound. This is probably
+the animal to which Aurelius Symmachus, a Roman consul in Britain,
+referred when, writing to his brother in Ireland in A.D. 391, he
+acknowledged the receipt of seven Irish hounds. The wolfhound played a
+sinister part in the Irish history of the eighteenth century, for, as
+Davis says in his poem, "The Penal Days":</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p class="p">Their dogs were taught alike to run</p>
+<p class="p">Upon the scent of wolf and friar.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Irish wolfhound is now very scarce, and a genuine specimen is a
+valued and highly coveted possession. The greyhound, too, figures
+prominently in present-day sport, and in many parts of the country are
+held coursing meetings, which frequently result in several spirited
+contests. A famous Irish greyhound was Lord Lurgan's black and white
+dog, Master McGrath. Master McGrath achieved the rare distinction of
+winning the Waterloo Cup three times, in 1868, 1869, and 1871. When it
+is remembered that the Waterloo Cup is to coursing what the Liverpool
+Grand National is to steeplechasing, or the Epsom Derby to flat
+racing, the merit of this triple performance will at once be
+apparent.</p>
+
+<p>Compared with the sports in which horse and hound participate, all
+other outdoor pastimes in Ireland take rather a minor place. Still,
+the Irishman's love of sport is diversified. Few there are who have
+not many inclinations, and as a nation our taste in sport is catholic.
+We take part in nearly every pastime; in many we excel. The prize ring
+has fallen from its high estate, nor is it the intention here to try
+to cast any glamour over it. The subject is introduced, in a passing
+way, for the sole purpose of showing that, in what at least used to be
+the manly art of self-defense, Ireland in days gone by as well as at
+the present time has more than held her own. The most conspicuous of
+the representatives of her race in this department are perhaps Heenan,
+Ryan, Sullivan, Corbett, Maher, McAuliffe, McFarland, and McGoorty.
+There is one other prize-fighter, Dan Donnelly by name, who became a
+sort of national hero, of whom all Irishmen of his day were not a
+little proud, because he laid the English champion low, and whose
+performance, now haloed by the antiquity of more than a hundred years,
+we may with equanimity, as without offense, contemplate, with perhaps
+a sigh for the good old times. The famous encounter between Donnelly
+and Cooper took place on the Curragh, and after eleven rounds of
+scientific boxing Donnelly knocked his opponent over the ropes and won
+the world's championship for the Emerald Isle. The spot where the
+battle came off has ever since been known as Donnelly's Hollow, and a
+neat monument there erected commemorates the Dublin man's pluck and
+skill. A ballad recounting the incidents of the fight and, as ballads
+go, not badly composed, had a wonderful vogue, and was sung at fair
+and market and other meeting place within the memory of men who are
+not now more than middle-aged.</p>
+
+<p>A search in other domains of sport will be by no means barren of
+results. Take running, for instance. Who has not heard of the wondrous
+little Thomas Conneff from the short-grass county of Kildare? Who does
+not know of his brilliant performances on the track? We in Ireland,
+who had seen him defeat Carter, the great Canadian, over the four-mile
+course at Ballsbridge one summer's eve now nearly twenty golden years
+ago, knew his worth before he crossed the broad Atlantic to show to
+thousands of admiring spectators in America that Ireland was the
+breeder of fleet-footed sons, who lacked neither the courage, nor the
+thews and sinews, nor the staying power, to carry them at high speed
+over any distance of ground. May the earth lie light on Conneff, for
+in a small body he had a great heart! Then there was the mighty
+runner, James J. Daly, a true hero from Galway, the idol of the crowd
+in his native land as well as in the United States. Daly was the
+champion long distance cross-country runner of his day at home, and he
+showed before various nationalities in the Greater Ireland beyond the
+seas that he could successfully compete with the best from all
+countries.</p>
+
+<p>In high jumping, Patrick Davin, P. Leahy, and Peter O'Connor were
+for long in the foremost rank; Daniel Ahearne was famous for his
+hop-step-and-jump performance; Maurice Davin, Matthew McGrath, and
+Patrick Ryan have, each in his own day, thrown the 16-pound hammer to
+record distance; in shot-putting there are Sheridan, Horgan, John
+Flanagan, and others bearing true Irish names, who are right in front;
+and before their time we had a redoubted champion in W.J.M. Barry. All
+previous performances in the shot-putting line have, however, been
+recently eclipsed by Patrick J. McDonald, of the Irish-American Club,
+who at Celtic Park, Long Island, on May 30, 1914, made a new world's
+record by putting the 18-pound shot 46 feet 2-3/4 inches. The climax
+of achievement was reached when T.F. Kiely won the all-round
+championship of the world at New York. The distinguished part taken by
+Irishmen or sons of Irishmen in all departments of the Olympic games
+is so recent and so well known as to call for no comment. Ireland is
+far indeed from being degenerate in her athletes.</p>
+
+<p>In international strife with England, Scotland, Wales, and France
+at Rugby football, Ireland has likewise won her spurs. She has never
+been beaten by the representatives of Gaul; and though for long enough
+she had invariably to succumb in competition with the other three
+countries, such is not the case nowadays, nor has it been for many
+years past. The Irish team has ever to be reckoned with. In
+Association football, too, Ireland is coming into her own. This branch
+of the game has developed enormously within a comparatively few
+seasons. The people flock in their thousands to witness matches for
+the principal league contests or cup ties. But the greatest crowds of
+all go to see Gaelic football, the national game; and to hurling, also
+distinctively Irish, they foregather in serried masses. Since the
+Gaelic Athletic Association was founded both football and hurling have
+prospered exceedingly. They are essentially popular forms of sport,
+and the muscular manhood of city and country finds in them a natural
+outlet for their characteristic Celtic vigor. The Gaelic Association
+has fostered and developed these sports, and has organized them on so
+sound a basis that interest in them is not confined to any particular
+district but spreads throughout the length and breadth of Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>When the America Cup was to be challenged for, into the breach
+stepped the Earl of Dunraven and flung his gage to the holders of the
+trophy. This distinguished Irish nobleman furnished a contender in his
+Valkyrie II. in the fall of 1893, and his patriotic spirit in doing so
+stirred the sport-loving Irish nation to the greatest enthusiasm. His
+lordship was not successful, but he was not disheartened. He tried
+again with Valkyrie III., but again he was only second best, for,
+though his yacht sailed to victory in home waters, she proved unequal
+to the task of lifting the cup. No Englishman was prepared to tempt
+fortune, but not so that sterling Irishman, Sir Thomas Lipton, who,
+win or lose, would not have it laid to the charge of Ireland that an
+attempt should not be made. His Shamrock, Shamrock II., and Shamrock
+III.&mdash;surely a deep sense of patriotism prompted nomenclature
+such as that&mdash;each in succession went down to defeat; but Sir
+Thomas has not done yet. Like King Bruce, he is going to try again,
+and Shamrock IV. is to do battle with the best that America can range
+against her. All honor to Lord Dunraven and to Sir Thomas Lipton for
+their persistent efforts to engage in generous rivalry with the
+yachtsmen across the sea.</p>
+
+<p>Lawn-tennis, cricket, and golf we play, and play well; to rowing
+many of us are enthusiastically devoted; and at handball our young
+men&mdash;and some not so young&mdash;are signally expert. The
+champion handball player has always been of Irish blood. Baseball we
+invented&mdash;and called it rounders. It is significant that the
+great American ball game is still played according to a code which is
+scarcely modified from that which may be seen in force any summer day
+on an Irish school field or village green. Perhaps something of
+hereditary instinct is to be traced in the fact that many of the best
+exponents of American baseball are the bearers of fine old Irish
+names.</p>
+
+<p>This brief and cursory review of Ireland at Play must now conclude.
+It is scarcely more than a glossary, and not a complete one at that.
+It may, however, serve to show that Ireland's record in sport, like
+her record in so many other things set forth in this book, is great
+and glorious enough to warrant the insertion of this short chapter
+among those which tell of old achievements and feats of high
+emprize.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Racing&mdash;Irish Racing Calendar: 1790-1914, 124 vols. (Dublin,
+Brindley and Son); The Racing Calendar: 1774-1914 (London, Weatherby
+and Sons). Breeding&mdash;The General Stud Book: 1908-1913, 22 vols.
+(London, Weatherby and Sons). Racing and Breeding Generally&mdash;Cox:
+Notes on the History of the Irish Horse (Dublin, 1897). Boxing and
+Athletics&mdash;Files of <i>Sport</i> and <i>Freeman's Journal</i>.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T14"></a>THE FIGHTING RACE</h2>
+<h4>By JOSEPH I.C. CLARKE,<br>
+<i>President, American Irish Historical Society</i>.</h4>
+
+<h4>I.&mdash;THE FIGHTING RACE AT HOME.</h4>
+
+<p>"War was the ruling passion of this people," says MacGeoghegan,
+meaning the Milesians who were the latest of the peoples that overran
+ancient Ireland up to the coming of Christ. How many races had
+preceded them remains an enigma of history not profitable to examine
+here, but whoever they were, or in what succession they arrived, they
+must, like all migrating people, have been prepared to establish
+themselves at the point of the spear and the edge of the sword. Two
+races certainly were mingled in the ancient Irish, the fair or auburn
+haired with blue eyes, and the dark haired with eyes of gray or brown.
+The Milesians appear to have reached Ireland through Spain. They came
+swiftly to power, more than a thousand years before our Lord, and
+divided the country into four provinces or kingdoms, with an
+<i>ard-ri</i>, or high-king, ruling all in a loose way as to service,
+taxes, and allegiance. The economic life was almost entirely pastoral.
+Riches were counted in herds of cattle. "Robustness of frame,
+vehemence of passion, elevated imagination," Dr. Leland says,
+signalized this people. Robust, they became athletic and vigorous and
+excelled in the use of deadly weapons; passionate, they easily went
+from litigation to blows; imaginative, they leaned toward poetry and
+song and were strong for whatever religion they practised. The latter
+was a polytheism brought close to the people through the Druids. Some
+stone weapons were doubtless still used; they had also brazen or
+bronze swords, and spears, axes, and maces of various alloys of copper
+and tin. Socially they remained tribal. Heads of tribes were petty
+kings, each with his stronghold of a primitive character, each with
+his tribal warriors, bards, harpers, and druids, and the whole male
+population more or less ready to take part in war.</p>
+
+<p>The great heroes whose names have come down to us, such as Finn,
+son of Cumhal, and Cuchulainn, were reared in a school of arms.
+Bravery was the sign of true manhood. A law of chivalry moderated the
+excess of combat. A trained militia, the Fianna, gave character to an
+era; the Knights of the Red Branch were the distinguishing order of
+chevaliers. The songs of the bards were songs of battle; the great
+Irish epic of antiquity was the T&aacute;in B&oacute; C&uacute;alnge,
+or Cooley Cattle-raid, and it is full of combats and feats of strength
+and prowess. High character meant high pride, always ready to give
+account of itself and strike for its ideals: "Irritable and bold", as
+one historian has it. They were jealous and quick to anger, but
+light-hearted laughter came easily to the lips of the ancient Irish.
+They worked cheerfully, prayed fervently to their gods, loved their
+women and children devotedly, clung passionately to their clan, and
+fought at the call with alacrity.</p>
+
+<p>Nothing, it will be seen, could be further from the minds of such a
+people than submission to what they deemed injustice. The habit of a
+proud freedom was ingrained. Their little island of 32,000 square
+miles in the Atlantic Ocean, the outpost of Europe, lay isolated save
+for occasional forays to and from the coasts of Scotland and England.
+The Roman invasions of western Europe never reached it. England the
+Romans overran, but never Scotland or Ireland. Self-contained, Ireland
+developed a civilization peculiarly its own, the product of an
+intense, imaginative, fighting race. War was not constant among them
+by any means, and occupied only small portions of the island at a
+time, but, since the bards' best work was war songs and war histories,
+with much braggadocio doubtless intermixed, a different impression
+might prevail. Half of their kings may have been killed in broil or
+battle, and yet great wars were few. If is undoubted that Scotic, that
+is, Irish, invasion and immigration peopled the western shores of
+Scotland and gave a name to the country. In the first centuries of the
+Christian era they were the men who with the Picts fought the Romans
+at the wall of Severus. The Britons, it will be remembered, enervated
+by Roman dominance, had failed to defend their "border" when Rome
+first withdrew her legions.</p>
+
+<p>At this time, too, began the first appearance of Ireland as a power
+on the sea. In the fourth century the high-king, Niall of the
+Hostages, commanding a large fleet of war galleys, invaded Scotland,
+ravaged the English coasts, and conquered Armorica (Brittany),
+penetrating as far as the banks of the Loire, where, according to the
+legend, he was slain by an arrow shot by one of his own men. One of
+the captives he brought from abroad on one of his early expeditions
+was a youth named Patrick, afterwards to be the Apostle of Ireland.
+Niall's nephew, Dathi, also ard-ri, was a great sea king. He invaded
+England, crossed to Gaul, and marched as far as the Alps, where he was
+killed by lightning. He was the last pagan king of Ireland. In perhaps
+a score of years after the death of Dathi, all Ireland had been
+converted to Christianity, and its old religion of a thousand years
+buried so deep that scholars find the greatest difficulty in
+recovering anything about it. This conservative, obstinate, jealous
+people overturned its pagan altars in a night, and, ever since, has
+never put into anything else the devotion, soul and body, of its
+sacrifices for religion. Christianity profoundly modified Irish life,
+softened manners, and stimulated learning. Not that the fighting
+propensities were obliterated. There were indeed many long and
+peaceful reigns, but the historians record neat little wars, seductive
+forays and "hostings", to use the new-old word, to the heart's
+content. The Irish character remained fixed in its essentials, but,
+under the influence of religious enthusiasm, Ireland progressed and
+prospered in the arts of peace. It would undoubtedly have shared the
+full progress of western Europe from this time on, but for its
+insularity. Hitherto its protection, it was now to be its downfall. A
+hostile power was growing of which it knew nothing.</p>
+
+<p>The Norsemen&mdash;the hardy vikings of Norway, Sweden, and
+Denmark&mdash;had become a nation of pirates. Undaunted fighters and
+able mariners, they built their shapely long ships and galleys of the
+northern pine and oak, and swept hardily down on the coasts of
+England, Ireland, France, Spain, and Italy, and the lands of the
+Levant, surprising, massacring, plundering. In France (Normandy), in
+England, and lastly in Ireland they planted colonies. Their greatest
+success was in England, which they conquered, Canute becoming king.
+Their greatest battles and final defeat were in Ireland. From the end
+of the eighth century to the beginning of the eleventh the four shores
+of Erin were attacked in turn, and sometimes all together, by
+successive fleets of the Norsemen. The waters that had been Ireland's
+protection now became the high roads of the invaders. By the river
+Shannon they pushed their conquests into the heart of the country.
+Dublin Bay, Waterford Harbor, Belfast Lough, and the Cove of Cork
+offered shelter to their vessels. They established themselves in
+Dublin and raided the country around. Churches and monasteries were
+sacked and burned. To the end these Norsemen were robbers rather than
+settlers. To these onslaughts by the myriad wasps of the northern
+seas, again and again renewed, the Irish responded manfully. In 812
+they drove off the invaders with great slaughter, only to find fresh
+hordes descending a year or two later. In the tenth century,
+Turgesius, the Danish leader, called himself monarch of Ireland, but
+he was driven out by the Irish king, Malachi. The great effort which
+really broke the Danish power forever in Ireland was at the battle of
+Clontarf, on Dublin Bay, Good Friday, 1014, when King Brian Boru, at
+the head of 30,000 men, utterly defeated the Danes of Dublin and the
+Danes of oversea. Fragments of the Northmen remained all over Ireland,
+but henceforth they gradually merged with the Irish people, adding a
+notable element to it's blood. One of the most grievous chapters of
+Irish history, the period of Norse invasion, literally shines with
+Irish valor and tenacity, undimmed through six fighting generations.
+As Plowden says:</p>
+
+<p>"Ireland stands conspicuous among the nations of the universe, a
+solitary instance in which neither the destructive hand of time, nor
+the devastating arm of oppression, nor the widest variety of changes
+in the political system of government could alter or subdue, much less
+wholly extinguish, the national genius, spirit, and character of its
+inhabitants." This is true not only of the Danish wars which ended
+nine hundred years ago, but of many a dreadful century since and to
+this very day.</p>
+
+<p>Now followed a troubled period, Ireland weakened by loss of blood
+and treasure, its government failing of authority through the defects
+of its virtues. It was inevitable, sooner or later, that England, as
+it became consolidated after its conquest by William the Norman,
+should turn greedy eyes on the fair land across the Irish sea. It was
+in 1169 that "Strongbow"&mdash;Richard, earl of Pembroke&mdash;came
+from England at the invitation of a discontented Irish chieftain and
+began the conquest of Ireland. Three years later came Henry II. with
+more troops and a Papal bull. After a campaign in Leinster, he set
+himself up as overlord of Ireland, and then returned to London. It was
+the beginning only. An English Lord Deputy ruled the "Pale", or
+portion of Ireland that England held more or less securely, and from
+that vantage ground made spasmodic war upon the rest of Ireland, and
+was forever warred on, in large attacks and small, by Irish
+chieftains.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish were the fighting race now if ever. Without hope of
+outside assistance, facing a foe ever reinforced from a stronger,
+richer, more fully organized country, nothing but their stubborn
+character and their fighting genius kept them in the field. And
+century out and century in, they stayed, holding back the foreign foe
+four hundred years. It is worthy of note that it was the Norman
+English, racial cousins, as it were, of the Norsemen, who first
+wrought at the English conquest of Ireland. When some of these were
+seated in Irish places of pride, when a Butler was made Earl of Ormond
+and a Fitzgerald, Earl of Kildare, it was soon seen that they were
+merging rapidly in the Irish mass, becoming, as it was said, "more
+Irish than the Irish themselves." Many were the individual heroic
+efforts to strike down the English power. Here and there small Irish
+chiefs accepted the English rule, offsetting the Norman Irish families
+who at times were "loyal" and at times "rebel." The state of war
+became continuous and internecine, but three-fourths of Ireland
+remained unconquered. The idea of a united Ireland against England
+had, however, been lost except in a few exalted and a few desperate
+breasts. A gleam of hope came in 1316, when, two years after the great
+defeat of England by the Scotch under Robert the Bruce at Bannockburn,
+Edward, the victor-king's brother, came at the invitation of the
+northern Irish to Ireland with 6,000 Scots, landing near
+Carrickfergus. He was proclaimed king of Ireland by the Irish who
+joined him. Battle after battle was won by the allies. Edward was a
+brilliant soldier, lacking, however, the prudence of his great
+brother, Robert. The story of his two years of fighting, ravaging, and
+slaying, is hard at this distance to reconcile with intelligible
+strategy. In the end, in 1318, the gallant Scot fell in battle near
+Dundalk, losing at the same time two-thirds of his army. For two years
+Scot and Irish had fought victoriously side by side. That is the fact
+of moment that comes out of this dark period.</p>
+
+<p>The following century, like that which had gone before, was full of
+fighting. In 1399, on Richard II.'s second visit to Ireland, he met
+fierce opposition from the Irish septs. MacMorrough, fighting,
+harassing the king's army from the shelter of the Wicklow woods,
+fairly drove the king to Dublin. The sanguinary "Wars of the
+Roses"&mdash;that thirty years' struggle for the crown of England
+between the royal houses of York and Lancaster, 1455 to
+1485&mdash;gave Ireland a long opportunity, which, however, she was
+too weak to turn to advantage; but fighting between Irish and English
+went on just the same, now in one province, now in another.</p>
+
+<p>In the reign of Henry VIII. a revolt against England started within
+the Pale itself, when Lord Thomas Fitzgerald, known as Silken Thomas,
+went before the Council in Dublin and publicly renounced his
+allegiance. He took the field&mdash;a brave, striking figure&mdash;in
+protest against the king's bad faith in dealing with his father, the
+Earl of Kildare. At one time it looked as if the rebellion (it was the
+first real Irish rebellion) would prosper. Lord Thomas made
+combinations with Irish chieftains in the north and west, and was
+victor in several engagements. He finally surrendered with assurances
+of pardon, but, as in many similar cases, was treacherously sent a
+prisoner to London, where he was executed.</p>
+
+<p>Queen Mary's reign was one of comparative quiet in Ireland. Her
+policy towards the Catholics was held to be of good augury for
+Ireland. The English garrison was reduced with impunity to 500 foot
+and a few horse: but another and darker day came with Elizabeth. Her
+coming to the throne, together with her fanatic devotion to the
+Reformation and an equal hatred of the old religion and all who clung
+to it, ushered in for Ireland two and a half centuries of almost
+unbroken misfortune. You cannot make people over. Some may take their
+opinions with their interest; others prefer to die rather than
+surrender theirs, and glory in the sacrifice. The proclamations of
+Elizabeth had no persuasion in them for the Irish. Her proscriptions
+were only another English sword at Ireland's throat. The disdain of
+the Irish maddened her. During her long reign one campaign after
+another was launched against them. Always fresh soldier hordes came
+pouring in under able commanders and marched forth from the Pale,
+generally to return shattered and worn down by constant harrying,
+sometimes utterly defeated with great slaughter. So of Henry Sidney's
+campaign, and so of the ill-fated Essex. Ulster, the stronghold of the
+O'Neills and the O'Donnells, remained unconquered down to the last
+years of Elizabeth's reign, although most of the greater battles were
+fought there. In Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, and "Red" Hugh
+O'Donnell, prince of Tyrconnell, Ireland had two really great soldiers
+on her side. The bravery, generalship, prudence, and strategy of
+O'Neill were worthy of all praise, and Red Hugh fell little short of
+his great compatriot. In battle after battle for twenty years they
+defeated the English with slaughter. Ireland, if more and more
+devastated by campaigns and forays, became the grave of tens of
+thousands of English soldiers and scores of high reputations. Writing
+from Cork, the Earl of Essex, after a disastrous march through
+Leinster and Munster, says:</p>
+
+<p>"I am confined in Cork ... but still I have been unsuccessful; my
+undertakings have been attended with misfortune.... The Irish are
+stronger and handle their arms with more skill than our people; they
+differ from us also in point of discipline. They likewise avoid
+pitched battles where order must be observed, and prefer skirmishes
+and petty warfare ... and are obstinately opposed to the English
+government."</p>
+
+<p>They did not like attacking or defending fortified places, he also
+believed. It was only his experience. The campaigns of Shane O'Neill,
+a bold but ill-balanced warrior, were full of such attacks, but one
+potent cause for Irish reluctance to make sieges a strong point of
+their strategy was that the strongest fortresses were on the sea. An
+inexhaustible, powerful enemy who held the sea was not in the end to
+be denied on sea or land, but the Irish in stubborn despair or supreme
+indifference to fate fought on. Religious rancor was added to racial
+hate. Most of the English settlers, or "garrison," as they came to be
+called, had become Protestants at the royal order. Ruin perched upon
+Ireland's hills and made a wilderness of her fertile valleys. The
+Irish chieftains with their faithful followers moved from place to
+place in woods and hollows of the hills. English colonists were
+settled on confiscated lands, and were harried by those who had been
+driven from their homes. It was war among graves. At last O'Neill made
+composition with the government when all was lost in the field, but
+the passionate Irish resolve never to submit still stalked like a
+ghost, as if it could not perish.</p>
+
+<p>When Elizabeth died it was thought that better things were coming
+to Ireland with James I., the son of Mary, Queen of Scots. Nothing of
+the kind. That curiously minded creature at once made an ingenuous
+proclamation:</p>
+
+<p>"Whereas his Majesty was informed that his subjects of Ireland had
+been deceived by <i>a false report that his Majesty was disposed to
+allow them liberty of conscience</i> and the free choice of religion,
+now, etc." Fresh "transplanting" of English and Scotch settlers on the
+lands of the Irish was the gist of his answer to the "false reports."
+So again the war of surprise, ambush, raid, and foray went on in a
+hundred places at once, but the result was that the English power was
+even more firmly seated than before.</p>
+
+<p>In the time of Charles I. there were terrible slaughters both of
+Protestants and Catholics. Patriotism and loyalty as moving causes had
+disappeared, but religion fiercely took their place. With Cromwell,
+the religious persecution took on an apocalyptic note of massacre, but
+the Irish were still showing that they were there with arms in their
+hands. The names of Owen Roe O'Neill and his splendid victory, in
+1646, at Benburb over the English and Scotch, where he slew more than
+3,000 men, and of another Hugh O'Neill, who made such a brilliant
+defense at Clonmel against Cromwell, shine brightly out of the
+darkness. But Ireland, parcelled out among the victors, was always the
+weaker after every campaign. Waves of war swept over her. She became
+mixed up in the rivalries of the English royal families, religion
+playing the most important part in the differences. It had armed Henry
+and Elizabeth, James and Charles against her. It gave edge to
+Cromwell's sword, and it led her into a great effort on behalf of
+James II. When William of Orange crossed the Boyne, all that followed
+for a century was symbolized. Athlone, Aughrim, Limerick, all places
+of great and fierce contests, were decided against her. French support
+of a kind had James, but not enough. Bravery and enthusiasm may win
+battles, but they do not carry through great campaigns. Once again God
+marched with the heaviest, best-fed, best-armed battalions. The great
+Tyrone dying in exile at Rome, Red Hugh O'Donnell perishing in Spain
+in the early days of the seventeenth century, were to prefigure the
+fighting and dying of half a million Irish warriors on continental
+soil for a hundred years after the fall of Limerick as the seventeenth
+century neared its close.</p>
+
+<p>During that period the scattered bands of the Rapparees, half
+patriots, half robbers, hiding in mountain fastnesses, dispersing,
+reassembling, descending on the English estates for rapine or the
+killing of "objectionables," represented the only armed resistance of
+the Irish. It was generally futile although picturesque.</p>
+
+<p>After the close of the Revolutionary War in America, Ireland
+received a new stimulation. The success of the patriots of the Irish
+parliament under Grattan, backed as they were by 100,000 volunteers
+and 130 pieces of cannon, in freeing Irish industry and commerce from
+their trammels, evoked the utmost malignity in England. Ireland almost
+at once sprang to prosperity, but it was destined to be short lived. A
+great conspiracy, which did not at first show above the surface, was
+set on foot to destroy the Irish parliament. This is not the place to
+follow the sinister machinations of the English, save to note that
+they forced both the Presbyterians and the Catholics of the north into
+preparations for revolt. The Society of United Irishmen was formed,
+and drew many of the brightest and most cultivated men in Ireland into
+its councils. It numbered over 70,000 adherents in Ulster alone. The
+government was alarmed, and began a systematic persecution of the
+peasantry all over Ireland. English regiments were put at "free
+quarters," that is, they forced themselves under order into the houses
+and cabins of the people with demands for bed and board. The hapless
+people were driven to fury. Brutal murders and barbarous tortures of
+men and women by the soldiers, savage revenges by the peasantry, and
+every form of violent crime all at once prevailed in the lately
+peaceful valleys. Prosecutions of United Irishmen and executions were
+many. It was all done deliberately to provoke revolt. In 1798 the
+revolt came. In the greater part of Ulster and Munster the uprising
+failed, but a great insurrection of the peasantry of Wexford shocked
+the country. Poorly armed, utterly undisciplined, without munitions of
+war, but 40,000 strong, they literally flung themselves pike in hand
+on the English regiments, sweeping everything before them for a time.
+Father John Murphy, a priest and patriot, was one of their leaders,
+but Beauchamp Bagenal Harvey was soon their commander-in-chief. At one
+time the "rebels" dominated the entire county save for a fort in the
+harbor and a small town or two, but it was natural that the
+commissariat should soon be in difficulties and their ammunition give
+out. The British general, Lake, with an army of 20,000 men and a
+moving column of 13,000, attacked the rebels on Vinegar Hill, and
+although the fight was heroic and bloody while it lasted, it was soon
+over and the British army was victorious. The rest was retreat,
+dispersal, and widespread cruelties and burnings and a long succession
+of murders. The "Boys of Wexford" funder great difficulties had given
+a great account of themselves. Dark as was that page of history, it
+has been a glowing lamp to Irish disaffection ever since. It is the
+soul of the effort that counts, and the disasters do not discredit '98
+in Irish eyes.</p>
+
+<p>Voltaire, in his <i>Century of Louis XIV.</i>, made his reflection
+on the Irish soldier out of his limited knowledge of the Williamite
+war in Ireland. He says, "The Irish, whom we have seen such good
+soldiers in France and Spain, have always fought poorly at home"! They
+had not fought poorly at home. It took four hundred years of English
+effort to complete, merely on its face, the conquest of Ireland, and
+all of that long sweep of the sword of Time was a time of battle. The
+Irish were fought with every appliance of war, backed by the riches of
+a prospering, strongly organized country, and impelled persistently by
+the greed of land and love of mastery; but there was not a mountain
+pass in Ireland, not a square mile of plain, not a river-ford, scarce
+a hill that had not been piled high with English dead in that four
+hundred years at the hands of the Irish wielders of sword and spear
+and pike.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish had not made their environment or their natures, and no
+power on earth could change them. Over greater England had swept the
+Romans, the Jutes, the Saxons, the Angles, the Norsemen, and the
+Normans. All found lodgment and all went to the making of England.
+Well, one might say, it had been for Ireland if she had developed that
+assimilating power which made her successive conquerors in process of
+time the feeders of her greatness, but the Irish would not and could
+not. Instead, they developed the pride of race that no momentary
+defeat could down. They became inured to battle and dreamt of battle
+when the peace of an hour was given them. When the four kings of
+Ireland were feasted in Dublin by King Richard II. of England, an
+English chronicler remarked, "Never were men of ruder manners"; but
+neither the silken array and golden glitter of Richard's peripatetic
+court nor the brave display of his thousand knights and thirty
+thousand archers filled them with longing for the one or fear of the
+other. They went back to their Irish hills and plains and fastnesses
+as obstinately Irish as ever.</p>
+
+<p>They fought well at home, if unfortunately, the wonder being that
+they continued to fight. The heavens and the earth seemed combined
+against them.</p>
+
+<h4>II.&mdash;THE FIGHTING RACE ABROAD.</h4>
+
+<p>We next see Irish soldiers fighting abroad. The blood they had shed
+so freely for the Stuarts at the Boyne, at Athlone, at Aughrim, at
+Limerick was in vain. The king of France, if he sent armies to
+Ireland, demanded Irish troops in return. The transports that brought
+the French regiments over in May, 1690, took back over five thousand
+officers and men from Ireland, who formed the first Irish Brigade in
+the service of France. This, remember, was before the battle of the
+Boyne. The men were formed on their arrival in France into three
+regiments, those of Mountcashel, O'Brien, and Dillon, named after
+their commanders, and were sent to Savoy. The French aid to James in
+Ireland helped best in giving confidence to the raw Irish levies, but
+it was more than offset by the German troops brought over by William.
+The weakness, indecision, or worse, of James before Derry, his
+chicken-hearted failure to overwhelm Schomberg when he lay at his
+mercy before the arrival of William, ruined his chances. Remember that
+the Irish army, if defeated at the Boyne, was not broken, and was
+strong enough, when pursued by William, to repulse him with 500 killed
+and 1,000 wounded and to compel him to raise the siege of Limerick.
+The dash and skill of Patrick Sarsfield, Earl of Lucan, backed by
+Irish desperation, won the day. The French troops sailed home after
+William's retreat. In the next year's campaign occurred the crowning
+disasters of the war, but in any other country or with any other
+people than the English the terms of capitulation at Limerick, which
+were formulated by Ginkel and showed a soldier's respect for a brave
+and still powerful foe, would have ushered in an era of peace.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish soldiers' distrust of the conquerors was shown in the
+fact that, since the stipulations allowed the free departure of the
+garrison with honors of war, 19,059 officers and men took service with
+France, and sailed in October, 1691, on the French fleet, which by the
+irony of fate had arrived in the Shannon too late, on the very day
+after the signing of the treaty of Limerick. Never in the whole course
+of the history of nations has more hideous treachery been shown than
+in the immediate breaking of that treaty; and dearly has England paid
+for it ever since, although, for the hundred years that followed,
+Ireland sank to the very depths under the penal laws, with her trade
+ruined, her lands stolen, her religion persecuted, and all education
+and enlightenment forbidden by abominable, drastic laws.</p>
+
+<p>If, as has been computed, 450,000 Irish fought and died in the
+service of France between 1690 and 1745, a further 30,000 are to be
+added down to 1793. A French writer estimates the whole Irish
+contingent at 750,000, but, for a roster of seekers of glory from an
+impoverished people, the more reasonable half-million should surely
+suffice.</p>
+
+<p>Long would be the story to follow the fighting fortunes of the
+Irish Brigades. Officered by Irish gentlemen and drilled to
+perfection, they soon came to hold in the French service the esteem
+that later was given to Irish regiments in the service of England.
+King Louis welcomed them heartily and paid them a higher wage than his
+native soldiers. No duty was too arduous or too dangerous for the
+Irish Brigades. Seldom were they left to rust in idleness. Europe was
+a caldron of wars of high ambitions.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish regiments fought through the war in Flanders. At Landen,
+July 29, 1693, the French under the duke of Luxembourg defeated the
+English under William III. with a slaughter of 10,473 men, losing
+8,000 men themselves. In the retreat, Ginkel, William's general in the
+Irish campaign, was almost drowned in the river Greete. The Irish
+Royal Regiment of Footguards, that of Dorrington, was the first corps
+to break through the English intrenchments, its gallant leader,
+Colonel Barrett, falling as he headed the charge. Here also was
+stricken Lieutenant-Colonel Nugent of Sheldon's Irish Regiment. Here
+also fell&mdash;saddest loss of all&mdash;Patrick Sarsfield, Earl of
+Lucan, brave, resourceful, a true unfaltering-soldier and lover of his
+country. The legend of his life blood flowing before his eyes and his
+utterance, "Would it had been shed for Ireland", may and should be
+true, although he lived three days after the battle. Would, indeed, it
+had been shed for Ireland&mdash;after such a day!</p>
+
+<p>It was in 1703 that the celebrated defence of Cremona lifted Irish
+renown to great heights throughout Europe. There were but 600 Irish
+troopers all told in that long day's work, and from the break of day
+till nightfall they held at bay Prince Eugene's army of 10,000 men.
+The two battalions of Bourke and Dillon were surprised at early morn
+to learn that the Austrians&mdash;and there were Irish officers among
+them&mdash;were in the town. Major O'Mahony and his men ran from their
+beds to the gates, and neither the foes without nor the foes within
+could make them budge. Terribly they suffered under concentrated
+attacks, but a withering fire from the Irish met every assault. It was
+nightfall before relief came, and then the sons of Ireland who had
+held Cremona for the French were acclaimed by all, but of their 600
+they had lost nearly 350. Small wonder that the honor list that day
+was long. In Bourke's battalion the specially distinguished were
+Captains Wauchop, Plunkett, Donnellan, MacAuliffe, Carrin, Power,
+Nugent, and Ivers; in Dillon's, Major O'Mahony, Captains Dillon,
+Lynch, MacDonough, and Magee, and Lieutenants Dillon and Gibbon, John
+Bourke and Thomas Dillon. Major O'Mahony was sent to Paris to carry
+the news of the victory to the king, who presented him with a purse of
+1,000 louis d'or, a pension of 1,000 livres, and the brevet of
+colonel.</p>
+
+<p>So the history proceeds, the Irish regiments lost in the array of
+the French forces, but showing here and there a glint of charging
+bayonets, captured trenches, and gushes of Irish blood. In 1703 the
+brigade regiments fought in Italy and Germany under the Duc de
+Vendome. We hear of the regiments of Berwick, Bourke, Dillon, Galmoy,
+and Fitzgerald vigorously engaged. In Germany the story is of
+Sheldon's Horse and two battalions of the regiments of Dorrington and
+Clare. At the first battle of Blenheim, September 20, 1703, the
+regiment of Clare lost one of its colors, rallied, charged with the
+bayonet and recovered it, taking two colors from the enemy. This was a
+French victory. Not so the great battle of Blenheim, August, 1704,
+when Marlborough and Prince Eugene severely defeated the French and
+Bavarians. Three Irish battalions shared in the disaster. In 1705 at
+Cassano in Italy an Irish regiment, finding itself badly galled by
+artillery fire from the opposite bank of the Adda, declared they could
+stand it no longer, and thereupon jumped in, swam the river, and
+captured the battery. In 1705 Colonel O'Mahony of Cremona fame
+distinguished himself in Spain. In the next year at the battle of
+Ramillies, in which Marlborough with the Dutch defeated the French
+under Villeroi, Lord Clare's regiment captured the colors of the
+English Churchill regiment and of the Scottish regiment in the Dutch
+service. In the same year and the next, the Irish Brigade fought many
+battles in Spain. One cannot pursue the details of the engagements.
+Regiments ever decimated were ever recruited by the "Wild Geese" from
+Ireland&mdash;the adventurous Catholic youth of the country who sought
+congenial outlet for their love of adventure and glory. Many Irish
+also joined the French army after deserting from the English forces in
+Flanders.</p>
+
+<p>It was, however, at Fontenoy, May 11, 1745, that the Irish Brigade
+rendered their most signal service to France. The English under the
+Duke of Cumberland, son of George II., with 55,000 men including a
+large German and Dutch auxiliary, met the French under Marshal Saxe,
+and in the presence of the French king Louis XV., near Tournai in
+Belgium. Saxe had 40,000 men in action and 24,000 around Tournai,
+which town was the objective of the English advance. Among the troops
+on the field were the six Irish regiments of Clare, Dillon, Bulkeley,
+Roth, Berwick, and Lally, all under Charles O'Brien, Viscount Clare,
+afterwards Marshal Thomond of France. After fierce cannonading on both
+sides and a check to the allies on their right and left, a great
+column of English veterans advanced on the French centre, breaking
+through with sheer force. They had thus reached high ground when some
+cannonading halted them. It was at this moment of gravest peril to the
+French that the Irish regiments with unshotted guns charged headlong
+up the slope on their ancient enemies, crying, "Remember Limerick and
+British Faith!" The great English column, already roughly handled by
+the cannon, broke and fled in wild disorder before that irresistible
+onslaught, and France had won a priceless victory, but the six Irish
+regiments lost one-third of their gallant men by a single volley as
+they followed their steel into the English lines.</p>
+
+<p>When Charles Edward, the Stuart Pretender, landed in Scotland in
+1745, he was followed by a small French force, including 500 Irishmen
+from the Brigade. Colonel John O'Sullivan was much relied on by the
+prince in his extraordinary campaign. Sir Thomas Sheridan also
+distinguished himself. There were 475 Irish at the battle of Culloden,
+that foredoomed defeat of the Stuart cause, and two days later a score
+of Irish officers were among those who surrendered at Inverness.</p>
+
+<p>In Spain at the beginning of the 18th century there were hundreds
+of Irish officers in the military service, and eight Irish regiments.
+Among the officers were thirteen Kellys, thirteen Burkes, and four
+Sheas. It seemed that Ireland had soldiers for the world. Don
+Patricio, Don Miguel, Don Carlos, Don Tadeo took the place of Patrick,
+Michael, Charles, and Thadeus. O'Hart gives a list of sixty
+descendants of the "Wild Geese" in places of honor in Spain. General
+Prim was a descendant of the Princes of Inisnage in Kilkenny. An
+O'Donnell was Duke of Tetuan and field marshal of Spain. Ambrose
+O'Higgins, born in county Meath, Ireland, was the foremost Spanish
+soldier in Chile and Peru; Admiral Patricio Lynch was one of its most
+distinguished sailors; and James McKenna its greatest military
+engineer. The son of O'Higgins was foremost among those who fought for
+Chilean independence and gained it, and one of his ablest lieutenants
+was Colonel Charles Patrick O'Madden of Maryland.</p>
+
+<p>In Austria the Irish soldiers were particularly welcome. They count
+forty-one field-marshals, major-generals, generals of cavalry, and
+masters of ordnance of Irish birth in the Austrian service.
+O'Callaghan relates that on March 17, 1766, His Excellency Count
+Mahony (son of the O'Mahony of Cremona), ambassador from Spain to the
+court of Vienna, gave a grand entertainment in honor of St. Patrick,
+to which he invited all persons of condition who were of Irish
+descent. Among many others, there were present Count Lacy, President
+of the Council at War, the generals O'Donnell, McGuire, O'Kelly,
+Browne, Plunkett, and MacElligot, four chiefs of the Grand Cross, two
+governors, several knights military, six staff officers, and four
+privy councillors, with the principal officers of State. All wore
+Patrick's crosses in honor of the Irish nation, as did the whole court
+that day. Emperor Francis I. said: "The more Irish officers in the
+Austrian service the better; bravery will not be wanting; our troops
+will always be well disciplined." The Austrian O'Reillys and Taaffes
+were famous. It was the dragoon regiment of Count O'Reilly that by a
+splendid charge saved the remnant of the Austrian army at
+Austerlitz.</p>
+
+<p>In the American war of the Revolution, General Charles Geoghegan of
+the Irish Brigade made the campaigns of Rochambeau and Lafayette. He
+received the order of the Cincinnati from Washington and was ever
+proud of it. Lieutenant General O'Moran also served in America. He was
+afterwards executed in the French Revolution, for the "Brigade"
+remained royalist to the end. General Arthur Dillon, who served in the
+Brigade, was also guillotined in 1794, crying, "Vive le roi!" At the
+foot of the scaffold a woman, probably Mme. H&eacute;bert, also
+condemned, stood beside him. The executioner told her to mount the
+steps. "Oh, Monsieur Dillon," she said, "pray go first." "Anything to
+oblige a lady," he answered gaily, and so faced his God.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Macaulay, commenting upon these things and deploring the
+policies that brought them about, says with great significance:</p>
+
+<p>"There were Irish Catholics of great ability, but they were to be
+found everywhere except in Ireland&mdash;at Versailles, at St.
+Ildefonso, in the armies of Frederic, in the armies of Maria Theresa.
+One exile (Lord Clare) became a marshal of France, another (General
+Wall) became Prime Minister of Spain.... Scattered all over Europe
+were to be found brave Irish generals, dexterous Irish diplomatists,
+Irish counts, Irish barons, Irish knights of St. Louis and St.
+Leopold, of the White Eagle, and of the Golden Fleece, who if they
+remained in the house of bondage, could not have been ensigns of
+marching regiments or freemen of petty corporations."</p>
+
+<p>The old Irish brigades ended with the French monarchy. Battalions
+of the regiments of Dillon and Walsh were with the French fleet in the
+West Indies at Grenada and St. Eustache, also at Savannah, and under
+Rochambeau at Yorktown, but, except as to the officers, the surviving
+regiments of Berwick, Dillon, and Walsh were largely French. With the
+better times under Grattan's Parliament in Ireland, the soldier
+emigration to France had all but ceased. The Irish Volunteers of 1782
+numbered 100,000 men, of whom an appreciable proportion were
+Catholics. Many Irish went into the English army and navy, but there
+was another stream of fighting emigrants, that which flocked to the
+standard of revolt against England in America, of which much was to be
+heard thereafter.</p>
+
+<p>In the American colonies before the Revolution there were thousands
+of descendants of the Catholic Irish who had settled in Maryland and
+Pennsylvania during the seventeenth century, as well as hardy Irish
+Presbyterians from Ulster, who came in great multitudes during the
+first half of the eighteenth century. They had suffered persecution in
+Ireland for conscience sake from their fellow-Protestants. In Maine,
+New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and the Carolinas they
+constituted entire communities. The emigration of the Catholic or
+purely Celtic Irish to America in the seventeenth and eighteenth
+centuries was often compulsory. At any rate, after the middle of the
+eighteenth century it was large and became continuous&mdash;a true
+drift. Catholics and Presbyterians alike brought hostility to the
+English government with them, and their voices fed the storm of
+discontent. The Irish schoolmasters, of whom there were hundreds, were
+especially efficient in this. They came in every ship to the colonies.
+They had no love for England, for they had experienced in Ireland the
+tyranny of English law, and they would be more than human if they did
+not imbue the minds of the American children under their care with
+their own hatred of oppression and wrong and English domination. The
+log schoolhouse of the Irish teacher became the nursery of revolution.
+They were a very important factor, therefore, in the making of the
+Revolution, and many of them took an active part as soldiers in the
+field.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish, both Catholics and Protestants, poured into the patriot
+ranks once the standard of revolt was raised in 1775. The Pennsylvania
+line, which General Lee called "the line of Ireland," was almost
+entirely Irish, and the rosters of several of the Maryland and
+Virginia regiments contain a remarkably large proportion of Irish
+names, in some cases running as high as 60 per cent. It is computed
+that the Irish furnished not less than a third of the whole American
+forces. A common cause blotted out all old religious prejudices
+between Irishmen in the American service. It was John Sullivan, of New
+Hampshire, son of a Limerick schoolmaster, who began the revolt by
+seizing the fort of William and Mary and its storehouses filled with
+that powder which charged the guns at Bunker Hill in the following
+year. It was Captain Jeremiah O'Brien, with his brothers, who made the
+first sea attack on the British off Machias, Maine, in May, 1775, an
+engagement which Fenimore Cooper calls "the Lexington of the Seas."
+There were fifteen Celtic Irish names among the Minute Men at the
+Battle of Lexington. Colonel Barrett, who commanded at Concord, was
+Irish. There were 258 Celtic Irish names on the rosters of the
+American forces at the battle of Bunker Hill. John Sullivan had been
+made a major-general, thereafter to be a notable figure in the war at
+Princeton, Trenton, Newport, and in his Indian campaign. The
+Connecticut line was thick with Irish names. Around Washington himself
+was a circle of brilliant Irishmen: Adjutant-General Edward Hand
+leading his rifles, Stephen Moylan his dragoons, General Henry Knox
+and Colonel Proctor at the head of his artillery, John Dunlop his
+body-guard, Andrew Lewis his brigadier-general, Ephraim Elaine his
+quartermaster, all of Irish birth or ancestry. Commodore John Barry,
+born in Wexford in 1739 and bred to the sea, was a ship captain in his
+early twenties, trading from Philadelphia. When the Continental
+Congress met, he at once volunteered, and was given command of the
+<i>Lexington</i>, the first American ship to capture a British war
+vessel. Later, after gallant fighting on sea and land, he was given
+command of the U.S. frigate <i>Alliance</i>, in which he crossed the
+Atlantic to France, and fought and captured in a rattling battle two
+British warships, the <i>Atlanta</i> and the <i>Trepasay</i>. He was
+the Father of the American navy, holding captain's certificate No. 1,
+signed by Washington himself&mdash;the highest rank then issued.</p>
+
+<p>General Richard Montgomery, the brave and able soldier who fell at
+Quebec as he charged the heights, was an Irishman. General George
+Clinton, son of an Irishman, was a brigadier-general, governor of New
+York and twice Vice-President of the United States. Fifty-seven
+officers of New York regiments in the Revolution were Irish, and a
+large number of the officers in the Southern regiments of the line, as
+well as of the militia, were native Irish or of Irish descent. The
+rosters of the enlisted Irishmen of the New York regiments run into
+the thousands. Hundreds of Irish soldiers suffered in the prison ships
+of New York, the horrors of which served so conspicuously to stimulate
+American determination to carry the war to the only rightful
+conclusion. Washington always recognized America's debt to the Irish.
+"St. Patrick" he made the watchword in the patriot lines the night
+before the English evacuated Boston forever on the memorable 17th of
+March, 1776. After the war he was made, with his own consent, an
+honorary member of the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick. Major-General
+Richard Butler and his four brothers, all officers, and
+Brigadier-Generals John Armstrong, William Irvine, William Thompson,
+James Smith, and Griffith Rutherford all fought with distinction. All
+of these officers were Irish-born. It was in truth an Irish war, so
+far as Irish sentiment and whole-hearted service could make it. The
+record of Irish soldiers' names alone would fill volumes.</p>
+
+<p>The thirst of the Irish race for the glory of war is shown in the
+large enlistments in the last quarter of the eighteenth century, and
+since, in the English army and navy. Grattan, in pleading for Ireland,
+claimed that a large percentage of the British forces were Irish.
+Wolfe Tone avers that there were 210 Irishmen out of 220 in the crew
+of a British frigate that overhauled his ship on its way to America.
+Bonaparte had in his armies an Irish Legion that did good service in
+Holland, Spain, Portugal, and Germany. Marshal Clarke, Duke of Feltre,
+French Minister of War in 1809, was Irish. Up and down the Spanish
+Peninsula, Irish blood was shed in abundance in the armies of
+Wellington. Never was more brilliant fighting done than that which
+stands to Irish credit from the lines of Torres Vedras to Badajos and
+Toulouse. Of the Waterloo campaign volumes have been written in praise
+of Irish valor. As Maxwell says in his <i>Tales of
+Waterloo</i>:&mdash;"The victors of Marengo and Austerlitz reeled
+before the charge of the Connaught Rangers." Wellington himself was
+Irish, as in the later wars of England Lord Gough, Lord Wolseley, Lord
+Roberts, Lord Kitchener, and General French came from Ireland. The
+Irish soldiers in the English service by a pitiful irony of fate
+helped materially to fasten the chains of English domination on the
+peoples of India in a long series of wars.</p>
+
+<p>In America, the War of 1812 once more gave opportunity to the
+Fighting Race. The commanding figure of the war, which opened so
+inauspiciously for the United States, was General Andrew Jackson, the
+hero of the battle of New Orleans, and afterwards twice elected
+President of the United States. "Old Hickory", as he came to be
+lovingly called, was proud of his Irish father, and sympathized with
+the national longings of the Irish people. He was a splendid soldier,
+and his defeat of the English general, Pakenham, on January 8, 1815,
+which meant the control of the mouths of the Mississippi, as well as
+safeguarding the city of New Orleans, reflected the highest credit on
+his skill and unflagging energy. The English had superior numbers,
+between 8,000 and 9,000 men, against a scant 6,000 under Jackson, and
+their force was made up of veterans of the European wars. In command
+of the left of his line Jackson placed the gallant general William
+Carroll, born in Philadelphia, but of Irish blood, who was afterwards
+twice governor of Tennessee. The British general made the mistake of
+despising the soldier value of his enemy, yet before evening of that
+day he saw his artillery silenced and his lines broken, as he died of
+a wound on the field. The battle was actually fought after the signing
+of the treaty of peace at Ghent; it annihilated British pretensions in
+this part of the world, anyway.</p>
+
+<p>After Commodore Perry, the victor in the battle of Lake Erie, and
+himself the son of an Irish mother, the northern naval glory of the
+War of 1812 falls to Lieutenant Thomas MacDonough, of Irish descent,
+whose victory on Lake Champlain over the British squadron was almost
+as important as Perry's. Admiral Charles L. Stewart ("Old Ironsides"),
+who commanded the frigate <i>Constitution</i> when she captured the
+<i>Cyane</i> and the <i>Levant</i>, fighting them by moonlight, was a
+great and renowned figure. His parents came from Ireland, and Charles
+Stewart Parnell's mother was the great sea-fighter's daughter.
+Lieutenant Stephen Cassin commanded the <i>Ticonderoga</i> and fought
+her well. Captain Johnston Blakely, who was born in Ireland, captured
+in the <i>Wasp</i> of 18 guns the much larger British <i>Reindeer</i>
+of 20 guns and 175 men in a splendid fight, and later sank the
+<i>Avon</i>, an 18-gun brig. After capturing a great prize, which he
+sent to Savannah, he sailed for the Spanish main and was never heard
+of more. Captain Boyle, in the privateer <i>Comet</i> of Baltimore,
+fought the <i>Hibernia</i>, of 18 guns, and later in the
+<i>Chasseur</i>, known as the phantom ship, so fast she sailed, took
+eighty prizes on the high seas. General A.E. Maccomb, who commanded
+victoriously at Plattsburg, was of Irish descent, and Colonel Robert
+Carr, who distinguished himself in the same campaign, was born in
+Ireland. Major George Croghan of Kentucky, the hero of Fort
+Stephenson, was the son of an Irish father who had been a soldier in
+the Revolution. Colonel Hugh Brady, of the 22nd Infantry, commanded at
+Niagara. He remained in the army and fought in Mexico. William McRee,
+of Irish descent, was General Browne's chief engineer in laying out
+the military works of the American army at Niagara.</p>
+
+<p>Let it not be forgotten that in this memorable company brave Mrs.
+Doyle has a place. Her husband, Patrick Doyle, an Irish artilleryman,
+had been taken prisoner by the British in the affair at Queenston and
+had been refused a parole. Accordingly, when the guns were trained on
+the English lines before Fort Niagara, Mary, emulating the example of
+her countrywoman, "Molly" Pitcher, at Monmouth, determined to take her
+husband's place, and, regardless of flying British balls, tended a
+blacksmith's bellows all day, providing red-hot shot for the American
+gun battery, and sending a prayer with every shot into the British
+lines.</p>
+
+<p>After the Queenston affair, it is well to note, the English
+doctrine of perpetual allegiance was abated. Twenty-three Irish-born
+men were among the captives of the English in that engagement. They
+were manacled to be sent to Ireland to be tried for treason, not as
+enemies taken in the field. Winfield Scott, then lieutenant-colonel,
+was also a prisoner with them. He protested loudly against this
+infamous course. Upon his release he laid aside twenty-three British
+prisoners to be treated like the Irishmen, eye for eye and tooth for
+tooth. As a result, the Irish prisoners were exchanged.</p>
+
+<p>Colonel John Allen, who fell at the head of the First Regiment of
+Kentucky Riflemen at the battle of the river Raisin on January 21,
+1813, was one of the Irish Allens of Kentucky. His father and mother
+were natives of Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>The Mexican War (1846-48) again showed Irish valor at the front. It
+was not a great war, though brilliantly fought and rich in territorial
+accessions. The campaigning comprised the work of two main expeditions
+and a subsidiary movement in California. One column, under General
+Zachary Taylor, penetrated northern Mexico and fought the battles of
+Matamoras, Palo Alto, and Resaca de la Palma, in May, 1846, with a
+force of 2,200 men; forced the evacuation of Monterey in September,
+his army swelled to 5,000; and defeated Santa Anna at Buena Vista in
+February, 1847. General Winfield Scott, with a naval expediton,
+attacked Vera Cruz from the sea in March, 1847, and took up the march,
+13,000 strong, to Mexico City, fighting the battles of Cerro Gordo,
+Contreras, Churubusco, Molino del Rey, and Chapultepec, and entered
+Mexico City on September 14. General James Shields, born in Tyrone,
+Ireland, in 1810, was in command with his brigade under Scott. A
+brilliant soldier, he was severely wounded at Cerro Gordo and again at
+Chapultepec. He served as United States Senator after the war and
+again took the field in the Civil War, his forces defeating Stonewall
+Jackson at the first battle of Winchester in 1862. The glamour of
+chivalry lights the name of Phil Kearney. Here was a born soldier. He
+was a volunteer with the French in Algiers in 1839-40. He also
+commanded under Scott with brilliant bravery, and was brevetted major
+on the field for "gallant and meritorious conduct" at the battles of
+Contreras and Churubusco. In the French war with Austria in 1859-60,
+Kearney fought with the French, distinguishing himself at the decisive
+and bloody battle of Solferino. In the Civil War he was
+brigadier-general of New Jersey troops in 1861 and major-general in
+1863, taking distinguished part in the battles of the Peninsula and
+second Bull Run, and was killed while reconnoitring at Chantilly.
+General Stephen W. Kearney, with the Army of the West, by dint of long
+marches, secured California among the fruits of the war. General
+Bennet Riley, born in Maryland of Irish ancestry, commanded a brigade
+at Contreras, making a wonderful charge, and also fought brilliantly
+at Cerro Gordo and Churubusco, and was brevetted brigadier-general. He
+attained the army rank in 1858. Major-General William O. Butler, under
+Zachary Taylor, was one of the heroes of Monterey. Born in Kentucky,
+son of Percival Butler of Kilkenny, who was one of the famous five
+Butler brothers of the Revolutionary War whom Washington once toasted
+as "The Butlers and their five sons," General Butler succeeded General
+Scott in command of the entire American army in Mexico in February,
+1848. Another of clear Irish descent who fought under Zachary Taylor
+was Major-General George Croghan, whose father, born in Sligo,
+Ireland, had fought in the Revolution. He himself took part, as we
+have seen, in the War of 1812, and now was at the front before
+Monterey. Once, when a Tennessee regiment wavered under a hot
+converging fire, Croghan rushed to the front and, taking off his hat,
+shouted, "Men of Tennessee, your fathers conquered with Jackson at New
+Orleans. Come, follow me!" and they followed in a successful assault.
+Major-General Robert Paterson, who was born at Strabane, Ireland, and
+was the son of a '98 man, saw service in 1812, and became
+major-general of militia in Pennsylvania, whence he went to the
+Mexican War. He also lived to serve in the War of the States.</p>
+
+<p>Among Irish-named officers mentioned honorably in official
+despatches are Major Edward H. Fitzgerald, Major Patrick J. O'Brien;
+Captain Casey, chosen to lead the first storming party at Chapultepec;
+Captains Hogan, Byrne, Kane, McElvin, McGill, Burke, Barny,
+O'Sullivan, McCarthy, McGarry, and McKeon. Captain Mayne Reid, the
+novelist, a native of Ireland, was in the storming of Chapultepec.
+Theodore O'Hara, the poet, served with the Kentucky troops and was
+brevetted major for gallantry at Contreras and Churubusco, while on
+the staff of General Franklin Pierce (afterwards President of the
+United States). O'Hara's magnificent poem, "The Bivouac of the Dead,"
+has made his name immortal. It was written on the occasion of the
+interment at Frankfort, Ky., of the Kentucky dead of the Mexican War,
+where</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p class="p">"Glory guards with solemn round</p>
+<p class="p">The bivouac of the dead."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Irwin C. McDowell, who was brevetted captain at Buena Vista,
+commanded a corps in the Civil War. George A. McCall, brevetted
+lieutenant-colonel at Palo Alto, was a major-general in the Civil War.
+Francis T. Bryan was a hero of Buena Vista. Lieutenant-Colonel Thomas
+P. Moore and Captain James Hogan both won fame in the 3rd Dragoons.
+Lieutenant Thomas Claiborn of the Mounted Rifles became a colonel in
+the Confederate Army. Lieutenant-Colonel J.W. Geary fought brilliantly
+and was to be heard from later with renown.</p>
+
+<p>Colonel John F. Reynolds of the 3rd Artillery lived to be
+major-general in the Civil War, and to fall gloriously at Gettysburg.
+Nor must we forget Major Folliot Lally's bravery at Cerro Gordo;
+Second Lieutenant Thomas W. Sweeny, a brigadier-general of the Civil
+War and the planner of the Fenian invasion of Canada in 1866;
+Lieutenant Henry B. Kelly of the 2nd Infantry, afterwards a
+Confederate colonel; Captain Martin Burke of the 1st Artillery, killed
+at Churubusco; nor Lieutenant William F. Barry of the 2nd Artillery, a
+brigadier-general in the Civil War. There were scores of other Irish
+named officers. In the whole American force of 30,000 engaged, the
+Irish born and Irish descended troops of all arms were numbered by
+thousands.</p>
+
+<p>It was, however, in the Civil War that the flood of Irish valor and
+loyalty to the American Republic was at its height. The 2,800,000
+enlistments on the Northern side stood probably for 1,800,000
+individual soldiers serving during the four years of the war. Not less
+than 40 per cent, of these were Irish born or of Irish descent. Of the
+337,800 men furnished by the State of New York, 51,206 were natives of
+Ireland out of the total of 134,178 foreign born, or 38 per cent, of
+the latter, while not less than 80,000 of Irish descent figured among
+the 203,600 native born soldiers. Of the 2,261 engagements in the war,
+few there were that saw no Irishmen in arms, and certainly, in every
+one of the 519 engagements that made Virginia a great graveyard, the
+Irish figured largely. Of the 1,000,516 mustered out in 1865, not less
+than 150,000 were natives of Ireland, while those of Irish descent
+numbered hundreds of thousands. They fought well everywhere, and it
+would require volumes to give the names and deeds of those who
+distinguished themselves more than their fellows.</p>
+
+<p>One name, however, shines with a great blaze above them all, the
+name of Philip H. Sheridan, one of the three supreme soldiers of the
+Union, Ulysses S. Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman being the others.
+Had Ireland furnished only Sheridan to the Union cause, her service
+would be beyond reward. He was born in Albany, N.Y., in March, 1831,
+the year after his parents, John and Mary Sheridan, arrived there from
+the Co. Cavan, in Ireland. The family moved to Somerset, Perry Co.,
+Ohio, the following year. There Philip began village life. How he
+gained the beginning of an education; worked in a grocery store;
+became a bookkeeper; longed for a West Point nomination and got it;
+how he worked through the Academy in 1853; served as lieutenant on the
+frontier, in Texas, California, and Oregon, until the outbreak of the
+Civil War, when he was promoted captain and ordered east, can be
+quickly told. His history until the fall of the Confederacy would need
+many long chapters. His military genius included all the requirements
+of a great captain, and his opportunties of exhibiting all his
+qualities in action came in rapid succession. In every service from
+quartermaster to army commander his talents shone. His tremendous
+vigor, incredible mental alertness, and genius for detail, added to
+his skill and outreach, continually set him forward. He stood 5 feet 5
+inches high, but somehow looked taller, owing to his erect, splendid
+bearing. There was something in the full chest, the thick muscular
+neck, the heavy head, the dark blazing eyes, and the quick bodily
+movements that arrested attention. His name has come down to this
+generation mainly as a great cavalry leader, but he was a natural
+commander of all arms, a great tactician, a born strategist. His
+campaign of the Shenandoah Valley was a whirlwind of success. His
+great battles around Richmond were wonderful. General Grant's opinion
+of Sheridan, given thirteen years after the war, sums up the man. It
+is here quoted from J.R. Young's book, <i>Around the World with
+General Grant</i>. It runs, in part, as follows:</p>
+
+<p>"As a soldier, as a commander of troops, as a man capable of doing
+all that is possible with any number of men, there is no man living
+greater than Sheridan. He belongs to the very first rank of soldiers,
+not only of our country but of the world. I rank Sheridan with
+Napoleon and Frederick and the great commanders in history. No man
+ever had such a faculty of finding things out as Sheridan, of knowing
+all about the enemy. He was always the best informed of his command as
+to the enemy. Then he had that magnetic quality of swaying men, which
+I wish I had, a rare quality in a general. I don't think anyone can
+give Sheridan too high praise."</p>
+
+<p>Praise from U.S. Grant is praise indeed. A peculiar feature of the
+Civil War was the growth of the generals: Grant, Sherman, Sheridan,
+Thomas, Meade, all conspicuously experienced it. With Sheridan,
+however, one point is notable, namely, that He triumphed in every
+branch in each successive extension of the field of his duties, and he
+went from captain to major-general in three years of the regular army.
+His care for his men was constant. His troops were always the best
+fed, best clothed, best rested in the armies en either side, but on no
+troops was there more constant call for endeavor, and they were never
+found to fail him. In action he is described as severe, peremptory,
+dominating, but his determinations were mighty things, not to be
+interfered with. He wanted things done and done at once. His men of
+all grades soon conceded that he knew best what to do, and set about
+doing it accordingly. Out of action he was joyous of spirit, but, in
+fight or out of it, his alertness and his lightning-like decisions
+marked him apart from every other commander. His career in the
+Tennessee campaign was meteoric. Of his score and more of great
+conflicts, the most picturesque was his wonderful battle at Cedar
+Creek, to fight which he rode at breakneck speed "from Winchester
+twenty miles away" through the dust and debris of a broken army to the
+extreme front, rallying the scattered regiments and turning a defeat
+into a crushing victory, which recovered all that had been lost,
+taking 25 cannon and 1,200 prisoners, and driving for miles the lately
+victorious enemy under Early. Captain P.J. O'Keefe was one of the two
+who made the ride beside him. The battles of Waynesboro, Five Forks,
+and Sailor's Creek showed the same brilliant generalship on the part
+of Sheridan. His hold on the affection of the army and the admiration
+of the people continued to the day of his death, August 5, 1888, when
+he held the headship of the United States army as general in
+succession to the great Sherman.</p>
+
+<p>General Sheridan, towards the end of the war, had a soldier's
+difference with Major-General George G. Meade, commander of the Army
+of the Potomac, but that did not blind "Little Phil" to the real merit
+of the victor in the tremendous three days' battle of Gettysburg,
+handling an army new to his hand against Robert E. Lee. The Meade
+family is of Irish descent. George Meade, the grandfather, came from
+Dublin and was a patriot in the American Revolutionary War. General
+Meade commanded a division at Antietam and a corps at Fredericksburg,
+and held command of the Army of the Potomac to the end of the war. He
+was a fine soldier and gentleman. Of quiet manners at most times, he
+was most irascible in the hour of battle, but his temper did not
+becloud his judgment. General James Shields and General Irwin
+McDowell, both fine Irish soldiers, have already been mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>It would be hard to compass in a brief article even the names of
+the general officers of Irish blood in the Civil War. General John
+Logan, who fought with the western armies, is worthy of high and
+honorable mention, as is General Thomas Francis Meagher, a patriot in
+Ireland, a prisoner in Australia, a soldier of dash in the Civil War.
+Meagher's Irish Brigade left a record of valor unsurpassed: their
+charge at Fredericksburg up Marye's Heights alone should give them
+full meed of fame. General Michael Corcoran, a native of Ireland,
+commanded the wholly Irish 69th Regiment when it departed for the war
+in 1861, and after his exchange from a Confederate prison raised and
+organized the Corcoran Legion. Major-General McDowell McCook commanded
+brilliantly in the western campaigns. Who has not heard of the
+Fighting McCooks?&mdash;a family of splendid men and hardy warriors.
+Brigadier-General Thomas C. Devin was a superb cavalry commander, who
+led the first division of Sheridan's Shenandoah army through all its
+great operations. General James Mulligan of Illinois was of the true
+fighting breed. Colonel Timothy O'Meara led his superb Irish Legion
+from Illinois up Missionary Ridge. Brigadier-General C.C. Sullivan of
+western army fame was one of the five generals, headed by Rosecrans,
+who recommended Phil Sheridan for promotion to brigadier-general after
+the battle of Booneville as "worth his weight in gold." General
+Brannan was a gallant division commander in the Middle Tennessee
+campaign. Colonel William P. Carlin made a name at Stone River.
+General James T. Boyle, of the Army of the Ohio under Buell, was the
+brave man whose promotion to division commander left a vacancy for
+"Little Phil", that was to be an immediate stepping stone to higher
+opportunity. Brigadier-General McMillan, who commanded the second
+brigide at Cedar Creek; Colonel Thomas W. Cahill, 9th Connecticut;
+Lieutenant-Colonel Alfred Neafie of the 156th New York; Captain
+Charles McCarthy of the 175th New York; Lieutenant-Colonel Alex. J.
+Kenny of the 8th Indiana; Lieutenant Terrence Reilly of the Horse
+Artillery, all won distinction in the Shenandoah Valley. Such splendid
+fighters as General James R. O'Beirne, Colonel Guiney, Colonel
+Cavanagh, Colonel John P. Byron, Colonel Patrick Gleason, General
+Denis F. Burke, wrote their names red over a score of battle fields,
+but one cannot hope to cover more than a fraction of the brilliant men
+of Irish blood who led and bled in the long, hard, and strenuous
+struggle. The 69th New York Regiment was the mother of a dozen Irish
+regiments, including the Irish Brigade of Meagher and the Corcoran
+Legion. The 9th, 28th, and 29th regiments of Massachusetts were all
+Irish. A gallant Irishman, born at Fermoy, was Brigadier-General
+Thomas Smyth, who made a name and died in the battles around Richmond.
+There was not a regiment from the middle western and western States
+that did not hold its quota of Irishmen and sons of the Irish. After
+the names of Porter and Farragut in the Navy stands next highest in
+honor that of Vice-Admiral Stephen C. Rowan, born in Dublin, of the
+famous family that produced Hamilton Rowan, one of the foremost of the
+United Irishmen. It was the son of the vice-admiral, a lieutenant in
+the army, who carried "the message to Garcia" from the United States
+War Department to the Cuban commander in the eastern jungle of Cuba,
+before the outbreak of the war with Spain, and did it so well and
+bravely through such difficulties and dangers that his name will stand
+for "the faithful messenger" forever.</p>
+
+<p>As a consequence of their stand with the American people in the
+Civil War, the position of the whole mass of the Irish and
+Irish-American people was vastly uplifted in American eyes. The
+unlettered poverty of scores of thousands of Irish immigrants, who
+came in multitudes from 1846 on, had made an unfavorable and false
+impression; their red blood on the battle field washed it out.</p>
+
+<p>On the southern side as well, Irish valor shone. While the great
+flood of the mid-century Irish immigration had spread itself mainly
+north, east, and west, the larger cities of the South also received a
+share. The slave system precluded the entry of free labor into the
+cotton, corn, lumber, and sugar lands of the South, but such cities as
+New Orleans, Mobile, Charleston, Savannah, Vicksburg, and Richmond
+gave varied employment to many of the Irish who made their homes in
+the Southland, and so they came to furnish thousands of recruits to
+the local Confederate levies. The "Louisiana Tigers", who fought so
+valiantly at Gettysburg on the Southern side, included many Irish. The
+Georgia brigade, that held the Confederate line atop of Marye's
+Heights at Fredericksburg, up which the Irish brigade so heroically
+charged, had whole companies of Irish. There were scores of Irish in
+many of the regiments that made Pickett's memorable charge at
+Gettysburg. All through the Confederate armies were valiant
+descendants of the earlier Irish immigration that settled the uplands
+of the Carolinas and Virginia and the blue grass region of Kentucky.
+Most famous, most glorious of these was "Stonewall"
+Jackson&mdash;Lieutenant-General Thomas Jonathan Jackson&mdash;next to
+Robert E. Lee the greatest soldier on the southern side. No more
+splendid soldier-figure rises out of the contest. Educated at West
+Point, serving in Mexico, then a professor of philosophy&mdash;and
+artillery&mdash;next a volunteer with his State when Virginia took
+arms against the Union, his long and brilliant service included a
+large share in the victories at Bull Run, Gaines Mill, Malvern Hill,
+Cedar Mountain, Harper's Ferry, Antietam, Fredericksburg, and
+Chancellorsville, where he was accidentally wounded by his own men. He
+was once defeated by General Shields, as has been noted. The piety and
+purity of his life belie the supposed necessity for the coarser traits
+that are thought to go with the terrible trade. General Patrick R.
+Cleburne was born in 1828, near Cork, Ireland. He was in the English
+army three years, and, coming to the United States, became a lawyer at
+Helena, Ark. He enlisted in the Confederate army as a private, rose
+rapidly to the command of a brigade, and made a great name at Shiloh.
+As major-general he led divisions at Murfreesboro and Chickamauga, and
+was thanked by the Confederate Congress. He fell at the battle of
+Franklin&mdash;a soldier of commanding presence, skill, and daring,
+beloved by the whole Army of the West. The gallant colonel Thomas
+Claiborne was a striking cavalryman. It was Lieutenant Thomas A.
+Claiborne of the 1st South Carolina who, with Corporal B. Brannan,
+lashed the broken flagstaff on Fort Sumter in June, 1864, when, under
+a withering fire, the flag of the Confederacy had been shot away. The
+fighting of Major-General Gary of South Carolina around Richmond was
+desperate. He was the last to leave the city when it fell, as told by
+Captain Sullivan: "He galloped at night through the burning city, and
+at the bridge over the James cried out, 'We are the rear guard. It is
+all over; blow the bridge to h&mdash;l!' and went on into the
+night"</p>
+
+<p>The story of the Civil War is a mine of honor to the Irish, and
+Irishmen should set it forth at length. Here it can be merely glanced
+at.</p>
+
+<p>The war of 1898 with Spain&mdash;that great patriotic
+efflorescence&mdash;was brief in its campaigning. Immediately provoked
+by the blowing up of the U.S.S. <i>Maine</i> in Havana harbor on
+February 15, war was declared on April 19. Admiral Dewey sank the
+Spanish fleet in Manila Harbor, May 1. The first troops landed on
+Cuban soil June 1. The first&mdash;and last&mdash;real land battle
+before Santiago occurred on July 1-2, with 13,500 troops on the
+American side against an available Spanish force somewhat less in
+number, but holding strongly fortified and entrenched positions around
+the town. The advance and charges uphill necessary to capture El Caney
+and the steep heights of San Juan called for desperate courage. It was
+there, however, and the Irish in the army exhibited dash and
+persistence, as duty demanded. In the second day's fighting the
+Spanish assaults on the American positions were repelled, and the land
+fighting was over. The Americans in the two days lost over 10 per cent
+killed and wounded. The destruction of Cervera's fleet on its attempt
+to escape from Santiago on July 3 ended the struggle. With the
+regiment of Rough Riders, under Theodore Roosevelt&mdash;who says he
+reckons "an O'Brien, a Redmond, and a man from Ulster" among his
+for-bears&mdash;were many gallant Irishmen&mdash;Kellys, Murphys,
+Burkes, and Doyles, for instance. His favorite captain, "Bucky"
+O'Neill of Arizona, fell at the foot of San Juan. The white regiments
+of the regular army had their quota of Irish, as had most of the
+volunteers. The 9th Massachusetts was all Irish. The 69th New York,
+all Irish, never reached the front in the war, but shared the fate of
+the 150,000 troops cantoned through the Southern States, their only
+effective enemies being dysentery, typhoid, and malaria.</p>
+
+<p>A little splash of Irish blood came with the Fenian dash into
+Canada on June 1, 1866. There had been active preparations for a real
+invasion by some 50,000 Irish-born or Irish-fathered soldiers who had
+served in the Civil War. The American government, using its army
+force, intervened to prevent the bellicose movement, not, however,
+before Colonel John O'Neill, who had served in the cavalry with
+Sherman on his march to the sea, with Captain Starr, one of
+Kilpatrick's cavalry, Captain O'Brien, and about 700 well-armed men,
+all Civil War veterans, had slipped across the Niagara River at Fort
+Erie. They made short work of all in sight, threw out a couple of
+hundred men who burned a bridge and tore up the railroad tracks. Their
+scouts fired on a small British detachment, which ran. On the morning
+of June 2 news came of a larger Canadian force advancing, and O'Neill
+went out to meet them. Deploying his men in a field near the high road
+at a place called Ridgway, he sent his pickets forward. They found
+heavy ground in front and about three-quarters of a mile away some
+1,400 men of the "Queen's Own" of Toronto and the Hamilton Volunteers
+advancing rapidly in line. O'Neill, after a few rounds, withdrew his
+pickets, and the Canadians, taking the movement for flight, came
+briskly on. As soon as they were clear of cover, O'Neill, firing a
+volley, gave orders for a charge. At it they went with a cheer, and
+the whole Canadian line gave way. They ran as fast as their legs could
+carry them, leaving some fifty killed and wounded. After chasing them
+for two miles, O'Neill halted his men and brought them back to Fort
+Erie, where they intrenched. The Canadians did not stop until they
+reached Colburne, eighteen miles away. The Fenian loss was
+twenty-five. In the night O'Neill learned that no help was coming from
+the United States' side, while news reached him that a force of 5,000
+Canadian and British regulars was advancing on Fort Erie. Accordingly,
+at 2 a.m. on June 3, he surrendered to the United States forces with
+400 of his men, who were detained for a few days on the U.S.S.
+<i>Michigan</i> and then let go. The balance of his force, about 250
+men, escaped in groups across the river. There was another little
+victorious skirmish with the Canadians lower down under Captain Spear,
+who also slipped back over the border unpursued. What fighting took
+place was workmanlike and creditable.</p>
+
+<p>There was a flicker of Irish fighting spirit in the Boer War. Many
+thousands, no doubt, were in the English army of 250,000 men brought
+against the 30,000 Boers, but there was a small "Irish Brigade" that
+fought on the Boer side, and was notably engaged at Spion Kop, where
+the English were driven so sweepingly from their position by desperate
+charges.</p>
+
+<p>In the War of 1870, between France and Prussia, the good wishes of
+the Irish went with France, for the sake of the old friendship,
+largely helped, no doubt, by the fact that at the summit of army
+command was Marshal MacMahon, a descendant of a warrior of the old
+Irish Brigade. His service in Algiers; his skill and daring in the
+Crimean War before Sebastopol, where he led the division which stormed
+the Malakoff; his victories in the Italian War of 1859 against
+Austria, including the great battle of Magenta, all made him a
+striking, romantic figure. He failed in 1870 against the Prussians at
+Worth, and was made prisoner with his army at Sedan, but he suppressed
+the Commune after the war and was President of France from 1873 to
+1879. The device by which 300 Irishmen took part on the French side in
+the war with Germany has a grim humor. They went as aides in an
+ambulance corps fitted out in Dublin by subscription, but, once on
+French soil, enlisted in the army. "Maybe we can kill as well as we
+can cure," said one of them. The <i>Compagnie irlandaise</i>, as it
+was called, did creditable work, and was in the last combat with the
+Prussians at Montbellard. Their captain, M.W. Kirwan, was offered a
+Cross of the Legion of Honor, but for some reason declined it. Dr.
+Constantine J. McGuire, who won the decoration for bravery before
+Paris during the siege of the Commune, did, however, accept it,
+receiving the cross from the hands of Marshal MacMahon, and, hale and
+hearty, wears the red ribbon on occasion in New York today.</p>
+
+<p>Even as this chronicle of daring deeds and daring doers is being
+penned, in the ranks and as commanding officers on the side of the
+allies in the far-flung battle lines of the great European war, are
+men of Irish birth, and, let it not be forgotten, not a few of the
+opposing side are the descendants of the Irish military geniuses who,
+in days gone by, fought so gallantly across the continent "from
+Dunkirk to Belgrade". They are all, every man of them, bearing
+bravely, as of yore, their own part amid the dangers and chances of
+the fray.</p>
+
+<p>If the inspiring story is of necessity here barely sketched in
+outline, it nevertheless clearly indicates that, as it has been for
+two thousand years of Irish history, so it will be to the end of the
+human chapter&mdash;the Irish race is the Fighting Race, and willing,
+even eager, to risk life itself for vital issues.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Keating's, MacGeoghegan's, Mitchel's Histories of Ireland; J.C.
+O'Callaghan: The Irish Brigades in the Service of France, The Green
+Book; Lossing: Field Book of the Revolution, Field Book of the War of
+1812; Several Mexican War Histories; Battles and Leaders of the Civil
+War; The Irish at Home and Abroad (New York, 1856); Canon O'Hanlon:
+Irish-American History of the United States; O'Hart; Irish Pedigrees;
+Martin I. Griffin: Life of Commodore Barry; John D. Crimmins: Irish
+Miscellany; Joseph Denieffe: Fenian Recollections; Plowden: Historical
+Review of the State of Ireland (London, 1803); Hays: History of the
+Irish (1798) Rebellion; Macaulay: History of England; J. R. Young:
+Around the World with General Grant; several valuable articles and
+records of research by Michael J. O'Brien of New York.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T15"></a>THE SORROWS OF IRELAND</h2>
+<h4>By JOHN JEROME ROONEY, A.M., LL.D.</h4>
+
+<p>"The sorrows of Ireland"! What a vision of woe the words conjure
+up. The late Goldwin Smith, himself an Englishman and a Unionist, in
+his <i>Irish History and the Irish Question</i>, finds that "of all
+histories, the history of Ireland is the saddest. For nearly seven
+centuries it was a course of strife between races, bloodshed,
+massacre, misgovernment, civil war, oppression, and misery."</p>
+
+<p>The first of the great scourges of Erin was the coming of the
+Danes, the bloodthirsty and conquest-loving Vikings of the North, the
+worshipers of Thor and Odin, the gods of thunder and of strife. These
+warriors, in never-ending invasions, had for four hundred years
+overrun Britain and finally conquered the northern provinces of Gaul.
+Until the end of the eighth century Ireland had been free from the
+Scandinavian scourge. About this time the invaders made lodgments
+along the caasts, passed inward through the island, burned and looted
+religious houses and schools of learning, levied tribute upon the
+inhabitants, and at length established themselves firmly at Limerick,
+Waterford, Dublin, Wexford, and Carlingford. Fortified towns were
+built, trading communications with Britain and the continent were set
+up, and the Northman, though not in actual possession of the interior
+of the island, was apparently in substantial control of its destinies.
+Brian Borumha, or Boru, brother of the king of Munster, of the
+Dalcassian race of O'Brien, refused to submit, roused his brother,
+fought the Danes of Limerick at Sulchoid (A.D. 968), and captured
+Limerick. Brian later succeeded his brother, became sovereign of all
+Ireland (A.D. 1001), and, on Good Friday, A.D. 1014, joined battle
+with the Danes upon the famous field of Clontarf. Here the power of
+the Northmen was forever broken, Brian falling at the moment of
+victory, while in his tent, by the hand of a fugitive Dane.</p>
+
+<p>With the death of Brian the united government dissolved. The
+provincial kings, or princes, resumed separate authority and a
+struggle arose among them, with varying success, for the national
+sovereignty. The central government never had been strong, as the
+nation was organized on a tribal or family basis. In this weakened
+condition Dermot MacMurrough, king of Leinster, abducted the wife of
+O'Rourke, prince of Breffni, while the latter was on a pilgrimage.
+MacMurrough was compelled to fly to England. He sought the protection
+of the Angevin English king, Henry Plantagenet. As a result of this
+appeal, a small expedition, headed by Strongbow (A.D. 1169), was sent
+to Ireland, and Waterford, Wexford, and Dublin were taken. Then came
+Henry himself, in 1171, with a fleet of 240 ships, 400 knights, and
+4,000 men, landing at Waterford. This expedition was the beginning of
+the English attempted conquest of Ireland&mdash;a proceeding that,
+through all the ruin and bloodshed of 800 years, is not yet
+accomplished. Henry's first act was to introduce the feudal system
+into that southern half of the island which he controlled; he seized
+great tracts of land, which he in turn granted to his followers under
+feudal customs; he introduced the offices of the English feudal system
+and the English laws, and placed his followers in all the positions of
+power, holding their lands and authority under the feudal conditions
+of rendering him homage and military service.</p>
+
+<p>This was the root of the alien "landlordism" and foreign political
+control of future times which became the chief curses of Ireland, the
+prolific source of innumerable woes. The succeeding years till the
+reign of Henry VIII. witnessed the extension, and at times the
+decline, of the Anglo-Norman rule. When Henry VII. became king of
+England the Anglo-Norman colony or "Pale" had shrunk to two counties
+and a half around Dublin, defended by a ditch. Many of the original
+Norman knights had become "more Irish than the Irish themselves." Such
+was the great family of the Geraldines or Fitzgerald&mdash;the most
+powerful, with the O'Neills of the North, in Ireland. A united attack
+at this time would most certainly have driven out the invader; for it
+must be remembered that Dublin, the "Pale"&mdash;"the Castle
+government" of later times&mdash;was the citadel of the English
+foreign power, and before a united nation would most certainly have
+succumbed.</p>
+
+<p>When Henry VIII. ascended the throne of England, the policy of
+peace in Ireland was continued during the early portion of his reign.
+Then came Henry's break with the Pope over the royal divorce. The
+Irish beyond the Pale, and many within it, were loyal to the Church of
+their fathers, to the faith of Patrick, the faith of the Roman See. To
+Henry and his daughter Elizabeth, the daughter of Anne Boleyn, who
+displaced Henry's lawful wife, this was treason. Henceforth, to the
+bitterness of race hatred and the pride of the conqueror were to be
+added the blackest of religious feuds, the most cruel of religious
+persecutions in the history of the world. Again let Goldwin Smith, the
+English Unionist, describe the result: "Of all the wars waged by a
+civilized on a barbarous <i>(sic)</i> and despised race these wars
+waged by the English on the Irish seem to have been the most hideous.
+No quarter was given by the invader to man, woman, or child. The
+butchering of women and children is repeatedly and brutally avowed.
+Nothing can be more horrible than the cool satisfaction with which
+English commanders report their massacres." Famine was deliberately
+added to the other horrors. What was called law was more cruel than
+war: it was death without the opportunity for defense and with the
+hypocrisy of the forms of justice added.</p>
+
+<p>Out of this situation came the infamous Penal Code, which, by the
+period of William the Third, about 1692, became a finished system.
+This is the "Irish Code" of which Lord Brougham said: "It was so
+ingeniously contrived that an Irish Catholic could not lift his hand
+without breaking it." And Edmund Burke said: "The wit of man never
+devised a machine to disgrace a realm or destroy a kingdom so perfect
+as this." Montesquieu, the great French jurist-philosopher, the author
+of the epoch-making <i>Spirit of the Laws</i>, commented: "It must
+have been contrived by devils; it ought to have been written in blood;
+and the only place to register it is in hell." Yet for two hundred
+years this code of death, national and individual, was the supreme law
+of Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>Wendell Phillips, the great American orator, in his lecture on
+"Daniel O'Connell," summed up this Penal Code in words that will not
+soon be forgotten by the world. His reference to Mr. Froude is to
+James Anthony Froude, the English historian. He says:</p>
+
+<p>"You know that, under it, an Irish Catholic could not sit in the
+House of Commons; he could not hold any commission from the Crown,
+either civil or military; he could be a common soldier&mdash;nothing
+more. He could neither vote, nor sit on a jury, nor stand on a witness
+stand, nor bring a suit, nor be a doctor, nor be a lawyer, nor travel
+five miles from his own home without a permit from a justice of the
+peace. The nearest approach that ever was made to him was a South
+Carolina negro before the war. He had no rights that a Protestant
+needed to respect. If he was a land-holder, if all his children were
+Catholics, he was obliged to divide the land equally between them.
+This was the English plan for eliminating the Catholic tenure of the
+land and letting it slip out of their hands. Then, if any of the
+children, during their father's life, concluded to become Protestants,
+in such case they took the whole estate; or, indeed, they might compel
+the father to put his estate in trust for their benefit. So, if the
+Catholic wife would not go to an Episcopalian church once a
+month&mdash;which she deemed it a sin to do&mdash;she forfeited her
+dower. But if she went regularly, she could have all the estate. If a
+Catholic had a lease, and it rose one-quarter in value, any Protestant
+could take it from him by bringing that fact to the notice of a
+justice of the peace. Three justices of the peace might summon any
+Catholic before them, and oblige him to give up his faith, or quit the
+realm. Four justices could oblige him to abjure his faith or sell his
+estates. If a Protestant paid one dollar tax, the Catholic paid two.
+If a Protestant lost a ship, when at war with a Catholic
+power&mdash;and at the time there was only <i>one</i> Protestant power
+in Europe, besides Great Britain; that was Holland: so that the
+chances were nine to one that, in case of war, Great Britain would be
+at war with a Catholic power&mdash;in such a case, if a Protestant
+lost a ship, he went home and assessed the value on his Catholic
+neighbors, and was reimbursed. So, of education. We fret a great deal
+on account of a class of Irishmen who come to our shores and are
+lacking in education, in culture, and refinement. But you must
+remember the bad laws, you must remember the malignant legislation,
+that sentenced them to a life of ignorance, and made education a
+felony in Catholic Ireland. If an Irishman sent his child to a
+Protestant schoolmaster, all right; but if the parent would not do so,
+and sent him to a Catholic school, the father was fined ten pounds a
+week; and the schoolmaster was fined five pounds a week; and for the
+third offense he was hung! But, if the father determined that his
+child should be educated, and sent him across the Channel to France,
+the boy forfeited his citizenship and became an alien; and, if
+discovered, the father was fined one hundred pounds; and anybody,
+except the father, who harbored him, forfeited all civil
+rights&mdash;that is, he could not sue in a court of law, nor could he
+vote. Indeed, a Catholic could not marry! If he married a Protestant,
+the marriage was void; the children were illegitimate. And, if one
+Catholic married another, it required the presence of a priest, and if
+a priest landed in Ireland for twenty minutes, it was death! To this
+ferocious 'Code', Sir Robert Peel, in our own day, added the climax,
+that no Catholic should quit his dwelling between the hours of sunset
+and sunrise, an exaggeration of the 'Curfew Law' of William the
+Conqueror. Now, you will hardly believe that this was enacted as a
+law. But Mr. Froude alludes to this code. Yes; he was very honest; he
+would paint England as black as she deserved. He said of Queen
+Elizabeth that she failed in her duty as a magistrate; she failed
+towards Ireland in her capability of being a great ruler. And then he
+proceeded, after passing sentence, to give us the history of her
+reign, and showed that, in very many cases, she could not have done
+any different. For instance&mdash;oh! it is the saddest, blackest,
+most horrible statement of all history; it makes you doubt the very
+possibility of human nature&mdash;when you read that Spenser, the
+poet, who had the most ardent, most perfect ideas in English
+poetry&mdash;Spenser sat at the council board that ordered the
+wholesale butchery of a Spanish regiment captured in Ireland, and, to
+execute the order, he chose Sir Walter Raleigh, the scholar, the
+gentleman, the poet, the author, and the most splendid Englishman of
+his age! And Norris, a captain under Sidney, in whose veins flowed the
+blood of Sir Philip, writing home to Elizabeth, begs and persuades her
+to believe in O'Neill's crimes, and asks for leave to send a hired man
+to poison him! And the Virgin Queen makes no objection! Mr. Froude
+quotes a letter from Captain Norris, in which he states that he found
+himself in an island where five hundred Irish (all women and children;
+not a man among them) had taken refuge from the war; and he
+deliberately butchered every living soul! And Queen Elizabeth, in a
+letter still extant, answers by saying: 'Tell my good servant that I
+will not forget his good services.' He tells us that 'The English
+nobility and gentry would take a gun as unhesitatingly as a fowler,
+and go out to shoot an Irishman as an Indian would a buffalo.' Then he
+tells us, with amazement, that you never could make an Irishman
+respect an Englishman! He points to some unhappy Kildare, the sole
+relic of a noble house, whose four uncles were slaughtered in cold
+blood&mdash;that is the only word for this kind of execution,
+<i>slaughtered</i>&mdash;and he, left alone, a boy, grows up
+characterless and kills an archbishop. Every impetuous, impatient act
+is dragged before the prejudiced mind. But when Mr. Froude is painting
+Sir Walter and Spenser, blind no longer, he says: 'I regret&mdash;it
+is very sad to think&mdash;that such things should ever have
+been!'"</p>
+
+<p>Such was the cup from which Ireland drank even into the days of men
+now living. Nor was this all. The rise of English manufactures brought
+a new chapter of woes to Ireland. The Irish cattle trade had been
+killed by an Act of Charles II. for the benefit of English farmers.
+The Irish then took up the raising of wool and woolen manufactures. A
+flourishing trade grew up. An English law destroyed it. In succession
+the same greed killed the cotton, the glovemaking, the glassmaking,
+and the brewing trades. These were reserved for the English maker and
+merchant. These crimes upon Irish industry surpassed a thousand-fold
+the later English attempts upon the industries of the American
+colonies.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Code, and through the extreme poverty produced thereby,
+substantially all the land of Ireland passed out of the hands of the
+people. They became mere serfs upon the soil. Their tribute was paid
+through a rapacious agent to a foreign landlord. The improvement of
+the land by the labor of the tenant brought increase of rent. There
+was no fixity of tenure of the land. It was held at the will of the
+agent, reflecting the rapacity of the non-resident landlord. Upon
+these holdings the principal crop was the potato. A failure of this
+crop was a failure to pay rent, eviction on the roadside, and
+starvation. The results, after the enactment of the Penal Code, and
+during the greater part of the eighteenth century, are thus described
+by Goldwin Smith: "On such a scene of misery as the abodes of the
+Irish cotters the sun has rarely looked down. Their homes were the
+most miserable hovels, chimneyless, filthy. Of decent clothing they
+were destitute. Their food was the potato; sometimes they bled their
+cattle and mixed the blood with sorrel. The old and sick were
+everywhere dying by cold and hunger, and rotting amidst filth and
+vermin. When the potato failed, as it often did, came famine, with
+disease in its train. Want and misery were in every face, the roads
+were spread with dead and dying, there was sometimes none to bear the
+dead to the grave, and they were buried in the fields and ditches
+where they perished. Fluxes and malignant fevers followed, laying
+these villages waste. 'I have seen,' says a contemporaneous witness,
+'the laborer endeavoring to work at his spade, but fainting for want
+of food and forced to quit it. I have seen the helpless orphan exposed
+on the dunghill, and none to take him in for fear of infection. And I
+have seen the hungry infant sucking at the breast of the already
+expired parent.'"</p>
+
+<p>All these are not only the horrors of a hundred or two hundred
+years ago; they were repeated in ten thousand forms in the awful
+famine days of 1847. In 1841 the population of Ireland was 8,796,545
+persons. In 1851, after four years of famine, the population was
+6,551,970, leaving 2,244,575 persons to be accounted for, and taking
+no account of the natural increase of the population during the ten
+years. Not less than a million and a half of these died of starvation
+and the fevers brought on by famine. The remainder emigrated to
+foreign lands.</p>
+
+<p>In this account of the Sorrows of Ireland nothing has been said of
+the vast emigrations, thousands upon thousands of persons in the
+seventeenth and eighteenth centuries leaving Ireland under forced
+deportations, in a practical selling into slavery. The sum total of
+this loss to Ireland cannot be less than 5,000,000 souls. The earlier
+deportations were carried out under the most atrocious circumstances.
+Families were broken up and scattered to distant and separate
+colonies, such as Barbados, the New England States, and later to the
+South Pacific.</p>
+
+<p>This is but a glance at some of the wrongs to Ireland's religious,
+intellectual, and material welfare, wrongs that have plunged her into
+an age-long poverty. But one of the greatest of all her sorrows has
+been the denial of her national life, the attempt to strangle her
+rightful aspirations as a free people. Her autonomy was taken from
+her; her smallest legislative act was the act of a stranger; in fine,
+every mark of political slavery was put upon her. A foreign soldiery
+was, and still is, quartered upon her soil. The control of her
+revenues, of the system of taxation, was wrested from her. These
+became the function of a hateful resident oligarchy, alien in
+everything to the Irish people, and of the English parliament, to
+which she was not admitted until the days of Daniel O'Connell. And
+then she was admitted only through fear of revolution.</p>
+
+<p>The dawn has come. The dark night is almost past; the heroic
+struggle of Ireland is about to close in triumph. Her loyalty to her
+ideals of freedom and religion is to meet its reward. The epitaph of
+Robert Emmet will soon be written, for at last Ireland is certain of
+"taking her place among the nations of the earth."</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>D'Alton: History of Ireland; J.P. Prendergast: Cromwellian
+Settlement; Barrington: Rise and Fall of the Irish Nation; McNevin:
+Confiscation of Ulster; R.R. Madden: History of the Penal Laws;
+Murphy: Cromwell in Ireland; T.A. Emmet: Ireland under English Rule, 2
+vols.; Mrs. J.R. Green: Irish Nationality; Walpole: A Short History of
+the Kingdom of Ireland; A.M. Sullivan: Story of Ireland; Thomas Moore:
+History of Ireland; Edmund Spenser: View of the State of Ireland; C.
+Gavan Duffy: Four Years of Irish History, 1845-49; Isaac Butt: Land
+Tenure in Ireland; Justin McCarthy: History of our own Times; Johnston
+and Spencer: Ireland's Story; MacGeoghegan's History of Ireland and
+its continuation by John Mitchel; William Sampson: Memoirs of an Irish
+Exile, 1832; John Curry: A Historical and Critical Review of the Civil
+Wars in Ireland (1775); John Boyle: The Battlefields of Ireland
+(1879); Speeches of Edmund Burke, Daniel O'Connell, Henry Grattan;
+Wendell Phillips's Speech on Daniel O'Connell; Father Tom Burke:
+Lectures on Ireland.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T16"></a>IRISH LEADERS</h2>
+<h4>By SHANE LESLIE.</h4>
+
+<p>Irish leaders have proved far-famed but not long-lived. Their short
+and strenuous careers have burnt out in their prime, and their ends
+have been such as attend conflagrations. More often they have left a
+pall than a light in the heavens, for the most brilliant lives in
+Irish history have led to the most tragic deaths. The Destiny which
+allotted them impossible tasks has given them immortality on the
+scenes of their glorious failure.</p>
+
+<p>They differ from leaders of other countries, who divide the average
+pittances of success or ill success on the road to honored retirement.
+Few of the heroes among modern nations have left such vivid and
+lasting memory as "the strong men of Ireland." During the nineteenth
+century their lore and cult have traversed the whole world in the wake
+of the great emigrations. Whether they failed or succeeded in wresting
+the independence and ideals of Ireland for a while from the fell
+clutch of circumstance, they live with their race forever.</p>
+
+<p>Under Plantagenet and Tudor rule, the Irish leaders presented a
+sullen but armed resistance. A never completed invasion was met by
+sporadic raids and successive risings. A race of military outlaws was
+fashioned, which accounts for much in Irish character today.
+Previously the Irish, like all Celtic civilization, was founded on the
+arts, on speech, and on law, rather than on war and feudalism.</p>
+
+<p>Even Irish militancy was crushed in the Williamite wars, and the
+race, deprived of its original subsistence as well as of its acquired
+defense, sank into the stupor of penal times. Those who should have
+been leaders of Ireland became marshals of Austria and France.</p>
+
+<p>Gradually it was learnt that the pen is mightier than the sword and
+the human voice more potent than the sound of cannon&mdash;and the
+constitutional struggle developed, not without relapse and reverse. To
+Dean Swift must be attributed the change in the national weapon and
+the initiation of a leadership of resistance within the law, which has
+lasted into modern times. Accident made Swift an Irishman, and a
+chance attempt to circulate debased coins in Ireland for the benefit
+of a debased but royal favorite made him a patriot. Swift drove out
+Wood's halfpence at the pen-point. He shamed the government, he
+checked the all-powerful Walpole, and he roused the manhood of Ireland
+towards independence in legislation. He never realized what a position
+history would give him. To himself he seemed a gloomy failure, to his
+contemporaries a popular pamphleteer, but to posterity he is the
+creator of public conscience in Ireland. He was the father of
+patriotic journalism, and the first to defend Ireland's rights through
+literature. Though his popularity was quenched in lunacy, his impress
+upon Irish politics remains as powerful and lasting as upon English
+literature.</p>
+
+<p>Within the so-called Irish parliament sprang forth the first of a
+long line of orators, Henry Flood. He was the first to study the
+Constitution for purposes of opposition. He attacked vice-regal
+government in its own audit-house. Pension and corruption he laid
+bare, and upon the people he breathed a spirit of independence.
+Unfortunately he was not content with personal prominence. He accepted
+office, hoping thereby to benefit Ireland. His voice became lost to
+the higher cause, and another man rose in his stead, Henry Grattan.
+The American war tested the rival champions of Liberty. Flood favored
+sending Irish troops, "armed negotiators" he called them, to deal with
+the revolted colonists. Grattan nobly reviled him for
+standing&mdash;"with a metaphor in his mouth and a bribe in his
+pocket, a champion against the rights of America, the only hope of
+Ireland and the only refuge of the liberties of mankind." Flood
+collapsed under his ignoble honors. He was not restored by returning
+to patriotic opposition. Grattan's leadership proved permanent
+politically and historically. His name connotes the high water-mark of
+Irish statesmanship. The parliament which he created and whose rights
+he defined became a standard, and his name a talisman and a challenge
+to succeeding generations. The comparative oratory of Grattan and
+Flood is still debated. Both after a manner were unique and
+unsurpassed. Flood possessed staying power in sheer invective and
+sustained reasoning. Grattan was fluent in epigram and most inspiring
+when condensed, and he had an immense moral advantage. The parliament
+which made him a grant was independent, but it was from one of
+subservience that Flood drew his salary. Henceforth Grattan was
+haunted by the jealous and discredited herald of himself. A great
+genius, Flood lacked the keen judgment and careless magnanimity
+without which leadership in Ireland brings misunderstanding and
+disaster. In the English House he achieved total failure. Grattan
+followed him after the Union, but retained the attention if not the
+power of Dublin days. Neither influenced English affairs, and their
+eloquence curiously was considered cold and sententious. Their
+rhapsody appeared artificial, and their exposition labored. The
+failure of these men was no stigma. What is called "Irish oratory"
+arose with the inclusion of the Celtic under strata in politics.</p>
+
+<p>Burke's speeches were delivered to an empty house. Though he lived
+out of Ireland and never became an Irish leader in Ireland, Burke had
+an influence in England greater than that of any Irishman before or
+since. The beauty and diction of his speech fostered future
+parliamentary speaking. Macaulay, Gladstone, Peel, and Brougham were
+suckled on him. His farthest reaching achievement was his treatment of
+the French Revolution. His single voice rolled back that storm in
+Europe. But no words could retard revolution in Ireland herself. Venal
+government made the noblest conservative thinking seem treason to the
+highest interests of the country. The temporary success of Grattan's
+parliament had been largely won by the Volunteers. They had been
+drilled, ostensibly against foreign invasion, but virtually to secure
+reforms at home. Their power became one with which England had to
+reckon, and which she never forgave. Lord Charlemont, their president,
+was an estimable country gentleman, but not a national leader. A more
+dashing figure appeared in the singular Earl of Bristol. Though an
+Irish bishop and an English peer, he set himself in the front rank of
+the movement, assuming with general consent the demeanor and trappings
+of royalty. He would not have hesitated to plunge Ireland into war,
+had he obtained Charlemont's position. But it was not so fated.</p>
+
+<p>After forcing parliamentary independence the Volunteers meekly
+disbanded, and the United Irishmen took their place. The brilliancy of
+Grattan's parliament never fulfilled national aspirations. Bristol was
+succeeded by another recruit from the aristocracy&mdash;Lord Edward
+Fitzgerald. With Wolfe Tone and Robert Emmet he has become legendary.
+All three attained popular canonization, for all three sealed their
+brief leadership with death.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Edward was a dreamer, an Irish Bayard, too chivalrous to
+conspire successfully and too frankly courageous to match a government
+of guile. Tone was far more dangerous. He realized that foreign
+invasion was necessary to successful rebellion, and he allowed no
+scruple or obstacle in his path. He washed his hands of law and
+politics entirely. To divert Napoleon to Ireland was his object and
+the total separation of Ireland his ambition. The United Irishmen
+favored the invasion, which the Volunteers had been formed to repel.
+The feud between moral and physical force broke out. The failure of
+the sterner policy in 1798 did not daunt Emmet from his ill-starred
+attempt in 1803. He combined Lord Edward's chivalry with some
+abilities worthy of Tone, but he failed. The failure he redeemed by a
+swan-song from the dock and a demeanor on the scaffold which have
+become part of Irish tradition.</p>
+
+<p>After the Union, Irish leaders sprang up in the English House,
+which Pitt had unwittingly made the cockpit of the racial struggle.
+Far from absorbing the Irish element, the Commons found themselves
+forced to resist, rally, and finally succumb.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish House cannot be dismissed without mention of Curran. He
+was a brilliant enemy of corruption and servility. O'Connell said
+"there was never so honest an Irishman," which may account for his
+greater success as a lawyer than a politician. To be an Irish leader
+and a successful lawyer is given to no man. For the former the
+sacrifice of a great career is needed. This sacrifice Daniel O'Connell
+was prepared to make. His place in history will never be estimated,
+for few have been so loved or hated, or for stronger reasons. Never
+did a tribune rising to power lift his people to such sudden hope and
+success. Never did a champion leave his followers at his death and
+decline to more terrible despair. Friend and foe admit his immensity.
+He was the greatest Irishman that ever lived or seemingly could live.
+In his own person he contained the whole genius of the Celt. Ireland
+could not hold his emotions, which overflowed into the world for
+expression. He rose on the crest of a religious agitation, but,
+Emancipation won, he had the foresight to associate the Irish cause
+with the advent of Reform and Liberalism throughout Europe. He sounded
+the notes of free-trade and anti-slavery. What he said in parliament
+one day, Ireland re-echoed the next. To her he was all in all, her
+hero and her prophet, her Messias and her strong deliverer. On the
+continent he roughly personified Christian Democracy.</p>
+
+<p>In public oratory O'Connell introduced a new style. Torrential and
+overwhelming as Flood and Grattan had never been, he proved more
+successful if less polished. The exaggerations of Gaelic speech found
+outburst in his English. Peel's smile was "the silver plate on a
+coffin", Wellington "a stunted corporal", and Disraeli "the lineal
+descendant of the impenitent thief."</p>
+
+<p>It sounds bombastic, but in those feudal forties it rang more
+magnificent than war. Single-voiced he overawed the host of bigots,
+dullards, and reactionaries. Unhappily, he let his people abandon
+their native tongue, while teaching them how to balance the rival
+parties in England, the latter a policy that has proved Ireland's
+fortune since. He loosed the spirit of sectarianism in the tithe war,
+and he crushed the Young Ireland movement, which bred Fenianism in its
+death agony. But he made the Catholic a citizen. Results stupendous as
+far-reaching sprang from his steps every way.</p>
+
+<p>The finest pen-sketch of O'Connell is by Mitchel, who says,
+"besides superhuman and subterhuman passions, yet withal, a boundless
+fund of masterly affectation and consummate histrionism, hating and
+loving heartily, outrageous in his merriment and passionate in his
+lamentation, he had the power to make other men hate or love, laugh or
+weep, at his good pleasure."</p>
+
+<p>Yet during his lifetime there lived others worthy of national
+leadership. O'Brien, Duffy, and Davis played their part in England as
+well as in Ireland. Father Mathew founded the Temperance, as Feargus
+O'Conor the Chartist, movement. And there was an orator who fascinated
+Gladstone&mdash;Sheil.</p>
+
+<p>Father Mathew succeeded in keeping many millions of men sober
+during the forties until the great Famine engulfed his work as it did
+O'Connell's. To him is due, as a feature of Irish life, the brass band
+with banners, which he originally organized as a
+counter-intoxicant.</p>
+
+<p>Feargus O'Conor founded Radical Socialism in England. As the Lion
+of Freedom, he enjoyed a popularity with English workmen approaching
+that of O'Connell in Ireland. He ended in lunacy, but he had the
+credit of forwarding peasant proprietorship far in advance of his
+times.</p>
+
+<p>Sheil was a tragic orator&mdash;"an iambic rhapsodist", O'Connell
+called him&mdash;who might have been leader, did not a greater
+tragedian occupy the stage. And Sheil was content to be O'Connell's
+organizer. Without O'Connell's voice or presence, he was his
+rhetorical superior, excelling in irony and the by-plays of speech for
+which O'Connell was too exuberant. Shell's speeches touch exquisite
+though not the deep notes of O'Connell, whom he criticized for
+"throwing out broods of sturdy young ideas upon the world without a
+rag to cover them." He discredited his master and his cause by taking
+office. The fruits of Emancipation were tempting to those who had
+borne the heat of the day, but there was a rising school of patriots
+who refused acquiescence to anything less than total freedom.</p>
+
+<p>The Young Irelanders reincarnated the men of "ninety-eight." They
+were neither too late nor too soon. They snatched the sacred torch of
+Liberty from the dying hands of O'Connell, who summoned in vain old
+Ireland against his young rivals. But men like Davis and Duffy
+appealed to types O'Connell never swayed. He could carry the mob, but
+poet, journalist, and idealist were enrolled with Young Ireland. For
+this reason the history of their failure is brighter in literature
+than the tale of O'Connell's triumphs. To read Duffy's "Young Ireland"
+and Mitchel's "Jail Journal", with draughts from the <i>Spirit of the
+Nation</i>. is to relive the period. Without the Young Irelanders,
+Irish Nationalism might not have survived the Famine.</p>
+
+<p>Mitchel, as open advocate of physical force, became father to
+Fenianism. An honest conspirator and brilliant writer, he proved that
+the pen of journalism was sharper than the Irish pike. Carlyle
+described him as "a fine elastic-spirited young fellow, whom I grieved
+to see rushing on destruction palpable, by attack of windmills."
+Destruction came surely, but coupled with immortality. He was
+transported as a felon before the insurrection, while his writings
+sprang up in angry but unarmed men.</p>
+
+<p>Mitchel and O'Connell both sought the liberation of Ireland, but
+their viewpoint differed. Mitchel thought only of Liberty; O'Connell
+not unnaturally considered the "Liberator." His refusal to allow a
+drop of blood to be shed caused Young Ireland to secede. Only when
+death removed his influence could the pent-up feelings of the country
+break out under Smith O'Brien. If Mitchel was an Irish Robespierre,
+O'Brien was their Lafayette. His advance from the level of dead
+aristocracy had been rapid. From defending Whigs in Parliament he
+passed to opposition and "contempt of the House." He resigned from the
+Bench from which O'Connell had been dismissed, became a Repealer,
+adding the words "no compromise," and finally gloried in his treason
+before the House. His next step brought a price upon his head.</p>
+
+<p>Grave and frigid, but inwardly warmhearted and passionate, O'Brien
+had little aptitude for rebellion. But the death penalty (commuted to
+transportation) which he incurred went far to redeem his forlorn
+failure. Mitchel, who shared his Australian imprisonment, left a fine
+picture of "this noblest of Irishmen, thrust in among the
+off-scourings of England's gaols, with his home desolated and his
+hopes ruined, and defeated life falling into the sere and yellow leaf.
+A man, who cannot be crushed, or bowed, or broken; anchored immovably
+upon his own brave heart within; his clear eye and soul open as ever
+to all the melodies and splendors of heaven and earth, and calmly
+waiting for the angel, Death."</p>
+
+<p>The Irish cause was not revived until the Fenian movement. Disgust
+with the politicians drove the noblest into their ranks. In Stephens
+they found an organizing chief, in Boyle O'Reilly a poet, and in John
+O'Leary a political thinker, men who under other conditions had
+achieved mundane success. The Fenians were defended by Isaac Butt, a
+big-hearted, broad-minded lawyer, who afterwards organized a party to
+convince Englishmen that Repeal was innocuous, when called "Home
+Rule." The people stood his patient ways patiently, but when a more
+desperate leader arrived they transferred allegiance, and Butt died of
+a broken heart.</p>
+
+<p>Parnell took his place and began to marshal the broken forces of
+Irish democracy against his own class. Butt had been a polite
+parliamentarian, reverencing the courtesy of debate and at heart
+loving the British Constitution. Parnell felt that his mission lay in
+breaking rather than interpreting the law. The well-bred House stared
+and protested when he defied their chosen six hundred. Parnell faced
+them with their own marble callousness. He outdid them in political
+cynicism and out-bowed them in frigid courtesy, while maintaining a
+policy before which tradition melted and a time-honored system
+collapsed. In one stormy decade he tore the cloak from the Mother of
+Parliaments, reducing her to a plain-speaking democratic machine.
+Through the breach he made, the English labor party has since
+entered.</p>
+
+<p>He united priest and peasant, physical and moral force, under him.
+He could lay Ireland under storm or lull at his pleasure. His
+achievement equalled his self-confidence. He reversed the Irish land
+system and threw English politics out of gear. With the balance of
+power in his hand, he made Tory and Radical outbid each other for his
+support. He was no organizer or orator, but he fascinated able men to
+conduct his schemes, as Napoleon used his marshals. On a pregnant day
+he equaled the achievement of St. Paul and converted Gladstone, who
+had once been his gaoler. Gladstone became a Home Ruler, and
+henceforth English politics knew no peace.</p>
+
+<p>Parnell stood for the fall and rise of many. Under his banner Irish
+peasants became human beings with human rights. He felled the feudal
+class in Ireland and undermined them in England. Incalculable forces
+were set to destroy him. A forged letter in the <i>Times</i> classed
+him with assassins, while an legal Commission was sent to try his
+whole movement. It is history that his triumphant vindication was
+followed by a greater fall. The happiness of Ireland was sucked into
+the maelstrom of his ruin. He refused to retire from leadership at
+Gladstone's bidding, and Ireland staggered into civil war. The end is
+known&mdash;Parnell died as he had lived. Of his moral fault there is
+no palliation, but it may be said he held his country's honor dearer
+than his own, for he could not bear to see her win even independence
+by obeying the word of an Englishman.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Lecky: Leaders of Irish Opinion; Mitchel: Jail Journal; Duffy:
+Young Ireland; O'Brien: Life of Parnell; D'Alton: History of
+Ireland.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T17"></a>IRISH HEROINES</h2>
+<h4>By ALICE MILLIGAN</h4>
+
+<p>The worth and glory of a nation may well be measured and adjudged
+by the typical character of its womanhood: not so much, I would say,
+by the eminence attained to by rarely gifted, exceptionally developed
+individuals, as by the prevalence of noble types at every period, and
+amongst all classes of the community, and by their recurrence from age
+to age under varying circumstances of national fortune.</p>
+
+<p>Judged by such a standard, Ireland emerges triumphant and points to
+the roll of her chequered history, the story of her ancient race, with
+confidence and pride. Gaze into the farthest vistas of her legendary
+past, into the remotest eras of which tradition preserves a misty
+memory, and the figure of some fair, noble woman stands forth
+glimmering like a white statue against the gloom. At every period of
+stern endeavor, through all the generations of recorded time, the
+pages of our annals are inscribed with the names of mothers, sisters,
+wives, not unworthy to stand there beside those of the world-renowned
+heroes of the Gael.</p>
+
+<p>In the ancient tales of Ireland we read of great female physicians
+and distinguished female lawyers and judges. There were
+<i>ban-file</i>, or women-poets, who, like the <i>file</i>, were at
+the same time soothsayers and poetesses, and there are other evidences
+of the high esteem in which women were held. There can be no doubt, to
+judge by the elaborate descriptions of garments in the saga-texts,
+that the women were very skilful in weaving and needlework. The Irish
+peasant girls of today inherit from them not a little of their gift
+for lace-making and linen-embroidery. Ladies of the highest rank
+practiced needlework as an accomplishment and a recreation. Some of
+the scissors and shears they used have come to light in
+excavations.</p>
+
+<p>In the stories of the loves of the ancient Irish, whether immortals
+or mortals, the woman's role is the more accentuated, while in
+Teutonic tradition man plays the chief part. Again, it has often been
+remarked that the feminine interest is absent from the earlier heroic
+forms of some literatures. Not so, however, in the earliest saga-texts
+of the Irish. Many are the famous women to whom the old tales
+introduce us and who stand out and compel attention like the
+characters of the Greek drama. Everyone knows of the faithful Deirdre,
+the heroine of the touching story of the "Exile of the Sons of
+Usnech", and of her death; of the proud and selfish Medb. the
+ambitious queen of Connacht, the most warlike and most expert in the
+use of weapons of the women of the Gael&mdash;far superior in combat
+and counsel to her husband, Ailill; of Emer, the faithful wife of
+Cuchulainn; of Etain of the Horses (that was her name in Fairyland);
+and of many others too numerous to mention.</p>
+
+<p>It is with the introduction of Christianity into Ireland that the
+Irish woman came into her rightful place, and attained the
+preponderating influence which she, ever since, has held among the
+Celtic people. In the period which followed the evangelization of the
+island many were the "women of worth" who upheld the honor and glory
+of "Inisfail the Fair", and women were neither the less numerous nor
+the less ardent who hung upon the lips of the Apostle of Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>Amid the galaxy of the saints, how lustrous, how divinely fair,
+shines the star of Brigid, the shepherd maiden of Faughard, the
+disciple of Patrick the Apostle, the guardian of the holy light that
+burned beneath the oak-trees of Kildare! Over all Ireland and through
+the Hebridean Isles, she is renowned above any other. We think of her,
+moreover, not alone, but as the centre of a great company of
+cloistered maidens, the refuge and helper of the sinful and sorrowful,
+who found in the gospel that Patrick preached a message of consolation
+and deliverance. Let it be remembered that the shroud of Patrick is
+deemed to have been woven by Brigid's hand; that when she died, in
+525, Columcille, the future apostle of Scotland, was a child of four.
+So she stands midmost of that trilogy of saints whose dust is said to
+rest in Down.</p>
+
+<p>Who that hears of Columcille will forget how He won that name,
+"dove of the Church", because of his early piety, and that surely
+bespeaks a mother's guiding care. Ethne, mother of Columcille, remains
+a vague but picturesque figure, seen against the background of the
+rugged heath-clad hills of Tir-Conal by the bright blue waters of
+Gartan's triple lake. Her hearth-stone or couch is shown there to this
+day, where once in slumber, before the birth of her son, she saw in a
+glorious visionary dream a symbol of his future greatness. A vast veil
+woven of sunshine and flowers seemed to float down upon her from
+heaven: an exquisitely poetic thought, which gives us warrant to
+believe that Columcille's poetic skill was inherited from his
+mother.</p>
+
+<p>Ronnat, the mother of his biographer, St. Adamnan, plays a more
+notable part in history, for, according to an ancient Gaelic text
+recently published, it was to her that the women of Ireland owed the
+royal decree which liberated them from military service. The story
+goes that once, as she walked beside the Boyne, after some sanguinary
+conflict, she came upon the bodies of two women who had fallen in
+battle. One grasped a reaping hook, the other a sword, and dreadful
+wounds disfigured them. Horrified at the sight, she brought strong
+pressure to bear upon her son, and his influence in the councils of
+the land availed to bring about the promulgation of the decree which
+freed women from war-service.</p>
+
+<p>Our warrior kings had noble queens to rule their households, and of
+these none stands out so distinctly after long lapse of time as
+Gormlai, the daughter of Flann Siona, and wife of Nial Glondubh. Her
+story has in it that element of romance which touches the heart and
+wins the sympathy of all who hear it.</p>
+
+<p>Her father was king of the Meathan branch of the Clan Nial, and
+<i>ard-ri</i> of Ireland for thirty-seven years. Nial Glondubh was
+king of Tir-Eoghain, and heir of Flann in the high kingship, for at
+that era it was the custom for the kings of Meath and of Tyrone to
+hold the supreme power alternately. In order to knit north and south,
+Flann betrothed his beautiful daughter to Cormac macCuillenan, king of
+Cashel, an ideal husband, one would have thought, for a poetess like
+Gormlai, for Cormac was the foremost scholar of the day; but his mind
+was so set on learning and religion that he took holy orders and
+became bishop-king of Cashel, repudiating his destined bride. Gormlai
+was then given as wife to Cearbhail, king of Leinster, and war was
+waged against Cormac who was killed in the battle of Ballymoon. Coming
+home wounded, Cearbhail lay on his couch, and while tended by Gormlai
+and her ladies told the story of the battle and boasted of having
+insulted the dead body of King Cormac. Gormlai reproached him for his
+ignoble conduct in such terms that his anger and jealousy flamed up,
+and striking her with his fist he hurled her to the ground.</p>
+
+<p>Gormlai rose indignant and left his house forever, returning to the
+palace of King Flann, and on Cearbhail's death she at last found a
+true lover and worthy mate in Nial Glondubh, who brought her northward
+to rule over the famous palace of Aileach. In 916 Nial became high
+king, but the place of honor was also the place of danger, and soon he
+led the mustered hosts of the north against the pagan foreigners, who
+held Dublin and Fingal, and he fell in battle at Rathfarnham.</p>
+
+<p>A poem, preserved for us ever since, tells us that Gormlai was
+present at his burial and chanted a funeral ode. Her long widowhood
+was a period of disconsolate mourning. At length it is said she had a
+dream or vision, in which King Nial appeared to her in such life-like
+shape that she spread her arms to embrace him, and thus wounded her
+breast against the carven head-post of her couch, and of that wound
+she died.</p>
+
+<p>Many saintly, many noble, many hospitable and learned women
+lightened the darkness that fell over Ireland after the coming of the
+Normans.</p>
+
+<p>I pass to the time when a sovereign lady filled the throne of
+England, "the spacious days of great Elizabeth," which were also the
+period of Ireland's greatest, sternest struggle against a policy of
+extermination towards her nobles and suppression of her ancient faith.
+Amid all the heroes and leaders of that wondrous age in Ireland, there
+appears, like a reincarnation of legendary Medb, a warlike queen in
+Connacht, Grace O'Malley, "Granuaile" of the ballads. Instead of a
+chariot, she mounts to the prow of a swift-sailing galley, and sweeps
+over the wild Atlantic billows, from isle to isle, from coast to
+coast, taking tribute (or is it plunder?) from the clans. First an
+O'Flaherty is her husband, then a Norman Burke. In Clare Island they
+show her castle tower, with a hole in the wall, through which they say
+she tied a cable from her ship, ready by day or night for a summons
+from her seamen. She voyaged as far as London town, and stood face to
+face with the ruffed and hooped Elizabeth, meeting her offer of an
+English title with the assertion that she was a princess in her own
+land.</p>
+
+<p>The mother of Red Hugh O'Donnell, Ineen-dubh, though daughter of
+the Scottish Lord of the Isles, was none the less of the old Irish
+stock. Her character is finely sketched for us by the Franciscan
+chronicler who wrote the story of the captivity and mighty deeds of
+her son. When the clans of Tir-Conal assembled to elect the youthful
+chieftain, he writes: "It was an advantage that she came to the
+gathering, for she was the head of the advice and counsel of the
+Cinel-Conail, and, though she was slow and deliberate and much praised
+for her womanly qualities, she had the heart of a hero and the soul of
+a soldier." Her daughter, Nuala, is the "woman of the piercing wail"
+in Mangan's translation of the bard's lament for the death of the
+Ulster chieftains in Rome.</p>
+
+<p>Modern critics like to interpret the "Dark Rosaleen" poem as an
+expression of Red Hugh's devotion to Ireland, but I think that Rose,
+O'Doherty's daughter, wife of the peerless Owen Roe, deserves
+recognition as she whose</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p class="p">"Holy delicate white hands should girdle him with steel."</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The record has come down to us that she prompted and encouraged her
+husband to return from the low-countries and a position of dignity in
+a foreign court to command the war in Ireland, and in her first
+letter, ere she followed him over sea, she asked eagerly: "How stands
+Tir-Conal?" True daughter of Ulster was Owen's wife, so let us
+henceforth acknowledge her as the <i>Roisin</i> dubh, "dark Rosaleen",
+of the sublimest of all patriot songs.</p>
+
+<p>In the Cromwellian and Williamite wars, we see the mournful mothers
+and daughters of the Gaeldom passing in sad procession to Connacht, or
+wailing on Shannon banks for the flight of the "Wild Geese." But what
+of Limerick wall, what of the valorous rush of the women of the
+beleaguered city to stem the inroads of the besiegers and rally the
+defenders to the breach? The decree of St. Adamnan was quite forgotten
+then, and when manly courage for a moment was daunted, woman's
+fortitude replaced and reinspired it.</p>
+
+<p>And fortitude was sorely needed through the black years that
+followed&mdash;the penal days, when Ireland, crushed in the dust,
+bereft of arms, achieved a sublimer victory than did even King Brian
+himself, champion of the Cross, against the last muster of European
+heathendom.</p>
+
+<p>Yes, her women have done their share in making Ireland what she is,
+a heroic land, unconquered by long centuries of wrath and wrong, a
+land that has not abandoned its Faith through stress of direst
+persecution or bartered it for the lure of worldly dominion;
+no&mdash;nor ever yielded to despair in face of repeated national
+disaster.</p>
+
+<p>It was this fidelity to principle on the part of the Irish Catholic
+people which won for them the alliance of all that were worthiest
+among the Protestants of north and south in the days of the Volunteers
+and the United Irishmen. What interesting and pathetic portraits of
+Irishwomen are added to our roll at this period! None is more tenderly
+mournful than that of Sarah Curran, the beloved of Robert Emmet. The
+graceful prose of Washington Irving, the poignant verses of Moore,
+have enshrined the memory of her, weeping for him in the shadow of the
+scaffold, dying of heart-break at last in a far-off land. No more need
+be said of her, for whom the pity of the whole world has been awakened
+by song allied to sweetest, saddest music. What of Anne Devlin,
+Emmet's faithful servant, helping in his preparations for
+insurrection, aiding his flight, shielding him in hiding, even when
+tortured, scourged, half-hanged by a brutal soldiery, with stern-shut
+lips refusing to utter a word to compromise her "Master Robert"?</p>
+
+<p>What of the sister of Henry Joy McCracken, Mary, the friend and
+fellow-worker with the Belfast United Irishmen? An independent,
+self-reliant business woman, she earned the money which she gave so
+liberally in the good cause, or to help the poor and distressed,
+through the whole period of a long life. Some still living have seen
+Mary passing along the streets of Belfast, an aged woman, clad in
+sombre gown, to whom Catholic artisans raised their caps reverently,
+remembering how in '98 she had walked hand in hand with her brother to
+the steps of the scaffold, and how, in 1803, she had aided Thomas
+Russell in his escape from the north after Emmet's failure, had bribed
+his captors after arrest, provided for his defence, and preserved for
+futurity a record of his dying words. Madden's <i>History of the
+United Irishmen</i>, as far as it tells of the north, is mainly the
+record that she kept as a sacred trust in letters, papers,
+long-treasured memories of the men who fought and died to make Ireland
+a united nation.</p>
+
+<p>And now a scene in America comes last to my mind. Wolfe Tone, a
+political fugitive who has served Ireland well and come through danger
+to safety, is busy laying the foundations of a happy and prosperous
+future, with a beloved wife and sister and young children to brighten
+his home. An estate near Princeton, New Jersey, has been all but
+bought, possibilities of a career in the new republic open before him,
+when a letter comes from Belfast, asking him to return to the post of
+danger, to undertake a mission to France for the sake of Ireland. Let
+his own pen describe what happened: "I handed the letter to my wife
+and sister and desired their opinion.... My wife especially, whose
+courage and whose zeal for my honor and interest were not in the least
+abated by all her past sufferings, supplicated me to let no
+consideration of her or our children stand for a moment in the way of
+my duty to our country, adding that she would answer for our family
+during my absence and that the same Providence which had so often, as
+it were, miraculously preserved us would not desert us now."</p>
+
+<p>Inspired by the fortitude of this noble woman, Tone went forth on
+his perilous mission, and similarly the Young Ireland leaders, Mitchel
+and Smith O'Brien, were sustained by the courage of their nearest and
+dearest. "Eva," the poetess of the <i>Nation</i>, gave her
+troth-plight to one who had prison and exile to face ere he could
+claim her hand. Other names recur to me&mdash;"Speranza", with her
+lyric fire; Ellen O'Leary, fervent and still patient and wise; Fanny
+Parnell and her sister.</p>
+
+<p>And what of the women of Ireland today? Shall they come short of
+the high ideal of the past, falter and fail, if devotion and sacrifice
+are required of them? Never: whilst they keep in memory and honor the
+illustrious ones of whom I have written. The name of Irishwoman today
+stands for steadfast virtue, for hospitality, for simple piety, for
+cheerful endurance, and in a changing world let us trust it is the
+will of God that in this there will be no change.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>On Ethne, mother of St. Columcille: The Visions, Miracles, and
+Prophecies of St. Columba (Clarendon Press Series). On Ronnat: S. Mac
+an Bhaird, Life (in Irish) of Adamnan (Letterkenny); Reeves, St.
+Adamnan's Life of St. Columba; The Mother of St. Adamnan, an old
+Gaelic text, ed. by Kuno Meyer (Berlin). On Gormlai: Thomas Concannon,
+Gormflath (in Irish; The Gaelic League, Dublin). On Granuaile:
+Elizabethan State Papers (Record Office Series); William O'Brien, A
+Queen of Men. On Ineen-Dubh: O'Clery's Life of Red Hugh
+(contemporary), ed. by Denis Murphy, S. J. (Dublin, 1894); Standish
+O'Grady, The Flight of the Eagle, or Red Hugh's Captivity. On Rose,
+wife of Owen Roe O'Neill, see references in Father Meehan's The Flight
+of the Earls, and in Sir John Gilbert's History of the Confederate War
+(Dublin, 1885). On the wife of Wolfe Tone, see Wolfe Tone's
+Autobiography, ed. by R. Barry O'Brien (London, 1894). The American
+edition has a fuller account of Tone's wife, her courage and devotion
+in educating her son, and her interviews with Napoleon, and life in
+America. The women of the United Irish period are fully dealt with in
+K. R. Madden's Lives and Times of the United Irishmen. On Mary
+McCracken, see Mrs. Milligan Fox, The Annals of the Irish Harpers. On
+the women of the Young Ireland period, see C. Gavan Duffy's Young
+Ireland (Dublin), and John O'Leary's Fenians and Fenianism. On the
+women of Limerick, see Rev. James Dowd, Limerick and its Sieges
+(Limerick, 1890). For the women under Cromwellian Plantation
+persecutions and the Penal Laws, see Prendergast's Cromwellian
+Settlement, Rev. Denis Murphy's Cromwell in Ireland, and R. R.
+Madden's History of the Penal Laws.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T18"></a>IRISH NATIONALITY</h2>
+<h4>By LORD ASHBOURNE</h4>
+
+<p> [NOTE.&mdash;This chapter was written by Lord Ashbourne in French,
+because he is so strong an Irishman that he objects to write in
+English. The translation has been made by the Editors.]</p>
+
+<p>To those of us who are interested in the future of our country
+there is at this very moment presented a really serious problem. The
+political struggle of the last century has been so intense that many
+of our people have come to have none but a political solution in view.
+For them the whole question is one of politics, and they will continue
+to believe that Ireland will have found salvation the moment we get
+Home Rule or something like it. Such an attitude seems natural enough
+when we remember what our people have suffered in the past.
+Nevertheless, on a little reflection, this error&mdash;for error it
+is, and an enormous one, too&mdash;will be quickly dissipated. In the
+first place, the political struggle of today is only the continuation
+of a conflict which has lasted seven hundred years, and in point of
+fact we have a right to be proud that after so many trials there still
+remains to us anything of our national inheritance. We find ourselves
+indeed on the battlefield somewhat seriously bruised, but we can
+console ourselves with the thought that our opponent is in equally
+doleful case, that he is beginning to suffer from a fatal weariness,
+and that he is anxious to make peace with us.</p>
+
+<p>In order to place the present political situation in its true light
+and to take into account its comparatively limited importance, we must
+not lose sight of the fundamental fact that what Home Rule connotes is
+rather a tender of peace on the part of Ireland than a gift which
+England presents us of her own free will. In fact, our neighbor across
+the Channel has as much interest as ourselves, and perhaps even more,
+in bringing the struggle to an end. Through us, England has already
+lost much prestige, and that famous British Constitution, which in
+times past everyone admired while trying in vain to imitate it, has
+lost caste considerably. I am not now speaking of the danger which an
+Ireland discontented, and even hostile, and having nothing to lose,
+would constitute for England in case of war. It is especially from our
+neighbor's point of view that we can cry up Home Rule or any other
+solution that will bring peace. But let us leave to Great Britain the
+task of getting out of trouble as best she may. On our side, what
+shall we say of it?</p>
+
+<p>In our conflict with the English we are not wearied; rather are we
+hardened for the fray. We have acquired the habit of fighting, and
+many of us can now scarcely regulate our conduct in a manner suitable
+to a state of peace with England. Nevertheless, as I have already
+said, we have not emerged unscathed from this war of the centuries.
+National sentiment remains with us, no doubt, and our traditions are
+not wholly lost, especially among the country people of the West. But
+our commerce is almost ruined and the national language is no longer
+spoken throughout the greater part of the country. It is true that a
+continuation of the hitherto existing state of war cannot do us much
+more harm; that for purposes of mere destruction all the advantages
+are on our side; and that on the other hand we can begin a
+reconstruction at home without waiting for a treaty of peace to be
+signed. But we have some things to do for which a home government
+would be useful to us, and further, in the absence of such a
+government, it would be difficult to imagine what means could be
+employed to turn the people away from their too exclusive absorption
+in Anglo-Irish politics.</p>
+
+<p>It is, then, from a practical point of view that we wish for peace.
+But, we may lawfully ask, will not this peace bring with it a special
+danger, against which we ought to take precautions? As a matter of
+fact, there is such a danger, and it lies in the fact that the people
+have been to so great an extent obsessed by the political struggle
+that they run the risk, once their end is attained, of collapsing and
+of losing interest in the national question. Let us not forget that
+that question is to save our language and our civilization; without
+that, it is all over with our nationality. Let us endeavor to turn our
+parliament to account in order to work seriously on the reconstruction
+of our national life, and it is certain that Ireland will find therein
+her salvation.</p>
+
+<p>We can, therefore, take advantage either of England's prolonged
+resistance or of peace. If England decides to continue the contest,
+she will suffer more from it than we. Her empire, her institutions,
+her safety, will be more and more impaired, while, as for us, there
+will result a strong growth in patriotism and in anti-British
+bitterness. What we have to do, right now, is to take our bearings in
+such a way that, no matter what happens to England, our own future
+shall be assured. We can do it if we wish it: the question is, shall
+we wish it?</p>
+
+<p>Here it may be objected, <i>Cui bono</i> The English language is
+quite enough for us. We have it now and we speak it, sometimes, even
+better than the English people themselves. We are proud of using the
+same language as Sheridan, Burke, and Grattan used. Such an opinion
+has its modicum of truth, though less now than a hundred years ago.
+Formerly there was in Ireland, and especially around Dublin, a little
+colony of Anglo-Irish. The members of this colony spoke a very pure
+and classic English, and this fact is largely responsible for the
+place which Ireland at one time held in English literature. But during
+the last century the remains of this colony have been swamped beneath
+a flood of half-Anglicized people, of Irishmen from the country
+districts, who were formerly excluded, and who brought with them such
+a mixture of expressions and of phonetic tendencies derived from the
+Gaelic that the language of Grattan, Sheridan, and Burke has well-nigh
+gone out of existence. The reason of this is that since the date of
+Catholic emancipation, most careers are open to everybody. The result
+has been that the newly enfranchised majority has ultimately absorbed
+the minority, and that the atmosphere of culture, of which we have
+just spoken, has disappeared. We thus reach an Ireland which, in a
+sense, has neither culture nor language, a country in which the Gaelic
+spoken by a people humiliated and deeply demoralized by an
+anti-Catholic legislation, which was both savage and degrading, tended
+to coalesce with an English already condemned to death. It is from the
+moment when the Catholics had finally triumphed over persecution that
+we must date the beginning of that political struggle with which we
+are familiar, a struggle which has resulted in absorbing all the
+energies of a great part of the population. That is why this
+tremendous problem presents itself to us, at the very time when we
+should be justified in feeling ourselves elated by triumph because of
+our victories in parliament. And let not England rejoice too much at
+our dilemma. If we are doomed to die, she will die with us, for before
+disappearing we shall prove to be a great destructive force, and out
+of the ruins of the British power we shall raise such a monument that
+future generations will know what it costs to murder a nation.</p>
+
+<p>But, if possible, we must live and let live. The elements of
+reconstruction are always at hand. Anglo-Irish culture is indeed dead,
+but Gaelic culture is only seriously sick, and on that side there is
+always room for hope. Sooth to say, its sickness consists above all in
+the fact that the Irish language is no longer spoken in a great part
+of the country. But, on the other hand, where it is preserved, that
+same language is spoken in all its purity. By going there to find it
+all Ireland will gradually become Gaelic.</p>
+
+<p>But, it will be objected, what a loss of time and energy! If it is
+a question of languages, why not learn one of the more useful ones? To
+this we may reply that, while English deforms the mouth and makes it
+incapable of pronouncing any language which is not spoken from the tip
+of the lips, Gaelic, on the contrary, so exercises the organs of
+speech that it renders easy the acquisition and the practice of most
+European idioms. Let us add, by way of example, that French, which is
+usually difficult for strangers, is much more within the compass of
+Irishmen who speak Irish, no less because of certain linguistic
+customs than from the original relationship between the two
+languages.</p>
+
+<p>This remark brings us to another objection which is often lodged
+against our movement. It is urged that Ireland is already isolated
+enough, and that by making it a Gaelic-speaking nation, we shall make
+that state of affairs still worse. English, say the objectors, is
+spoken more or less everywhere, while Gaelic will never be able to
+claim the position of a quasi-universal language. To this line of
+reasoning it might be answered, for one thing, that no one can tell
+how far Gaelic will go, in case our movement is a success, and that
+many a language formerly "universal" is today as dead as a door-nail.
+But we must look at the question from another point of view. John
+Bull's language is spread everywhere, while he himself retains the
+most exclusive insularity. He travels to every land and there finds
+his own language and his own customs. Now it goes without saying that
+from this very universalization his language is corrupted and becomes
+vulgarized. The idiom of Shakespeare and Milton gives place gradually
+to the idiom of the seaports. Furthermore, far from isolating us,
+Gaelic will tend to put us in touch with the civilization of the West.
+As a people Anglicised, and badly Anglicised at that, we share, and
+even exaggerate, the faults which I have just described. It is
+Anglo-Saxon speech which isolates us, and we wish on this ground to
+break with it and to hold out our hand to our brothers of the
+continent.</p>
+
+<p>But, it may be said, what a pity to dig yet another abyss between
+Ireland and Great Britain, for it is with the latter that our
+geographical position will always link us for common defense. For,
+while it is true that history does not show us a single case of an
+empire which has not sooner or later fallen to pieces, nevertheless,
+whatever happens, the two islands will be necessarily forced to
+co-operate for the common good. Well, let us take it that things will
+so fall out, and let us suppose an Anglicised Ireland called upon to
+face such a situation. It would be a revolutionary Ireland, a restless
+Ireland, an Ireland seeking vaguely for revenge on someone, deprived
+of really national character, and, in a general way, suspecting
+England of responsibility for the disappearance from our country of
+everything that constitutes the idea of nationality. And let us remark
+that we are no longer living in those good old times when entire
+nations allowed themselves to be absorbed by their conquerors. The art
+of printing has changed all that. Today a "suppressed" nation is one
+that will sooner or later have its revenge. Thus let us suppose that
+we are destined to make political peace with England and to enter of
+our own accord into a Hiberno-Britannic confederation. From our point
+of view, what would be the result of that arrangement? The result
+would be strange. Here again, as in the case of Home Rule, it is
+rather we who offer advantages to England than she who offers them to
+us. Only, in this latter case, the result depends on ourselves alone.
+If we die, it will be because we have wished it. Our language is not
+dead; on the contrary, although not widely spread, it is in itself
+much more alive than English, which as a literary language is in full
+decay. We may congratulate ourselves that our idiom is intact. Our
+civilization is old, but it has not yet lived its full life. If we
+wish, the future is ours. And let us truly believe that that is worth
+while, for the race which has produced epics like those of Ossian and
+all that magnificent literature which has been preserved for us
+through the ages, the race that gave to Europe that great impulse of
+missionary activity which is associated with the names of Columcille,
+Brendan, Columbanus, and Gall, not to mention men like the famous
+Scotus Erigena&mdash;that race is certainly called upon to play an
+important part in the modern world. But&mdash;let us repeat
+it&mdash;it must have the wish.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T19"></a>FAMOUS IRISH SOCIETIES</h2>
+<h4>By JOHN O'DEA,<br>
+<i>National Historian, A.O.H.</i></h4>
+
+<p>In the social organization of no nation of antiquity were societies
+of greater influence than in pagan Ireland. During many centuries
+these societies, composed of the bards, ollamhs, brehons, druids, and
+knights, contended for precedence. In no country did the literary
+societies display greater vigor and exercise a more beneficent power
+than in pagan Ireland. Although the Hebrews and other Asiatic nations
+had societies organized from among the professions, yet in Ireland
+alone these societies seem to have been constructed with a patriotic
+purpose, and in Ireland alone they seem to have had ceremonies of
+initiation, with constitutions and laws. These societies existed from
+the earliest times until after the coming of St. Patrick. Traces of
+them are visible during all the centuries from the conversion of
+Ireland down to the Anglo-Norman epoch, and it is apparent that the
+clan system and the introduction of the feudal system by the English
+failed to eliminate completely their influence.</p>
+
+<p>When the Irish emigration flowed towards the American colonies in
+the eighteenth century, the social instinct early found expression in
+societies. One of the earliest of these was founded in Boston, where,
+in 1737, twenty-six "gentlemen merchants and others, natives of
+Ireland or of Irish extraction", organized the Charitable Irish
+Society. In Pennsylvania, where the Irish emigration had been larger
+than in any other colony, the Hibernian Fire Company was organized in
+1751. The Friendly Sons of St. Patrick was founded in Philadelphia in
+1771, and about that time societies bearing this name were founded in
+Boston and New York, as convivial clubs welcoming Irish emigrants to
+their festive boards. These societies were formed upon the model of
+the Friendly Brothers of St. Patrick, which had existed in Dublin and
+other Irish cities a generation before, and was well and favorably
+known throughout Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>The Society of the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick in Philadelphia
+contained some of the most prominent merchants and leading citizens of
+the city, and in 1780 they subscribed &pound;103,000, or one-third of
+the sum collected, to supply the Continental army with food. Among its
+members were Commodore Barry, the Father of the American Navy; General
+Stephen Moylan; General Anthony Wayne; and the great merchants, Blair
+McClenachan, Thomas Fitzsimons, and Robert Morris. Washington, who was
+an honorary member, described it "as a society distinguished for the
+firm adherence of its members to the glorious cause in which we are
+embarked." Whether upon the field or upon the sea, in council or in
+the sacrifice of their wealth, their names are foremost in the crisis
+of the Revolution.</p>
+
+<p>The Hibernian Society for the Relief of Emigrants from Ireland was
+founded in Philadelphia on March 3, 1790. Other Hibernian Societies,
+with the same title and organized for the same purpose, were founded
+in other cities along the Atlantic coast in the early years of the
+nineteenth century, but the Philadelphia Hibernian Society was, from
+the character of its members, the extent of its beneficence, and the
+length of its existence, the most famous. The emigrants from Ireland
+during the eighteenth century had pushed on to the frontier, or, in
+some instances, remained in the cities and engaged successfully in
+mercantile pursuits. The emigration which came after the Revolution
+was, however, in great part composed of families almost without means.
+Unable to subsist while clearing farms in the virgin forest, thousands
+were congested in the cities. The Hibernian Society extended a ready
+and strong hand to these helpless people, and not only aided the
+emigrants with gifts of money, but also secured for them employment,
+disseminated among them useful information, and provided them with
+medical attendance. While the Hibernian Society was regarded as the
+successor of the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick, yet the two societies,
+which contained largely a membership roll bearing the same names,
+flourished, in the work of patriotism, side by side. The first
+officers of the Hibernian Society for the Relief of Emigrants from
+Ireland were: President, Chief Justice Thomas McKean; Vice-President,
+General Walter Stewart; Secretary, Matthew Carey, the historian;
+Treasurer, John Taylor. It was said that no other society in America
+contained so many men distinguished in civil, military, and official
+life as the Hibernian Society. In almost every city where the Friendly
+Sons of St. Patrick and the Hibernian Society for the Relief of
+Emigrants were found, there was a close and intimate connection
+between them, which ultimately resulted in amalgamation.</p>
+
+<p>The Ancient Order of Hibernians traces its origin to those orders
+which flourished in pagan Ireland, and which exercised so potent an
+influence upon the history of the Celtic race. The order of knighthood
+was the first of these orders to be founded. It existed from the
+earliest times, and is visible in the annals of the nation, until the
+Anglo-Normans invaded the land in the twelfth century. In pagan
+Ireland the knightly orders became provincial standing armies, and
+there are many glorious pages describing the feats of the Clanna
+Deagha of Munster, the Clanna Morna of Connacht, the Feni of Leinster,
+and the Knights of the Red Branch of Ulster. When the island was
+Christianized, these knightly orders were among the staunchest
+supporters of the missionary priests, and were consecrated to the
+service of the church in the sixth century, assuming the cross as
+their distinctive emblem, and becoming the defenders of religion.</p>
+
+<p>Among the names which are upon the rolls of the ancient orders of
+knighthood are those of most of the kings, bards, saints, and
+statesmen, and in the long list there was no family of greater renown
+than that of Roderick the Great, to which belonged Conall Cearnach and
+Lugaidh, who, according to MacGeoghegan and others, were the direct
+ancestors of the O'Mores of Leix. In this family the ancient splendor
+of the knightly orders was a tradition which survived for centuries,
+and they were in almost continual rebellion against the English, from
+the siege of Dublin by Roderick O'Connor until the rebellion against
+Queen Elizabeth, led by Rory Oge O'More and his son Owen in the latter
+part of the sixteenth and the early seventeenth century. A nephew of
+Rory Oge, the sagacious and statesmanlike Rory O'More, revived the
+ancient orders in the Catholic Confederation of Kilkenny in 1642. A
+grandson of Rory O'More, Patrick Sarsfield, Earl of Lucan, was the
+most distinguished commander of Irish armies who opposed, in Ireland,
+the forces of William of Orange.</p>
+
+<p>There is no stranger story in all history than the intimate
+connection of the O'More family with the annals of the Ancient Order
+of Hibernians. The lineage of this family furnishes the links
+connecting the ancient orders of pagan Ireland through the centuries
+with the Ancient Order in modern times. Under the names of Rapparees,
+Whiteboys, Defenders, Ribbonmen, etc., the Confederation of Kilkenny
+was carried on through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries until
+the nineteenth. At various times the duties of these organizations
+were subject to local conditions. Thus the Defenders were occupied in
+protecting themselves and their priests against the hostility of the
+Penal Laws, engaging in armed conflict with the Orangemen in the
+north, while the Whiteboys were waging war against the atrocities of
+landlordism in the south. Between these two organizations there was a
+secret code, which operated until they were combined, under the name
+of Ribbonmen, in the early nineteenth century. The contentions of the
+Whiteboys regarding Irish landlordism have since been acknowledged to
+be just, and have been enacted into statutes. The Defenders joined
+with Wolfe Tone in the formation of the United Irishmen.</p>
+
+<p>About 1825 the Ribbonmen changed their name to St. Patrick's
+Fraternal Society, and branches were established in England and
+Scotland under the name of the Hibernian Funeral Society. In 1836 a
+charter was received by members in New York City, and in Schuylkill
+County, Pennsylvania. The headquarters were for some years in
+Pennsylvania, but in 1851 a charter was granted to the New York
+Divisions under the name of "The Ancient Order of Hibernians." New
+York thus became the American headquarters. National conventions were
+held there until 1878, since which year they have been held in many
+other cities biennially. Many of the most distinguished leaders of the
+Irish race in America have been members of the Order, and from a
+humble beginning, with a few emigrants gathered together in a strange
+land, the membership has grown to nearly 200,000. General Thomas
+Francis Meagher, Colonel Michael Doheny, General Michael Corcoran, and
+Colonel John O'Mahony were among the members in the late '50's.</p>
+
+<p>Among the organizations which have sprung from the ranks of the
+A.O.H. were the powerful Fenian Brotherhood, the Emmet Monument
+Association, and scores of smaller associations in all sections of the
+United States and Canada. During the Know Nothing riots, the Order
+furnished armed defenders for the Catholic churches in New York,
+Philadelphia, and Charleston, and it has ever been foremost in
+preserving its position as the hereditary defender of the faith. In
+1894, the Ladies' Auxiliary was founded, and this body of women
+numbered in 1914 over 63,000, and had donated great sums to charity,
+education, and religion. The A.O.H. had, in 1914, assets of
+$2,230,000. It pays annually, for charity, sick and death benefits,
+and maintenance, over $1,000,000, and during its existence in America
+has donated nearly $20,000,000 to works of beneficence. One of the
+most celebrated of the gifts of the Order was the endowment of the
+Chair of Celtic in the Catholic University of America, and one of its
+greatest gifts to charity was its contribution of $40,000 to the
+sufferers from the San Francisco earthquake.</p>
+
+<p>The Clan-na-Gael is a society organized to secure the independence
+of Ireland by armed revolution. Its organization is secret and it is
+the successor of the Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood, called in
+America the Fenian Brotherhood, which promoted many daring raids and
+risings in Ireland in 1867. The I.R.B. was perfected by James Stephens
+in Ireland, and by John O'Mahony in America, from 1857 to 1867. An
+invasion of Canada was made in great force under the general direction
+of Colonel William R. Roberts, president of the Fenian Brotherhood,
+but was unsuccessful owing to the attitude of the United States
+Government, which declared that the Fenians were violating the
+principles of neutrality. After the disorganization of the Fenian
+Brotherhood, the idea of revolution languished until revived by the
+founding of the Clan-na-Gael by Jerome J. Collins in 1869, and the
+membership during the twenty years from 1880 to 1900 included almost
+fifty thousand of the flower of the men of Irish blood in America. The
+principle of revolution was first given organized public expression in
+America through the formation in 1848 of the Irish Republican Union,
+which was succeeded by the Emmet Monument Association, these societies
+influencing the creation of the Sixty-Ninth and Seventy-Fifth
+Regiments of the New York State Militia, and the Ninth Massachusetts,
+which became so famous for valor during the Civil War. Although not
+putting forth all its strength, so as to allow full scope to the
+parliamentary efforts to ameliorate the state of the Irish people, the
+Clan-na-Gael is as vigorous a section as ever of the forces organized
+for the service of patriotism.</p>
+
+<p>The Land League, founded in Ireland in 1879, was transplanted to
+America in 1880, when the first branch was established in New York
+City through the efforts of Patrick Ford, John Boyle O'Reilly, John
+Devoy, and others. Michael Davitt soon after came to America and
+travelled through the country founding branches of the League. In a
+few years the whole American continent was organized, and in this
+organization Michael Davitt declared that the members of the Ancient
+Order of Hibernians and the Clan-na-Gael were everywhere foremost. To
+the enormous sums collected by the League in this country, and to the
+magnificent labors of Parnell, Davitt, Redmond, Ferguson, Dillon,
+Kettle, Webb, and others in Ireland, is due in a large measure the
+present improved state of the people, resulting from the sacrifices
+made by those who supported this greatest of leagues devoted to the
+amelioration of unbearable economic conditions. A Ladies' Auxiliary to
+the Land League was established by the sisters of Parnell, and was for
+some years a brilliant vindication of the power and justice of
+feminine participation in public questions.</p>
+
+<p>The Land League, the name of which was changed to the Irish
+National League in the early '80's, having prepared the path to
+eventual victory, declined in potency after the political movement was
+divided into Parnellites and Anti-Parnellites in 1890. The elements
+composing these rival parties were, through the initiative of William
+O'Brien, M.P., and in commemoration of the one hundredth anniversary
+of the United Irishmen of Wolfe Tone's day, joined in 1898 under the
+name of the United Irish League, John E. Redmond becoming the first
+president, and also the chairman of the Parliamentary Party which it
+had been instrumental in uniting. This organization is now a living,
+vital force in the affairs of Ireland on both sides of the Atlantic,
+Mr. Redmond being still its head, with Michael J. Ryan, of
+Philadelphia, as president of the American Branch.</p>
+
+<p>The Knights of Columbus were organized in 1881 by Rev. Michael
+McGivney, in New Haven, Connecticut, and a charter was granted by the
+Connecticut Legislature on March 29,1882. At first the activity of the
+organization was confined to Connecticut, but the time was ripe for
+its mission, and it soon spread rapidly throughout New England. In
+1896 it began to attract the attention of Catholic young men in other
+parts of the nation, and during the next few years its appeal was made
+irresistibly in almost every State. It now exists in all the States of
+the Union, the Dominion of Canada, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, Panama,
+Porto Rico, Mexico, Cuba, and the Philippine Islands, with a total
+membership of 328,000, of whom 108,000 are insurance members and
+220,000 associate members. Its mortuary reserve fund is $4,500,000,
+being over $1,000,000 more than is required by law. It is one of the
+most successful fraternal societies ever organized, and the
+Irish-American Catholics have given to it the full strength of their
+enthusiasm and purpose.</p>
+
+<p>The temperance movement among Catholics was, from the visit of
+Father Mathew in 1849, largely Irish. The societies first formed were
+united by no bond until 1871, when the Connecticut societies formed a
+State Union. Other States formed unions and a national convention in
+Baltimore in 1872 created a National Union. In 1878 there were 90,000
+priests, laymen, women, and children in the Catholic Total Abstinence
+Benevolent Union. In 1883 the Union was introduced into Canada, and in
+1895 there were 150,000 members on the American continent. From the
+C.T.A.B.U. were formed the Knights of Father Mathew, a total
+abstinence and semi-military body, first instituted in St. Louis in
+1872.</p>
+
+<p>The Catholic Knights of America, with a membership chiefly
+Irish-American, were organized in Memphis, Tennessee, in 1877, and the
+advantages offered for insurance soon attracted 20,000 members. The
+decade of the '70's was prolific of Irish Catholic associations. The
+Catholic Benevolent Legion was founded in 1873, shortly followed by
+the Catholic Mutual Benevolent Association, the Catholic Order of
+Foresters (which started in Massachusetts and spread to other States),
+the Irish Catholic Benevolent Union, and the Society of the Holy Name,
+which latter, although tracing its origin to Lisbon in 1432, is yet
+dominantly Irish in America.</p>
+
+<p>In the large industrial centres there are scores of Irish county
+and other societies composed of Irishmen and Irish-Americans,
+organized for the service of country and faith, beneficence and
+education, and all dedicated to the uplifting of humanity and to the
+progress of civilization. The ancient genius for organization has not
+been lost, the spirit of brotherhood pulsates strongly in the Irish
+heart, and through its powerful societies the race retains its place
+in the advance of mankind.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>John M. Campbell: History of the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick and
+Hibernian Society; Maguire: The Irish in America; McGee: Irish
+Settlers in America; John O'Dea: History of the Ancient Order of
+Hibernians and Ladies' Auxiliary in America; Michael Davitt: The Fall
+of Feudalism in Ireland; Cashman: Life of Michael Davitt; T.P.
+O'Connor: The Parnell Movement; Joseph Denieffe: Recollections of the
+Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood; Articles in the Catholic
+Encyclopedia; Report of the Knights of Columbus, 1914; The Tidings,
+Los Angeles, 7th annual edition.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T20"></a>THE IRISH IN THE UNITED STATES</h2>
+<h4>By MICHAEL J. O'BRIEN,<br>
+<i>Historiographer, American Irish Historical Society</i>.</h4>
+
+<p>Students of early American history will find in the Colonial
+records abundant evidence to justify the statement of Ramsay, the
+historian of South Carolina, when he wrote in 1789, that:</p>
+
+<p>"The Colonies which now form the United States may be considered as
+Europe transplanted. Ireland, England, Scotland, France, Germany,
+Holland, Switzerland, Sweden, Poland, and Italy furnished the original
+stock of the present population, and are generally supposed to have
+contributed to it in the order named. For the last seventy or eighty
+years, no nation has contributed so much to the population of America
+as Ireland."</p>
+
+<p>It will be astonishing to one who looks into the question to find
+that, in face of all the evidence that abounds in American annals,
+showing that our people were here on this soil fighting the battles of
+the colonists, and in a later day of the infant Republic, thus proving
+our claim to the gratitude of this nation, America has produced men so
+ignoble and disingenuous as to say that the Irish who were here in
+Revolutionary days "were for the most part heartily loyal," that "the
+combatants were of the same race and blood", and that the great
+uprising became, in fact, "a contest between brothers"!</p>
+
+<p>Although many writers have made inquiries into this subject, nearly
+all have confined themselves to the period of the Revolution. We are
+of "the fighting race", and in our enthusiasm for the fighting man the
+fact seems to have been overlooked that in other noble fields of
+endeavor, and in some respects infinitely more important, men of Irish
+blood have occupied prominent places in American history, for which
+they have received but scant recognition. The pioneers before whose
+hands the primeval forests fell prostrate; the builders, by whose
+magic touch have sprung into existence flourishing towns and cities,
+where once no sounds were heard save those of nature and her wildest
+offspring; the orators who roused the colonists into activity and
+showed them the way to achieve their independence; the schoolmasters
+who imparted to the American youth their first lessons in
+intellectuality and patriotism; all have their place in history, and
+of these we can claim that Ireland furnished her full quota to the
+American colonies.</p>
+
+<p>It must now be accepted as an indisputable fact that a very large
+proportion of the earliest settlers in the American colonies were of
+Irish blood, for the Irish have been coming here since the beginning
+of the English colonization. It has been estimated by competent
+authorities that in the middle of the seventeenth century the
+English-speaking colonists numbered 50,000. Sir William Petty, the
+English statistician, tells us that during the decade from 1649 to
+1659 the annual emigration from Ireland to the western continent was
+upwards of 6000, thus making, in that space of time, 60,000 souls, or
+about one-half of what the whole population must have been in 1659.
+And from 1659 to 1672 there emigrated from Ireland to America the
+yearly number of 3000 (Dobbs, on Irish Trade, Dublin, 1729).
+Prendergast, another noted authority, in the <i>Cromwellian Settlement
+of Ireland</i>, furnishes ample verification of this by the statistics
+which he quotes from the English records. Richard Hakluyt, the
+chronicler of the first Virginia expeditions, in his <i>Voyages,
+Navigations, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the English Nation</i>
+(London, 1600), shows that Irishmen came with Raleigh to Virginia in
+1587 and, in fact, the ubiquitous Celts were with Sir John Hawkins in
+his voyage to the Gulf of Mexico twenty years earlier. The famous work
+of John Camden Hotten, entitled "The Original Lists of Persons of
+Quality, Emigrants, Religious Exiles, Political Rebels, Serving Men
+sold for a term of years," etc., who were brought to the Virginia
+plantations between 1600 and 1700, as well as his "List of the Livinge
+and the Dead in Virginia in 1623," contains numerous Celtic names, and
+further evidence of these continuous migrations of the Irish is
+contained in "A Booke of Entrie for Passengers passing beyond the
+Seas", in the year 1632. The Virginia records also show that as early
+as 1621 a colony of Irish people sailed from Cork in the
+<i>Flying Harte</i> under the patronage of Sir William Newce and
+located at what is now Newport News, and some few years later Daniel
+Gookin, a merchant of Cork, transported hither "great multitudes of
+people and cattle" from England and Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>In the "William and Mary College Quarterly," in the transcripts of
+the original records published by the Virginia Historical Society, and
+in all County histories of Virginia, there are numerous references to
+the Irish "redemptioners" who were brought to that colony during the
+seventeenth century. But the redemptioners were not the only class who
+came, for the colonial records also contain many references to
+Irishmen of good birth and education who received grants of land in
+the colony and who, in turn, induced many of their countrymen to
+emigrate. Planters named McCarty, Lynch, O'Neill, Sullivan, Farrell,
+McDonnell, O'Brien, and others denoting an ancient Irish lineage
+appear frequently in the early records. Much that is romantic is found
+in the lives of these men and their descendants. Some of them served
+in the Council chamber and the field, their sons and daughters were
+educated to hold place, with elegance and dignity, with the foremost
+of the Cavaliers, and when in after years the great conflict with
+England began, Virginians of Irish blood were among the first and the
+most eager to answer the call. Those historians who claim that the
+South was exclusively an "Anglo-Saxon" heritage would be completely
+disillusioned were they to examine the lists of Colonial and
+Revolutionary troops of Celtic name who held the Indians and the
+British at bay, and who helped in those "troublous times" to lay the
+foundations of a great Republic.</p>
+
+<p>There is no portion of the Atlantic seaboard that did not profit by
+the Irish immigrations of the seventeenth century. We learn from the
+"Irish State Papers" of the year 1595 that ships were regularly plying
+between Ireland and Newfoundland, and so important was the trade
+between Ireland and the far-distant fishing banks that "all English
+ships bound out always made provisions that the convoy out should
+remain 48 hours in Cork." In some of Lord Baltimore's accounts of his
+voyages to Newfoundland he refers to his having "sailed from Ireland"
+and to his "return to Ireland," and so it is highly probable that he
+settled Irishmen on his Avalon plantations. After Baltimore's
+departure, Lord Falkland also sent out a number of Irish colonists,
+and "at a later date they were so largely reinforced by settlers from
+Ireland that the Celtic part of the population at this day is not far
+short of equality in numbers with the Saxon portion"&mdash;(Hatton and
+Harvey, <i>History of Newfoundland</i>, page 32). Pedley attributes
+the large proportion of Irishmen and the influence of the Catholics in
+Newfoundland to Lord Falkland's company, and Prowse, in his History
+(pp. 200-201), refers to "the large number of Irishmen" in that colony
+who fled from Waterford and Cork "during the troubled times" which
+preceded the Williamite war (1688). Many of these in after years are
+known to have settled in New England.</p>
+
+<p>But it was to Maryland and Pennsylvania that the greatest flow of
+Irish immigration directed its course. In the celebrated "Account of
+the Voyage to Maryland," written in the year 1634 by Mutius
+Vitellestis, the general of the Jesuit Order, it is related that when
+the <i>Arke</i> and the <i>Dove</i> arrived in the West Indies in that
+year, they found "the island of Montserrat inhabited by a colony of
+Irishmen who had been banished from Virginia on account of their
+professing the Catholic faith." It is known also that there were many
+families in Ireland of substance and good social standing who, at
+their own expense, took venture in the enterprise of Lord Baltimore
+and afterwards in that of William Penn, and who applied for and
+received grants of land, which, as the deeds on record show, were
+afterwards divided into farms bought and settled by O'Briens,
+McCarthys, O'Connors, and many others of the ancient Gaelic race, the
+descendants of those heroic men whose passion for liberty, while
+causing their ruin, inspired and impelled their sons to follow
+westward "the star of empire."</p>
+
+<p>After the first English colonies in Maryland were founded, we find
+in all the proclamations concerning these settlements by the
+proprietary government, that they were limited to "persons of British
+or Irish descent." The religious liberty established in Maryland was
+the magnet which attracted Irish Catholics to that Province, and so
+they came in large numbers in search of peace and comfort and freedom
+from the turmoil produced by religious animosities in their native
+land. The major part of this Irish immigration seems to have come in
+through the ports of Philadelphia and Charleston and a portion through
+Chesapeake Bay, whence they passed on to Pennsylvania and the southern
+colonies.</p>
+
+<p>The "Certificates of Land Grants" in Maryland show that it was
+customary for those Irish colonists to name their lands after places
+in their native country, and I find that there is hardly a town or
+city in the old Gaelic strongholds in Ireland that is not represented
+in the nomenclature of the early Maryland grants. One entire section
+of the Province, named the "County of New Ireland" by proclamation of
+Lord Baltimore in the year 1684, was occupied wholly by Irish
+families. This section is now embraced in Cecil and Harford Counties.
+New Ireland County was divided into three parts, known as New
+Connaught, New Munster, and New Leinster. New Connaught was founded by
+George Talbot from Roscommon, who was surveyor-general of the
+Province; New Munster, by Edward O'Dwyer from Tipperary; and New
+Leinster, by Bryan O'Daly from Wicklow, all of whom were in Maryland
+prior to 1683. Among the prominent men in the Province may be
+mentioned Charles O'Carroll, who was secretary to the proprietor; John
+Hart from county Cavan, who was governor of Maryland from 1714 to
+1720; Phillip Conner from Kerry, known in history as the "Last
+Commander of Old Kent"; Daniel Dulany of the O'Delaney family from
+Queen's County, one of the most famous lawyers in the American
+Colonies; Michael Tawney or Taney, ancestor of the celebrated judge,
+Roger Brooke Taney; the Courseys from Cork, one of the oldest families
+in the State; the Kings from Dublin; and many others.</p>
+
+<p>The only place in the State bearing a genuine Irish name which has
+reached any prominence is Baltimore. Not alone has the "Monumental
+City" received its name from Ireland, but the tract of land on which
+the city is now situate was originally named (in 1695) "Ely
+O'Carroll," after the barony of that name in King's and Tipperary
+counties, the ancient home of the Clan O'Carroll. To subdivisions of
+the tract were given such names as Dublin, Waterford, Tralee, Raphoe,
+Tramore, Mallow, Kinsale, Lurgan, Coleraine, Tipperary, Antrim,
+Belfast, Derry, Kildare, Enniskillen, Wexford, Letterkenny, Lifford,
+Birr, Galway, Limerick, and so on, all indicating the nationality of
+the patentees, as well as the places from which they came.</p>
+
+<p>From such sources is the evidence available of the coming of the
+Irish to Maryland in large numbers, and so it is that we are not
+surprised to find on the rosters of the Maryland Revolutionary
+regiments 4633 distinctive Irish names, exclusive of the large numbers
+who joined the navy and the militia, as well as those who were held to
+guard the frontier from Indian raids, whose names are not on record.
+However, it is not possible now to determine the proportion of the
+Revolutionary soldiers who were of Irish birth or descent, for where
+the nationality is not stated in the rosters all non-Irish names must
+be left out of the reckoning. The first census of Maryland (1790),
+published by the United States Government, enumerates the names of all
+"Heads of Families" and the number of persons in each family. A count
+of the Irish names shows approximately 21,000 persons. This does not
+take into account the great number of people who could not be recorded
+under that head, as it is known there were many thousand Irish
+"redemptioners" in Maryland prior to the taking of the census, and
+while no precise data exist to indicate the number of Irish immigrants
+who settled in Maryland, I estimate that the number of people of Irish
+descent in the State in 1790 was not far short of 40,000.</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+<p>The Land Records and Council Journals of Georgia of the last half
+of the seventeenth and the first half of the eighteenth century afford
+like testimony to the presence of the Irish, who crossed the sea and
+colonized the waste places of that wild territory, and whose
+descendants in after years contributed much of the strength of the
+patriot forces who confronted the armed cohorts of Carleton and
+Cornwallis. From the Colonial Records of Georgia, published under the
+auspices of the State Legislature, I have extracted a long list of
+people of Irish name and blood who received grants of land in that
+colony. They came with Oglethorpe as early as 1735 and continued to
+arrive for many years. It was an Irishman named Mitchell who laid out
+the site of Atlanta, the metropolis of the South; an O'Brien founded
+the city of Augusta; and a McCormick named the city of Dublin,
+Georgia.</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+<p>From the records of the Carolinas we obtain similar data, many of
+an absorbingly interesting character, and the number of places in that
+section bearing names of a decidedly Celtic flavor is striking
+evidence of the presence of Irish people, the line of whose
+settlements across the whole State of North Carolina may be traced on
+the high roads leading from Pennsylvania and Virginia. Hawk, one of
+the historians of North Carolina, refers to the "Irish Romanists" who
+were resident in that Province as early as 1700, and Williamson says
+that "the most numerous settlers in the northwestern part of the
+Province during the first half of the eighteenth century were from
+Ireland." The manuscript records in the office of the Secretary of
+State refer to "a ship load of immigrants" who, in the year 1761, came
+to the Carolinas from Dublin. The names of the Irish pioneers in the
+Carolinas are found in every conceivable connection, in the parochial
+and court records, in the will books, in the minutes of the general
+Assembly, in the quaint old records of the Land and Registers'
+offices, in the patents granted by the colonial Government, and in
+sundry other official records. In public affairs they seem to have had
+the same adaptability for politics which, among other things, has in
+later days brought their countrymen into prominence. Florence
+O'Sullivan from Kerry was surveyor-general of South Carolina in 1671.
+James Moore, a native of Ireland and a descendant of the famous Irish
+chieftain, Rory O'More, was governor of South Carolina in 1700;
+Matthew Rowan from Carrickfergus was president of the North Carolina
+Council during the term of office of his townsman, Governor Arthur
+Dobbs (1754 to 1764); John Connor was attorney-general of the Province
+in 1730, and was succeeded in turn by David O'Sheall and Thomas
+McGuire. Cornelius Hartnett, Hugh Waddell, and Terence Sweeny, all
+Irishmen, were members of the Court, and among the members of the
+provincial assembly I find such names as Murphy, Leary, Kearney,
+McLewean, Dunn, Keenan, McManus, Ryan, Bourke, Logan, and others
+showing an Irish origin. And, in this connection, we must not overlook
+Thomas Burke, a native of "the City of the Tribes", distinguished as
+lawyer, soldier, and statesman, who became governor of North Carolina
+in 1781, as did his cousin Aedanus Burke, also from Galway, who was
+judge of the Supreme Court of South Carolina in 1778. John Rutledge,
+son of Dr. John Rutledge from Ireland, was governor of South Carolina
+in 1776 and his brother Edward became governor of the State in
+1788.</p>
+
+<p>But there were Irishmen in the Carolinas long before the advent of
+these, and indeed Irish names are found occasionally as far back as
+the records of those colonies reach. They are scattered profusely
+through the will books and records of deeds as early as 1676 and down
+to the end of the century, and in a list of immigrants from Barbados
+in the year 1678, quoted by John Camden Hotten in the work already
+alluded to, we find about 120 persons of Irish name who settled in the
+Carolinas in that year. In 1719, 500 persons from Ireland transported
+themselves to Carolina to take the benefit of an Act passed by the
+Assembly by which the lands of the Yemmassee Indians were thrown open
+to settlers, and Ramsay (<i>History of South Carolina</i>, vol. I,
+page 20) says: "Of all countries none has furnished the Province with
+so many inhabitants as Ireland."</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+<p>In the Pennsylvania records one is also struck with the very
+frequent mention of Irish names. William Penn had lived in Ireland for
+several years and was acquainted with the sturdy character of its
+people, and when he arrived on board <i>The Welcome</i> in 1682 he had
+with him a number of Irishmen, who are described as "people of
+property and people of consequence." In 1699 he brought over a
+brilliant young Irishman, James Logan from Lurgan, who for nearly half
+a century occupied a leading position in the Province and for some
+time was its governor. But the first Irish immigration to Pennsylvania
+of any numerical importance came in the year 1717. They settled in
+Lancaster County. "They and their descendants," says Rupp, an
+impartial historian, "have always been justly regarded as among the
+most intelligent people in the County and their progress will be found
+to be but little behind the boasted efforts of the Colony of
+Plymouth." In 1727, as the records show, 1155 Irish people arrived in
+Philadelphia and in 1728 the number reached the high total of 5600.
+"It looks as if Ireland is to send all her inhabitants hither," wrote
+Secretary Logan to the provincial proprietors in 1729, "for last week
+not less than six ships arrived. The common fear is that if they
+continue to come they will make themselves proprietors of the
+Province" (Rupp's <i>History of Dauphin County</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The continuous stream of Irish immigration was viewed with so much
+alarm by the Legislature, that in 1728 a law was passed "against these
+crowds of Irish papists and convicts who are yearly powr'd upon
+us"&mdash;(the "convicts" being the political refugees who fled from
+the persecutions of the English Government!). But the operations of
+this statute were wholly nullified by the captains of the vessels
+landing their passengers at Newcastle, Del., and Burlington, N, J.,
+and, as one instance of this, I find in the Philadelphia <i>American
+Weekly Mercury</i> of August 14, 1729, a statement to this effect: "It
+is reported from Newcastle that there arrived there this last week
+about 2000 Irish and an abundance more daily expected." This
+expectation was realized, for according to "An Account of Passengers
+and Servants landed in Philadelphia between December 25, 1728, and
+December 25, 1729", which I find in the <i>New England Weekly
+Journal</i> for March 30, 1730, the number of Irish who came in via
+the Delaware river in that year was 5655, while the total number of
+all other Europeans who arrived during the same period was only 553.
+Holmes, in his <i>Annals of America</i>, corroborates this. The
+Philadelphia newspapers down to the year 1741 also contained many
+similar references, indicating that the flood of Irish immigration was
+unceasing and that it was at all times in excess of that from other
+European countries. Later issues of the <i>Mercury</i> also published
+accounts of the number of ships from Ireland which arrived in the
+Delaware, and from these it appears that from 1735 to 1738 "66 vessels
+entered Philadelphia from Ireland and 50 cleared thereto." And in the
+<i>New York Gazette and Weekly Post-Boy</i> of the years 1750 to 1752,
+I find under the caption, "Vessels Registered at the Philadelphia
+Custom House," a total of 183 ships destined from or to Ireland, or an
+average of five sailings per month between Irish ports and the port of
+Philadelphia alone. A careful search fails to disclose any record of
+the number of persons who came in these ships, but, from the fact that
+it is stated that all carried passengers as well as merchandise from
+Irish ports, we may safely assume that the "human freight" must have
+been very large.</p>
+
+<p>Spencer, in his <i>History of the United States</i>, says: "In the
+years 1771 and 1772 the number of emigrants to America from Ireland
+was 17,350, almost all of whom emigrated at their own expense. A great
+majority of them consisted of persons employed in the linen
+manufacture or farmers possessed of some property, which they
+converted into money and brought with them. Within the first fortnight
+of August, 1773, there arrived at Philadelphia 3500 immigrants from
+Ireland. As most of the emigrants, particularly those from Ireland and
+Scotland, were personally discontent with their treatment in Europe,
+their accession to the colonial population, it might reasonably be
+supposed, had no tendency to diminish or counteract the hostile
+sentiments toward Britain which were daily gathering force in
+America." Marmion, in his <i>Ancient and Modern History of the
+Maritime Ports of Ireland</i>, verifies this. He says that the number
+of Irish who came during the years 1771, 1772, and 1773 was 25,000.
+The bulk of these came in by way of Philadelphia and settled in
+Pennsylvania and the Virginias.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish were arriving in the Province in such great numbers
+during this period as to be the cause of considerable jealousy on the
+part of other settlers from continental Europe. They were a vigorous
+and aggressive element. Eager for that freedom which was denied them
+at home, large numbers of them went out on the frontier. While the
+war-whoop of the savage still echoed within the surrounding valleys
+and his council fires blazed upon the hills, those daring adventurers
+penetrated the hitherto pathless wilderness and passed through
+unexampled hardships with heroic endurance. They opened up the roads,
+bridged the streams, and cut down the forests, turning the wilderness
+into a place fit for man's abode. With their sturdy sons, they
+constituted the skirmish line of civilization, standing as a bulwark
+against Indian incursions into the more prosperous and populous
+settlements between them and the coast. From 1740 down to the period
+of the Revolution, hardly a year passed without a fresh infusion of
+Irish blood into the existing population, and, as an indication that
+they distributed themselves all over the Province, I find, in every
+Town and County history of Pennsylvania and in the land records of
+every section, Irish names in the greatest profusion. They settled in
+great numbers chiefly along the Susquehanna and its tributaries; they
+laid out many prosperous settlements in the wilderness of western
+Pennsylvania, and in these sections Irishmen are seen occupying some
+of the foremost and most coveted positions, and their sons in after
+years contributed much to the power and commercial greatness of the
+Commonwealth. They are mentioned prominently as manufacturers,
+merchants, and farmers, and in the professions they occupied a place
+second to none among the natives of the State. In several sections,
+they were numerous enough to establish their own independent
+settlements, to which they gave the names of their Irish home places,
+several of which are preserved to this day. It is not to be wondered
+at then that General Harry Lee named the Pennsylvania line of the
+Continental army, "the Line of Ireland"!</p>
+
+<p>Ireland gave many eminent men to the Commonwealth, among whom may
+be mentioned: John Burns, its first governor after the adoption of the
+Constitution, who was born in Dublin; George Bryan, also a native of
+Dublin, who was its governor in 1788; James O'Hara, one of the
+founders of Pittsburgh; Thomas FitzSimmons, a native of Limerick,
+member of the first Congress under the Constitution which began the
+United States Government and father of the policy of protection to
+American industries; Matthew Carey from Dublin, the famous political
+economist; and many others who were prominent as nation-builders in
+the early days of the "Keystone State."</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+<p>While the historians usually give all the credit to England and to
+Englishmen for the early colonization of New England, whose results
+have been attended with such important consequences to America and the
+civilized world, Ireland and her sons can also claim a large part in
+the development of this territory, as is evidenced by the town, land,
+church, and other colonial records, and the names of the pioneers, as
+well as the names given to several of the early settlements. That the
+Irish had been coming to New England almost from the beginning of the
+English colonization is indicated by an "Order" entered in the
+Massachusetts record under date of September 25, 1634, granting
+liberty to "the Scottishe and Irishe gentlemen who intend to come
+hither, to sitt down in any place upp Merimacke river." This,
+doubtless, referred to a Scotch and Irish company which, about that
+time, had announced its intention of founding a settlement on the
+Merrimac. It comprised in all 140 passengers, who embarked in the
+<i>Eagle Wing</i>, from Carrickfergus in September, 1636, bringing
+with them a considerable quantity of equipment and merchandise to meet
+the exigencies of their settlement in the new country. The vessel,
+however, never reached its destination and was obliged to return to
+Ireland on account of the Atlantic storms, and there is no record of a
+renewal of the attempt. In the Massachusetts records of the year 1640
+(vol. I, p. 295) is another entry relating to "the persons come from
+Ireland," and in the Town Books of Boston may be seen references to
+Irishmen who were residents of the town in that year.</p>
+
+<p>From local histories, which in many cases are but verbatim copies
+of the original entries in the Town Books, we get occasional glimpses
+of the Irish who were in the colony of Massachusetts Bay between this
+period and the end of the century. For example, between 1640 and 1660,
+such names as O'Neill, Sexton, Gibbons, Lynch, Keeney, Kelly, and
+Hogan appear on the Town records of Hartford, and one of the first
+schoolmasters who taught the children of the Puritans in New Haven was
+an Irishman named William Collins, who, in the year 1640, came there
+with a number of Irish refugees from Barbados Island. An Irishman
+named Joseph Collins with his wife and family came to Lynn, Mass., in
+1635. Richard Duffy and Matthias Curran were at Ipswich in 1633. John
+Kelly came to Newbury in 1635 with the first English settlers of the
+town. David O'Killia (or O'Kelly) was a resident of Old Yarmouth in
+1657, and I find on various records of that section a great number of
+people named Kelley, who probably were descended from David O'Killia.
+Peter O'Kelly and his family are mentioned as of Dorchester in 1696.
+At Springfield in 1656 there were families named Riley and O'Dea; and
+Richard Burke, said to be of the Mayo family of that name, is
+mentioned prominently in Middlesex County as early as 1670. The first
+legal instrument of record in Hampden County was a deed of conveyance
+in the year 1683 to one Patrick Riley of lands in Chicopee. With a
+number of his countrymen, Riley located in this vicinity and gave the
+name of "Ireland Parish" to their settlement. John Molooney and Daniel
+MacGuinnes were at Woburn in 1676, and Michael Bacon, "an Irishman",
+of Woburn, fought in King Philip's war in 1675. John Joyce was at Lynn
+in 1637, and I find the names of Willyam Heally, William Reyle,
+William Barrett, and Roger Burke signed to a petition to the General
+Court of Massachusetts on August 17, 1664. Such names as Maccarty,
+Gleason, Coggan, Lawler, Kelly, Hurley, MackQuade, and McCleary also
+appear on the Cambridge Church records down to 1690. These are but
+desultory instances of the first comers among the Irish to
+Massachusetts, selected from a great mass of similar data.</p>
+
+<p>In the early history of every town in Massachusetts, without
+exception, I find mention of Irish people, and while the majority came
+originally as "poor redemptioners", yet, in course of time and despite
+Puritanical prejudices, not a few of them rose to positions of worth
+and independence. Perhaps the most noted of these was Matthew Lyon of
+Vermont, known as "the Hampden of Congress," who, on his arrival in
+New York in 1765, was sold as a "redemptioner" to pay his
+passage-money. This distinguished American was a native of county
+Wicklow. Other notable examples of Irish redemptioners who attained
+eminence in America were George Taylor, a native of Dublin, one of
+Pennsylvania's signers of the Declaration of Independence; Charles
+Thompson, a native of county Tyrone, "the perennial Secretary of the
+Continental Congress", and William Killen, who became chief justice
+and chancellor of Delaware. Some of the descendants of the Irish
+redemptioners in Massachusetts are found among the prominent New
+Englanders of the past hundred years. The Puritans of Massachusetts
+extended no welcoming hand to the Irish who had the temerity to come
+among them, yet, as an historical writer has truly said, "by one of
+those strange transformations which time occasionally works, it has
+come to pass that Massachusetts today contains more people of Irish
+blood in proportion to the total population than any other State in
+the Union."</p>
+
+<p>So great and so continuous was Irish immigration to Massachusetts
+during the early part of the eighteenth century that on Saint
+Patrick's Day in the year 1737 a number of merchants, who described
+themselves as "of the Irish Nation residing in Boston," formed the
+Charitable Irish Society, an organization which exists even to the
+present day. It was provided that the officers should be "natives of
+Ireland or of Irish extraction," and they announced that the Society
+was organized "in an affectionate and Compassionate concern for their
+countrymen in these Parts who may be reduced by Sickness, Shipwrack,
+Old Age, and other Infirmities and unforeseen Accidents." I have
+copied from the Town Books, as reproduced by the City of Boston, 1600
+Irish names of persons who were married or had declared their
+intentions of marriage in Boston between the years 1710 and 1790,
+exclusive of 956 other Irish names which appear on the minutes between
+1720 and 1775.</p>
+
+<p>In 1718, one of the largest single colonies of Irish arrived in
+Boston. It consisted of one hundred families, who settled at different
+places in Massachusetts. One contingent, headed by Edward Fitzgerald,
+located at Worcester and another at Palmer under the leadership of
+Robert Farrell, while a number went to the already established
+settlement at Londonderry, N.H. About the same time a colony of
+fishermen from the west coast of Ireland settled on the Cape Cod
+peninsula, and I find a number of them recorded on the marriage
+registers of the towns in this vicinity between 1719 and 1743. In
+1720, a number of families from county Tyrone came to Shrewsbury, and
+eight years later another large contingent came to Leicester County
+from the same neighborhood, who gave the name of Dublin to the section
+where they located. The annals of Leicester County are rich in Irish
+names. On the Town Books of various places in this vicinity and on the
+rosters of the troops enrolled for the Indian war, Irishmen are
+recorded, and we learn from the records that not a few of them were
+important and useful men, active in the development of the
+settlements, and often chosen as selectmen or representatives. On the
+minutes of the meetings of the selectmen of Pelham, Spencer, Sutton,
+Charlestown, Canton, Scituate, Stoughton, Salem, Amesbury, Stoneham,
+and other Massachusetts towns, Irish names are recorded many years
+before the Revolution. In local histories these people are usually
+called "Scotch-Irish," a racial misnomer that has been very much
+overworked by a certain class of historical writers who seem to be
+unable to understand that a non-Catholic native of Ireland can be an
+Irishman. In an exhaustive study of American history, I cannot find
+any other race where such a distinction is drawn as in the case of the
+non-Catholic, or so-called "Scotch," Irish. In many instances, this
+hybrid racial designation obviously springs from prejudice and a
+desire to withhold from Ireland any credit that may belong to her,
+although, in some cases, the writers are genuinely mistaken in their
+belief that the Scotch as a race are the antithesis of the Irish and
+that whatever commendable qualities the non-Catholic Irish are
+possessed of naturally spring from the Scotch.</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+<p>The first recorded Irish settlement in Maine was made by families
+named Kelly and Haley from Galway, who located on the Isles of Shoals
+about the year 1653. In 1692, Roger Kelly was a representative from
+the Isles to the General Court of Massachusetts, and is described in
+local annals as "King of the Isles." The large number of islands,
+bays, and promontories on the Maine coast bearing distinctive Celtic
+names attests the presence and influence of Irish people in this
+section in colonial times. In 1720, Robert Temple from Cork brought to
+Maine five shiploads of people, mostly from the province of Munster.
+They landed at the junction of the Kennebec and Eastern rivers, where
+they established the town of Cork, which, however, after a precarious
+existence of only six years, was entirely destroyed by the Indians.
+For nearly a century the place was familiarly known to the residents
+of the locality as "Ireland." The records of York, Lincoln, and
+Cumberland counties contain references to large numbers of Irish
+people who settled in those localities during the early years of the
+eighteenth century. The Town Books of Georgetown, Kirtery, and
+Kennebunkport, of the period 1740 to 1775, are especially rich in
+Irish names, and in the Saco Valley numerous settlements were made by
+Irish immigrants, not a few of whom are referred to by local
+historians as "men of wealth and social standing." In the marriage and
+other records of Limerick, Me., as published by the Maine Historical
+and Genealogical Recorder, in the marriage registers of the First
+Congregational Church of Scarborough, and in other similarly
+unquestionable records, I find a surprisingly large number of Irish
+names at various periods during the seventeenth and eighteenth
+centuries. In fact, there is not one town in the Province that did not
+have its quota of Irish people, who came either direct from Ireland or
+migrated from other sections of New England.</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+<p>The records of New Hampshire and Rhode Island are also a fruitful
+source of information on this subject, and the Provincial papers
+indicate an almost unbroken tide of Irish immigration to this section,
+beginning as early as the year 1640. One of the most noted of Exeter's
+pioneer settlers was an Irishman named Darby Field, who came to that
+place in 1631 and who has been credited by Governor Winthrop as "the
+first European who witnessed the White Mountains." He is also recorded
+as "an Irish soldier for discovery," and I find his name in the annals
+of Exeter as one of the grantees of an Indian deed dated April 3,
+1638, as well as several other Irish names down to the year 1664. In
+examining the town registers, gazeteers, and genealogies, as well as
+the local histories of New Hampshire, in which are embodied copies of
+the original entries made by the Town Clerks, I find numerous
+references to the Irish pioneers, and in many instances they are
+written down, among others, as "the first settlers." Some are
+mentioned as selectmen, town clerks, representatives, or colonial
+soldiers, and it is indeed remarkable that there is not one of these
+authorities that I have examined, out of more than two hundred, that
+does not contain Irish names. From these Irish pioneers sprang many
+men who attained prominence in New Hampshire, in the legislature, the
+professions, the military, the arts and crafts, and in all departments
+of civil life, down to the present time. In the marriage registers of
+Portsmouth, Boscawen, New Boston, Antrim, Londonderry, and other New
+Hampshire towns, are recorded, in some cases as early as 1716, names
+of Irish persons, with the places of their nativity, indicating that
+they came from all parts of Ireland. At Hampton, I find Humphrey
+Sullivan teaching school in 1714, while the name of John Sullivan from
+Limerick, schoolmaster at Dover and at Berwick, Me., for upwards of
+fifty years, is one of the most honored in early New Hampshire
+history.</p>
+
+<p>This John Sullivan was surely one of the grandest characters in the
+Colony of Massachusetts Bay, and the record of his descendants serves
+as an all-sufficient reply to the anti-Irish prejudices of some
+American historians. He was the father of a governor of New Hampshire
+and of a governor of Massachusetts; of an attorney-general of New
+Hampshire and of an attorney-general of Massachusetts; of New
+Hampshire's only major-general in the Continental army; of the first
+judge appointed by Washington in New Hampshire; and of four sons who
+were officers in the Continental army. He was grandfather of an
+attorney-general of New Hampshire, of a governor of Maine, and of a
+United States Senator from New Hampshire. He was great-grandfather of
+an attorney-general of New Hampshire, and great-great-grandfather of
+an officer in the Thirteenth New Hampshire regiment in the Civil
+War.</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+<p>In Rhode Island, Irish people are on record as far back as 1640,
+and for many years after that date they continued to come. Edward
+Larkin was an esteemed citizen of Newport in 1655. Charles McCarthy
+was one of the founders of the town of East Greenwich in 1677, while
+in this vicinity as early as 1680 are found such names as Casey,
+Higgins, Magennis, Kelley, Murphy, Reylie, Maloney, Healy, Delaney,
+Walsh, and others of Irish origin. On the rosters of the Colonial
+militia who fought in King Philip's war (1675) are found the names of
+110 soldiers of Irish birth or descent, some of whom, for their
+services at the battle of Narragansett, received grants of land in New
+Hampshire and Massachusetts. The New England Historical and
+Genealogical Register for 1848 contains some remarkable testimony of
+the sympathy of the people of Ireland for the sufferers in this cruel
+war, and the "Irish Donation," sent out from Dublin in the year 1676,
+will always stand in history to Ireland's credit and as an instance of
+her intimate familiarity with American affairs, one hundred years
+prior to that Revolution which emancipated the people of this land
+from the same tyranny under which she herself has groaned. And yet,
+what a cruel travesty on history it reads like now, when we scan the
+official records of the New England colonies and find that the Irish
+were often called "convicts", and it was thought that measures should
+be taken to prevent their landing on the soil where they and their
+sons afterwards shed their blood in the cause of their fellow
+colonists! In the minutes of the provincial Assemblies and in the
+reports rendered to the General Court, as well as in other official
+documents of the period, are found expressions of the sentiment which
+prevailed against the natives of the "Island of Sorrows." Only twenty
+years before the outbreak of King Philip's war, the government of
+England was asked to provide a law "to prevent the importation of
+Irish Papists and convicts that are yearly pow'rd upon us and to make
+provision against the growth of this pernicious evil." And the
+colonial Courts themselves, on account of what they called "the cruel
+and malignant spirit that has from time to time been manifest in the
+Irish nation against the English nation," prohibited "the bringing
+over of any Irish men, women, or children into this jurisdiction on
+the penalty of fifty pounds sterling to each inhabitant who shall buy
+of any merchant, shipmaster, or other agent any such person or persons
+so transported by them." This order was promulgated by the General
+Court of Massachusetts in October, 1654, and is given in full in the
+American Historical Review for October, 1896.</p>
+
+<p>With the "convicts" and the "redemptioners" came the Irish
+schoolmaster, the man then most needed in America. And the fighting
+man, he too was to the fore, for when the colonies in after years
+called for volunteers to resist the tyranny of the British, the
+descendants of the Irish "convicts" were among the first and the most
+eager to answer the call.</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+<p>Although it does not appear that Irish immigrants settled in the
+Province of New York in such large numbers as in other sections, yet,
+as far back as the third quarter of the seventeenth century, Irish
+names are found on the records of the Colony. O'Callaghan, the eminent
+archivist and historian, refers to "Dr. William Hayes, formerly of
+Barry's Court, Ireland," as one of New York's physicians in the year
+1647, and from the same authority we learn that there were "settlers
+and Indian fighters in New Netherland" named Barrett, Fitzgerald,
+Dowdall, Collins, and Quinn in 1657. In records relating to the war
+with the Esopus Indians (1663), and in fact as early as 1658, frequent
+references are made to "Thomas the Irishman", whose name was Thomas
+Lewis, a refugee from Ireland to Holland after the Cromwellian war.
+Lewis is on record in 1683 as one of the wealthiest merchants of New
+York and a large owner of real estate in the present downtown portion
+of the city. Such names as Patrick Hayes, John Daly, John Quigly, and
+Dennis McKarty appear among its business men between 1666 and 1672,
+and in a "Census of the City of New York of the year 1703" we find
+people named Flynn, Walsh, Dooley, Gillen, Carroll, Kenne, Gurney,
+Hart, Mooney, Moran, Lynch, Kearney, and others, all "Freemen of the
+City of New York." In the "Poll List" of the city from 1741 to 1761,
+more than one hundred such names appear, while among the advertisers
+in the New York newspapers all through the eighteenth century I find a
+large number of characteristic Irish names.</p>
+
+<p>One would scarcely expect to find an Irishman in the old Dutch
+settlement of Beverwyck as early as 1645. Yet such is the case, for
+"Jan Andriessen, de Iersman van Dublingh"&mdash;(John Anderson, the
+Irishman from Dublin)&mdash;is mentioned as the owner of considerable
+landed property in the neighborhood of Albany and Catskill, and in
+every mention of this ancient pioneer he is referred to as "the
+Irishman." At Albany, between 1666 and 1690, we find people named
+Connell, Daly, Larkin, Shaw, Hogan, and Finn, all Irishmen, and in
+Jonathan Pearson's "Genealogies of the First Settlers of the Ancient
+County of Albany" and in his "Genealogies of the First Settlers of the
+Patent and City of Schenectady", I find 135 distinctive Irish names.
+These were mostly merchants, farmers, artisans, millers, and
+backwoodsmen, the pioneers, who, with their Dutch neighbors, blazed
+the trail of civilization through that section, rolled back the savage
+redman, and marked along the banks of the Hudson and Mohawk rivers the
+sites of future towns and cities. In the rate lists of Long Island
+between 1638 and 1675, I find Kelly, Dalton, Whelan, Condon, Barry,
+Powers, Quin, Kane, Sweeney, Murphy, Reilly, as well as Norman-Irish
+and Anglo-Irish names that are common to Irish nomenclature. Hugh
+O'Neale was a prominent resident of Newtown, L.I., in 1655. In a
+"Report to the Lord President," dated September 6, 1687, Governor
+Dongan recommended "that natives of Ireland be sent to colonize here
+where they may live and be very happy." Numbers of them evidently
+accepted the invitation, for many Irishmen are mentioned in the public
+documents of the Province during the succeeding twenty years.</p>
+
+<p>That the Irish continued to settle in the Province all through the
+eighteenth century may be seen from the announcements in the New York
+newspapers of the time and other authentic records. The most important
+of these, in point of numbers and character of the immigrants, were
+those made in Orange County in 1729 under the leadership of James
+Clinton from Longford, and at Cherry Valley, in Otsego County, twelve
+years later. On the Orange County assessment and Revolutionary rolls,
+and down to the year 1800, there is a very large number of Irish
+names, and in some sections they constituted nearly the entire
+population. In the northwestern part of New York, Irishmen are also
+found about the time of the Franco-English war. They were not only
+among those settlers who followed the peaceful pursuits of tilling and
+building, but they were "the men behind the guns" who held the
+marauding Indians in check and repelled the advances of the French
+through that territory. In this war, Irish soldiers fought on both
+sides, and in the "Journals of the Marquis of Montcalm" may be seen
+references to the English garrison at Oswego, which, in August, 1756,
+surrendered to that same Irish Brigade by which they had been defeated
+eleven years before on the battlefield of Fontenoy. In the
+"Manuscripts of Sir William Johnson", are also found some interesting
+items indicating that Irishmen were active participants in the
+frontier fighting about that time, and in one report to him, dated May
+28, 1756, from the commandant of an English regiment, reference is
+made to "the great numbers of Irish Papists among the Delaware and
+Susquehanna Indians who have done a world of prejudice to English
+interests."</p>
+
+<p>The early records, with hardly an exception, contain Irish names,
+showing that the "Exiles from Erin" came to the Province of New York
+in considerable numbers during the eighteenth century. The baptismal
+and marriage records of the Dutch Reformed and Protestant churches of
+New York City; of the Dutch churches at Kingston, Albany, Schenectady,
+and other towns; the muster rolls of the troops enrolled for the
+French, Indian, and Revolutionary wars; the Land Grants and other
+provincial records at Albany; the newspapers; the Town, County, and
+family histories, and other early chronicles, supplemented by
+authoritative publications such as those of the New York Historical
+and Genealogical and Biographical Societies&mdash;these are the
+depositories of the evidence that thousands of Irish people settled in
+the Province of New York and constituted no inconsiderable proportion
+of the total population.</p>
+
+<p>The majority of the Irish residents of New York whose marriages are
+recorded in the Dutch Reformed church were, doubtless, of the Catholic
+faith, but, as it was necessary to comply with the established law,
+and also so that their offspring might be legitimate, they could be
+bound in wedlock only by a recognized Minister of the Gospel. As there
+was no Catholic church in New York prior to 1786, the ceremony had to
+be performed in the Dutch Reformed or Protestant church. Many of these
+Catholics were refugees from Ireland on account of the religious
+persecutions. Like the people of Ireland in all ages, they were
+devoted to their religion, and while, no doubt, they eschewed for a
+while association with the established churches, yet, as time went on,
+they and their children were gradually drawn into religious
+intercourse with the other sects, until eventually they became regular
+communicants of those churches. The variations which from time to time
+were wrought in their names brought them further and further away from
+what they had been; in their new surroundings, both social and
+religious, they themselves changed, so that their children, who in
+many cases married into the neighboring Dutch and French families,
+became as wholly un-Irish in manner and sentiment as if they had
+sprung from an entirely different race. That fact, however, does not
+admit of their being now included in the category "Anglo-Saxon."</p>
+
+<p>In a work entitled "Names of Persons for whom Marriage Licenses
+were issued by the Secretary of the Province of New York, previous to
+1784," compiled by Gideon J. Tucker (when Secretary of State), and
+taken from the early records of the office of the Secretary of State
+at Albany, we find ample corroboration of the church records. Page
+after page of this book looks more like some record of the Province of
+Munster than of the Province of New York. It is a quarto volume
+printed in small type in double columns, and there are eleven pages
+wholly devoted to persons whose names commence with "Mac" and three to
+the "O's." Nearly every name common to Ireland is here
+represented.</p>
+
+<p>New York, as a Province and as a State, is much indebted to Irish
+genius. Ireland gave the Province its most noted governor in the
+person of Thomas Dongan from Co. Kildare, and in later years Sir
+William Johnson from Co. Meath, governor of the Indians from New York
+to the Mississippi. It gave the State its first governor, George
+Clinton, son of an immigrant from Co. Longford, and to the city its
+first mayor after the Revolution, James Duane, son of Anthony Duane
+from Co. Galway. Fulton, an Irishman's son, gave America priority in
+the "conquest of the seas." Christopher Colles, a native of Cork, was
+the originator of the grand scheme which united the waters of the
+Atlantic and the Lakes&mdash;one of the greatest works of internal
+improvement ever effected in the United States&mdash;while the
+gigantic project was carried to a successful end through the influence
+and direction of Governor DeWitt Clinton, the grandson of an
+Irishman.</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+<p>Many of the pioneer settlers of New Jersey were Irish. As early as
+1683 "a colony from Tipperary in Ireland" located at Cohansey in Salem
+County, and in the same year a number of settlers, also described as
+"from Tipperary, Ireland," located in Monmouth County. In the County
+records of New Jersey, Irish names are met with frequently between the
+years 1676 and 1698. Several of the local historians testify to the
+presence and influence of Irishmen in the early days of the colony,
+and in the voluminous "New Jersey Archives" may be found references to
+the large numbers of Irish "redemptioners," some of whom, after their
+terms of service had expired, received grants of land and in time
+became prosperous farmers and merchants. Perhaps the most noted
+Irishman in New Jersey in colonial days was Michael Kearney, a native
+of Cork and ancestor of General Philip Kearney of Civil War fame, who
+was secretary and treasurer of the Province in 1723.</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+<p>All through the west and southwest, Irishmen are found in the
+earliest days of authentic history. Along the Ohio, Kentucky, Wabash,
+and Tennessee rivers they were with the pioneers who first trod the
+wilderness of that vast territory. As early as 1690, an Irish trader
+named Doherty crossed the mountains into what is now Kentucky, and we
+are told by Filson, the noted French historian and explorer of
+Kentucky, that "the first white man who discovered this region" (1754)
+was one James McBride, who, in all probability, was an Irishman. The
+first white child born in Cincinnati was a son of an Irish settler
+named John Cummins; the first house built on its site was erected by
+Captain Hugh McGarry, while "the McGarrys, Dentons, and Hogans formed
+the first domestic circle in Kentucky." Prior to the Revolution,
+Indian traders from Western Pennsylvania had penetrated into this
+region, and we learn from authentic sources that no small percentage
+of those itinerant merchants of the west were Irishmen. Among the
+leading and earliest colonists of the "Blue Grass State" who
+accompanied Daniel Boone, the ubiquitous Irish were represented by men
+bearing such names as Mooney, McManus, Sullivan, Drennon, Logan,
+Casey, Fitzpatrick, Dunlevy, Cassidy, Doran, Dougherty, Lynch, Ryan,
+McNeill, McGee, Reilly, Flinn, and the noted McAfee brothers, all
+natives of Ireland or sons of Irish immigrants.</p>
+
+<p>Irishmen and their sons figured prominently in the field of early
+western politics. In the Kentucky legislature, I find such names as
+Connor, Cassidy, Cleary, Conway, Casey, Cavan, Dulin, Dougherty,
+Geohegan, Maher, Morrison, Moran, McMahon, McFall, McClanahan,
+O'Bannon, Powers, and a number of others evidently of Irish origin. On
+the bench we find O'Hara, Boyle, and Barry. Among the many
+distinguished men who reflected honor upon the west, Judge William T.
+Barry of Lexington ranks high for great ability and lofty virtues.
+Simon Kenton, famed in song and story, who "battled with the Indians
+in a hundred encounters and wrested Kentucky from the savage," was an
+Irishman's son, while among its famous Indian fighters were Colonels
+Andrew Hynes, William Casey, and John O'Bannon; Majors Bulger,
+McMullin, McGarry, McBride, Butler, and Cassidy; and Captains McMahon,
+Malarkie, Doyle, Phelon, and Brady. Allen, Butler, Campbell,
+Montgomery, and Rowan counties, Ky., are named after natives of
+Ireland, and Boyle, Breckinridge, Carroll, Casey, Daviess, Magoffin,
+Kenton, McCracken, Meade, Menifee, Clinton, and Fulton counties were
+named in honor of descendants of Irish settlers.</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+<p>In the councils of the first territorial legislature of Missouri
+were Sullivan, Cassidy, Murphy, McDermid, McGrady, Flaugherty,
+McGuire, Dunn, and Hogan, and among the merchants, lawyers, and
+bankers in the pioneer days of St. Louis there were a number of
+Irishmen, the most noted of whom were Mullanphy, Gilhuly, O'Fallon,
+Connor, O'Hara, Dillon, Ranken, Magennis, and Walsh. In all early
+histories of Missouri towns and counties, Irish names are mentioned,
+and in many instances they are on record as "the first settlers."</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+<p>And so it was all through the west. In Ohio, Indiana, Iowa, and
+Illinois, across the rolling prairies and the mountains, beyond the
+Mississippi and the Missouri, in the earliest days of colonization of
+that vast territory, we can follow the Irish "trek" in quest of new
+homes and fortunes. They were part of that irresistible human current
+that swept beyond the ranges of Colorado and Kansas and across the
+Sierra Nevada until it reached the Pacific, and in the forefront of
+those pathfinders and pioneers we find Martin Murphy, the first to
+open a wagon trail to California from the East. The names of Don
+Timoteo Murphy, of Jasper O'Farrell, of Dolans, Burkes, Breens, and
+Hallorins are linked with the annals of the coast while that territory
+was still under Spanish rule, and when Fremont crossed the plains and
+planted the "Bear flag" beyond the Sierras, we find Irishmen among his
+trusted lieutenants. An Irishman, Captain Patrick Connor, first
+penetrated the wilderness of Utah; a descendant of an Irishman, Hall
+J. Kelly, was the explorer of Oregon; Philip Nolan and Thomas O'Connor
+were foremost among those brave spirits "whose daring and persistency
+finally added the Lone Star State to the American Union"; and the
+famous Arctic explorer, scientist, and scholar, Dr. Elisha Kent Kane,
+was a descendant of John O'Kane who came from Ireland to the Province
+of New York in 1752.</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+<p>To form any reliable estimate of the numerical strength of the
+Irish and their descendants in the United States would, I believe, be
+a hopeless task, and while several have attempted to do so, I am of
+the opinion that all such estimates should be discarded as mere
+conjecture. Indeed, there is no standard, or fixed rule or principle,
+by which a correct judgment of the racial composition of the early
+inhabitants of the United States can now be formed, and the available
+statistics on the subject are incomplete and confusing. The greatest
+obstacle in determining this question is found in the names of the
+immigrants themselves. With names such as Smith, Mason, Carpenter, and
+Taylor; White, Brown, Black, and Gray; Forrest, Wood, Mountain, and
+Vail, and other names that are similarly derived, the first thought is
+that they are of English origin. Yet we know that for centuries past
+such names have been numerous in Ireland, and there are many Irish
+families so named who are of as pure Celtic blood as any bearing the
+old Gaelic patronymics. By a law passed in the second year of the
+reign of Edward IV., natives of Ireland were forced to adopt English
+surnames. This Act was, substantially, as follows: "An Act that
+Irishmen dwelling in the Counties of, etc.... shall go appareled like
+Englishmen and wear their beards in English manner, swear allegiance
+and take English sirnames, which sirnames shall be of one towne, as
+Sutton, Chester, Trim, Skryne, Cork, Kinsale; or colours, as white,
+black, brown; or arts, or sciences, as smith or carpenter; or office,
+as cook, butler, etc., and it is enacted that he and his issue shall
+use his name under pain of forfeyting of his goods yearly", etc.</p>
+
+<p>This Act could be enforced only upon those Irish families who dwelt
+within the reach of English law, and as emigrants from those
+districts, deprived of their pure Celtic names, came to America in an
+English guise and in English vessels, they were officially recorded as
+"English." Moreover, numbers of Irish frequently crossed the channel
+and began their voyage from English ports, where they had to take on
+new names, sometimes arbitrarily, and sometimes voluntarily for
+purposes of concealment, either by transforming their original names
+into English or adopting names similar to those above referred to.
+These names were generally retained on this side of the Atlantic so as
+not to arouse the prejudice of their English neighbors. In complying
+with the statute above quoted, some Irish families accepted the rather
+doubtful privilege of translating their names into their English
+equivalents. We have examples of this in such names as Somers,
+anglicised from McGauran (presumably derived from the Gaelic word
+signifying "summer"); Smith from McGowan (meaning "the son of the
+smith"); Jackson and Johnson, a literal translation from MacShane
+(meaning "the son of John"); and Whitcomb from Kiernan (meaning,
+literally, "a white comb").</p>
+
+<p>In addition to this, in the case of some of those Irish immigrants
+whose family names were not changed in Ireland, their descendants
+appear in a much disguised form in the colonial records. Through the
+mistakes of clergymen, court clerks, registrars, and others who had
+difficulty in pronouncing Gaelic names, letters became inserted or
+dropped and the names were written down phonetically. In the mutations
+of time, even these names became still further changed, and we find
+that the descendants of the Irish themselves, after the lapse of a
+generation or two, deliberately changed their names, usually by
+suppressing the Milesian prefixes, "Mac" and "O". Thus we have the
+Laflin and Claflin families, who are descended from a McLaughlin, an
+Irish settler in Massachusetts in the seventeenth century; the Bryans
+from William O'Brian, a captain in Sarsfield's army, who, after the
+fall of Limerick in 1691, settled in Pasquetank County, N.C., and one
+of whose descendants is William Jennings Bryan, now Secretary of
+State; the Dunnels of Maine, from an O'Donnell who located in the Saco
+Valley; and at the Land Office at Annapolis I have found the
+descendants of Roger O'Dewe, who came to Maryland about 1665, recorded
+under the surnames of "Roger", "Dew", and "Dewey". I find Dennis
+O'Deeve or O'Deere written down on the Talbot County (Md.) records of
+the year 1667 with his name reversed, and today his descendants are
+known as "Dennis". Many such instances appear in the early records,
+and when we find a New England family rejoicing in the name of
+"Navillus" we know that the limit has been reached, and while we
+cannot admire the attempt to disguise an ancient and honorable name,
+we are amused at the obvious transposition of "Sullivan".</p>
+
+<p>Thus we see, that, numerous though the old Irish names are on
+American records, they do not by any means indicate the extent of the
+Celtic element which established itself in the colonies, so that there
+is really no means of determining exactly what Ireland has contributed
+to the American Commonwealth. We only know that a steady stream of
+Irish immigrants has crossed the seas to the American continent,
+beginning with the middle of the seventeenth century, and that many of
+those "Exiles from Erin", or their sons, became prominent as leaders
+in every station in life in the new country.</p>
+
+<p>Nor is the "First Census of the United States" any criterion in
+this regard, for the obvious reason that the enumerators made no
+returns of unmarried persons. This fact is important when we consider
+that the Irish exodus of the eighteenth century was largely comprised
+of the youth of the country. Although the First Census was made in
+1790, the first regular record of immigration was not begun until
+thirty years later, and it is only from the records kept after that
+time that we can depend upon actual official figures. During the
+decade following 1820, Ireland contributed more than forty per cent,
+of the entire immigration to America from all European countries, and
+the Irish Emigration Statistics show that between 1830 and 1907 the
+number of people who left Ireland was 6,049,432, the majority of whom
+came to America. The <i>Westminster Review</i> (vol. 133, p. 293), in
+an article on "The Irish-Americans", puts a series of questions as
+follows: "Is the American Republic in any way indebted to those Irish
+citizens? Have they with their large numbers, high social standing,
+great places of trust, contributed aught to her glory or added aught
+to her commercial greatness, refined her social taste or assisted in
+laying the foundations of the real happiness of her people, the real
+security of her laws, the influence of her civic virtues, which more
+than anything else give power and permanency to a naissant and mighty
+nation? The answer is unquestionably affirmative. We have only to look
+back on the past, and to scan the present state of American affairs,
+to feel certain of this." If it be further asked: "Does this statement
+stand the test of strict investigation?" the answer must also be in
+the affirmative, for in almost every line of progress the Irish in
+America have contributed their share of leaders and pioneers, thus
+proving that there are characteristics among even the poor Irish
+driven to emigration for an existence that are as capable of
+development as those possessed by any other race. When we scan the
+intellectual horizon, we see many men of great force of character:
+preachers and teachers; statesmen and scholars; philanthropists and
+founders of institutions; scientists and engineers; historians and
+journalists; artists and authors; lawyers and doctors, of Celtic race
+and blood, while, in the industrial field, as builders of steamships
+and railroads and promoters of public works, as merchants,
+manufacturers, and bankers, and in all other fields of endeavor, we
+find the American Irish controlling factors in the upbuilding of the
+Republic.</p>
+
+<p>Of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, Thornton,
+Taylor, and Smith were natives of Ireland; McKean, Read, and Rutledge
+were of Irish parentage; Lynch and Carroll were grandsons of Irishmen;
+Whipple and Hancock were of Irish descent on the maternal side; and
+O'Hart (<i>Irish Pedigrees</i>) declares that Robert Treat Paine was a
+great-grandson of Henry O'Neill, hereditary prince of Ulster, who
+"changed his name to that of one of his maternal ancestors so as to
+save his estates". It was an Irishman who first read the immortal
+Document to the public; an Irishman first printed it; and an Irishman
+published it for the first time with facsimiles of the signatures.</p>
+
+<p>At least six American Presidents had more or less of the Celtic
+strain. President Jackson, whose parents came from Co. Down, more than
+once expressed his pride in his Irish ancestry. Arthur's parents were
+from Antrim, Buchanan's from Donegal, and McKinley's grandparents came
+from the same vicinity. Theodore Roosevelt boasts among his ancestors
+two direct lines from Ireland, and the first American ancestor of
+President Polk was a Pollock from Donegal. The present occupant of the
+White House, Woodrow Wilson, is also of Irish descent. Among the
+distinguished Vice-Presidents of the United States were George Clinton
+and John C. Calhoun, sons of immigrants from Longford and Donegal
+respectively, and Calhoun's successor as chairman of the committee on
+foreign relations was John Smilie, a native of Newtownards, Co.
+Down.</p>
+
+<p>Among American governors since 1800, we find such names as Barry,
+Brady, Butler, Carroll, Clinton, Conway, Carney, Connolly, Curtin,
+Collins, Donaghey, Downey, Early, Fitzpatrick, Flannegan, Geary,
+Gorman, Hannegan, Kavanagh, Kearney, Logan, Lynch, Murphy, Moore,
+McKinley, McGill, Meagher, McGrath, Mahone, McCormick, O'Neal,
+O'Ferrall, Orr, Roane, Filey, Sullivan, Sharkey, Smith, Talbot, and
+Welsh, all of Irish descent. Today we have as governors of States,
+Glynn in New York, Dunne in Illinois, Walsh in Massachusetts, O'Neal
+in Alabama, Burke in North Carolina, Carey in Wyoming, McGovern in
+Wisconsin, McCreary in Kentucky, and Tener in Pennsylvania, and not
+alone is the governor of the last-mentioned State a native of Ireland,
+but so also are its junior United States Senator, the secretary of the
+Commonwealth, and its adjutant-general.</p>
+
+<p>In the political life of America, many of the sons of Ireland have
+risen to eminence, and in the legislative halls at the National
+Capital, the names of Kelly, Fitzpatrick, Broderick, Casserly, Farley,
+Logan, Harlan, Hannegan, Adair, Barry, Rowan, Gorman, Kennedy, Lyon,
+Fitzgerald, Fair, Sewall, Kernan, Butler, Moore, Regan, Mahone, Walsh,
+and Flannegan, are still spoken of with respect among the lawmakers of
+the nation. William Darrah Kelly served in Congress for fifty years,
+and it remained for James Shields to hold the unique distinction of
+representing three different States, at different times, in the Senate
+of the United States. Senator Shields was a native of Co. Tyrone.</p>
+
+<p>In the judiciary have been many shining lights of Irish origin. The
+Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court is Edward D. White,
+grandson of a '98 rebel, and one of his ablest associates is Joseph
+McKenna. No more erudite or profound lawyer than Charles O'Conor has
+adorned his profession and it can be said with truth that his career
+has remained unrivalled in American history. James T. Brady, Daniel
+Dougherty, Thomas Addis Emmet, and Charles O'Neill were among the most
+eminent lawyers America has known, while the names of Dennis O'Brien,
+Chief Justice of the New York Court of Appeals, John D. O'Neill, who
+occupied a like elevated place on the bench of South Carolina, John D.
+Phelan of the Alabama Supreme Court, Richard O'Gorman, Charles P.
+Daly, Hugh Rutledge, Morgan J. O'Brien, and others of like origin, are
+household words in the legal annals of America. There is no State in
+the Union where an Irish-American lawyer has not distinguished
+himself.</p>
+
+<p>The history of medicine in the United States is adorned with the
+names of many physicians of Irish birth or blood. Several Irish
+surgeons rendered valuable services in the army of the Revolution,
+among whom are found Drs. McDonough, McHenry, McCloskey, McCalla,
+Burke, Irvine, and Williamson. Dr. John Cochran was appointed by
+Washington surgeon-general of the army. Dr. James Lynah of Charleston,
+a native of Ireland, became surgeon-general of South Carolina in
+recognition of his valuable services to the patriot army. Dr. John
+McKinley, a native of Ireland, who was a famous physician in his day,
+became the first governor of Delaware. Dr. Ephraim McDowell is known
+in the profession as the "Father of Ovariotomy", as is Dr. William J.
+McNevin the "Father of American Chemistry". Dr. John Byrne of New York
+had a world-wide fame, and his papers on gynecology have been
+pronounced by the medical press as "the best printed in any language".
+One of the most conspicuous figures in medicine in the United States
+was Dr. Jerome Cochran of Alabama. Drs. Junius F. Lynch of Florida;
+Charles McCreery of Kentucky; Hugh McGuire and Hunter McGuire of
+Virginia; Matthew C. McGannon of Tennessee; and James Lynch, Charles
+J. O'Hagan, and James McBride of South Carolina are mentioned
+prominently in the histories of their respective localities as the
+foremost medical men of their times, while in Wisconsin the pioneer
+physician was Dr. William H. Fox, and in Oregon, Dr. John McLoughlin.
+Among New York physicians who achieved high reputations in their
+profession were Drs. Thomas Addis Emmet, Frank A. McGuire, Daniel E.
+O'Neill, Charles McBurney, Isaac H. Reiley, Alfred L. Carroll, Howard
+A. Kelly, Joseph O'Dwyer, and James J. Walsh. These and many others of
+Irish descent have been honored by medical societies as leaders and
+specialists, while it can be said that no surgeon of the present day
+has achieved such a world-wide reputation as Dr. John B. Murphy of
+Chicago. Among experts in medico-legal science, the names of Drs.
+Benjamin W. McCreedy and William J. O'Sullivan of New York stand out
+prominently, and among the most noted contributors to medical journals
+in the United States, and recognized as men of great professional
+skill and authorities in their respective specialties, have been Drs.
+F.D. Mooney of St. Louis; Thomas Fitzgibbon of Milwaukee; John D.
+Hanrahan of Rutland; James McCann and James H. McClelland of
+Pittsburgh; John A. Murphy and John McCurdy of Cincinnati; John
+Keating of Philadelphia; John H. Murphy of St. Paul; John W.C. O'Neal
+of Gettysburg; and Arthur O'Neill of Meadville, Pa. Indeed, it can be
+said that American medical science owes an incalculable debt to Irish
+genius.</p>
+
+<p>Theodore Vail, the presiding genius of the greatest telephone
+system in the world, is Irish, and so is Carty, its chief engineer.
+Morse, the inventor of the telegraph, was the grandson of an Irishman;
+Henry O'Reilly built the first telegraph line in the United States;
+and John W. Mackey was the president of the Commercial Cable Company.
+John P. Holland, the inventor of the submarine torpedo boat, was a
+native of Co. Clare; and McCormick, the inventor of the reaping and
+mowing machine, was an Irishman's grandson.</p>
+
+<p>Sons of Irishmen have stood in the front rank of American statesmen
+and diplomats who represented their country abroad. To mention but a
+few: Richard O'Brien, appointed by Jefferson American representative
+at Algiers; James Kavanagh, Minister to Portugal; and Louis McLane,
+Minister to England in 1829 and afterwards Secretary of State in 1832.
+In recent years, an O'Brien has represented American interests in
+Italy and Japan; a Kerens in Austria; an Egan in Chili and another of
+the same name in Denmark; an O'Shaughnessy in Mexico; a Sullivan in
+Santo Domingo; and an O'Rear in Bolivia.</p>
+
+<p>Among historians were John Gilmary Shea, author of numerous
+historical works; Dr. Robert Walsh, a learned historian and journalist
+of the last century, whose literary labors were extensive; McMahon and
+McSherry, historians of Maryland; Burk, of Virginia; O'Callaghan,
+Hastings, and Murphy of New York; Ramsay of South Carolina; and
+Williamson of North Carolina, all native Irishmen or sons of Irish
+immigrants.</p>
+
+<p>In the field of American journalism have been many able and
+forcible writers of Irish birth or descent. Hugh Gaine, a Belfast man,
+founded the New York <i>Mercury</i> in 1775. John Dunlap founded the
+first daily paper in Philadelphia, John Daly Burk published the first
+daily paper in Boston, and William Duane edited the <i>Aurora</i> of
+Philadelphia in 1795. All these were born in Ireland. William Coleman,
+founder of the New York <i>Evening Post</i> in 1801, was the son of an
+Irish rebel of 1798; Thomas Fitzgerald founded the Philadelphia
+<i>Item</i>; Thomas Gill, the New York <i>Evening Star</i>; Patrick
+Walsh, the Augusta <i>Chronicle</i>; Joseph Medill, the Chicago
+<i>Tribune</i>. Henry W. Grady edited the Atlanta <i>Constitution</i>;
+Michael Dee edited the Detroit <i>Evening News</i> for nearly fifty
+years; Richard Smith, the Cincinnati <i>Gazette</i>; Edward L. Godkin,
+the New York <i>Evening Post</i>; William Laffan, the New York
+<i>Sun</i>; and Horace Greeley, the New York <i>Tribune</i>. All of
+these were either natives of Ireland or sprung from immigrant
+Irishmen, as were Oliver of the Pittsburgh <i>Gazette</i>, O'Neill of
+the Pittsburgh <i>Despatch</i>, John Keating of Memphis, William D.
+O'Connor, and many other shining lights of American journalism during
+the last century. Fitz James O'Brien was "a bright, particular star"
+in the journalistic firmament; John MacGahan achieved fame as a war
+correspondent; Patrick Barry of Rochester, an extensive writer on
+horticultural and kindred subjects, was the recognized leader of his
+craft in the United States; and William Darby, son of Patrick and Mary
+Darby, and Michael Twomey were the ablest American geographers and
+writers on abstruse scientific subjects.</p>
+
+<p>In the field of poetry, we have had Theodore O'Hara, the author of
+that immortal poem, "The Bivouac of the Dead"; John Boyle O'Reilly;
+Thomas Dunn English, author of "Ben Bolt"; Father Abram Ryan, "the
+poet priest of the South"; James Whitcomb Riley; Eleanor Donnelly;
+M.F. Egan; T.A. Daly; and Joseph I.C. Clarke, president of the
+American Irish Historical Society.</p>
+
+<p>To recount the successful men of affairs of Irish origin it would
+be necessary to mention every branch of business and every profession.
+Recalling but a few, Daniel O'Day, Patrick Farrelly, John and William
+O'Brien, Alexander T. Stewart, John Castree, Joseph J. O'Donohue,
+William R. Grace, John McConville, Hugh O'Neill, Alexander E. Orr,
+William Constable, Daniel McCormick, and Dominick Lynch, all of New
+York, were dominant figures in the world of business. Thomas Mellon of
+Pittsburgh; John R. Walsh and the Cudahy brothers of Chicago; James
+Phelan, Peter Donahue, Joseph A. Donohoe, and John Sullivan of San
+Francisco; William A. Clark and Marcus Daly of Montana; George Meade,
+the Meases and the Nesbits, Thomas FitzSimmons and Thomas Dolan of
+Philadelphia; Columbus O'Donnell and Luke Tiernan of Baltimore, all
+these have been leading merchants in their day. Few American
+financiers occupy a more conspicuous place than Thomas F. Ryan, and no
+great industrial leader has reached the pinnacle of success upon which
+stands the commanding figure of James J. Hill, both sons of Irishmen.
+The names of Anthony N. Brady, Eugene Kelly, James S. Stranahan, and
+James A. Farrell, president of the United States Steel Corporation,
+are household words in business and financial circles.</p>
+
+<p>John Keating, the first paper manufacturer in New York (1775);
+Thomas Faye, the first to manufacture wall-paper by machinery, who won
+for this distinction the first gold medal of the American Institute;
+John and Edward McLoughlin of New York, for many years the leading
+publishers of illustrated books; and John Banigan of Providence, one
+of the largest manufacturers of rubber goods in America, were natives
+of Ireland. John O'Fallon and Bryan Mullanphy of St. Louis, and John
+McDonough of Baltimore, who amassed great wealth as merchants, were
+large contributors to charitable and educational institutions; William
+W. Corcoran, whose name is enshrined in the famous Art Gallery at
+Washington, contributed during his lifetime over five million dollars
+to various philanthropic institutions; and one of the most noted
+philanthropists in American history, and the first woman in America to
+whom a public monument was erected, was an Irishwoman, Margaret
+Haughery of New Orleans.</p>
+
+<p>Irishmen have shown a remarkable aptitude for the handling of large
+contracts, and in this field have been prominent John H. O'Rourke,
+James D. Leary, James Coleman, Oliver Byrne, and John D. Crimmins in
+New York; John B. McDonald, the builder of New York's subways; George
+Law, projector and promoter of public works, steamship and railroad
+builder; and John Roach, the famous ship-builder of Chester, Pa. John
+Sullivan, a noted American engineer one hundred years ago, completed
+the Middlesex Canal; and John McL. Murphy, whose ability as a
+constructing engineer was universally recognized, rendered valuable
+service to the United States during the Civil War. Among pioneer
+ship-builders in America are noted Patrick Tracy fron Wexford and
+Simon Forrester from Cork, who were both at Salem, Mass., during the
+period of the Revolution and rendered most valuable service to the
+patriot cause; and the O'Briens, Kavanaghs, and Sewalls in Maine.</p>
+
+<p>But it is not in the material things of life alone that the Irish
+have been in the van. Thousands of Americans have been charmed by the
+operas of Victor Herbert, a grandson of Samuel Lover, and with lovers
+of music the strains of Patrick Sarsfield Gilmore's band still linger
+as a pleasant memory. Edward A. MacDowell, America's most famous
+composer, was of Irish descent. The colossal statute of "America" on
+the dome of the National Capitol was executed by Thomas Crawford, who
+was born in New York of Irish parents in 1814; Henry Inman, one of the
+very best of portrait painters, was also born in New York of Irish
+parents; John Singleton Copley, the distinguished artist, came to
+Boston from Co. Clare in 1736; Thompson, the sculptor, was born in
+Queen's Co.; another noted sculptor was William D. O'Donovan of
+Virginia; and Augustus Saint Gaudens, one of the greatest sculptors of
+modern times, was born in Dublin. Other sculptors of Irish race have
+been elsewhere mentioned. Among America's most talented artists and
+portrait painters may be mentioned George P. Healy, William J.
+Hennessy, Thomas Moran, Henry Pelham, Henry Murray, John Neagle, and
+William Magrath, all of Irish birth or descent.</p>
+
+<p>Ireland has given many eminent churchmen to the United States. The
+three American Cardinals, Gibbons, Farley, and O'Connell, stand out
+prominently, as do Archbishops Carroll, Hughes, McCloskey, Kenrick,
+Ryan, Ireland, Glennon, Corrigan, and Keane, all of whom have shed
+lustre on the Church. History has given to an Irishman, Francis
+Makemie of Donegal, the credit of founding Presbyterianism in America,
+while among noted Presbyterian divines of Irish birth were James
+Waddell, known as "the blind preacher of the wilderness," Thomas
+Smyth, John Hall, Francis Allison, William Tennant, and James McGrady,
+all men of great ability and influence in their day. Samuel Finley,
+President of Princeton College in 1761, was a native of Armagh, and
+John Blair Smith, famous as a preacher throughout the Shenandoah
+Valley and the first president of Union College (1795), was of Irish
+descent. Among the pioneer preachers of the western wilderness were
+McMahon, Dougherty, Quinn, Burke, O'Cool, Delaney, McGee, and many
+others of Irish origin.</p>
+
+<p>Irishmen and their sons have founded American towns and cities, and
+the capital of the State of Colorado takes its name from General James
+Denver, son of Patrick Denver, an emigrant from county Down in the
+year 1795. Sixty-five places in the United States are named after
+people bearing the Irish prefix "O" and upwards of 1000 after the
+"Macs", and there are 253 counties of the United States and
+approximately 7000 places called by Irish family or place names. There
+are 24 Dublins, 21 Waterfords, 18 Belfasts, 16 Tyrones, 10 Limericks,
+9 Antrims, 8 Sligos, 7 Derrys, 6 Corks, 5 Kildares, and so on.</p>
+
+<p>Immigrant Irishmen have also been the founders of prominent
+American families. One of the most ancient of Irish patronymics,
+McCarthy, is found in the records of Virginia as early as 1635 and in
+Massachusetts in 1675, and all down through the successive generations
+descendants of this sept were among the leading families of the
+communities where they located. In Virginia, the McCormick, Meade,
+Lewis, Preston, and Lynch families; in the Carolinas, the Canteys,
+Nealls, Bryans, and Butlers; and in Maryland, the Carrolls and Dulanys
+are all descended from successful Irish colonizers.</p>
+
+<p>Even from this very incomplete summary, we can see that Irish
+blood, brain, and brawn have been a valuable acquisition to the
+building of the fabric of American institutions, and that the sons of
+Ireland merit more prominent recognition than has been accorded them
+in the pages of American history. The pharisees of history may have
+withheld from Ireland the credit that is her due, but, thanks to the
+never-failing guidance of the records, we are able to show that at all
+times, whether they came as voluntary exiles or were driven from their
+homes by the persecutions of government, her sons have had an
+honorable part in every upward movement in American life. Testimony
+adduced from the sources from which this imperfect sketch is drawn
+cannot be called into question, and its perusal by those who so
+amusingly glorify the "Anglo-Saxon" as the founder of the American
+race and American institutions would have a chastening influence on
+their ignorance of early American history, and would reopen the long
+vista of the years, at the very beginning of which they would see Celt
+and Teuton, Saxon and Gaul, working side by side solidifying the
+fulcrum of the structure on which this great nation rests.</p>
+
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>The archives, registers, records, reports, and other official
+documents mentioned in the text; the various Town, County, and State
+Histories; the collections and publications of the following
+societies: Massachusetts Historical Society, Genealogical Society of
+Pennsylvania, New York Historical Society (34 vols.), New York
+Genealogical and Biographical Society (44 vols.), Maine Historical
+Society, Rhode Island Historical Society, Connecticut Historical
+Society, South Carolina Historical Society, and American Historical
+Society; New England Historical and Genealogical Register (67 vols.,
+Boston, 1847-1913); New England Historical and Biographical Record;
+Hakluyt: Voyages, Navigations, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the
+English Nation (London, 1607); Dobbs: The Trade and Improvement of
+Ireland (Dublin, 1729); Hutchinson: History of Massachusetts from the
+First Settlement in 1628 until 1750 (Salem, 1795); Proud: History of
+Pennsylvania, 1681-1770 (Philadelphia, 1797-1798); Savage:
+Genealogical Dictionary of the First Settlers of New England (Boston,
+1860-1862); Morris (ed.): The Makers of New York (Philadelphia, 1895);
+Pope: The Pioneers of Massachusetts (Boston, 1900), The Pioneers of
+Maine and New Hampshire (Boston, 1908); Richardson: Side-lights on
+Maryland History (Baltimore, 1913); Spencer: History of the United
+States; Ramsay: History of the United States; Prendergast: Cromwellian
+Settlement of Ireland.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T21"></a>THE IRISH IN CANADA</h2>
+<h4>By JAMES J. WALSH, M.D., Ph.D., Litt.D., Sc.D.</h4>
+
+<p>When Wolfe captured Quebec and Canada came under British rule, some
+of the best known of his officers and several of his men were Irish.
+After the Peace was signed many of them settled in Canada, not a few
+of them marrying French wives, and as a consequence there are numerous
+Irish, Scotch, and English names among the French speaking inhabitants
+of Lower Canada. Two of Wolfe's officers, Colonel Guy Carleton, born
+at Strabane in the county Tyrone, and General Richard Montgomery, born
+only seven miles away at Convoy, in the same county, were destined to
+play an important role in the future history of Canada. Montgomery was
+in command of the Revolutionary Army from the Colonies, when it
+attempted to take Quebec, and Carleton, who had been a trusted friend
+of General Wolfe, was in command of the Canadian forces. The two men
+were the lives of their respective commands, and with the death of
+Montgomery Carleton's victory was assured.</p>
+
+<p>Carleton was made Governor-in-Chief of Canada, and during the
+trying years of the early British rule of New France and the American
+Revolution, his tact did more than anything else to save Canada for
+the British. Bibaud, the French historian, says, "the man to whom the
+administration of the government was entrusted had known how to make
+the Canadians love him, and this contributed not a little to retain at
+least within the bounds of neutrality those among them who might have
+been able, or who believed themselves able, to ameliorate their lot by
+making common cause with the insurgent colonies." Shortly after being
+made governor, Carleton went to England and secured the passage of the
+Quebec Act through the English parliament, which gave the Canadian
+French assurance that they were to be ruled without oppression by the
+British Government. Subsequently, in 1786, Carleton, as Lord
+Dorchester, became the first governor-general of Canada, being given
+jurisdiction over Nova Scotia and New Brunswick as well as Upper and
+Lower Canada, and to him more than to any other is due the early
+loyalty to the British crown in the Dominion.</p>
+
+<p>After the army the next important source of Irish population in
+Canada were the loyalists who after the Revolution removed from the
+United States to the British Dominions in America. There were probably
+many thousands of them, more than enough to make up for the French who
+left Canada for France when the territory passed over to England.
+Among the Irish loyalists who went to Canada was the Rev. John Stuart,
+who had become very well known as a missionary in the Mohawk Valley
+before the Revolution, and who, though born a Presbyterian, was
+destined to win the title of the "Father of the Church of England in
+Upper Canada." When the first Canadian parliament met in December
+1792, Edward O'Hara was returned for Gasp&eacute;, in Lower Canada,
+and D'Arcy McGee could boast that henceforward Lower Canada was never
+without an Irish representative in its legislative councils.</p>
+
+<p>When the question of settling Upper Canada with British colonists
+came up, Colonel Talbot, a county Dublin man, was the most important
+factor. He obtained a large grant of land near what is now London and
+attracted settlers into what was at that time a wilderness. The tract
+settled under his superintendence now comprises twenty-nine townships
+in the most prosperous part of Canada.</p>
+
+<p>The maritime Provinces had been under British rule before the fall
+of Quebec and contained a large element of Irish population. In
+Newfoundland in 1753 out of a total population of some thirteen
+thousand, Davin says that there were nearly five thousand Catholics,
+chiefly Irish. In 1784 a great new stimulus to Irish immigration to
+Newfoundland was given by Father O'Connell, who in 1796 was made
+Catholic bishop of the island. Newfoundland, for its verdure, the
+absence of reptiles, and its Irish inhabitants, was called at this
+time "Transatlantic Ireland", and Bonnycastle says that more than one
+half of the population was Irish.</p>
+
+<p>In 1749 Governor Cornwallis brought some 4,000 disbanded soldiers
+to Nova Scotia and founded Halifax. Ten years later it was described
+as divided into Halifax proper, Irishtown or the southern, and
+Dutchtown or the northern, suburbs. The inhabitants numbered 3,000,
+one-third of whom were Irish. They were among the most prominent men
+of the city and province. In the Privy Council for 1789 were Thomas
+Corcoran and Charles Morris. Morris was president of the Irish Society
+and Matthew Cahill the sheriff of Halifax in that year. A large number
+of Irish from the north of Ireland settled in Nova Scotia in 1763,
+calling their settlement Londonderry. They provided a fortunate refuge
+for the large numbers of Irish Presbyterians who were expelled from
+New England by the intolerant Puritans the following year. They also
+welcomed many loyalists who came from New York and the New England
+States after the acknowledgment of the independence of the American
+Colonies by Great Britain. Between the more eastern settlers around
+Halifax and those in the interior, the greater part of the population
+of Nova Scotia was probably Irish in origin.</p>
+
+<p>It was in the Maritime Provinces that the first step in political
+emancipation for Catholics under British rule was made. In 1821
+Lawrence Cavanaugh, a Roman Catholic, was returned to the Assembly of
+the Province for Cape Breton. He would not subscribe to the
+declaration on Transubstantiation in the oath of office tendered him,
+and as a consequence was refused admittance to the Assembly. But he
+was elected again and again, and six years afterwards Judge
+Haliburton, better known by his <i>nom de plume</i> of "Sam Slick", in
+an able speech, seconded the motion to dispense with the declaration,
+and Cavanaugh was permitted to take the oath without the
+declaration.</p>
+
+<p>The War of 1812 brought over from Ireland a number of Irish
+soldiers serving in the British army, many of whom after the war
+settled down and became inhabitants of the country. They were allotted
+farm lands and added much to Canada's prosperity. A type of their
+descendants was Sir William Hingston, whose father was at this time a
+lieutenant adjutant in the Royal 100th Regiment, "the Dublins." Sir
+William's father died when his son was a mere boy, but the lad
+supported his mother, worked his way through the medical school, saved
+enough money to give himself two years in Europe, and became a great
+surgeon. He was elected three times mayor of Montreal, serving one
+term with great prestige under the most trying circumstances. He
+afterwards became a senator of the Dominion and was knighted by Queen
+Victoria.</p>
+
+<p>Prince Edward Island was settled mainly by the Scotch and French,
+and yet many Irish names are to be found among its old families. It
+was ceded to Great Britain in 1763, and the first Governor appointed
+was Captain Walter Patterson, whose niece, Elizabeth Patterson, was
+married to Jerome Bonaparte in Baltimore in 1803. Captain Patterson
+was so ardent an Irishman that through his influence he had an act
+passed by the Assembly changing the name of the island to New Ireland,
+but the home Government refused to countenance the change. At this
+time the island was known as St. John's, and the name Prince Edward
+was given to it in honor of the Duke of Kent in 1789. One of the most
+popular governors of the island was Sir Dominick Daly, knighted while
+in office. He was a member of a well known Galway family, and first
+came to America as secretary to one of the governors. He afterwards
+became provincial secretary for Lower Canada.</p>
+
+<p>Canada suffered from the aftermath of the revolutions which took
+place in Europe during the early part of the nineteenth century. The
+year 1837 saw two revolutions, one in Upper, the other in Lower,
+Canada, though neither of them amounted to more than a flash in the
+pan. As might be expected, there were not a few Irish among the
+disaffected spirits who fostered these revolutions. Their experience
+at home led them to know how little oppressed people were likely to
+obtain from the British Government except by a demonstration of force.
+There were serious abuses, especially "the Family Compact", the lack
+of anything approaching constitutional guarantees in government, and
+political disabilities on the score of religion. However, most of the
+Irish in Canada were ranged on the side of the government. Sir Richard
+Bonnycastle, writing in 1846, said "The Catholic Irish who have been
+long settled in the country are by no means the worst subjects in this
+transatlantic realm, as I can personally testify, having had the
+command of large bodies of them during the border troubles of 1837-8.
+They are all loyal and true." Above all Bonnycastle pledged himself
+for the loyalty of the Irish Catholic priesthood.</p>
+
+<p>One of the Irishmen who came into prominence in the rebellions of
+1837 was Edmund Bailey O'Callaghan, the editor of the
+<i>Vindicator</i>, the newspaper by means of which Papineau succeeded
+in arousing much feeling among the people of Lower Canada and fomented
+the Revdlution. O'Callaghan escaped to the United States and settled
+at Albany, where he became the historian of New York State. To him,
+more than to any other, we owe the preservation of the historical
+materials out of which the early history of the State can be
+constructed. Rare volumes of the Jesuit Relations, to the value of
+which for historical purposes he had called special attention, were
+secured from his library for the Canadian library at Ottawa.</p>
+
+<p>Towards the middle of the nineteenth century, when the population
+of Ireland reached its highest point of over 8,000,000, the pressure
+on the people caused them to emigrate in large numbers, and then the
+famine came to drive out great crowds of those who survived. In
+proportion to its population Canada received a great many more of
+these Irish emigrants than did the United States. Unfortunately the
+conditions on board the emigrant sailing vessels in those days cost
+many lives. They were often becalmed and took months to cross the
+ocean. My grandmother coming in the thirties was ninety-three days in
+crossing, landing at Quebec after seven weeks on half rations, part of
+the time living on nothing but oatmeal and water. Ship fever, the
+dreaded typhus, broke out on her vessel as on so many others, and more
+than half the passengers perished. Many, many thousands of the Irish
+emigrants thus died on ship-board or shortly after landing. In 1912,
+the Ancient Order of Hibernians erected near Quebec a monument to the
+victims. In spite of the untoward conditions, emigration continued
+unabated, and in 1875, in the population of Ontario, Quebec, New
+Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, it was calculated that the Irish numbered
+846,414 as compared with 706,369 English and 549,946 Scotch (Hatton,
+quoted by Davin in <i>The Irishman In Canada</i>).</p>
+
+<p>It had become clear that Canada would prosper more if united than
+in separate provinces jealous of each other. The first move in this
+direction came from the Maritime Provinces, where the Irish element
+was so much stronger than elsewhere, and when a conference of the
+leading statesmen of these Provinces was appointed to be held at
+Charlottetown, P.E.I., September 1864, representatives of Upper and
+Lower Canada asked to be allowed to be present to bring forward a plan
+for a Federation of all the British Provinces in North America. The
+British North America Act was passed, and received the royal assent,
+the queen appointing July 1, 1867 as the formal beginning of the
+Dominion of Canada.</p>
+
+<p>Among the men who were most prominent in bringing about federation
+and who came to be known as the Fathers of Confederation were several
+distinguished Irishmen. Thomas D'Arcy McGee was the best known and
+probably did more than any other Canadian to make the idea of
+confederation popular by his writings and speeches. He had come to
+Canada as a stranger, edited a newspaper in Montreal, and was elected
+to the Assembly after a brief residence, in spite of the opposition
+cries of "Irish adventurer" and "stranger from abroad," was
+subsequently elected four times by acclamation, and was Minister of
+Agriculture and Education and Canadian Commissioner to the Paris
+Exposition of 1867. His letters to the Earl of Mayo, pleading for the
+betterment of conditions in Ireland, were quoted by Gladstone during
+the Home Rule movement as "a prophetic voice from the dead coming from
+beyond the Atlantic."</p>
+
+<p>Another of the Fathers of Confederation was the Honorable Edward
+Whalen, born in the county Mayo, who as a young man went to Prince
+Edward Island, where he gained great influence as a popular
+journalist. He was an orator as well as an editor, and came to have
+the confidence of the people of the island, and hence was able to do
+very much for federation. A third of the Fathers of Confederation from
+the Maritime Provinces was the Honorable, afterwards Sir, Edward
+Kenny, who, when the first Cabinet of the New Dominion was formed, was
+offered and accepted one of the portfolios in recognition of the
+influence which he had wielded for Canadian union.</p>
+
+<p>At all times in the history of Canada the Catholic hierarchy has
+been looked up to as thoroughly conservative factors for the progress
+and development of the country. After the Irish immigration most of
+the higher ecclesiastics were Irish by birth or descent, and they all
+exerted a deep influence not only on their own people but on their
+city and province. One of the Fathers of Confederation was Archbishop
+Connolly, of Halifax, of whom the most distinguished Presbyterian
+clergyman of the Lower Provinces said the day after his death: "I feel
+that I have not only lost a friend, but as if Canada had lost a
+patriot; in all his big-hearted Irish fashion he was ever at heart, in
+mind, and deed, a true Canadian." Among his colleagues of the
+hierarchy were such men as his predecessor Archbishop Walsh,
+Archbishop Lynch, the first Metropolitan of Upper Canada when Toronto
+was erected into an archbishopric, Bishop Hogan of Kingston,
+Archbishop Hannan of Halifax, Archbishop Walsh of Toronto, and
+Archbishop O'Brien of Halifax, all of whom were esteemed as faithful
+Canadians working for the benefit of their own people more especially,
+but always with the larger view of good for the whole commonwealth of
+Canada.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish continued to furnish great representative men to Canada.
+The first governor, Guy Carleton, was Irish, and his subsequent
+governor-generalship as Lord Dorchester did much to make Canada loyal
+to Great Britain. During the difficult times of the Civil War in the
+United States, Lord Monck, a Tipperary man, was the tactful
+governor-general, "like other Irish Governors singularly successful in
+winning golden opinions" (Davin). Probably the most popular and
+influential of Canada's governors-general was Lord Dufferin, another
+Irishman. Some of the most distinguished of Canadian jurists, editors,
+and politicians have been Irishmen, and Irishmen have been among her
+great merchants, contractors, and professional men. In our own time
+Sir William Hingston among the physicians, Sir Charles Fitzpatrick
+among the jurists, and Sir Thomas George Shaughnessy among the
+administrative financiers are fine types of Irish character.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Davin: The Irishman in Canada (Toronto, 1877); McGee: Works; Tracy:
+The Tercentenary History of Canada (New York, 1908); Walsh: Sir
+William Hingston, in the Amer. Catholic Quarterly (January, 1911),
+Edmund Bailey O'Callaghan, in the Records of the Amer. Catholic
+Historical Society (1907); McKenna: A Century of Catholicity in
+Canada, in the Catholic World, vol. 1, p. 229.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T22"></a>THE IRISH IN SOUTH AMERICA</h2>
+<h4>By MARION MULHALL.</h4>
+
+<h4>I.&mdash;FROM THE SPANISH CONQUEST TO THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.</h4>
+
+<p>South America, although comparatively little known until recent
+times to the outside world, contains much to interest the missionary,
+the scientist, the historian, the traveler, and the financier. The
+twentieth century will probably see hundreds following in the
+footsteps of their predecessors. In the meantime, the brilliant
+achievements of numerous Irish men and women in that part of the world
+are falling into oblivion, and call for a friendly hand to collect the
+fragments of historical lore connected with their exploits.</p>
+
+<p>This paper will cover three periods:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1). From the Spanish Conquest to the War of Independence: here the
+principal actors were maritime explorers, buccaneers, and mercantile
+adventurers;</p>
+
+<p>(2). The War of Independence from 1810 to 1826: in this period
+Irishmen performed feats of valor worthy to rank with those in Greek
+or Roman history.</p>
+
+<p>(3). Since the Independence; a period of commercial and industrial
+development, in which Irishmen have played a foremost part.</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+
+<p>It has been said that George Barlow, the companion of Sebastian
+Cabot, was an Irishman. Cabot was the first Britisher to sail up the
+Rio de la Plata, and gave it its name just thirty-five years after the
+discovery of America. Barlow was in the service of the king of Spain,
+and in that country met Cabot, who had been appointed Pilot Major to
+his Majesty in the year 1518. In 1577 we read of the famous Admiral
+Drake's expedition to the River Plate, which he reached on April 14,
+1578. Evidently it was a successful one in the opinion of Queen
+Elizabeth, for on Drake's return to Plymouth, September 26, 1580, she
+came aboard his ship and knighted him. There seem to have been three
+Irishmen on this expedition, Fenton, Merrick, and Ward. Fenton, who
+was in command of two vessels, was attacked by a Spanish squadron
+between Brazil and the River Plate, and the battle continued by
+moonlight until one of the Spaniards was sunk. The Spanish historian
+adds that Fenton might have sunk another of the enemy's ships, but
+refrained because there were several women on board.</p>
+
+<p>Lozana in his <i>History</i> mentions a revolution in Paraguay in
+1555, which was headed by an Irishman named Nicholas Colman. This
+revolution was quickly suppressed by the Spanish viceroy, Yrala, but
+Colman led a second revolution in 1570, when Captain Rigueline was
+governor of Guayra. The mutineers named Colman for their chief, put
+their treasures into canoes, and floated down the Parana until their
+boats were capsized by some rapids, probably the falls of Apipe in
+Misiones. The viceroy, on hearing of the revolt, sent troops to bring
+back the fugitives, and the latter were treated with unusual clemency.
+Lozana describes Colman as a daring, turbulent buccaneer. For fifteen
+years he seems to have played an important part in Guayra; his
+subsequent fate is unknown.</p>
+
+<p>In 1626 an expedition commanded by James Purcell, an Irishman,
+established itself on the island of Tocujos, in the mouth of the
+Amazon.</p>
+
+<p>Captain Charles O'Hara was sent by Governor Arana from Montevideo
+in March, 1761, to destroy the old landmarks of Rio Negro and Ching
+between the dominions of Portugal and Spain. The officer next under
+him was Lieutenant Charles Murphy, afterwards governor of Paraguay.
+This expedition suffered great hardships.</p>
+
+<p>Several of the expeditions of the privateers of the eighteenth
+century sailed from Ireland. Dampier, a skilful navigator, went on a
+cruise to intercept the Spanish galleons returning from the River
+Plate with booty supposed to be worth &pound;600,000 sterling. He
+sailed from Kinsale in September, 1703, with two vessels, and no doubt
+amongst the crews were many Irishmen. It was on this expedition that
+Alexander Selkirk, a Scotch sailor, was put on shore at Juan Fernandez
+in 1704, where he remained until rescued by Captain Rogers, who
+commanded the <i>Duke</i>, a vessel of 320 tons, which sailed from
+Cork on September 1, 1708, touched by chance at Juan Fernandez, and
+found the original of Defoe's remarkable story, <i>Robinson
+Crusoe</i>, who presented a wild appearance dressed in his
+goatskins.</p>
+
+<p>In 1765 Captain Macnamara, with two vessels called the <i>Lord
+Clive</i> and the <i>Ambuscade</i>, mounting between them 104 guns,
+attempted to take Colonia, in front of Buenos Ayres, from the
+Spaniards. Having shelled the place for four hours, Macnamara expected
+every moment to see a white flag hoisted, when, by some mishap, the
+<i>Lord Clive</i> took fire, and 262 persons perished. The Spaniards
+fired upon the poor fellows in the water, only 78 escaping to land.
+Macnamara was seen to sink. His sword was found a few years ago by a
+Colonia fisherman, who presented it to the British consul at
+Montevideo. Most of the Irish names still extant in the Argentine
+provinces, such as Sarsfield, Carrol, and Butler, are probably derived
+from these captives. Among the descendants of the survivors of
+Macnamara's expedition may be mentioned the ablest lawyer ever known
+in Buenos Ayres and for many years Prime Minister, the late Dr. Velez
+Sarsfield, and also Governor O'Neill.</p>
+
+<p>The year 1586 saw an expedition of a very different character,
+consisting of the first Jesuits sent to convert Paraguay, under the
+direction of Father Thomas Field, an Irishman, and son of a Limerick
+doctor. Their vessel fell into the hands of English privateers off the
+Brazilian coast, but the sea rovers respected their captives, and
+after sundry adventures the latter landed at Buenos Ayres, whence they
+proceeded over land to Cordoba. The year following they set out for
+Paraguay, where Father Field and his companions laid the foundation of
+the Jesuit commonwealth of Misiones, which had such wonderful
+development in the following two centuries as to cause Voltaire to
+admit that "the Jesuit establishment in Paraguay seems to be the
+triumph of humanity."</p>
+
+<p>Another Irish Jesuit, Father Thaddeus Ennis, appears in authority
+in Misiones shortly before the downfall. In 1756, when Spain ceded San
+Miguel and other missions to Portugal, Father Ennis was entrusted with
+the removal lower down to Parana of such tribes as refused to become
+Portuguese subjects.</p>
+
+<p>Yet another Jesuit, Father Falkiner, son of an Irish Protestant
+doctor in Manchester, who had himself studied medicine, was one of the
+most successful travellers and missionaries of the 18th century. Among
+his friends in London was a ship-captain who traded from the coast of
+Guinea to Brazil, carrying slaves for the company recently established
+by Queen Anne's patent, and he it doubtless was who prevailed on the
+young physician to try a seafaring life. In one of his voyages as ship
+surgeon, from Guinea to Buenos Ayres, he fell ill at the latter port,
+and, there being no hotels, he had the good fortune to enjoy the
+hospitality of the Jesuit superior, Father Mahony, whose name
+proclaims his Irish nationality. Such was the impression made on
+Falkiner by the kindness of the Jesuits that he shortly afterwards was
+received into the Church and entered as a novice in the College of St.
+Ignatius at Buenos Ayres. He spent the first years of his missionary
+career in Misiones and Tucuman. Later on he was despatched by his
+superior to Patagonia, and his success there during 27 years was
+almost equal to what has already been mentioned of Father Field in
+Paraguay. He converted many tribes, and traversed nearly every part of
+Patagonia from Rio Negro to Magellan's Straits, and as far inland as
+the Andes. He knew most of the Indian tongues, and by his winning
+manners and knowledge of medicine gained a great influence over the
+savages. When he published his life and travels, such was the effect
+of his book upon the king of Spain that he at once ordered surveys and
+settlements to be made along the Patagonian coast, which Father
+Falkiner represented as exposed to seizure by the first adventurer who
+should land there. Father Falkiner's book has been translated into
+French, German, and Spanish. He returned to England and died at
+Spetchly, Worcestershire, near the end of the 18th century.</p>
+
+<p>In 1774 the bishop of Ayachucho was Dr. James O'Phelan, who rebuilt
+the old Cathedral of Pasco. His father was an Irish officer in the
+Spanish army.</p>
+
+<h4>II.&mdash;THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.</h4>
+
+<p>Towards the close of the 18th century the Pitt administration lent
+a willing ear to a Venezuelan patriot, General Miranda, who proposed
+that Great Britain should aid South America to expel the Spanish
+rulers and set up a number of independent states. Spain being the ally
+of France and paying an annual subsidy to Napoleon, it became moreover
+the object of England to seize the treasure-ships periodically
+arriving from the River Plate.</p>
+
+<p>Hostilities having broken out in Europe in 1803, an English
+squadron under an Irish commander, Captain Moore, captured in the
+following year some Spanish galleons laden with treasure at the mouth
+of the River Plate. In June, 1806, Major General William Carr
+Beresford with a British squadron cast anchor about twelve miles from
+Buenos Ayres, and with a force of only 1635 men took possession of
+that city of 60,000 inhabitants. The indignation which such a
+humiliation at first caused among the people was in large measure
+calmed by the manifesto which the conquering commander issued on the
+occasion. In the <i>Memoirs</i> of General Belgrano we read: "It
+grieved me to see my country subjugated in this manner, but I shall
+always admire the gallantry of the brave and honorable Beresford in so
+daring an enterprise." Beresford was, however, unable to hold his
+ground, for the Spaniards got together an army of 10,000 men, and
+re-took the city. Beresford was made prisoner, but after five months'
+detention he and his brother-officers, among whom was another
+Irishman, Major Fahy, managed to escape. Thus ended the expedition of
+this brave general, who nevertheless had covered himself and his
+little army with glory, for he held Buenos Ayres as a British colony
+for 45 days, and had he been properly supported from home the result
+would in all probability have been vastly different.</p>
+
+<p>General Beresford was one of the most distinguished men of his
+time. He was the illegitimate son of the Marquis of Waterford, entered
+the army at 16, and served in every quarter of the globe. After his
+defeat at Buenos Ayres he captured Madeira, and was made governor of
+that island. In 1808 he successfully covered the retreat of Sir John
+Moore to Corunna, a difficult feat, for which he received a marshal's
+baton, and was made commander-in-chief in Portugal. In 1811 he
+defeated Marshal Soult at Albuera, and subsequently took part in the
+victories of Salamanca and Vittoria. For these services he was made
+Duke of Elvas, and the British government conferred on him in 1814 the
+title of Baron Beresford of Albuera and Dungannon. The same year he
+was sent as minister to Brazil, and on his return was created
+viscount. He married the widow of Thomas Hope the banker, and settled
+down on his estates in Kent, where he died in 1854.</p>
+
+<p>The brilliancy of Beresford's achievement in capturing Buenos Ayres
+with a handful of men had dazzled the minds of English statesmen, who
+felt that 10,000 British troops were enough to subdue the whole of the
+vast continent of South America. In May, 1807, an expedition
+comprising several frigates and transports with 5,000 troops appeared
+off Montevideo from England. A month later Lieutenant-General
+Whitelock arrived with orders to assume the chief command, and among
+his officers were the gallant Irishmen, Major Vandeleur, who commanded
+a wing of the 88th Regiment, and Lieutenant-Colonel Nugent, of the
+38th. Whitelock endeavored, but failed, to retake Buenos Ayres. During
+the siege a small detachment of Spanish troops under Colonel James
+Butler, after a terrific conflict, in which they sold their lives
+dearly, were all killed. Agreeably to Colonel Butler's request his
+remains were buried on the spot he had so valiantly defended, and his
+tombstone was visible there until 1818.</p>
+
+<p>It is a remarkable fact that several of the South American
+countries, Mexico, Peru, and Chile, were governed by viceroys of Irish
+birth in the critical period preceding the Independence, although
+Spanish law forbade such office to any but Spaniards born. It was in
+recognition of gallant services in Spain, in combination with the Duke
+of Wellington, that General O'Donoghue was made viceroy of Mexico in
+1821, but the elevation of the great viceroy of Peru, Ambrose
+O'Higgins, was due to the splendid talents of administration already
+displayed by him during twenty years of service in Chile. He was born
+at Summerhill, Co. Meath, about 1730. An uncle of his was one of the
+chaplains at the court of Madrid, and at his expense O'Higgins was
+educated at a college in Cadiz. He then entered the Spanish engineer
+corps, and in 1769 was given the command of the commission sent to
+Chile to strengthen the fortifications of Valdivia. He was made
+captain-general of Chile in 1788, was subsequently created marquis of
+Osorno, and in 1796 was nominated viceroy of Peru, a position which he
+held until his death in 1801.</p>
+
+<p>The great viceroy left only one son, Bernard O'Higgins, who
+succeeded General Carreras in the supreme command of the patriot army
+against the Spaniards in 1813. In 1817 O'Higgins took a principal part
+in the victory of Chacabuco, and was almost immediately appointed
+supreme director of Chile, with dictatorial powers. During his
+administration, which lasted six years, he gave every proof of his
+fitness for the position. But, alas! it was the misfortune of South
+America to surpass the republics of antiquity in the ingratitude shown
+towards its greatest benefactors. It is then not surprising to find
+that the Father of his Country, as O'Higgins is affectionately styled,
+was deposed by a military revolution, and obliged to take refuge in
+Peru, from which country he never returned. General Miller and Lord
+Cochrane, in their <i>Memoirs</i>, give frequent testimony to the
+honesty and zeal of Bernard O'Higgins. He was always treated as an
+honored guest in Lima, in which city he died on October 24, 1842. He
+left a son, Demetrio O'Higgins, a wealthy land-owner, who contributed
+large sums for the patriot army against Spain.</p>
+
+<p>Among other Irish commanders in Chile and Peru, who, during the War
+of Independence, fought their way to dignity and rank, was General
+MacKenna, the hero of Membrillar. He was born in 1771, at Clogher, Co.
+Tyrone; his mother belonged to the ancient Irish sept of O'Reilly,
+whose estates were confiscated after the fall of Limerick in 1691.</p>
+
+<p>General Thomond O'Brien, who won his spurs at the battle of
+Chacabuco, seems to have been born in the south of Ireland about 1790.
+He joined the army of San Martin, and accompanied that general through
+the campaigns of Chile and Peru until the overthrow of the Spanish
+r&eacute;gime and the proclamation of San Martin as protector of Peru.
+On the day (July 28, 1821) when independence was declared at Lima, the
+protector took in his hand the standard of Pizarro and said, "This is
+my portion of the trophies." Then, taking the state canopy of Pizarro,
+a kind of umbrella always borne over the viceroys in processions, he
+presented it to General O'Brien, saying, "This is for the gallant
+comrade who fought so many years by my side in the cause of South
+America." The inscription on the canopy, in O'Brien's hand, says that
+it was brought to Peru on Pizarro's second journey from Spain. Little
+did the viceroys think that its last owner would be an Irishman.</p>
+
+<p>General O'Connor, one of the most distinguished soldiers of the War
+of Independence, played an important part in the final victory of
+Ayachucho. For his gallantry on that day he was promoted to the rank
+of general by the commander-in-chief, General Bolivar. After the War
+of Independence he became Minister of War in Bolivia. General O'Connor
+went to South America as an ensign in the Irish Legion under General
+Devereux. He claimed direct descent from Roderic O'Conor, last king of
+Ireland, 1186.</p>
+
+<p>Captain Esmonde also fought in the War of Independence. He was
+brother to the then baronet, Sir Thomas Esmonde, of Co. Wexford. In
+later years Captain Esmonde was employed by the Peruvian government to
+report on some proposed canals at Tarapaca. The vessel in which he
+embarked was never more heard of.</p>
+
+<p>Colonel Charles Carroll had served in Spain, but joined the Chilian
+army after independence was gained. He was one of the most popular
+officers in the army, and met with a sad fate. Being sent with too
+small a detachment against the savage Indians, their commander,
+Benavides, cut his forces in pieces and murdered all the officers in a
+most cruel manner. O'Carroll had his tongue cut out and was then
+butchered.</p>
+
+<p>Lieutenant Colonel Moran, who commanded the Colombian legion at the
+battle of Ayachucho, probably came out in the legion of General
+Devereux.</p>
+
+<p>Colonel (afterwards General) O'Leary was first aide-decamp to
+General Bolivar, the Liberator, and received his last breath. He was
+nephew to the famous Father Arthur O'Leary. Bolivar employed him on
+various missions of great trust and says "he acquitted himself with
+great ability." After the war, General O'Leary was appointed British
+charg&eacute; d'affaires at Bogota, and died in Rome in 1868. General
+Arthur Sandes, a native of Dublin, was entrusted with an important
+garrison in Peru on the close of the War of Independence.</p>
+
+<p>Admiral Brown, the distinguished commander and hero of the War of
+Independence, whose exploits may be ranked, like those of Nelson,
+"above all Greek, above all Roman fame," was born at Foxford, Co.
+Mayo, Ireland, on the 22nd of June, 1777. His father emigrated with
+his family to Pennsylvania. A ship captain who was about to sail from
+Philadelphia offered to take the intelligent Irish boy with him, and
+the offer was promptly accepted. During twenty years he seems to have
+voyaged to many countries; at one time we find him at Archangel. Brown
+had been in Buenos Ayres just two years when the patriot government
+offered him command of a squadron to commence hostilities against the
+Spanish navy, then mistress of all the coasts and waters of South
+America. On the memorable 8th of March, 1814, Brown sailed out of the
+port of Buenos Ayres with three ships to commence a campaign, which
+was destined to destroy the Spanish navy in this part of the waters of
+the New World. With him went his fellow-countrymen, Captains Seaver
+and Kearney. Brown's next exploits were against Spanish shipping in
+the Pacific, and his entirely successful campaign at sea against
+Brazil, in which he gained the mastery by his wonderful skill,
+courage, and perseverance, keeping at bay the great naval power of
+that country (which consisted at one time of fifty war vessels) with
+his few, small, ill-supplied, and ill-armed craft. After these great
+exploits Brown spent some months among the wild scenery of Mayo, so
+dear to him in boyhood, and, returning to Buenos Ayres, devoted
+himself to the quiet life of a country gentleman. He died surrounded
+by his family and friends on May 3, 1857, and the day of his funeral
+was one of national mourning. His widow erected a monument to his
+memory in the Recoleta cemetery, and in 1872 the municipality of
+Buenos Ayres granted a site for a public statue on the Pasco Julio,
+which so often rang with the plaudits of the people as they welcomed
+this great Irishman returning from victory.</p>
+
+<p>No brighter pages occur in the history of the New World than those
+which commemorate the gallantry and self-devotion of the Irish
+soldiers who aided South Americans to throw off the yoke of Spain. In
+1819 an Irish Legion of 1729 men arrived under the command of General
+Devereux, a Wexford landowner, called the Lafayette of South America,
+to fight in the campaign of General Bolivar. Devereux was
+distinguished for his great bravery. After the War of Independence he
+returned to Europe, being commissioned to form a company for mining
+operations in Colombia, which country had appointed him envoy
+extraordinary to various European courts.</p>
+
+<p>Colonel Ferguson and Captain Talbot were both Irishmen and among
+the last survivors of Devereux's Legion. It is computed that one-third
+of the Irish who came out under General Devereux died in hospital. It
+was this legion which won the decisive battle of Carabobo, June 26,
+1821, going into action 1100 strong and leaving 600 on that
+hard-fought field.</p>
+
+<p>Among the officers who composed Bolivar's Albion Rifles we find the
+Irish names of Pigott, Tallon, Peacock, Phelan, O'Connell, McNamara,
+Fetherstonhaugh, French, Reynolds, Byrne, and Haig, and the medical
+officer was Dr. O'Reilly. We find mention in General Millar's
+<i>Memoirs</i> of Dr. Moore, an Irishman, who attended Bolivar in most
+of his campaigns and was devotedly attached to the person of the
+Liberator. Lieutenant-Colonel Hughes, Major Maurice Hogan, Lieutenant
+William Keogh, Captain Laurence McGuire, Lieutenant-Colonel S. Collins
+also served in the struggle for independence.</p>
+
+<p>The period of independence found a small number of Irish residents
+in Buenos Ayres, mostly patrician families, such as Dillon,
+MacMurrough, Murphy, French, O'Gorman, Orr, Butler, O'Shee, who had
+been exiled or had fled from Ireland and obtained the king of Spain's
+permission to settle in Spanish America. The descendants of these
+families are now so intermarried in the country that they have mostly
+forgotten the language and traditions of their ancestors; but they
+occupy high positions in political, legal, and commercial circles.</p>
+
+<h4>III.&mdash;THE PERIOD AFTER THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.</h4>
+
+<p>A remarkable influx of settlers from Ireland occurred between 1825
+and 1830, to work in the <i>saladeros</i>, or salt mines, of the Irish
+merchants, Brown, Dowdall, and Armstrong. Previous to this a few Irish
+mechanics and others had come from the United States. In 1813 Bernard
+Kiernan came from New Brunswick. He seems to have devoted himself to
+science, as the papers mention his discovery of a comet in the
+Magellan clouds on March 19, 1830. His son, James Kiernan, became
+editor of the government paper, <i>Gaceta Mercantil</i>, in 1823, and
+held this post for twenty years; his death occurred in 1857. There is
+reason to believe that the first Irishman who landed in Buenos Ayres
+in the 19th century, exclusive of Beresford's soldiers, was James
+Coyle, a native of Tyrone, who came in the <i>Agr&eacute;able</i> in
+1807, and died in 1876 at the age of 86.</p>
+
+<p>In 1830 some survivors of an Irish colony of 300 persons in Brazil
+made their way to Buenos Ayres. They had come out from Europe in the
+barque <i>Reward</i> in 1829.</p>
+
+<p>The banker, Thomas Armstrong, who arrived in Buenos Ayres in 1817,
+occupied the foremost place for half a century in the commerce of that
+city. He was of the ancient family of Armstrong in the King's county,
+one of whose members was General Sir John Armstrong, founder of
+Woolwich arsenal. Having married into the wealthy family of Villanueva
+he became intimately connected with all the leading enterprises of the
+day, such as railways, banks, loans, etc. He took no part in politics,
+but interested himself in charities of every kind.</p>
+
+<p>In 1865 another Irishman, James P. Cahill, introduced into Peru
+from the United States the first complete machinery for sugar growing
+and refining.</p>
+
+<p>Still another Irishman, Peter Sheridan, was one of the chief
+founders of the sheep farming industry in Argentina. His family
+claimed descent from the same stock in Co. Cavan as Richard Brinsley
+Sheridan, the great statesman and dramatist. Sheridan died at the age
+of 52, in 1844, and was succeeded in the <i>estancia</i> or
+sheep-farming business by his nephew, James, whose brother Dr. Hugh
+Sheridan had served under Admiral Brown.</p>
+
+<p>The number and wealth of the Irish <i>estancieros</i>, or
+sheep-farmers, in Argentina have never been exactly ascertained, but
+after the old Spanish families they are the most important. It would
+be impossible to give all the Irish names to be met with. Some of them
+own immense tracts of land. Men whose fathers arrived in Argentina
+without a shilling are today worth millions. Their <i>estancia</i>
+houses display all the comforts of an American or English home; their
+hospitality is proverbial; and most of them have built on their land
+fine schools and beautiful little chapels, in which the nearest Irish
+priest officiates.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the <i>partidos</i> or districts of the various provinces
+of Argentina may be compared to Irish counties, the railway stations
+being called after the owners of the land on which they are situated.
+Among the earliest families settled in Argentina in the farming
+industries, we find Duggans, Torneys, Harringtons, O'Briens, Dowlings,
+Gaynors, Murphys, Moores, Dillons, O'Rorkes, Kennys, Raths, Caseys,
+Norrises, O'Farrells, Brownes, Hams, Duffys, Ballestys, Gahans, and
+Garaghans.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Santiago O'Farrell, son of one of the earliest Irish pioneers,
+holds a foremost position among the distinguished lawyers of the
+present day. An Irish engineer, Mr. John Coghlan, gave Buenos Ayres
+its first waterworks. The British hospital has at present for its
+leading surgeon a distinguished Irishman, Dr. Luke O'Connor. A son of
+Peter Sheridan, educated in England, has left the finest landscapes of
+South America by any artist born in America. He died at Buenos Ayres
+in his 27th year, 1861. Among the public men of Irish descent, fifty
+years ago, in Buenos Ayres, are to be mentioned the distinguished
+lawyer and politician, Dalmacio Velez Sarsfield, and John Dillon,
+commissioner of immigration. Dillon was the first to start a brewery
+in Buenos Ayres, for which purpose he brought out workmen and
+machinery from Europe. All of his sons occupied distinguished
+positions. Richard O'Shee, president of the Chamber of Commerce in
+Buenos Ayres, was born at Seville of an old Irish family banished by
+William III. Among the many valuable citizens of Buenos Ayres who
+perished during the cholera of 1868 was Dr. Leslie, a native of Cavan,
+whose benevolence to the poor was unceasing. Henry O'Gorman, for some
+years chief of police in Buenos Ayres and afterwards governor of the
+penitentiary, was descended from an Irish family which went to Buenos
+Ayres in the eighteenth century. His brother, Canon O'Gorman, was one
+of the dignitaries of the archdiocese, and director of the boys'
+reformatory. General Donovan, son of an Irish Dr. Donovan of Buenos
+Ayres, had command of one of the sections of the new Indian
+frontier.</p>
+
+<p>The first Irish chaplain was Father Burke, a venerable friar
+mentioned by Mr. Love in 1820 as over 70 years of age and much
+esteemed. When Rivadavia suppressed the Orders in 1822, he allowed
+Father Burke to remain in the convent of Santo Domingo. After his
+death the Irish residents, in 1828, petitioned Archbishop Murray of
+Dublin for a chaplain. Accordingly the Rev. Patrick Moran was
+selected, and he arrived in Buenos Ayres in 1829. He died in the
+following year, and was succeeded by the Rev. Patrick O'Gorman from
+Dublin, who continued as chaplain during 16 years till his death in
+1847.</p>
+
+<p>The year 1843 is memorable for the arrival of Rev. Anthony Fahy,
+with whose name the advancement of the Irish in Argentina will be
+forever identified. This great patriarch was born at Loughrea, Co.
+Galway, in 1804, and made his ecclesiastical studies at St. Clement's
+convent of Irish Dominicans at Rome. Being sent to the western states
+of America, he passed ten years in Ohio and Kentucky, after which, on
+the invitation of the Irish community of Buenos Ayres and by
+permission of the superior of his Order, he came to the river Plate at
+a time when the prospects of the country and of the Irish residents
+were far from promising. The history of the Irish community since that
+time is in some measure a recital of the labors of Father Fahy. He it
+was who helped his countrymen to choose and buy their lands which now
+are of such enormous value. Their increasing numbers and prosperity in
+the camp districts obliged him to endow each of the provincial
+<i>partidos</i> was a resident chaplain. Most of these clergymen were
+educated in Dublin, and soon showed their zeal not merely in
+religious, but also in social spheres. Irish reading-rooms, libraries,
+and schools sprang up and laid the foundation for the refined Irish
+life of the present day in those districts. Among other services,
+Father Fahy founded the Irish convent, bringing out some Sisters of
+Mercy under Mrs. Mary Evangelist Fitzpatrick from Dublin, to whom he
+gave it in charge. Father Fahy died in harness in 1871 of yellow
+fever; he attended a poor Italian woman and on returning home was at
+once taken ill. He lasted only three days and expired peacefully, a
+martyr to his sacred calling. He died so poor that Mr. Armstrong had
+to discharge for him some small debts, and five others of his
+countrymen paid his funeral expenses. A fitting memorial of the
+deceased priest, the Fahy College for Irish orphan boys in Argentina,
+has been erected in Buenos Ayres, and a magnificent monument of Irish
+marble, carved in Ireland, also perpetuates his fame.</p>
+
+<p>The priests, still living, who were co-workers with Father Fahy and
+appointed by him to various <i>partidos</i>, are Monsignor Samuel
+O'Reilly, deservedly beloved by his parishioners, and the Rev. Father
+Flannery, whose appointment to San Pedro brought a great influx of
+Irish farmers into that district. Among those who have gone to enjoy
+their eternal reward are the brothers, Rev. Michael and Rev. John
+Leahy, both of whom were indefatigable during the yellow fever in
+Buenos Ayres. Rev. Father Mulleady, Rev. Patrick Lynch, Rev. James
+Curran, and Monsignor Curley were also among the Irish priests of that
+time.</p>
+
+<p>The Fahy College is entrusted to the care of the Marist Brothers,
+who are largely Irish. The community of Holy Cross of the Passionist
+Fathers, who have as provincial the distinguished North American
+scholar Father Fidelis Kent Stone, is almost entirely composed of
+Irish and Irish-Americans. They have several establishments in various
+provinces of Argentina. Irish priests are to be met with all over the
+country. In Patagonia and the Chaco we also find a number of
+Protestant missionaries sent out by the Irish branch of the South
+American Missionary Society.</p>
+
+<p>Archdeacon Dillon succeeded Father Fahy as Irish chaplain in Buenos
+Ayres, and, although by birth and education an Irishman, he became one
+of the principal dignitaries of the archdiocese. He was for some time
+professor of theology in the ecclesiastical seminary of Buenos Ayres,
+and accompanied Archbishop Escalada as theologian to the Vatican
+Council in 1869. He was the founder of the <i>Southern Cross</i> in
+1874, the Irish weekly paper which is now so ably edited by the gifted
+Irishman, Mr. Gerald Foley.</p>
+
+<p>The first daily paper to appear in English in South America was the
+<i>Standard</i>, founded in 1861 by Michael G. Mulhall, the
+distinguished statistician, and it is still one of the leading papers
+in the country. In conducting it Michael G. Mulhall was joined by his
+brother, Edward T. Mulhall, in 1862, and for many years it was
+continuously under their care. The <i>Standard</i> still remains in
+the Mulhall family, and has for its editor a cousin of the former
+editor's, Mr. John Mulhall, who wisely directs its course. The
+<i>Argentina</i>, an important paper in Spanish, was founded a few
+years since by Edward T. Mulhall, Jr., a brilliant son of the late
+Edward Mulhall of the <i>Standard</i>. The <i>Hyberno-Argentine
+Review</i>, a new Irish weekly, is edited by another able Irishman,
+James B. Sheridan. In Rio Janeiro the <i>Anglo-Brasilian Times</i> was
+founded in 1864 by an Irishman, Mr. Scully, who also wrote an
+important book on Brazil.</p>
+
+<p>Ireland had also its representatives in South American diplomacy
+and the making of treaties. As early as 1809 Colonel James Burke was
+sent by Lord Strangford, British minister at Rio, on a confidential
+mission to Buenos Ayres to negotiate the establishment of a separate
+kingdom on the river Plate, with the Princess Charlotte as queen. In
+1867 Mr. Gould, an Irishman, British charg&eacute; d'affaires,
+endeavored to mediate between the allies, Brazil and Argentina, and
+President Lopez of Paraguay, but without success. Stephen H. Sullivan,
+British charg&eacute; d'affaires for Chile, signed the treaty of
+commerce and navigation between England and Chile on the 10th of May,
+1852. He was afterwards appointed British minister at Lima, where he
+was murdered. The late Chilian ministers to Buenos Ayres and London,
+William Blest Gana and Albert Blest Gana, were the sons of an Irish
+Doctor Blest from Sligo, who settled in Chile. In 1859 George Fagan
+signed a treaty with General Guido for compensation of losses to
+British subjects during the civil wars after the Independence.</p>
+
+<p>The mining industry had among its pioneers brave sons of Erin. J.
+O. French went to Buenos Ayres in 1826, and after an arduous mountain
+journey arrived at the foot of the Cerro Morado, where he found
+auriferous ores. Chevalier Edmond Temple, an Irish gentleman who had
+served in Spain in a dragoon regiment, also landed in Buenos Ayres in
+1826, and started across the Pampas, then almost uninhabited, until he
+came to the mountainous country where the Potosi mines were situated.
+In one of the defiles he lost his favorite horse, and in his book he
+bids a touching farewell to the friendly steed which had shared with
+him so many toils and dangers. Temple's successor in the Argentine
+mining provinces was Major Rickard Seaver, a member of an old Co.
+Dublin family.</p>
+
+<p>Several books of travel in South America have been published by
+Irish writers during the last fifty years. MacCann's <i>Travels in the
+Argentine Provinces</i>, 1846-49, contains much that is valuable
+concerning the history and manners of the country. Major Rickard
+Seaver issued in 1863 an interesting narrative of his crossing the
+Andes. Consul Hutchinson, an Irishman, published in 1864 his book
+<i>Argentine Gleanings</i>, which was followed by another in 1869
+called <i>South American Recollections</i>. Robert Crawford, an Irish
+engineer, led an expedition from Buenos Ayres in November, 1871,
+across the Indian Pampas and over the pass of the Planchon in the
+Andes, to survey an overland route to Chile, and subsequently
+published an interesting account of his journey. The first book
+printed and published in English, in South America, was the
+<i>Handbook of the River Plate</i>, written by Michael G. Mulhall and
+published by the <i>Standard</i>, in 1861. The same author also
+published the <i>Rural Code of Buenos Ayres</i> in 1867, and the
+<i>Handbook of Brazil</i> in 1877. In 1871 he published an account of
+his travels among the German colonies in Rio Grande do Sul. Twenty
+years ago the writer of this sketch published <i>Between the Amazon
+and the Andes</i> and the <i>Story of the Jesuit Missions of
+Paraguay</i>. These books derive special interest from the fact that
+she was the first foreign woman ever seen in Cuyaba, the capital of
+Matto Grosso, whither she accompanied her husband, 2500 miles from
+either the Atlantic or the Pacific seaboard. They arrived as far as
+the Diamantina Mountains, beyond Cuyaba, and saw the little rivers
+which form the sources of the mighty Amazon.</p>
+
+<p>Casting a glance over South America, we see in every country and
+province evidences of Irish genius employed not only in fighting but
+in the development of natural resources. To quote Consul Cowper's
+report to the Foreign Office in London: "The progress of Buenos Ayres
+is mainly due to the industrious Irish sheep farmers." No other
+nationality contributed so largely to the export trade of the country.
+At one time it was shown by the tables of Mr. Duggan and other wool
+exporters that the quantity of this staple industry yearly sold by
+Irishmen in Buenos Ayres exceeded that sold by all other
+nationalities. In later years the Irish sheep farmers in the province
+of Buenos Ayres have turned their lands into wheat lands, and the
+great industries of the country, sheep and cattle, have been moved to
+the outside camps, especially to that wonderful grazing region in the
+Andine valleys recently visited by Col. Roosevelt and his party. It
+may be interesting to mention that at the first English races ever
+held in South America, on November 6, 1826, the principal event, in
+which ten horses ran, was easily won by an Irish horse with the
+appropriate name of "Shamrock."</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Beaumont: Travels In Buenos Ayres (1828); Wilson: Travels In South
+America (1796); Pinkerton: Travels (1808), Captain Weddell: Cape Horn
+and South Atlantic Surveys; Major Gillesple: Buenos Ayres and
+Provinces; Mrs. Williams, on Humboldt's Travels (1826); Captain
+Master: At Home with the Patagonians (1891); Hadfield: Notes of Travel
+in Brazil and La plata (1863); Hinchcliff: South American Sketches
+(1862); Captain Burton: Highlands of Brazil; Ross Johnston: A Vacation
+in the Argentine Alps (1867); MacCann: Travels in the Argentine
+Provinces (1846-1849); Hutchinson: Argentine Gleanings and South
+American Recollections; Major Seaver: Crossing the Andes; Crawford:
+Across the Pampas; V. MacKenna: Life of O'Higgins; Life of Diego
+Rimagro; History of Santiago; History of Valparaiso; MacKenna:
+Archives of Spanish America, 50 vols.; Miller: Memoirs; Lives of
+Belgrano and San Martin; Mulhall; English In South America.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T23"></a>THE IRISH IN AUSTRALASIA</h2>
+<h4>By BROTHER LEO, F.S.C., M.A.</h4>
+
+<p>Should one be called upon to give in brief the history of the Irish
+in the land of the Southern Cross, he could do nothing more to the
+purpose than to relate the story of the "Holy House of Australia." The
+episode, indeed, is characteristic, not merely of the Irish in
+Australia, but of the Irish in every land and clime where they have
+striven and conquered.</p>
+
+<p>On the fourteenth of November, 1817, there landed in Sydney an
+Irish Cistercian Father, Jeremiah F. Flynn. He had heard in Rome of
+the spiritual destitution of the Irish Catholics in Australia, and he
+secured the permission of his superiors to minister to the needs of
+his compatriots in the Antipodes. Shortly after his arrival he
+celebrated Mass in the house of an Irishman named William Davis, who
+had been transported for making pikes for the insurgents in the days
+of '98, and then, on the first opportunity that presented itself, he
+sought the authorization of the colonial governor to exercise the
+functions of his sacred ministry. Far from hospitable was the
+reception accorded him by Governor Macquarie. The priest was told,
+with the bluntness characteristic of British officialdom, that the
+presence of no "popish missionary" would be tolerated in the
+settlement, and that the profession of the Protestant form of belief
+was obligatory on every person in the penal colony.</p>
+
+<p>With the example of the "priesthood hunted down like wolves" before
+him, Father Flynn saw but one consistent course to pursue. His fellow
+Catholics, his fellow Irishmen, were in sore need of his help; that
+help they must receive, even though the civil powers refused their
+sanction. So for several months he went about as secretly as he could,
+hearing confessions, offering the Holy Sacrifice, and breaking the
+bread of good counsel. During this trying period, Davis was his host
+and defender and friend. Eventually the presence of the priest was
+detected; he was arrested and promptly sent back to England. Before
+the ship sailed he tried repeatedly to return to the house of Davis
+where the Blessed Sacrament was preserved in a cedar clothes-press,
+but the surveillance of his captors was strict and unsleeping. So in
+the dwelling of the convict Irishman the Sacred Species remained.
+Before this unwonted repository Davis kept a light ever burning day
+and night; and day and night crept the loyal Irishmen of the
+settlement to kneel in prayer before the improvised shrine. The "Holy
+House of Australia", as the Davis dwelling came to be known, remained
+the only Catholic church in the colony until 1821, when two Irish
+priests, Father John Joseph Therry of Cork and Father Philip Connolly
+of Kildare, were permitted to attend to the spiritual needs of the
+Irish Catholics. Their coming marked the beginning of religious
+toleration in Australia and the termination of the sufferings and
+sacrifices of the Irish colonists, several of whom had had to pay
+dearly for their religious convictions. Davis himself had been twice
+flogged and once imprisoned for refusing to attend Protestant
+service.</p>
+
+<p>Today, on the site of the "Holy House of Australia", stands the
+church of St. Patrick. Davis gave the land and the sum of one thousand
+pounds to the church, and his fellow exiles contributed according to
+their means. This episode in the history of the Irish in Australia
+pays a touchingly eloquent tribute to the spirit of loyalty to God and
+country which has characterized the sons and daughters of St. Patrick
+everywhere whither their feet have strayed. It is the spirit which has
+embodied itself in the imposing cathedral of St. Patrick in Melbourne
+and the splendidly equipped college of St. Patrick in Sydney. It is
+the spirit which has made the Irish play so conspicuous a role in the
+civic and commercial history of Australasia.</p>
+
+<p>Originally known as New Holland, Australia became an English penal
+colony after the outbreak of the Revolutionary War in the United
+States of America. An Irish element came into the colony in the last
+decade of the eighteenth century when, during the Orange reign of
+terror, upwards of a thousand people from the west of Ireland were
+deported by the Ulster magistrates and by Lord Carhampton, the
+notorious "Satanides", who was charged with the pacification of
+Connacht. And during the first three decades of the nineteenth century
+the stream of Irish transportation flowed on. As a result of the
+Tithes agitation, the Charter and Reform movements, the Combination
+Laws and the Corn Laws, many more Irishmen were forced across the sea.
+It was not until 1868 that the convict system was permanently
+abolished.</p>
+
+<p>It is difficult for us of a later day to realize the meaning of
+that word, transportation. Let us form some conception of what the
+Irish exiles suffered from the graphic picture painted in colors,
+somber but not untrue, by one who knew from firsthand experience the
+lot of the political prisoner. Writes Dr. Ullathorne in <i>The Horrors
+of Transportation</i>:</p>
+
+<p>"Take any one of you, my dear readers; separate him from his wife,
+from his children, from all those whose conversation makes life dear
+to him; cast him on the ends of the earth; let him there fall amongst
+reprobates who are the last stain and disgrace of our common nature;
+give him those obscene-mouthed monsters for his constant companions
+and consolers; let the daily vision of their progress from infamy to
+infamy, until the demon that inspires them has exhausted invention and
+the powers of nature together, be his only example; house him, at
+night, in a bark hut on a mud floor, where he has less comfort than
+your cattle in their stalls; awake him from the troubled dreams of his
+wretched wife and outcast children, to feel how far he is from their
+help, and take him out at sunrise; work him under a burning sun, and a
+heartless overseer, and the threat of the lash until the night fall;
+give him not a penny's wages but sorrow; leave him no hope but the
+same dull, dreary round of endless drudgery for many years to come;
+let him see no opening by which to escape, but through a long, narrow
+prospect of police courts, of gaols, of triangles, of death cells, and
+of penal settlements; let him all the while be clothed in a dress of
+shame, that shows to every living soul his degradation; and if he dare
+to sell any part of that clothing, then flog him worse than any dog!
+And thus, whilst severed from all kindness and all love, whilst the
+stern harsh voice of his task-master is grating in incessant jars
+within his ear, take all rest out of his flesh, and plant the thorn;
+take all feeling out of his heart, and leave the withered core; take
+all peace out of his conscience, and leave the worm of remorse; and
+then let any one come and dare to tell me that the man is happy
+because he has bread and meat. Is it not here, if ever there was such
+a case, where the taste of bread is a taste of misery, and where to
+feed and prolong life is to feed and lengthen our sorrow? And in
+pondering these things, do not those strong words of Sacred Scripture
+bring down their load of truth in heavy trouble to our thoughts, that,
+'Their bread is loathsome to their eye, and their meat unto their
+soul.'"</p>
+
+<p>But the bright side of the story of the Irish in Australia and New
+Zealand unfolds in the subsequent years. The men who had been sent
+forth from Erin with the brand of the convict upon them became the
+founders of a new commonwealth. To them were joined the numerous
+voluntary settlers who, attracted by the natural resources of the
+island-continent and especially by the gold discoveries of the
+fifties, migrated to Queensland, Victoria, and New South Wales. When
+in 1858 William E. Gladstone sought to establish a new colony to be
+known as North Australia, he opened a fresh field for Irish
+initiative. As a result of his effort there stands today, on a terrace
+overlooking Port Curtis, the city of Gladstone, the terminal of the
+Australian railway system. It was here, according to Cardinal Moran,
+that in 1606, Mass was first celebrated in Australia, when the
+Spaniards sought shelter in the "Harbor of the Holy Cross." The first
+government resident at Gladstone was Sir Maurice Charles O'Connell, a
+relative of the great Liberator; he was four times acting-governor of
+Queensland.</p>
+
+<p>The list of Irish pioneer settlers in Australasia is a lengthy one.
+The name of Thomas Poynton stands out prominently. He was a New
+Zealand pioneer who had married an Irish girl in Sydney. The devotion
+of Poynton and his wife to the faith of their fathers is evidenced by
+the fact that he several times made the long journey from his home to
+Sydney to interest the church authorities in the wants of the New
+Zealand Irish Catholics, and that she twice made the same arduous trip
+to have her children baptized. Thomas Mooney has the distinction of
+being the first Irish pioneer in Western Australia; and yet another
+Irishman, Cassidy by name, carried out a policy of benevolent
+assimilation by marrying the daughter of a Maori chief.</p>
+
+<p>Among the pioneer ecclesiastics were Father William Kelly of
+Melbourne and Father John McEncroe, a native of Tipperary and a
+Maynooth man, who for thirty years and more was a prominent figure in
+the religious and civic life of New South Wales. Father John Brady,
+another pioneer priest, became Bishop of Perth. Irish names occupy a
+conspicuous and honored place in the roster of the Australian
+episcopate. Notable on the list are Bishop Francis Murphy of Adelaide,
+who was born in Co. Meath, and Archbishop Daniel Murphy of Sydney, a
+native of Cork, the man who delivered the eulogy on the occasion of
+Daniel O'Connell's funeral at Rome. But scant reference can here be
+made to the illustrious primate of Australia, Cardinal Moran,
+archbishop of Sydney from 1884 to 1911, who was such a potent force in
+the land of his adoption, and whose masterly <i>History of the
+Catholic Church in Australasia</i> puts him in the forefront of
+ecclesiastical historians. On his death he was succeeded in the see of
+Sydney by another Irishman, Archbishop Michael Kelly of Waterford.
+Archbishop O'Reily of Adelaide is a recognized authority on music, and
+has written several pamphlets on that subject. A Galway man, Dr. T. J.
+Carr, a great educator, is now (1914) archbishop of Melbourne, and a
+Clare man, Dr. J. P. Clune, holds sway in Perth.</p>
+
+<p>Irishmen in Australia have figured largely in the iron and coal
+industries, in the irrigation projects, in the manufacturing
+activities, and in the working of the gold mines. But they have
+likewise distinguished themselves in other fields of endeavor.
+Prominent on the beadroll of Australian fame stand the names of Sir
+Charles Gavan Duffy (1816-1903), founder of the <i>Nation</i>
+newspaper in Dublin, member of the British house of commons, and
+afterwards premier of Victoria and speaker of the legislative
+assembly, and his sons, John Gavan Duffy and Frank Gavan Duffy,
+public-spirited citizens and authorities on legal matters. The
+Currans, father and son, active in the public life of Sydney, were
+afterwards members of the British parliament. Distinguished in the
+records of the Australian judiciary are Judges Quinlan, Casey,
+Brennan, and O'Dowd. The Rev. J. Milne Curran, F.G.S., is a geologist
+who has achieved more than local fame. Other Irishmen who have loomed
+large in Australasian affairs are Daniel Brophy, John Cumin, Augustus
+Leo Kenny, James Coghlan, Sir Patrick Buckley, Sir John O'Shannessy,
+and Nicholas Fitzgerald. Louis C. Brennan, C.B., who was born in
+Ireland in 1852, emigrated to Australia when a boy and while working
+in a civil engineer's office in Melbourne conceived the idea of the
+"Brennan Torpedo", which he afterwards perfected, and then in 1897
+sold the invention to the British Admiralty for &pound;110,000.
+Another Brennan, Frank by name, is president of the Knights of Our
+Lady of the Southern Cross and has been a labor member of the federal
+parliament since 1911; a third, Christopher John, is assistant
+lecturer in modern literature in the University of Sydney; and a
+fourth, James, of the diocese of Perth, was made a Knight of St.
+Silvester by Pius X. in 1912. Young Australia and New Zealand may be
+as the world goes, but already both have much to their credit in the
+domains of music, art, and literature; and here, as usual, the Irish
+have been to the fore. In the writing of poetry, history, and fiction
+the Celtic element has been especially distinguished. Not to speak of
+the writers mentioned elsewhere in this sketch, scores of Irish men
+and women have been identified with the development of an Australian
+literature which, though delightfully redolent of the land whence it
+sprang, nevertheless possesses the universal note which makes it a
+truly human product. Many years ago one of the most gifted of
+Irish-Australian singers, "Eva"' of the <i>Nation</i>, voiced a
+tentative plaint:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>"O barren land! O blank, bright sky!</p>
+<p class="i2">Methinks it were a noble duty</p>
+<p>To kindle in that vacant eye</p>
+<p class="i2">The light of spirit&mdash;beauty&mdash;</p>
+<p>To fill with airy shapes divine</p>
+<p class="i2">Thy lonely plains and mountains,</p>
+<p>The orange grove, the bower of vine,</p>
+<p class="i2">The silvery lakes and fountains;</p>
+<p>To wake the voiceless, silent air</p>
+<p class="i2">To soft, melodious numbers;</p>
+<p>To raise thy lifeless form so fair</p>
+<p class="i2">From those deep, spell-bound slumbers.</p>
+<p>Oh, whose shall be the potent hand</p>
+<p class="i2">To give that touch informing,</p>
+<p>And make thee rise, O Southern Land,</p>
+<p class="i2">To life and poesy warming?"</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mrs. O'Doherty herself, who long lived in that Queensland which she
+thus apostrophized, helped in no uncertain way to answer her own
+question. So did John Farrell, the author of the truly remarkable
+"Jubilee Ode" of 1897 and of a collection of poems which include the
+well known "How He Died." And so, long before, had the non-Catholic
+Irishman, Edward O'Shaughnessy, who went to Australia as a convict,
+but who laughed in lockstep and made music with his chains.</p>
+
+<p>James Francis Hogan, author and journalist, was born in Tipperary
+in 1855 and shortly afterward was brought by his parents to Melbourne
+where he received his education. On his return to Ireland he was
+elected to represent his native county in parliament. He is an
+authority on Australian history and in his book on <i>The Gladstone
+Colony</i> has given us a fine specimen of modern historical method.
+With him must be mentioned Roderick Flanagan, whose <i>History of New
+South Wales</i> appeared in 1862.</p>
+
+<p>Other Irish names distinguished in Australasian literature are
+those of the New Zealand poet, Thomas Bracken; Roderick Quinn; Desmond
+Byrne; J.B. O'Hara; the eccentric convict-writer, George "Barrington"
+Waldron; Victor J. Daley; Bernard O'Dowd; Edwin J. Brady; the Rev.
+J.J. Malone; and the Rev. W. Kelly.</p>
+
+<p>Finally, the Irish in Australia have done more than their share in
+the work of education and social service. Under Irish auspices several
+of the Catholic teaching congregations, including the Christian
+Brothers and the Presentation Nuns, were introduced, and their work
+has borne goodly fruit. A mighty power for good is the Hibernian
+Australasian Benefit Society. The organization, which was founded in
+1871, has spread rapidly and has a large active membership.</p>
+
+<p>Truly the land of the Southern Cross is not the dimmest jewel in
+the coronet of Ireland's glories.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Hogan: The Irish in Australia (1888), The Gladstone Colony (1898);
+Mennell: Dictionary of Australian Biography (1892); Duffy: Life in Two
+Hemispheres (1903); Kenny: The Catholic Church in Australia to the
+Year 1840; Moran: History of the Catholic Church in Australasia
+(1898); Davitt: Life and Progress in Australasia (1898); Bonwick: The
+First Twenty Years of Australia (1883); Flanagan: History of New South
+Wales (1862); Byrne: Australian Writers (1896); Wilson: The Church in
+New Zealand (1910); Hocken: A Bibliography of the Literature Relating
+to New Zealand (1909).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T24"></a>THE IRISH IN SOUTH AFRICA</h2>
+<h4>By A. MILLIARD ATTERIDGE.</h4>
+
+<p>The tide of emigration from Ireland has set chiefly towards America
+and Australia. In South Africa, therefore, the Irish element among the
+colonists has never been a large one. But, despite its comparatively
+small numbers, it has been an important factor in the life of South
+Africa. Here, as in so many other countries, it has been the glory of
+the sons of Erin to be a missionary people. To their coming is due the
+very existence of the Catholic Church in these southern lands.</p>
+
+<p>When Dr. Ullathorne touched at the Cape on his way to Australia in
+1832, he found at Cape Town "a single priest for the whole of South
+Africa," an English Benedictine, who soon afterwards returned to
+Europe in broken health. Few Irish immigrants had by that time found
+their way to the Cape. They began to arrive in numbers only after the
+famine year.</p>
+
+<p>The founder of the Catholic hierarchy in South Africa was the Irish
+Dominican, Patrick R. Griffith, who, in 1837, was sent to Cape Town by
+Gregory XVI. as the first Vicar Apostolic of Cape Colony. His
+successors at the Cape, Bishops Grimley, Leonard, and Rooney, have all
+been Irishmen, and nine in every ten of their flock have from the
+first been Irish by birth or descent. In the earlier years of Bishop
+Griffith's episcopate there was a large garrison in South Africa on
+account of the Kaffir wars. Many of these soldiers were Irishmen. At
+Grahamstown in 1844 the soldiers of an Irish regiment stationed there
+did most of the work of building St. Patrick's Church, one of the
+oldest Catholic churches in South Africa. They worked without wages or
+reward of any kind, purely out of their devotion to their Faith,
+giving up most of their leisure to this voluntary labor.</p>
+
+<p>Ten years after Bishop Griffith's appointment, Pius IX. separated
+Natal and the eastern districts of Cape Colony from Cape Town, and
+erected the Eastern Vicariate Apostolic. Once more an Irish prelate
+was the first Bishop&mdash;Aidan Devereux, who was consecrated by
+Bishop Griffith at Cape Town in the Christmas week of 1847. The great
+emigration from Ireland had now begun, and a stream of immigrants was
+arriving at the Cape. Bishop Devereux fixed his residence at Port
+Elizabeth, and of his four successors up to the present day three have
+been Irish. Bishop Moran, who went out to Port Elizabeth in 1854, was
+consecrated at Carlow in Ireland by Archbishop (afterwards Cardinal)
+Cullen. The third Vicar Apostolic was Bishop Ricards, and the present
+bishop is another Irishman, Dr. Hugh McSherry, who received his
+consecration from the hands of Cardinal Logue in St. Patrick's
+Cathedral at Armagh.</p>
+
+<p>Until the discovery of the diamond deposits in what is now the
+Kimberley district, some forty years ago, the Irish immigrants had
+chiefly settled in the ports and along the coast. But among the crowds
+who went to seek their fortunes at the diamond fields were large
+numbers of adventurous Irishmen. The mission church established at
+Kimberley became the centre of a new bishopric in 1886, when the
+Vicariate of Kimberley, which for some time included the Orange Free
+State, was established, and an Irish Oblate, Father Anthony Gaughran,
+was appointed its first bishop. He was succeeded in 1901 by his
+namesake and fellow countryman, the present Bishop Matthew
+Gaughran.</p>
+
+<p>The gold discoveries on the Witwatersrand about Johannesburg
+produced another rush into the interior in the days after the first
+Transvaal war. A great city of foreign immigrants&mdash;the
+"Uitlanders"&mdash;grew up rapidly on the upland, where a few months
+before there had been only a few scattered Boer farms. Irishmen from
+Cape Colony and Natal, from Ireland itself, and from the United States
+formed a large element in the local mining and trading community. They
+were mostly workers. Few of them found their way into the controlling
+financier class, which was largely Jewish. The Irish were better out
+of this circle of international gamblers, whose intrigues finally
+produced the terrible two years' bloodshed of the great South African
+war. Many engineers of the mines were Irish-Americans. Huge
+consignments of mining machinery arrived from the United States, and
+many of the engineers who came to fit it up remained in the employ of
+the mining companies. Until after the war, the Transvaal and
+Johannesburg had depended ecclesiastically on the Vicar Apostolic of
+Natal, but in 1904 a Transvaal Vicariate was erected, and once more
+the first bishop was an Irishman, Dr. William Miller, O.M.I.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen how Irish the South African episcopate has been from
+the very outset. Most of the clergy belong to the same missionary
+race, as also do the nuns of the various convents, and the Christian
+Brothers, who are in charge of many of the schools. Of the white
+Catholic population of the various states of the South African Union,
+the greater part are Irish. There are about 25,000 Irish in Cape
+Colony in a total population of over two millions. There are some
+7,000 in Natal, I,500 in Kimberley, and about 2,000 in the Orange
+River Colony. In the Transvaal, chiefly in and about Johannesburg,
+there are some 12,000 Irish. A few thousand more are to be found
+scattered in Griqualand and Rhodesia.</p>
+
+<p>As has been already said, the total numbers are not large in
+proportion to that of the population generally, and they belong
+chiefly to the industrial and trading classes. The most notable names
+among them are those of prelates, priests, and missionaries, who have
+founded and built up the organization of the Catholic Church in South
+Africa. But there are some names of note also in civil life. Sir
+Michael Gallwey was for many years Chief Justice of Natal; the Hon. A.
+Wilmot, who has not only held high official posts, but has also done
+much to clear up the early history of South Africa, is Irish on the
+mother's side; Mr. Justice Shiel is a judge of the Cape Courts; Eyre
+and Woodbyrne are Irish names among the makers of Rhodesia; and
+amongst those who have done remarkable work in official life may also
+be named Sir Geoffrey Lagden, Sir William St. John Carr, and the Hon.
+John Daverin. Lagden was for many years British Resident in
+Basutoland, the Switzerland of South Africa, where the native tribes
+are practically independent under a British protectorate. Griffith,
+the paramount chief of the Basuto nation, has been a Catholic since
+1911. Sir Geoffrey's tactful policy and wise counsels did much to
+promote the prosperity of this native state, and during the trying
+days of the South African War, he was able to secure the neutrality of
+the tribesmen.</p>
+
+<p>In the Boer wars, Irishmen fought with distinction on both sides.
+General Colley, who fell at Majuba in the first Boer War, was a
+distinguished Irish soldier. Another great Irishman, General Sir
+William Butler, has written the story of Colley's life. Butler himself
+was in command of the troops at the Cape before the great war. If his
+wise counsels had been followed by the Government, the war would
+undoubtedly have been avoided. He refused to have any part in the
+war-provoking policy of Rhodes and Chamberlain, and warned the Home
+Government that an attack on the Dutch republics would be a serious
+and perilous enterprise. When the war came, England owed much to the
+enduring valor of Irish soldiers and to the leadership of Irish
+generals. One need only name General Hart, of the Irish Brigade;
+General French, who relieved Kimberley, and who is now (1914)
+Field-Marshal and Commander-in-Chief of the British army in France;
+General Mahon, who raised the siege of Mafeking; Colonel Moore, of the
+famous Connaught Rangers, now (1914) commandant and chief military
+organizer of the Irish National Volunteers; and, finally, Lord
+Roberts, who took over the chief command and saved the situation after
+the early disasters. Lord Kitchener, who acted as Roberts's
+chief-of-staff, succeeded him in the command, and brought the war to
+an end by an honorable treaty with the Boer leaders, is a native of
+Ireland, but of English descent, and he passed most of his boyhood in
+Ireland, in Co. Kerry, where his father had bought a small property. I
+used to know an Irish Franciscan lay brother who told me he had taught
+the future soldier "many games" when he was quite a little fellow.</p>
+
+<p>Of the regiments which took part in the war none won a higher fame
+than the Munster and the Dublin Fusiliers and the Connaught Rangers.
+It was in recognition of their splendid valor that the new regiment of
+Irish Guards was added to the British Army.</p>
+
+<p>But the majority of Irishmen sympathized with the Boer republics,
+and many of them fought under the Boer flag, of these were legally
+British subjects, but many were naturalized burghers of the Transvaal,
+and many more were United States citizens, Irish-Americans from the
+Rand gold mines. There were two small Irish brigades under the Boer
+flag, those of McBride and Lynch (the latter now a member of the
+British House of Commons), and an engineer corps commanded by Colonel
+Blake, an American. At the first battle before Ladysmith it was one of
+the Irish brigades that kept the Boer guns in action, bringing up
+ammunition under a rain of shellfire. During the Boer retreat and
+Roberts's advance on Pretoria, Blake's engineers were always with the
+Boer rearguard and successfully destroyed every mile of the railway as
+they went back. Blake had served in the United States cavalry, had
+learned mining while on duty in Nevada, and had then gone to seek his
+fortune at Johannesburg. The great leader of the Boer armies, now the
+Prime Minister of the new South Africa which has happily arisen out of
+the storm of war, has Irish connections. Louis Botha lived before the
+war in the southeast Transvaal, not far from Laings Nek, and near
+neighbors of his were a family of Irish settlers bearing the honored
+name of Emmet. The Emmets and the Bothas were united by ties of
+friendship and intermarriage, and one of the Emmets served with Louis
+Botha during the war.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish colonists of South Africa keep their love for faith and
+fatherland, but, as in the United States, they have thoroughly and
+loyally thrown in their lot with the new country of which they have
+become citizens. Few in number though they are, they are an important
+factor in the new Dominion, for their national tradition inspires them
+with civic patriotism, and their religion gives them a high standard
+of conduct and puts before them, as guides in the work of life and the
+solution of the problems of the day, the Christian principles of
+justice and charity.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Government Census Returns, South Africa; Catholic Directory for
+British South Africa (Cape Town, since 1904); The Catholic Magazine,
+Cape Town; Wilmot and Chase: History of Cape Colony (London, 1896);
+Theal: History of South Africa (5 vols., London, 1888-1893); for the
+war period, the <i>Times</i> History of the South African War, and the
+British Official History.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T25"></a>IRISH LANGUAGE AND LETTERS</h2>
+<h4>By DOUGLAS HYDE, LL.D., M.R.I.A.</h4>
+
+<p>The Celtic languages consist of two divisions, (a) the Gaelic or
+Irish division, and (b) the Kymric or Welsh division. Between them
+they comprise (a) Irish, Scotch-Gaelic, and Manx, and (b) Welsh,
+Armorican, and Cornish. All these languages are still alive except
+Cornish, which died out about a hundred years ago.</p>
+
+<p>Of all these languages Irish is the best preserved, and it is
+possible to follow its written literature back into the past for some
+thirteen hundred years; while much of the most interesting matter has
+come down to us from pagan times. It has left behind it the longest,
+the most luminous, and the most consecutive literary track of any of
+the vernacular languages of Europe, except Greek alone.</p>
+
+<p>For centuries the Irish and their language were regarded by the
+English as something strange and foreign to Europe. It was not
+recognized that they had any relationship with the Greeks or Romans,
+the French, the Germans, or the English. The once well-known
+statesman, Lord Lyndhurst, in the British parliament denounced the
+Irish as aliens in religion, in blood, and in language. Bopp, in his
+great Comparative Grammar, refused them recognition as Indo-Europeans,
+and Pott in 1856 also denied their European connection. It was left
+for the great Bavarian scholar, John Caspar Zeuss, to prove to the
+world in his epoch-making "Grammatica Celtica" (published in Latin in
+1853) that the Celts were really Indo-Europeans, and that their
+language was of the highest possible value and interest. From that day
+to the present it is safe to say that the value set upon the Irish
+language and literature has been steadily growing amongst the scholars
+of the world, and that in the domain of philology Old Irish now ranks
+close to Sanscrit for its truly marvellous and complicated scheme of
+word-forms and inflections, and its whole verbal system.</p>
+
+<p>The exact place which the Celtic languages (of which Irish is
+philologically far the most important) hold in the Indo-European group
+has often been discussed. It is now generally agreed upon that,
+although both the Celtic and Teutonic languages may claim a certain
+kinship with each other as being both of them Indo-European, still the
+Celtic is much more nearly related to the Greek and the Latin groups,
+especially to the Latin.</p>
+
+<p>All the Indo-European languages are more or less related to one
+another. We Irish must acknowledge a relationship, or rather a very
+distant connecting tie, with English. But, to trace this home, Irish
+must be followed back to the very oldest form of its words, and
+English must be followed back to Anglo-Saxon and when possible to
+Gothic. The hard mutes (p, t, c) of Celtic (and, for that matter, of
+Sanscrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, Slavonic, and Lithuanian) will be
+represented in Gothic by the corresponding soft mutes (b, d, g), and
+the soft mutes in Celtic by the corresponding, hard mutes in Gothic.
+Thus we find the Irish <i>dia</i> (god) in the Anglo-Saxon <i>tiw</i>,
+the god of war, whose name is perpetuated for all time in
+Tiwes-d&auml;g, now "Tuesday", and we find the Irish
+<i>d&eacute;ad</i> in the Anglo-Saxon "toth", now "tooth", and so on.
+But of all the Indo-European languages Old Irish possesses by far the
+nearest affinity to Latin, and this is shown in a great many ways, not
+in the vocabulary merely, but in the grammar, which for philologists
+is of far more importance,&mdash;as, for example, the <i>b</i>-future,
+the passive in-r, the genitive singular and nominative plural of "o
+stems", etc. Thus the Old Irish for "man", nom. <i>fer</i>, gen.
+<i>fir</i>, dat. <i>fiur</i>, acc. <i>fer n</i>&mdash;, plur. nom.
+<i>fir</i>, gen. <i>fer n</i>&mdash;, is derived from the older forms
+<i>viros, viri, viro, viron</i>, nom. plur. <i>viri</i>, gen. plur.
+<i>viron</i>, which everyone who knows Latin can see at a glance
+correspond very closely to the Latin inflections, <i>vir, viri, viro,
+virum</i>, nom. plur. <i>viri</i>, etc.</p>
+
+<p>So much for the language. When did this language begin to be used
+in literature? This question depends upon another&mdash;When did the
+Irish begin to have a knowledge of letters; when did they begin to
+commit their literature to writing; and whence did they borrow their
+knowledge of this art?</p>
+
+<p>The oldest alphabet used in Ireland of which remains exist appears
+to have been the Ogam, which is found in numbers of stone inscriptions
+dating from about the third century of our era on. About 300 such
+inscriptions have already been found, most of them in the southwest of
+Ireland, but some also in Scotland and Wales, and even in Devon and
+Cornwall. Wherever the Irish Gael planted a colony, he seems to have
+brought his Ogam writing with him.</p>
+
+<p>The Irishman who first invented the Ogam character was probably a
+pagan who obtained a knowledge of Roman letters. He brought back to
+Ireland his invention, or, as is most likely, invented it on Irish
+soil. Indeed, the fact that no certain trace of Ogam writing has been
+found upon the European continent indicates that the alphabet was
+invented in Ireland itself. An inscription at Killeen Cormac, Co.
+Kildare, survives which seems to show that the Roman alphabet was
+known in Ireland in pagan times. Ogam is an alphabet suitable enough
+for chiselling upon stones, but too cumbrous for the purposes of
+literature. For this the Roman alphabet must have been used. The Ogam
+script consists of a number of short lines straight or slanting, and
+drawn either below, above, or through one long stem-line. This
+stem-line is generally the sharp angle between two faces or sides of a
+long upright rectangular stone. Thus four cuts to the right of the
+long line stand for S; to the left of it they mean C; passing through
+it, half on one side and half on the other, they mean Z. The device
+was rude, but it was applied with considerable skill, and it was
+undoubtedly framed with much ingenuity. The vowels occurring most
+often are also the easiest to cut, being scarcely more than notches on
+the edge of the stone. The inscription generally contains the name of
+the dead warrior over whom the memorial was raised; it usually begins
+on the left corner of the stone facing the reader and is to be read
+upwards, and it is often continued down on the right hand angular line
+as well.</p>
+
+<p>The language of the Ogam inscriptions is very ancient and nearly
+the same forms occur as in what we know of Old Gaulish. The language,
+in fact, seems to have been an antique survival even when it was first
+engraved, in the third or fourth century. The word-forms are probably
+far older than those used in the spoken language of the time. This is
+a very important conclusion, and it must have a far-reaching bearing
+upon the history of the earliest epic literature. Because if forms of
+language much more ancient than any that were then current were
+employed on pillar-stones in the third or fourth century, it follows
+that this obsolescent language must have survived either in a written
+or a regularly recited form. This immediately raises the probability
+that the substance of Irish epic literature (which was written down on
+parchment in the sixth or seventh century) really dates from a period
+much more remote, and that all that is purely pagan in it was
+preserved for us in the same antique language as the Ogam inscriptions
+before it was translated into what we now call "Old Irish."</p>
+
+<p>The following is the Ogam alphabet as preserved on some 300 ancient
+pillars and stones, in the probably ninth-century treatise in the Book
+of Ballymote, and elsewhere:</p>
+
+<div class="ctr">
+<img src="images/270.png" width="50%" alt="Ogam Alphabet">
+</div>
+
+<p>There are a great many allusions to this Ogam writing in the
+ancient epics, especially in those that are purely pagan in form and
+conception, and there can be no doubt that the knowledge of letters
+must have reached Ireland before the island became Christianized. With
+the introduction of Christianity and of Roman letters, the old Ogam
+inscriptions, which were no doubt looked upon as flavoring of
+paganism, quickly fell into disuse and disappeared, but some
+inscriptions at least are as late as the year 600 or even 800. In the
+thoroughly pagan poem, <i>The Voyage of Bran</i>, which such
+authorities as Zimmer and Kuno Meyer both consider to have been
+committed to parchment in the seventh century, we find it stated that
+Bran wrote the fifty or sixty quatrains of the poem in Ogam.
+Cuchulainn constantly used Ogam writing, which he cut upon wands and
+trees and standing stones for Queen Medb's army to read, and these
+were always brought to his friend Fergus to decipher. Cormac, king of
+Cashel, in his glossary tells us that the pagan Irish used to inscribe
+the wand they kept for measuring corpses and graves with Ogam
+characters, and that it was a source of horror to anyone even to take
+it in his hand. St. Patrick in his Confession, the authenticity of
+which no one doubts, describes how he dreamt that a man from Ireland
+came to him with innumerable letters.</p>
+
+<p>In Irish legend Ogma, one of the Tuatha De Danann who was skilled
+in dialects and poetry, seems to be credited with the invention of the
+Ogam alphabet, and he probably was the equivalent of the Gaulish god
+Ogmios, the god of eloquence, so interestingly described by
+Lucian.</p>
+
+<p>We may take it then that the Irish pagans knew sufficient letters
+to hand down to Irish Christians the substance of their pagan epics,
+sagas, and poems. We may take it for granted also that the greater
+Irish epics (purely pagan in character, utterly untouched in substance
+by that Christianity which so early conquered the country) really
+represent the thoughts, manners, feelings, and customs of pagan
+Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>The effect of this conclusion must be startling indeed to those who
+know the ancient world only through the medium of Greek and Roman
+literature. To the Greek and to his admiring master, the Roman, all
+outside races were simply barbarians, at once despised,
+misinterpreted, and misunderstood.</p>
+
+<p>We have no possible means of reconstructing the ancient world as it
+was lived in by the ancestors of some of the leading races in Europe,
+the Gauls, Spaniards, Britons, and the people of all those countries
+which trace themselves back to a Celtic ancestry, because these races
+have left no literature or records behind them, and the Greeks and
+Romans, who tell us about them, saw everything through the false
+medium of their own prejudices. But now since the discovery and
+publication of the Irish sagas and epics, the descendants of these
+great races no longer find it necessary to view their own past through
+the colored and distorting glasses of the Greek or the Roman, since
+there has now opened for them, where they least expected to find it, a
+window through which they can look steadily at the life of their race,
+or of one of its leading offshoots, in one of its strongholds, and
+reconstruct for themselves with tolerable accuracy the life of their
+own ancestors. It is impossible to overrate the importance of this for
+the history of Europe, because neither Teutons nor Slavs have
+preserved pictures of their own heroic past, dating from pagan times.
+It is only the Celts, and of these the Irish, who have handed down
+such pictures drawn with all the fond intimacy of romance, and
+descriptions which exhibit the life of western Europeans at an even
+earlier culture-stage in the evolution of humanity than do the poems
+of Homer.</p>
+
+<p>This conclusion, to which a study of the literature invites us,
+falls in exactly with that arrived at from purely archaeological
+sources. Professor Ridgeway of Cambridge University, working on
+archaeological lines, expresses himself as follows: "From this survey
+of the material remains of the <i>la Tern</i> period found actually in
+Ireland, and from the striking correspondence between this culture and
+that depicted in the <i>T&aacute;in B&oacute; C&uacute;alnge</i>, and
+from the circumstance that the race who are represented in the epic as
+possessing this form of culture resemble in their physique the tall,
+fair-haired, grey-eyed Celts of Britain and the continent, we are
+justified in inferring (1) that there was an invasion (or invasions)
+of such peoples from Gaul in the centuries immediately before Christ,
+as is ascribed by the Irish traditions, and (2) that the poems
+themselves originally took shape when the <i>la T&egrave;ne</i>
+culture was still flourishing in Ireland. But as this could hardly
+have continued much later than A.D. 100, we may place the first
+shaping of the poems not much later than that date and possibly a
+century earlier."</p>
+
+<p>This conclusion would make the earliest putting together of the
+Irish epics almost contemporaneous with Augustus C&aelig;sar.</p>
+
+<p>So much for the history and growth of Irish letters.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Brash: Ogam inscribed Monuments of the Gaedhil (1879); MacAlister:
+Studies in Irish Epigraphy, vol. 1 (1897), vol. 2 (1902), vol. 3
+(1907); Rhys: in Proceedings of the Scottish Society of Antiquaries
+(Edinburgh, 1892); Ridgeway: Date of the First Shaping of the
+Cuchulain Saga (1905), in Proceedings of the British Academy, vol. II;
+Joyce: Social History of Ancient Ireland, vol. I, Chap. 2; Preface to
+fac-simile edition of the Book of Ballymote.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T26"></a>NATIVE IRISH POETRY</h2>
+<h4>By PROFESSOR GEORGES DOTTIN.</h4>
+
+<p>[Note.&mdash;This chapter was written in French by M. Dottin, who
+is a distinguished professor and dean at the University of Renacs,
+France. The translation into English has been made by the
+Editors.]</p>
+
+<p>By the year 1200 of the Christian era, a time at which the other
+national literatures of Europe were scarcely beginning to develop,
+Ireland possessed, and had possessed for several centuries, a Gaelic
+poetry, which was either the creation of the soul of the people or
+else was the work of the courtly bards. This poetry was at first
+expressed in rhythmical verses, each containing a fixed number of
+accented syllables and hemistichs separated by a pause:</p>
+
+<div class="ctr">
+<table summary="" style="width: 50%;">
+  <tbody>
+    <tr align="center">
+      <td><i>Crist</i> lim,</td>
+      <td>|</td>
+      <td><i>Crist</i> reum,</td>
+      <td>|</td>
+      <td><i>Crist</i> in degaid</td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr align="center">
+      <td><i>Crist</i> indium</td>
+      <td>|</td>
+      <td><i>Crist</i> issum</td>
+      <td>|</td>
+      <td><i>Crist</i> &uacute;asum </td>
+    </tr>
+    <tr align="center">
+      <td></td><td></td>
+      <td><i>Crist</i> dessum</td>
+      <td>|</td>
+      <td><i>Crist</i> &uacute;asum</td>
+    </tr>
+  </tbody>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>This versification, one of the elements of which was the repetition
+of words or sounds at regular intervals, was transformed about the
+eighth century into a more learned system. Thenceforward alliteration,
+assonance, rhyme, and a fixed number of syllables constituted the
+characteristics of Irish verse:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>M&eacute;sse ocus P&aacute;ngur b&Aacute;N</p>
+<p>cechtar n&aacute;thar fria s&aacute;indAN</p>
+<p>bith a <i>m&eacute;nma</i> sam fri SEILGG</p>
+<p>mu <i>m&eacute;nma</i> c&eacute;in im s&aacute;inchEIRDD.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>As we see, the consonants in the rhyme-words were merely related:
+<i>l, r, n, ng, m, dh, gh, bh, mh, ch, th, f</i> could rime together
+just as could <i>gg, dd, bb</i>. Soon the poets did not limit
+themselves to end-rhymes, which ran the risk of becoming monotonous,
+but introduced also internal rhyme, which set up what we may call a
+continuous chain of melody:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>is aire caraim DOIRE</p>
+<p>ar a reidhe ar a ghlOINE</p>
+<p>'s ar iomad a aingel fIND</p>
+<p>&oacute; 'n CIND go aoich arOILE.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This harmonious versification was replaced in the seventeenth
+century by a system in which account was no longer taken of
+consonantal rhyme or of the number of syllables.</p>
+
+<p>The rules of Irish verse have nothing in common with classical
+Latin metres, which were based on the combination of short and long
+syllables. In Low-Latin, indeed, we find occasionally alliteration,
+rhyme, and a fixed number of syllables, but these novelties are
+obviously of foreign origin, and date from the time when the Romans
+borrowed them from the nations which they called barbarous. We cannot
+prove beyond yea or nay that they are of Celtic origin, but it is
+extremely probable that they are, for it is among the Celts both of
+Ireland and of Wales that the harmonizing of vowels and of consonants
+has been carried to the highest degree of perfection.</p>
+
+<p>This learned art was not acquired without long study. The training
+of a poet (<i>fil&eacute;</i>) lasted twelve years, or more. The poets
+had a regular hierarchy. The highest in rank, the <i>ollamh</i>, knew
+350 kinds of verse and could recite 250 principal and 100 secondary
+stories. The <i>ollamhs</i> lived at the court of the kings and the
+nobles, who granted them freehold lands; their persons and their
+property were sacred; and they had established in Ireland schools in
+which the people might learn history, poetry, and law. The bards
+formed a numerous class, of a rank inferior to the <i>fil&eacute;</i>;
+they did not enjoy the same honors and privileges; some of them even
+were slaves; according to their standing, different kinds of verse
+were assigned to them as a monopoly.</p>
+
+<p>The Danish invasions in the ninth century set back for some time
+the development of Irish poetry, but, when the Irish had driven the
+fierce and aggressive sea-rovers from their country, there was a
+literary renascence. This was in turn checked by the Anglo-Norman
+invasion in the twelfth century, and thereafter the art of
+versification was no longer so refined as it had formerly been.
+Nevertheless, the bardic schools still existed in the seventeenth
+century, more than four hundred years after the landing of Strongbow,
+and, in them, students followed the lectures of the <i>ollamhs</i> for
+six months each year, or until the coming of spring, exercising both
+their talents for composition and their memory.</p>
+
+<p>A catalogue of Irish poets, which has recently been made out, shows
+that there were more than a thousand of them. We have lost many of the
+oldest poems, but the Irish scribes often modernized the texts which
+they were copying. Hence the language is not always a sufficient
+indication of date, and it is possible that, under a comparatively
+modern form, some very ancient pieces may have been preserved. Even if
+the poems attributed to Amergin do not go back to the tenth century
+B.C., as has been claimed for them, they are in any case old enough to
+be archaic, and certain poems of the mythological cycle are
+undoubtedly anterior to the Christian era.</p>
+
+<p>We have reason to believe that there have been preserved some
+genuine poems of Finn macCumaill (third century), a hymn by St.
+Patrick (d. 461), some greatly altered verses of St. Columcille (d.
+597), and certain hymns written by saints who lived from the seventh
+to the ninth century. The main object of the most celebrated of the
+ancient poets up to the end of the twelfth century was to render
+history, genealogy, toponomy, and lives of saints readier of access
+and easier to retain by putting them into verse-form; and it is the
+names of those scholars that have been rescued from oblivion, while
+lyric poetry, having as its basis nothing more than sentiment, has
+remained for the most part anonymous. After the Anglo-Norman invasion,
+the best poet seems to have been Donnchadh M&oacute;r O'Daly (d.
+1244). Of later date were Teig MacDaire (1570-1652), Teig Dall
+O'Higinn (d. 1615), and Eochaidh O'Hussey, who belonged to the
+seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The new school, which abandoned
+the old rules and whose inspiration is now personal, now patriotic, is
+represented by <i>caoine</i> (keens or laments), <i>abran</i> (hymns),
+or <i>aislingi</i> (visions), composed, among others, by Geoffrey
+Keating (d. c. 1650), David O'Bruadair (c. 1625-1698), Egan O'Rahilly
+(c. 1670-c. 1734), John MacDonnell (1691-1754), William O'Heffernan
+(fl. 1750), John O'Tuomy (1706-1775), and Andrew MacGrath (d. c.
+1790). The greatest of the eighteenth century Irish poets was Owen Roe
+O'Sullivan (c. 1748-1784), whose songs were sung everywhere, and who,
+in the opinion of his editor, Father Dinneen, is the literary glory of
+his country and deserves to be ranked among the few supreme lyric
+poets of all time.</p>
+
+<p>If, in order to study the subjects treated by the poets, we lay
+aside didactic poetry and confine ourselves to the ancient poems from
+the seventh to the eleventh century, we shall find in the latter a
+singular variety. They were at first dialogues or monologues, now
+found incorporated with the sagas, of which they may have formed the
+original nucleus. Thus, in the <i>Voyage of Bran</i>, we have the
+account of the Isles of the Blessed and the discourse of the King of
+the Sea; in the <i>Expedition of Lo&eacute;gaire MacCrimthainn</i>,
+the brilliant description of the fairy hosts; in <i>The Death of the
+Sons of Usnech</i>, the touching farewell of Deirdre to the land of
+Scotland and her lamentation over the dead bodies of the three
+warriors; and in the <i>Lay of Fothard Canann</i>, the strange and
+thrilling speech of the dead lover, returning after the battle to the
+tryst appointed by his sweetheart. Other poems seem never to have
+figured in a saga, like the Song of Crede, daughter of Guaire, in
+which she extols the memory of her friend Dinertach, and the affecting
+love-scenes between Liadin and Curithir; or like the bardic songs
+designed to distribute praise or blame: the funeral panegyric on King
+Niall, in alternate verses, the song of the sword of Carroll, and the
+satire of MacConglinne against the monks of Cork.</p>
+
+<p>Religious poetry comprised lyric fragments, which were introduced
+into the lives of the saints and there formed a kind of Christian
+saga, or else were based on Holy Writ, like the <i>Lamentation of
+Eve</i>; hymns in honor of the saints, like <i>The Hymn to St.
+Michael</i>, by Mael Isu; pieces such as the famous Hymn of St.
+Patrick; and philosophic poems like that keen analysis of the flight
+of thought which dates from the tenth century.</p>
+
+<p>At a time when the poets of other lands seem wholly engrossed in
+the recital of the deeds of men, one of the great and constant
+distinguishing marks of poetry in Ireland, whether we have to do with
+a short note set down by a scribe on the margin of a manuscript or
+with a religious or profane poem, is a deep, personal, and intimate
+love of nature expressed not by detailed description, but more often
+by a single picturesque and telling epithet. Thus we have the hermit
+who prays God to give him a hut in a lonely place beside a clear
+spring in the wood, with a little lark to sing overhead; or we have
+Marban, who, rich in nuts, crab-apples, sloes, watercress, and honey,
+refuses to go back to the court to which the king, his brother,
+presses him to return. Now, we have the description of the summer
+scene, in which the blackbird sings and the sun smiles; now, the song
+of the sea and of the wind, which blows tempestuously from the four
+quarters of the sky; again, the winter song, when the snow covers the
+hills, when every furrow is a streamlet and the wolves range
+restlessly abroad, while the birds, numbed to the heart, are silent;
+or yet again the recluse in his cell, humorously comparing his quest
+of ideas to the pursuit of the mice by his pet cat. This deep love of
+inanimate and animate things becomes individualized in those poems in
+which every tree, every spring, every bird is described with its own
+special features.</p>
+
+<p>If we remember that these original poems, which, before the twelfth
+century, expressed thoughts that were scarcely known to the literature
+of Europe before the eighteenth, are, besides, clothed in the rich
+garb of a subtle harmony, what admiration, what respect, and what love
+ought we not to show to that ancient Ireland which, in the darkest
+ages of western civilization, not only became the depositary of Latin
+knowledge and spread it over the continent, but also had been able to
+create for herself new artistic and poetic forms!</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Hyde: Love Songs of Connacht (Dublin, 1893), Irish Poetry, an Essay
+in Irish with Translation in English and a Vocabulary (Dublin, 1902),
+The Religious Songs of Connacht (London, 1906); Meyer: Ancient Gaelic
+Poetry (Glasgow, 1906), a Primer of Irish Metrics with a Glossary and
+an Appendix containing an Alphabetical List of the Poets of Ireland
+(Dublin, 1909); Dottin-Dunn: The Gaelic Literature of Ireland
+(Washington, 1906); Meyer: Selections from Ancient Irish Poetry (2d
+edition, London, 1913); Best: Bibliography of Irish Philology and of
+Printed Irish Literature (Dublin, 1913); Loth: La m&eacute;trique
+galloise (Paris, 1902); Thurneysen: Mittelirische Verslehren, Irische
+Texte III.; Buile Suibhne (Dublin, 1910).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T27"></a>IRISH HEROIC SAGAS</h2>
+<h4>By ELEANOR HULL.</h4>
+
+<p>Ireland has the unique distinction of having preserved for mankind
+a full and vivid literary record of a period otherwise, so far as
+native memorials are concerned, clouded in obscurity. A few
+fragmentary suggestions, derived from ancient stone monuments or from
+diggings in tumuli and graves, are all that Gaul or Britain have to
+contribute to a knowledge of that important period just before and
+just after the beginning of our era, when the armies of Rome were
+overrunning western Europe and were brought, for the first time, into
+direct contact with the Celtic peoples of the West. Almost all that we
+know of the early inhabitants of these countries comes to us from the
+pens of Roman writers and soldiers&mdash;Poseidonius, Caesar,
+Diodorus, Tacitus. We may give these observers credit for a desire to
+be fair to peoples they sometimes admired and often dreaded, but
+conquerors are not always the best judges of the races they are
+engaged in subduing, especially when they are ignorant of their
+language, unversed in their lore and customs, and unused to their
+ways. Valuable as are the reports of Roman authorities, we feel at
+every point the need of checking them by native records; but the
+native records of Gaul, and in large part also those of Britain and
+Wales, have been swept away. Caesar is probably right in saying that
+the Druids, who were the learned men of their race and day, committed
+nothing to writing; if they did, whatever they wrote has been
+irrecoverably lost.</p>
+
+<p>But Ireland was exempt from the sweeping changes brought about
+through long periods of Roman and Saxon occupation; no great upheaval
+from without disturbed the native political and social conditions up
+to the coming of the Norse and Danes about the beginning of the ninth
+century. Agricola, standing on the western coast of Britain, looked
+across the dividing channel, and reflected upon "the beneficial
+connection that the conquest of Ireland would have formed between the
+most powerful parts of the Roman Empire," but, fortunately for the
+literature of Ireland, if not for her history, he never came. The
+early incursions of the Scotti or Irish were eastward into England,
+Wales, and Gaul, and there seem to have been few return movements
+towards the west. Ireland pursued her path of native development
+undisturbed. It is to this circumstance that she owes the preservation
+of so much of her native literature, a great body of material,
+historical, religious, poetic, romantic, showing marks of having
+originated at a very early time, and of great variety and
+interest.</p>
+
+<p>At what period this literature first began to be written down we do
+not know. Orosius tells us that a traveler named Aethicus spent a
+considerable time in Ireland early in the fifth century "examining
+their volumes", which tends to prove that there was writing in Ireland
+before St. Patrick. But the native bard must have made writing
+superfluous. The man who could, at a moment's notice, recite any one
+out of the 350 stories which might be called for, besides poetry,
+genealogies, and tribal records, was worth many books. Only a few were
+expert enough to read his writings, but all could enjoy his tales.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest written records that we have now existing date from
+the seventh or eighth century; but undoubtedly there is preserved for
+us, in these materials, a picture of social conditions going back to
+the very beginning of our era, and coeval with the stage of
+civilization known in archaeology as <i>La T&egrave;ne</i> or "Late
+Celtic".</p>
+
+<p>To help his memory the early "shanachie" or story-teller grouped
+his romantic story-store under different heads, such as "T&aacute;ins"
+or Cattle-spoils, Feasts, Elopements, Sieges, Battles, Destructions,
+Tragical Deaths; but it is easier for us now to group them in another
+way, and to class together the series of tales referring to the Tuatha
+De Danann or ancient deities, those belonging to the Red Branch cycle
+of King Conchobar and Cuchulainn, those relating to Finn, and the
+Legends of the Kings. The hundred or more tales belonging to the
+second group are especially valuable for social history on account of
+the detailed descriptions they give of customs, dress, weapons, habits
+of life, and ethical ideas. To the historian, folklorist, and student
+of primitive civilizations they are documents of the highest
+importance.</p>
+
+<p>It seems likely that the Red Branch cycle of tales, including the
+epic tale of the T&aacute;in or Cattle-spoil of Cualnge, which has
+gathered round itself a number of minor tales, had some basis of
+historical fact, and arose in the period of Ulster's predominance to
+celebrate the deeds of a band of warlike champions who flourished in
+the north about the beginning of the Christian era. No one who has
+visited the raths of Emain Macha, near Armagh, where stood the
+traditional site of the ancient capital of Ulster, or has followed the
+well-defined and massive outworks of Rath Celtchair and the forts of
+the other heroes whose deeds the tales embody, could doubt that they
+had their origin in great events that once happened there. The
+topography of the tales is absolutely correct. Or again, when we cross
+over into Connacht, the remains at Rath Croghan, near the ancient
+palace of the Amazonian queen, Medb, testify to similar events. She it
+was who in her "Pillow Talk" with her husband Ailill declared that she
+had married him only because in him did she find the "strange
+bride-gift" which her imperious nature demanded, "a man without
+stinginess, without jealousy, without fear." It was in her desire to
+surpass her husband in wealth that she sent the combined armies of the
+south and west into Ulster to carry off a famous bull, the Brown Bull
+of Cooley, the only match in Ireland for one possessed by her spouse.
+This raid forms the central subject of the <i>T&aacute;in B&oacute;
+C&uacute;alnge</i>. The motif of the tale and the kind of life
+described in it alike show the primitive conditions out of which it
+had its rise. It belongs to a time when land was plenty for the
+scattered inhabitants to dwell upon, but stock to place upon it was
+scarce. The possession of herds was necessary, not only for food and
+the provisioning of troops, but as a standard of wealth, a proof of
+position, and a means of exchange. Everything was estimated, before
+the use of money, by its value in kine or herds. When Medb and Ailill
+compare their possessions, to find out which of them is better than
+the other, their herds of cattle, swine, and horses are driven in,
+their ornaments and jewels, their garments and vats and household
+appliances are displayed. The pursuit of the cattle of neighboring
+tribes was the prime cause of the innumerable raids which made every
+man's life one of perpetual warfare, much more so than the acquisition
+of land or the avenging of wrongs. Hence a motif that may seem to us
+insufficient and remote as the subject of a great epic arose out of
+the necessities of actual life. Cattle-driving is the oldest of all
+occupations in Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>The conditions we find described in these tales show us an open
+country, generally unenclosed by hedges or walls. The chariots can
+drive straight across the province. There are no towns, and the
+stopping places are the large farmers' dwellings, open inns known as
+"houses of hospitality", fortified by surrounding raths or earthen
+walls, the only private property in land, in a time when the
+tribe-land was common, that we hear of at this period. Within these
+borders lay the pleasure grounds and gardens and the cattle-sheds for
+the herds, which the great landowner or chief loaned out to the
+smaller men in return for services rendered. Here were trained in arts
+of industry and fine needlework the daughters of the chief men of the
+tribe and their foster-sisters, drawn from the humbler families around
+them. The rivers as a rule formed the boundaries of the provinces, and
+the fords were constantly guarded by champions who challenged every
+wayfarer to single combat, if he could not show sufficient reason for
+crossing the borderland. These combats were fought actually in the
+ford itself, and all wars began in a long series of single
+hand-to-hand combats between equal champions before the armies as a
+whole engaged each other.</p>
+
+<p>To fight was every man's prime duty, and the man who had slain the
+largest number of his fellows was acclaimed as the greatest hero. It
+was the proud boast of Conall Cernach, "the Victorious", that seldom
+had a day passed in which he had not challenged a Connachtman, and few
+nights in which a Connachtman's head had not formed his pillow. It
+shows the primitive savagery of the period that skulls of enemies were
+worn dangling from the belt, and were stored up in one of the palaces
+of Emain Macha as trophies of valor. So warlike were the heroes that
+even during friendly feasts their weapons had to be hung up in a
+separate house, lest they should spring to arms in rivalry with their
+own fellows.</p>
+
+<p>Yet in spite of this rude barbarism of outward life, the warriors
+had formed for themselves a high and exacting code of honor, which may
+be regarded as the first steps toward what in later times and other
+countries became known as "chivalry"; save that there is in the acts
+of the Irish heroes a simplicity and sincerity which puts them on a
+higher level than the obligatory courtesies of more artificial ages.
+Generosity between enemies was carried to an extraordinary pitch.
+Twice over in fights with different foes, Conall Cernach binds his
+right hand to his side in order that his enemy, who had lost one hand,
+may fight on equal terms with him. The two severest combats sustained
+by Cuchulainn, the youthful Ulster champion, in the long war of the
+T&aacute;in are those with Loch the Great and Ferdiad, both first-rate
+warriors, who had been forced by the wiles of Medb into unwilling
+conflict against their young antagonist. In their youth they had been
+fellow-pupils in the school of the Amazon Scathach, who had taught
+them both alike the arts of war. When Loch the Great, as a dying
+request, prays Cuchulainn to permit him to rise, "so that he may fall
+on his face and not backwards towards the men of Erin," lest hereafter
+it should be said that he fell in flight, Cuchulainn replies: "That
+will I surely, for it is a warrior's boon thou cravest," and he steps
+back to allow the wounded man to reverse his position in the ford. The
+tale of Cuchulainn's combat with Ferdiad has become classic; nothing
+more pathetic or more full of the true spirit of chivalry is to be
+found in any literature. Each warrior estimates nobly the prowess of
+the other, each sorrowfully recalls the memory of old friendships and
+expeditions made together. When Ferdiad falls, his ancient comrade
+pours out over him a passionate lament. Each night, when the day's
+combat is over, they throw their arms round each other's neck and
+embrace. Their horses are put up in the same paddock and their
+charioteers sleep beside the same fire; each night Cuchulainn sends to
+his wounded friend a share of the herbs that are applied to his own
+wounds, while to Cuchulainn Ferdiad sends a fair half of the pleasant
+delicate food supplied to him by the men of Erin. We may recall, too,
+Cuchulainn's act of compassion towards Queen Medb near the close of
+the T&aacute;in. Her army is flying in rout homeward across the
+Shannon, closely pursued by Cuchulainn. As he approaches the ford he
+finds Queen Medb lying prostrate on the bank, unable any longer to
+guard the retreat of her army. She appeals to her enemy to aid her;
+and Cuchulainn, with that lovable boyish delight in acts of supreme
+generosity which is always ascribed to him, undertakes to shield the
+retreat of the disordered host from his own troops and to see them
+safely across the river, while Medb reposes peacefully in a field hard
+by. The spirit which actuates the heroes is well expressed by
+Cuchulainn when his friends would restrain him from going forth to his
+last fight, knowing that in that battle he must fall: "I had rather
+than the whole world's gold and than the earth's riches that death had
+ere now befallen me, so would not this shame and testimony of reproach
+now stand recorded against me; for in every tongue this noble old
+saying is remembered, 'Fame outlives life.'"</p>
+
+<p>The Irish tales surpass those of the Arthurian cycle in simplicity,
+in humor, and in human interest; the characters are not mere types of
+fixed virtues and vices, they have each a strongly marked
+individuality, consistently adhered to through the multitude of
+different stories in which they play a part. This is especially the
+case with regard to the female characters. Emer, Deirdre, Etain,
+Grainne may be said to have introduced into European literature new
+types of womanhood, quite unlike, in their sprightliness and humor,
+their passionate affection and heroic qualities, to anything found
+elsewhere. Stories about women play a large part in ancient Irish
+literature; their elopements, their marriages, their griefs and
+tragedies, form the subject of a large number of tales. Among the list
+of tales that any bard might be called upon to recite, the
+"Courtships" or "Wooings" probably formed a favorite group; they are
+of great variety and beauty. The Irish, indeed, may be called the
+inventors of the love-tale for modern Europe.</p>
+
+<p>The gravest defect of this literature (a defect which is common to
+all early literature before coming under the chastening hand of the
+master) is undoubtedly its tendency to extravagance; though much
+depended upon the individual writer, some being stylists and some not,
+all were prone to frequent and grotesque exaggerations. The lack of
+restraint and self-criticism is everywhere apparent; the old Irish
+writer seems incapable of judging how to shape his material with a
+view to presenting it in its best form. Thus, we have the feeling,
+even with regard to the <i>T&aacute;in B&oacute; C&uacute;alnge</i>,
+that what has come down to us is rather the rough-shaped material of
+an epic than a completed design. The single stories and the groups of
+stories have been handled and rehandled at different times, but only
+occasionally, as in the Story of Deirdre (the "Sorrowful Tale of the
+Sons of Usnech"), or in the later versions of the "Wooing of Emer", or
+the Book of Leinster version of the "Wooing of Ferb", do we feel that
+a competent artist has so formed his story that the best possible
+value has been extracted from it. Yet, in spite of their defects, the
+old heroic sagas of Ireland have in them a stimulating force and
+energy, and an element of fine and healthy optimism, which is
+strangely at variance with the popular conception of the melancholy of
+Irish literature, and which, wherever they are known, make them the
+fountain-head of a fresh creative inspiration. This stimulating of the
+imagination is perhaps the best gift that a revived interest in the
+old native romance of Ireland has to bestow.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>The originals of many of the Tales of the Cuchulainn cycle of
+romances will be found, usually accompanied by English or German
+translations, in the volumes of <i>Irische Texte; Revue Celtique;
+Zeitschrift f&uuml;r Celt. Phil.; Eriu</i>; Irish Texts Society, vol.
+II; <i>Atlantis</i>; Proceed. of the R. Irish Academy (Irish MSS.
+Series and Todd Lecture Series). English translations: of the
+T&aacute;in B&oacute; C&uacute;alnge (LU. and Y.B.L. versions), by
+Miss Winifred Faraday (1904); (LL. version with conflate readings), by
+Joseph Dunn (1914); of various stories: E. Hull, The Cuchulain Saga in
+Irish Literature (1898); A. H. Leahy, Heroic Romances of Ireland
+(1905-6), the Courtship of Ferb (1902). French translations in Arbois
+de Jubainville's <i>Epop&eacute;e celtique en Irlande</i>; German
+translations in Thurneysen's <i>Sagen aus dem alien Irland</i> (1901);
+free rendering by S. O'Grady in The Coming of Cuchullain (1904), and
+in his History of Ireland, the Heroic Period (1878). For full
+bibliography, see R. I. Best's Bibliography of Irish Philology and
+Printed Literature (1913), and Joseph Dunn's <i>T&aacute;in B&oacute;
+C&uacute;alnge</i>, pp. xxxii-xxxvi (1914).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T28"></a>IRISH PRECURSORS OF DANTE</h2>
+<h4>By SIDNEY GUNN, M.A.</h4>
+
+<p>One of the supreme creations of the human mind is the <i>Divine
+Comedy</i> of Dante, and undoubtedly one of its chief sources is the
+literature of ancient Ireland. Dante himself was a native of Florence,
+Italy, and lived from 1265 to 1321. Like many great men, he incurred
+the hatred of his countrymen, and he spent, as a result, the last
+twenty years of his life in exile with a price on his head. He had
+been falsely accused of theft and treachery, and his indignation at
+the wrong thus done him and at the evil conduct of his contemporaries
+led him to write his poem, in which he visits Hell, Purgatory, and
+Paradise, and learns how God punishes bad actions, and how He rewards
+those who do His will.</p>
+
+<p>To the writing of his poem Dante brought all the learning of his
+time, all its science, and an art that has never been surpassed,
+perhaps never equalled. Of course, he did not know any Irish, but he
+knew Italian and the then universal tongue of the learned&mdash;Latin,
+in both of which were tales of visits to the other world; and the
+greater part of these tales, as well as those most resembling Dante's
+work in form and spirit, were Irish in origin.</p>
+
+<p>All peoples have traditions of persons visiting the realms of the
+dead. Homer tells of Odysseus going there; Virgil does the same of
+Aeneas; and the Oriental peoples, as well as the Germanic races, have
+similar tales; but no people have so many or such finished accounts of
+this sort as the ancient Irish. In pagan times in Ireland one of the
+commonest adventures attributed to a hero was a visit to "t&iacute;r
+na m-be&oacute;," the land of the living, or to "t&iacute;r na
+n-&oacute;g," the land of the young; and this supernatural world was
+reached in some cases by entering a fairy mound and going beneath the
+ground to it, and in others by sailing over the ocean.</p>
+
+<p>Of the literature of pagan Ireland, though much has come down to
+us, we have only a very small fraction of what once existed, and what
+we have has been transmitted and modified by persons of later times
+and different culture, who, both consciously and unconsciously, have
+changed it, so that it is very different from what it was in its
+original form; but the subject and the main outlines still remain, and
+we have many accounts of both voyages and underground journeys to the
+other world.</p>
+
+<p>The oldest voyage is, perhaps, that of Maelduin, which, Tennyson
+has transmuted into English under the title <i>The Voyage of
+Maeldune</i>. This is a voyage undertaken for revenge; but vengeance,
+as Sir Walter Scott has pointed out in his preface to <i>The Two
+Drovers</i>, springs in a barbarous society from a passion for
+justice; and it is this instinct for justice that inspires the Irish
+hero to endure and to achieve what he does. Christianity has preserved
+this legend and added to it its own peculiar quality of mercy; and
+this illustrates one of the characteristics of Ireland's pagan
+literature&mdash;it is imperfectly Christian and can readily be made
+to express the Christian point of view.</p>
+
+<p>Another voyage of pagan Irish literature is the <i>Voyage of
+Bran</i>. In this tale idealism is the inspiration that leads the hero
+into the unknown world. A woman appears who is invisible to all but
+Bran, and whose song of the beauteous supernatural land beyond the
+wave is heard by none but him; so that, after refusing to go with her
+the first time she appears, at length he steps into her boat of glass
+and sails away to view the wonders and taste the joys of the other
+world.</p>
+
+<p>In these tales we have two main elements, one real and one ideal.
+The real element is the fact that the ancient Irish unquestionably
+made voyages and visited lands which the fervid Celtic imagination and
+the lapse of time transformed into the wonderful regions of the
+legends. The stories are thus early geographies, and they show
+unmistakably a knowledge of western Europe and of the Canary Islands
+or some other tropical regions; perhaps also, some have gone so far as
+to claim, they are reminiscent of voyages to America.</p>
+
+<p>The ideal element is no less important as indicating achievement,
+for it shows that the Irish poets of pagan times had not only
+realized, but had succeeded in making their national traditions
+embody, the fact that love of justice and aspiration for knowledge are
+the foundations of all enduring human achievement and all perfect
+human joy. Christianity therefore found moral and spiritual ideas of a
+highly developed order in pagan Ireland, and it did not hesitate to
+adopt whatever in the literature of the country illustrated its own
+teachings, and not only were these stories of visits to the other
+world full of suggestions as to ways of enforcing Christian doctrine,
+but the Irish church and men of Irish birth were the most active in
+spreading the faith in the early centuries of its conquest of western
+Europe.</p>
+
+<p>For these reasons it is not strange that all the earliest Christian
+visions of the spirit-world were of Irish origin. We find the earliest
+in the <i>Ecclesiastical History</i> of the "Venerable Bede," who died
+in 735. It is the story of how an Irishman of great sanctity, Furseus
+by name, was taken in spirit by three angels to a place from which he
+looked down and saw the four fires that are to consume the world:
+those of falsehood, avarice, discord, fraud and impiety. In this there
+is the germ of some very fundamental things in Dante's poem, and we
+know that Dante knew Bede and had probably read his history, for he
+places him in Paradise and mentions him elsewhere in his works.</p>
+
+<p>In Bede's work there is also another vision, and though in this
+second case the man who visits the spirit-world is not an Irishman,
+but a Saxon named Drithelm, yet the story came to Bede through an
+Irish monk named Haemgils; so it, too, is connected with Ireland, and
+it also contains much that is developed further in the <i>Divine
+Comedy</i>.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most celebrated of the works belonging to this class of
+so-called "visionary" writings is the <i>Fis</i> or "Vision" which
+goes under the name of the famous Irish saint, Adamnan, who was
+poetically entitled the "High Scholar of the Western World." This
+particular vision, the <i>Fis Adamn&aacute;in</i>, is remarkable among
+other things for its literary quality, which is far superior to
+anything of the time, and for the fact that it represents "the highest
+level of the school to which it belonged," and that it is "the most
+important contribution made to the growth of the legend within the
+Christian Church prior to the advent of Dante."</p>
+
+<p>Another Irish vision of great popularity all over Europe in the
+Middle Ages is the <i>Voyage of Saint Brendan</i>. This is known as
+the Irish Odyssey, and it is similar to the pagan tales of Maelduin
+and Bran, except that instead of its hero being a dauntless warrior
+seeking vengeance or a noble youth seeking happiness, he is a
+Christian saint in quest of peace; and instead of the perils of the
+way being overcome by physical force or the favor of some capricious
+pagan deity, they are averted by the power of faith and virtue.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Voyage of Saint Brendan</i>, like its pagan predecessors,
+has a real and an ideal basis; and in both respects it shows an
+advancement over its prototypes. It contains some very poetic touches,
+and is credited with being the source of some of the most effective
+features of Dante's poem. Its great popularity is shown by the fact
+that Caxton, the first English printer, published a translation of it
+in 1483; so that it was among the first books printed in English, and
+for that reason must have been one of the best-known works of the
+time. Dante undoubtedly knew it, for he was a great scholar in the
+learning of his day, and especially in ecclesiastical history and the
+biography of saints.</p>
+
+<p>Another vision of Irish origin that Dante and other writers have
+borrowed from is that of an Irish soldier named Tundale. He is said to
+have been a very wicked and proud man, who refused to a friend who
+owed him for three horses an extension of time in which to pay for
+them. For this he was struck down by an invisible hand so that he
+remained apparently dead from Wednesday till Saturday, when he revived
+and told a story of a visit to the world of the dead that has many
+features later embodied in the <i>Divine Comedy</i>. Tundale's vision
+is said to have taken place in 1149; Dante probably wrote his poem
+between 1314 and 1321.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish also produced another legend of this sort that was
+enormously and universally popular, and became the chief authority on
+the nature of heaven and hell, in the story of <i>Saint Patrick's
+Purgatory</i>. Saint Patrick was said to have been granted a view of
+heaven and hell, and a certain island in Lough Derg in Donegal was
+reputed to be the spot in which he had begun his journey; and there,
+it was said, those who desired to purge themselves of their sins could
+enter as he had entered and come back to the world again, provided
+their faith was strong enough.</p>
+
+<p>This legend was probably known in Ireland from a very early time,
+but it had spread over all western Europe by the twelfth century.
+Henry of Saltrey, a Benedictine monk of the Abbey of that name in
+England, wrote an account in Latin of the descent of an Irish soldier
+named Owen into Saint Patrick's Purgatory in 1153; and this story soon
+became the subject of poetic treatment all over Europe. We have
+several French versions, one by the celebrated French poetess Marie de
+France, who lived about 1200; and there are others in all the
+languages of Europe, besides evidence of its wide circulation in the
+original Latin. Its importance is shown by the fact that it is
+mentioned by Matthew Paris, the chief English historian of the
+thirteenth century, and also by Froissart, the well-known French
+annalist of the fourteenth while Calderon, the great Spanish
+dramatist, has written a play based on the legend. Dante undoubtedly
+knew of Marie de France's version as well as the original of Henry of
+Saltrey and probably others besides.</p>
+
+<p>From what has been said it will be seen that Dante's masterpiece is
+largely based on literature of Irish origin; but there are other
+superlative exhibitions of human genius of which the same is true. One
+of these is the story of Tristan and Isolde. Tristan is the paragon of
+all knightly accomplishments, the most versatile figure in the entire
+literature of chivalry; while Isolde is an Irish princess. By a trick
+of fate these two drink a love potion inadvertently and become
+irresistibly enamored of each other, although Isolde is betrothed to
+King Mark of Cornwall, and Tristan is his nephew and ambassador. The
+story that follows is infinitely varied, intensely dramatic,
+delicately beautiful, and tenderly pathetic. It has been treated by
+several poets of great genius, among them Gottfried of Strassburg, the
+greatest German poet of his time, and Richard Wagner; but all the
+beauty and power in the works of these men existed in the original
+Celtic form of the tale, and the later writers have only discovered it
+and brought it to light.</p>
+
+<p>The same thing is true of the Arthurian Legend and the story of the
+Holy Grail. Dante knew of King Arthur's fame, and mentions him in the
+<i>Inferno</i>. To Dante he was a Christian hero, and the historical
+Arthur may have been a Christian; but much in the story goes back to
+the pagan Celtic religion. We can find in Irish literature many
+references that indicate a belief in a self-sustaining, miraculous
+object similar to the Holy Grail, and the fact that this object was
+developed into a symbol of some of the deepest and most beautiful
+Christian truths shows the high character of the civilization and
+literature of ancient Ireland.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Wright: St. Patrick's Purgatory (London, 1844); Krapp: The Legend
+of St. Patrick's Purgatory (Baltimore, 1900); Becker: Mediaeval
+Visions of Heaven and Hell (Baltimore, 1899); Shackford: Legends and
+Satires (Boston, 1913); Meyer and Nutt: The Voyage of Bran, edited and
+translated by K. Meyer, with an Essay on the Irish Version of the
+Happy Other World and the Celtic Doctrine of Rebirth, by A. Nutt, 2
+vols. (London, 1895); Boswell: An Irish Precursor of Dante (London,
+1908).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T29"></a>IRISH INFLUENCE ON ENGLISH LITERATURE</h2>
+<h4>By E.C. QUIGGIN, M.A.</h4>
+
+<p>Among the literary peoples of the west of Europe, the Irish, in
+late medieval and early modern times, were singularly little affected
+by the frequent innovations in taste and theme which influenced
+Romance and Teutonic nations alike. To such an extent is this true,
+that one is often inclined to think that far-off Iceland was to a
+greater degree in the general European current than the much more
+accessible Erin. During the age of chivalry, conditions in Ireland
+were not calculated to promote the growth of epic and lyric poetry
+after the continental manner. Some considerable time elapsed before
+the Norman barons became fully Hibernicised, previous to which their
+interest may be assumed to have turned to the compositions of the
+trouv&egrave;res. In the early Norman period, the poets of Ireland
+might well have begun to imitate Romance models. But, strange to say,
+they did not, and, for this, various reasons might be assigned. The
+flowing verses of the Anglo-Norman were impossible for men who
+delighted in the trammels of the native prosody; and in the heyday of
+French influence, the patrons of letters in Ireland probably insisted
+on hearing the foreign compositions in their original dress, as these
+nobles were doubtless sufficiently versed in Norman-French to be able
+to appreciate them. But a still more potent factor was the
+conservatism of the hereditary Irish poet families. A close
+corporation, they appear to have resented every innovation, and were
+content to continue the tradition of their ancestors. The direct
+consequence of this tenacious clinging to the fashions of by-gone days
+rendered it impossible, nay almost inconceivable, that the literary
+men of Ireland should have exerted any profound or immediate influence
+upon England or western Europe. Yet, nowadays, few serious scholars
+will be prepared to deny that the island contributed in considerable
+measure to the common literary stock of the Middle Ages.</p>
+
+<p>We might expect to find that direct influence, as a general rule,
+can be most easily traced in the case of religious themes. Here, in
+the literature of vision, so popular in Ireland, a chord was struck
+which continued to vibrate powerfully until the time of the
+Reformation. In this branch the riotous fancy of the Celtic monk
+caught the medieval imagination from an early period. Bede has
+preserved for us the story of Fursey, an Irish hermit who died in
+France, A.D. 650. The greatest Irish composition of this class with
+which we are acquainted, the <i>Vision of Adamnan</i>, does not appear
+to have been known outside the island, but a later work of a similar
+nature met with striking success. This was the <i>Vision of
+Tundale</i> (Tnudgal), written in Latin by an Irishman named Marcus at
+Regensburg, about the middle of the twelfth century. It seems probable
+that this work was known to Dante, and, in addition to the numerous
+continental versions, there is a rendering of the story into Middle
+English verse.</p>
+
+<p>Closely allied to the Visions are the <i>Imrama</i> or "voyages"
+(Lat. <i>navigationes</i>). The earliest romances of this class are
+secular, <i>e.g., Imram Maelduin</i>, which provided Tennyson with the
+frame-work of his well-known poem. However, the notorious love of
+adventure on the part of the Irish monks inevitably led to the
+composition of religious romances of a similar kind. The most famous
+story of this description, the Voyage of St. Brendan, found its way
+into every Christian country in Europe, and consequently figures in
+the South English Legendary, a collection of versified lives of saints
+made in the neighborhood of Gloucester towards the end of the
+thirteenth century. The episode of St. Brendan and the whale,
+moreover, was probably the ultimate source of one of Milton's best
+known similes in his description of Satan. Equally popular was the
+visit of Sir Owayn to the Purgatory of St. Patrick, which is also
+included in the same Middle English Legendary. Ireland further
+contributed in some measure to the common stock of medieval stories
+which were used as illustrations by the preachers and in works of an
+edifying character.</p>
+
+<p>When we turn to purely secular themes, we find ourselves on much
+less certain ground. Though the discussion as to the origins of the
+"romance of Uther's son", Arthur, continues with unabated vigor, many
+scholars have come think that the Celtic background of these stories
+contains much that is derived from Hibernian sources. Some writers in
+the past have argued in favor of an independent survival of common
+Celtic features, in Wales and Ireland, but now the tendency is to
+regard all such coincidences as borrowings on the part of Cymric
+craftsmen. At the beginning of the twelfth century a new impulse seems
+to have been imparted to native minstrelsy in Wales under'the
+patronage of Gruffydd ap Cynan, a prince of Gwynedd, who had spent
+many years in exile at the court of Dublin. Some of the Welsh
+rhapsodists apparently served a kind of apprenticeship with their
+Irish brethren, and many things Irish were assimilated at this time
+which, through this channel, were shortly to find their way into
+Anglo-French. Thus it may now be regarded as certain that the name of
+the "fair sword" Excalibur, by Geoffrey called Caliburnus (Welsh
+<i>caletfwlch</i>), is taken from Caladbolg, the far-famed broadsword
+of Fergus macRoig. It does not appear that the whole framework of the
+Irish sagas was taken over, but, as Windisch points out, episodes were
+borrowed as well as tricks of imagery. So, to mention but one, the
+central incident of <i>Syr Gawayn and the Grene Knyght</i> is
+doubtless taken from the similar adventure of Cuchulainn in
+<i>Bricriu's Feast</i>. The share assigned to Irish influence in the
+<i>mati&egrave;re de Bretagne</i> is likely to grow considerably with
+the progress of research.</p>
+
+<p>The fairy lore of Great Britain undoubtedly owes much to Celtic
+phantasy. Of this Chaucer, at any rate, had little doubt, as he
+writes:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>In th' olde dayes of the King Arthour,</p>
+<p>Of which that Britons speken greet honour,</p>
+<p>Al was this land fulfild of fayerye;</p>
+<p>The elf-queen, with hir joly companye,</p>
+<p>Daunced ful ofte in many a grene med.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>And here again there is a reasonable probability that certain
+features were borrowed from the wealth of story current in the
+neighboring isle. Otherwise it is difficult to understand why the
+queen of fayerye should bear an Irish name (Mab, from Irish Medb), and
+curiously enough the form of the name rathef suggests that it was
+borrowed through a written medium and not by oral tradition. On the
+other hand it is incorrect to derive Puck from Irish <i>puca</i>, as
+the latter is undoubtedly borrowed from some form of Teutonic
+speech.</p>
+
+<p>So all embracing a mind as that of the greatest English dramatist
+could not fail to be interested in the gossip that must have been
+current in London at the time of the wars in Ulster. References to
+kerns and gallowglasses are fairly frequent. He had evidently heard of
+the marvellous powers with which the Irish bards were credited, for,
+in <i>As You Like It</i>, Rosalind exclaims:</p>
+
+<p>"I was never so be-rhymed since Pythagoras' time, that I was an
+Irish rat, which I can hardly remember."</p>
+
+<p>Similarly, in <i>King Richard III</i>, mention is made of the
+prophetic utterance of an Irish bard, a trait which does not appear in
+the poet's source. Any statements as to Irish influence in Shakespeare
+that go beyond this belong to the realm of conjecture. Professor
+Kittredge has attempted to show that in Syr Orfeo, upon which the poet
+drew for portions of the plot of <i>A Midsummer Night's Dream</i>, the
+Irish story of Etain and Mider was fused with the medieval form of the
+classical tale of Orpheus and Eurydice. Direct influence is entirely
+wanting, and it is difficult to see how it could have been
+otherwise.</p>
+
+<p>Even in the case of the Elizabethan poet who spent many years in the
+south
+of Ireland, there is no trace of Hibernian lore or legend. Spenser,
+indeed, tells us himself that he had caused some of the native poetry
+to
+be translated to him, and had found that it "savoured of sweet wit and
+good invention." But Ireland plays an infinitesimal part in the <i>Faerie
+Queene</i>. The scenery round Kilcolman Castle forms the background of
+much
+of the incident in Book V. "Marble far from Ireland brought" is
+mentioned
+in a simile in the second Book, where we also read:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>As when a swarme of gnats at eventide</p>
+<p>Out of the fennes of Allan do arise.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>But Ireland supplied no further inspiration.</p>
+
+<p>The various plantations of the seventeenth century produced an
+Anglo-Irish stock which soon asserted itself in literature. As a
+typical example, we may take the author of <i>The Vicar of
+Wakefield</i>. At his first school at Lissoy, Oliver Goldsmith came
+under Thomas Byrne, a regular shanachie, possessed of all the
+traditional lore, with a remarkable gift for versifying. It was under
+this man that the boy made his first attempts at verse, and his memory
+is celebrated in <i>The Deserted Village</i>:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>There, in his noisy mansion, skilled to rule,</p>
+<p>The village master taught his little school.</p>
+<p>A man severe he was, and stern to view.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Unfortunately Goldsmith was removed to Elphin at the age of nine,
+and although he retained an affection for Irish music all his life,
+his intimate connection with Irish Ireland apparently ceased at this
+point. "Sweet Auburn! loveliest village of the plain" is doubtless
+full of reminiscences of the poet's early years in Westmeath, but the
+sentiments, the rhythm, and the language are entirely cast in an
+English mould. We may mention, in passing, that it has been suggested
+that Swift derived the idea of the kingdom of Lilliput from the Irish
+story of the Adventures of Fergus macLeide amongst the leprechauns.
+All that can be said is that this derivation is not impossible, though
+the fact that the tale is preserved only in a single manuscript rather
+points to the conclusion that the story did not enjoy great popularity
+in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.</p>
+
+<p>We have seen that Goldsmith was removed from an Irish atmosphere at
+a tender age, and this is not the only instance of the frowning of
+fortune upon the native literature. When the fame of the ancient bards
+of the Gael was noised from end to end of Europe, it was through the
+medium of Macpherson's forgeries. <i>Fingal</i> caught the fleeting
+fancy of the moment in a manner never achieved by the true Ossianic
+lays of Ireland. The <i>Reliques of Irish Poetry</i>, published by
+Miss Brooke by subscription in Dublin in 1789 to vindicate the
+antiquity of the literature of Erin, never went into a second edition.
+And although some of the pieces contained in that volume have been
+reprinted in such undertakings of a learned character as the volumes
+of the Dublin Ossianic Society, J.F. Campbell's <i>Leabhar na
+Feinne</i>, and Cameron's <i>Reliquiae Celticae</i>, they have aroused
+little interest amongst those ignorant of the Irish tongue.</p>
+
+<p>During the nineteenth century, the number of poets who drew upon
+Ireland's past for their themes increased considerably. The most
+popular of all is unquestionably the author of the <i>Irish
+Melodies</i>. But, here again, the poet owes little or nothing to
+vernacular poetry, the mould is English, the sentiments are those of
+the poet's age. Moore's acquaintance with the native language can have
+been but of the slightest, and in the case of Mangan we are told that
+he had to rely upon literal versions of Irish pieces furnished him by
+O'Donovan or O'Curry. Of the numerous attempts to reproduce the
+overelaboration of rhyme to which Irish verse has ever been prone,
+Father Prout's <i>Bells of Shandon</i> is perhaps the only one that is
+at all widely known. When the legendary lore of Ireland became
+accessible to men of letters, owing to the labors of O'Curry,
+O'Donovan, and Hennessy, and the publication of various ancient texts
+by the Irish Archaeological Society, it was to be expected that an
+attempt would be made by some poet of Erin to do for his native land
+what the Wizard of the North had accomplished for Scotland. The task
+was undertaken by Sir Samuel Ferguson, who met with conspicuous
+success. His most ambitious effort, <i>Congal</i>, deals in epic
+fashion with the story of the battle of Moyra. Others in similar
+strain treat the story of Conaire M&oacute;r and Deirdre, whilst
+others such as the <i>Tain-Quest</i> are more in the nature of
+ballads. Ferguson did more to introduce the English reading public to
+Irish story than would have been accomplished by any number of bald
+translations. His diction is little affected by the originals, and he
+sometimes treats his materials with great freedom, but his achievement
+was a notable one, and he has not infrequently been acclaimed as the
+national poet.</p>
+
+<p>Is it perhaps invidious to single out any living author for special
+mention, but this brief survey cannot close without noticing the
+dramatic poems of W.B. Yeats, the latest poet who attempts to present
+the old stories in an English dress. His plays <i>On Baile's Strand,
+Deirdre</i>, and others, have become familiar to English audiences
+through the excellent acting of the members of the Abbey Theatre
+Company. The original texts are now much better known than they were
+in Ferguson's day, and Mr. Yeats consequently cannot permit himself
+the same liberties. Similarly, it is only during the last twenty-five
+years that the language of Irish poetry has been carefully studied,
+and Mr. Yeats has this advantage over his predecessors that on
+occasion, e.g., in certain passages in <i>The King's Threshold</i>, he
+is able to introduce with great effect reminiscences of the
+characteristic epithets and imagery which formed so large a part of
+the stock-in-trade of the medieval bard.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Friedel and Meyer: La Vision de Tondale (Paris, 1907); Boswell: An
+Irish Precursor of Dante (London, 1908); Cambridge History of English
+Literature, vol. I, chaps, xii and xvi; Windisch: <i>Das Keltische
+Brittannien</i> (Leipzig, 1912), more especially chap. xxxvii;
+Dictionary of National Biography; Gwynn: Thos. Moore ("English Men of
+Letters" Series, London, 1905).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T30"></a>IRISH FOLKLORE</h2>
+<h4>By ALFRED PERCEVAL GRAVES.</h4>
+
+<p>Among savage peoples there is at first no distinction of a definite
+kind between good and bad spirits, and when a distinction has been
+reached, a great advance in a spiritual direction has been made. For
+the key to the religion of savages is fear, and until such terror has
+been counteracted by belief in beneficent powers, civilization will
+not follow. But the elimination of the fear of the unseen is a slow
+process; indeed, it will exist side by side with the belief in
+Christianity itself, after a modification through various stages of
+better pagan belief.</p>
+
+<p>Ireland still presents, in its more out-of-the-way districts,
+evidence of that strong persistence in the belief in maleficent or
+malicious influences of the pre-Christian powers of the air, which it
+seems difficult to eradicate from the Celtic imagination. In the
+celebrated poem entitled <i>The Breastplate of St. Patrick</i>, there
+is much the same attitude on the part of Patrick towards the Druids
+and their powers of concealing and changing, of paralyzing and
+cursing, as was shown by Moses towards the magicians of Egypt. Indeed,
+in Patrick's time a belief in a world of fairies existed even in the
+king's household, for "when the two daughters of King Leary of
+Ireland, Ethnea the fair and Fedelma the ruddy, came early one morning
+to the well of Clebach to wash, they found there a synod of holy
+bishops with Patrick. And they knew not whence they came, or in what
+form, or from what people, or from what country; but they supposed
+them to be <i>Duine Sidh</i>, or gods of the earth, or a
+phantasm."</p>
+
+<p>Colgan explains the term <i>Duine Sidh</i> thus: "Fantastical
+spirits," he writes, "are by the Irish called men of the <i>Sidh</i>,
+because they are seen, as it were, to come out of the beautiful hills
+to infest men, and hence the vulgar belief that they reside in certain
+subterranean habitations: and sometimes the hills themselves are
+called, by the Irish, <i>Sidhe</i> or <i>Siodha</i>."</p>
+
+<p>No doubt, when the princesses spoke of the gods of the earth,
+reference was made to such pagan deities as Beal; Dagda the great or
+the good god; Aine, the Moon, goddess of the water and of wisdom;
+Manannan macLir, the Irish Neptune; Crom, the Irish Ceres; and Iphinn,
+the benevolent, whose relations to the Irish Oirfidh resembled those
+of Apollo towards Orpheus; and to the allegiance they owed to the
+Elements, the Wind, and the Stars. But besides these pagan divinities
+and powers, and quite apart from them, the early Irish believed in two
+classes of fairies: in the first place, a hierarchy of fairy beings,
+well and ill disposed, not differing in appearance, to any great
+degree at any rate, from human beings&mdash;good spirits and demons,
+rarely visible during the daytime; and, in the second place, there was
+the magic race of the De Danann, who, after conquest by the Milesians,
+transformed themselves into fairies, and in that guise continued to
+inhabit the underworld of the Irish hills, and to issue thence in
+support of Irish heroes, or to give their aid against other fairy
+adversaries.</p>
+
+<p>There is another theory to account for the fairy race. It is that
+they are angels who revolted with Satan and were excluded from heaven
+for their unworthiness, but were not found evil enough for hell, and
+therefore were allowed to occupy that intermediate space which has
+been called "the Other World." It is still a moot point with the Irish
+peasantry, as it was with the Irish saints of old, whether, after
+being compelled to dwell without death among rocks and hills, lakes
+and seas, bushes and forest, till the day of judgment, the fairies
+then have the chance of salvation. Indeed, the fairies are themselves
+believed to have great doubts of a future existence, though, like many
+men, entertaining undefined hopes of happiness; and hence the enmity
+which some of them have for mankind, who, they acknowledge, will live
+eternally. Thus their actions are balanced between generosity and
+vindictiveness towards the human race.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. W.Y. Evans Wentz, A.M., of Leland Stanford University,
+California, and Jesus College, Oxford, has received an honorary degree
+from the latter university for his thesis, "The Fairy Faith in Celtic
+Countries: Its Psychical Origin and Nature", a most laborious as well
+as ingenious work, whose object is to prove "that the origin of the
+fairy faith is psychical, and that fairyland, being thought of as an
+invisible world within which the visible world is immersed as an
+island in an unexplored ocean, actually exists, and that it is peopled
+by more species of living beings than this world, because incomparably
+more vast and varied in its possibilities." This may be added as a
+fourth theory to account for the existence of fairies, and it may be
+further stated here that the Irish popular belief in ghosts attributes
+to some of their departed spirits much of the same violence and malice
+with which fairies are credited. Mr. Jeremiah Curtin gives striking
+instances of this kind in his book, the <i>Folk Lore of West
+Kerry</i>.</p>
+
+<p>It became necessary, therefore, for the Gaels who believed in the
+preternatural powers of the fairies for good and ill to propitiate
+them as far as possible. On May eve, accordingly, cattle were driven
+into raths and bled there, some of the blood being tasted, the rest
+poured out in sacrifice. Men and women were also bled on these
+occasions. The seekers for buried treasure, over which fairies were
+supposed to have influence, immolated a black cock or a black cat to
+propitiate them. Again, a cow, suffering from sickness believed to be
+due to fairy malice, was bled and then devoted to St. Martin. If it
+recovered, it was never sold or killed. The first new milk of a cow
+was poured out on the ground to propitiate the fairies, and especially
+on the ground within a fairy rath. The first drop of any drink is also
+thrown out by old Irish people. If a child spills milk, the mother
+says, "that's for the fairies, leave it to them and welcome." Slops
+should never be thrown out of doors without the warning, "Take care of
+water!" lest fairies should be passing invisibly and get soiled by the
+discharge. Eddies of dust upon the road are supposed to be caused by
+the fairies, and tufts of grass, sticks, and pebbles are thrown into
+the centre of the eddy to propitiate the unseen beings. Some fairies
+of life size, who live within the green hills or under the raths, are
+supposed to carry off healthy babes to be made fairy children, their
+abstractors leaving weak changelings in their place. Similarly,
+nursing mothers are sometimes supposed to be carried off to give the
+breast to fairy babes, and handsome young men are spirited away to
+become bridegrooms to fairy brides. Again, folk suffering from falling
+sickness are supposed to be in that condition owing to the fatigue
+caused by nocturnal rides through the air with the fairies, whose
+steeds are bewitched rushes, blades of grass, straws, fern roots, and
+cabbage stalks. The latter, to be serviceable for the purpose, should
+be cut into the rude shapes of horses before the metamorphosis can
+take place.</p>
+
+<p>Iron of every kind keeps away malignant fairies: thus, a horseshoe
+nailed to the bottom of the churn prevents butter from being
+bewitched. Here is a form of charm against the fairies who have
+bewitched the butter: "Every window should be barred, a great turf
+fire should be lit upon which nine irons should be placed, the
+bystanders chanting twice over in Irish, 'Come, butter, come; Peter
+stands at the gate waiting for a buttered cake.' As the irons become
+heated the witch will try to break in, asking the people to take the
+irons, which are burning her, off the fire. On their refusing, she
+will go and bring back the butter to the churn. The irons may then be
+removed from the fire and all will go well."</p>
+
+<p>If a neighbor or stranger should enter a cottage during the
+churning, he should put his hand to the dash, or the butter will not
+come. A small piece of iron should be sewed into an infant's clothes
+and kept there until the child is baptized, and salt should be
+sprinkled over his cradle to preserve the babe from abduction. The
+fairies are supposed to have been conquered by an iron-weaponed race,
+and hence their dread of the metal.</p>
+
+<p>To recover a spell-bound friend, stand on All Hallows' eve at cross
+roads or at a spot pointed out by a wise woman or fairy doctor. When
+you have rubbed fairy ointment on your eyelids, the fairies will
+become visible as the host sweeps by with its captive, whom the gazer
+will then be able to recognize. A sudden gust announces their
+approach. Stooping down, you will then throw dust or milk at the
+procession, whose members are then obliged to surrender your
+spell-bound friend. If a man leaves home after his wife's confinement,
+some of his clothes should be spread over the mother and infant, or
+the fairies may carry them off. It is good for a woman, but bad for a
+man, to dream of fairies. It betokens marriage for a girl, misfortune
+for a man, who should not undertake serious business for some time
+after such dreaming.</p>
+
+<p>Fairy changelings may be recognized by tricky habits, constant
+crying, and other unusual characteristics. It was customary to recover
+the true child in the following way: The changeling was placed upon an
+iron shovel over the fire, when it would go shrieking up the chimney,
+and the <i>bona fide</i> human child would be restored. It was
+believed that fairy changelings often produced a set of small bagpipes
+from under the clothes and played dance music upon them, till the
+inmates of the cottage dropped with exhaustion from the effects of the
+step dancing they were compelled to engage in.</p>
+
+<p>On Samain eve, the night before the first of November, or, as it is
+now called, All Hallows' night or Hallowe'en, all the fairy hills or
+<i>shees</i> are thrown wide open and the fairy host issues forth, as
+mortals who are bold enough to venture near may see. Naturally
+therefore people keep indoors so as not to encounter the spectral
+host. The superstition that the fairies are abroad on Samain night
+still exists in Ireland and Scotland, and there is a further belief,
+no doubt derived from it, that the graves are open on that night and
+that the spirits of the dead are abroad.</p>
+
+<p>Salt, as already suggested, is regarded to be so lucky that if a
+child falls, it should always be given three pinches of salt, and if a
+neighbor calls to borrow salt, it should not be refused, even though
+it be the last grain in the house.</p>
+
+<p>An infant born with teeth should have them drawn by the nearest
+smith, and the first teeth when shed should be thrown into the fire,
+lest the fairies should get hold of what had been part of you.</p>
+
+<p>Those who hear fairy music are supposed to be haunted by the
+melody, and many are believed to go mad or commit suicide in
+consequence.</p>
+
+<p>The fairies are thought to engage in warfare with one another, and
+in the year 1800 a specially sanguinary battle was believed to have
+been fought between two clans of the fairies in county Kilkenny. In
+the morning the hawthorns along the fences were found crushed to
+pieces and drenched with blood.</p>
+
+<p>In popular belief fairies often go hunting, and faint sounds of
+fairy horns, the baying of fairy hounds, and the cracking of fairy
+whips are supposed to be heard on these occasions, while the flight of
+the hunters is said to resemble in sound the humming of bees.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the life-sized fairies who are reputed to have these direct
+dealings with human beings, there are diminutive preternatural beings
+who are also supposed to come into close touch with men. Among these
+is the Luchryman (<i>Leithphrogan</i>), or brogue maker, otherwise
+known as Leprechaun. He is always found mending or making a shoe, and,
+if grasped firmly and kept constantly in view, will disclose hidden
+treasure to you, or render up his <i>sparan na sgillinge</i>, or purse
+of the (inexhaustible) shilling. He can only be bound by a plough
+chain or woolen thread. He is the symbol of industry which, if
+steadily faced, leads to fortune, but, if lost sight of, is followed
+by its forfeiture.</p>
+
+<p>Love in idleness is personified by another pigmy, the
+<i>Geancanach</i> (love-talker). He does not appear, like the
+Leprechaun, with a purse in one of his pockets, but with his hands in
+both of them, and a <i>dudeen</i> (short pipe) in his mouth, as he
+lazily strolls through lonely valleys making love to the foolish
+country lasses and "gostering" with the idle "boys." To meet him meant
+bad luck, and whoever was ruined by ill-judged love was said to have
+been with the <i>Geancanach</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Another evil sprite was the <i>Clobher-ceann</i>, "a jolly,
+red-faced, drunken little fellow," always "found astride of a
+wine-butt" singing and drinking from a full tankard in a hard
+drinker's cellar, and bound by his appearance to bring its owner to
+speedy ruin.</p>
+
+<p>Then there were the <i>Leannan-sighes</i>, or native Muses, to be
+found in every place of note to inspire the local bard, and the
+<i>Beansighes</i> (Banshees, fairy women) attached to each of the old
+Irish families and giving warning of the death of one of its members
+with piteous lamentations.</p>
+
+<p>Black Joanna of the Boyne (<i>Siubhan Dubh na Boinne</i>) appeared
+on Hallowe'en in the shape of a great black fowl, bringing luck to the
+home whose <i>Banithee</i> (woman of the house) kept the dwelling
+constantly clean and neat.</p>
+
+<p>The Pooka, who appeared in the shape of a horse, and whom
+Shakespeare is by many believed to have adapted as "Puck," was a
+goblin who combined "horse-play" with viciousness, but also at times
+helped with the housework.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Dullaghan</i> was a churchyard demon whose head was of a
+movable kind. Dr. Joyce writes: "You generally meet him with his head
+in his pocket, under his arm, or absent altogether; or if you have the
+fortune to light upon a number of <i>Dullaghans</i>, you may see them
+amusing themselves by flinging their heads at one another or kicking
+them for footballs."</p>
+
+<p>An even more terrible churchyard demon is the fascinating phantom
+that waylays the widower at his wife's very tomb, and poisons him by
+her kiss when he has yielded to her blandishments.</p>
+
+<p>Of monsters the Irish had, and still believe in, the <i>Piast</i>
+(Latin <i>bestia</i>), a huge dragon or serpent confined to lakes by
+St. Patrick till the day of judgment, but still occasionally seen in
+their waters. In old Fenian times, namely, the days of Finn and his
+companion knights, the <i>Piasts</i>, however, roamed the country,
+devouring men and women and cattle in large numbers, and some of the
+early heroes are recorded to have been swallowed alive by them and
+then to have hewed their way out of their entrails.</p>
+
+<p>Merrows, or Mermaids, are also still believed in, and many folk
+tales exist describing their intermarriage with mortals.</p>
+
+<p>According to Nicholas O'Kearney, "It is the general opinion of many
+old persons versed in native traditional lore, that, before the
+introduction of Christianity, all animals possessed the faculties of
+human reason and speech; and old story-tellers will gravely inform you
+that every beast could speak before the arrival of St. Patrick, but
+that the saint having expelled the demons from the land by the sound
+of his bell, all the animals that, before that time, had possessed the
+power of foretelling future events, such as the Black Steed of
+<i>Binn-each-labhra</i>, the Royal Cat of <i>Cloughmagh-righ-cat</i>
+(Clough), and others, became mute, and many of them fled to Egypt and
+other foreign countries."</p>
+
+<p>Cats are said to have been appointed to guard hidden treasures; and
+there are few who have not heard old Irish people tell about strange
+meetings of cats and violent battles fought by them in the
+neighborhood. "It was believed," adds O'Kearney, "that an evil spirit
+in the shape of a cat assumed command over these animals in various
+districts, and that when those wicked beings pleased they could compel
+all the cats belonging to their division to attack those of some other
+district. The same was said of rats; and rat-expellers, when
+commanding a colony of those troublesome and destructive animals to
+emigrate to some other place, used to address their 'billet' to the
+infernal rat supposed to hold command over the rest. In a curious
+pamphlet on the power of bardic compositions to charm and expel rats,
+lately published, Mr. Eugene O'Curry states that a degraded priest,
+who was descended from an ancient family of hereditary bards, was
+enabled to expel a colony of rats by the force of satire!"</p>
+
+<p>Hence, of course, Shakespeare's reference to rhyming Irish rats to
+death.</p>
+
+<p>It will thus be seen that Irish Fairy Lore well deserves to have
+been called by Mr. Alfred Nutt, one of the leading authorities on the
+subject, "as fair and bounteous a harvest of myth and romance as ever
+flourished among any race."</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Alex. Carmichael: Carmina Gadelica; David Comyn: The Boyish
+Exploits of Finn; the Periodical, "Folklore"; Lady Gregory: Cuchulain
+of Muirthemne, Gods and Fighting Men; Miss Eleanor Hull: The Cuchulain
+Saga in Irish Literature; Douglas Hyde: Beside the Fire, (a collection
+of Irish Gaelic Folk Stories), <i>Leabhar Sgeulaicheachta</i>, (Folk
+Stories in Irish); "Irish Penny Journal"; Patrick Kennedy: The
+Fireside Stories of Ireland, Legendary Fictions of the Irish Celt;
+Standish Hayes O'Grady: Silva Gadelica; Wood-Martin: Traces of the
+Elder Faiths in Ireland, Pagan Ireland; W.Y. Wentz: The Fairy Faith in
+Celtic Countries; Lady Wilde: Charms, Incantations, etc.; Celtic
+articles in Hastings' Dictionary of Religion and Ethics.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T31"></a>IRISH WIT AND HUMOR</h2>
+<h4>By Charles L. Graves.</h4>
+
+<p>No record of the glories of Ireland would be complete without an
+effort, however inadequate, to analyze and illustrate her wit and
+humor. Often misunderstood, misrepresented, and misinterpreted, they
+are nevertheless universally admitted to be racial traits, and for an
+excellent reason. Other nations exhibit these qualities in their
+literature, and Ireland herself is rich in writers who have furnished
+food for mirth. But her special pre-eminence resides in the possession
+of what, to adapt a famous phrase, may be called an <i>anima
+naturaliter jocosa</i>. Irish wit and Irish humor are a national
+inheritance. They are inherent in the race as a whole, independent of
+education or culture or comfort. The best Irish sayings are the
+sayings of the people; the greatest Irish humorists are the nameless
+multitude who have never written books or found a place in national
+dictionaries of biography. None but an Irishman could have coined that
+supreme expression of contempt: "I wouldn't be seen dead with him at a
+pig-fair," or rebuked a young barrister because he did not "squandher
+his carcass" (<i>i.e.</i>, gesticulate) enough. But we cannot trace
+the paternity of these sayings any more than we can that of the
+lightning retort of the man to whom one of the "quality" had given a
+glass of whisky. "That's made another man of you, Patsy," remarked the
+donor. "'Deed an' it has, sor," Patsy flashed back, "an' that other
+man would be glad of another glass." It is enough for our purpose to
+note that such sayings are typically Irish and that their peculiar
+felicity consists in their combining both wit and humor.</p>
+
+<p>To what element in the Irish nature are we to attribute this joyous
+and illuminating gift? No one who is not a Gaelic scholar can venture
+to dogmatize on this thorny subject. But, setting philology and
+politics aside, it is hard to avoid the conclusion that Ireland has
+gained rather than lost in this respect by the clash of races and
+languages. Gaiety, we are told, is not the predominating
+characteristic of the Celtic temperament, nor is it reflected in the
+prose and verse of the "old ancient days" that have come down to us.
+Glamour and magic and passion abound in the lays and legends of the
+ancient Gael, but there is more melancholy than mirth in these tales
+of long ago. Indeed, it is interesting to note in connection with this
+subject that the younger school of Irish writers associated with what
+is called the Celtic Renascence have, with very few exceptions,
+sedulously eschewed anything approaching to jocosity, preferring the
+paths of crepuscular mysticism or sombre realism, and openly avowing
+their distaste for what they consider to be the denationalized
+sentiment of Moore, Lever, and Lover. To say this is not to disparage
+the genius of Yeats and Synge; it is merely a statement of fact and an
+illustration of the eternal dualism of the Irish temperament, which
+Moore himself realized when he wrote of "Erin, the tear and the smile
+in thine eye."</p>
+
+<p>A reaction against the Donnybrook tradition was inevitable and to a
+great extent wholesome, since the stage Irishman of the transpontine
+drama or the music-halls was for the most part a gross and unlovely
+caricature, but, like all reactions, it has tended to obscure the real
+merits and services of those who showed the other side of the medal.
+Lever did not exaggerate more than Dickens, and his portraits of
+Galway fox-hunters and duellists, of soldiers of fortune, and of
+Dublin undergraduates were largely based on fact. At his best he was a
+most exhilarating companion, and his pictures of Irish life, if
+partial, were not misleading. He held no brief for the landlords, and
+in his later novels showed a keen sense of their shortcomings. The
+plain fact is that, in considering the literary glories of Ireland, we
+cannot possibly overlook the work of those Irishmen who were affected
+by English influences or wrote for an English audience.</p>
+
+<p>Anglo-Irish humorous literature was a comparatively late product,
+but its efflorescence was rapid and triumphant. The first great name
+is that of Goldsmith, and, though deeply influenced in technique and
+choice of subjects by his association with English men of letters and
+by his residence in England, in spirit he remained Irish to the
+end&mdash;generous, impulsive, and improvident in his life; genial,
+gay, and tender-hearted in his works. The Vicar of Wakefield was Dr.
+Primrose, but he might just as well have been called Dr. Shamrock. No
+surer proof of the pre-eminence of Irish wit and humor can be found
+than in the fact that, Shakespeare alone excepted, no writers of
+comedy have held the boards longer or more triumphantly than Goldsmith
+and his brother Irishman, Sheridan. <i>She Stoops to Conquer, The
+Rivals, The School for Scandal</i>, and <i>The Critic</i> represent
+the sunny side of the Irish genius to perfection. They illustrate, in
+the most convincing way possible, how the debt of the world to Ireland
+has been increased by the fate which ordained that her choicest
+spirits should express themselves in a language of wider appeal than
+the ancient speech of Erin.</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, English literature and the English tongue have
+gained greatly from the influence exerted by writers familiar from
+their childhood with turns of speech and modes of expression which,
+even when they are not translations from the Gaelic, are
+characteristic of the Hibernian temper. The late Dr. P.W. Joyce, in
+his admirable treatise on English as spoken in Ireland, has
+illustrated not only the essentially bilingual character of the
+Anglo-Irish dialect, but the modes of thought which it enshrines.
+There is no better known form of Irish humor than that commonly called
+the "Irish bull," which is too often set down to lax thinking and
+faulty logic. But it is the rarest thing to encounter a genuine Irish
+"bull" which is not picturesque and at the same time highly
+suggestive. Take, for example, the saying of an old Kerry doctor who,
+when conversing with a friend on the high rate of mortality, observed,
+"Bedad, there's people dyin' who never died before." Here a truly
+illuminating result was attained by the simple device of using the
+indicative for the conditional mood&mdash;as in Juvenal's famous
+comment on Cicero's second Philippic: <i>Antoni gladios potuit
+contemnere si sic omnia dixisset</i>. The Irish "bull" is a heroic and
+sometimes successful attempt to sit upon two stools at once, or, as an
+Irishman put it, "Englishmen often make 'bulls,' but the Irish 'bull'
+is always pregnant."</p>
+
+<p>Though no names of such outstanding distinction as those of
+Goldsmith and Sheridan occur in the early decades of the nineteenth
+century, the spirit of Irish comedy was kept vigorously alive by Maria
+Edgeworth, William Maginn, Francis Mahony (Father Prout), and William
+Carleton. Sir Walter Scott's splendid tribute to the genius of Maria
+Edgeworth is regarded by some critics as extravagant, but it is
+largely confirmed in a most unexpected quarter. Turgenief, the great
+Russian novelist, proclaimed himself her disciple, and has left it on
+record that but for her example he might never have attempted to give
+literary form to his impressions of the classes in Russia
+corresponding to the poor Irish and the squireens and the squires of
+county Longford. Maginn and Mahony were both scholars&mdash;the latter
+happily called himself "an Irish potato seasoned with Attic
+salt"&mdash;wrote largely for English periodicals, and spent most of
+their lives out of Ireland. In the writings of all three an element of
+the grotesque is observable, tempered, however, in the case of Mahony,
+with a vein of tender pathos which emerges in his delightful "Bells of
+Shandon." Maginn was a wit, Mahony was the hedge-schoolmaster <i>in
+excelsis</i>, and Carleton was the first realist in Irish peasant
+fiction. But all alike drew their best inspiration from essentially
+Irish themes. The pendulum has swung back slowly but steadily since
+the days when Irish men of letters found it necessary to accommodate
+their genius to purely English literary standards. Even Lever, though
+he wrote for the English public, wrote mainly about Ireland. So, too,
+with his contemporary Le Fanu, whose reputation rests on a double
+basis. He made some wonderful excursions into the realm of the
+bizarre, the uncanny, and the gruesome. But in the collection known as
+<i>The Purcell Papers</i> will be found three short stories which for
+exuberant drollery and "diversion" have never been excelled. That the
+same man could have written <i>Uncle Silas</i> and <i>The Quare
+Gander</i> is yet another proof of the strange dualism of the Irish
+character.</p>
+
+<p>The record of the last fifty years shows an uninterrupted progress
+in the invasion of English <i>belles lettres</i> by Irish writers.
+Outside literature, perhaps the most famous sayer of good things of
+our times was a simple Irish parish priest, the late Father Healy. Of
+his humorous sayings the number is legion; his wit may be illustrated
+by a less familiar example&mdash;his comment on a very tall young lady
+named Lynch: "Nature gave her an inch and she took an ell." In the
+House of Commons today there is no greater master of irony and
+sardonic humor than his namesake, Mr. Tim Healy. On one occasion he
+remarked that Lord Rosebery was not a man to go tiger-shooting
+with&mdash;except at the Zoo. On another, being anxious to bring an
+indictment against the "Castle" <i>r&eacute;gime</i> in Dublin and
+finding the way blocked by a debate on Uganda, he successfully
+accomplished his purpose by a judicious geographical transference of
+names, and convulsed the House by a speech in which the nomenclature
+of Central Africa was applied to the government of Ireland.</p>
+
+<p>But wit and humor are the monopoly of no class or calling in
+Ireland. They flourish alike among car-drivers and K.C.'s, publicans
+and policemen, priests and parsons, beggars and peers. It is a
+commonplace of criticism to deny these qualities in their highest form
+to women. But this is emphatically untrue of Ireland, and was never
+more conclusively disproved than by the recent literary achievements
+of her daughters. The partnership of two Irish ladies, Miss Edith
+Somerville and Miss Violet Martin, has given us, in <i>Some
+Experiences of an Irish R.M.</i> (<i>i.e.</i>, Resident Magistrate),
+the most delicious comedy, and in <i>The Real Charlotte</i> the finest
+tragi-comedy, that have come out of Great Britain in the last thirty
+years. The <i>R.M.</i>, as it is familiarly called, is already a
+classic, but the Irish <i>com&eacute;die humaine</i>&mdash;to use the
+phrase in the sense of Balzac&mdash;is even more vividly portrayed in
+the pages of <i>The Real Charlotte</i>. Humor, genuine though
+intermittent, irradiates the autumnal talent of Miss Jane Barlow, and
+the long roll of gifted Irishwomen who have contributed to the gaiety
+of nations may be closed with the names of Miss Hunt, author of
+<i>Folk Tales of Breffny</i>; of Miss Purdon and Miss Winifred Letts,
+who in prose and verse, respectively, have moved us to tears and
+laughter by their studies of Leinster peasant life; and of "Moira
+O'Neill" (Mrs. Skrine), the incomparable singer of the Glens of
+Antrim. To give a full list of the living Irish writers, male and
+female, who are engaged in the benevolent work of driving dull care
+away would be impossible within the space at our command. But we
+cannot end without recognition of the exhilarating extravaganzas of
+"George A. Birmingham" (Canon Hannay), the freakish and elfin muse of
+James Stephens, and the coruscating wit of F.P. Dunne, the famous
+Irish-American humorist, whose "Mr. Dooley" is a household word on
+both sides of the Atlantic.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Goldsmith: Vicar of Wakefield, She Stoops to Conquer; Sheridan: The
+Rivals, The School for Scandal, The Critic; R. Edgeworth: Essay on
+Irish Bulls; M. Edgeworth: Castle Rackrent, The Absentee; Maginn:
+Miscellanies in Prose and Verse; Carleton: Traits and Stories of the
+Irish Peasantry; Mahony (Father Prout): Reliques of Father Prout; John
+and Michael Banim: Tales of the O'Hara Family; Lover: Legends and
+Stories of Ireland, Handy Andy; Lever: Harry Lorrequer, Charles
+O'Malley, Lord Kilgobbin; Le Fanu: The Purcell Papers; Barlow: Bogland
+Studies, Irish Idylls, Irish Neighbours; Birmingham: The Seething Pot,
+Spanish Gold, The Major's Niece, The Red Hand of Ulster, General John
+Regan; Stephens: The Crock of Gold, Here are Ladies; Hunt: The Folk
+Tales of Breffny; Purdon: The Folk of Furry Farm; Somerville and Ross:
+The Real Charlotte, Some Experiences of an Irish R.M., All on the
+Irish Shore, Dan Russel the Fox.</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T32"></a>THE IRISH THEATRE</h2>
+<h4>By JOSEPH HOLLOWAY.</h4>
+
+<p>The Irish theatre and secular drama may be said to begin with the
+production of James Shirley's historical play, <i>St. Patrick for
+Ireland</i>, in Werburgh Street Theatre, about 1636-7; and though
+Dublin was a great school for acting, and supplied many of the best
+players to the English stage, such as Quin, Macklin, Peg Woffington,
+Miss O'Neill, and hosts of others, it never really possessed a
+creative theatre (save at the Capel Street Theatre for a few years
+during the Grattan Parliament) until the modern movement in Ireland
+came into being and the Abbey Theatre became its headquarters.</p>
+
+<p>Of course, innumerable plays by Irish writers were written, but
+most of them were not distinctively Irish in character; and the names
+of Goldsmith, Sheridan, O'Keeffe, Farquhar, Sheridan Knowles, Oscar
+Wilde, and dozens of others will always be remembered as great Irish
+writers for the stage. And when fine impersonators of Irish character
+like Tyrone Power, John Drew, or Barney Williams arrived, there were
+always to be found several clever writers to fit them with parts, the
+demand always creating the supply.</p>
+
+<p>Even before Dion Boucicault took to writing Irish dramas of a more
+palatable and less "stage-Irish" character than those of his immediate
+predecessors, some excellent plays, Irish in character and tone, had
+from time to time found their way to the stage. However, Boucicault
+sweetened our stage by the production of <i>The Colleen Bawn,
+Arrah-na-Pogue</i>, and <i>The Shaughraun</i>, and showed by his
+rollicking impersonations of Myles, Shan, and Conn, how good-humored,
+hearty, and self-sacrificing Irish boys in humble life can be. He had
+great technical knowledge of stagecraft, and that has helped to make
+his Irish plays live in the popular goodwill right up to today.</p>
+
+<p>A revolt against Boucicault's Irish boys, all fun and frolic, and
+charming colleens, who could do no wrong, has made our modern
+playwrights go to the other extreme; so that now we find our stage
+peopled with peasants, cruel, hard, and forbidding for the most part,
+and with colleens who are the reverse of lovable in thought or act.
+Neither picture is quite true of our people. What is really wanted is
+the happy medium, which few, if any, of our new playwrights have yet
+given us.</p>
+
+<p>If our great popular Irish drama has yet to come, I think the Fays
+have made it possible to say that a distinct and really fine dramatic
+school has arisen in Ireland, evolved out of their wonderful skill in
+teaching, producing, and acting; and if we are not always really
+delighted with what our playwrights give us, the almost perfect way in
+which the plays are served up by the actors invariably wholly
+satisfies. It is the actors who have made the Abbey Theatre famous,
+and not the plays. Such acting as theirs cast a spell over all who see
+them. What pleasing memories do the names of W.G. Fay, Frank J. Fay,
+Dudley Digges, Sara Allgood, Arthur Sinclair, Maire O'Neill, Maire ni
+Shuiblaigh, J.M. Kerrigan, Fred O'Donovan, Eileen O'Doherty, Una
+O'Connor, Eithne Magee, Nora Desmond, and John Connolly recall!</p>
+
+<p>With the production of W.B. Yeats's poetic one-act play, <i>The
+Land of Heart's Desire</i>, at the Avenue Theatre, London, on March
+29, 1894, began the modern Irish dramatic movement. When the poet had
+tasted the joys of the footlights, he longed to see an Irish Literary
+Theatre realized in Ireland. Five years later, in the Antient Concert
+Rooms, Dublin, on May 9, 1899, his play, <i>The Countess Cathleen</i>,
+was produced, and his desire gratified. The experiment was tried for
+three years and then dropped; plays by Yeats, Edward Martyn, George
+Moore, and Alice Milligan were staged with English-trained actors in
+the casts; and a Gaelic play&mdash;the first ever presented in a
+theatre in Ireland&mdash;was also given during the third season. It
+was <i>The Twisting of the Rope</i>, by Dr. Douglas Hyde, and was
+played at the Gaiety Theatre, Dublin, on October 21, 1901, by a Gaelic
+Amateur Dramatic Society coached by W.G. Fay. The author filled the
+principal part with distinction.</p>
+
+<p>It was while rehearsing this play that the thought came to Fay:
+"Why not have my little company of Irish-born actors&mdash;the Ormond
+Dramatic Society&mdash;appear in plays by Irish writers instead of in
+the ones they have been giving for years?" And the thought soon
+ripened into realization. His brother, Frank, had dreamed of such a
+company since he read of the small beginnings out of which the
+Norwegian Theatre had grown; and just then, seeing some of "&AElig;'s"
+(George Russell's) play, <i>Deirdre</i>, in the <i>All Ireland
+Review</i>, he asked the author if he would allow them to produce it,
+and, consent being given, the company put it into rehearsal at once.
+"&AElig;" got for them from Yeats <i>Kathleen-Ni-Houlihan</i>, to make
+up the programme. Thus it was that this company of amateurs and poets,
+now known as the Abbey Players, came into existence, and at St.
+Teresa's Hall, Clarendon Street, Dublin, gave their first performance
+on April 2, 1902.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly afterwards they took a hall at the back of a shop in Camden
+Street, where they rehearsed and gave a few public performances. On
+"&AElig;" declining to be their president, Frank Fay suggested the
+name of W.B. Yeats, and he was elected, and in that way came again
+into the movement in which he has figured so largely ever since.</p>
+
+<p>The company played occasionally in the Molesworth Hall, and
+produced there, among other pieces, Synge's <i>In the Shadow of the
+Glen</i> (October 8, 1903) and <i>Riders to the Sea</i> (February 25,
+1904); Yeats's <i>The Hour Glass</i> (March 14, 1903) and <i>The
+King's Threshold</i> (October 8, 1903); Lady Gregory's
+<i>Twenty-five</i> (March 14,1903); and Padraic Colum's <i>Broken
+Soil</i> (December 3, 1903).</p>
+
+<p>On March 26, 1904, the company paid a flying one-day visit to the
+Royalty, London, and Miss A.E.F. Horniman, who had given Shaw, Yeats,
+and Dr. John Todhunter their first real start as playwrights at the
+Avenue, London, in March-April, 1894 (Shaw had had his first play,
+<i>Widowers' Houses</i>, played by the Independent Theatre in 1892),
+saw the performance, and was so impressed that she thought she would
+like to find a suitable home for such talent in Dublin, and fixed upon
+the old Mechanics' Institute and its surrounding buildings, and there
+the Abbey Theatre soon afterwards&mdash;on December 27,
+1904&mdash;came into existence.</p>
+
+<p>In writing of this Irish dramatic movement, one must always bear in
+mind that it was Yeats who first conceived the idea of such a
+movement; the Fays who founded the school of Irish acting; and Miss
+Horniman who, like a fairy godmother, waved the wand, and gave it a
+habitation and a name&mdash;the Abbey Theatre&mdash;and endowed it for
+six years.</p>
+
+<p>Play followed play with great rapidity, and dramatic societies
+sprang up all over the country, playing home-made productions in
+Gaelic and English. All Ireland seemed to be play-acting and
+play-writing; so much so that Frank Fay was heard to say that "he
+thought everyone had a play in his pocket, and that anyone in the
+street could be picked up and shaped into an actor or actress with a
+little training, Ireland was so teeming with talent!"</p>
+
+<p>Dramatic Ireland had slumbered for a long while, and awoke with
+tremendous vigor for work. New dramatists sprang up in all parts of
+Ireland; The Ulster Literary Theatre started in Belfast; The Cork
+Dramatic Society, in Cork; The Theatre of Ireland, in Dublin; and
+others in Galway and Waterford soon followed. In Dublin at present
+more than half a dozen dramatic societies are continually producing
+new plays and discovering new acting talent. There are also two Gaelic
+dramatic societies. And nearly every town in Ireland now has its own
+dramatic class and its own dramatists. All this activity has come
+about within the last ten or twelve years, where, before, in many
+places, drama and acting were almost unknown.</p>
+
+<p>Many Gaelic societies throughout the country put on Gaelic plays by
+Dr. Douglas Hyde, Pierce Beasley, Thomas Haynes, Canon Peter O'Leary,
+and others; and the <i>Oireachtas</i> (the Gaelic musical and literary
+festival) held each year in Dublin usually presents several Irish
+plays and offers prizes for new ones at each festival.</p>
+
+<p>Of all the Irish playwrights who have arisen in recent years, Lady
+Gregory has produced most and W.B. Yeats is the most poetic. He is
+more a lyric poet than a dramatist, and is never satisfied with his
+work for the stage, but keeps eternally chopping and changing it. His
+<i>Kathleen-Ni-Houlihan</i>, though a dream-play, always appeals to an
+audience of Irish people. Perhaps his one-act <i>Deirdre</i> is the
+nearest approach to real drama he has done. Some of Lady Gregory's
+earlier one-act farces, such as <i>The Workhouse-Ward</i>, are very
+amusing; <i>The Rising of the Moon</i> is a little dramatic gem, and
+<i>The Gaol Gate</i> is touched with genuine tragedy. Synge wrote only
+one play&mdash;Riders to the Sea&mdash;that acts well. The others are
+admired by critics for the strangeness of their diction and the beauty
+of the nature-pictures scattered through them. His much-discussed
+<i>Playboy of the Western World</i> has become famous for the rows it
+has created at home and abroad from its very first production on
+January 26, 1907. William Boyle, who gets to the heart of those he
+writes about, has produced the most popular play of the movement in
+<i>The Eloquent Dempsey</i>, and a perfectly constructed one in <i>The
+Building Fund</i>. W.F. Casey's two plays&mdash;The Man Who Missed the
+Tide and <i>The Suburban Groove</i>&mdash;are both popular and
+actable. Padraic Colum's plays&mdash;The Land and <i>Broken Soil</i>
+(the latter rewritten and renamed <i>The Fiddler's
+House</i>)&mdash;are almost idyllic scenes of country life. Lennox
+Robinson's plays are harsh in tone, but dramatically effective, and
+T.C. Murray's <i>Birthright</i> and <i>Maurice Harte</i> are fine
+dramas, well constructed and full of true knowledge of the people he
+writes about. Seumas O'Kelly has written two strong dramas in
+<i>The Shuiler's Child</i> and <i>The Bribe</i>, and Seumas O'Brien
+one of the funniest Irish farces ever staged in <i>Duty</i>. R.J.
+Ray's play, <i>The Casting Out of Martin Whelan</i>, is the best this
+dramatist has as yet given us, and George Fitzmaurice's <i>The Country
+Dressmaker</i> has the elements of good drama in it. St. John G.
+Ervine has written a very human drama in <i>Mixed Marriage</i>. He
+hails from the north of Ireland; but Rutherford Mayne is the best of
+the Northern playwrights, and his plays, <i>The Drone</i> and <i>The
+Turn of the Road</i>, are splendid homely county Down comedies.</p>
+
+<p>Bernard Shaw's <i>John Bull's Other Island</i>, as Irish plays go,
+is a fine specimen; Canon Hannay has written two successful comedies,
+<i>Eleanor's Enterprise</i> and <i>General John Regan</i>&mdash;the
+latter not wholly to the taste of the people of the west. James
+Stephens and Jane Barlow have also tried their hands at playwriting,
+with but moderate success. Perhaps the modern drama that made the most
+impression when first played was <i>The Heather Field</i>, by Edward
+Martyn. It gripped and remains a lasting memory with all who saw it in
+1899. But I think I have written enough to show that the Irish Theatre
+of today is in a very alive condition, and that if the great National
+Dramatist has not yet arrived, he is sure to emerge. When that time
+comes, the actors are here ready to interpret such work to
+perfection.</p>
+
+<p>An article, however brief, on the Irish Theatre, would be
+incomplete without mention of the world-famous tragedians, John Edward
+MacCullough, Lawrence Patrick Barrett, and Barry Sullivan; of genial
+comedians like Charles Sullivan and Hubert O'Grady; of sterling actors
+like Shiel Barry, John Brougham, Leonard Boyne, J.D. Beveridge, and
+Thomas Nerney; or of operatic artists like Denis O'Sullivan and Joseph
+O'Mara&mdash;many of whom have passed away, but some, fortunately, are
+with us still.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>John Genest: Some Account of the English Stage from the Restoration
+to 1830 (1832; vol. 10 is devoted to the Irish Stage); Chetwood:
+General History of the Stage, more particularly of the Irish Theatre
+(Dublin, 1749); Molloy: Romance of the Irish Stage; Baker: Biographia
+Dramatica (Dublin, 1782); Hitchcock: An Historical View of the Irish
+Stage from its Earliest Period down to the Season of 1788; Doran:
+Their Majesties' Servants, or Annals of the English Stage (London,
+1865); Hughes: The Pre-Victorian Drama in Dublin; The History of the
+Theatre Royal, Dublin (Dublin, 1870); Levey and O'Rourke: Annals of
+the Theatre Royal (Dublin, 1880); O'Neill: Irish Theatrical History
+(Dublin, 1910); Brown: A Guide to Books on Ireland (Dublin, 1912);
+Lawrence: The Abbey Theatre (in the Weekly Freeman, Dublin, Dec.,
+1912), Origin of the Abbey Theatre (in Sinn Fein, Dublin, Feb. 14,
+1914); Weygandt: Irish Plays and Playwrights (London, 1913); Lady
+Gregory: Our Irish Theatre (London, 1914); Bourgeois: John M. Synge
+and the Irish Theatre (London, 1913); Moore: Hail and Farewell, 3
+vols. (London, 1911-1914); Esmore: The Ulster Literary Theatre (in the
+Lady of the House, Dublin, Nov. 15, 1913); the Reviews, Beltaine
+(1899-1900) and Samhain (1901-1903).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T33"></a>IRISH JOURNALISTS</h2>
+<h4>By MICHAEL MACDONAGH.</h4>
+
+<p>The most splendid testimony to the Irish genius in journalism is
+afforded by the London press of the opening decades of the twentieth
+century. One of the greatest newspaper organizers of modern times is
+Lord Northcliffe. As the principal proprietor and guiding mind of both
+the <i>Times</i> and the <i>Daily Mail</i>, he directly influences
+public opinion, from the steps of the Throne and the door of the
+Cabinet, to the errand boy and the servant maid. T.P. O'Connor, M.P.,
+is the most popular writer on current social and political topics, and
+so amazing is his versatility that every subject he touches is
+illumined by those fine qualities, vision and sincerity. The most
+renowned of political writers is J.L. Garvin of the <i>Pall Mall
+Gazette</i> and the <i>Observer</i>. By his leading articles he has
+done as much as the late Joseph Chamberlain by his speeches to
+democratize and humanize the old Tory party of England. The
+authoritative special correspondent, studying at first hand all the
+problems which divide the nations of Europe, and knowing personally
+most of its rulers and statesmen, is E.J. Dillon of the <i>Daily
+Telegraph</i>. And when the quarrels of nations are transferred from
+the chancelleries to the stricken field there is no one among the war
+correspondents more enterprising and intrepid in his methods, or more
+picturesque and vivid with his pen, than M.H. Donohoe of the <i>Daily
+Chronicle</i>. All these men are Irish. Could there be more striking
+proof of the natural bent and aptitude of the Irish mind for
+journalism?</p>
+
+<p>Dean Swift was the mightiest journalist that ever stirred the
+sluggish soul of humanity. Were he alive today and had he at his
+command the enormous circulation of a great daily newspaper, he would
+keep millions in a perpetual mental ferment, such was the ferocious
+indignation into which he was aroused by wrong and injustice and his
+gift of savage ironical expression. Swift, as a young student in
+Trinity College, Dublin, saw the birth of the first offspring of the
+Irish mind in journalism. The <i>Dublin News Letter</i> made its
+appearance in June, 1685, and was published every three or four days
+for the circulation of news and advertisements. Only one copy of the
+first issue of this, the earliest of Irish newspapers, is extant. It
+is included in the Thorpe collection of tracts in the Royal Dublin
+Society. Dated August 26, 1685, it consists of a single leaf of paper
+printed on both sides, and contains just one item of news, a letter
+brought by the English packet from London, and two local
+advertisements. As I reverently handled it, I was thrilled by the
+thought that from this insignificant little seed sprang the great
+national organ, the <i>Freeman's Journal</i>; the <i>Press</i> of the
+United Irishmen; the <i>Nation</i> of the Young Irelanders; the
+<i>United Ireland</i> of the Land League; the <i>Irish World</i> and
+the <i>Boston Pilot</i> of the American Irish; and the <i>Irish
+Independent</i>, the first half-penny Dublin morning paper, and the
+most widely circulated of Irish journals. If Swift did not write for
+the <i>Dublin News Letter</i>, he certainly wrote for the
+<i>Examiner</i>, a weekly miscellany published in the Irish capital
+from 1710 to 1713, and the first journal that endeavored to create
+public opinion in Ireland. It was at Swift's instigation that this
+paper was started, and he was doubtless encouraged to suggest it by
+the success that attended his articles in the contemporary London
+publication of the same name, the Tory <i>Examiner</i>, in which his
+journalistic genius was fully revealed. As it has been expressively
+put, he wrote his friends, Harley and St. John, into a firm grip of
+power, and thus, as in other ways, contributed his share to the
+inauguration and maintenance of that policy which in the last four
+years of Queen Anne so materially recast the whole European situation.
+About the same time there appeared in London the earliest forms of the
+periodical essay in the <i>Tatler</i> and the <i>Spectator</i>, which
+exhibit the comprehensiveness of the Irish temperament in writing by
+affording a contrast between the Irish force and vehemence of Swift
+and the Irish play of kindly wit and tender pathos in the deft and
+dainty periods of Richard Steele.</p>
+
+<p>Dr. Charles Lucas was, even more than Swift perhaps, the precursor
+of that type of Irish publicist and journalist, of which there have
+been many splendid examples since then in Ireland, England, and
+America. Lucas first started the <i>Censor</i>, a weekly journal, in
+1748. Within two years his paper was suppressed for exciting
+discontent with the government, and to avoid a prosecution he fled to
+England. In 1763 the <i>Freeman's Journal</i> was established by three
+Dublin merchants. Lucas, who had returned from a long exile and was a
+member of the Irish parliament, contributed to it, sometimes
+anonymously but generally over the signature of "A Citizen" or
+"Civis." The editor was Henry Brooks, novelist, poet, and playwright.
+His novel, <i>The Fool of Quality</i>, is still read. His tragedy,
+<i>The Earl of Essex</i>, was, wrongly, supposed to contain a precept,
+"Who rules o'er freemen should himself be free," which led to the more
+famous parody of Dr. Samuel Johnson, "Who drives fat oxen should
+himself be fat." The object of Lucas and Brooke, as journalists, was
+to awaken national sentiment, by teaching that Ireland had an
+individuality of her own independently of England. But they were more
+concerned with the assertion of the constitutional rights of the
+parliament of the Protestant colony as against the domination of
+England. Therefore, the first organ of Irish Nationality,
+representative of all creeds and classes, was the <i>Press</i>, the
+newspaper of the United Irishmen, which was started in Dublin in 1797,
+by Arthur O'Connor, the son of a rich merchant who had made his money
+in London. Its editor was Peter Finnerty, born of humble parentage at
+Loughrea, afterwards a famous parliamentary reporter for the London
+<i>Morning Chronicle</i>, and its most famous contributor was Dr.
+William Drennan, the poet, who first called Ireland "the Emerald
+Isle."</p>
+
+<p>Irishmen did not become prominently associated with American
+journalism until after the Famine and the collapse of the Young
+Ireland movement in 1848. The journalist whom I regard as having
+exercised the most fateful influence on the destinies of Ireland was
+Charles Gavan Duffy, the founder and first editor of the
+<i>Nation</i>, a newspaper of which it was truly and finely said that
+it brought a new soul into Erin. Among its contributors, who
+afterwards added lustre to the journalism of the United States, was
+John Mitchel. In the <i>Southern Citizen</i> and the <i>Richmond
+Enquirer</i> he supported the South against the North in the Civil
+War. The Rev. Abram Joseph Ryan, who was associated with journalism in
+New Orleans, not only acted as a Catholic chaplain with the
+Confederate army, but sang of its hopes and aspirations in tuneful
+verse. Serving in the army of the North was Charles G. Halpine, whose
+songs signed "Private Miles O'Reilly" were very popular in those days
+of national convulsion in the United States. Halpine's father had
+edited the Tory newspaper, the Dublin <i>Evening Mail</i>; and Halpine
+himself, after the war, edited the <i>Citizen</i> of New York, famous
+for its advocacy of reforms in civic administration. Perhaps the two
+most renowned men in Irish-American journalism were John Boyle
+O'Reilly of the <i>Boston Pilot</i> and Patrick Ford of the <i>Irish
+World</i>. O'Reilly was a troop-sergeant in the 10th Hussars (Prince
+of Wales's Own), and during the Fenian troubles of 1866 had eighty of
+his men ready armed and mounted to take out of Island Bridge Barracks,
+Dublin, at a given signal, to aid the projected insurrection.
+Detected, he was brought to trial, summarily convicted, and sentenced
+to be shot. This sentence was commuted to twenty-five years' penal
+servitude; but O'Reilly survived it all to become a brilliant man of
+letters and make the <i>Boston Pilot</i> one of the most influential
+Irish and Catholic newspapers in the United States. Ford, who had
+served his apprenticeship as a compositor in the office of William
+Lloyd Garrison at Boston, founded the <i>Irish World</i> in 1870. This
+newspaper gave powerful aid to the Land League. A special issue of
+1,650,000 copies of the <i>Irish World</i> was printed on January 11,
+1879, for circulation in Ireland; and money to the amount of $600,000
+altogether was sent by Ford to the headquarters of the agitation in
+Dublin. A journalist of a totally different kind was Edwin Lawrence
+Godkin. Born in County Wicklow, the son of a Presbyterian clergyman,
+Godkin in 1865 established the <i>Nation</i> in New York as an organ
+of independent thought; and for thirty-five years he filled a unique
+position, standing aside from all parties, sects, and bodies, and yet
+permeating them all with his sane and restraining philosophy.</p>
+
+<p>In Canada, Thomas D'Arcy Magee won fame as a journalist on the
+<i>New Era</i> before he became even more distinguished as a
+parliamentarian. When the history of Australian journalism is written
+it will contain two outstanding Irish names: Daniel Henry Deniehy, who
+died in 1865, was called by Bulwer Lytton "the Australian Macaulay" on
+account of his brilliant writings as critic and reviewer in the press
+of Victoria. Gerald Henry Supple, another Dublin man, is also
+remembered for his contributions to the <i>Age</i> and the
+<i>Argus</i> of Melbourne. In India one of the first&mdash;if not the
+first&mdash;English newspapers was founded by a Limerick man, named
+Charles Johnstone, who had previously attained fame as the author of
+<i>Chrysal, or the Adventures of a Guinea</i>, and who died at
+Calcutta about 1800.</p>
+
+<p>Stirring memories of battle and adventure leap to the mind at the
+names of those renowned war correspondents, William Howard Russell,
+Edmond O'Donovan, and James J. O'Kelly. Russell, a Dublin man, was the
+first newspaper representative to accompany an army into the field. He
+saw all the mighty engagements of the Crimea&mdash;Alma, Balaclava,
+Inkerman, Sebastopol&mdash;not from a distance of 60 or 80 miles,
+which is the nearest that correspondents are now allowed to approach
+the front, but at the closest quarters, riding through the lines on
+his mule, and seeing the engagements vividly, so that he was able to
+describe them in moving detail for readers of the <i>Times</i>.
+O'Donovan&mdash;son of Dr. John O'Donovan, the distinguished Irish
+scholar and archaeologist&mdash;was in the service of the London
+<i>Daily News</i>. That dashing campaigner&mdash;as his famous book,
+<i>The Merv Oasis</i>, shows him to have been&mdash;perished with
+Hicks Pasha's Army in the Sudan in November, 1883. At the same time
+James O'Kelly, also of the <i>Daily News</i>, was lost in the desert,
+trying to join the forces of the victorious Sudanese under the Madhi.
+Ten years before that he had accomplished, for the New York
+<i>Herald</i>, the equally daring and hazardous feat of joining the
+Cuban rebels in revolt against Spain. He escaped the perils of the
+Mambi Land and the Sudan, and survived to serve Ireland for many years
+as a Nationalist member in the British parliament. John Augustus
+O'Shea, better known, perhaps, as "The Irish Bohemian", also deserves
+remembrance for his quarter of a century's work as special
+correspondent in Europe&mdash;including Paris during the
+siege&mdash;for the London
+<i>Standard</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Indeed, no matter to what side of journalism we turn, we find
+Irishmen filling the foremost and the highest places. John Thaddeus
+Delane, under whose editorship the <i>Times</i> became for a time the
+most influential newspaper in the world, was of Irish parentage. The
+first editor of the <i>Illustrated London News</i> (1842)&mdash;one of
+the pioneers in the elucidation of news by means of pictures&mdash;was
+an Irishman, Frederick Bayley. Among the projectors of <i>Punch</i>,
+and one of its earliest contributors, was a King's county man, Joseph
+Sterling Coyne. The founder of the <i>Liverpool Daily Post</i> (1855),
+the first penny daily paper in Great Britain, was Michael Joseph
+Whitty, a Wexford man. His son, Edward M. Whitty, was the originator
+of that interesting feature of English and Irish journalism, the
+sketch of personalities and proceedings in parliament. Of the editors
+of the <i>Athenaeum</i>&mdash;for many years the leading English organ
+of literary criticism&mdash;one of the most famous was Dr. John Doran,
+who was of Irish parentage. "Dod" is a familiar household word in the
+British Parliament. It is the name of the recognized guide to the
+careers and political opinions of Lords and Commons. Its founder was
+an Irishman, Charles Roger Dod, who for twenty-three years was a
+parliamentary reporter for the <i>Times</i>. And what name sheds a
+brighter light on the annals of British journalism for intellectual
+and imaginative force than that of Justin MacCarthy, novelist and
+historian, as well as newspaper writer?</p>
+
+<p>At home in Ireland the name of Gray is inseparably associated with
+the <i>Freeman's Journal</i>. Under the direction of Dr. John Gray
+this newspaper became in the sixties and seventies the most powerful
+organ of public opinion in Ireland; and in the eighties it was raised
+still higher in ability and influence by his son and successor, Edmund
+Dwyer Gray. In the south of Ireland the most influential daily
+newspaper is the <i>Cork Examiner</i>, which was founded in 1841 by
+John Francis Maguire, who wrote in 1868 <i>The Irish in America</i>.
+It is doubtful whether any country ever produced a more militant and
+able political journal than was <i>United Ireland</i> in the stormy
+years during which it was edited by William O'Brien as the organ of
+the Land League.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish mood is gregarious, expansive, glowing, and eager to keep
+in intimate touch with the movements and affairs of humanity. That, I
+think, is the secret of its success in journalism.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Madden: Irish Periodical Literature (1867); Andrews: English
+Journalism (1855); North: Newspaper and Periodical Press of the United
+States (1884); MacDonagh: The Reporter's Gallery (1913).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T34"></a>THE IRISH LITERARY REVIVAL</h2>
+<h4>By HORATIO S. KRANS, Ph.D.</h4>
+
+<p>In the closing decade of the nineteenth century and in the opening
+years of the twentieth, no literary movement has awakened a livelier
+interest than the Irish Literary Revival, a movement which, by its
+singleness and solidarity of purpose, stood alone in a time of
+confused literary aims and tendencies. Movements, like individuals,
+have their ancestry, and that of the Irish Literary Revival is easily
+traced. It descends from Callanan and Walsh, and from the writers of
+'48. It is to this descent that the lines in William Butler Yeats's
+"To Ireland in Coming Times" allude:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>Know that I would accounted be</p>
+<p>True brother of that company,</p>
+<p>Who sang to sweeten Ireland's wrong,</p>
+<p>Ballad and story, rann and song.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>With the passing of the mid-nineteenth-century writers, the old
+movement waned, and in the field of Irish letters there was, in the
+phrase of a famous bull, nothing stirring but stagnation. A witty
+critic of the period, commenting upon this unhappy state of affairs,
+declared that, though the love of learning in Ireland might still be,
+as the saying went, indestructible, it was certainly imperceptible.
+But after the fall of Parnell a new spirit was stirring. Politics no
+longer absorbed the whole energy of the nation. Groups of men inspired
+with a love of the arts sprang up here and there. In 1890 Yeats proved
+himself a real prophet when he wrote: "A true literary
+consciousness&mdash;national to the centre&mdash;seems gradually to be
+forming out of all this disguising and prettifying, this penumbra of
+half-culture. We are preparing likely enough for a new Irish literary
+movement&mdash;like that of '48&mdash;that will show itself in the
+first lull in politics."</p>
+
+<p>Responsive to the need of the young writers associated with Yeats,
+the National Literary Society was founded in Dublin in 1892, and a
+year later London Irishmen, among them men already distinguished in
+letters, founded in the English metropolis the Irish Literary Society.
+From the presses in Dublin, in London, and in New York as well, books
+began to appear in rapid succession&mdash;slender volumes of verse,
+novels, short stories, essays, plays, translations, and remakings of
+Irish myths and legends, all inspired by, and closely related to, the
+past or the present of Ireland, voicing an essentially national spirit
+and presenting the noblest traits of Irish life and character.</p>
+
+<p>Not content with the organization of the two literary societies,
+Yeats, with courage and relentless tenacity, cast about to realize his
+long-cherished dream of a theatre that should embody the ideals of the
+Revival. In Lady Gregory, and in Edward Martyn, an Irishman of large
+means, who with both pen and purse lent a willing hand, he found two
+ardent laborers for his vineyard. George Moore, who in the event
+proved a fish out of water in Ireland, Yeats and Martyn contrived to
+lure from his London lodgings and his cosmopolitan ways, and to enlist
+in the theatrical enterprise. The practical knowledge of the stage
+which this gifted <i>enfant terrible</i> of literature contributed was
+doubtless of great value in the early days of the dramatic adventure,
+though Moore's free thoughts, frank speech, and mordant irony brought
+an element of discord into Dublin literary circles, which may well
+have left Yeats and his associates with a feeling that they had paid
+too dear for a piper to whose tunes they refused to dance. Be that as
+it may, in 1899 Yeats's dream was measurably realized, and the Irish
+Literary Theatre established, to be succeeded a little later by the
+Irish National Theatre Society. Enough, however, of the dramatic
+aspect of the Revival, which receives separate treatment elsewhere in
+these pages, as does also the dramatic work of certain of the authors
+considered here.</p>
+
+<p>From what has already been said, it should be plain that in the
+last decade of the last century the ranks of the Irish Literary
+Revivalists filled rapidly, and that the movement was really under
+way. The renascent spirit took various forms. To one group of poets
+the humor, pathos, and tragedy of peasant life deeply appealed, and
+found expression in a poetry distinctively and unmistakably national,
+from which a kind of pleasure could be drawn unlike anything else in
+other literatures. In this group Alfred Perceval Graves and Moira
+O'Neill cannot pass unmentioned. Who would ask anything racier in its
+kind than the former's "Father O'Flynn"?</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>Of priests we can offer a charmin' variety,</p>
+<p>Far renowned for larnin' and piety,</p>
+<p>Still I'd advance you without impropriety,</p>
+<p>Father O'Flynn as the flower of them all.</p>
+<p class="i2">Here's a health to you, Father O'Flynn,</p>
+<p class="i2">Slainte,[1] and slainte, and slainte agin.</p>
+<p class="i4">Powerfullest preacher,</p>
+<p class="i4">And tinderest teacher,</p>
+<p>And kindliest creature in Old Donegal.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>[Footnote 1: "Your health."]</p>
+
+<p>Or was the homing instinct, the homesick longing for the old sod,
+ever more truly rendered than in Moira O'Neill's song of the Irish
+laborer in England?</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Over here in England I'm helpin' wi' the hay,</p>
+<p>An' I wish I was in Ireland the livelong day;</p>
+<p>Weary on the English, an' sorra take the wheat!</p>
+<p>Och! Corrymeela an' the blue sky over it.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>D'ye mind me now, the song at night is mortial hard to
+raise,</p>
+<p>The girls are heavy-goin' here, the boys are ill to plase;</p>
+<p>When ones't I'm out this workin' hive, 'tis I'll be back
+again&mdash;</p>
+<p>Aye, Corrymeela in the same soft rain.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Here, too, should be named Jane Barlow, whose poems and stories are
+faithful imaginative transcripts of the face of nature and the hearts
+of men as she knew them in Connemara. Finally there is William Butler
+Yeats, who, on the whole, is the representative man of the Revival.
+Except in the translator's sphere, his writings have given him a place
+in almost all the activities of this movement. As a lyric poet, he has
+expressed the moods of peasant and patriot, of mystic, symbolist, and
+quietist, and it is safe to say that in lyric poetry no one of his
+generation writing in English is his superior. We cannot resist the
+pleasure of quoting here from his "Innisfree", which won the praise of
+Robert Louis Stevenson, and which, if not the high mark of Yeats's
+achievement, is still a flawless thing in its way:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>I will arise and go now, and go to Innisfree,</p>
+<p class="i2">And a small cabin build there, of clay and wattles made;</p>
+<p>Nine bean rows will I have there, a hive for the honey bee,</p>
+<p class="i2">And live alone in the bee-loud glade.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>And I shall have some peace there, for peace comes
+dropping slow,</p>
+<p class="i2">Dropping from the veils of the morning to where the
+cricket sings;</p>
+<p>There midnight's all a glimmer, and noon a purple glow,</p>
+<p class="i2">And evening full of the linnets' wings.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>In this place, and for convenience sake, it may be permitted to
+speak of aspects of Yeats's work other than that by virtue of which he
+is to be classed with the group we have just considered. In his
+narrative poem, "The Wanderings of Usheen", as well as in his plays
+and lyrics, he is of the best of those&mdash;among them we may mention
+by the way Dr. John Todhunter, Nora Hopper (Mrs. W.H. Chesson), and
+William Larminie&mdash;who have revealed to our day the strange beauty
+of the ancient creations of the Gaelic imagination. In prose he has
+written short stories, a novelette, <i>John Sherman and Dhoya</i>, and
+essays that reveal a subtle critical insight, and a style of beautiful
+finish and grace, suggestive of the style of Shelley's <i>Defence of
+Poetry</i>. Yeats's plays constitute a considerable and an important
+part of his work, but these must be reserved for treatment elsewhere
+in this book. In prefaces to anthologies of prose and verse of his
+editing, in the pages of reviews, and elsewhere, he appears as the
+chief apologist of the aims of the Literary Revival, and in particular
+of the methods of the dramatists of the Revival. Whatever he has
+touched he has lifted into the realm of poetry, and this is in large
+measure true of his prose, which proceeds from the poet's point of
+view and breathes the poetic spirit. A man of rare versatility, a
+finished artist with a scrupulous artistic conscience, he has done
+work of high and sustained quality, and is certain to exert a good and
+lasting influence upon the literature of his country.</p>
+
+<p>In a literary movement in the "Isle of Saints", we look naturally
+for religious poetry, and we do not look in vain. This poetry, chiefly
+Catholic, has a quality of its own as distinctive as that of the
+writers of the group we have just left. Now it voices a na&iuml;ve,
+devoted simplicity of Christian faith; now it attains to a high and
+keen spirituality; now it is mystic and pagan. Among the religious
+poets, Lionel Johnson easily stands first&mdash;perhaps the Irish poet
+of firmest fibre and most resonant voice of his generation. A note of
+high courage and of spiritual triumph rings through his verse, even
+from the shadow of the wings of the dark angel that gives a title to
+one of the saddest of his poems. Often he strikes a note of genuine
+religious ecstasy and exaltation rarely heard in English, as in "Te
+Martyrum Candidatus":</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>Ah, see the fair chivalry come, the companions of Christ!</p>
+<p class="i2">White Horsemen, who ride on white horses, the Knights of
+God!</p>
+<p>They, for their Lord and their Lover who sacrificed</p>
+<p class="i2">All, save the pleasure of treading where He first trod.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="stanza">
+<p>These through the darkness of death, the dominion of night,</p>
+<p class="i2">Swept, and they woke in white places at morning tide:</p>
+<p>They saw with their eyes, and sang for joy of the sight,</p>
+<p class="i2">They saw with their eyes the Eyes of the Crucified.</p>
+</div>
+</div>
+
+<p>Among the men of the Revival, no personality is stronger or more
+attractive than that of G.W. Russell&mdash;"&AElig;", as he is always
+called&mdash;who may be regarded as the hero of George Moore's <i>Hail
+and Farewell</i>, and who alone in that gallery of wonderful
+pen-portraits looks forth with complete amiability. He is a pantheist,
+a mystic, and a visionary, with what would seem a literal and living
+faith in many gods, though strongly prepossessed in favor of the
+ancient divinities of the Gael, now long since in exile. Impressive
+and striking by a certain spiritual integrity, so to say, "&AElig;"
+unites gifts and faculties seldom combined. He is a poet of rare
+subtlety, a painter in whose genius so good a judge as George Moore
+believed, and a most practical man of affairs, who, as assistant to
+Sir Horace Plunkett, held up the latter's hands in his labors on
+behalf of co-operative dairies and the like. His poems have their
+roots in a pantheism which half reveals the secrets of an indwelling
+spirit, speaking alike "from the dumb brown lips of earth" and from
+the passions of the heart of man.</p>
+
+<p>Of novelists, both men and women, the Irish Revival can, in the
+words of "Father O'Flynn", offer a charming variety, and among their
+novels and short stories are some books of high quality and not a few
+in a high degree interesting and entertaining. To Standish O'Grady we
+turn for tales, with a kind of bardic afflatus about them, of the hero
+age of legendary Ireland&mdash;tales which drew attention to the
+romantic Celtic past of myth and saga, and must have been an
+inspiration to more than one writer of the younger generation. In
+contrast to the broad epic sweep and remote romantic backgrounds of
+O'Grady, are the stories of Jane Barlow, whose <i>genre</i> pictures
+of peasant life in the west of Ireland, like her poems mentioned
+above, show how sympathetically she understands the ways of thinking,
+feeling, and acting of her humble compatriots. A like minute and
+faithful knowledge is evident in the work of two story-tellers of the
+north, Seumas MacManus and Shan Bullock. The former's outlook is
+humorous and pathetic. He tells fairy and folk tales well, and is a
+past master of the dialect and idiom that combine to give his
+old-wives' yarns an honest smack of the soil. Let him who doubts it
+read <i>Through the Turf Smoke</i> or <i>Donegal Fairy Stories</i>. If
+Shan Bullock walks the same fields as Seumas MacManus, he does so with
+a different air and with a more definite purpose. Sometimes he turns
+to the squireens, small farmers, or small country gentry, and lays
+bare the hardness and narrowness that are a part of their life. Or,
+again, in pictures whose sadness and gloom are lightened, to be sure,
+with humor or warmed with love, he studies the necessitous life of the
+poor. <i>The Squireen, The Barrys</i>, and <i>Irish Pastorals</i> are
+some of his representative books.</p>
+
+<p>In the novel as in poetry the ladies have worked side by side with
+their literary brethren. Miss Hermione Templeton, in her <i>Darby
+O'Gill</i>, and elsewhere, has written pleasantly and gracefully of
+the fairies. In a very different vein are the novels of the
+collaborators, Miss Somerville and "Martin Ross" (Miss Violet Martin),
+over which English and American readers have laughed as heartily as
+their own fellow countrymen. <i>The Experiences of an Irish
+R.M.</i>remains, perhaps, their best book. The work of these ladies,
+be it said by the way, is in the line of descent from that group of
+older Irish novelists who wrote in the spirit of the devil-may-care
+gentry, the novelists from Maxwell to Lover and Lever, who were ever
+questing "divilment and divarshion," and who in their moods of
+boisterous fun forgot the real Irishman, and presented in his place a
+caricature&mdash;him of the Celtic screech and the exhilarating whack
+of the shillelagh, the famous stage Irishman who has made occasional
+appearances in English literature from the time of Shakespeare's
+<i>Henry V.</i>, on through the works of Fielding and the plays of
+Sheridan, to the present moment of writing.</p>
+
+<p>Of a very different stripe from the work of the collaborating
+ladies just mentioned are the novels of the recently deceased Canon
+Sheehan&mdash;notable among them <i>Luke Delmege</i> and <i>My New
+Curate</i>&mdash;rambling, diffuse, and a trifle provincial from the
+artistic standpoint, but interesting as studies of manners, and for
+the pictures they afford of the priesthood of modern Ireland in the
+pleasantest light. If the stories of Miss Somerville and "Martin Ross"
+are related to the comic stories of the old novelists of the gentry,
+those of Canon Sheehan must be associated with the work of the older
+novelists who wrote more or less in the spirit of the peasantry, that
+is, with Gerald Griffin, the Banim brothers, and William Carleton,
+less famous than he deserves to be by his <i>Traits and Stories</i>
+and a long line of novels and tales.</p>
+
+<p>No survey of Irish novelists, however brief, can afford to forget
+the Rev. James Owen Hannay ("George A. Birmingham"), canon of St.
+Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, whose work is as distinctively Protestant
+in its point of view as Father Sheehan's is Catholic. His more
+substantial novels are a careful transcript of the actualities of
+Irish life today, and in them one meets, incognito but easily
+recognizable, many Irishmen now prominent in literature or politics in
+Ireland. Of his numerous books may be mentioned <i>The Seething Pot</i>,
+<i>Hyacinth</i>, and <i>Northern Iron</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Finally there is George Moore, whose enlistment in the Revival was
+responsible for the novel <i>The Lake</i> and the short stories of
+<i>The Unfilled Field</i>, and for a largely autobiographic and
+entirely indiscreet trilogy entitled <i>Hail and Farewell</i>, the
+separate volumes appearing as <i>Ave</i>, <i>Salve</i>, <i>Vale</i>,
+and the last of them as late as 1914. George Moore's anti-Catholic
+bias is strong, but his is the pen of an accomplished artist. He has
+the story-teller's beguiling gift, and he bristles with ideas which
+his books cleverly embody and to which the dramatic moments of his
+novels give point and relief.</p>
+
+<p>Not the least important work of the Irish Literary Revival has been
+done by translators, who have put into English the old Gaelic romances
+and the folklore still current among the little remnant of
+Irish-speaking country folk. Dr. Douglas Hyde is in the forefront of
+this group. He it was who organized the Gaelic League, a band of
+enthusiasts zealous for the revival of the Irish language both as a
+spoken tongue and as the medium for a national literature, and eager,
+also, to breed up a race of Celtic scholars. The lyrics in his <i>Love
+Songs of Connacht</i> are full of grace, tenderness, and fire, and
+indicate the kind of gems which he and his fellow laborers have added
+to the treasury of poetry in English. But it is Lady Gregory,
+especially in her <i>Cuchulain of Muirthemne</i> and <i>Gods and
+Fighting Men</i>, who more than any other has found a way to stir the
+blood of readers of to-day by the romantic hero tales of Ireland. From
+the racy idiom of the dwellers on or about her own estate in Galway,
+she happily framed a style that gave her narratives freshness,
+novelty, and a flavor of the soil. Upon the work of scholars she drew
+heavily in making her own renderings, but she has justified all
+borrowings by breathing into her books the breath and the warmth of
+life, and her adaptation to epic purposes of the dialect of those who
+still retain the expiring habit of thinking in Gaelic was a real
+literary achievement. She has, indeed, in sins of commission and of
+omission, taken liberties with the old legends, but this may render
+them not less, and perhaps more, delightful to the general reader,
+however just complaints may be from the standpoint of the scholar.</p>
+
+<p>Even so brief a sketch as this may suffice to bring home to those
+not already aware of it a realization of the delights to be drawn from
+the creations of a living literary movement, which is perhaps the most
+notable of its generation, and which has gathered together a
+remarkable group of poets, novelists, and dramatists, who, as men and
+women, are a most interesting company&mdash;a fact to which even
+George Moore's <i>Hail and Farewell</i>, with its quick eye for
+defects and foibles and its ironic wit, bears abundant testimony.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Brooke and Rolleston: Treasury of Irish Poetry (New York and
+London, 1900); Krans: William Butler Yeats and the Irish Literary
+Revival (New York and London, 1904); Yeats: Ideas of Good and Evil
+(London, 1903); Moore: Hail and Farewell, 3 vols. (London and New
+York, 1912-1914); Lady Gregory: Our Irish Theatre (New York and
+London, 1913); Weygandt: Irish Plays and Playwrights (New York, 1913);
+Yeats: Introduction to Fairy and Folk Tales of the Irish Peasantry
+(London, 1889), Representative Irish Tales (London, 1890), Book of
+Irish Verse (London, 1895). There is much of interest, though chiefly
+as regards the drama, in the reviews, Beltaine (London and Dublin,
+1899-1900) and Samhain (London and Dublin, 1901-1903).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+<h2><a name="T35"></a>IRISH WRITERS OF ENGLISH</h2>
+<h4>By P.J. LENNOX, B.A., Litt.D.</h4>
+
+<p>The Gaelic literature of Ireland is not only of wonderful volume
+and priceless worth, but is also of great antiquity, whereas the
+English literature of Ireland, while also of considerable extent and
+high value, is of comparatively modern origin. The explanation of this
+fact is that for more than six centuries after the Anglo-Norman
+invasion of 1169 the Irish language continued to be both the spoken
+and, with Latin, the written organ of the great mass of the Irish
+people, and that for nearly the whole of that period those English
+settlers who did not become, as the well-known phrase has it, more
+Irish than the Irish themselves by adopting the native language,
+customs, and sentiments, were kept too busy in holding, defending, and
+extending their territory to devote themselves to literary pursuits.
+Hence we need not wonder if, leaving out of account merely technical
+works like Lionel Power's treatise on music, written in 1395, we find
+that the English literature of Ireland takes its comparatively humble
+origin late in the sixteenth century. For more than two centuries
+thereafter, owing to the fact that the native Irish, because they were
+Catholics, were debarred by law from an education, the writing of
+English remained almost exclusively in the hands of members or
+descendants of the Anglo-Irish colony, who, with scarcely an
+exception, were Protestants and had as their principal Irish seat of
+learning the then essentially Protestant institution, Trinity College,
+Dublin. Alien in race and creed though these writers mainly were, they
+have nevertheless spread a halo of glory around their adopted country,
+and have won the admiration, and often the affection, of Irishmen of
+every shade of religious and political belief. For example, there is
+no Irishman who is not proud of Molyneux and Swift, of Goldsmith and
+Burke, of Grattan and Sheridan. From the nineteenth century onward
+Irish Catholics have taken their full share in the production of
+English literature. Here, however, it will be necessary to consider
+the writers of none but the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth
+centuries, as in other pages of this volume considerable attention has
+been given to those of later date.</p>
+
+<h4>I. SIXTEENTH CENTURY.</h4>
+
+<p>Richard Stanyhurst (1547-1618), born in Dublin but educated at
+Oxford, is the first representative of the sixteenth century with whom
+we are called upon to deal. He belonged to a family long settled in or
+near Dublin and of some note in municipal annals. Under the direction
+of the Jesuit martyr, Edmund Campion, Stanyhurst wrote a
+<i>Description</i>, as well as a portion of the <i>History</i>, of
+Ireland for Holinshed's <i>Chronicles</i>, published in 1577. He also
+translated (1582) the first four books of <i>Virgil his Aeneis</i>
+into quantitative hexameters, on the unsound pedantic principles which
+Gabriel Harvey was at that time trying so hard to establish in English
+prosody; but the experiment, which turned out so badly in the master's
+hands, fared even worse in those of the disciple, and Stanyhurst's
+lines will always stand as a noted specimen of inept translation and
+ridiculous versification. Equally inartistic was his version of some
+of the Psalms in the same metre. In Latin he wrote a profound
+commentary on Porphyry, the Neo-Platonic mystic. Stanyhurst, who was
+uncle to James Ussher, the celebrated Protestant archbishop of Armagh,
+was himself a convert to Catholicity, and on the death of his second
+wife became a priest and wrote in Latin some edifying books of
+devotion. Two of his sons joined the Jesuit order. He died at Brussels
+in 1618. Stanyhurst viewed Ireland entirely from the English
+standpoint, and in his <i>Description</i> and <i>History</i> is,
+consciously or unconsciously, greatly biased against the native
+race.</p>
+
+<p>If we may take it as certain that modern investigation is correct
+in asserting that Thomas Campion was a native of Dublin, a notable
+addition will have been made to the ranks of Irish-born writers of
+English at this period. Thomas Campion (1567-1620), wherever born,
+spent most of his life in London. He was a versatile genius, for,
+after studying law, he took up medicine, and, although practising as a
+physician, he yet found time to write four masques and many lyrics and
+to compose a goodly quantity of music. Some of his songs appeared as
+early as 1591. Among his works is a treatise entitled <i>Observations
+in the Art of English Poesie</i> (1602), in which, strange to say, he,
+a born lyrist, advocated unrhymed verse and quantitative measures, but
+fortunately his practice did not usually square with his theory. His
+masques were written for occasions, such as the marriage of Lord Hayes
+(1607), the nuptials of the Princess Elizabeth and the Elector
+Palatine (1613), and the ill-starred wedding of Somerset and the
+quondam Countess of Essex in the same year. In these masques are
+embedded some of his best songs; others of his lyrics appeared in
+several <i>Bookes of Ayres</i> between 1601 and 1617. Many of them
+were written to music, sometimes music of his composing. Such dainty
+things as "Now hath Flora robb'd her bowers" and "Harke, all you
+ladies that do sleep" possess the charms of freshness and spontaneity,
+and his devotional poetry, especially "Awake, awake, thou heavy
+Spright" and "Never weather-beaten Saile more willing bent to shore",
+makes almost as wide an appeal.</p>
+
+<h4>II. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.</h4>
+
+<p>Passing by with regret the illustrious seventeenth century names of
+Philip O'Sullivan Beare, Sir James Ware, Luke Wadding, Hugh Ward, John
+Colgan, and John Lynch, because their bearers wrote in Latin, and
+those of "The Four Masters" and Geoffrey Keating, because they wrote
+in Irish, we are first brought to a pause in the seventeenth century
+by the imposing figure of him, whom, in a later day, Johnson justly
+called the "great luminary of the Irish [Protestant] church", none
+other than the archbishop of Armagh and primate of Ireland, James
+Ussher himself. James Ussher (1581-1656), born in Dublin and among the
+earliest students of the newly-founded Trinity College, was in
+intellect and scholarship one of the greatest men that Ireland has
+ever produced. Selden describes him as "learned to a miracle" (<i>ad
+miraculum doctus</i>), and Canon D'Alton in his <i>History of
+Ireland</i> says of him that "he was not unworthy to rank even with
+Duns Scotus, and when he died he left in his own Church neither an
+equal nor a second." Declining the high office of provost of Trinity,
+Ussher was made bishop of Meath and was afterwards promoted to the
+primatial see. His fine intellect was unfortunately marred by narrow
+religious views, and in many ways he displayed his animus against
+those of his countrymen who did not see eye to eye with him in matters
+of faith and doctrine. For example, it was he who in 1626 drew up the
+Irish Protestant bishops' protest against toleration for Catholics,
+therein showing a bigotry which consorted badly with his reputation as
+a scholar. On account of his well-known attitude towards Catholicism,
+he was naturally unpopular with those who professed the ancient creed,
+and hence, when the rebellion of 1641 broke out, much of his property
+was destroyed by the enraged insurgents. His person escaped violence,
+for he happened to be in England at the time engaged in the vain task
+of trying to effect an accommodation between Charles I. and the
+English parliament. He never returned to his see and died in
+London.</p>
+
+<p>Ussher's collected works fill seventeen stately volumes. His
+<i>magnum opus</i> is undoubtedly the <i>Annales Veteris et Novi
+Testamenti</i>. It is written in Latin, and is a chronological
+compendium of the history of the world from the Creation to the
+dispersion of the Jews under Vespasian. Published at Leyden, London,
+Paris, and Oxford, it gained for its author a European fame. His books
+written in English deal mostly with theological or controversial
+subjects, and while they display wide reading, great acumen, and keen
+powers of argumentation, they yet do not do full justice to his
+genius. Those which he published in Dublin are <i>A Discourse of the
+Religion anciently professed by the Irish and British</i> (1622), in
+which he tried to show that the ritual and discipline of the Church as
+originally established in the British Isles were in agreement with the
+Church of England and opposed to the Catholic Church on the matters in
+dispute between them; <i>An Answer to a Challenge made by a Jesuite in
+Ireland</i> (1624), in which his aim was to disprove the contention
+set forth earlier in the same year by a Jesuit that uniformity of
+doctrine had always been maintained by the Catholic Church; and
+<i>Immanuel, or the Mysterie of the Incarnation</i>. He published in
+England <i>The Originall of Bishops, A Body of Divinitie, The
+Principles of Christian Religion</i>, and other works. So great was
+Ussher's reputation that when he died Cromwell relaxed in his favor
+one of the strictest laws of the Puritans and allowed him to be buried
+with the full service of the Church of England, and with great pomp,
+in Westminster Abbey.</p>
+
+<p>Among Ussher's other claims to distinction, it should be noted that
+it was he who in 1621 discovered the celebrated Book of Kells, which
+had long been lost. This marvel of the illuminator's art passed with
+the remainder of his collection of books and manuscripts to Trinity
+College, Dublin, in 1661, and to this day it remains one of the most
+treasured possessions of the noble library of that institution.</p>
+
+<p>Sir John Denham (1615-1669), a Dublin man by birth, took an active
+part on the side of Charles I. against the parliament during the Civil
+War, and subsequently was conspicuous in the intrigues that led to the
+restoration of Charles II. In his own day he had a great reputation as
+a poet. His tragedy, <i>The Sophy</i>, and his translation of the
+Psalms are now forgotten, but he is still remembered for one piece,
+<i>Cooper's Hill</i>, in which occur the well-known lines addressed to
+the River Thames:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>O could I flow like thee, and make thy stream</p>
+<p>My great example, as it is my theme!</p>
+<p>Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull;</p>
+<p>Strong, without rage; without o'erflowing, full.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Another Dublin-born man was Wentworth Dillon, Earl of Roscommon
+(1633-1684). He had the good fortune to win encomiums both from Dryden
+and from Pope. One of his merits, as pointed out by the latter, is
+that</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p class="i10">In all Charles's days</p>
+<p>Roscommon only boasts unspotted bays.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>He translated from Virgil, Lucan, Horace, and Guarini; wrote
+prologues, epilogues, and other occasional verses; but is now
+principally remembered for his poetical <i>Essay on Translated
+Verse</i> (1681), in which he develops principles previously laid down
+by Cowley and Denham. To his credit be it said, he condemns indecency,
+both as want of sense and bad taste. He was honored with a funeral in
+Westminster Abbey. Johnson records that, at the moment of his death,
+Roscommon uttered with great energy and devotion the following two
+lines from his own translation of the <i>Dies Irae</i>:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>My God, my Father, and my Friend,</p>
+<p>Do not forsake me in my end!</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Robert Boyle (1627-1691), one of the founders of the Royal Society
+(1662), was son of the "great" Earl of Cork and was born at Lismore,
+Co. Waterford. He takes rank among the principal experimental
+philosophers of his age, and he certainly rendered valuable services
+to the advancement of science. Most of his writings, which are very
+voluminous, are naturally of a technical character and therefore do
+not properly belong to literature; but his <i>Occasional Reflections
+on Several Subjects</i> (1665), a strange mixture of triviality and
+seriousness, was germinal in this sense that it led to two celebrated
+<i>jeux d'esprit</i>, namely, Butler's <i>Occasional Reflection on Dr.
+Charlton's feeling a Dog's Pulse at Gresham College</i> and Swift's
+<i>Pious Meditation upon a Broomstick, in the Style of the Honourable
+Mr. Boyle</i>. Indeed, one of Boyle's <i>Reflections</i>, that "Upon
+the Eating of Oysters", is reputed to have rendered a still more
+signal service to literature, for in its two concluding paragraphs is
+contained the idea which, under the transforming hand of the master
+satirist, eventually took the world by storm when it appeared, fully
+developed, as <i>Gulliver's Travels</i>.</p>
+
+<p>His brother, Roger Boyle (1621-1679), who figures largely as a
+soldier and a statesman in Irish and English history under his title
+of Lord Broghill, was an alumnus of Trinity College, Dublin. During
+the Civil War he was a royalist until the death of Charles I., when he
+changed sides and aided Cromwell materially in his Irish campaign.
+When the Lord Protector died, Broghill made another right-about-face,
+and crossing to his native country worked so energetically and
+successfully that he made Ireland solid for the restoration of Charles
+II. For this service he was rewarded by being created Earl of Orrery.
+He was the author of six tragedies and two comedies, some of which
+when produced proved gratifyingly popular. He is noted for having been
+the first to write tragedy in rhyme, thereby setting an example that
+was followed with avidity for a time by Dryden and others. He also
+wrote poems, a romance called <i>Parthenissa</i> (1654), and a
+<i>Treatise on the Art of War</i> (1677). From whatever point of view
+considered, Lord Orrery was a remarkable member of a remarkable
+family. His son, John Boyle, Earl of Cork and Orrery (1707-1762), in
+virtue of his translation of Pliny's <i>Letters</i>, his <i>Remarks on
+the Life and Writings of Swift</i>, and his <i>Letters from Italy</i>,
+has some claims to recognition in the field of literature.</p>
+
+<p>Charles Leslie (1650-1722), a Dubliner by birth, was son of that
+John Leslie, bishop of Raphoe and Clogher, who lived through a whole
+century, from 1571 to 1671, and who was 79 years of age when Charles,
+his sixth son, was born. Educated first at Enniskillen and afterwards
+at Trinity College, Dublin, Charles Leslie studied law in London, but
+eventually abandoned that profession and entered the ministry. He was
+of a disputatious character and in particular went to great lengths in
+opposing the pro-Catholic activities of James II. Nevertheless, when
+the Revolution of 1688 came, he took the side of the deposed monarch,
+and loyally adhered to his Jacobite principles for the remainder of
+his life. He even joined the Old Pretender on the continent, and
+endeavored to convert him to Protestantism, but, failing therein, he
+returned to Ireland, where he died at Glasslough in county Monaghan.
+Many years of Leslie's life were devoted to disputes with Catholics,
+Quakers, Socinians, and Deists, and the seven volumes which his
+writings fill prove that he was an extremely able controversialist.
+His best known work is the famous treatise, <i>A Short and Easy Method
+with the Deists</i>, published in 1698.</p>
+
+<p>The Irish note, tone, or temper is not conspicuous in any of the
+writings so far named unless when it is conspicuous by its absence;
+but it appears plainly, for the first time, in Molyneux's <i>Case of
+Ireland being bound by Laws [made] in England Stated</i> (1698).
+William Molyneux (1656-1698) has always ranked as an Irish patriot.
+His was one of the spirits invoked by Grattan in his great speech
+(1782) on the occasion on which he carried his celebrated Declaration
+of Independence in the Irish parliament. When the English Act of 1698,
+which was meant to destroy, and did destroy, the Irish woolen
+industry, came before the Irish house of commons for ratification,
+Molyneux's was the only voice raised against its adoption. His protest
+was followed by the publication of his <i>Case Stated</i>, which is a
+classic on the general relations between Ireland and England, and
+contained arguments so irrefutable that it drove the English
+parliament to fury and was by that body ordered to be burned by the
+common hangman. It is a remarkable coincidence that Molyneux opens his
+argument by laying down in almost identical words the principles which
+stand at the beginning of the American Declaration of
+Independence.</p>
+
+<p>John Toland (1669-1722) was born near Redcastle, in Co. Derry, and
+was at first a Catholic but subsequently became a free-thinker. His
+<i>Christianity not Mysterious</i> (1696) marks an epoch in religious
+disputes, for it started the deistical controversy which was so
+distinctive a feature of the first half of the eighteenth century. It
+shared a similar fate to that of the <i>Case Stated</i>, though on
+very different grounds, and was ordered by the Irish parliament to be
+burned by the hangman. Toland wrote many other books, among which are
+<i>Amyntor</i> (1699); <i>Nazarenus</i> (1702);
+<i>Pantheisticon</i>; <i>History of the Druids</i>; and
+<i>Hypatia</i>. All his books show versatility and wide reading and
+are characterized by a pointed, vigorous, and aggressive style.</p>
+
+<p>George Farquhar (1678-1707), a Derry man, and Thomas Southerne
+(1660-1746), born near Dublin, were distinguished playwrights, who
+began their respective careers in the seventeenth century. Farquhar
+left Trinity College, Dublin, as an undergraduate and became an actor,
+but owing to his accidental killing of another player he left the
+stage and secured a commission in the army. He soon turned his
+attention to the writing of plays, and was responsible in all for
+eight comedies. He has left us some characters that are very humorous
+and at the same time true to life, such as Scrub the servant in <i>The
+Beaux' Stratagem</i> and Sergeant Kite in <i>The Recruiting
+Officer</i>. His Boniface, the landlord in the former of these two
+plays, has become the type, as well as the ordinary quasi-facetious
+nickname, of an innkeeper. He was advancing in his art, for his last
+comedy, <i>The Beaux' Stratagem</i> (1707), is undoubtedly his best,
+and had he lived longer&mdash;he died before he was thirty&mdash;he
+might have bequeathed to posterity something even more noteworthy. As
+Leigh Hunt says of him: "He was becoming gayer and gayer, when death,
+in the shape of a sore anxiety, called him away as if from a pleasant
+party, and left the house ringing with his jest."</p>
+
+<p>Southerne was also a student of Trinity College, Dublin. At the age
+of eighteen, however, he left his <i>alma mater</i>, and went to
+London to study law. This profession he in turn abandoned for the
+drama. His first play, <i>The Persian Prince, or the Loyal
+Brother</i>, had remarkable success when performed, and secured him an
+ensign's commission in the army (1685). Here promotion came to him
+rapidly and by 1688 he had risen to captain's rank. The Revolution of
+that year, however, cut off all further hope of advancement, and he
+once more turned his attention to the writing of plays. His
+productions number ten. His tragedies <i>Isabella, or the Fatal
+Marriage</i> (1694) and <i>Oroonoko</i> (1696), both founded on tales
+by Mrs. Aphra Behn, are powerful presentations of human suffering. His
+comedies are amusing, but gross. Southerne had business ability enough
+to make play-writing pay, and the amounts he received for his
+productions fairly staggered his friend Dryden. It is to this faculty
+that Pope alludes when he says that Southerne was one whom</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p class="i10">heaven sent down to raise</p>
+<p>The price of prologues and of plays.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>He was apparently of amiable and estimable character, for he
+secured and retained the friendship not only of Dryden&mdash;a
+comparatively easy matter&mdash;but also that of Pope, a much more
+difficult task. Known as "the poets' Nestor", Southerne spent his
+declining years in peaceful retirement and in the enjoyment of the
+fortune which he had amassed by his pen.</p>
+
+<p>Nahum Tate (1652-1715), a Dubliner by birth, and Nicholas Brady
+(1659-1726), a Bandon man, have secured a certain sort of twin
+immortality by their authorized metrical version of the Psalms (1696),
+which gradually took the place of the older rendering by Sternhold and
+Hopkins. Tate became poet-laureate in 1690 in succession to Shadwell
+and was appointed historiographer-royal in 1702. He wrote the bulk of
+the second part of <i>Absalom and Achitophel</i> with a wonderfully
+close imitation of Dryden's manner, besides several dramatic pieces
+and poems. Between Tate, Shadwell, Eusden, and Pye lies the unenviable
+distinction of being the worst of the laureates of England. Brady was
+a clergyman who, after the pleasant fashion of that day, was a
+pluralist on a small scale, for he had the living of Richmond for
+thirty years from 1696, and while holding that held also in succession
+the livings of Stratford-on-Avon and Clapham. He added further to his
+income, and doubtless to his anxieties, by keeping a school at
+Richmond. He wrote a tragedy entitled <i>The Rape</i>, a <i>History of
+the Goths and Vandals</i>, a translation of the <i>Aeneid</i> into
+blank verse, and an <i>Ode for St. Cecilia's Day</i>; but, unless for
+his share in the version of the Psalms, his literary reputation is
+well nigh as dead as the dodo.</p>
+
+<p>Ireland somewhat doubtfully claims to have given birth to Mrs.
+Susannah Centlivre (c. 1667-1723), who, after a rather wild youth,
+settled down to literary pursuits and domestic contentment when, in
+1706, she married Queen Anne's head-cook, Joseph Centlivre, with whom
+she lived happily ever after. Her first play, <i>The Provoked
+Husband</i>, a tragedy, was produced in 1700, and then she went on the
+stage as an actress. She wrote in all nineteen dramatic pieces, some
+of which had the honor of being translated into French and German. Her
+most original play was <i>A Bold Stroke for a Wife</i> (1717).</p>
+
+<h4>III. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.</h4>
+
+<p>We have now fairly crossed the border of the eighteenth century,
+and, as we met Ussher early in the seventeenth, so we are here
+confronted with the colossal intellect and impressive personality of
+Swift, one of the greatest, most peculiar, and most original geniuses
+to be found in the whole domain of English literature. Jonathan Swift
+(1667-1745), born in Dublin, was educated at Trinity College, where he
+succeeded in graduating only by special favor. After some years spent
+in the household of Sir William Temple in England, he entered the
+ministry of the Irish Church. During the early years of the century he
+spent much time in London, and took an active part in bringing about
+that political revolution which seated the Tories firmly in power
+during the last four years of the reign of Queen Anne. His services in
+that connection on the <i>Examiner</i> newspaper were so great that it
+would be difficult to dispute the assertion, which has been made, that
+he was one of the mightiest journalists that ever wielded a pen. He
+also stood loyally by his party in his great pamphlets, <i>The Conduct
+of the Allies</i> (1711), <i>The Barrier Treaty</i> (1712), and <i>The
+Public Spirit of the Whigs</i> (1714). When the time came for his
+reward, he received not, as he had hoped, an English bishopric, but
+the deanery of St. Patrick's in Dublin. On resuming his residence in
+Ireland he was at first very unpopular, but his patriotic spirit as
+shown in the <i>Drapier Letters</i> (1723-1724), written in connection
+with a coinage scheme known as "Wood's halfpence", not only caused the
+withdrawal of the obnoxious project but also made Swift the idol of
+all classes of his countrymen. In many others of his writings he
+showed that pro-Irish leaning which caused Grattan to invoke his
+spirit along with that of Molyneux on the occasion already referred
+to. Nothing more mordant than the irony contained in his
+<i>Modest Proposal</i> has ever been penned. In his plea for native
+manufactures he struck a keynote that has vibrated down the ages when
+he advised Irishmen to burn everything English except coal!</p>
+
+<p>Swift's greater works are <i>The Battle of the Books</i>, his
+contribution to the controversy concerning the relative merits of the
+ancients and the moderns; the <i>Tale of a Tub</i>, in which he
+attacked the three leading forms of Christianity; and, above all,
+<i>Gulliver's Travels</i>. In this last work he let loose the full
+flood of his merciless satire and lashed the folly and vices of
+mankind in the most unsparing way. He also wrote verses which are
+highly characteristic and some of them not without considerable merit.
+His life was unhappy and for the last five years of it he was to all
+intents and purposes insane. His relations with Stella (Hester
+Johnson) and Vanessa (Esther Vanhomrigh) have never been quite
+satisfactorily explained. The weight of evidence would seem to show
+that he was secretly married to Stella, but that they never lived
+together as husband and wife. Many novels and plays have been written
+round those entanglements. He lies buried in his own cathedral, St.
+Patrick's, Dublin, and beside him lies Stella. Over his tomb there is
+an epitaph in Latin, written by himself, in which, after speaking of
+the <i>saeva indignatio</i> which tore his heart, he bids the wayfarer
+go and imitate, if he can, the energetic defender of his native
+land.</p>
+
+<p>Contemporary with the Dean there was another Anglo-Irishman, who
+fills a large space in the history of English literature, and of whom
+his countrymen are justly proud. Sir Richard Steele (1672-1729), who
+was born in Dublin and educated at the Charterhouse in London and
+afterwards at Oxford, started the <i>Tatler</i> in 1709, and thereby
+popularized, though he did not exactly originate, the periodical
+essay. Aided by his friend, Addison, he carried the work to perfection
+in the <i>Spectator</i> (1711-1712) and the <i>Guardian</i> (1713).
+Since then these essays have enlightened and amused each succeeding
+generation. Of the two, Addison's is the greater name, but Steele was
+the more innovating spirit, for it is to him, and not to Addison, that
+the conception and initiation of the plan of the celebrated papers is
+due. Steele had had a predecessor in Defoe, whose <i>Review</i> had
+been in existence since 1704, but the more airy graces which
+characterized the <i>Tatler</i> and the <i>Spectator</i> gave the
+"lucubrations" of "Isaac Bickerstaffe" and of "Mr. Spectator" a
+greater hold on the public than Defoe's paper was ever able to
+establish. Steele was responsible for many more periodicals, such as
+the <i>Englishman</i>, the <i>Lover</i>, the <i>Reader</i>, <i>Town
+Talk</i>, the <i>Tea-Table, Chit-Chat</i>, the <i>Plebeian</i>, and
+the <i>Theatre</i>, most of which had a rather ephemeral existence.
+Among his other services to literature he helped to purify the stage
+of some of its grossness, and he became the founder of that
+sentimental comedy which in the days of the early Georges took the
+place of the immoral comedy of the Restoration period, when, in
+Johnson's famous phrase,</p>
+
+<blockquote>
+<p>Intrigue was plot, obscenity was wit.</p>
+</blockquote>
+
+<p>Steele's four comedies are <i>The Funeral; or Grief &agrave; la
+mode</i> (1701); <i>The Lying Lover</i> (1703); <i>The Tender
+Husband</i> (1705); and <i>The Conscious Lovers</i> (1722). Although
+he held various lucrative offices, Steele was never really prosperous
+and was frequently in debt; like most of the contemporary Englishmen
+with whom his lot was thrown, he was rather addicted to the bottle;
+but, on the whole, it may fairly be advanced that unnecessary stress
+has been laid on these aspects of his life by Macaulay, Thackeray, and
+others. After a chequered career, he died near Carmarthen, in Wales,
+on September 1, 1729.</p>
+
+<p>Member of a family and bearer of a name destined to secure immense
+fame in later Irish history, Thomas Parnell (1679-1718) was born in
+Dublin and educated at Trinity College. Entering the ministry in 1700,
+he was rapidly promoted to be archdeacon of Clogher and some years
+later was made rector of Finglas. An accomplished scholar and a
+delightful companion, he was one of the original members of the famous
+Scriblerus Club and wrote or helped to write several of its papers, he
+contributed to the <i>Spectator</i> and the <i>Guardian</i>, and he
+rendered sterling assistance to Pope in the translation of Homer. As
+will be inferred, he spent much of his time in England, and on one of
+his journeys to Ireland he died in his thirty-ninth year at Chester,
+where he was buried. He wrote a great deal of verse&mdash;songs,
+hymns, epistles, eclogues, translations, tales, and occasional
+trifles; but three poems, <i>A Hymn to Contentment</i>, which is
+fanciful and melodious, <i>A Night-piece on Death</i>, in which
+inquisitorial research seems to have found the first faint dawn of
+Romanticism, and <i>The Hermit</i>, which has been not inaptly styled
+"the apex and <i>chef d'oeuvre</i> of Augustan poetry in England",
+constitute his chief claim to present remembrance.</p>
+
+<p>Francis Hutcheson (1694-1746), the son of a Presbyterian minister,
+was born at Armagh, and studied at Glasgow University. He opened in
+Dublin a private academy, which succeeded beyond expectation. The
+publication of his <i>Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty
+and Virtue</i> (1720) and his <i>Essay on the Nature and Conduct of
+the Passions</i> (1728) brought him great fame, and in 1729 he was
+elected to the professorship of moral philosophy in the University of
+Glasgow. Others of his works are a treatise on <i>Logic</i> and <i>A
+System of Moral Philosophy</i>, the latter not published till 1755,
+nine years after his death. Hutcheson fills a large space in the
+history of philosophy, both as a metaphysician and as a moralist. He
+is in some respects a pioneer of the "Scotch school" and of "common
+sense" philosophy. He greatly developed the doctrine of "moral sense",
+a term first used by the third Earl of Shaftesbury; indeed, much of
+his whole moral system may be traced to Shaftesbury. Hutcheson's
+influence was widely felt: it is plainly perceptible in Hume, Adam
+Smith, and Reid. He was greater as a speaker even than as a writer,
+and his lectures evoked much enthusiasm.</p>
+
+<p>George Berkeley (1685-1753), bishop of Cloyne, was born at Dysert
+Castle, near Thomastown, Co. Kilkenny, and was educated first at
+Kilkenny school and afterwards at Trinity College, Dublin. Having
+taken Anglican orders, he visited London, where he wrote nine papers
+for the <i>Guardian</i> and was admitted to the companionship and
+friendship of the leading literary men of the age&mdash;Swift, Pope,
+Addison, Steele, and Arbuthnot. This connection proved of great
+assistance to him, for Pope not only celebrated him as possessing
+"every virtue under heaven", but also recommended him to the Duke of
+Grafton, Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, who appointed him his chaplain
+and subsequently obtained for him the deanery of Derry. In furtherance
+of a great scheme for "converting the savage Americans to
+Christianity", Berkeley and some friends, armed with a royal charter,
+came to this country, landing at Newport in Rhode Island in January,
+1729. All went well for a while: Berkeley bought a farm and built a
+house; but when the hard-hearted prime minister refused to forward the
+&pound;20,000 which had been promised, the project came to an end, and
+Berkeley returned to London in February, 1732. In 1734 he was
+appointed bishop of Cloyne, and later refused the see of Clogher,
+though its income was fully double that of his own diocese. In 1752 he
+resigned his bishopric and settled at Oxford, where he died in
+1753.</p>
+
+<p>Berkeley's works are very numerous. His <i>Essay towards a New
+Theory of Vision</i> (1709), which was long regarded in the light of a
+philosophical romance, in reality contains speculations which have
+been incorporated in modern scientific optics. In his <i>Three
+Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous</i> (1713) he sets forth his
+famous demonstration of the immateriality of the external world, of
+the spiritual nature of the soul, and of the all-ruling and direct
+providence of God. His tenets on immateriality have always been
+rejected by "common-sense" philosophers; but it should be remembered
+that the whole work was written at a time when the English-speaking
+world was disturbed by the theories of sceptics and deists, whose
+doctrines the pious divine sought as best he could to confute. In 1732
+appeared his <i>Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher</i>, in which,
+dialogue-wise, he presents nature from a religious point of view and
+in particular gives many pleasing pictures of American scenery and
+life. These dialogues have frequently been compared to the dialogues
+of Plato. To Berkeley's credit be it said that while he ruled in
+Cloyne he devoted much thought to the amelioration of conditions in
+his native land. Many acute suggestions in that direction are found in
+the <i>Querist</i> (1735-1737). By some extraordinary ratiocinative
+process he convinced himself that tar-water was a panacea for human
+ills, and in 1744 he set forth his views on that subject in the tract
+called <i>Siris</i>, and returned to the charge in 1752 in his
+<i>Further Thoughts on Tar-Water</i>. Whatever may be thought of the
+value of Berkeley's philosophical or practical speculations, there is
+only one opinion of his style. It is distinguished by lucidity, ease,
+and charm; it has the saving grace of humor; and it is shot through
+with imagination. Taken all in all, this eighteenth century bishop is
+a notable figure in literary annals.</p>
+
+<p>Charles Macklin (c. 1697-1797), whose real name was MacLaughlin,
+was a Westmeath man, who took to the stage in early life and remained
+on the boards with considerable and undiminished reputation for some
+seventy years, not retiring until 1789 when he was at least 92 years
+old. To him we are indebted for what is now the accepted presentation
+of the character of Shylock in <i>The Merchant of Venice</i>. He wrote
+a tragedy and many comedies and farces: those by which he is now best
+remembered are the farce, <i>Love-&agrave;-la-Mode</i> (1760), and his
+masterpiece, the farcical comedy, <i>The Man of the World</i> (1764).
+In Sir Pertinax MacSycophant, Macklin has given us one of the
+traditional burlesque characters of the English stage.</p>
+
+<p>Thomas Amory (1691?-1788), if not born in Ireland, was at least of
+Irish descent and was educated in Dublin. He is known in literature
+for two books. The first, with the very mixed title of <i>Memoirs
+containing the Lives of several Ladies of Great Britain; A History of
+Antiquities; Observations on the Christian Religion</i>, was published
+in 1755, and the second, <i>The Life of John Buncle, Esq.</i>, came
+out in two volumes in 1756-1766. It appears to have been the author's
+aim in both works to give us a hotch-potch in which he discourses
+<i>de omnibus rebus et quibusdam aliis</i>. We have dissertations on
+the cause of earthquakes and of muscular motion, on the Athanasian
+Creed, on fluxions, on phlogiston, on the physical cause of the
+Deluge, on Irish literature, on the origin of language, on the
+evidences for Christianity, and on all other sorts of unrelated
+topics. Hazlitt thought that the soul of Rabelais had passed into
+Amory, while a more recent critic can see in his long-winded
+discussions naught but the "light-headed ramblings of delirium." If we
+try to read <i>John Buncle</i> consecutively, the result is boredom;
+but if we open the book at random, we are pretty sure to be interested
+and even sometimes agreeably entertained.</p>
+
+<p>The bizarre figure of Laurence Sterne (1713-1768) next claims our
+attention. The son of a captain in the British army, he was born at
+Clonmel, Co. Tipperary. Of him almost more than of any of the writers
+so far dealt with, it may be said that he was Irish only by the
+accident of birth. His parents were English on both sides, and
+practically the whole life of their son was spent out of Ireland. He
+was sent to school at Halifax, in Yorkshire, and thence went to
+Cambridge University, where he graduated in due season. Taking
+Anglican orders in 1738, he was immediately appointed to the benefice
+of Sutton-in-the-Forest, near York, and on his marriage in 1741 with
+Elizabeth Lumley he received the additional living of Stillington. He
+was also given sundry prebendal and other appointments in connection
+with the chapter of the archdiocese of York. He spent nearly twenty
+years in the discharge of his not very onerous duties and in reading,
+painting, shooting, and fiddling, without showing the least sign of
+any literary leanings. Then suddenly, in 1760, he took the world by
+storm with the first two volumes of <i>Tristram Shandy</i>. He at once
+became the lion of the hour, was f&ecirc;ted and dined to his heart's
+content, and had his nostrils tickled with the daily incense of praise
+from his numerous worshippers. He repeated the experiment with equal
+success the following year with two more volumes of <i>Tristram</i>,
+and so at intervals until 1767, when he published the ninth and last
+volume of this most peculiar story. In 1768 he brought out <i>A
+Sentimental Journey</i>, and within three weeks he died in his
+lodgings in London. His other publications include <i>Sermons</i> and
+<i>Letters</i>. <i>Tristram Shandy</i> is unique in English
+literature&mdash;it stands <i>sui generis</i> for all time. There is
+scarcely any consecutive narrative, and what there is is used merely
+as a peg on which to hang endless digressions. But while there are
+many faults of taste and morals, there are also genuine humor and
+pathos, and without Walter Shandy, Dr. Slop, the Widow Wadman, Yorick,
+Uncle Toby, and Corporal Trim, English literature would certainly be
+very much the poorer.</p>
+
+<p>Hugh Kelly (1739-1777), born in Dublin, was the son of a publican
+and himself became a staymaker, a trade from which he developed
+through the successive stages of attorney's clerk, newspaper-writer,
+theatrical critic, and essayist, into a novelist and playwright. His
+novel, <i>Memoirs of a Magdalen</i> (1767), was translated into
+French. His first comedy, a sentimental one entitled <i>False
+Delicacy</i> (1768), achieved a remarkable success on the stage and
+was even a greater success in book form, 10,000 copies being sold in a
+year, so that its author was raised from poverty to comparative
+affluence. In addition, it gave him a European reputation, for it was
+translated into German, French, and Portuguese. Strange to say, his
+later comedies, <i>A Word to the Wise, A School for Wives</i>, and
+<i>The Man of Reason</i>, were practically failures, and the same is
+true of his tragedy, <i>Clementina</i>. Kelly ultimately withdrew from
+stage work, and for the last three years of his life practised as a
+barrister without, however, achieving much distinction in his new
+profession.</p>
+
+<p>Charles Coffey (d. 1745), an Irishman, was the author of several
+farces, operas, ballad operas, ballad farces, and farcical operas, the
+best known of which was <i>The Devil to Pay, or the Wives
+Metamorphosed</i> (1731).</p>
+
+<p>Henry Brooke (1703?-1783), a county Cavan man and the son of a
+clergyman, was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and afterwards
+studied law in London. Becoming guardian to his cousin, a girl of
+twelve, he put her to school for two years and then secretly married
+her. Of his large family of twenty-two children, three of whom were
+born before their mother was eighteen years old, but one survived him.
+Appointed by Lord Chesterfield barrack-master at Mullingar, Brooke
+afterwards settled in Co. Kildare. It was there that he wrote his
+celebrated work, <i>The Fool of Quality, or the History of the Earl of
+Moreland</i> (5 vols., 1766-1770), which won the commendations of men
+so widely different as John Wesley and Charles Kingsley. It is,
+indeed, a remarkable book, combining, as it does, many of the
+characteristics of Sterne, Mackenzie, Borrow, and George Meredith. It
+is not very well known nowadays, but it will always bear, and will
+well repay, perusal. Brooke also wrote a poem on <i>Universal
+Beauty</i> (1735) and the tragedies <i>Gustavus Vasa</i> (1739), the
+production of which was forbidden in London but which was afterwards
+staged in Dublin as <i>The Patriot</i>, and <i>The Earl of Essex</i>
+(1749), which was played both in London and in Dublin, and has been
+made famous by the parody of one line in it by Samuel Johnson. Another
+novel, <i>Juliet Grenville, or the History of the Human Heart</i>,
+published in 1774, was not nearly up to the standard of <i>The Fool of
+Quality</i>. Brooke was a busy literary man. He made a translation of
+part of Tasso, drafted plans for a History of Ireland, projected a
+series of old Irish tales, wrote one fragment in a style very like
+that subsequently adopted by Macpherson in his <i>Ossian</i>, and for
+a while was editor of the <i>Freeman's Journal</i>. In the beginning,
+Brooke was violently anti-Catholic; but, as time progressed, he became
+more liberal-minded, and advocated the relaxation of the penal laws
+and a more humane treatment of his Catholic fellow-countrymen. Like
+Swift and Steele, he fell into a state of mental debility for some
+years before his death. His daughter, Charlotte Brooke (1740-1793),
+deserves mention as a pioneer of the Irish literary revival, for she
+devoted herself to the saving of the stores of Irish literature which
+in her time were rapidly disappearing. One of the fruits of her labors
+was <i>The Reliques of Irish Poetry</i>, published in 1789. She also
+wrote <i>Emma, or the Foundling of the Wood</i>, a novel, and
+<i>Belisarius</i>, a tragedy.</p>
+
+<p>Charles Johnstone (c. 1719-1800), a Co. Limerick man, was educated
+in Dublin and called to the English bar, but owing to deafness was
+more successful as a chamber counsel than as a pleader. Emigrating to
+India in 1782, he became joint proprietor of a newspaper in Calcutta,
+and there he died. He wrote several satirical romances, such as
+<i>Chrysal, or the Adventures of a Guinea; The Reverie, or a Flight to
+the Paradise of Fools</i>; and <i>The History of Arsaces, Prince of
+Betlis</i>. Of these the first was the best. Samuel Johnson, who read
+it in manuscript, advised its publication, and his opinion was
+vindicated, for it proved a huge success. Sir Walter Scott afterwards
+said that the author of <i>Chrysal</i> deserved to rank as a prose
+Juvenal. Johnstone also wrote <i>The Pilgrim, or a Picture of Life</i>
+and a picaresque novel, <i>The History of John Juniper, Esquire, alias
+Juniper Jack</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Arthur Murphy (1727-1805), born at Cloonquin, Co. Roscommon, was
+educated at St. Omer. At first an actor, he afterwards studied law and
+was called to the English bar in 1762. He made a translation of
+Tacitus, and wrote several farces and comedies, among which may be
+mentioned <i>The Apprentice; The Spouter; The Upholsterer; The Way to
+Keep Him</i>; and <i>All in the Wrong</i>. He also wrote three
+tragedies, namely, <i>The Orphan of China; The Grecian Daughter</i>;
+and <i>Arminius</i>. For the last-named, which was produced in 1798,
+and which had a strongly political cast, he received a pension of
+&pound;200 a year. His plays long held the stage.</p>
+
+<p>Oliver Goldsmith (1728-1774), essayist, poet, novelist, playwright,
+historian, biographer, and editor, was a many-sided genius, who, as
+Johnson said in his epitaph, left scarcely any kind of writing
+untouched, and touched none that he did not adorn. Born, probably, in
+Co. Longford, the son of a poor clergyman, he was educated at various
+country schools until, in 1744, he secured a sizarship in Trinity
+College, Dublin. There he had a somewhat stormy career, but eventually
+took his degree in 1749. He then lounged at home for a while in his
+widowed mother's cottage at Ballymahon, until he was persuaded to take
+orders, but spoiled his already sufficiently poor chances of
+ordination by appearing before the bishop of Elphin in scarlet
+breeches. After other adventures in search of a profession, he went to
+Edinburgh in 1752 to study medicine, and two years later transferred
+himself to Leyden for the same purpose. It was from Leyden that, with
+one guinea in his pocket, one shirt on his person, and a flute in his
+hand, he started on his celebrated walking tour of Europe, during
+which he gained those impressions which he was afterwards to embody in
+some of his greater works. In 1756 he arrived in England, where for
+three years he had very varied experiences&mdash;as a strolling
+player, an apothecary's journeyman, a practising physician, a reader
+for the press, an usher in an academy, and a hack-writer. In 1759 he
+published anonymously his <i>Enquiry into the Present State of Polite
+Learning in Europe</i>, which was well received and helped him to
+other literary work. <i>The Bee</i>, a volume of essays and verses,
+appeared in the same year. He was made editor of the <i>Lady's
+Magazine</i>; he published <i>Memoirs of Voltaire</i> (1761), a
+<i>History of Mecklenburgh</i> (1762), and a <i>Life of Richard
+Nash</i> (1762). In 1762 also he brought out his <i>Citizen of the
+World</i>, a collection of essays, which takes an extremely high rank.
+In 1764 his poem, <i>The Traveller, or a Prospect of Society</i>, made
+its appearance; and in 1766 he gave to the world his famous novel,
+<i>The Vicar of Wakefield</i>. His reputation as a writer was now
+established; he was received into Johnson's circle and was a member of
+the Literary Club; Reynolds and Burke were proud to call him friend.
+In 1768 he had his comedy, <i>The Good Natured Man</i>, produced at
+Covent Garden Theatre, where it achieved a fair measure of success and
+brought him in &pound;400. In 1770 he repeated his triumph as a poet
+with <i>The Deserted Village</i>. He wrote a <i>History of Animated
+Nature</i>, a <i>History of England</i>, and a <i>History of Rome</i>,
+all compilations couched in that easy style of which he was master. He
+also wrote a <i>Life of Parnell</i> and a <i>Life of Bolingbroke</i>.
+Finally, in 1773, his great comedy, <i>She Stoops to Conquer</i>, was
+staged at Covent Garden, and met with wonderful success. A little more
+than a year later Goldsmith died of a nervous fever, the result of
+overwork and anxiety, and was buried in the burial ground of the
+Temple Church. His unfinished poem, <i>Retaliation</i>, a series of
+epigrams in epitaph form on some of his distinguished literary and
+artistic friends, was issued a few days after his death, and added
+greatly to his reputation as a wit and humorist, a reputation which
+was still further enhanced when, in 1776, <i>The Haunch of Venison</i>
+made its appearance. In the latter year a monument, with a medallion
+and Johnson's celebrated Latin epitaph attached, was erected to his
+memory in Westminster Abbey.</p>
+
+<p>Goldsmith's renown, great in his own day, has never since
+diminished. His essays, his novel, and his poems are still read with
+avidity and pleasure; his comedy is still acted. It is his statue that
+stands along with Burke's at the entrance gate to Trinity College,
+Dublin, the <i>alma mater</i> seeking to commemorate in a striking
+manner two of her most distinguished sons by placing their effigies
+thus in the forefront of her possessions and in full view of all the
+world. Personally, Goldsmith was a very amiable and good-hearted man,
+dear to his own circle and dear to that "Mr. Posterity" to whom he
+once addressed a humorous dedication. He had his faults, it is true,
+but they are hidden amid his many perfections. Everyone will be
+disposed to agree with what Johnson wrote of him: "Let not his
+frailties be remembered; he was a very great man."</p>
+
+<p>Edmund Burke (1729-1797), born in Dublin, the son of a Protestant
+father and a Catholic mother whose name was Nagle, was educated first
+at a Quaker school in Ballitore, Co. Kildare, and afterwards at
+Trinity College, Dublin. He became a law student in London, but he did
+not eventually adopt the law as a profession. He brought out in 1756 a
+<i>Vindication of Natural Society</i>, in which he so skilfully
+imitated the style and the paradoxical reasoning of Bolingbroke that
+many were deceived into the belief that the <i>Vindication</i> was a
+posthumously published production of the viscount's pen. In the
+following year Burke published in his own name <i>A Philosophical
+Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful</i>,
+which attracted widespread attention, was translated into German and
+French, and brought its author into touch with all the leading
+literary men of London. He was instrumental with Dodsley the publisher
+in starting the <i>Annual Register</i> in 1759, and for close on
+thirty years he continued to supply it with the "Survey of Events." He
+entered public life in 1760 by accompanying "Single-Speech" Hamilton
+to Dublin when the latter was appointed Chief Secretary for Ireland.
+In 1765 he was made private secretary to the prime minister, the
+Marquis of Rockingham, and, as member for Wendover, entered
+parliament, where he speedily made a name for himself. During Lord
+North's long tenure of office (1770-1782) Burke was one of the
+minority and opposed the splendid force of his genius to the
+corruption, extravagance, and mal-administration of the government. To
+this period belong, in addition to lesser works, his great speeches
+<i>On American Taxation</i> (1774) and <i>On Conciliation with
+America</i> (1775), as well as his spirited <i>Letter to the Sheriffs
+of Bristol</i> (1777). He had been elected member of parliament for
+Bristol in 1774, but he lost his seat in 1780 because he had advocated
+the relaxation of the restrictions on the trade of Ireland with Great
+Britain and of the penal laws against Catholics. In the second
+administration of Rockingham (1782) and in that of Portland (1783) he
+was paymaster of the forces, a position which he lost on the downfall
+of the Whigs in the latter year, and he never again held public
+office. His speech on the impeachment of Warren Hastings in 1788 is
+universally and justly ranked as a masterpiece of eloquence. When the
+French Revolution broke out, he opposed it with might and main. His
+<i>Reflections on the French Revolution</i> (1790) had an enormous
+circulation, reached an eleventh edition inside of a year, was read
+all over the continent as well as in the British Isles, and helped
+materially not only to keep England steady in the crisis, but also to
+incite the other powers to continue their resistance to French
+aggression. He continued his campaign in <i>Thoughts on French
+Affairs</i> and <i>Letters on a Regicide Peace</i>. He was given two
+pensions in 1794, and would have been raised to the peerage as Lord
+Beaconsfield, had not the succession to the title been cut off by the
+premature death of his only son. He himself died in 1797 and was
+buried at Beaconsfield, where, as far back as 1768, he had purchased a
+small estate.</p>
+
+<p>As an orator and a deep political thinker, Burke holds a foremost
+place among those of all time who distinguished themselves in the
+British parliament. His keen intellect, his powerful imagination, his
+sympathy with the fallen, the downtrodden, and the oppressed, and his
+matchless power of utterance of the thoughts that were in him have
+made an impression that can never be effaced. His wise and
+statesman-like views on questions affecting the colonies ought to
+endear him to all Americans, although, if his counsels had been
+hearkened to, it is probable that the separation from the mother
+country would not have occurred as soon as it did. For his native land
+he used his best endeavors when and how he could, and although, as her
+defender, he was faced by obloquy as well as by the loss of that
+parliamentary position which was as dear to him as the breath of his
+nostrils, he did not flinch or shrink from supporting her material and
+spiritual interests in his own generous, manly, whole-hearted way.
+Trinity College, Dublin, has done well in placing his statue at her
+outer gates as representing the greatest Irishman of his
+generation.</p>
+
+<p>A political associate of Burke's for many years was Richard
+Brinsley Sheridan (1751-1816). Of Co. Cavan descent, Sheridan was born
+in Dublin, and was educated partly in his native city and partly at
+Harrow, and the remainder of his life was spent in England. He was
+distinguished first as a playwright and afterwards as a parliamentary
+orator. In 1775 his comedy, <i>The Rivals</i>, was produced at Covent
+Garden Theatre; his farce, <i>St. Patrick's Day, or the Scheming
+Lieutenant</i>, and his comic opera, <i>The Duenna</i>, were staged in
+the same year. His greatest comedy, <i>The School for Scandal</i>, was
+acted at Drury Lane Theatre in 1777, and it was followed in 1779 by
+<i>The Critic</i>. His last dramatic composition was the tragedy,
+<i>Pizarro</i>, produced in 1799. Elected to parliament in 1780,
+Sheridan was made under-secretary for foreign affairs in the
+Rockingham administration of 1782, and in 1783 he was secretary to the
+treasury in the Coalition Ministry. He sprang into repute as a
+brilliant orator during the impeachment of Warren Hastings, 1787-1794.
+His speech on the Begums of Oude was one of the greatest ever
+delivered within the walls of the British parliament. In 1806, on the
+return of the Whigs to power, he was appointed treasurer in the navy.
+In 1812 his long parliamentary career came to a close when he was
+defeated for the borough of Westminster. He died in 1816, and was
+honored with a magnificent funeral in Westminster Abbey.</p>
+
+<p>To give an idea as to how Sheridan's oratorical powers impressed
+his contemporaries, it is perhaps enough to repeat what Burke said of
+his second speech against Warren Hastings, namely, that it was "the
+most astonishing effort of eloquence, argument, and wit united of
+which there is any record or tradition", and to add that when, after
+three hours of impassioned pleading, he brought his first speech
+against Hastings to an end, the effect produced was so great that it
+was agreed to adjourn the house immediately and defer the final
+decision until the members should be in a less excited mood. As a
+dramatist Sheridan is second in popularity to Shakespeare alone.
+<i>The School for Scandal</i> and <i>The Rivals</i> are as fresh and
+as eagerly welcomed today as they were a hundred and forty years ago.
+Like Burke, he was true to the land of his birth and his oppressed
+Catholic fellow-countrymen. Almost his last words in the house of
+commons were these: "Be just to Ireland. I will never give my vote to
+any administration that opposes the question of Catholic
+emancipation."</p>
+
+<p>Sheridan belonged to a family that was exceptionally distinguished
+in English literature. Among those who preceded him as litterateurs
+were his grandfather, the Rev. Thomas Sheridan, D.D.; his father,
+Thomas Sheridan; and his mother, Frances Sheridan. Rev. Dr. Sheridan
+(1684-1738), the friend and confidant of Dean Swift, kept a
+fashionable school in Dublin, edited the <i>Satires</i> of Persius in
+1728, wrote a treatise on <i>The Art of Punning</i>, and figures
+largely in Swift's correspondence. Thomas Sheridan (1721-1788) was at
+first an actor of considerable reputation, both in Dublin and in
+London; was next a teacher of elocution; and finally came forward with
+an improved system of education, in which oratory was to have a
+conspicuous part. In this connection he published an elaborate <i>Plan
+of Education</i> in 1769, but his ideas, some of which are in accord
+with modern practice, were not taken up, He also compiled a
+pronouncing <i>Dictionary of the English Language</i>, with a prosodic
+grammar, and in 1784 published an entertaining <i>Life of Swift</i>.
+Frances Sheridan (1724-1766), wife of Thomas and mother of Richard
+Brinsley, who as Frances Chamberlaine had been known as a poetess,
+wrote after her marriage two plays, <i>The Discovery</i> and <i>The
+Dupe</i>, and two novels, <i>The Memoirs of Miss Sidney Biddulph</i>,
+which was a great success and was translated by the Abb&eacute;
+Pr&eacute;vost into French, and <i>The History of Nourjahad</i>, an
+Oriental tale. In 1775 the singular spectacle was presented of the
+son's play running at Covent Garden while the mother's was being acted
+at Drury Lane.</p>
+
+<p>Among Sheridan's descendants who earned a niche in the temple of
+literary fame were his grand-daughters, the Countess of Dufferin
+(1807-1867) and the Hon. Mrs. Norton, afterwards Lady Stirling Maxwell
+(1808-1877), and his great-grandson, the first Marquis of Dufferin and
+Ava (1826-1902). Lady Dufferin's <i>Lament of the Irish Emigrant</i>
+("I'm sittin' on the style, Mary") has moved the hearts and brought
+tears to the eyes of countless thousands since it was published more
+than fifty years ago.</p>
+
+<p>Sir Philip Francis (1740-1818), born in Dublin, was the son of a
+clergyman of like name who attained some literary eminence as the
+translator of Horace and as a political writer. After filling various
+important government positions, Philip Francis, the son, was in 1773
+made a member of the Council of Bengal, where his relations with the
+governor-general, Warren Hastings, were of an extremely strained
+character, amounting at times almost to a public scandal. He returned
+to England in 1781, entered parliament, made a name as a speaker, took
+part in the impeachment of Hastings, and composed numerous political
+pamphlets. He is generally supposed to have been the writer of the
+celebrated <i>Letters of Junius</i>, which appeared at intervals in
+the <i>Public Advertiser</i> between January 21, 1769, and January 21,
+1772. These letters are distinguished for their polished style, their
+power of invective, their galling sarcasm, their knowledge of state
+secrets, and their unparalleled boldness. Every prominent man
+connected with the government was attacked: even the king himself was
+not spared. As revised by their pseudonymous writer in a reprint made
+in 1772, they number 70; a later edition, in 1812, contained 113 more.
+Their authorship has been the subject of much controversy, nor is the
+question yet finally settled. In his <i>Essay on Warren Hastings</i>,
+written in 1841, Macaulay went to considerable trouble to prove, by
+the cumulative method, that Francis was the writer, and since then
+that opinion has been generally, but not universally, maintained.</p>
+
+<p>Isaac Bickerstaffe (c. 1735-c. 1812) was an Irishman, whose name,
+strange to say, had no connection with the <i>nom de guerre</i> of the
+same style under which Swift had masqueraded in his outrageously
+satirical attacks on Partridge the almanac maker, or with the more
+celebrated imaginary Isaac Bickerstaffe under cover of whose
+personality Steele conducted the <i>Tatler</i>. The real Bickerstaffe
+was a prolific playwright. His best known pieces are <i>The
+Sultan</i>, <i>The Maid of the Mill</i>, <i>Lionel and Clarissa</i>,
+and <i>Love in a Village</i>. In the last-mentioned occurs the famous
+song, beginning "We all love a pretty girl&mdash;under the rose."</p>
+
+<p>William Drennan (1754-1820), who has been called the Tyrtaeus of
+the United Irishmen, was the son of a Presbyterian clergyman, was born
+in Belfast, and was educated at Glasgow and Edinburgh universities,
+taking a medical degree from the latter. He practised his profession
+in the north of Ireland. When the Irish Volunteers were established,
+Drennan entered heart and soul into the movement. Removing to Dublin
+in 1789, he associated with Tone and other revolutionary spirits, and
+became one of the founders of the Society of United Irishmen, the
+first statement of whose objects was the product of his pen. His
+<i>Letters of Orellana</i> helped materially to enlist the men of
+Ulster in the ranks of the Society. He also wrote a series of stirring
+lyrics which, voicing as they did the general sentiment in Ireland at
+the time, became extremely popular and had a widespread effect. These
+were afterwards (1815) collected under the title of <i>Fugitive
+Pieces</i>. All his political hopes being blasted with the failure of
+the rebellion of 1798 and of Emmet's insurrection in 1803, Drennan
+returned in 1807 to Belfast and there founded the <i>Belfast
+Magazine</i>. "The Wake of William Orr", a series of noble and
+affecting stanzas commemorating the judicial murder of a young
+Presbyterian Irish patriot in 1798, is one of his best known pieces.
+He also celebrated the ill-fated brothers Sheares. His song "Erin" was
+considered by Moore to be one of the most perfect of modern songs. It
+was in this piece that he fixed upon Ireland the title of the Emerald
+Isle:</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p>When Erin first rose from the dark swelling flood,</p>
+<p>God bless'd the green island, and saw it was good;</p>
+<p>The em'rald of Europe, it sparkled and shone&mdash;</p>
+<p>In the ring of the world the most precious stone.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Mary Tighe (1772-1810), whose maiden name was Blachford, was born,
+the daughter of a clergyman, in Co. Wicklow. She contracted an unhappy
+marriage with her cousin who represented Kilkenny in the Irish house
+of commons. By all accounts she was of great beauty and numerous
+accomplishments. She wrote many poems: her best, and best known, is
+<i>Psyche, or the Legend of Love</i>, an adaptation of the story of
+Cupid and Psyche from the <i>Golden Ass</i> of Apuleius. The metre she
+employed in this piece was the Spenserian stanza, which she handled
+with great power, freedom, and melody. <i>Psyche</i>, which first
+appeared in 1795, had a wonderful vogue, running rapidly through
+edition after edition. Among others to whom it appealed and who were
+influenced by it was Keats. Mrs. Tighe's talent drew from Moore a
+delicate compliment in "Tell me the witching tale again"; and in "The
+Grave of a Poetess" and "I stood where the life of song lay low", Mrs.
+Hemans bewailed her untimely death.</p>
+
+<p>Edmund Malone (1741-1813), the son of an Irish judge, was born in
+Dublin and studied at Trinity College. He was called to the Irish bar
+in 1767, but coming into a fortune, he abandoned his profession and
+gave himself over to literary work. In 1790 he brought out an edition
+of Shakespeare which was deservedly praised for its learning and
+research. His critical acumen led him to doubt the genuineness of
+Chatterton's <i>Rowley Poems</i>, and he was one of the first to
+expose Ireland's Shakespearean forgeries in 1796. Among other services
+to literature he wrote a <i>Life of Sir Joshua Reynolds</i> and edited
+Dryden. He also left a quantity of materials afterwards utilized for
+the "Variorum Shakespeare" by James Boswell the younger in 1821.</p>
+
+<p>John O'Keeffe (1747-1833), a Dublin man, was at first an art
+student, but soon became an actor, and then developed into a
+playwright. His pen was most prolific; he published a collection of
+over fifty pieces in 1798. His plays are mostly comic operas or
+farces, and some of them had great success. Lingo, the schoolmaster in
+<i>The Agreeable Surprise</i>, is a very amusing character. <i>The
+Positive Man, The Son-in-Law, Wild Oats, Love in a Camp</i>, and
+<i>The Poor Soldier</i> are among his compositions. His songs are well
+known, such as "I am a friar of orders grey", and there are few
+schoolboys who have not sooner or later made the acquaintance of his
+"Amo, amas, I loved a lass". For the last fifty-two years of his life
+O'Keeffe was blind, an affliction which he bore with unfailing
+cheerfulness. In 1826 he was given a pension of one hundred guineas a
+year from the king's privy purse.</p>
+
+<p>George Canning (1770-1827), prime minister of England, properly
+belongs here, for, although born in London, he was a member of an
+Irish family long settled at Garvagh in Co. Derry. Entering parliament
+on the side of Pitt in 1796, he was made secretary of the navy in 1804
+and in 1812 secretary of State for foreign affairs. He became prime
+minister in 1827, but died within six months, leaving a record for
+scarcely surpassed eloquence. In addition to his speeches, he is known
+in literature for his contributions to the <i>Anti-Jacobin, or Weekly
+Examiner</i>, which ran its satirical and energetic career for eight
+months (November, 1797-July, 1798.) Some of the best things that
+appeared in this ultra-conservative organ were from Canning's pen. Few
+there are who have not laughed at his <i>Loves of the Triangles</i>,
+in which he caricatured Erasmus Darwin's <i>Loves of the Plants</i>;
+at <i>The Needy Knife-Grinder</i>; or at the song of Rogero in
+<i>The Rovers</i>, with its comic refrain of the</p>
+
+<div class="poem">
+<p class="i10">U&mdash;</p>
+<p>niversity of Gottingen.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Like most of the great Anglo-Irishmen of his time, Canning favored
+Catholic emancipation. It is interesting to note that it was a letter
+of Canning's that led to the formulation of the Monroe Doctrine.</p>
+
+<p>Henry Grattan (1746-1820), the hero of Grattan's parliament, was
+born in Dublin and studied at Trinity College. His history belongs to
+that of his country. Suffice it here to say that not only did he by
+great eloquence and real statesmanship secure a free parliament for
+Ireland In 1782, but also that he fought energetically, if
+unavailingly, against the abolition of that parliament in 1800, and
+that thenceforward he devoted his abilities to promoting the cause of
+Catholic emancipation. Dying in London, he was honored by being buried
+in Westminster Abbey. In an age of great orators he stands out among
+the very foremost. His speeches have become classics, and are
+constantly quoted.</p>
+
+<p>Another brilliant Irish orator, as well as an eminent wit, of this
+period, was John Philpot Curran (1750-1817), who, born at Newmarket,
+Co. Cork, and educated at Trinity College, Dublin, achieved a
+wonderful success at the Irish bar. He defended with rare insight,
+eloquence, and patriotism those who were accused of complicity in the
+rebellion of 1798. As a member of Grattan's parliament, he voiced the
+most liberal principles, and, though a Protestant himself, he worked
+hard in the Catholic cause. He held the great office of Master of the
+Rolls in Ireland from 1806 to 1814. The memory of few Irish orators,
+wits, or patriots is greener today than that of Curran. His daughter
+Sarah, whose fate is so inextricably blended with that of the
+ill-starred Robert Emmet, has been rendered immortal by Moore in his
+beautiful song, "She is far from the land where her young hero
+sleeps".</p>
+
+<p>Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin (1759-1797), the first advocate of the
+rights of women, though born in London, was of Irish extraction. Into
+the details of her extraordinary and chequered career it is not
+possible, or necessary, here to enter. Her published works include
+<i>Thoughts on the Education of Daughters</i> (1787); <i>Answer to
+Burke's Reflections on the French Revolution</i> (1791);
+<i>Vindication of the Rights of Women</i> (1792); and an unfinished
+<i>Historical and Moral View of the French Revolution</i> (Vol. I.,
+1794). Having in August, 1797, borne to her husband, William Godwin, a
+daughter who afterwards became Shelley's second wife, Mary Godwin died
+in the following month. Whatever her faults&mdash;and they were
+perhaps not greater than her misfortunes&mdash;she had something of
+the divine touch of genius, and, in a different environment, might
+easily have left some great literary memento which the world would not
+willingly let die.</p>
+
+<p>Maria Edgeworth (1767-1849), though born at Blackbourton in
+England, belonged to a family which had been settled in different
+parts of Ireland and finally at Edgeworthstown, Co. Longford, for
+nearly two hundred years. She was the daughter of Richard Lovell
+Edgeworth (1744-1817), who was distinguished for his inventions, for
+his eccentricity, and for his varied matrimonial experiences, and who
+himself figures in literature as the author of <i>Memoirs</i>,
+posthumously published in 1820, and as the partner with his daughter
+in <i>Practical Education</i> (1798) and in an <i>Essay on Irish
+Bulls</i> (1802). Maria had a busy literary career and was before the
+public for fifty-two years from 1795 to 1847. She wrote <i>Moral
+Tales; Popular Tales; Tales from Fashionable Life</i>; and
+<i>Harrington</i>; but she is now best remembered for her three
+masterpieces dealing with Irish life and conditions, namely, <i>Castle
+Rackrent</i> (1800); <i>The Absentee</i> (1812); and <i>Ormond</i>
+(1817). By these works she inspired Scott, as he himself tells us, to
+attempt for his own country something "of the same kind with that
+which she had so fortunately achieved for Ireland", and in a later day
+she inspired Turgenief to do similarly for Russia. She excels in wit
+and pathos and gives a true and vivid presentation of the times and
+conditions as she viewed them.</p>
+
+<p>Andrew Cherry (1763-1821), born in Limerick, became an actor, a
+theatrical manager, and a playwright. He wrote nine or ten plays,
+several of which were moderately successful. The one that is now
+remembered is <i>The Soldier's Daughter</i>. Some of his songs, such
+as "The Bay of Biscay", "Tom Moody, the Whipper-in", and, especially,
+"The Green Little Shamrock of Ireland", bid fair to be immortal.</p>
+
+<p>Other Irish song-writers were Thomas Duffet (fl. 1676), author of
+"Come all you pale lovers"; Arthur Dawson (1700?-1775), author of
+"Bumpers, Squire Jones"; George Ogle (1742-1814), author of "Molly
+Asthore"; Richard Alfred Millikin (1767-1815), author of the grotesque
+"Groves of Blarney"; Edward Lysaght (1763-1811), author of "Our
+Ireland", "The Gallant Man who led the van Of the Irish Volunteers",
+and "Kate of Garnavilla"; George Nugent Reynolds (1770?-1802), author
+of "Kathleen O'More"; Thomas Dermody (1775-1802), author of the
+collection of poems and songs known as <i>The Harp of Erin</i>; James
+Orr (1770-1816), author of "The Irishman"; Henry Brereton Code (d.
+1830), author of "The Sprig of Shillelah"; Charles Wolfe (1791-1823),
+author of "If I had thought thou couldst have died", and of "The
+Burial of Sir John Moore"; and Charles Dawson Shanly (1811-1875),
+author of "Kitty of Coleraine".</p>
+
+<p>Theobald Wolfe Tone (1763-1798), born in Dublin, educated at
+Trinity College, and called to the Irish bar in 1789, fills a large
+space in the history of his country from 1790 to his death in 1798.
+Intrepid, daring, and resourceful, he was one of the most dangerous of
+the enemies to English domination in Ireland that arose at any time
+during the troubled relations between the two countries. Taken
+prisoner on board a French ship of the line bound for Ireland on a
+mission of freedom, he committed suicide in prison rather than submit
+to the ignominy of being hanged to which he had been condemned. He
+sleeps his last sleep in Bodenstown churchyard, in that county of
+Kildare to which he was connected by many ties. His grave is still the
+Mecca of many a pilgrimage, and the corner-stone of a statue to his
+memory has been laid for some years on a commanding site in the city
+of his birth. He is known in literature for his <i>Journals</i> and
+his <i>Autobiography</i>, both containing sad, but inspiring, reading
+for the Irishman of today.</p>
+
+<hr class="thoughtbreak">
+
+<p>Here this rapid survey of Irish writers of English must close. To
+tell in any sort of appropriate detail the story of the English
+literature of Ireland in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries would
+require a separate volume&mdash;a volume which is now under way and
+will, it is hoped, be speedily forthcoming. There is all the less need
+to attempt the agreeable task here, because in other portions of this
+book much more than passing reference is made to the chief Irish
+authors who, in the last hundred and fifteen years, have distinguished
+themselves and shed lustre on their country. During that period Irish
+poets, playwrights, novelists, essayists, historians, biographers,
+humorists, critics, and scholars have fully held their own both in the
+quantity and the quality of the work produced, and have left an
+impression of power and personality, of graceful style and vivifying
+imagination, that in itself constitutes, and must for ever constitute,
+one of the distinctive Glories of Ireland.</p>
+
+<h4>REFERENCES:</h4>
+
+<p>Irish Literature (10 vols., New York, 1904); Chambers's Cyclopaedia
+of English Literature (3 vols., Philadelphia and London, 1902-1904);
+Dictionary of National Biography; Encyclopaedia Britannica; Cambridge
+History of English Literature; D'Alton: History of Ireland (London,
+1910); Lennox: Early Printing in Ireland (Washington, 1909), Addison
+and the Modern Essay (Washington, 1912), Lessons in English Literature
+(21st edition, Baltimore, 1913); Macaulay: Essays, History of England;
+Brown: A Reader's Guide to Irish Fiction (London, 1910), A Guide to
+Books on Ireland (Dublin, 1912).</p>
+
+<hr class="break">
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Glories of Ireland
+by Edited by Joseph Dunn and P.J. Lennox
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+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GLORIES OF IRELAND ***
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Glories of Ireland
+by Edited by Joseph Dunn and P.J. Lennox
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: The Glories of Ireland
+
+Author: Edited by Joseph Dunn and P.J. Lennox
+
+Release Date: April 22, 2004 [EBook #12111]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GLORIES OF IRELAND ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by GF Untermeyer, Brendan Lane, and the Online Distributed
+Proofreading Team.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+THE GLORIES
+OF
+IRELAND
+
+
+EDITED BY
+
+JOSEPH DUNN, Ph.D.,
+AND
+P.J. LENNOX. Litt.D.,
+
+
+PROFESSORS AT THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA
+
+
+1914
+
+
+TO THE IRISH RACE
+IN EVERY LAND
+
+
+      _Ireland_:
+
+      "All thy life has been a symbol; we can only read a part:
+      God will flood thee yet with sunshine for the woes that
+            drench thy heart."
+
+      JOHN BOYLE O'REILLY.
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+We had at first intended that this should be a book without a
+preface, and indeed it needs none, for it speaks in no uncertain
+tones for itself; but on reconsideration we decided that it would be
+more seemly to give a short explanation of our aim, our motives, and
+our methods.
+
+As a result of innumerable inquiries which have come to us during our
+experience as educators, we have been forced to the conclusion that
+the performances of the Irish race in many fields of endeavor are
+entirely unknown to most people, and that even to the elect they are
+not nearly so well known as they deserve to be. Hence there came to
+us the thought of placing on record, in an accessible, comprehensive,
+and permanent form, an outline of the whole range of Irish
+achievement during the last two thousand years.
+
+In undertaking this task we had a twofold motive. In the first place,
+we wished to give to people of Irish birth or descent substantial
+reason for that pride of race which we know is in them, by placing in
+their hands an authoritative and unassailable array of facts as
+telling as any nation in the world can show. Our second motive was
+that henceforward he who seeks to ignore or belittle the part taken
+by men and women of Irish birth or blood in promoting the spread of
+religion, civilization, education, culture, and freedom should sin,
+not in ignorance, but against the light, and that from a thousand
+quarters at once champions armed with the panoply of knowledge should
+be able to spring to his confutation.
+
+To carry out in a satisfactory manner over a field so immense our
+lawfully ambitious aim was, as we realized at the outset, not
+possible to any two men who are primarily engaged, as we are, in
+other work of an exacting nature. Therefore, to render feasible the
+execution of our undertaking, we decided to invite the collaboration
+of many scholars and specialists, each of whom could, out of the
+fullness of information, speak with authority on some particular
+phase of the general subject. We are glad to say that the eminent
+writers to whom we addressed ourselves answered with promptitude and
+alacrity to our call, and have supplied us with such a body of
+material as to enable us to bring out a book that is absolutely
+unique.
+
+From each contributor we asked nothing but a plain verifiable
+statement of facts, and that, we think, is exactly what they have
+given us, for, while we do not make ourselves personally responsible
+for everything set down in the following pages, we believe that what
+stands written therein bears every mark of careful research and of
+absolute reliability.
+
+Although on many of our subjects little more remains to be said than
+what appears in the text, yet the treatment on the whole does not
+claim to be exhaustive, and therefore each writer has, at our
+request, appended to his contribution a short and carefully selected
+bibliography, so that those who are interested may have a guide for
+further reading. For our part, we consider these lists of works of
+reference to be a highly useful feature.
+
+It is a glorious thing for us, who are proud, one of us of his Irish
+descent and the other of his Irish birth, to think that the sons and
+daughters of mother Erin have so conspicuously distinguished
+themselves in such varied spheres of activity in every age and in so
+many lands, and that we were privileged to make public the record of
+their achievements in a form never before attempted.
+
+We have other works in contemplation, and some actually in
+preparation, which will go far to strengthen the claims put forward
+in this book. In the meantime, we trust that the reception accorded
+to it will be such as to encourage us to persevere in making still
+better known the Glories of Ireland.
+
+
+                                                JOSEPH DUNN
+                                                P.J. LENNOX
+
+      _Catholic University of America_,
+          _Washington, D.C._
+
+      November, 1914
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+THE ROMANCE OF IRISH HISTORY
+   Sir Roger Casement, C.M.G.
+
+THE ISLAND OF SAINTS AND SCHOLARS
+   Very Rev. Canon D'Alton, M.R.I.A., LL.D.
+
+IRISH MONKS IN EUROPE
+   Rev. Columba Edmonds, O.S.B.
+
+THE IRISH AND THE SEA
+   William H. Babcock, LL.B.
+
+IRISH LOVE OF LEARNING
+   Rev. P.S. Dinneen, M.A., R.U.I.
+
+IRISH MEN OF SCIENCE
+   Sir Bertram C.A. Windle, Sc.D., M.D.
+
+LAW IN IRELAND
+   Laurence Ginnell, B.L., M.P.
+
+IRISH MUSIC
+   W.H. Grattan Flood, Mus.D.
+
+IRISH METAL WORK
+   Diarmid Coffey
+
+IRISH MANUSCRIPTS
+   Louis Ely O'Carroll, B.A., B.L.
+
+THE RUINS OF IRELAND
+   Francis J. Bigger, M.R.I.A.
+
+MODERN IRISH ART
+   D.J. O'Donoghue
+
+IRELAND AT PLAY
+   Thomas E. Healy
+
+THE FIGHTING RACE
+   Joseph I.C. Clarke
+
+THE SORROWS OF IRELAND
+   John Jerome Rooney, A.M., LL.D.
+
+IRISH LEADERS
+   Shane Leslie
+
+IRISH HEROINES
+   Alice Milligan
+
+IRISH NATIONALITY
+   Lord Ashbourne
+
+FAMOUS IRISH SOCIETIES
+   John O'Dea
+
+THE IRISH IN THE UNITED STATES
+   Michael J. O'Brien
+
+THE IRISH IN CANADA
+   James J. Walsh, M.D.
+
+THE IRISH IN SOUTH AMERICA
+   Marion Mulhall
+
+THE IRISH IN AUSTRALASIA
+   Brother Leo, F.S.C., M.A.
+
+THE IRISH IN SOUTH AFRICA
+   A. Hilliard Atteridge
+
+THE IRISH LANGUAGE AND LETTERS
+   Douglas Hyde, LL.D.
+
+NATIVE IRISH POETRY
+   Georges Dottin
+
+IRISH HEROIC SAGAS
+   Eleanor Hull
+
+IRISH PRECURSORS OF DANTE
+   Sidney Gunn, M.A.
+
+IRISH INFLUENCE ON ENGLISH LITERATURE
+   Edmund C. Quiggin, M.A.
+
+IRISH FOLK LORE
+   Alfred Perceval Graves
+
+IRISH WIT AND HUMOR
+   Charles L. Graves
+
+THE IRISH THEATRE
+   Joseph Holloway
+
+IRISH JOURNALISTS
+   Michael MacDonagh
+
+THE IRISH LITERARY REVIVAL
+   Horatio S. Krans, Ph.D.
+
+IRISH WRITERS OF ENGLISH
+   P.J. Lennox, B.A., Litt. D.
+
+
+
+
+THE GLORIES OF IRELAND
+
+
+
+THE ROMANCE OF IRISH HISTORY
+
+By SIR ROGER CASEMENT, C.M.G.
+
+
+The history of Ireland remains to be written, for the purpose of
+Irishmen remains yet to be achieved.
+
+The struggle for national realization, begun so many centuries ago,
+is not ended; and if the long story offers a so frequent record of
+failure, it offers a continuous appeal to the highest motives and a
+constant exhibition of a most pathetic patriotism linked with the
+sternest courage.
+
+Irish wars, throughout all time, have been only against one enemy,
+the invader, and, ending so often in material disaster, they have
+conferred always a moral gain. Their memory uplifts the Irish heart;
+for no nation, no people, can reproach Ireland with having wronged
+them.
+
+When, at the dawn of the Christian era, we first hear of Ireland from
+external sources, we learn of it as an island harboring free men,
+whose indomitable love of freedom was hateful to the spirit of
+imperial exploitation.
+
+Agricola's advice to the empire-builders of his day was that Rome
+should "war down and take possession of Ireland, so that freedom
+might be put out of sight."
+
+It was to meet this challenge of despotism that the Scotic clans of
+Alba turned to their motherland for help, and the sea was "white with
+the hurrying oars" of the men of Erin speeding to the call of their
+Highland kinsmen, threatened with imperial servitude.
+
+The first external record we possess thus makes it clear that when
+the early Irish went forth to carry war abroad, it was not to impose
+their yoke on other peoples, or to found an empire, but to battle
+against the Empire of the World in the threatened cause they held so
+dear at home.
+
+In this early Roman reference to Ireland we get the keynote to all
+later Irish history--a warring down on the one hand, so that freedom
+might be put out of sight; an eternal resistance, on the other, so
+that it might be upheld.
+
+It was this struggle that Ireland sought to maintain against every
+form of attack, down through Danish, Norman, Tudor, Stuart, and
+Cromwellian assault, to the larger imperialism of the nineteenth
+century, when, as Thierry, the historian of the Norman Conquest,
+tells us, it still remained the one "lost cause" of history that
+refused to admit defeat. "This indomitable persistency, this faculty
+of preserving through centuries of misery the remembrance of lost
+liberty and of never despairing of a cause always defeated, always
+fatal to those who dared to defend it, is perhaps the strangest and
+noblest example ever given by any nation."
+
+The resources Ireland opposed to her invaders have been unequal to
+the founding of a great state, but have preserved a great tradition.
+The weakness of Ireland lay in the absence of a central organization,
+a state machine that could mobilize the national resources to defend
+the national life. That life had to depend for its existence, under
+the stress of prolonged invasion, on the spontaneous patriotism and
+courage of individuals. At times one clan alone, or two clans,
+maintained the struggle. Arrayed against them were all the resources
+of a mighty realm--shipping, arms, munitions of war, gold,
+statecraft, a widespread and calculating diplomacy, the prestige of a
+great Sovereign and a famous Court--and the Irish clan and its
+chieftain, by the sheer courage of its members, by their bodily
+strength and hardihood and feats of daring, for years kept the issue
+in doubt.
+
+When Hugh O'Neill, leagued with Red Hugh O'Donnell, challenged the
+might of Elizabeth, he had nothing to rely upon but the stout hearts
+and arms of the men of Tir-owen and Tir-Conail. Arms and armaments
+were far from Ulster. They could be procured only in Spain or
+elsewhere on the continent. English shipping held the sea; the
+English mint the coinage. The purse of England, compared to that of
+the Ulster princes, was inexhaustible. Yet for nine years the
+courage, the chivalry, the daring and skill of these northern
+clansmen, perhaps 20,000 men in all, held all the might of England at
+bay. Had the Spanish king at any time during the contest made good
+his promise to lend effective aid to the Irish princes, O'Neill would
+have driven Elizabeth from Ireland, and a sovereign State would today
+be the guardian of the freedom of the western seas for Europe and the
+world. It took "the best army in Europe" and a vast treasure, as Sir
+John Davies asserted, to conquer two Ulster clans three hundred years
+ago. The naked valor of the Irishman excelled the armed might of
+Tudor England; and the struggle that gave the empire of the seas to
+Britain was won not in the essay of battle, but in the assay of the
+mint.
+
+It is this aspect of the Irish fight for freedom that dignifies an
+otherwise lost cause. Ever defeated, yet undefeated, a
+long-remembering race believes that these native qualities must in
+the end prevail. The battle has been from the first one of manhood
+against might. The State Papers, the official record of English rule
+in Ireland, leave us rarely in doubt. We read in that record that,
+where the appeal was to the strength or courage of the opposing men,
+the Irish had nothing to fear from English arms.
+
+Thus the Earl of Essex, in a despatch to Elizabeth, explained the
+failure of his great expedition in 1599 against O'Neill and
+O'Donnell. "These rebels ... have (though I do unwillingly confess
+it) better bodies and perfecter use of their arms than those men whom
+your Majesty sends over." The flight of the Earls in 1607 left
+Ireland leaderless, with nothing but the bodies and hearts of the
+people to depend on. In 1613 we read, in the same records, a candid
+admission that, although the clan system had been destroyed and the
+great chiefs expropriated, converted, or driven to flight, the people
+still trusted to their own stout arms and fearless hearts:
+
+"The next rebellion, whenever it shall happen, doth threaten more
+danger to the State than any heretofore, when the cities and walled
+towns were always faithful; (1) because they have the same bodies
+they ever had and therein they had and have advantage of us; (2) from
+infancy they have been and are exercised in the use of arms; (3) the
+realm by reason of the long peace was never so full of youths; (4)
+that they are better soldiers than heretofore their continental
+employment in wars abroad assures us, and they do conceive that their
+men are better than ours."
+
+And when that "next rebellion" came, the great uprising of the
+outraged race in 1641, what do we find? Back from the continent sails
+the nephew of the great O'Neill, who had left Ireland a little boy in
+the flight of the Earls, and the dispossessed clansmen, robbed of all
+but their strength of body and heart, gathered to the summons of Owen
+Roe.
+
+Again it was the same issue: the courage and hardihood of the
+Irishman to set against the superior arms, equipment, and wealth of a
+united Britain. Irish valor won the battle; a great state
+organization won the campaign. England and Scotland combined to lay
+low a resurgent Ireland; and again the victory was not to the brave
+and skilled, but to the longer purse and the implacable mind. Perhaps
+the most vivid testimony to these innate qualities of the Irishman is
+to be found in a typically Irish challenge issued in the course of
+this ten years' war from 1641 to 1651. The document has a lasting
+interest, for it displays not only the "better body" of the Irishman,
+but something of his better heart and chivalry of soul.
+
+One Parsons, an English settler in Ireland, had written to a friend
+to say, among other things, that the head of a colonel of an Irish
+regiment then in the field against the English would not be allowed
+to stick long on its shoulders. The letter was intercepted by the
+very regiment itself, and a captain in it, Felim O'Molloy, wrote back
+to Parsons:
+
+"I will doe this, if you please. I will pick out 60 men and fight
+against 100 of your choise men, if you do but pitch your campe one
+mile out of your towne, and then, if you have the victory, you may
+threaten my colonel; otherwise do not reckon your chickens before
+they be hatched."
+
+It was this same spirit of daring, this innate belief in his own
+manhood, that for three hundred years made every Irishman the
+custodian of his country's honor.
+
+An Irish state had not been born; that battle had still to be fought;
+but the romantic effort to achieve it reveals ever an unstained
+record of personal courage. Freedom has not come to Ireland; it has
+been "warred down and kept out of sight"; but it has been kept in the
+Irish heart, from Brian Boru to Robert Emmet, by a long tale of blood
+shed always in the same cause. Freedom is kept alive in man's blood
+only by the shedding of that blood. It was this they were seeking,
+those splendid "scorners of death", the lads and young men of Mayo,
+who awaited with a fearless joy the advance of the English army fresh
+from the defeat of Humbert in 1798. Then, if ever, Irishmen might
+have run from a victorious and pitiless enemy, who having captured
+the French general and murdered, in cold blood, the hundreds of
+Killala peasants who were with his colors, were now come to Killala
+itself to wreak vengeance on the last stronghold of Irish rebellion.
+
+The ill-led and half-armed peasants, the last Irishmen in Ireland to
+stand in open, pitched fight for their country's freedom, went to
+meet the army of General Lake, as the Protestant bishop who saw them
+says, "running upon death with as little appearance of reflection or
+concern as if they were hastening to a show."
+
+The influences that begot this reverence for freedom lie in the
+island itself no less than in the remote ancestry of the people.
+Whoever looks upon Ireland cannot conceive it as the parent of any
+but freemen. Climate and soil here unite to tell man that
+brotherhood, and not domination, constitutes the only nobility for
+those who call this fair shore their motherland. The Irish struggle
+for liberty owes as much, perhaps, to the continuing influence of the
+same lakes and rivers and the same mountains as to the survival of
+any political fragments of the past. Irish history is inseparably the
+history of the land, rather than of a race; and in this it offers us
+a spectacle of a continuing national unity that long-continuing
+disaster has not been able wholly to efface or wholly to disrupt.
+
+To discover the Europe that existed before Rome we must turn to the
+East, Greece, and to the West, Ireland.
+
+Ireland alone among western lands preserves the recorded tradition,
+the native history, the continuity of mind, and, until yesterday, of
+speech and song, that connect the half of Europe with its ancestral
+past. For early Europe was very largely Celtic Europe, and nowhere
+can we trace the continuous influence of Celtic culture and idealism,
+coming down to us from a remote past, save in Ireland only.
+
+To understand the intellect of pre-Roman Gaul, of Spain, of Portugal,
+and largely of Germany, and even of Italy, we must go to Ireland.
+Whoever visits Spain or Portugal, to investigate the past of those
+countries, will find that the record stops where Rome began. Take
+England in further illustration. The first record the inhabitants of
+England have of the past of their island comes from Roman invasion.
+They know of Boadicea, of Cassivelaunus, the earliest figures in
+their history, from what a foreign destroyer tells them in an alien
+tongue.
+
+All the early life of Celtiberians and Lusitanians has passed away
+from the record of human endeavor, save only where we find it
+recorded by the Italian invaders in their own speech, and in such
+terms as imperial exploitation ever prescribes for its own
+advancement and the belittlement of those it assails. Ireland alone
+among all western nations knows her own past, from the very dawn of
+history and before the romance of Romulus began, down to the present
+day, in the tongue of her own island people and in the light of her
+own native mind. Early Irish history is not the record of the
+clan-strivings of a petty and remote population, far from the centre
+of civilization. It is the authentic story of all western
+civilization before the warm solvent of Mediterranean blood and iron
+melted and moulded it into another and rigid shape.
+
+The Irishman called O'Neill, O'Brien, O'Donnell, steps out of a past
+well-nigh co-eval with the heroisms and tragedies that uplifted
+Greece and laid Troy in ashes, and swept the Mediterranean with an
+Odyssey of romance that still gives its name to each chief island,
+cape, and promontory of the mother sea of Europe. Ireland, too, steps
+out of a story just as old. Well nigh every hill or mountain, every
+lake or river, bears the name today it bore a thousand, two thousand,
+years ago, and one recording some dramatic human or semi-divine
+event.
+
+The songs of the Munster and Connacht poets of the eighteenth and
+nineteenth centuries gave to every cottage in the land the ownership
+as well as the tale of an heroic ancestry. They linked the Ireland of
+yesterday with the Ireland of Finn and Oscar, of Diarmid and Grainne,
+of Deirdre and the Sons of Usnech, of Cuchulainn the Hound of Ulster.
+A people bred on such soul-stirring tales as these, linked by a
+language "the most expressive of any spoken on earth" in thought and
+verse and song with the very dawn of their history, wherein there
+moved, as familiar figures, men with the attributes of gods--great in
+battle, grand in danger, strong in loving, vehement in death--such a
+people could never be vulgar, could never be mean, but must repeat,
+in their own time and in their own manhood, actions and efforts thus
+ascribed as a vital part of their very origin. Hence the inspiration
+that gave the name of Fenian, in the late nineteenth century, to a
+band of men who sought to achieve by arms the freedom of Ireland. The
+law of the Fenian of the days of Marcus Aurelius was the law of the
+Fenian in the reign of Victoria--to give all--mind, body, and
+strength of purpose--to the defense of his country, "to speak truth
+and harbor no greed in his heart."
+
+Some there are who may deny to Finn and his Fenians of the second and
+third centuries corporeal existence; yet nothing is surer than that
+Ireland claims these ancestral embodiments of an heroic tradition by
+a far surer title of native record than gives to the Germans
+Arminius, to the Gauls, Ariovistus, to the British, Caractacus. This
+conception of a national life, one with the land itself, was very
+clear to the ancient Irish, just as it has been and is the foundation
+of all later national effort.
+
+"If ever the idea of nationality becomes the subject of a thorough
+and honest study, it will be seen that among all the peoples of
+antiquity, not excluding the Hellenes and the Hebrews, the Irish held
+the clearest and most conscious and constant grasp of that idea; and
+that their political divisions, instead of disproving the existence
+of the idea, in their case intensely strengthen the proof of its
+existence and emphasize its power.
+
+In the same way the remarkable absence of insular exclusiveness,
+notwithstanding their geographical position, serves to bring their
+sense of nationality into higher relief.
+
+Though pride of race is evident in the dominant Gaelic stock, their
+national sentiment centres not in the race, but altogether in the
+country, which is constantly personified and made the object of a
+sort of cult.
+
+It is worth noting that just as the Brehon Laws are the laws of
+Ireland without distinction of province or district; as the language
+of Irish literature is the language of Ireland without distinction of
+dialects; as the Dindshenchus contains the topographical legends of
+all parts of Ireland, and the Festilogies commemorate the saints of
+all Ireland; so the Irish chronicles from first to last are histories
+of the Irish nation. The true view of the Book of Invasions is that
+it is the epic of Irish Nationality." (Professor Eoin MacNeill, in a
+letter to Mrs. A.S. Green, January, 1914.)
+
+The "Book of Invasions", which Professor MacNeill here speaks of, was
+compiled a thousand years ago. To write the history of later Ireland
+is merely to prolong the "Book of Invasions", and thus bring the epic
+of Irish resistance down to our own day. All Irish valor and
+chivalry, whether of soul or of body, have been directed for a
+thousand years to this same end. It was for this that Sarsfield died
+at Landen no less than Brian at Clontarf. The monarch of Ireland at
+the head of a great Irish army driving back the leagued invaders from
+the shores of Dublin Bay in 1014, and the exiled leader in 1693,
+heading the charge that routed King William's cause in the
+Netherlands, fell on one and the same battlefield. They fought
+against the invader of Ireland.
+
+We are proudly told that the sun never sets on the British Empire.
+Wherever an Irishman has fought in the name of Ireland it has not
+been to acquire fortune, land, or fame, but to give all, even life
+itself, not to found an empire, but to strike a blow for an ancient
+land and assert the cause of a swordless people. Wherever Irishmen
+have gone, in exile or in fight, they have carried this image of
+Ireland with them. The cause of Ireland has found a hundred fields of
+foreign fame, where the dying Irishman might murmur with Sarsfield,
+"Would that this blood were shed for Ireland", and history records
+the sacrifice as made in no other cause.
+
+Ireland, too, owns an empire on which the sun never sets.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Sigerson: Bards of the Gael and Gall; O'Callaghan: History of the
+Irish Brigades; Mitchel: Life of Hugh O'Neill; Green: The Making of
+Ireland and its Undoing, Irish Nationality, The Old Irish World;
+Taylor: Life of Owen Roe O'Neill; Todhunter: Life of Patrick
+Sarsfield; Hyde: Love Songs of Connacht, Religious Songs of Connacht;
+O'Grady: Bog of Stars, Flight of the Eagle; Ferguson: Hibernian
+Nights' Entertainment; Mitchel: History of Ireland, in continuation
+of MacGeoghegan's History.
+
+
+
+THE ISLAND OF SAINTS AND SCHOLARS
+
+By CANON D'ALTON, M.R.I.A., LL.D.
+
+
+Unlike the natives of Britain and Scotland, the Irish in
+pre-Christian times were not brought into contact with Roman
+institutions or Roman culture. In consequence they created and
+developed a civilization of their own that was in some respects
+without equal. They were far advanced in the knowledge of metal-work
+and shipbuilding; they engaged in commerce; they loved music and had
+an acquaintance with letters; and when disputes arose among them,
+these were settled in duly constituted courts of justice, presided
+over by a trained lawyer, called a brehon, instead of being settled
+by the stern arbitrament of force. Druidism was their pagan creed.
+They believed in the immortality and in the transmigration of souls;
+they worshipped the sun and moon, and they venerated mountains,
+rivers, and wells; and it would be difficult to find any ministers of
+religion who were held in greater awe than the Druids.
+
+Commerce and war brought the Irish into contact with Britain and the
+continent, and thus was Christianity gradually introduced into the
+island. Though its progress at first was not rapid, there were, by
+431, several Christian churches in existence, and in that year
+Palladius, a Briton and a bishop, was sent by Pope Celestine to the
+Irish who already believed in Christ. Discouraged and a failure,
+Palladius returned to Britain after a brief stay on his mission, and
+then, in 432, the same Pope sent St. Patrick, who became the Apostle
+of Ireland.
+
+Because of the great work he did, St. Patrick is one of the prominent
+figures of history; and yet, to such an extent has the dust of time
+settled down on his life and acts that the place and year of his
+birth, the schools in which he was educated, and the year of his
+death, are all matters of dispute. There is, however, no good reason
+to depart from the traditional account, which is, that the Apostle
+was born at Dumbarton in Scotland, in the year 372; that in 388 he
+was captured by the Irish king Niall, who had gone on a plundering
+raid into Scotland; that he was brought to Ireland and sold as a
+slave, and that as such he served a pagan chief named Milcho who
+lived in what is now the county of Antrim; that from Antrim he
+escaped and went back to his own country; that he had many visions
+urging him to return to Ireland and preach the Gospel there; that,
+believing these were from God, he went to France, and there was
+educated and ordained priest, and later consecrated bishop; and then,
+accompanied by several ecclesiastics, he was sent to Ireland.
+
+From Wicklow, where he landed, he proceeded north and endeavored, but
+in vain, to convert his old pagan master Milcho; thence he proceeded
+south by Downpatrick and Dundalk to Slane in Meath, where, in sight
+of Tara, the high-king's seat, he lighted the paschal fire. At Tara
+he confounded the Druids in argument, baptized the high-king and the
+chief poet; and then, turning north and west, he crossed the Shannon
+into Connacht, where he spent seven years. From Connacht he passed
+into Donegal, and thence through Tyrone and Antrim, after which he
+entered Munster, and remained there seven years. Finally, he returned
+to Armagh, which he made his episcopal see, and died at Saul, near
+Downpatrick, in 493.
+
+St. Patrick wrote two short works, both of which have survived, his
+_Confession_ and his _Epistle to Coroticus_. In neither are there any
+graces of style, and the Latin is certainly not that of Cicero or
+Livy. But in the _Confession_ the character of the author himself is
+completely revealed--his piety, his zeal, his self-sacrifice, his
+courage in face of every danger and every trial. Not less remarkable
+was the skill with which he handled men and used pagan institutions
+for the purposes of Christianity; and equally so was the success with
+which his bloodless apostolate was crowned.
+
+One great difficulty which St. Patrick had was to provide the people
+with a native ministry. At first he selected the chief men--princes,
+brehons, bards--and these, with little training and little education,
+he ordained. Thus, slenderly equipped with knowledge, the priest,
+with his ritual, missal, and a catechism, and the bishop, with his
+crozier and bell, went forth to do battle for the Lord. This
+condition of things was soon ended. In 450 a college was founded at
+Armagh, which in a short time grew to be a famous school, and
+attracted students from afar. Other schools were founded in the fifth
+century, at Noendrum, Louth, and Kildare. In the sixth century arose
+the famous monastic schools of Clonfert, Clonard, Clonmacnois, Arran,
+and Bangor; while the seventh century saw the rise of Glendalough and
+Lismore.
+
+St. Patrick was educated in Gaul, at the monasteries of Marmoutier
+and Lerins; and, perhaps as a result, the monastic character of the
+early Irish church was one of its outstanding features; moreover it
+was to the prevalence of the monastic spirit, the desire for solitude
+and meditation, that so many of the great monastic establishments
+owed their existence. Fleeing from society and its attractions, and
+wishing only for solitude and austerity, some holy man sought out a
+lonely retreat, and there lived a life of mortification and prayer.
+Others came to share his poverty and vigils; a grant of land was then
+obtained from the ruling chief, the holy man became abbot and his
+followers his monks; and a religious community was formed destined
+soon to acquire fame. It was thus that St. Finnian established
+Clonard on the banks of the Boyne, and St. Kieran, Clonmacnois by the
+waters of the Shannon; and thus did St. Enda make the wind-swept
+Isles of Arran the home and the resting place of so many saints.
+Before the close of the sixth century, 3,000 monks followed the rule
+of St. Corngall at Bangor; and in the seventh century, St. Carthage
+made Lismore famous and St. Kevin attracted pious men from afar to
+his lonely retreat in the picturesque valley of Glendalough.
+
+And there were holy women as well as holy men in Ireland. St. Brigid
+was held in such honor that she is often called the Mary of the Gael.
+Even in St. Patrick's day, she had founded a convent at Kildare,
+beside which was a monastery of which St. Conleth was superior; and
+she founded many other convents in addition to that at Kildare. Her
+example was followed by St. Ita, St. Fanchea, and many others; and if
+at the close of the sixth century there were few districts which had
+not monasteries and monks, there were few also which had not convents
+and nuns.
+
+Nor was this all. Fired with missionary zeal, many men left Ireland
+to plant the faith in distant lands. Thus did St. Columcille settle
+in Iona, whence he converted the Picts. Under his successors, St.
+Aidan and his friends went south to Lindisfarne to convert
+Northumbria in England; and the ninth abbot of Iona was the saintly
+Adamnan, whose biography of St. Columcille has been declared by
+competent authority to be the best of its kind of which the whole
+Middle Ages can boast. Nor must it be forgotten that the monasteries
+of Luxeuil and Bobbio owed their origin to St. Columbanus; that St.
+Gall gave his name to a town and canton in Switzerland; that St.
+Fridolin labored on the Rhine and St. Fursey on the Marne; and that
+St. Cathaldus was Bishop of Tarentum, and is still venerated as the
+patron of that Italian see.
+
+And if we would know what was the character of the schools in which
+these men were trained, we have only to remember that Colgu, who had
+been educated at Clonmacnois, was the master of Alcuin; that Dicuil
+the Geographer came from the same school; that Cummian, Abbot and
+Bishop of Clonfert, combated the errors about the paschal computation
+with an extent of learning and a wealth of knowledge amazing in a
+monk of the seventh century; and that at the close of the eighth
+century two Irishmen went to the court of Charlemagne and were
+described by a monk of St. Gall as "men incomparably skilled in human
+learning". The once pagan Ireland had by that time become a citadel
+of Christianity, and was rightfully called the School of the West,
+the Island of Saints and Scholars.
+
+With this state of progress and prosperity the Danes played sad
+havoc. Animated with the fiercest pagan fanaticism, they turned with
+fury against Christianity, and especially against monks and religious
+foundations. Armagh, Clonmacnois, Bangor, Kildare, and many other
+great monastic establishments thus fell before their fury. Ignorance,
+neglect of religion, and corruption of manners followed, and from the
+eighth to the twelfth century there was a noted falling off in the
+number of Irish scholars. At home indeed were Cormac and Maelmurra,
+O'Hartigan and O'Flynn, and abroad was John Scotus Erigena, whose
+learning was so great that it excited astonishment even at Rome. The
+love of learning and zeal for religion lived on through this long
+period of accumulated disasters. After the triumph of Brian Boru at
+Clontarf, there was a distinct revival of piety and learning; and,
+when a century of turmoil followed Brian's fall and religion again
+suffered, nothing was wanted to bring the people back to a sense of
+their duty but the energy and reforming zeal of St. Malachy.
+
+Gerald Barry, the notorious Anglo-Norman, who visited Ireland towards
+the close of the twelfth century, has been convicted out of his own
+mouth when he states that Ireland was a barbarous nation when his
+people came there. He forgot that a people who could illuminate the
+Book of Kells and build Cormac's Chapel could not be called savages,
+nor could a church be lost to a sense of decency and dignity that
+numbered among its children such a man as St. Laurence O'Toole.
+Abuses there were, it is true, consequent on long continued war,
+though these abuses were increased rather than lessened by the coming
+of the Anglo-Normans, and to such an extent that for more than two
+centuries there is not a single great name among Irish scholars
+except Duns Scotus.
+
+The fame of Duns Scotus was European, and the Subtle Doctor, as he
+was called, became the great glory of the Franciscan, as his rival
+St. Thomas was the great glory of the Dominican, order. But he left
+no successor, and from his death, at the opening of the fourteenth
+century, till the seventeenth century the number of Irish scholars or
+recognized Irish saints was small. Yet, in the midst of disorders
+within, and despite oppression from without, at no time did the love
+of learning disappear in Ireland; nor was there ever in the Irish
+church either heresy or schism.
+
+The attempted reformation by Henry VIII and his daughter Elizabeth
+produced martyrs like O'Hurley and O'Hely; and there were many more
+martyrs in the time of the Stuarts, and especially under the short
+but sanguinary rule of Cromwell.
+
+Those were the days of the penal laws, when they who clung to the old
+religion suffered much. But nothing could shake their faith; neither
+the proclamations of Elizabeth and James, the massacres of Cromwell,
+nor the ferocious proscriptions of the eighteenth century. The priest
+said Mass, though his crime was punishable by death, and the people
+heard Mass, though theirs also was a criminal offence; and the
+schoolmaster, driven from the school, taught under a sheltering
+hedge. The clerical student, denied education at home, crossed the
+sea, to be educated at Louvain or Salamanca or Seville, and then,
+perhaps loaded with academic honors, he returned home to face poverty
+and persecution and even death. The Catholic masses, socially
+ostracised, degraded, and impoverished, shut out from every avenue to
+ambition or enterprise, deprived of every civil right, knowing
+nothing of law except when it oppressed them and nothing of
+government except when it struck them down, yet clung to the religion
+in which they were born. And when, in the latter half of the
+eighteenth century, the tide turned and the first dawn of toleration
+appeared on the horizon, it was found that the vast majority of the
+people were unchanged, and that, after two centuries of the most
+relentless persecution since the days of Diocletian, Ireland was, in
+faith and practice, a strongly Catholic nation still.
+
+On a soil constantly wet with the blood and tears of its children, it
+would be vain to expect that scholarship could flourish. And yet the
+period had its distinguished Irish scholars both at home and abroad.
+At Louvain, in the sixteenth century, were Lombard and Creagh, who
+both became Archbishops of Armagh, and O'Hurley who became Archbishop
+of Cashel. An even greater scholar than these was Luke Wadding, the
+eminent Franciscan who founded the convent of St. Isidore at Rome. At
+Louvain was John Colgan, a Franciscan like Wadding, a man who did
+much for Irish ecclesiastical history. And at home in Ireland, as
+parish priest of Tybrid in Tipperary, was the celebrated Dr. Geoffrey
+Keating the historian, once a student at Salamanca. John Lynch, the
+renowned opponent of Gerald Barry the Welshman, was Archdeacon of
+Tuam. And in the ruined Franciscan monastery of Donegal, the Four
+Masters, aided and encouraged by the Friars, labored long and
+patiently, and finally completed the work which we all know as the
+_Annals of the Four Masters_. This work, originally written in Irish,
+remained in manuscript in Louvain till the middle of the nineteenth
+century, when it was edited and translated into English by John
+O'Donovan, one of Ireland's greatest Irish scholars, with an ability
+and completeness quite worthy of the original.
+
+On the Anglo-Irish side there were also some great names, and
+especially in the domain of history, notably Stanyhurst and Hammer,
+Moryson and Campion and Davies, and, above all, Ussher and Ware.
+James Ware died in 1666, and though a Protestant and an official of
+the Protestant government, and living in Ireland in an intolerant age
+and in an atmosphere charged with religious rancor, he was, to his
+credit be it said, to a large extent free from bigotry. He dealt with
+history and antiquities, and wrote in no party spirit, wishing only
+to be fair and impartial, and to set out the truth as he found it.
+James Ussher, Archbishop of Armagh, was a much abler man and a much
+greater scholar than Ware. His capacity for research, his profound
+scholarship, the variety and extent of his learning raised him far
+above his co-religionists, and he has been rightly called the Great
+Luminary by the Irish Protestant church. It is regrettable that his
+fine intellect was darkened by bigotry and intolerance.
+
+Far different was the character of another Protestant bishop, the
+great Berkeley, of Cloyne, a patriot, a philosopher, and a scholar,
+who afterwards left money and books for a scholarship, which is still
+in existence, at the then infant Yale College in New England. He
+lived in the first half of the eighteenth century, when the whole
+machinery of government was ruthlessly used to crush the Catholics.
+But Berkeley had little sympathy with the penal laws; he had words of
+kindness for the Catholics, and undoubtedly wished them well. Nor
+must Swift be forgotten, for though he took little pride in being an
+Irishman, he hated and despised those who oppressed Ireland, and is
+rightly regarded as one of the greatest of her sons.
+
+The short period during which Grattan's parliament existed was one of
+great prosperity. It was then that Maynooth College was established
+for the education of the Irish priesthood. But Catholics, though free
+to set up schools, were still shut out from the honors and emoluments
+of Trinity College, the one university at that time in Ireland.
+Still, Charles O'Connor, MacGeoghegan, and O'Flaherty were great
+Catholic scholars in the latter part of the eighteenth century.
+
+In the following century, while Protestant ascendancy was still
+maintained, the Catholics had greater scope. Away back in the days of
+Queen Elizabeth, Campion found Latin widely spoken among the
+peasantry, and Father Mooney met country lads familiar with Virgil
+and Homer. In 1670, Petty had a similar story to tell, in spite of
+all the savageries of Cromwell and the ruin which necessarily
+followed. And in the eighteenth century the schoolmaster, though a
+price was set on his head, was still active. With an inherited love
+of learning, the Irish in the nineteenth century would have made
+rapid progress had they been rich. But their impoverishment by the
+penal laws made it impossible for them to set up an effective system
+of primary education, and until the national school system came into
+existence in 1831, they had to rely on the hedge-schools. Secondary
+education fared better, for the bishops, relying with confidence on
+the generosity of their flocks, were soon able to establish diocesan
+colleges. And in higher education, equally determined efforts were
+made by the establishment of the Catholic University under Cardinal
+Newman. But in this field of intellectual effort, in spite of the
+energy and zeal of the bishops, in spite of the great generosity of
+the people, so many of whom were poor, and in spite of the fame of
+Newman, it is failure rather than success which the historian has to
+record.
+
+Nor has the love of the Irish for religion, any more than their love
+of learning, been lessened or enfeebled by time. The mountain side as
+the place for Mass in the penal days gradually gave way to the rude
+stone church without steeple or bell; and when steeple and bell
+ceased to be proscribed, and the people were left free to erect
+suitable houses of sacrifice and prayer, the fine churches of the
+nineteenth century began gradually to appear. The unfettered exercise
+of freedom of religious worship, the untiring efforts of a zealous
+clergy and episcopate, the unstinted support of a people, who out of
+their poverty grudged nothing to God or to God's house, formed an
+irresistible combination, and all over the country beautiful churches
+are now to be found.
+
+In every diocese in Ireland, with scarcely an exception, there is now
+a stately cathedral to perpetuate the renown of the patron saint of
+that diocese, and even parish churches have been built not unworthy
+to be the churches of an ancient see. At Armagh, a cathedral has been
+built which does honor to Irish architecture, and worthily
+commemorates the life and labors of St. Patrick, the founder of the
+primatial see; at Thurles, a cathedral stands, the chief church of
+the southern province, statelier far than any which ever stood on the
+Rock of Cashel; at Tuam, a noble building, associated with the memory
+of John MacHale, the Lion of the Fold of Judah, perpetuates the name
+of St. Jarlath; at Queenstown, the traveller, going to America or
+returning from it to the old land, has his attention attracted to the
+splendid cathedral pile sacred to St. Colman, the patron saint of the
+diocese of Cloyne; and if we would see how splendid even a parish
+church may be, let us visit the beautiful church in Drogheda,
+dedicated to the memory of Oliver Plunkett.
+
+Nor are these things the only evidence we have that zeal for religion
+among the Irish has survived centuries of persecution. Columbanus and
+Columcille have still their successors, eager and ready as they were
+to bring the blessings of the Gospel to distant lands. In recent
+years an Irish-born Archbishop of Sydney has been succeeded by an
+Irish-born Archbishop; an Irishman rules the metropolitan see of
+Adelaide; and an Irish-born Archbishop of Melbourne has as his
+coadjutor a former president of the College of Maynooth. In South
+Africa, the work of preaching and teaching and ruling the church is
+largely the work of Irish-born men. In the great Republic of the West
+the three cardinal-archbishops at the head of the Catholic Church
+have the distinctively Irish names of Gibbons and Farley and
+O'Connell; and in every diocese throughout the United States the
+proportion of priests of Irish birth or descent is large.
+
+Nor must the poorer Irish be forgotten. How much does the Catholic
+Church, both in Ireland and in America, owe to the generosity of
+Irish-American laborers and servant girls! Out of their scanty and
+hard-earned pay they have contributed much not only towards the
+building of the plain wooden church in the rural parishes, but also
+of the stately cathedrals of American cities. And many a church in
+old Ireland owes its completion and its adornment to the dollars
+given by the poor but generous Irish exiles.
+
+And if the zeal of the Irish for religion has thus survived to the
+twentieth century, so also in an equally remarkable degree has their
+zeal for learning. We have evidence of this in the numerous primary
+schools in every parish, filled with eager pupils and presided over
+by hard working teachers; in the colleges where the sciences and the
+classics are studied with the same energy as in the ancient monastic
+schools; and in Maynooth College, which is the foremost
+ecclesiastical college in the world. And if there are now new
+universities, the National and the Queen's, sturdy and vigorous in
+their youth, this does not imply that Trinity College suffers from
+the decreptitude of age. For among those whom she sent forth in
+recent times are Dowden and Mahaffy and Lecky, to name but three, and
+these would do credit to any university in Europe.
+
+It would be difficult to find in any age of Irish history a greater
+pulpit orator than the famous Dominican, Father Tom Burke, or a more
+delightful essayist than Father Joseph Farrell; and who has depicted
+Irish clerical life more faithfully than the late Canon Sheehan,
+whose fame as a novelist has crossed continents and oceans? O'Connell
+was a great orator as well as a great political leader, and Dr. Doyle
+and Archbishop John MacHale were scholars as well as statesmen and
+bishops. We have thus an unbroken chain of great names, a series of
+Irishmen whom the succeeding ages have brought forth to enlighten and
+instruct lesser men; and Ireland, in the twentieth century, is not
+less attached to religion and learning than she was when Clonmacnois
+flourished and the saintly Carthage ruled at Lismore.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Joyce: Social History of Ancient Ireland (Dublin, 1903); Lanigan:
+Ecclesiastical History of Ireland (Dublin, 1822); Healy: Ireland's
+Ancient Schools and Scholars (Dublin, 1896), Life and Writings of St.
+Patrick (Dublin, 1905); Bury: St. Patrick and his Place in History
+(London, 1905); Ussher's Works (Dublin, 1847); Reeves: Adamnan's Life
+of St. Columba (Dublin, 1851); Worsae: The Danes in Ireland (London,
+1852); Moran: Essays on the Early Irish Church (Dublin, 1864);
+Stokes: Ireland and the Anglo-Norman Church (London, 1897); Mant:
+History of the Church of Ireland (London, 1841); Bagwell: Ireland
+under the Tudors (London, 1885-90); Moran: Persecutions under the
+Puritans (Callan, 1903); Murphy: Our Martyrs (Dublin, 1896); Meehan:
+Franciscan Monasteries of the Seventeenth Century (Dublin, 1870);
+Lecky: History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century (London, 1902);
+O'Connell's Correspondence (London, 1888); Wyse: History of the
+Catholic Association (London, 1829); Doyle: Letters on the State of
+Ireland (Dublin, 1826); O'Rorke: Irish Famine (Dublin, 1902); Gavan
+Duffy: Young Ireland (London, 1880); Plunkett: Ireland in the New
+Century (London, 1904); O'Riordan: Catholicity and Progress in
+Ireland (London, 1905); MacCaffery: History of the Church in the
+Nineteenth Century (Dublin, 1909); Healy: Centenary History of
+Maynooth College (Dublin, 1905); D'Alton: History of Ireland (London,
+1910).
+
+
+
+IRISH MONKS IN EUROPE
+
+By Rev. Columba Edmonds, O.S.B.
+
+
+St. Patrick's work in Ireland was chiefly concerned with preaching
+the faith and establishing monasteries which served as centres of
+education. The great success that attended these efforts earned for
+Ireland the double title of Island of Saints and a Second Thebaid.
+
+The monastic institutions organized by St. Patrick were characterized
+from their commencement by an apostolic zeal that knew no bounds.
+Sufficient scope was not to be found at home, so it was impatient to
+diffuse itself abroad.
+
+SCOTLAND: Hence in the year 563 St. Columcille, a Donegal native of
+royal descent, accompanied by twelve companions, crossed the sea in
+currachs of wickerwork and hides, and sought to land in Caledonia.
+They reached the desolate Isle of Iona on the day preceding
+Whitsunday.
+
+Many years before, colonies of Irishmen had settled along the western
+parts of the present Scotland. The settlement north of the Clyde
+received the name of the Kingdom of Dalriada. These Dalriadan Irish
+were Christian at least in name, but their neighbors in the Pictish
+Highlands were still pagans. Columcille's apostolate was to be among
+both these peoples. Adamnan says that Columcille came to Caledonia
+"for the love of Christ's name", and well did his after-life prove
+the truth of this statement. He had attained his forty-fourth year
+when King Conall, his kinsman, bestowed Iona upon him and his
+brethren. The island, situated between the Dalriadans and the Picts
+of the Highlands, was conveniently placed for missionary work. A
+numerous community recruited from Ireland, with Columcille as its
+Abbot, soon caused Iona to become a flourishing centre from which men
+could go forth to preach Christianity. Monasteries and hermitages
+rapidly sprang up in the adjacent islands and on the mainland. These,
+together with the Columban foundations in Ireland, formed one great
+religious federation, in which the Celtic apostles of the northern
+races were formed under the influence of the holy founder.
+
+St. Columcille recognized the need of securing permanence for his
+work by obtaining the conversion of the Pictish rulers, and thus he
+did not hesitate to approach King Brude in his castle on the banks of
+the River Ness. St. Comgall and St. Canice were Columcille's
+companions on his journey through the great glen, now famous for the
+Caledonian Canal. The royal convert Brude was baptized, and by
+degrees the people followed the example set them. Opposition,
+however, was keen and aggressive, and it came from the official
+representatives of Pictish paganism--the Druids.
+
+Success, too, attended Columcille's ministrations among the
+Dalriadans, and on the death of their king, Aidan Gabhran, who
+succeeded to the throne, sought regal consecration from the hands of
+Columcille. In 597 the saint died, but not before he had won a whole
+kingdom to Christ and covered the land with churches and monasteries.
+Today his name is held in honor not by Irishmen alone, but by the
+Catholics and non-Catholics of the land of his adoption.
+
+There are other saints who either labored in person with Columcille
+or perpetuated the work he accomplished in Caledonia; and their names
+add to the glory of Ireland, their birth-land. Thus St. Moluag (592)
+converted the people of Lismore, and afterwards died at Rosemarkie;
+St. Drostan, St. Columcille's friend and disciple, established the
+faith in Aberdeenshire and became abbot of Deer; St. Kieran (548)
+evangelized Kintyre; St. Mun (635) labored in Argyleshire; St. Buite
+(521) did the same in Pictland; St. Maelrubha (722) preached in
+Ross-shire; St. Modan and St. Machar benefited the dwellers on the
+western and eastern coasts respectively; and St. Fergus in the eighth
+century became apostle of Forfar, Buchan, and Caithness.
+
+DISTANT ISLANDS: But Irish monks were mariners as well as apostles.
+Their hide-covered currachs were often launched in the hope of
+discovering solitudes in the ocean. Adamnan records that Baitan set
+out with others in search of a desert in the sea. St. Cormac sought a
+similar retreat and arrived at the Orkneys. St. Molaise's holy isle
+guards Lamlash Bay, off Arran. The island retreats of the Bass,
+Inchkeith, May, and Inchcolm, in the Firth of Forth, are associated
+with the Irish saints Baldred, Adamnan, Adrian, and Columcille. St.
+Maccaldus, a native of Down, became bishop of the Isle of Man.
+
+Remarkable, too, is the fact that Irish monks sailed by way of the
+Faroe Islands to distant Iceland. These sailor-clerics, who settled
+on the southeast of the island, were spoken of by later Norwegians as
+"papar." After their departure--they were probably driven away by
+Norwegian pagans--these Icelandic apostles "left behind them Irish
+books, bells, and croziers, wherefrom one could understand they were
+Irishmen."
+
+But St. Brendan, the voyager, is the most wonderful of the mariner
+monks of Ireland. He accomplished apostolic work in both Wales and
+Scotland, but his seafaring instincts urged him to make missionary
+voyages to regions hitherto unknown. Some writers, not without
+reason, have actually maintained that he and his followers traveled
+as far as the American shore. Be this as it may, the tradition of the
+discoveries of this Irish monk kept in mind the possibly existing
+western land, and issued at last in the discovery of the great
+continent of America by Columbus.
+
+NORTHUMBRIA: Turn now to Northumbria. Adamnan writes that St.
+Columcille's name was honored not only in Gaul, Spain, and Italy, but
+in Rome itself. England, however, owes to it a special veneration,
+because of the widespread apostolic work accomplished within her
+borders by Columcille's Irish disciples. The facts are as follows:
+Northumbrian Christianity was well-nigh exterminated through the
+victory of Penda the pagan over Edwin the Christian, A.D. 633. St.
+Paulinus, its local Roman apostle, was driven permanently from his
+newly founded churches. Meanwhile Oswald and his brother Edwith
+sought refuge among the Irish monks of lona, and received baptism at
+their hands. Edwith died and Oswald became heir to the throne. A
+battle was fought. The day before he met the pagan army, between the
+Tyne and the Solway, Oswald beheld St. Columcille in vision saying to
+him: "Be strong and of good faith; I will be with thee." The result
+of this vision of the abbot of Iona was that a considerable part of
+England received the true faith. Oswald was victorious; he united the
+kingdoms of Deira and Bernicia, and became overlord of practically
+all England, with the exception of Kent. There was evangelization to
+be done, and St. Oswald turned to Iona. In response to his appeal,
+the Irish bishop, St. Aidan, was sent with several companions. They
+were established on the island of Lindisfarne, in sight of the royal
+residence at Bamborough. These monks labored in union with, and even
+seemed to exceed in zeal, the Roman missionaries in the south under
+St. Augustine. However great the enthusiasm they had displayed for
+conversions in Iona, they displayed still greater on the desolate
+isle of Lindisfarne. In the first instance St. Aidan and his monks
+evangelized Northumbria. Want of facility in preaching in the
+Anglo-Saxon tongue was at first an obstacle, but it was speedily
+overcome, for king Oswald himself, who knew both Gaelic and English,
+came forward and acted as interpreter.
+
+When St. Aidan died in 651, Iona sent St. Finan, another Irish
+bishop, to succeed him. Finan spread the faith beyond the borders of
+Northumbria and succeeded so well that he himself baptized Penda,
+king of the Mid-Angles, and Sigebert, king of the East Saxons. Diuma
+and Cellach, Irish monks, assisted by three Anglo-Saxon disciples of
+St. Aidan, consolidated the mission to the Mercians.
+
+ANGLIA: While Christianity was thus being restored in Northumbria,
+other Irish apostles were teaching it in East Anglia. St. Fursey,
+accompanied by his brother St. Foillan and St. Ultan and the priests
+Gobham and Dicuil, landed in England in 633, and began to labor in
+the eastern portions of Anglia. In his monastery at Burghcastle, in
+Suffolk, the convert king Sigebert made his monastic profession, and
+in the same house many heavenly visions were vouchsafed to its
+founder.
+
+The South Saxons had in Dicuil an apostle who founded the monastery
+of Bosham in Sussex, whence originated the episcopal see of
+Chichester. Another Irish monk named Maeldubh settled among the West
+Saxons and became the founder of Malmesbury Abbey and the instructor
+of the well-known St. Aldhelm.
+
+Thus did Irish monks contribute to the conversion of Great Britain
+and its many distant islands. They built up the faith by their holy
+lives, their preaching, and their enthusiasm, and wisely provided for
+its perpetuation by educating a native clergy and by the founding of
+monastic institutions.
+
+They were not yet satisfied, so they turned towards other lands to
+bring to other peoples the glad tidings of salvation.
+
+GAUL: In 590 St. Columbanus, a monk of Bangor in Ireland, accompanied
+by twelve brethren, arrived in France, having passed through Britain.
+After the example of St. Columcille in Caledonia, they traveled to
+the court of Gontram, king of Burgundy, in order to secure his help
+and protection. During the course of the journey they preached to the
+people, and all were impressed with their modesty, patience, and
+devotion. At that epoch Gaul was sadly in need of such missionaries,
+for, owing partly to the invasion of barbarians and partly to
+remissness on the part of the clergy, vice and impiety everywhere
+prevailed. Columbanus, because of his zeal, sanctity, and learning,
+was well fitted for the task that lay before him. One of his early
+works in Burgundy was the founding of the monastery of Luxeuil, which
+became the parent of many other monasteries founded either by himself
+or by his disciples. Many holy men came from Ireland to join the
+community, and so numerous did the monks of Luxeuil become that
+separate choirs were formed to keep up perpetual praise--the "laus
+perennis". But Columbanus did not remain at Luxeuil. In his strict
+uncompromising preaching he spared not even kings, and he preferred
+to leave his flourishing monastery rather than pass over in silence
+the vices of the Merovingians. He escaped from the malice of
+Brunehaut, and, being banished from Burgundy, made his way to
+Neustria, and thence to Metz. Full of zeal, he resolved to preach the
+faith to the pagans along the Rhine, and with this purpose set out
+with a few of his followers. They proceeded as far as the Lake of
+Zurich, and finally established themselves at Bregentz, on the Lake
+of Constance.
+
+By this time his disciple St. Gall had learned the Alemannian
+dialect, which enabled him to push forward the work of
+evangelization. But Columbanus felt that he was called to labor in
+other lands while vigor remained to him, so, bidding his favorite
+follower farewell, he crossed the Alps and arrived at Milan in
+northern Italy. King Agilulph and his queen, Theodelinda, gave the
+Irish abbot a reverent and kind welcome. His zeal was still unspent,
+and he worked much for the conversion of the Lombard Arians. Here he
+founded, between Milan and Genoa, the monastery of Bobbio, which as a
+centre of knowledge and piety was long the light of northern Italy.
+In this monastery he died in the year 615, but not before the arrival
+of messengers from King Clothaire, inviting him to return to Luxeuil,
+as his enemies were now no more. But he could not go; all he asked
+was protection for his dear monks at Luxeuil.
+
+It has been said most truly that Ireland never sent a greater son to
+do God's work in foreign lands than Columbanus. The fruit of his
+labors remained; and for centuries after his death his influence was
+widely felt throughout Europe, especially in France and Italy. His
+zeal for the interests of God was unbounded, and this was the secret
+of his immense power. Some of his writings have come down to us, and
+comprise his Rule for Monks, his Penitential, sixteen short sermons,
+six letters, and several poems, all in Latin. His letters are of much
+value as evidence of Ireland's ancient belief in papal supremacy.
+
+SWITZERLAND: Gall, Columbanus's disciple, remained in Switzerland. In
+a fertile valley, lying between two rivers and surrounded by hills,
+he laid the beginnings of the great abbey which afterwards bore his
+name and became one of the most famous monasteries in Christendom.
+St. Gall spent thirty years of his life in Helvetia, occupying
+himself in teaching, preaching, and prayer. He succeeded where others
+had failed, and that which was denied to Columbanus was reserved for
+Gall, his disciple, and the latter is entitled the Apostle of
+Alemannia.
+
+Other districts had their Irish missionaries and apostles. Not far
+from St. Gall, at Seckingen, near Basle, St. Fridolin was a pioneer
+in the work of evangelization.
+
+Towards the close of the seventh century St. Kilian, an Irishman,
+with his companions, Totnan and Colman, arrived in Franconia. He was
+martyred in Wuertzburg, where he is honored as patron and apostle.
+
+Sigisbert, another Irish follower of St. Columbanus, spread the faith
+among the half-pagan people of eastern Helvetia, and founded the
+monastery of Dissentis in Rhaetia.
+
+St. Ursanne, a little town on the boundaries of Switzerland, took its
+origin from another disciple of St. Columbanus.
+
+OTHER APOSTLES AND FOUNDERS: Desire for solitary life drew St. Fiacre
+to a hermitage near Meaux, where he transformed wooded glades into
+gardens to provide vegetables for poor people. This charity has
+earned for Fiacre the title of patron saint of gardeners.
+
+St. Fursey, the illustrious apostle of East Anglia, crossed over to
+France, where he travelled and preached continuously. He built a
+monastery at Lagny-sur-Marne, and was about to return to East Anglia
+when he died at Mezerolles, near Doullens. St. Gobham followed his
+master's example, and like him evangelized and founded monasteries.
+St. Etto (Ze) acted in like manner. St. Foillan and St. Ultan,
+brothers of St. Fursey, became apostles in southern Brabant.
+
+The monastery of Honau, on an island near Strasburg, and that of
+Altomuenster, in Bavaria, owe their foundation to the Irish monks
+Tuban and Alto, respectively.
+
+Not far from Luxeuil was the Abbey of Lure, another great Irish
+foundation, due to Deicolus (Desle, Dichuill), a brother of St. Gall
+and a disciple of St. Columbanus. So important was this house
+considered in later times that its abbot was numbered among the
+princes of the Holy Roman Empire.
+
+Rouen, in Normandy, felt the influence of the Irish monks through the
+instrumentality of St. Ouen; and the monasteries of Jouarre, Rebais,
+Jumieges, Leuconaus, and St. Vandrille were due at least indirectly
+to Columbanus or his disciples.
+
+Turning to Belgium, it is recorded that St. Romold preached the faith
+in Mechlin, and St. Livinus in Ghent. Both came from Ireland.
+
+St. Virgilius, a voluntary exile from Erin, "for the love of Christ",
+established his monastery at Salzburg, in Austria. He became bishop
+there, and died in 781.
+
+Moreover, the Celtic Rule of Columbanus was carried into Picardy by
+St. Valery, St. Omer, St. Bertin, St. Mummolin, and St. Valdelenus;
+but the Irish Caidoc and Fricor had already preceded them, their work
+resulting in the foundation of the Abbey of St. Riquier.
+
+ITALY: Something yet remains to be said of the monks of Ireland in
+Italy. Anterior to St. Columbanus's migration, his fellow countryman,
+St. Frigidian (or Fridian), had taken up his abode in Italy at Monte
+Pisana, not far from the city of Lucca, where he became famed for
+sanctity and wisdom. On the death of the bishop of Lucca, Frigidian
+was compelled to occupy the vacant see. St. Gregory the Great wrote
+of him that "he was a man of rare virtue". His teachings and holy
+life not only influenced the lives of his own flock, but brought to
+the faith many heretics and pagans. In Lucca this Celtic apostle is
+still honored under the name of St. Frediano.
+
+St. Pellegrinus is another Irish saint who sought solitude at
+Garfanana in the Apennines; and Cathaldus, a Waterford saint, in 680,
+became Bishop of Taranto, which he governed for many years with zeal
+and great wisdom. His co-worker was Donatus, his brother, who founded
+the church at Lecce in the Kingdom of Naples.
+
+Of the two learned Irishmen, Clemens and Albinus, who resided in
+France in the eighth century, Albinus was sent into Italy, where at
+Pavia he was placed at the head of the school attached to St.
+Augustine's monastery. Dungal, his compatriot, was a famous teacher
+in the same city. Lothair thus ordained concerning him: "We desire
+that at Pavia, and under the superintendence of Dungal, all students
+should assemble from Milan, Brescia, Lodi, Bergamo, Novara, Vercelli,
+Tortona, Acqui, Genoa, Asti, Como."
+
+It was this same Dungal who presented the Bangor psalter to Bobbio;
+therefore it may be reasonably conjectured that he came from the very
+monastery that produced Columbanus, Gall, and Comgall.
+
+Fiesole, in Tuscany, venerates two Irish eighth-century saints,
+Donatus and Andrew. The former was educated at Iniscaltra, and Andrew
+was his friend and disciple. After visiting Rome, they lingered at
+Fiesole. Donatus was received with great honor by clergy and people
+and was requested to fill their vacant bishopric. With much
+hesitation he took upon himself ihe burden, which he bore for many
+years. His biographer says of him that "he was liberal in almsgiving,
+sedulous in watching, devout in prayer, excellent in doctrine, ready
+in speech, holy in life." Andrew, who was his deacon, founded the
+church and monastery of St. Martin in Mensola, and is known in
+Fiesole as St. Andrew of Ireland, or St. Andrew the Scot, that is,
+the Irishman.
+
+HOSPITALIA: Thus Irish monks were to be found in France, Belgium,
+Switzerland, Germany, and Italy, and even in Bulgaria. So numerous
+were they and so frequent their travels through the different
+countries of Europe that hospices were founded to befriend them.
+These institutions were known as "Hospitalia Scottorum" ("Hospices
+for the Irish"), and their benefactors were not only pious laymen but
+the highest ecclesiastical authorities. Sometimes the hospices were
+diverted to purposes other than those originally intended, and then
+Church Councils would intervene in favor of the lawful inheritors.
+Thus in 845 we read that the Council of Meaux ordered the hospices in
+France to be restored to the dispossessed Irishmen. In the twelfth
+century Ireland still continued to send forth a constant succession
+of monk-pilgrims, renowned for faith, austerity, and piety.
+
+RATISBON: Special monasteries were erected to be peopled by the
+Irish. The most renowned of these dates from 1067, when Marianus
+Scotus ("Marianus the Irishman"), with his companions, John and
+Candidus, left his native land and arrived in Bavaria. These holy men
+were welcomed at Ratisbon by the Bishop Otto; and on the advice of
+Murcherat, an Irish recluse, took up their residence near St. Peter's
+church at the outskirts of the city. Novices flocked from Ireland to
+join them and a monastery was erected to receive the community. In a
+short time this had to be replaced by a still larger one, which was
+known to future ages as the Abbey of St. James's of the Scots (that
+is, Irish) at Ratisbon. How prolific was this parent foundation is
+evidenced from its many offshoots, the only surviving monasteries on
+the continent for many centuries intended for Irish brethren. These,
+besides St. James's at Erfurt and St. Peter's at Ratisbon, comprised
+St. James's at Wuertzburg, St. Giles's at Nuremberg, St. Mary's at
+Vienna, St. James's at Constance, St. Nicholas's at Memmingen, Holy
+Cross at Eichstatt, a Priory at Kelheim and another at Oels in
+Silesia, all of which were founded during the twelfth or thirteenth
+century, and formed a Benedictine congregation approved of by Pope
+Innocent III., and presided over by the Abbot of Ratisbon. These
+Irish houses, with their long lines of Celtic abbots, in the days of
+their prosperity did much work that was excellent and civilizing, and
+rightly deserve a remembrance in the achievements of Ireland's
+ancient missionaries.
+
+Ratisbon and its dependent abbeys, as is set forth in the papal
+briefs of 1218, possessed priories in Ireland, and, from these,
+novices were usually obtained.
+
+But evil days came for the Congregation of St. James, and now it is
+extinct. The subjugation of Ireland to England, says Wattenbach,
+contributed no doubt to the rapid decline of the Scotic (that is,
+Irish) monasteries. For from Ireland they had up till then been
+continually receiving fresh supplies of strength. In this their
+fatherland the root of their vitality was to be found. Loss of
+independence involved loss of enterprise.
+
+SCHOLARSHIP AND INFLUENCE: Irish monks were not only apostles of
+souls, but also masters of intellectual life. Thus in the seventh
+century the Celtic monastery of Luxeuil became the most celebrated
+school in Christendom. Monks from other houses and sons of the
+nobility crowded to it. The latter were clearly not intended for the
+cloister, but destined for callings in the world.
+
+There were outstanding men among these missionaries from Ireland. St.
+Virgilius of Salzburg in the eighth century taught the sphericity of
+the earth and the existence of the Antipodes. It was this same
+teaching that Copernicus and later astronomers formulated into the
+system now in vogue.
+
+St. Columcille himself was a composer of Latin hymns and a penman of
+no mean order, as the Book of Kells, if written by him, sufficiently
+proves. In all the monasteries which he founded, provision was made
+for the pursuit of sacred learning and the multiplication of books by
+transcription. The students of his schools were taught classics,
+mechanical arts, law, history, and physics. They improved the methods
+of husbandry and gardening; supplied the people, whom they helped to
+civilize, with implements of labor; and taught them the use of the
+forge, an accomplishment belonging to almost every Irish monk.
+
+The writings of Adamnan, who spent most of his life outside his
+native land, show that he was familiar with the best Latin authors,
+and had a knowledge of Greek as well. His "Vita S. Columbae" ("Life
+of St. Columcille") has made his name immortal as a Latin writer. His
+book "De Locis Sanctis" ("On the Holy Places") contains information
+he received from the pilgrim bishop Arculfus, who had been driven by
+a tempest to take refuge with the monks of Iona. On account of the
+importance of the writings of Adamnan and because of his influence in
+secular and ecclesiastical affairs of importance, few will question
+his right to a distinguished place among the saintly scholars of the
+West.
+
+Irish monks, abroad as well as at home, were pre-eminently students
+and exponents of Holy Scripture. Sedulius wrote a commentary on the
+Epistles of St. Paul; John Scotus Erigena composed a work, "De
+Praedestinatione" ("Concerning Predestination"); Dungal was not only
+an astronomer, but also an excellent theologian, as is clear from his
+defence of Catholic teaching on the invocation of saints and the
+veneration of their relics. His knowledge of Sacred Scripture and of
+the Fathers is exceedingly remarkable.
+
+St. Columbanus, besides other works, is said to have composed an
+exposition of the Psalms, which is mentioned in the catalogue of St.
+Gall's library, but which cannot now be identified with certainty.
+The writings of this abbot are said to have brought about a more
+frequent use of confession both in the world and in monasteries; and
+his legislation regarding the Blessed Sacrament fostered eucharistic
+devotion.
+
+Marianus Scotus is the author of a commentary on the Psalms, so
+precious that rarely was it allowed to pass beyond the walls of the
+monastic library. His commentary on St. Paul's Epistles is regarded
+as his most famous production. Herein he shows acquaintance with
+Saints Jerome, Augustine, Gregory, and Leo, with Cassiodorus, Origen,
+Alcuin, Cassian, and Peter the Deacon. He completed the work on the
+17th May, 1079, and ends the volume by asking the reader to pray for
+the salvation of his soul.
+
+TRANSCRIPTION: In all the monasteries a vast number of scribes were
+continually employed in multiplying copies of the Sacred Scriptures.
+These masterpieces of calligraphy, written by Irish hands, have been
+scattered throughout the libraries of Europe, and many fragments
+remain to the present day. The beauty of these manuscripts is praised
+by all, and the names of the best transcribers often find mention in
+monastic annals. The work was irksome, but it was looked upon as a
+privilege and meritorious.
+
+It remains to speak of that glorious monument of the Irish monks, the
+abbey of St. Gall, in Switzerland. It was here that Celtic influence
+was most felt and endured the longest. Within its walls for centuries
+the sacred sciences were taught and classic authors studied. Many of
+its monks excelled as musicians and poets, while others were noted
+for their skill in calligraphy and the fine arts. The library was
+only in its infancy in the eighth century, but gradually it grew, and
+eventually became one of the largest and richest in the world. The
+brethren were in correspondence with all the learned houses of France
+and Italy, and there was constant mutual interchange of books, sacred
+and scientific, between them.
+
+They manufactured their own parchment from the hides of the wild
+beasts that roamed in the forests around them, and bound their books
+in boards of wood clamped with iron or ivory.
+
+Such was the monastery of St. Gall, which owes its inception to the
+journey through Europe of the great Columbanus and his
+monk-companions--men whose lives, according to Bede, procured for the
+religious habit great veneration, so that wherever they appeared they
+were received with joy, as God's own servants. "And what will be the
+reward," asks the biographer of Marianus Scotus, "of these
+pilgrim-monks who left the sweet soil of their native land, its
+mountains and hills, its valleys and its groves, its rivers and pure
+fountains, and went like the children of Abraham without hesitation
+into the land which God had pointed out to them?" He answers thus:
+"They will dwell in the house of the Lord with the angels and
+archangels of God forever; they will behold the God of gods in Sion,
+to whom be honor and glory for ever and ever."
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Lanigan: Ecclesiastical History of Ireland (Dublin, 1829);
+Montalembert: Monks of the West (Edinburgh, 1861); Moran: Irish
+Saints in Great Britain (Dublin, 1903); Dalgairns: Apostles of Europe
+(London, 1876); Healy: Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars
+(Dublin, 1890); Barrett: A Calendar of Scottish Saints (Fort
+Augustus, 1904); Stokes: Six Months in the Apennines (London, 1892),
+Three Months in the Forests of France (London, 1895); Fowler: Vita S.
+Columbae (Oxford, 1894); Wattenbach: Articles in Ulster Journal of
+Archaeology, vol. 7 (Belfast, 1859); Gougaud: Les Chretientes
+celtiques (Paris, 1911); Hogan: Articles in Irish Ecclesiastical
+Record, 1894, 1895; Drane: Christian Schools and Scholars (London,
+1881).
+
+
+
+THE IRISH AND THE SEA
+
+By WILLIAM H. BABCOCK, LL.B.
+
+
+The beginning of Irish navigation, like the beginning of everything
+else, is hidden in the mist of antiquity. Vessels of some kind
+obviously must have borne the successive waves of immigrants or
+invaders to the island. Naturally they would remain in use afterwards
+for trade, travel, exploration, and war. Irish ships may have been
+among those of the Breton fleet that Caesar dispersed at Vannes after
+an obstinate struggle. Two or three centuries later we find Niall of
+the Nine Hostages making nautical descents on the neighboring shores,
+especially Britain: and there is every probability that ships of the
+island conveyed some at least of the "Scots" (Irish) whom Gildas in
+the sixth century describes as joining the Picts in furiously
+storming the Roman wall.
+
+The equally adventurous but more pacific work of exploration went on
+also, if we may judge by that extraordinary series of Irish
+sea-sagas, the _Imrama_, comprising the Voyages of Bran, Maelduin,
+the Hui Corra, and St. Brendan--the last-mentioned deservedly the
+most famous. These vary in their literary merits and in the merits of
+their several parts, for they have been successively rewritten at
+different periods, receiving always something of the color, belief,
+and adornment which belonged to the writer's time; but under all may
+be dimly traced, as in a palimpsest, the remote pagan original. At
+their best they embody a lofty and touching poetry very subtle and
+significant, as when we read of Bran's summoning by a visitant of
+supernatural beauty to the isles of undying delight, where a thousand
+years are but as a day; his return with a companion who had been
+overcome by longing for Ireland and home; the man's falling to ashes
+at the first touch of the native soil, as though he had been long
+dead; and the flight of Bran and his crew from the real living world
+to the islands of the blessed. At least equally fine and stirring is
+St. Brendan's interview with the exiled spirit of Heaven, whose "sin
+was but little", so that he and his fellows were given only the
+pleasing penance of singing delightfully, in the guise of beautiful
+birds, the praises of the God who showed them mercy and grace, amid
+the charms of an earthly paradise. "Then all the birds sang evensong,
+so that it was an heavenly noise to hear."
+
+It is not very surprising that St. Brendan's legend, with such
+qualities in prose and verse, made itself at home in many lands and
+languages, and became for centuries a widespread popular favorite and
+matter of general belief, also influencing the most permanent
+literature of a high contemplative cast, which we might suppose to be
+out of touch with it altogether. Certain of its more unusual
+incidents are found even in Arab writings of romance founded on fact,
+as in Edrisi's narrative of the Magrurin explorers of Lisbon and the
+adventures of Sinbad related in the Arabian Nights; but perhaps here
+we have a case of reciprocal borrowing such as may well occur when
+ships' companies of different nations meet.
+
+The most conspicuous, insistent, and repeated feature of all these
+_Imrama_ is a belief in Atlantic islands fair enough or wonderful
+enough to tempt the shore dwellers of Ireland far away and hold them
+spell-bound for years. It is easy to ascribe these pictures to sunset
+on the ocean, or the wonders of mirage; but all the time, within long
+sailing distance, there actually were islands of delightful climate
+and exceeding beauty. These had been occasionally reached from the
+Mediterranean ever since early Carthaginian times, as classical
+authors seem to tell us; why not also from Ireland, perhaps not quite
+so distant? It is undoubted that the Canary Islands were never really
+altogether forgotten, and the same is probably true of the Madeiras
+and all three groups of Azores, though the knowledge that lingered in
+Ireland was a distorted glimmering tradition of old voyages,
+occasionally inciting to new ventures in the same field.
+
+Some have supposed, though without sufficient evidence, that Saint
+Brendan even made his way to America, and parts of that shore line in
+several different latitudes have been selected as the scene of the
+exploit. His first entry into serious geography is in the fine maps
+of Dulcert, 1339, and the Pizigani, 1367, both of which plainly label
+Madeira, Porto Santo, and Las Desertas--"The Fortunate Islands of St.
+Brandan." That there may be no possibility of misunderstanding, the
+Pizigani brothers present a full-length portrait of the holy
+navigator himself bending over these islands with hands of
+benediction. The inscription, though not the picture, was common,
+thus applied, on the maps of the next century or two, and no other
+interpretation of his voyage found any place until a later time.
+
+Of course the fourteenth century was a long way from the sixth, when
+the voyage was supposed to have been made, and we cannot take so late
+a verdict as convincing proof of any fact. But it at least exhibits
+the current interpretation of the written narrative among geographers
+and mariners, the people best able to judge; and here the interval
+was much less. The story itself seems to corroborate them in a
+general way, if read naturally. One would say that it tells of a
+voyage to the Canaries, of which one is unmistakably "the island
+under Mount Atlas", and that this was undertaken by way of the Azores
+and Madeira, with inevitable experience of great beauty in some
+islands and volcanic terrors in others. Madeira may well have been
+pitched upon by the interpreters as the suitable scene of a
+particularly long tarrying by the way. Of course magic filled out all
+gaps of real knowledge, and wonders grew with each new rewriting.
+
+Whatever Brendan did, there is no doubt that Irish mariner-monks,
+incited by the great awakening which followed St. Patrick's mission,
+covered many seas in their frail vessels during the next three or
+four centuries. They set up a flourishing religious establishment in
+Orkney, made stepping stones of the intervening islands, and reached
+Iceland some time in the eighth century, if not earlier. The
+Norsemen, following in their tracks as always, found them there, and
+the earliest Icelandic writings record their departure, leaving
+behind them books, bells, and other souvenirs on an islet off shore
+which still bears their name.
+
+Did they keep before the Norsemen to America too? At least the
+Norsemen thought so. For centuries the name Great Ireland or
+Whitemen's Land was accepted in Norse geography as meaning a region
+far west of Ireland, a parallel to Great Sweden (Russia), which lay
+far east of Sweden. The saga of Thorfinn Karlsefni, first to attempt
+colonizing America, makes it plain that his followers believed Great
+Ireland to be somewhere in that region, and it is explicitly located
+near Wineland by the twelfth century Landnamabok. Also there were
+specific tales afloat of a distinguished Icelander lost at sea, who
+was afterward found in a western region by an Irish vessel long
+driven before the storm. The version most relied on came through one
+Rafn, who had dwelt in Limerick; also through Thorfinn, earl of the
+Orkneys.
+
+Brazil, the old Irish _Breasail_, was another name for land west of
+Ireland--where there is none short of America--on very many medieval
+maps, of which perhaps a dozen are older than the year 1400, the
+earliest yet found being that of Dalorto, 1325. Usually it appears as
+a nearly circular disc of land opposite Munster, at first altogether
+too near the Irish coast, as indeed the perfectly well-known Corvo
+was drawn much too near the coast of Spain, or as even in the
+sixteenth century, when Newfoundland had been repeatedly visited,
+that island was shifted by divers mapmakers eastward towards Ireland,
+almost to the conventional station of Brazil. Also, not long
+afterwards, the maps of Nicolay and Zaltieri adopted the reverse
+treatment of transferring Brazil to Newfoundland waters, as if
+recognizing past error and restoring its proper place.
+
+The name Brazil appears not to have been adopted by the Norsemen, but
+there is one fifteenth century map, perhaps of 1480, preserved in
+Milan, which shows this large disc-form "Brazil" just below Greenland
+("Illa Verde"), in such relation that the mapmaker really must have
+known of Labrador under the former name and believed that it could be
+readily reached from that Norse colony.
+
+It seems altogether likely that "Brazil" was applied to the entire
+outjutting region of America surrounding the Gulf of St.
+Lawrence--that part of this continent which is by far the nearest
+Ireland. Besides the facts above stated, certain coincidences of real
+geography and of these old maps favor that belief, and they are quite
+unlikely to have been guessed or invented. Thus certain maps,
+beginning with 1375, while keeping the circular external outline of
+Ireland, reduce the land area to a mere ring, enclosing an expanse of
+water dotted with islands; and certain other maps show it still
+nearly circular externally, and solid, but divided into two parts by
+a curved channel nearly from north to south. The former exposition is
+possible enough to one more concerned with the nearly enclosed Gulf
+of St. Lawrence and its islands than with its two comparatively
+narrow outlets; the second was afterward repeated approximately by
+Gastoldi's map illustrating Ramusio when he was somehow moved to
+minimize the width of the Gulf, though well remembering the straits
+of Belle Isle and Cabot. There are some other coincidences, but it is
+unnecessary to dwell on them. Land west of Ireland must be either
+pure fancy or the very region in question, and it is hardly
+believable that fancy could guess so accurately as to two different
+interpretations of real though unusual geography and give them right
+latitude, with such an old Irish name (Brazil) as might naturally
+have been conferred in the early voyaging times. That an extensive
+region, chiefly mainland, should be represented as an island is no
+objection, as anyone will see by examining the maps which break up
+everything north of South America in the years next following the
+achievements of Columbus and Cabot. There was a natural tendency to
+expect nothing but islands short of Asia.
+
+It seems likely, therefore, that America was actually reached by the
+Irish even before the Norsemen and certainly long before all other
+Europeans.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Babcock: Early Norse Visits to North America, Smithsonian Publication
+2138 (1913); Baring-Gould: Curious Myths of the Middle Ages;
+Beauvois: The Discovery of the New World by the Irish; Cantwell:
+Pre-Columbian Discoveries of America; Daly: The Legend of St.
+Brandan, Celtic Review, vol. I, A Sequel to the Voyage of St.
+Brandan, Celtic Review, Jan. 13, 1909; Hardiman: The History of
+Galway; Hull: Irish Episodes of Icelandic History; Joyce: The Voyage
+of Maelduin; Nutt: The Voyage of Bran; Stokes: The Voyage of Maelduin
+(_Revue Celtique_, vol. 9), Voyage of Snedgus (_Revue Celtique_, vol.
+9), Voyage of the Hui Corra (_Revue Celtigue_, vol. 14); Moran:
+Brendaniana.
+
+
+
+IRISH LOVE OF LEARNING
+
+By REV. P.S. DINNEEN, M.A., R.U.I.
+
+
+"The distinguishing property of man," says Cicero, "is to search for
+and follow after truth. Therefore, when disengaged from our necessary
+cares and concerns, we desire to see, to hear, and to learn, and we
+esteem knowledge of things obscure or wonderful as indispensable to
+our happiness." (_De Officiis_ I., 4).
+
+I claim for the Irish race that throughout their history they have
+cut down their bodily necessities to the quick, in order to devote
+time and energy to the pursuit of knowledge; that they have engaged
+in intellectual pursuits, not infrequently of a high order, on a low
+basis of material comfort; that they have persevered in the quest of
+learning under unparalleled hardships and difficulties, even in the
+dark night of "a nation's eclipse", when a school was an unlawful
+assembly and school-teaching a crime. I claim, moreover, that, when
+circumstances were favorable, no people have shown a more adventurous
+spirit or a more chivalrous devotion in the advancement and spread of
+learning.
+
+Love of learning implies more than a natural aptitude for acquiring
+information. It connotes a zest for knowledge that is recondite and
+attainable only at the expense of ease, of leisure, of the comforts
+and luxuries of life, and a zeal for the cultivation of the mental
+faculties. It is of the soul and not of the body; it refines,
+elevates, adorns. It is allied to sensibility, to keenness of vision,
+to the close observation of mental phenomena. Its possessor becomes a
+citizen of the known world. His mind broadens; he compares,
+contrasts, conciliates; he brings together the new and the old, the
+near and the distant, the permanent and the transitory, and weaves
+from them all the web of systematized human thought.
+
+I am not here concerned with the extent of Ireland's contribution to
+the sum of human learning, nor with the career of her greatest
+scholars; I am merely describing the love of learning which is
+characteristic of the race, and which it seems best to present in a
+brief study of distinct types drawn from various periods of Irish
+history.
+
+In the pre-Christian period the Druid was the chief representative of
+the learning of the race. He was the adviser of kings and princes,
+and the instructor of their children. His knowledge was of the
+recondite order and beyond the reach of ordinary persons. The esteem
+in which he was held by all classes of the people proves their love
+for the learning for which he stood.
+
+Patrick came: and with him came a wider horizon of learning and
+greater facilities for the acquisition and diffusion of knowledge.
+Monastic schools sprang up in all directions--at Clonard, Armagh,
+Clonmacnois, Bangor, Lismore, Kildare, Innisfallen. These schools
+were celebrated throughout Europe in the earlier middle ages, and
+from the fifth to the ninth century Ireland led the nations of Europe
+in learning and deserved the title of the "Island of Saints and
+Scholars." Our type is the student in one of these monastic schools.
+He goes out from his parents and settles down to study in the
+environs of the monastery. He is not rich; he resides in a hut; his
+time is divided between study, prayer, and manual labor. He becomes a
+monk, only to increase in devotion to learning and to accentuate his
+privations. He copies and illuminates manuscripts. He memorizes the
+Psalms. He glosses the Vulgate Scriptures with vernacular notes. He
+receives ordination, and, realizing that there are benighted
+countries ten times as large as his native land beyond the seas, and,
+burning with zeal for the spread of the Gospel and the advancement of
+learning, sails for Britain, or passes into Gaul, or reaches the
+slopes of the Apennines, or the outskirts of the Black Forest. The
+rest of his life is devoted to the foundation of monasteries to which
+schools are attached, to the building of churches, and to the
+diffusion around him of every known branch of knowledge. He may have
+taken books from Ireland over seas, and, of these, relics are now to
+be found among the treasures of the ancient libraries of Europe.
+Columcille, Columbanus, Adamnan, Gall, Virgilius occur to the mind in
+dwelling on this type.
+
+The hereditary _seanchaidhe_, who treasured up the traditional lore
+of the clan and its chief, was held in high honor and enjoyed
+extraordinary privileges. He held a freehold. He was high in the
+graces of the chief, and officiated at his inauguration.
+
+An important type is the Irish ecclesiastical student abroad in the
+penal days. School teaching, unless at the sacrifice of Faith, was a
+crime in Ireland, and the training required for the priesthood had to
+be obtained on the continent. The Irish out of their poverty
+established colleges in Rome (1628), Salamanca (1593), Seville
+(1612), Alcala (1590), Lisbon (1593), Louvain (1634), Antwerp (1629),
+Douai (1577), Lille (1610), Bordeaux (1603), Toulouse (1659), Paris
+(1605), and elsewhere. As late as 1795 these colleges contained 478
+students, and some of them are still in existence. The young student
+in going abroad risked everything. He often returned watched by
+spies, with his life in danger. Yet the supply never failed; the
+colleges flourished; and those who returned diffused around them not
+only learning but the urbanity and refinement which were a striking
+fruit and mark of their studies abroad.
+
+Another type is the Irish scribe. In the days of Ireland's fame and
+prosperity and of the flood-tide of her native language, he was a
+skilled craftsman, and the extant specimens of his work are
+unsurpassed of their kind. But I prefer to look at him at a later
+period, when he became our sole substitute for the printer and when
+his diligence preserved for us all that remains of a fading
+literature. He was miserably poor. He toiled through the day at the
+spade or the plough, or guided the shuttle through the loom. At
+night, by the flare of the turf-fire or the fitful light of a
+splinter of bogwood, he made his copy of poem or tract or tale, which
+but for him would have perished. The copies are often ill-spelt and
+ill-written, but with all their faults they are as noble a monument
+to national love of learning as any nation can boast of.
+
+In our gallery of types we must not forget the character whom English
+writers contemptuously called the "hedge-schoolmaster." The
+hedge-school in its most elemental state was an open-air daily
+assemblage of youths in pursuit of knowledge. Inasmuch as the law had
+refused learning a fitting temple in which to abide and be honored,
+she was led by her votaries into the open, and there, beside the
+fragrant hedge, if you will, with the green sward for benches, and
+the canopy of heaven for dome, she was honored in Ireland, even as
+she had been honored ages before in Greece, in Palestine, and by our
+primordial Celtic ancestors themselves. The hedge-schoolmaster
+conducted the rites, and the air resounded with the sonorous
+hexameters of Virgil and the musical odes of Horace.
+
+In the Irish-speaking portions of the country the hedge-schoolmaster
+was often also a poet who wrote mellifluous songs in Irish, which
+were sung throughout the entire district and sometimes earned him
+enduring fame. Eoghan Ruadh O'Sullivan and Andrew MacGrath, called
+_An Mangaire Sugach_ or "the Jolly Pedlar," are well-known instances
+of this type.
+
+The poor scholar is another type that under varying forms and under
+various circumstances has ever trod the stage of Irish history. From
+an ancient Irish manuscript (See O'Curry, _Manners and Customs_, II,
+79, 80) we learn that Adamnan, the biographer of St. Columcille, and
+some other youths studied at Clonard and were supported by the
+neighborhood. The poor scholar more than any other type embodies the
+love of learning of the Irish race. In the schools which preceded the
+National, he appeared in a most interesting stage of development. He
+came from a distance, attracted by the reputation of a good teacher
+and the regularity of a well-conducted school. He came, avowedly
+poor. His only claim on the generosity of his teacher and of the
+public was a marked aptitude for learning and an ardent desire for
+study and cultivation of mind. He did not look for luxuries. He was
+satisfied, if his bodily wants were reasonably supplied, even with
+the inconveniences of frequent change of abode. A welcome was
+extended to him on all sides. His hosts and patrons honored his
+thirst for knowledge and tenacity of purpose. He was expected to help
+the students in the house where he found entertainment, and it may
+not have been unpleasing to him on occasion to display his talents
+before his host. When school was over, it was not unusual to find him
+surrounded by a group of school-companions, each pressing his claim
+to entertain him for the night.
+
+Despite the hospitality of his patrons, the poor scholar often felt
+the bitterness of his dependent state, but he bore it with
+equanimity, his hand ever eagerly stretched out for the prize of
+learning. What did learning bring him? Why was he so eager to bear
+for its sake
+
+                         "all the thousand aches
+      That patient merit of the unworthy takes"?
+
+Sometimes he became a priest; sometimes his life was purposeless and
+void. But he was ever urged onward by the fascination of learning and
+of the cultivation of the nobler part of his nature.
+
+As might have been expected, the Irish who have emigrated to the
+American and Australian continents have given touching proof of their
+devotion to the cause of learning. I have space only for a few
+pathetic examples.
+
+An Irish workman in the United States, seeing my name in connection
+with an Irish Dictionary, wrote to me a few years ago to ask how he
+might procure one, as, he said, an Italian in the works had asked him
+the meaning of _Erin go bragh_, and he felt ashamed to be unable to
+explain it.
+
+A man who, at the age of three, had emigrated from Clare in the
+famine time, wrote to me recently from Australia in the Irish
+language and character.
+
+An old man named John O'Regan of New Zealand, who had been twelve
+years in exile in the United States and forty-eight on the Australian
+continent, with failing eyesight, in a letter that took him from
+January to June of the year 1906 to write, endeavored to set down
+scraps of Irish lore which he had carried with him from the old
+country and which had clung to his memory to the last.
+
+"In my digging life in the quarries," he says, "books were not a part
+of our swag (prayerbook excepted). In 1871, when I had a long seat of
+work before me, I sent for McCurtin's Dictionary to Melbourne. It is
+old and wanting in the introductory part, but for all was splendid
+and I loved it as my life." (See _Gaelic Journal_, Dec., 1906.)
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Joyce: A Social History of Ancient Ireland (2 vols., 2d ed., Dublin,
+1913); Healy: Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars (Dublin, 1890),
+Maynooth College Centenary History (Dublin, 1895); O'Curry: Manners
+and Customs of the Ancient Irish, (3 vols., Dublin and London, 1873),
+Manuscript Materials of Irish History, reissue (Dublin, 1873);
+Carleton: Traits and Stories of the Irish Peasantry, especially vol.
+3, The Poor Scholar; Montalembert: The Monks of the West, authorized
+translation, (7 vols., London, 1861); Meyer: Learning in Ireland in
+the Fifth Century (Dublin, 1913); Dinneen: Poems of Eoghan Ruadh
+O'Sullivan, Introduction (Dublin, 1902), The Maigue Poets,
+Introduction (Dublin, 1906); Boyle: The Irish College in Paris
+1578-1901, with a brief sketch of the other Irish Colleges in France
+(Dublin, 1901); Irish Ecclesiastical Record, new series, vol. VIII,
+307, 465; 3rd series, vol. VII, 350, 437, 641.
+
+
+
+IRISH MEN OF SCIENCE
+
+By SIR BERTRAM C.A. WINDLE, Sc.D., M.D.,
+
+_President, University College, Cork_.
+
+
+We may divide our survey of the debt owed to Ireland by science into
+three periods: the earliest, the intermediate, and the latest.
+
+In the earliest period the names which come before us are chiefly
+those of compilers such as Augustin, a monk and an Irishman who wrote
+at Carthage, in Africa, in the seventh century, a Latin treatise on
+_The Wonderful Things of the Sacred Scripture_, still extant, in
+which, in connection with Joshua's miracle, a very full account of
+the astronomical knowledge of the period, Ptolemaic, but in many ways
+remarkably accurate, is given. There are, however, three
+distinguished names. Virgil the Geometer, _i.e._, Fergil (O'Farrell),
+was Abbot of Aghaboe, went to the continent in 741, and was
+afterwards Bishop of Salzburg. He died in 785. He is remembered by
+his controversies with St. Boniface, one of which is concerned with
+the question of the Antipodes. Virgil is supposed to have been the
+first to teach that the earth is spherical. So celebrated was he that
+it has been thought that a part of the favor in which the author of
+the _Aeneid_ was held by medieval churchmen was due to a confusion
+between his name and that of the geometer, sometimes spoken of as St.
+Virgil.
+
+Dicuil, also an Irish monk, was the author of a remarkable work on
+geography, _De Mensura Provinciarum Orbis Terrae_, which was written
+in 825, and contains interesting references to Iceland and especially
+to the navigable canal which once connected the Nile with the Red
+Sea. He wrote between 814 and 816 a work on astronomy which has never
+been published. It is probable, but not certain, that he belonged to
+Clonmacnois.
+
+Dungal, like the two others named above, was an astronomer. He
+probably belonged to Bangor, and left his native land early in the
+ninth century. In 811 he wrote a remarkable work, _Dungali Reclusi
+Epistola de duplici solis eclipsi anno 810 ad Carolum Magnum_. This
+letter, which is still extant, was written at the request of
+Charlemagne, who considered its author to be the most learned
+astronomer in existence and most likely to clear up the problem
+submitted to him.
+
+Before passing to the next period, a word should be said as to the
+medieval physicians, often if not usually belonging to families of
+medical men, such as the Leahys and O'Hickeys, and attached
+hereditarily to the greater clans. These men were chiefly compilers,
+but such works of theirs as we have throw light upon the state of
+medical knowledge in their day. Thus there is extant a treatise on
+_Materia Medica_ (1459); written by Cormac MacDuinntsleibhe
+(Dunleavy), hereditary physician to the clan of O'Donnell in Ulster.
+A more interesting work is the _Cursus Medicus_, consisting of six
+books on Physiology, three on Pathology, and four on Semeiotica,
+written in the reign of Charles I. of England by Nial O'Glacan, born
+in Donegal, and at one time physician to the king of France.
+
+O'Glacan's name introduces us to the middle period, if indeed it does
+not belong there. _Inter arma silent leges_, and it may be added,
+scientific work. The troublous state of Ireland for many long years
+fully explains the absence of men of science in any abundance until
+the end of the eighteenth century. Still there are three names which
+can never be forgotten, belonging to the period in question. Sir Hans
+Sloane was born at Killileagh, in Ulster, in 1660. He studied
+medicine abroad, went to London where he settled, and was made a
+Fellow of the Royal Society. He published a work on the West Indies,
+but his claim to undying memory is the fact that it was the bequest
+of his most valuable and extensive collections to the nation which
+was the beginning and foundation of the British Museum, perhaps the
+most celebrated institution of its kind in the world. Sloane's
+collection, it should be added, contained an immense number of
+valuable books and manuscripts, as well as of objects more usually
+associated with the idea of a museum. He died in 1753.
+
+The Hon. Robert Boyle was born at Lismore, in the county Waterford,
+in 1627, being the fourteenth child of the first Earl of Cork. On his
+tombstone he is described as "The Father of Chemistry and the Uncle
+of the Earl of Cork", and, indeed, in his _Skyptical Chimist_ (1661),
+he assailed, and for the time overthrew, the idea of the alchemists
+that there was a _materia prima_, asserting as he did that theory of
+chemical "elements" which held good until the discoveries in
+connection with radium led to a modification in chemical teaching.
+This may be said of Boyle, that his writings profoundly modified
+scientific opinion, and his name will always stand in the forefront
+amongst those of chemists. He made important improvements in the
+air-pump, was one of the earliest Fellows of the Royal Society, and
+founded the "Boyle Lectures." He died in 1691.
+
+Sir Thomas Molyneux was born in Dublin, in 1661, of a family which
+had settled in Ireland about 1560-70. He practised as a physician in
+his native city, was the first person to describe the Irish Elk and
+to demonstrate the fact that the Giant's Causeway was a natural and
+not, as had been previously supposed, an artificial production. He
+was the author of many other scientific observations. He died in
+1733.
+
+We may now turn to more recent times, and it will be convenient to
+divide our subjects according to the branch of science in which they
+were distinguished, and to commence with
+
+MATHEMATICIANS,
+
+of whom Ireland may boast of a most distinguished galaxy.
+
+Sir William Rowan Hamilton (b. in Dublin 1805, d. 1865), belonged to
+a family, long settled in Ireland, but of Scottish extraction. He was
+a most precocious child. He read Hebrew at the age of seven, and at
+twelve, had studied Latin, Greek, and four leading continental
+languages, as well as Persian, Syriac, Arabic, Sanscrit, and other
+tongues. In 1819 he wrote a letter to the Persian ambassador in that
+magnate's own language. After these linguistic contests, he early
+turned to mathematics, in which he was apparently self-taught; yet,
+in his seventeenth year he discovered an error in Laplace's
+_Mecanique Celeste_. He entered Trinity College where he won all
+kinds of distinctions, being famous not merely as a mathematician,
+but as a poet, a scholar, and a metaphysician. He was appointed
+Professor of Astronomy and Astronomer Royal whilst still an
+undergraduate. He predicted "conical refraction," afterwards
+experimentally proved by another Irishman, Humphrey Lloyd. He twice
+received the Gold Medal of the Royal Society: (i) for optical
+discoveries; (ii) for his theory of a general method of dynamics,
+which resolves an extremely, abstruse problem relative to a system of
+bodies in motion. He was the discoverer of a new calculus, that of
+Quaternions, which attracted the attention of Professor Tait of
+Edinburgh, and was by him made comprehensible to lesser
+mathematicians. It is far too abstruse for description here.
+
+Sir George Gabriel Stokes (born in Sligo 1819, d. 1903) was, if not
+the greatest mathematician, at least among the greatest, of the last
+hundred years. He was educated in Cambridge, where he spent the rest
+of his life, being appointed Lucasian Professor of Mathematics in
+1849, and celebrating the jubilee of that appointment in 1899. He was
+member of parliament for his University, and for a time occupied the
+presidential chair of the Royal Society. He devoted himself, _inter
+alia_, to optical work, and is perhaps best known by those researches
+which deal with the undulatory theory of light. It was on this
+subject that he delivered the Burnett lectures in Aberdeen
+(1883-1885).
+
+James McCullagh, the son of a poor farmer, was born in Tyrone in
+1809, d. 1847. His early death, due to his own hand in a fit of
+insanity, cut short his work, but enough remains to permit him to
+rank amongst the great mathematicians of all time, his most important
+work being his memoir on surfaces of the second order.
+
+Humphrey Lloyd (b. in Dublin 1800, d. 1881), F.R.S. His father was
+Provost of Trinity College, Dublin, a position subsequently occupied
+also by the son. Lloyd's work was chiefly concerned with optics and
+magnetism, and it was in connection with the former that he carried
+out what was probably the most important single piece of work of his
+life, namely, the experimental proof of the phenomenon of conical
+refraction which had been predicted by Sir William Hamilton. He was
+responsible for the erection of the Magnetic Observatory in Dublin,
+and the instruments used in it were constructed under his observation
+and sometimes from his designs or modifications. He was also a
+meteorologist of distinction.
+
+George Salmon (b. in Dublin 1819, d. 1904), like the last mentioned
+subject, was, at the time of his death, Provost of Trinity College,
+Dublin. Besides theological writings, he contributed much to
+mathematical science, especially in the directions of conic sections,
+analytic geometry, higher plane curves, and the geometry of three
+dimensions. He was a Fellow of the Royal Society, and received the
+Copley and Royal medals, as well as distinctions from many
+universities and learned societies.
+
+John Casey (b. Kilkenny 1820, d. 1891), F.R.S., was educated at a
+National School and became a teacher in one in later years. Entirely
+self-taught as a mathematician, he raised himself from the humble
+position which he occupied to be a university professor (in the
+Catholic University of Ireland, and afterwards in the Royal
+University), and earned the highest reputation as one of the greatest
+authorities on plane geometry. He was a correspondent of eminent
+mathematicians all over the world.
+
+Henry Hennessey (b. in Cork 1826, d. 1901), F.R.S., was also a
+professor in the Catholic University of Ireland and afterwards in the
+Royal College of Science in Dublin. He was a writer on mathematics,
+terrestrial physics, and climatology.
+
+Benjamin Williamson (b. in Cork 1827), F.R.S., is a Senior Fellow of
+Trinity College, Dublin, and a distinguished writer on mathematical
+subjects, especially on the differential, integral, and infinitesimal
+calculuses.
+
+Sir Joseph Larmor (b. in Antrim 1857), F.R.S., was educated at
+Queen's College, Belfast, and in Cambridge, in which last place he
+has spent his life as a professor. He now represents the University
+in parliament and is secretary to the Royal Society. He is well-known
+for his writings on the ether and on other physical as well as
+mathematical subjects.
+
+ASTRONOMERS.
+
+William Parsons, Earl of Rosse (b. in York 1800, d. 1867), F.R.S.,
+was a very distinguished astronomer who experimented in fluid lenses
+and made great improvements in casting specula for reflecting
+telescopes. From 1842-45 he was engaged upon the construction, in his
+park at Parsonstown, of his great reflecting telescope 58 feet long.
+This instrument, which cost L30,000, long remained the largest in the
+world. He was president of the Royal Society from 1848 to 1854.
+
+Sir Howard Grubb (b. 1844), F.R.S., is known all over the world for
+his telescopes and for the remarkable advances which he has made in
+the construction of lenses for instruments of the largest size.
+
+Sir Robert Ball (b. in Dublin 1840, d. 1913), F.R.S. Originally Lord
+Rosse's astronomer at Parsonstown, he migrated as professor to
+Trinity College, Dublin, and subsequently became Lowndean Professor
+of Astronomy at Cambridge. He was a great authority on the
+mathematical theory of screws, and his popular works on astronomy
+have made him known to a far wider circle of readers than those who
+can grapple with his purely scientific treatises.
+
+William Edward Wilson (b. Co. Westmeath 1851, d. 1908), F.R.S. A man
+of independent means, he erected, with the help of his father, an
+astronomical observatory at his residence. In this well-equipped
+building he made many photographic researches, especially into the
+nature of nebulae. He also devoted himself to solar physics, and
+wrote some remarkable papers on the sudden appearance in 1903 of the
+star Nova Persei. He was the first to call attention to the
+probability that radium plays a part in the maintenance of solar
+heat. In fact, the science of radio-activity was engaging his keenest
+interest at the time of his early death.
+
+A.A. Rambaut (b. Waterford 1859), F.R.S., formerly Astronomer Royal
+for Ireland and now Radcliffe Observer at Oxford, is one of the
+leading astronomers of the day.
+
+PHYSICISTS.
+
+Lord Kelvin, better known as Sir William Thompson (b. Belfast 1824,
+d. 1907), F.R.S. Amongst the greatest physicists who have ever lived,
+his name comes second only to that of Newton. He was educated at
+Cambridge, became professor of natural philosophy in Glasgow
+University in 1846, and celebrated the jubilee of his appointment in
+1896. To the public his greatest achievement was the electric cabling
+of the Atlantic Ocean, for which he was knighted in 1866. His
+electrometers and electric meters, his sounding apparatus, and his
+mariners' compass are all well-known and highly valued instruments.
+To his scientific fellows, however, his greatest achievements were in
+the field of pure science, especially in connection with his
+thermodynamic researches, including the doctrine of the dissipation
+or degradation of energy. To this brief statement may be added
+mention of his work in connection with hydrodynamics and his magnetic
+and electric discoveries. His papers in connection with wave and
+vortex movements are also most remarkable. He was awarded the Royal
+and Copley medals and was an original member of the Order of Merit.
+He received distinctions from many universities and learned
+societies.
+
+George Francis Fitzgerald (b. Dublin 1851, d. 1901), F.R.S., was
+fellow and professor of natural philosophy in Trinity College,
+Dublin, where he was educated. He was the first person to call the
+attention of the world to the importance of Hertz's experiment.
+Perhaps his most important work, interrupted by his labors in
+connection with education and terminated by his early death, was that
+in connection with the nature of the ether.
+
+George Johnston Stoney (b. King's Co. 1826, d. 1911), F.R.S., after
+being astronomer at Parsonstown and professor of natural philosophy
+at Galway, became secretary to the Queen's University and occupied
+that position until the dissolution of the university in 1882. He
+wrote many papers on geometrical optics and on molecular physics, but
+his great claim to remembrance is that he first suggested, "on the
+basis of Faraday's law of Electrolysis, that an absolute unit of
+quantity of electricity exists in that amount of it which attends
+each chemical bond or valency and gave the name, now generally
+adopted, of electron to this small quantity." He proposed the
+electronic theory of the origin of the complex ether vibrations which
+proceed from a molecule emitting light.
+
+John Tyndall (b. Leighlin Bridge, Co. Carlow, 1820, d. 1893), F.R.S.,
+professor at the Royal Institution and a fellow-worker in many ways
+with Huxley, especially on the subject of glaciers. He wrote also on
+heat as a mode of motion and was the author of many scientific
+papers, but will, perhaps, be best remembered as the author of a
+Presidential Address to the British Association in Belfast (1874),
+which was the highwater mark of the mid-Victorian materialism at its
+most triumphant moment.
+
+CHEMISTS.
+
+Richard Kirwan (b. Galway 1733, d. 1812), F.R.S. A man of independent
+means, he devoted himself to the study of chemistry and mineralogy
+and was awarded the Copley medal of the Royal Society. He published
+works on mineralogy and on the analysis of mineral waters, and was
+the first in Ireland to publish analyses of soils for agricultural
+purposes, a research which laid the foundation of scientific
+agriculture in Great Britain and Ireland.
+
+Maxwell Simpson (b. Armagh 1815, d. 1902), F.R.S., held the chair of
+chemistry in Queen's College, Cork, for twenty years and published a
+number of papers in connection with his subject and especially with
+the behavior of cyanides, with the study of which compounds his name
+is most associated.
+
+Cornelius O'Sullivan (b. Brandon, 1841, d. 1897), F.R.S., was for
+many years chemist to the great firm of Bass & Co., brewers at
+Burton-on-Trent, and in that capacity became one of the leading
+exponents of the chemistry of fermentation in the world.
+
+James Emerson Reynolds (b. Dublin 1844), F.R.S., professor of
+chemistry, Trinity College, Dublin, for many years, discovered the
+primary thiocarbamide and a number of other chemical substances,
+including a new class of colloids and several groups of organic and
+other compounds of the element silicon.
+
+Among others only the names of the following can be mentioned:--Sir
+Robert Kane (b. Dublin 1809, d. 1890), professor of chemistry in
+Dublin and founder and first director of the Museum of Industry, now
+the National Museum. He was president of Queen's College, Cork, as
+was William K. Sullivan (b. Cork 1822, d. 1890), formerly professor
+of chemistry in the Catholic University. Sir William O'Shaughnessy
+Brooke, F.R.S. (b. Limerick 1809, d. 1889), professor of chemistry
+and assay master in Calcutta, is better known as the introducer of
+the telegraphic system into India and its first superintendent.
+
+BIOLOGISTS.
+
+William Henry Harvey (b. Limerick 1814, d. 1866), F.R.S., was a
+botanist of very great distinction. During a lengthy residence in
+South Africa, he made a careful study of the flora of the Cape of
+Good Hope and published _The Genera of South African Plants_. After
+this he was made keeper of the Herbarium, Trinity College, Dublin,
+but, obtaining leave of absence, travelled in North and South
+America, exploring the coast from Halifax to the Keys of Florida, in
+order to collect materials for his great work, _Nereis
+Boreali-Americana_, published by the Smithsonian Institution.
+Subsequently he visited Ceylon, Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, and
+the Friendly and Fiji Islands, collecting algae. The results were
+published in his _Phycologia Australis_. At the time of his death he
+was engaged on his _Flora Capensis_, and was generally considered the
+first authority on algae in the world.
+
+William Archer (b. Co. Down 1837, d. 1897), F.R.S., devoted his life
+to the microscopic examination of freshwater organisms, especially
+desmids and diatoms. He attained a very prominent place in this
+branch of work among men of science. Perhaps his most remarkable
+discovery was that of Chlamydomyxa labyrinthuloides (in 1868), "one
+of the most remarkable and enigmatical of all known microscopic
+organisms."
+
+George James Allman (b. Cork 1812, d. 1898), F.R.S., professor of
+botany in Trinity College, Dublin, and afterwarls Regius Professor of
+natural history in the University of Edinburgh, published many papers
+on botanical and zoological subjects, but his great work was that on
+the gymnoblastic Hydrozoa, "without doubt the most important
+systematic work dealing with the group of Coelenterata that has ever
+been produced."
+
+Amongst eminent living members of the class under consideration may
+be mentioned Alexander Macalister (b. Dublin 1844), F.R.S., professor
+of anatomy, first in Dublin and now in Cambridge, an eminent
+morphologist and anthropologist, and Henry Horatio Dixon (b. Dublin),
+F.R.S., professor of botany in Trinity College, an authority on
+vegetable physiology, especially problems dealing with the sap.
+
+GEOLOGISTS.
+
+Samuel Haughton (b. Carlow 1821, d. 1897), F.R.S., after earning a
+considerable reputation as a mathematician and a geologist, and
+taking Anglican orders, determined to study medicine and entered the
+school of that subject in Trinity College. After graduating he became
+the reformer, it might even be said the re-founder, of that school.
+He devoted ten years to the study of the mechanical principles of
+muscular action, and published his _Animal Mechanism_, probably his
+greatest work. He will long be remembered as the introducer of the
+"long drop" as a method of capital execution. He might have been
+placed in several of the categories which have been dealt with, but
+that of geologist has been selected, since in the later part of his
+most versatile career he was professor of geology in Trinity College,
+Dublin.
+
+Valentine Ball (b. Dublin 1843, d. 1894), F.R.S., a brother of Sir
+Robert, joined the Geological Survey of India, and in that capacity
+became an authority not only on geology but also on ornithology and
+anthropology. His best known work is _Jungle-Life in India_. In later
+life he was director of the National Museum, Dublin.
+
+MEDICAL SCIENCE.
+
+Very brief note can be taken of the many shining lights in Irish
+medical science. Robert James Graves (1796-1853), F.R.S., after whom
+is named "Graves's Disease", was one of the greatest of clinical
+physicians. His _System of Clinical Medicine_ was a standard work and
+was extolled by Trousseau, the greatest physician that France has
+ever had, in the highest terms of appreciation.
+
+William Stokes (1804-1878), Regius Professor of Medicine in Trinity
+College, and the author of a _Theory and Practice of Medicine_, known
+all over the civilized world, was equally celebrated.
+
+To these must be added Sir Dominic Corrigan (1802-1880), the first
+Catholic to occupy the position of President of the College of
+Physicians in Dublin, an authority on heart disease, and the first
+adequate describer of aortic patency, a form of ailment long called
+"Corrigan's Disease". "Colles's Fracture" is a familiar term in the
+mouths of surgeons. It derives its name from Abraham Colles
+(1773-1843), the first surgeon in the world to tie the innominate
+artery, as "Butcher's Saw", a well-known implement, does from another
+eminent surgeon; Richard Butcher, Regius Professor in Trinity College
+in the seventies of the last century.
+
+Sir Rupert Boyce (1863-1911), F.R.S., though born in London, had an
+Irish father and mother. Entering the medical profession, he was
+assistant professor of pathology at University College, London, and
+subsequently professor of pathology in University College, Liverpool,
+which he was largely instrumental in turning into the University of
+Liverpool. He was foremost in launching and directing the Liverpool
+School of Tropical Medicine, which has had such widespread results
+all over the world in elucidating the problems and checking the
+ravages of the diseases peculiar to hot countries. It was for his
+services in this direction that he was knighted in 1906.
+
+Sir Richard Quain (b. Mallow 1816, d. 1898), F.R.S., spent most of
+his life in London, where he was for years the most prominent
+physician. He wrote on many subjects, but the _Dictionary of
+Medicine_, which he edited and which bears his name, has made itself
+and its editor known all over the world.
+
+Sir Almroth Wright (b. 1861), F.R.S., is the greatest living
+authority on the important subject of vaccino-therapy, which, indeed,
+may be said to owe its origin to his researches, as do the methods
+for measuring the protective substances in the human blood. He was
+the discoverer of the anti-typhoid injection which has done so much
+to stay the ravages of that disease.
+
+ENGINEERING.
+
+Bindon Blood Stoney (1828-1909), F.R.S., made his reputation first as
+an astronomer by discovering the spiral character of the great nebula
+in Andromeda. Turning to engineering, he was responsible for the
+construction of many important works, especially in connection with
+the port of Dublin. He was brother of G. J. Stoney.
+
+Sir Charles Parsons (b. 1854), F.R.S., fourth son of the third Earl
+of Rosse, is the engineer who developed the steam turbine system and
+made it suitable for the generation of electricity, and for the
+propulsion of war and mercantile vessels. If he has revolutionized
+traffic on the water, so on the land has John Boyd Dunlop (still
+living), who discovered the pneumatic tire with such wide-spread
+results for motorcars, bicycles, and such means of locomotion.
+
+MISCELLANEOUS.
+
+Admiral Sir Leopold McClintock (b. Dundalk 1819, d. 1907), F.R.S.,
+was one of the great Arctic explorers, having spent eleven navigable
+seasons and six winters in those regions. He was the chief leader and
+organizer of the Franklin searches. From the scientific point of view
+he made a valuable collection of miocene fossils from Greenland, and
+enabled Haughton to prepare the geological map and memoir of the
+Parry Archipelago.
+
+John Ball (b. Dublin 1818, d. 1889), F.R.S., educated at Oscott,
+passed the examination for a high degree at Cambridge, but, being a
+Catholic, was excluded from the degree itself and any other honors
+which a Protestant might have attained to. He travelled widely and
+published many works on the natural history of Europe and South
+America from Panama to Tierra del Fuego. He was the first to suggest
+the utilization of the electric telegraph for meteorological purposes
+connected with storm warnings.
+
+Space ought to be found for a cursory mention of that strange person,
+Dionysius Lardner (1793-1859), who by his _Lardner's Cyclopaedia_ in
+132 vols., his _Cabinet Library_, and his _Museum of Science and
+Art_, did much to popularize science in an unscientific day.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+The principal sources of information are the National Dictionary of
+Biography; the Obituary Notices of the Royal Society (passages in
+inverted commas are from these); "Who's Who" (for living persons);
+Healy: Ireland's Ancient Schools and Scholars; Hyde: Literary History
+of Ireland; Joyce: Social History of Ancient Ireland; Moore: Medicine
+in the British Isles.
+
+
+
+LAW IN IRELAND
+
+By LAURENCE GINNELL, B.L., M.P.
+
+
+A DISTINCTION. Ireland having been a self-ruled country for a stretch
+of some two thousand years, then violently brought under subjection
+to foreign rule, regaining legislative independence for a brief
+period toward the close of the eighteenth century, then by violence
+and corruption deprived of that independence and again brought under
+the same foreign rule, to which it is still subject, the expression
+"Law in Ireland" comprises the native and the foreign, the laws
+devised by the Irish Nation for its own governance and the laws
+imposed upon it from without: two sets, codes, or systems proper to
+two entirely distinct social structures having no relation and but
+little resemblance to each other. Whatever may be thought of either
+as law, the former is Irish in every sense, and vastly the more
+interesting historically, archaeologically, philologically, and in
+many other ways; the latter being English law in Ireland, and not
+truly Irish in any sense.
+
+ORIGIN AND CHARACTER OF IRISH LAW. _Seanchus agus Feineachus na
+hEireann_ == _Hiberniae Antiquitates et Sanctiones Legales_--The
+Ancient Laws and Decisions of the _Feini_, of Ireland. _Sen_ or
+_sean_ (pronounced shan) == "old," differs from most Gaelic
+adjectives in preceding the noun it qualifies. It also tends to
+coalesce and become a prefix. _Seanchus_ (shanech-us) == "ancient
+law." _Feineachus_ (fainech-us) == the law of the _Feini_, who were
+the Milesian farmers, free members of the clans, the most important
+class in the ancient Irish community. Their laws were composed in
+their contemporary language, the _Bearla Feini_, a distinct form of
+Gaelic. Several nations of the Aryan race are known to have cast into
+metre or rhythmical prose their laws and such other knowledge as they
+desired to communicate, preserve, and transmit, before writing came
+into use. The Irish went further and, for greater facility in
+committing to memory and retaining there, put their laws into a kind
+of rhymed verse, of which they may have been the inventors. By this
+device, aided by the isolated geographical position of Ireland, the
+sanctity of age, and the apprehension that any change of word or
+phrase might change the law itself, these archaic laws, when
+subsequently committed to writing, were largely preserved from the
+progressive changes to which all spoken languages are subject, with
+the result that we have today, embedded in the Gaelic text and
+commentaries of the _Senchus Mor_, the _Book of Aicill_, and other
+law works, available in English translations made under a Royal
+Commission appointed by Government in 1852, and published, at
+intervals extending over forty years, in six volumes of "Ancient Laws
+and Institutions of Ireland," a mass of archaic words, phrases, law,
+literature, and information on the habits and manners of the people,
+not equalled in antiquity, quantity, or authenticity in any other
+Celtic source. In English they are commonly called Brehon Laws, from
+the genitive case singular of _Brethem_ = "judge", genitive
+_Brethemain_ (pronounced brehun), as Erin is an oblique case of Eire,
+and as Latin words are sometimes adopted in the genitive in modern
+languages which themselves have no case distinctions. It is not to be
+inferred from this name that the laws are judge-made. They are rather
+case law, in parts possibly enacted by some of the various assemblies
+at which the laws were promulgated or rehearsed, but for the most
+part simple declarations of law originating in custom and moral
+justice, and records of judgments based upon "the precedents and
+commentaries", in the sort of cases common to agricultural
+communities of the time, many of the provisions being as inapplicable
+to modern life as modern laws would be to ancient life. A reader is
+impressed by the extraordinary number and variety of cases with their
+still more numerous details and circumstances accumulated in the
+course of long ages, the manner in which the laws are inextricably
+interwoven with the interlocking clan system, and the absence of
+scientific arrangement or guiding principle except those of moral
+justice, clemency, and the good of the community. This defect in
+arrangement is natural in writings intended, as these were, for the
+use of judges and professors, experts in the subjects with which they
+deal, but makes the task of presenting a concise statement of them
+difficult and uncertain.
+
+SOCIETY LAW. The law and the social system were inseparable parts of
+a complicated whole, mutually cause and consequence of each other.
+_Tuath, clann, cinel, cine_, and _fine_ (pronounced thooah, clong,
+kinnel, kineh, and fin-yeh) were terms used to denote a tribe or set
+of relatives, in reality or by adoption, claiming descent from a
+common ancestor, forming a community occupying and owning a given
+territory. _Tuath_ in course of time came to be applied indifferently
+to the people and to their territory. _Fine_, sometimes designating a
+whole tribe, more frequently meant a part of it, occupying a distinct
+portion of the territory, a potential microcosm or nucleus of a clan,
+having limited autonomy in the conduct of its own immediate affairs.
+The constitution of this organism, whether as contemplated by the law
+or in the less perfect actual practice, is alike elusive, and
+underwent changes. For the purpose of illustration, the _fine_ may be
+said to consist, theoretically, of the "seventeen men" frequently
+mentioned throughout the laws, namely, the _flaithfine_ = chief of
+the _fine_; the _geilfine_ = his four fullgrown sons or other nearest
+male relatives; the _deirbhfine, tarfine_, and _innfine_, each
+consisting of four heads of families in wider concentric circles of
+kinship, say first, second, and third cousins of the _flaithfine_.
+The _fine_ was liable, in measure determined by those circles, for
+contracts, fines, and damages incurred by any of its members so far
+as his own property was insufficient, and was in the same degree
+entitled to share advantages of a like kind accruing. Intermarriage
+within this _fine_ was prohibited. The modern term "sept" is applied
+sometimes to this group and sometimes to a wider group united under a
+_flaith_ (flah) = "chief", elected by the _flaithfines_ and provided,
+for his public services, with free land proportionate to the area of
+the district and the number of clansmen in it. _Clann_ might mean the
+whole Irish nation, or an intermediate homogeneous group of _fines_
+having for wider purposes a _flaith_ or _ri-tuatha_ = king of one
+_tuath_, elected by the _flaiths_ and _flaithfines_, subject to
+elaborate qualifications as to person, character, and training, which
+limited their choice, and provided with a larger portion of free
+land. This was the lowest chief to whom the title _ri, righ_ (both
+pr. ree) = _rex_, or "king", was applied. A group of these kinglets
+connected by blood or territory or policy, and their _flaiths_,
+elected, from a still narrower circle of specially trained men within
+their own rank, the _ri-mor-tuatha_--king of the territory so
+composed, to whose office a still larger area of free land was
+attached. In turn, kings of this class, with their respective
+sub-kings and _flaiths_, elected from among the _riogh-dhamhna_
+(ree-uch-dhowna) = _materia principum_ or "king-timber", a royal
+_fine_ specially educated and trained, a _ri-cuighidh_ (ree
+coo-ee-hee) supreme over five _ri-mor-tuathas_--roughly, a fourth of
+Ireland. These, with their respective principal supporters, elected
+the _ard-ri_--"supreme king", of Ireland, who for ages held his court
+and national assemblies at Tara and enjoyed the kingdom of Meath for
+his mensal land. Usually the election was not direct to the kingship,
+but to the position of _tanaiste_--"second" (in authority),
+heir-apparent to the kingship. This was also the rule in the learned
+professions and "noble" arts, which were similarly endowed with free
+land. The most competent among those specially trained, whether son
+or outsider, should succeed to the position and land. All such land
+was legally indivisible and inalienable and descended in its entirety
+to the successor, who might, or might not, be a relative of the
+occupant. The beneficiaries were, however, free to retain any land
+that belonged to them as private individuals.
+
+Membership of the clan was an essential qualification for every
+position; but occasionally two clans amalgamated, or a small _fine_,
+or desirable individual, was co-opted into the clan--in other words,
+naturalized. The rules of kinship determined _eineachlann_
+(ain-yach-long)--"honor value", the assessed value of status, with
+its correlative rights, obligations, and liabilities in connection
+with all matters civil and criminal; largely supplied the place of
+contract; endowed members of the clan with birthrights; and bound
+them into a compact social, political, and mutual insurance
+copartnership, self-controlled and self-reliant. _Eineachlann_ rested
+on the two-fold basis of kinship and property, expanding as a
+clansman by acquisition of property and effluxion of time progressed
+upward from one grade to another; diminishing if he sank; vanishing
+if for crime he was expelled from the clan.
+
+FOSTERAGE. To our minds, one of the most curious customs prevalent
+among the ancient Irish was that of _iarrad_, called also _altar_ =
+"fosterage"--curious in itself and in the fact that in all the
+abundance of law and literature relating to it no logically valid
+reason is given why wealthy parents normally put out their children,
+from one year old to fifteen in the case of a daughter and to
+seventeen in the case of a son, to be reared in another family, while
+perhaps receiving and rearing children of other parents sent to them.
+As modern life does not comprise either the custom or a reason for
+it, we may assume that fosterage was a consequence of the clan
+system, and that its practice strengthened the ties of kinship and
+sympathy. This conjecture is corroborated by the numerous instances
+in history and in story of fosterage affection proving, when tested,
+stronger than the natural affection of relatives by birth. What is
+more, long after the dissolution of the clans, fosterage has
+continued stealthily in certain districts in which the old race of
+chiefs and clansmen contrived to cling together to the old sod; and
+the affection generated by it has been demonstrated, down to the
+middle of the nineteenth century. The present writer has heard it
+spoken of lovingly, in half-Irish, by simple old people, whom to
+question would be cruel and irreverent.
+
+LAND LAW. The entire territory was originally, and always continued
+to be, the absolute property of the entire clan. Not even the private
+residence of a clansman, with its _maighin digona_ = little lawn or
+precinct of sanctuary, within which himself and his family and
+property were inviolable, could be sold to an outsider. Private
+ownership, though rather favored in the administration of the law,
+was prevented from becoming general by the fundamental ownership of
+the clan and the birthright of every free-born clansman to a
+sufficiency of the land of his native territory for his subsistence.
+The land officially held as described was not, until the population
+became numerous, a serious encroachment upon this right. What
+remained outside this and the residential patches of private land was
+classified as cultivable and uncultivable. The former was the common
+property of the clansmen, but was held and used in severalty for the
+time being, subject to _gabhail-cine_ (gowal-kinneh)--clan-resumption
+and redistribution by authority of an assembly of the clan or _fine_
+at intervals of from one to three years, according to local customs
+and circumstances, for the purpose of satisfying the rights of young
+clansmen and dealing with any land left derelict by death or
+forfeiture, compensation being paid for any unexhausted improvements.
+The clansmen, being owners in this limited sense, and the only
+owners, had no rent to pay. They paid tribute for public purposes,
+such as the making of roads, to the _flaith_ as a public officer, as
+they were bound to render, or had the privilege of
+rendering--according to how they regarded it--military service when
+required, not to the _flaith_ as a feudal lord, which he was not, but
+to the clan, of which the _flaith_ was head and representative.
+
+The uncultivable, unreclaimed forest, mountain, and bog-land was
+common property in the wider sense that there was no several
+appropriation of it even temporarily by individuals. It was used
+promiscuously by the clansmen for grazing stock, procuring fuel,
+pursuing game, or any other advantage yielded by it in its natural
+state.
+
+Kings and _flaiths_ were great stock-owners, and were allowed to let
+for short terms portions of their official lands. What they more
+usually let to clansmen was cattle to graze either on private land or
+on a specified part of the official land, not measured, but
+calculated according to the number of beasts it was able to support.
+A _flaith_ whose stock for letting ran short hired some from a king
+and sublet them to his own people. A _feine, aithech_, or _ceile_
+(kailyeh), as a farmer was generally called, might hire stock in one
+of two distinct ways: _saer_-"free", which was regulated by the law,
+left his status unimpaired, could not be terminated arbitrarily or
+unjustly, under which he paid one-third of the value of the stock
+yearly for seven years, at the end of which time what remained of the
+stock became his property, and in any dispute relating to which he
+was competent to sue or defend even though the _flaith_ gave
+evidence; or _daer_--"bond", which was matter of bargain and not of
+law, was subject to onerous conditions and contingencies, including
+maintenance of kings, _flaiths_, or brehons, with their retinues, on
+visitations, of disbanded soldiers, etc., under which the stock
+always remained the property of the _flaith_, regarding which the
+_ceile_ could not give evidence against that of the _flaith_, which
+degraded the _ceile_ and his _fine_ and impaired their status; a
+bargain therefore which could not be entered into without the
+sanction of the _fine_. This prohibition was rendered operative by
+the legal provision that in case of default the _flaith_ could not
+recover from the _fine_ unless their consent had been obtained. The
+letting of stock, especially of _daer_-stock, increased the
+_flaith's_ power as a lender over borrowers, subject, however, to the
+check that his rank and _eineachlann_ depended on the number of
+independent clansmen in his district.
+
+Though workers in precious metals, as their ornaments show, the
+ancient Irish did not coin or use money. Sales were by barter. All
+payments, tribute, rent, fulfilment of contract, fine, damages,
+wages, or however else arising, were made in kind--horses, cows,
+store cattle, sheep, pigs, corn, meal, malt, bacon, salt beef, geese,
+butter, honey, wool, flax, yarn, cloth, dye-plants, leather,
+manufactured articles of use or ornament, gold, and silver--whatever
+one party could spare and the other find a use for.
+
+Tributes and rent, being alike paid in kind and to the same person,
+were easily confused. This tempted the _flaith_, as the system
+relaxed, to extend his official power in the direction of ownership;
+but never to the extent of enabling him to evict a clansman. For a
+crime a clansman might be expelled from clan and territory; but,
+apart from crime, the idea of eviction from one's homestead was
+inconceivable. Not even when a _daer-ceile_, or "unfree peasant",
+failed to make the stipulated payments could the _flaith_ do more
+than sue as for any other debt; and, if successful, he was bound, in
+seizing, to leave the family food-material and implements necessary
+for living and recovering.
+
+LAW OF DISTRAINING. _Athgabail_ ([)a]h-gowil) = "distress", was the
+universal legal mode of obtaining anything due, or justice or redress
+in any matter, whether civil or criminal, contract or tort. Every
+command or prohibition of the law, if not obeyed, was enforced by
+_athgabail_. The brehons reduced all liabilities of whatsoever origin
+to material value to be recovered by this means. Hence its great
+importance, the vast amount of space devoted to it in the laws, and
+the fact that the law of distress deals incidentally with every other
+branch of law and reveals best the customs, habits, and character of
+the people. A claimant in a civil case might either summon his debtor
+before a brehon, get a judgment, and seize the amount adjudged, or,
+by distraining first at his own risk, force the defendant either to
+pay or stop the seizure by submitting the matter in dispute to trial
+before a brehon, whom he then could choose. There was no officer
+corresponding to a sheriff to distrain and realize the amount
+adjudged; the person entitled had to do it himself, accompanied by a
+law-agent and witnesses, after, in "distress with time", elaborate
+notices at intervals of time sufficient to allow the defendant to
+consider his position and find means of satisfying the claim if he
+could. In a proper case his hands were strengthened by very explicit
+provisions of the law. "If a man who is sued evades justice, knowing
+the debt to be due of him, double the debt is payable by him." In
+urgent cases "immediate distress" was allowed. In either case the
+property seized--usually cattle--was not taken to the plaintiff's
+home, but put into a pound, and by similar easy stages became his
+property to the amount of the debt. The costs were paid out of what
+remained, and any ultimate remainder was returned. On a _fuidir_
+(foodyir) = serf or other unfree person resident in the territory
+incurring liability to a clansman, the latter might proceed against
+the _flaith_ on whose land the defendant lived, or might seize
+immediately any property the defendant owned, and if he owned none,
+might seize him and make him work off the debt in slavery.
+
+Seizure of property of a person of higher rank than the plaintiff had
+to be preceded by _troscead_ (truscah) = fasting upon him. This
+consisted in waiting at the door of the defendant's residence without
+food until the debt was paid or a pledge given. The laws contained no
+process more strongly enforced than this. A defendant who allowed a
+plaintiff properly fasting to die of hunger was held by law and by
+public opinion guilty of murder, and completely lost his
+_eineachlann_. Both text and commentary declare that whoever refuses
+to cede a just demand when fasted upon shall pay double that amount.
+If the faster, having accepted a pledge, did not in due course
+receive satisfaction of his claim, he forthwith distrained, taking
+and keeping double the amount of the debt. The law did not allow
+those whom it at first respected to trifle with justice.
+
+_Troscead_ is believed to have been of druidical origin, and it
+retained throughout, even in Christian times, a sort of supernatural
+significance. Whoever disregarded it became an outcast and incurred
+risks and dangers too grave to be lightly faced. Besides being a
+legal process, it was resorted to as a species of elaborate prayer,
+or curse,--a kind of magic for achieving some difficult purpose. This
+mysterious character enhanced its value in a legal system deficient
+in executive power.
+
+NON-CITIZENS. From what precedes it will be understood that there
+were in ancient Ireland from prehistoric times people not comprised
+in the clan organization, and therefore not enjoying its rights and
+advantages or entitled to any of its land, some of whom were
+otherwise free within certain areas, while some were serfs and some
+slaves. Those outsiders are conjectured to have originated in the
+earlier colonists subdued by the Milesians and reduced to an inferior
+condition. But the distinction did not wholly follow racial lines.
+Persons of pre-Milesian race are known to have risen to eminence,
+while Milesians are known to have sunk, from crime or other causes,
+to the lowest rank of the unfree. Here and there a _daer-tuath_ =
+"bond community", of an earlier race held together down to the Middle
+Ages in districts in which conquest had left them and to which they
+were restricted. Beyond that restriction, exclusion from the clan and
+its power, some peculiarities of dialect, dress, and manners, and a
+tradition of inferiority such as still exists in certain parishes,
+they were not molested, provided they paid tribute, which may have
+been heavy.
+
+There were also _bothachs_ = cottiers, and _sen-cleithes_ = old
+adherents of a _flaith_, accustomed to serve him and obtain benefits
+from him. If they had resided in the territory for three generations,
+and been industrious, thrifty, and orderly, on a few of them joining
+their property together to the number of one hundred head of cattle,
+they could emancipate themselves by appointing a _flaithfine_ and
+getting admitted to the clan. Till this was done, they could neither
+sue nor defend nor inherit, and the _flaith_ was answerable for their
+conduct.
+
+There being no prisons or convict settlements, any person of whatever
+race convicted of grave crime, or of cowardice on the field of
+battle, and unable to pay the fines imposed, captives taken in
+foreign wars, fugitives from other clans, and tramps, fell into the
+lowest ranks of the _fuidre_--"serfs." It was as a captive that Saint
+Patrick was brought in his youth to Ireland. The law allowed, rather
+than entitled, a _flaith_ to keep unfree people for servile
+occupations and the performance of unskilled labor for the public
+benefit. In reality they worked for his personal profit, oftentimes
+at the expense of the clan. They lived on his land, and he was
+responsible for their conduct. By analogy, the distinctions _saer_
+and _daer_ were recognized among them, according to origin,
+character, and means. Where these elements continued to be favorable
+for three generations, progress upward was made; and ultimately a
+number of them could club together, appoint a _flaithfine_, and apply
+to be admitted to the clan.
+
+A _mog_ was a slave in the strict sense, usually purchased as such
+from abroad, and legally and socially lower than the lowest _fuidir_.
+Giraldus Cambrensis, writing towards the close of the twelfth
+century, tells us that English parents then frequently sold their
+surplus children and other persons to the Irish as slaves. The Church
+repeatedly intervened for the release of captives and mitigation of
+their condition. The whole institution of slavery was strongly
+condemned as un-Christian by the Synod held in Armagh in 1171.
+
+CRIMINAL LAW. Though there are numerous laws relating to crime, to be
+found chiefly in the _Book of Aicill_, criminal law in the sense of a
+code of punishment there was none. The law took cognizance of crime
+and wrong of every description against person, character, and
+property; and its function was to prevent and restrict crime, and
+when committed to determine, according to the facts of the case and
+the respective ranks of the parties, the value of the compensation or
+reparation that should be made. It treated crime as a mode of
+incurring liability; entitled the sufferer, or, if he was murdered,
+his _fine_, to bring the matter before a brehon, who, on hearing the
+case, made the complicated calculations and adjustments rendered
+necessary by the facts proved and by the grades to which the
+respective parties belonged, arrived at and gave judgment for the
+amount of the compensation, armed with which judgment, the plaintiff
+could immediately distrain for that amount the property of the
+criminal, and, in his default, that of his _fine_. The _fine_ could
+escape part of its liability by arresting and giving up the convict,
+or by expelling him and giving substantial security against his
+future misdeeds.
+
+From the number of elements that entered into the calculation of a
+fine, it necessarily resulted that like fines by no means followed
+like crimes. Fines, like all other payments, were adjudged and paid
+in kind, being, in some cases of the destruction of property,
+generic--a quantity of that kind of property. Large fines were
+usually adjudged to be paid in three species, one-third in each, the
+plaintiff taking care to inform correctly the brehon of the kinds of
+property the defendant possessed, because he could seize only that
+named, and if the defendant did not possess it, the judgment was "a
+blind nut." Crime against the State or community, such as wilful
+disturbance of an assembly, was punished severely. These were the
+only cases to which the law attached a sentence of death or other
+corporal punishment. For nothing whatsoever between parties did the
+law recognize any duty of revenge, retaliation, or the infliction of
+personal punishment, but only the payment of compensation. Personal
+punishment was regarded as the commission of a second crime on
+account of a first. There was no duty to do this; but the right to do
+it was tacitly recognized if a criminal resisted or evaded payment of
+an adjudged compensation. Criminal were distinguished from civil
+cases only by the moral element, the sufferer's right in all cases to
+choose a brehon, the loss of _eineachlann_, partial or whole
+according to the magnitude of the crime, the elements used in
+calculating the amount of fine, and the technical terms employed.
+_Dire_ (djeereh) was a general name for a fine, and there were
+specific names for classes of fines. _Eric_ = reparation, redemption,
+was the fine for killing a human being, the amount being affected by
+the distinction between murder and manslaughter and by other
+circumstances; but in no case was a violent death, however innocent,
+allowed to pass without reparation being made. A fine was awarded out
+of the property of the convict or of his _fine_ to the _fine_ of the
+person slain, in the proportions in which they were entitled to
+inherit his property, that being also according to their degrees of
+kinship and the degrees in which they were really sufferers. This
+gave every clan and every clansman, in addition to their moral
+interest, a direct monetary interest in the prevention and
+suppression of crime. Hence the whole public feeling of the country
+was entirely in support of the law, the honor and interest of
+community and individual being involved in its maintenance. The
+injured person or _fine_, if unable to recover the fine, might, in
+capital cases, seize and enslave, or even kill, the convict. Probably
+restrained by the fact that, there being no officers of criminal law,
+they had to inflict punishment themselves, they sometimes imprisoned
+a convict in a small island, or sent him adrift on the sea in a
+_currach_ or boat of hide. Law supported by public opinion, powerful
+because so inspired, powerful because unanimous, was difficult to
+evade or resist. It so strongly armed an injured person, and so
+utterly paralyzed a criminal, that escape from justice was hardly
+possible. The only way in which it was possible was by flight,
+leaving all one's property behind, and sinking into slavery in a
+strange place; and this in effect was a severe punishment rather than
+an escape.
+
+FOREIGN LAW. The Danes and other Norsemen were the buccaneers of
+northwestern Europe from the eighth to the eleventh century. They
+conquered and settled permanently in Neustria, from them called
+Normandy, and conquered and ruled for a considerable time England and
+part of Scotland and the Isles. In Ireland they were little more than
+marauders, having permanent colonies only round the coast; always
+subject, nominally at least, to the _ard-ri_ or to the local chief;
+paying him tribute when he was strong, raiding his territory when he
+was weak, and fomenting recurrent disorder highly prejudicial to law,
+religion, and civilization. They never made any pretence of extending
+their laws to Ireland, and their attempt to conquer the country was
+finally frustrated at Clontarf in 1014.
+
+The Anglo-Norman invaders also seized the seaports. The earlier of
+them who went inland partially adopted in the second generation the
+Gaelic language, laws, and customs; as many non-Celtic Lowlanders of
+Scotland about the same period adopted the Gaelic language, laws, and
+customs of the Highlanders. Hence they did not make much impression
+on the Gaelic system, beyond the disintegrating effect of their
+imperfect adoption of it.
+
+Into the eastern parts of Ireland, however, a fresh stream of English
+adventurers continued to flow, as aggressive and covetous as their
+means and prudence permitted; calling so much of the country as they
+were able to wrench from the Irish "the English Pale", which
+fluctuated in extent with their fortunes; and, when compelled to pay
+tribute to Irish chiefs, calling it "black rent", to indicate how
+they regarded it. Their greatest difficulty was to counteract the
+tendency of the earlier colonists to become Hibernicized--a most
+unwilling tribute to the superiority of the Irish race. They, and
+still more those in England who supported them, knew nothing of the
+Irish language, laws, and institutions but that they should all be
+impartially hated, uprooted, and supplanted by English people and
+everything English as soon as means enabled this to be done. This was
+the amiable purpose of the pompously-named "Statute of Kilkenny",
+passed by about a score of these colonists in 1367. Presuming to
+speak in the name of Ireland, the statute prohibited the English
+colonists from becoming Irish in the numerous ways they were
+accustomed to do, and excluded all Irish priests from preferment in
+the Church, partly because their superior virtue would by contrast
+amount to a censure. The purpose was not completely successful even
+within the Pale. Outside that precinct, the mass of the Irish were
+wholly unconscious of the existence of the "Statute of Kilkenny." But
+expressing, as the statute did correctly, the views of fresh
+adventurers, it became, in arrogance and in the pretension to speak
+for the whole of Ireland, a model for their future legislation and
+policy.
+
+Under King Henry VI. of England, Richard, Duke of York, being Lord
+Deputy, the Parliament of the Pale, assembled in Dublin, repudiated
+the authority of the English Parliament in Ireland, established a
+mint, and assumed an attitude of almost complete independence. On the
+other hand, in 1494, under Henry VII., the Parliament of the Pale,
+assembled at Drogheda, passed Poyning's Act, extending all English
+laws to Ireland and subjecting all laws passed in Ireland to revision
+by the English Council. This, extended to the whole of Ireland as
+English power extended, remained in force until 1782. Henry VIII. was
+the first English sovereign to take practical measures for the
+pacific and diplomatic conquest of the whole of Ireland and the
+substitution of English for Irish institutions and methods. His
+daughter, Queen Elizabeth, continued and completed the conquest; but
+it was by drenching the country in blood, by more than decimating the
+Irish people, and by reducing the remnant to something like the
+condition of the ancient _fuidre_. Her policy prepared the ground for
+her successor, James I., to exterminate the Irish from large tracts,
+in which he planted Englishmen and Scotchmen, and to extend all
+English laws to Ireland and abolish all other laws. James's English
+attorney-general in Ireland, Sir John Davies, in his work, _A
+Discoverie of the True Causes, etc._, says:
+
+"For there is no nation of people under the sunne that doth love
+equall and indifferent [= impartial] justice better than the Irish;
+or will rest better satisfied with the execution thereof, although it
+bee against themselves; so as they may have the protection and
+benefit of the law, when uppon just cause they do desire it."
+
+The ancient Irish loved their laws and took pride in obeying and
+enforcing them. The different attitude of the modern Irish towards
+foreign laws and administration is amply explained by the morally
+indefensible character of those laws and that administration, to be
+read in English statutes and ordinances and in the history of English
+rule in Ireland--a subject too vast and harrowing, and in every sense
+foreign to what has gone before, to be entered upon here. Though the
+Parliament of 1782-1800 was little more than a Pale Parliament, in
+which the mass of the Irish people had no representation whatever,
+one of its Acts, to its credit be it said, was an attempt to mitigate
+the Penal Laws and emancipate the oppressed Gaelic and Catholic
+population of Ireland. With the partial exception of that brief
+interval, law in Ireland has, during the last 360 years, meant
+English laws specially enacted for the destruction of any Irish trade
+or industry that entered into competition with a corresponding
+English trade or industry. In later times those crude barbarities
+have been gradually superseded by the more defensible laws now in
+force in Ireland, all of which can be studied in statutes passed by
+the Parliament, since the Union with Scotland, called British.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Pending the desirable work of a more competent Brehon Law Commission
+and translators, the subject must be studied in the six volumes of
+_Ancient Laws of Ireland_, produced by the first Commission, from
+1865 to 1901, ignoring the long introductions and many of the notes.
+Whitley Stokes: Criticism of Atkinson's Glossary (London, 1903); R.
+Dareste: Etudes d'histoire de droit (Paris, 1889); d'Arbois de
+Jubainville and Paul Collinet: Etudes sur le droit celtique, 2 vols.
+(Paris, 1895); Joyce: Social History of Ancient Ireland, 2 vols.
+(London, 1913); Laurence Ginnell: The Brehon Laws (London, 1894).
+
+
+
+IRISH MUSIC
+
+By W.H. GRATTAN FLOOD, Mus. D., M.R.I.A., K.S.G.
+
+
+Perhaps nothing so strikingly brings home the association of Ireland
+with music as the fact that the harp is emblazoned on the national
+arms. Ireland, "the mother of sweet singers", as Pope writes;
+Ireland, "where", according to St. Columcille, "the clerics sing like
+the birds"; Ireland can proudly point to a musical history of over
+2,000 years. The Milesians, the De Dananns, and other pre-Christian
+colonists were musical. Hecataeus (B.C. 540-475) describes the Celts
+of Ireland as singing songs to the harp in praise of Apollo, and
+Aethicus of Istria, a Christian philosopher of the early fourth
+century, describes the culture of the Irish. Certain it is that, even
+before the coming of St. Patrick, the Irish were a highly cultured
+nation, and the national Apostle utilized music and song in his work
+of conversion. In the early Lives of the Irish Saints musical
+references abound, and the Irish school of music attracted foreign
+scholars from the sixth to the ninth century.
+
+Hymnologists are familiar with the hymns written by early Irish
+saints and laics, _e.g._, St. Sechnall, St. Columcille, St. Molaise,
+St. Cuchuimne, St. Columbanus, St. Ultan, St. Colman, St. Cummain,
+St. Aengus, Dungal, Sedulius, Moengal, and others. Who has not heard
+of the great music school of San Gallen, founded by St. Gall, "the
+wonder and delight of Europe," whither flocked German students? One
+of the Irish monks, Tuathal (Tutilo), composed numerous sacred
+pieces, including the famous farced Kyrie, "Fons bonitatis", included
+in the Vatican edition of the _Kyriale_ (1906). Not alone did Irish
+monks propagate sacred and secular music throughout France, Italy,
+Switzerland, Austria, Germany, and the far North, but they made their
+influence felt In Lindisfarne, Malmesbury, Glastonbury, and other
+cities in England, as also in Scotland. St. Aldhelm, one of the
+pupils of St. Maeldubh, tells us that at the close of the seventh
+century, "Ireland, synonymous with learning, literally blazed like
+the stars of the firmament with the glory of her scholars."
+
+During the ninth century we meet with twelve different forms of
+instruments in use by the Irish, namely:--the _Cruit_ and
+_Clairseach_ (small and large harp); _Timpan_ (_Rotta_ or bowed
+_cruit_); _Buinne_ (oboe or bassoon); _Bennbuabhal_ and _Corn_
+(horn); _Cuisleanna_ and _Piob_ (bagpipes); _Feadan_ (flute or fife);
+_Guthbuinne_ (bass horn); _Stoc_ and _Sturgan_ (trumpet); _Pipai_
+(single and double pipes); _Craoibh cuil_ and _Crann cuil_
+(cymbalum); _Cnamha_ (castanet); and _Fidil_ (fiddle). The so-called
+"Brian Boru's Harp" really dates from the thirteenth century, and is
+now in Trinity College, Dublin, but there are numerous sculptured
+harps of the ninth and tenth centuries on the crosses at Graig,
+Ullard, Clonmacnois, Durrow, and Monasterboice.
+
+Donnchadh, an Irish bishop of the ninth century, who died as abbot of
+St. Remigius, wrote a commentary on Martianus Capella, a well-known
+musical text book. Towering above all his fellows, John Scotus
+Erigena, in 867, wrote a tract _De Divisione Naturae_, in which he
+expounds _organum_ or discant, nearly a hundred years before the
+appearance of the _Scholia Enchiriadis_ and the _Musica Enchiriadis_.
+He also wrote a commentary on Martianus Capella, now in a Paris MS.
+of the ninth century.
+
+The eulogy of Giraldus Cambrensis, or Gerald Barry, who came to
+Ireland in 1183, on Irish harpers and minstrels is too well known to
+be repeated, but Brompton and John of Salisbury are equally
+enthusiastic. Ground bass, or pedal point, and singing in parts, as
+well as bands of harpers and pipers, were in vogue in Ireland before
+the coming of the English. Dante, quoted by Galilei, testifies to the
+fact that Italy received the harp from Ireland; and, it may be added,
+the Irish harp suggested the pianoforte. In the Anglo-Norman ballad,
+"The Entrenchment of New Ross"--in 1265--allusion is made to pipes
+and flutes, and carols and dancing. Another poem, dating from about
+1320, refers to Irish dances in a flattering manner.
+
+John Garland (1190-1264) wrote a treatise on _Organum_, and outlined
+a scheme of dividing the interval, which developed into
+ornamentation, passing notes, and grace notes. The Dublin _Troper_ of
+the thirteenth century has a number of farced Kyries and Glorias,
+also a collection of Sequences. A Dublin _Processionale_ of the
+fourteenth century contains the most elaborate form of the _Officium
+Sepulchri_, with musical notation on a four-line stave--the
+foundation of the Miracle Play of the Resurrection. Another Dublin
+_Troper_ dates from 1360 and was used in St. Patrick's Cathedral. It
+contains the hymn, "Angelus ad Virginem", alluded to by Chaucer. The
+Christ Church Psaltery, about 1370, has musical notation and is
+exquisitely illuminated. Lionel Power, an Anglo-Irishman, wrote the
+first English treatise on music in 1395. Exactly a century later, in
+1495, a music school was founded in Christ Church Cathedral, Dublin.
+
+The Irish Annals of the thirteenth to the fifteenth century have
+numerous references to distinguished harpers and singers, and there
+are still sung many beautiful airs of this period, including "The
+Coulin" and "Eibhlin a ruin." John Lawless was a famous Irish
+organ-builder of the second half of the fifteenth century, and his
+successor, James Dempsey, built many fine organs between the years
+1530 and 1565.
+
+Notwithstanding the many penal enactments against Irish minstrels,
+all the great Anglo-Irish nobles of the Pale retained an Irish harper
+and piper in their service. Under date of 1480, we find Chief Justice
+Bermingham having an Irish harper to teach his family, as also "to
+harp and to dance." A century later "Blind Cruise, the
+harper"--Richard Cruise--composed a lamentation song on the fall of
+the Baron of Slane, the air of which is still popular. It is to the
+credit of the Irishman, William Bathe (who subsequently became a
+Jesuit), that he wrote the first printed English treatise on music,
+published in 1584--thus ante-dating by thirteen years Morley's work.
+Bathe wrote a second musical treatise in 1587, and he was the first
+to call measures by the name of bars. He also formulated methods of
+transposition and sight reading that may still be studied with
+profit.
+
+Thomas Campion, the poet and composer, was born in Dublin in 1567,
+but spent nearly all his life in England. Other Irish composers, to
+mention only the most distinguished, were William Costello
+(madrigalist), Richard Gillie, Edward Shergold, and Walter Kennedy.
+Strange as it may seem, Queen Elizabeth retained in her service an
+Irish harper, Cormac MacDermot, from 1591 to 1603, and on the death
+of the queen he was given an annual pension of L46 10s. 10d.--nearly
+L500 a year of our present money.
+
+Shakespeare refers to eleven Irish tunes, of which the famous
+"Callino Casturame" (_Cailin og a stuir me_) is still fresh. Irish
+dances were extremely popular at the English court from 1600 to 1603
+and were introduced into the Masks. Shakespeare's "intrinsic friend,"
+John Dowland of Dublin, was one of the greatest lutenists in Europe
+from 1590 to 1626. In the dedication of a song "to my loving
+countryman, Mr. John Foster the Younger, merchant of Dublin in
+Ireland," Dowland sufficiently indicates his nationality, and his
+compositions betray all the charm and grace of Irish melody. It is of
+interest to add that the earliest printed "Irish Dance" is in
+_Parthenia Inviolata_, of which work, published in 1613-4, there is
+only one copy known--now in the New York Public Library. From
+1600-1602, Charles O'Reilly was harpist to the court of Denmark at
+200 thalers a year. His successor was Donal _Dubh_ ("the black")
+O'Cahill (1602-1610), who followed Anne of Denmark to the English
+court. Walter Quin of Dublin was music master to King James's eldest
+son, Prince Henry, from 1608 to 1611. Other noted harpers of the
+first half of the seventeenth century are: Rory _dall_ ("the blind")
+O'Cahan; Nicholas _dall_ Pierce; Tadhg MacRory; John, Rory, and Henry
+Scott; Owen MacKeenan; Owen MacDermot; Tadhg O'Coffey; and Father
+Robert Nugent, S.J. Darby Scott was harper to the Danish Court from
+1621 till his death, at Copenhagen, on December 19, 1634. Pierce
+Ferriter, a "gentleman harper", was executed at Killarney in 1652.
+Myles O'Reilly and the two Connellans were famous harpers between the
+years 1660-1680. Evelyn, the English diarist, in 1668, praises the
+excellent performance on the harp of Sir Edward Sutton, who, in the
+following year, was granted by King Charles II. the lands of Confey,
+Co. Kildare. Two beautiful harps of this period are still
+preserved--the Fitzgerald Harp and the Fogarty Harp.
+
+There are many exquisite airs of the seventeenth century, some of
+which have been incorporated in Moore's _Irish Melodies_. The titles
+of several airs of this epoch are of historical interest, _e.g._,
+"Sarsfield's Lament," "Lament for Owen Roe O'Neill," "MacAlistrum's
+March," "Ned of the Hill," "The Breach of Aughrim," "Limerick's
+Lamentation," "Lilliburlero," "Ballinamona," "The Boyne Water," and
+"The Wild Geese." Irish tunes abound in the various editions of
+Playford's _Country Dances_ from 1651 to 1720.
+
+Turlogh O'Carolan (1670-1738), who has been styled "the last of the
+Irish bards", wrote and composed innumerable songs, also Planxties,
+Plearacas, and Lamentations. It is here merely necessary to note that
+twenty-six of O'Carolan's airs are included in Moore's _Irish
+Melodies_, although his claim to them has only recently been proved
+by the present writer. Goldsmith's eulogy of O'Carolan is well known.
+
+The Jacobite period from 1710 to 1750 considerably influenced Irish
+minstrelsy, and some of the most delightful airs were adapted to
+Jacobite lyrics. "Seaghan buidhe," "An Sean duine," "Lament for
+Kilcash," "Ormonde's Lament," "Morin ni Chullenain," "All the Way to
+Galway" (the air of "Yankee Doodle"), "Caitlin ni Houlihan," "Balance
+a straw" ("The Wearing of the Green"), "St. Patrick's Day," "Plancam
+Peirbhig," are amongst the tunes in vogue at this period.
+
+As early as 1685 the Hibernian Catch Club was established and still
+flourishes. Cecilian celebrations were held from 1727 to 1732, and a
+Dublin Academy of Music was founded in 1728. The Charitable and
+Musical Society (founded in 1723) built the Fishamble Street Music
+Hall in 1741, and assisted at the first performance of _The Messiah_,
+conducted by Handel himself, on 13th April, 1742. Kitty Clive, Peg
+Woffington, and Daniel Sullivan were noted Irish singers of this
+epoch, while John Clegg, Dr. Murphy, and Burke Thumoth were famous
+instrumentalists. In 1741 Richard Pockrich invented the Musical
+Glasses, for which Gluck wrote some pieces: it was afterwards
+improved by Benjamin Franklin. On the continent, Henry Madden was
+music director of the Chapel Royal at Versailles in 1744 (in
+succession to Campra), and was also canon of St. Quentin.
+
+In 1764 the Earl of Mornington, Mus. D., was appointed first
+professor of music in Dublin University. A few years later Charles
+Clagget invented the valve-horn. Michael Kelly of Dublin was
+specially selected by Mozart to create the parts of Basilio and Don
+Curzio at the first performance of the opera of _Figaro_, on May 1st,
+1786. Kane O'Hara, Samuel Lee, Owenson, Neale, Baron Dillon, Dr.
+Doyle, T.A. Geary, Mahon, and the Earl of Westmeath were
+distinguished musicians--while the fame of Carter, Mountain,
+Moorehead, and Dr. Cogan was not confined to Ireland.
+
+Among native minstrels, Jerome Duigenan, Dominic Mongan, Denis
+Hempson, Charles Byrne, James Duncan, Arthur Victory, and Arthur
+O'Neill were celebrated as harpers. The Belfast meeting of 1792
+revived the vogue of the national instrument. Nor was the bagpipe
+neglected. Even in America, in 1778, Lord Rawdon had a band of
+pipers, with Barney Thomson as Pipe Major. At home, Sterling,
+Jackson, MacDonnell, Moorehead, Kennedy, and Macklin sustained the
+reputation of this ancient instrument.
+
+Ere the close of the eighteenth century John Field of Dublin was a
+distinguished pianist. He subsequently (1814) invented the nocturne,
+developed by Chopin. Sir John Stevenson (the arranger of the _Irish
+Melodies_), Tom Cooke, William Southwell (inventor of the damper
+action for pianofortes), Henry Mountain, Andrew Ashe (flautist),
+Barton, Rooke, and Bunting were world-famed.
+
+Among the Irish musicians of the last century the following names are
+typical: Thomas Moore, J. A. Wade, Balle (_Bohemian Girl_), Wallace
+(_Maritana_), Osborne, Sir Frederick Ouseley, Scotson Clarke, Howard
+Glover, Horncastle, J. W. Glover, Sir Robert Stewart, Augusta Holmes,
+R. M. Levey, Joseph Robinson, Forde, Lover, Kearns, Allen, Barker,
+Torrance, Molloy, Guernsey, Gilmore, Thunder, Harvey, Goodman, Sir
+Arthur Sullivan (_Pinafore, Mikado_), Miss Davis, Halliday (inventor
+of the Kent bugle), Latham, Duggan, Gaskin, Lacy, Pontet
+(Piccolomini), Hudson, Pigot, Horan, Marks, and W. C. Levey. Famous
+vocalists like Catherine Hayes, Mrs. Scott Fennell, Signer Foli
+(Foley), Barton McGuckin, Denis O'Sullivan, and William Ludwig
+deserve inclusion.
+
+In our own day, it is only necessary to mention composers like Sir
+Charles Villiers Stanford, Dr. C. Woods, Victor Herbert, Mrs.
+Needham, Dr. Sinclair, Norman O'Neill, and Arthur O'Leary; singers
+like Egan, Burke, Plunket Greene, John MacCormack, P. O'Shea, Charles
+Manners, and Joseph O'Mara; violinists like Maud McCarthy, Emily
+Keady, Arthur Darley, and Patrick Delaney; organists like Dr. Charles
+Marchant, Brendan Rogers, Dr. Joze, and Professor Buck; writers like
+Mrs. Curwen, Dr. Annie Patterson, Mrs. Milligan Fox, Professor
+Mahaffy, A.P. Graves, Dr. Collison, and G.B. Shaw; and conductors
+like Hamilton Harty and James Glover.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Walker: Irish Bards (1786); O'Curry: Lectures (1870); Hardiman: Irish
+Mistrelsy (2 vols., 1834); The Complete Petrie Collection (3 vols.,
+1902-1904); Grattan Flood: History of Irish Music (3rd ed., 1913),
+Story of the Harp (1906), Story of the Bagpipe (1911); Mrs. Milligan
+Fox: Annals of the Irish Harpers (1911); Mason: Song Lore of Ireland
+(1910); Armstrong: Musical Instruments (2 vols., 1904-1908); O'Neill:
+Irish Folk Music (1911), Irish Minstrels and Musicians (1913).
+
+
+
+IRISH METAL WORK
+
+By DIARMID GOFFEY.
+
+
+From the earliest times in the history of western Europe Ireland has
+been renowned for her work in metal. The first metal used was copper,
+and copper weapons are found in Ireland dating from 2,000 B.C., or
+even earlier, the beautiful designs of which show that the early
+inhabitants of the country were skilled workers in metal. Fields of
+copper exist all along the southern seaboard of Ireland. Numbers of
+flat copper celts, or axes, have been found modelled on the still
+earlier stone implements. By degrees the influence of the early stone
+axe disappears and axes of a true metal type are developed. Primitive
+copper knives and awls are also abundant. The fineness of the early
+Irish copper work is seen at its best in the numerous copper halberd
+blades found in Ireland. These blades, varying from nine to sixteen
+inches in length, were fastened at right angles by rivets into wooden
+shafts. The blades show a slight sickle-like curve and are of the
+highest workmanship. Halberds somewhat similar in type have been
+found in Spain, North Germany, and Scandinavia.
+
+Between the years 2000 and 1800 B.C. the primitive metalworkers
+discovered that bronze, a mixture of tin and copper, was a more
+suitable metal than pure copper for the manufacture of weapons; and
+the first period of the bronze age may be dated from 1800 to 1500
+B.C. The bronze celts at first differed little from those made of
+copper, but gradually the type developed from the plain wedge-shaped
+celt to the beautiful socketed celt, which appears on the scene in
+the last, or fifth, division of the bronze age (900-350 B.C.). It was
+during the age of bronze that spears came into general use, as did
+the sword and rapier. The early spear-heads were simply knife-shaped
+bronze weapons riveted to the ends of shafts, but by degrees the
+graceful socketed spear-heads of the late bronze age were developed.
+
+Stone moulds for casting the early forms of weapons have been found,
+but, as the art of metalworking became perfected, the use of sand
+moulds was discovered, with the result that there are no extant
+examples of moulds for casting the more developed forms of weapons.
+The bronze weapons--celts, swords, and spear-heads--are often highly
+decorated. In these decorations can be traced the connection between
+the early Irish civilization and that of the eastern Mediterranean.
+The bronze age civilization in Europe spread westward from the
+eastern Mediterranean either by the southern route of Italy, Spain,
+France, and thence to Ireland, or, as seems more probable, up the
+river Danube, then down the Elbe, and so to Scandinavia, whence
+traders by the north of Scotland introduced the motives and patterns
+of the Aegean into Ireland. Whichever way the eastern civilization
+penetrated into Ireland, it left England practically untouched in her
+primitive barbarity.
+
+Of gold work, for which Ireland is especially famous, the principal
+feature in the bronze age was the lunula, a crescent-shaped flat gold
+ornament generally decorated at the ends of the crescent. These
+lunulae are found in profusion all over Ireland. A few have been
+found in Cornwall and Brittany, and a few in Scotland and Denmark.
+One has been found in Luxemburg and one in Hanover.
+
+Gold collars are numerous in Ireland and also date from the bronze
+age. The earliest form of collar is the "torc" of twisted gold.
+Another type, later in date than the torc, is the gold ring-shaped
+collar. Two splendid examples of this latter type were found at
+Clonmacnois, the decoration of which, in _La Tene_, or trumpet,
+pattern, shows the connection between the Irish and continental
+designs.
+
+A find of prehistoric gold ornaments in county Clare should be
+mentioned. An immense number was there discovered in 1854 hidden
+together in a cist, the value of the whole being estimated at over
+L3,000.
+
+After the bronze age comes the iron age. The introduction of iron
+wrought a great change in metalworking, but, as iron is a metal very
+subject to oxidization, comparatively few early iron remains are
+found. There are some swords of an early pattern in the National
+Museum at Dublin.
+
+It has been shown that the pre-Christian metalwork of Ireland is well
+worthy of attention, but it is to the early Christian metalworkers
+that Ireland owes her pre-eminent fame in this field. In early
+Christian Ireland metalworking was brought to a pitch rarely equalled
+and never excelled. The remains found, such as the Tara Brooch, the
+Cross of Cong, and the Ardagh Chalice, are among the most beautiful
+metalwork in the world. The wonderful interlaced patterns, which are
+typically Celtic, bewildering in their intricacy, and fascinating in
+the freedom and boldness of their execution, lend themselves readily
+to metal work.
+
+The connecting link between the metalwork of the late pagan period
+and that of early Christian times is chiefly exemplified by the
+penannular brooches, of which great numbers have been found in
+Ireland. Examples of this characteristically Celtic ornament may be
+seen in all Celtic countries.
+
+In its earliest form this brooch is simply a ring, with a gap in it,
+to which a pin is loosely attached by a smaller ring. Gradually the
+open ends of the ring, which need some enlargement in order to
+prevent the pin slipping off, became larger and ornamented. In time
+these became regular trumpet-shaped ends, generally ornamented with
+characteristic "trumpet" patterns. The next stage was to close the
+gap, leaving a ring with a crescent-shaped disc at one side. Space
+does not permit of the description of the numerous brooches found. It
+will be sufficient to describe the Tara Brooch, which is the crowning
+glory not only of the Irish but of any metalworker's art.
+
+The Tara Brooch, whose only connection with Tara is its name, was
+found near Drogheda; it is about seven inches in diameter and the pin
+about fifteen inches long. It is made of bronze covered with the most
+elaborate interlaced ornament in gold. The fineness of the interlaced
+work may be compared with, and is quite equal to, that of the best
+illuminated manuscripts; the freedom of its execution is amazing.
+Besides panels of ribbon ornament, which include spirals, plaited
+work, human heads, and animal forms, the front of the brooch is
+decorated with enamel and settings of amber and colored glass. The
+back of the brooch is, as is often the case in Irish work, decorated
+in a bolder manner than the front, and the "trumpet" pattern is there
+very marked. The head of the pin is also elaborately decorated. The
+minute and intricate style of the work is strikingly shown by the
+fact that, even after prolonged study, some patterns escaped notice
+and have only lately been discovered. Further, each of the gold lines
+is made of tiny gold balls, so small as only to be seen by means of a
+magnifying glass.
+
+With the introduction of Christianity, the attention of artificers
+was turned to the manufacture of church vessels and shrines. Of these
+perhaps the most beautiful are the Ardagh Chalice, the Cross of Cong,
+and the Shrine of St. Patrick's Bell, though great numbers of other
+sacred ornaments, such as the Shrine of St. Lactan's Arm and the
+numerous bell shrines, are also fine examples of the work of an
+unsurpassed school of metalworkers.
+
+The date of the Tara Brooch is not easy to determine, but it may
+probably be placed in the eighth century of our era. The Ardagh
+Chalice belongs probably to about the same date. It was found in a
+rath at Ardagh, county Limerick, in 1868. It measures 7 inches in
+height and 9-1/2 in diameter. Around the cup is a band of fine
+filigree interlaced ornament in the form of panels divided by half
+beads of enamel. Below this are the names of the twelve Apostles in
+faint Celtic lettering. The two handles are beautifully decorated
+with panels of interwoven ornament, and on the sides are two circular
+discs divided into ornamented panels. The under side of the foot of
+the Chalice is also very beautifully decorated.
+
+The shrines of the bells of the Irish saints are interesting examples
+of Irish metal work. As is fitting, the finest of these is the Shrine
+of St. Patrick's Bell. This was made by order of King Domnall
+O'Lachlainn between the years 1091 and 1105 to contain St. Patrick's
+Bell, a square iron bell made of two plates of sheet iron riveted
+together. The shrine is made of bronze plates, to which gold filigree
+work and stones are riveted. The top of the shrine, curved to receive
+the handle of the bell, is of silver elaborately decorated. The back
+is overlaid with a plate of silver cut in cruciform pattern. Around
+the margin of the back is engraved the following inscription in
+Irish: "A prayer for Domnall Ua Lachlainn, by whom this bell [shrine]
+was made, and for Domnall, successor of Patrick, by whom it was made,
+and for Cathalan Ua Maelchallann, the keeper of the bell, and for
+Cudulig Ua Inmainen with his sons, who fashioned it." The whole is
+executed in a very fine manner and is the most beautiful object of
+its kind in existence. Another beautiful shrine, known as the Cross
+of Cong, made to enshrine a piece of the true cross presented by the
+pope in 1123, was made for King Turlogh O'Conor at about that date.
+It is 2 feet 6 inches high and 1 foot 6-3/4 inches wide. It is made
+of oak cased with copper and enriched with ornaments of gilded
+bronze. The ornamentation is of the typical Irish type, as on the
+Ardagh Chalice and the Shrine of St. Patrick's Bell. A quartz crystal
+set in the centre of the front of the cross probably held the relic.
+
+It is clear from the succession of beautiful work executed from the
+eighth to the twelfth century, that there must have existed in
+Ireland during that period a school of workers in metal such as has
+seldom been equalled by any individual worker or guild before or
+since, and never excelled. The examples described are only the more
+famous of the remains of early Irish Christian art in metal, but they
+are surrounded by numerous examples of pins, brooches, and shrines,
+each worthy to rank with the finest productions of the metalworker.
+The Shrine of St. Moedoc (date uncertain) ought perhaps to be
+mentioned. On it are found several figures, including three nuns, men
+with books, sceptres, and swords, and a lifelike figure of a harper.
+
+Besides articles of ornament, articles of use, such as bits for
+horses and household utensils, have been found, which show that the
+Irish smiths were as well able to produce articles for every-day use
+as the artificers were to create works of art in metal.
+
+With the landing of the English in 1169 the arts and sciences in
+Ireland declined. Indeed, from that time on and for long afterwards,
+almost the only metalworkers needed were makers of arms and weapons
+of offense and defense.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+British Museum, Bronze Age Guide; Coffey: Bronze Age in Ireland;
+Allen: Celtic Art; Abercrombie: Bronze Age Pottery; Wilde: Catalogue
+of the Royal Irish Academy's Collection; Allen: Christian Symbolism;
+Stokes: Christian Art in Ireland; Petrie: Ecclesiastical Architecture
+in Ireland; Coffey: Guide to the Celtic Antiquities of the Christian
+Period perserved in the National Museum, Dublin; Kane: Industrial
+Resources of Ireland; O'Curry: Manners and Customs of the Ancient
+Irish; Coffey: New Grange and other incised Tumuli in Ireland;
+Dechelette: Manuel d'Archeologie pre-historique; Ridgeway: Origin of
+Currency and Weight Standards.
+
+
+
+IRISH MANUSCRIPTS
+
+By LOUIS ELY O'CARROLL, B.A., B.L.
+
+
+In the dark ages of Europe, whilst new civilizations were in the
+making and all was unrest, art and religion, like the lamp of the
+sanctuary, burned brightly and steadily in Ireland, and their rays
+penetrated the outer gloom. Scattered through the libraries of Europe
+are the priceless manuscripts limned by Irish scribes. The earliest
+missionaries to the continent, disciples of St. Columbanus and St.
+Gall, doubtless brought with them into exile beautiful books which
+they or their brothers of the parent monastery had wrought in a labor
+of love; or mayhap many a monk crossed the seas bearing the treasured
+volumes into hiding from the spoiling hands of the Dane. Yet,
+fortunately, in the island home where their beauty was born the most
+superb volumes still remain.
+
+From almost prehistoric times the Irish were skilled artificers in
+gold and bronze, and, at the advent of Christianity, had already
+evolved and perfected that unique system of geometrical ornament
+which is known as Celtic design. The original and essential features
+of this system consisted in the use of spirals and interlacing
+strapwork, but later on this type was developed by transforming the
+geometrical fret into a scheme of imaginary or nondescript animals,
+portions of which, such as the tails and ears, were prolonged and
+woven in exquisite fancy through the border. The artistic features of
+Celtic book decoration consist chiefly of initial letters of this
+nature embellished with color. Amongst the ancient Irish there was a
+keen knowledge of color and an exceptional appreciation of color
+values. Thus it was that in the early centuries of Christian Ireland
+the learned monks, transcribing the Gospels and longing to make the
+book beautiful, were able to bring to their task an artistic skill
+which was hereditary and almost instinctive. The colors which they
+used were mostly derived from mineral substances and the black was
+carbon, made, it is conjectured, from charred fish-bones; but with
+them was combined some gummy material which made them cling softly to
+the vellum and has held for us their lustre for more than a thousand
+years. It is noteworthy that neither gold nor silver was used for
+book decoration, and this would appear to be a deliberate avoidance
+of the glitter and glare which distinguish eastern art.
+
+_The Book of Durrow _(in the Library of Trinity College, Dublin) is
+the oldest specimen of Celtic illumination and, if not the work of
+St. Columcille, is certainly of as early a date. Each of the Gospels
+opens with a beautiful initial succeeded by letters of gradually
+diminishing size, and there are full page decorations embodying such
+subjects as the symbols of the Evangelists. The colors are rich and
+vivid and all the designs are of the purest and most Celtic
+character.
+
+_The Gospels of MacRegol _(now in the Bodleian Library, Oxford) is
+the work of an Abbot of Birr who died A.D. 820. It is a volume of
+unusually large size, copiously ornamented with masterly designs and
+containing illuminated portraits of Saints Mark, Luke, and John. The
+first part of the book with the portrait of St. Matthew is missing.
+_The Book of Kells _(in the Library of T.C.D.) is the all-surpassing
+masterpiece of Celtic illuminative art and is acknowledged to be the
+most beautiful book in the world. This copy of the four Gospels was
+long deemed to have been made by the saintly hands of Columcille,
+though it probably belongs to the eighth century. Into its pages are
+woven such a wealth of ornament, such an ecstasy of art, and such a
+miracle of design that the book is today not only one of Ireland's
+greatest glories but one of the world's wonders. After twelve
+centuries the ink is as black and lustrous and the colors are as
+fresh and soft as though but the work of yesterday. The whole range
+of colors is there--green, blue, crimson, scarlet, yellow, purple,
+violet--and the same color is at times varied in tone and depth and
+shade, thereby achieving a more exquisite combination and effect. In
+addition to the numerous decorative pages and marvellous initials,
+there are portraits of the Evangelists and full-page miniatures of
+the Temptation of Christ, His Seizure by the Jews, and the Madonna
+and Child surrounded by Angels with censers. Exceptionally beautiful
+are these angels and other angelic figures throughout the book, their
+wings shining with glowing colors amid woven patterns of graceful
+design. The portraits and miniatures and the numerous faces centred
+in initial letters are not to be adjudged by the standard of
+anatomical drawing and delineation of the human figure, but rather by
+their effect as part of a scheme of ornamentation; for the Celtic
+illuminator was imaginative rather than realistic, and aimed
+altogether at achieving beauty by means of color and design. The Book
+of Kells is the Mecca of the illuminative artist, but it is the
+despair of the copyist. The patience and skill of the olden scribe
+have baffled the imitator; for, on an examination with a magnifying
+glass, it has been found that, in a space of a quarter of an inch,
+there are no fewer than a hundred and fifty-eight interlacements of a
+ribbon pattern of white lines edged by black ones on a black ground.
+Surely this is the manuscript which was shown to Giraldus Cambrensis
+towards the close of the twelfth century and of whose illuminations
+he speaks with glowing enthusiasm; "they were," he says, "supposed to
+have been produced by the direction of an angel at the prayer of St.
+Brigid."
+
+_The Gospels of MacDurnan _(now in the Archbishop's Library at
+Lambeth) is a small and beautiful volume which was executed by an
+abbot of Armagh who died in the year 891. A full-page picture of the
+Evangelist precedes each Gospel, and a composite border frames each
+miniature in a bewildering pattern of intertwining strapwork and
+wonderful designs of imaginary beasts. Ornamental capitals and rich
+borders give a special beauty to the initial pages of the Gospels.
+
+_The Book of Armagh _(in the Library of T.C.D.) was carefully guarded
+and specially venerated through the ages in the erroneous belief that
+it was in part the handiwork of St. Patrick. It was written about the
+year 800, and would appear to have been copied from documents
+actually written by the patron saint of Ireland. The book is
+exceptionally interesting by reason of the fact that it contains St.
+Patrick's Confession, that beautiful story of how he found his
+mission, how the captive grew to love his captors, and how, after his
+escape, he came back to them bearing the lamp of Holy Faith. Although
+the ornamentation of the manuscript is infrequent, there are
+occasional beautiful examples which compare in richness with those in
+the Book of Kells.
+
+_The Liber Hymnorum _(in the Franciscan Monastery, Dublin) contains a
+number of hymns associated with the names of Irish saints. The
+ornamentation consists of colored initials, designed with a striking
+use of fanciful animal figures interlaced and twined with delightful
+freedom around the main structural body.
+
+The _Garland of Howth_ and the _Stowe Missal_ (both in Trinity
+College Library) belong to the eighth century and are beautiful
+examples of early illuminative art. The former, which is very
+incomplete, has only two ornamental pages left, each containing
+figure-representations inserted in the decorative work.
+
+The _Gospels of St. Chad_ (in the Cathedral Library at Lichfield) and
+the _Gospels of Lindisfarne_, which are "the glory of the British
+Museum", form striking examples of the influence of Celtic art. St.
+Chad was educated in Ireland in the school of St. Finian, where he
+acquired his training in book decoration. The Gospels of Lindisfarne
+were produced by the monks of Iona, where St. Columcille founded his
+great school of religion, art, and learning. This latter manuscript
+is second only to the Book of Kells in its glory of illuminative
+design, and, from its distinctive scheme of colors, the tones of
+which are light and bright and gay, it forms a contrast to the
+quieter shades and the solemn dignity of the more famous volume.
+
+_The Book of the Dun Cow, The Book of Leinster_, and the other great
+manuscripts of the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centuries are
+interesting as literature rather than as art, for they tell the
+history of ancient Erin and have garnered her olden legends and
+romantic tales. It is only the Gospels and other manuscripts of
+religious subjects that are illuminated. In the apparel of the
+ancient Irish, the number of colors marked the social rank: the king
+might wear seven colors, poets and learned men six; five colors were
+permitted in the clothes of chieftains, and thus grading down to the
+servant, who might wear but one. All this the scribe knew well. We
+can picture the humble servant of God, clad in a coarse robe of a
+single color, deep in his chosen labor of recording the life and
+teachings of his Master, and striving to endow this record with the
+glory of the seven colors which were rightly due to a King alone. As
+we gaze on his work today its beauty is instinct with life, and the
+patient love that gave it birth seems to cling to it still. The white
+magic of the artist's holy hands has bridged the span of a thousand
+years.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+O'Curry: Lectures on the Manuscript Materials of Ancient Irish
+History (Dublin, 1861); Brunn: An Enquiry into the Art of the
+Illuminated Manuscripts of the Middle Ages, Part I, Celtic
+Illuminated Manuscripts (Edinburgh, 1897); Robinson: Celtic
+Illuminative Art in the Gospels of Durrow, Lindisfarne, and Kells
+(Dublin, 1908); Westwood: The Book of Kells, a lecture given in
+Oxford, November, 1886 (Dublin, 1887); Gougaud: Repertoire des
+fac-similes des manuscripts irlandais (Paris, 1913).
+
+
+
+THE RUINS OF IRELAND
+
+By FRANCIS JOSEPH BIGGER, M.R.I.A.
+
+
+The ruins of Ireland are her proudest monuments. They stand as a
+lasting revelation to all mankind--a distinct and definite
+proclamation that the Irish people, century after century, were able
+to raise and adorn some of the finest buildings in stone that western
+civilization has seen or known. It is recognized the world over that
+Irish art has a beauty and distinction all its own, in its own Irish
+setting unrivalled, throned in its own land, in its own natural
+surroundings. The shrines and gospels, the reliquaries and missals,
+the crosses and bells that are still existent, many in Ireland,
+others in every country in the world, attest beyond any dispute that
+Irish art-workers held a preeminent place in the early middle ages,
+and that works of Irish art are still treasured as unique in their
+day and time. No country has been plundered and desolated as Ireland
+has been. Dane, Norman, English--each in turn swept across the fair
+face of Ireland, carrying destruction in their train, yet withal
+Ireland has her art treasures and her ruins that bear favorable
+comparison with those of other civilizations.
+
+In Dublin and in many private Irish collections can be found
+hand-written books of parchment, illuminated with glowing colors that
+time has scarce affected or the years caused to fade. On one page
+alone of the Book of Kells, ornament and writing can be seen penned
+and painted in lines too numerous even to count. They are there by
+the thousand: a magnifying glass is required to reveal even a
+fragment of them. Ireland produced these in endless number--every
+great library or collection in Europe possesses one or more examples.
+
+As with books, so with reliquaries, crosses, and bells. When the
+Island of Saints and Scholars could produce books, it could make
+shrines and everything necessary to stimulate and hand down the piety
+and the patient skill of a people steeped in art-craft and religious
+feeling. What they could do on parchment--like the Books of Kells and
+Durrow--what they could produce in bronze and precious metals--like
+the Cross of Cong, the Shrine of Saint Patrick's Bell, the Tara
+Brooch, and the Chalice of Ardagh--not to write of the numberless
+bronze and gold articles of an age centuries long preceding their
+production--they could certainly vie with in stone.
+
+Of this earlier work a word must go down. In Ireland still at the
+present day, after all the years of plunder she has undergone, more
+ancient gold art-treasures remain than in any other country, museum,
+or collection, most of them pre-Christian, and what the other
+countries do possess are largely Irish or of Celtic origin. We must
+have this borne into the minds of every one of Irish birth or origin,
+that this great treasure was battered into shape by Irish hands on
+Irish anvils, designed in Irish studios, ornamented with Irish skill
+for Irish use.
+
+With such workmen, having such instincts and training, what of the
+housing and surroundings to contain them and give them a fit and
+suitable setting? The earliest stone structures in Ireland still
+remaining are the great stone cashels or circular walls enclosing
+large spaces--walls of great thickness, unmortared, in which there
+are vast quantities of masonry. Around their summits a chariot might
+be driven, inside their spaces horse races might be run. As a few
+examples, there are Staigue, in Kerry; Dun Angus, in Aran, off
+Galway; Aileach, above the walls of Derry. Of the earliest churches,
+cyclopean in construction and primitive in character, built of stone,
+with thick sloping walls from foundation to ridge, Gallerus still
+remains, and the Skelligs, those wondrous sea-girt rocks, preserve
+both church and cell almost perfect. There are many other examples,
+some of a later date, such as Temple Cronan and Maghera and Banagher
+in Derry, St. Finan's oratory in county Cork, St. Fechin's at Fore,
+and St. Molaise's at Devenish.
+
+From the seventh, eighth, and ninth centuries, there are innumerable
+examples of oratories, some with stone roofs, others with roofs not
+so permanent, but all having the common features of an altar window
+facing the east, through which the sun fell at the beginning of the
+day to tell the early missioner that his hour of devotion had
+arrived, and a west door, through which the rays of the declining sun
+fell across the altar steps, speaking of a day that was closing. A
+south window was added close to the east end, and it, too, was a
+sun-dial; it told the hour of angelus, the mid-day, when the bell was
+rung and a calm reverence fell on all within its hearing. Such
+churches can still be seen at Aran and Inismurray, on the islands of
+Lough Derg, Lough Ri, and in many other places.
+
+A few years later these oratories were too small for the growing
+faith, and larger churches were built, some using the older structure
+as chancels. Where the west door was built a circular arch was made
+and the new and old united. This can well be seen at Inis-na-ghoill
+in Lough Corrib, on the Aran Islands off Galway, at Glendalough, at
+Inis-cleraun in Lough Ri, at Clonmacnois, at Iniscaltra, and on many
+another island and promontory of the south and west.
+
+During this time, and after, we find the most elaborate carvings on
+door and arch and window, equal in skill to what is found in book or
+metal work.
+
+It must have been at this time that the Galls, or strangers, first
+invaded Ireland, bearing havoc in their train, for then it was that
+the _cloicteach_, or Round Towers, were built. It is now admitted by
+all Irish authorities of any repute, and that beyond dispute, that
+the Round Towers, the glory of Ireland, were built by Irish people as
+Christian monuments from which the bells might be rung, and as places
+of strength for the preservation of the valued articles used in
+Christian worship; here they might be safely stored. They were also
+used for the preservation of life in case of sudden attack and
+onslaught by unexpected enemies. All the towers are on ecclesiastical
+sites, many are incorporated in church buildings, such as those of
+Glendalough in Wicklow and Clonmacnois on the Shannon, The records of
+the construction of some of them in the tenth and eleventh centuries
+are still extant, and this is conclusive. There are today about
+seventy Round Towers in Ireland, and many have been destroyed.
+
+      The pillar towers of Ireland, how wondrously they stand
+      By the lakes and rushing rivers through the valleys of our land;
+      In mystic file, through the isle, they lift their heads sublime,
+      These gray old pillar temples--these conquerors of time.
+
+      Here was placed the holy chalice that held the sacred wine,
+      And the gold cross from the altar, and the relics from the shrine,
+      And the mitre shining brighter with its diamonds than the east,
+      And the crozier of the pontiff, and the vestments of the priest.
+
+                                                _D.F. MacCarthy_.
+
+This was the time when the High Crosses of Ireland were carved and
+set up. They vie with the Round Towers in interest and in the display
+of skill. What the towers have in perfection, masonry and
+construction, the crosses have in artistic carving and symbolic
+design. No two crosses are alike; they are as varied as the clouds in
+an Irish sky or the pebbles on the beach or the flowers in a garden.
+They were carved in reverence by those who knew and esteemed their
+art, and lavished all their skill and knowledge on what they most
+valued and treasured. They were not set up as grave-marks
+merely--theirs was a higher and loftier mission. They were raised in
+places where some great event or period was to be commemorated--they
+were erected where some early disciple of the Cross could stand
+beside one of them and from any panel could tell the foundation of
+the Faith, for there in stone was story after story, from the Old
+Testament and the New, that gave him his text, and so, as at the
+Cross of the Scriptures at Clonmacnois, a missioner could preach on
+every recurring holy day from Christmas to Christmas, with ever his
+text in stone before him. Many a broken and mutilated cross has been
+set up in Ireland in recent years, proving that the heart of the
+Gael, no matter how rent and broken, is still inclined to bind up the
+broken wounds of her past glories.
+
+With the religious orders there came to Ireland a widespread desire
+to add something to the older sanctuaries of the Gael, to widen their
+borders and strengthen their cords, and so the abbeys were founded.
+Here and there we find them still--by winding rivers, on rich
+meadows, in glens and glades, by the sea margin, or on the slopes of
+the rugged mountain. Their crumbling walls and broken windows can
+still be traced, their towers are still to be seen over tree tops and
+in the centre of many a slumbering town. By the shores of Donegal Bay
+the old Franciscan house, where the Four Masters compiled what is
+perhaps the most remarkable record possessed by any nation, is still
+clothed in ivy. At Kilconnell, in Galway, their old place is almost
+as they left it, but roofless, with the tears of the friars upon the
+altar steps. Clare Galway has a tower worth travelling half a
+continent to see. By the Boniet River, at Drumahaire, on the banks of
+Lough Gill, are the mason marks of the cloister builders, and the
+figure of St. Francis talking to the birds is still there. The abbey
+is roofless and empty, and so the birds of the air are his constant
+companions.
+
+Space forbids, or endless abbeys might be described. The Black Abbey
+at Kilkenny, with its long row of Butler effigies, or the Cathedral
+of Saint Canice, still perfect, with its soaring round tower beside
+it, or the mystical seven light window of the Franciscan friary by
+the Nore, with the old mill-weirs running free to this day. How long
+could we ponder by the east window of Kilcooley, with tracery like a
+spider's web, and listen to the mystical bells, or gaze at the
+beautiful oriel at Feenagh, or stand at Jerpoint, with its spacious
+cloisters and stone-groined choir, with Saint Christopher in Irish
+marble beside us.
+
+Cashel, one of the wonders of the world, grows up suddenly into sight
+on a high rock rising from level land crowned with buildings. A great
+abbey dominates; beside it clings that carved gem of a stone-roofed
+church, Cormac's Chapel. Round Tower and Cross are there, and many a
+sculptured tomb.
+
+Not far from Cashel is the Abbey of Holy Cross, with its lovely
+mitred windows, shadowed in the river passing at its feet. The
+circular pillars and arches of Boyle Abbey are splendidly
+proportioned, whilst the cloisters of Sligo display in their long,
+shadowy recesses and ornamented pillars great dignity and beauty. The
+windows and monuments of Ennis Friary, founded by the O'Briens, are
+of unusual interest, the carving of figure-subjects being equal to
+the best of their age.
+
+We have Thomastown and Callan, Dunbrody and Tintern, all having an
+individual charm and interest that not only dim the eye and make the
+blood course freely in every one of Irish stock when he looks upon
+what is and thinks of what was, but even in the coldest light give
+food for thought to every one desirous of knowing something of the
+growth and civilization of a great people.
+
+Of the many castles and stout Irish strongholds it is hard to write
+in such a short paper as this. Those on the Boyne, such as Trim, for
+strong building and extent, excel in many ways. Carlingford,
+Carrickfergus, and Dunluce have by their size and picturesque
+situations ever appealed to visitors. They are each built on rocks
+jutting into the sea, Dunluce on a great perpendicular height, the
+Atlantic dashing below. Dunamace, near Maryborough, in the O'More
+country, appears like Cashel, but is entirely military. The famed
+walled cities of Kells, in Kilkenny, and Fore, in Westmeath, are
+remarkable. Each has an abbey, many towers, gates, and stout
+bastions. The great keeps of the midland lords, the towers of
+Granuaile on the west coast, and the traders' towers on the east
+coast, especially those of Down, afford ample material for a study of
+the early colonizing efforts of different invaders, as well as
+providing incidents of heroism and romance. These square battlemented
+towers can be seen here and there in every district.
+
+Every portion of Ireland has its ruins. Earthworks, stone forts,
+prehistoric monuments, circular stone huts, early churches, abbeys,
+crosses, round towers, castles of every size and shape are to be
+found in every county, some one in every parish, all over Ireland. It
+is almost invidious to name any in particular where the number is so
+great.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Proceedings of Royal Irish Academy (Dublin); Proceedings of Society
+of Antiquaries (Dublin); Ulster Journal of Archaeology, Old Series
+and New Series, edited by F.J. Bigger, Belfast; Wakeman: Handbook of
+Irish Antiquities (Dublin, 1891); Stokes: Early Christian Art in
+Ireland (Dublin, 1887); Petrie: Round Towers and Ancient Architecture
+of Ireland (Dublin, 1845).
+
+
+
+MODERN IRISH ART
+
+By D.J. O'DONOGHUE,
+
+_Librarian, University College, Dublin_.
+
+
+It would be difficult to dispute, in view of her innumerable and
+excellent artists, that there has always been in modern times an art
+consciousness in Ireland, but it is impossible to assert that there
+has been any artistic unity in her people. She has produced no
+school, but merely a great number of brilliant painters, sculptors,
+and engravers, chiefly for export. With all our acknowledged artistic
+capacity, we have not, except in one notable instance, produced a
+cumulative art effect. The history of Irish art is almost uniformly a
+depressing narrative. During a comparatively brief period in the
+eighteenth century--significantly enough, it was while the country
+enjoyed a short spell of national life--there was something like a
+national patronage of the artist, and the result is visible in the
+noble public buildings and beautiful houses of the Irish capital,
+with their universally admired mantelpieces, doors, ceilings,
+fanlights, ironwork, and carvings. In short, while Ireland had even a
+partly unfettered control of her own concerns, the arts were
+generously encouraged by her government and by the wealthy
+individual. When other European capitals were mere congeries of
+rookeries, Dublin, the centre of Irish political life, possessed
+splendid streets, grandly planned. But there was little solidarity
+among the artistic fraternity. Various associations of artists were
+formed, which held together fairly well until the flight of the
+resident town gentry after the Union, and many admirable artists were
+trained in the schools of the Royal Dublin Society, but, since the
+opening of the nineteenth century, there has been almost no visible
+art effort in Dublin. True, there have been many fine artists, who
+have made a struggle to fix themselves in Dublin, but, as with the
+Royal Hibernian Academy, of which the best of them were members, the
+struggle has been a painful agony. Usually the artist migrated to
+London to join the large group of Irishmen working there; a few
+others went to America and obtained an honored place in her art
+annals. Those who went to England secured in many cases the highest
+rewards of the profession. Several, like Barry, Hone, Barrett, and
+Cotes, were founders or early members of the Royal Academy; one, Sir
+Martin Shee, became its President. Nevertheless, many distinguished
+artists remained in Dublin, where the arts of portrait-painting and
+engraving were carried to a high pitch of excellence.
+
+This record must necessarily be of a chronological character, and can
+only take note of those whose works have actual value and interest,
+historical or other. Edward Luttrell (1650-1710) did some excellent
+work in crayon or pastel, while Garrett Murphy (fl. 1650-1716),
+Stephen Slaughter (d. 1765), Francis Bindon (d. 1765), and James
+Latham (1696-1747), have each left us notable portraits of the great
+Irish personages of their day. To fellow countrymen in London,
+Charles Jervas (1675?-1739), Thomas Hickey (d. 1816?), and Francis
+Cotes, R.A. (1725-1770), we owe presentments of other famous people.
+George Barrett, R.A. (1728-1784), one of the greatest landscapists of
+his time; Nathaniel Hone, R.A. (1718-1784), an eccentric but gifted
+painter, with an individuality displayed in all his portraits; James
+Barry, R.A. (1741-1806), still more eccentric, with grand conceptions
+imperfectly carried out in his great historical and allegorical
+pictures:--these, with Henry Tresham, R.A. (1749?-1814), and Matthew
+Peters, R.A. (1742-1814), historical painters of considerable merit,
+upheld the Irish claim to a high place in English eighteenth century
+art. A little later, miniaturists such as Horace Hone, A.R.A.
+(1756-1825), George Chinnery (1774-1852), and Adam Buck (1759-1844),
+also worked with remarkable success in London. Among resident Irish
+artists, the highest praise can be given to the miniature painters,
+John Comerford (1770?-1832) and Charles Robertson (1760-1821), and to
+the portrait-painters, Robert Hunter (fl. 1750-1803) and (especially)
+Hugh Douglas Hamilton (1739-1808), of whose work Ireland possesses
+many distinguished examples. Some day Hamilton's pictures will appeal
+to a far wider public than his countrymen can provide. One must omit
+the names of many clever Irish artists like the Wests, Francis and
+Robert, who were the most successful teachers of perhaps any time in
+Ireland, and come at once to that branch of art in which Ireland
+stands second to none--mezzotint-engraving.
+
+One of the earliest engravers in this style was Edward Luttrell,
+already named as a painter, but it was John Brooks (fl. 1730-1756)
+who is justly considered the real founder of that remarkable group of
+Irish engravers whose work may be more correctly described as
+belonging to a school than any other of the period. For many years in
+Dublin, and afterwards in London, a succession of first-rate artists
+of Irish birth produced work which remains and always must remain one
+of the glories of Ireland. Limits of space allow only the bare
+mention of the names of James McArdell (1728?-1765), Charles Spooner
+(d. 1767), Thomas Beard (fl. 1728), Thomas Frye (1710-1762), Edward
+Fisher (1722-1785?), Michael Ford (d. 1765), John Dixon (1740?-1811),
+Richard Purcell (fl. 1746-1766), Richard Houston (1721?-1775), John
+Murphy (1748?-1820), Thomas Burke (1749-1815), Charles Exshaw (fl.
+1747-1771), and Luke Sullivan (1705-1771)--artists of whom any
+country might be proud, and whose works have in most cases outlasted
+the remembrance of the persons whose likenesses they sought to
+reproduce. Separate monographs might be justifiably written on most
+of the gifted artists here enumerated, and one can only regret not
+being able in short space to compare and estimate their various
+qualities. Thomas Chambers, A.R.A. (1724?-1784), William Nelson
+Gardiner (1766-1814), James Egan (1799-1842), and William Humphreys
+(1794-1865) are other Irish engravers who cannot be overlooked in a
+survey of the art of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth
+centuries.
+
+Contemporaneously with the remarkable development of the art of
+engraving arose a group of Irish architects. Rather earlier in point
+of time was Sir Edward Lovat Pearce (d. 1733), who was one of the
+chief architects of the Irish Parliament House, and Thomas Burgh (d.
+1730), to whom we owe the Library of Trinity College, Dublin; but
+Thomas Cooley (1740-1784), designer of the handsome Royal Exchange of
+that city; Richard Castle (d. 1751), a foreigner who settled in
+Ireland and built a number of beautiful Irish residences; Francis
+Johnston (1761-1829), an excellent architect whose chief claim to
+remembrance, however, is as founder of the Royal Hibernian Academy;
+and, above all, James Gandon (1743-1823), whose superb Custom House,
+Four Courts, and part of the Irish Parliament House will perpetuate
+his name in Dublin while that city lasts--each helped to make the
+capital, even in its decay, one of the most interesting in Europe.
+Nor should we forget Thomas Ivory (d. 1786), whose Foundling Hospital
+is another of Dublin's many graceful edifices; nor Sir Richard
+Morrison (1767-1849) and his son William (1794-1838), much of whose
+work remains to testify to their skill and ingenuity.
+
+Ecclesiastical architecture in Ireland is indebted to Patrick Byrne
+(fl. 1840), James J. McCarthy (d. 1882), J.B. Keane (d. 1859), and
+James Murray (1831-1863), for many well designed churches and chapels
+throughout Ireland; but the great names in modern Irish architecture
+are those of Benjamin Woodward (1815-1861), whose premature death was
+a serious loss to Irish art; Sir Thomas Deane (1792-1871); and his
+son, Sir Thomas Newenham Deane (1828-1899). The elder Deane was, with
+Woodward, the architect of the Oxford Museum and of the splendid
+Engineering Hall of Trinity College, Dublin, buildings which have
+elicited enthusiastic praise from John Ruskin and other eminent
+critics. Deserving of respectful mention, too, to come down to our
+own days, are Sir Thomas Drew (1838-1910) and William H. Lynn, who is
+still living.
+
+In sculpture, again, Ireland has done memorable work. In the
+eighteenth century she gave us admirable craftsmen like Edward Smyth
+(1749-1812), John Hickey (1756-1795), and Christopher Hewitson (fl.
+1772-1794), whose dignified monument of Bishop Baldwin is one of the
+most distinguished pieces of sculpture in Trinity College, Dublin.
+But it was not till the appearance of a later group of sculptors,
+including John Hogan (1800-1858), John Edward Carew (1785-1868), John
+Henry Foley, R.A. (1818-1874), and Patrick MacDowell, R.A.
+(1799-1870), that Irish sculpture obtained more than local renown.
+Fortunately, most of the best work of Hogan and Foley remains in
+Ireland; that of Carew and MacDowell is chiefly to be found in the
+Houses of Parliament and other institutions in London. The
+incomparable "Goldsmith," "Burke," "Grattan," and other statues by
+Foley, together with an almost complete collection of casts of his
+other works, are in his native country. Hogan is represented in
+Dublin by his "Thomas Davis" and his "Dead Christ," to name but two
+of his principal works. The names at least of James Heffernan
+(1785-1847), of John Edward Jones (1806-1872), of Terence Farrell
+(1798-1876), of Samuel F. Lynn (1834-1876), and perhaps of
+Christopher Moore (1790-1863), an excellent sculptor of busts, may be
+set down here. Sir Thomas Farrell (1827-1900) and the living
+sculptors, John Hughes, Oliver Sheppard, and Albert Bruce Joy, are
+responsible for some of the more admirable of the public monuments of
+Dublin. It is much to be deplored that of the work of one of the
+greatest of Dublin-born artists, Augustus Saint Gaudens, we have only
+one example--the statue of Parnell. Ireland may surely claim him as
+one of her most gifted sons. And perhaps a word might be said in this
+place of some of the other Irishmen who made their home in America:
+of Hoban the architect who designed the White House at Washington,
+modelling it after Leinster House in Dublin; of painters like Charles
+Ingham, W.G. Wall, William Magrath, the Morans, James Hamilton, and
+Thomas Hovenden; and of sculptors like John Donoghue, John Flanagan,
+Andrew O'Connor, John F. Kelly, Jerome Connor, John J. Boyle, and
+Martin Milmore. But they belong rather to the history of American art
+than to that of Ireland.
+
+Before leaving the subject of Irish sculpture, the work of the
+medallists, an allied branch of the art in which Irishmen did much
+valued work, should not be overlooked. The medals of William Mossop
+(1751-1805), of his son, William Stephen Mossop (1788-1827), and of
+John Woodhouse (1835-1892), to mention only three of its chief
+representatives in Ireland, are greatly prized by collectors.
+
+Most modern Irish art of high importance has been largely produced
+out of Ireland, which has been perforce abandoned by those artists
+who have learned how little encouragement is to be met with at home.
+One can blame neither the artist nor the Irish public for this
+unfortunate result; there is sufficient reason in the political and
+economic condition of Ireland since the Union to explain the fact.
+But for this cause men like Daniel Maclise, R.A. (1806-1870), William
+Mulready, R.A. (1786-1863), Francis Danby, A.R.A. (1793-1861), and
+Alfred Elmore, R.A. (1815-1881), might have endeavored to emulate the
+spirit of James O'Connor (1792-1841), the landscapist, Richard
+Rothwell (1800-1868), a charming subject painter, and Sir Frederic W.
+Burton (1816-1900), one of the most distinguished artists of his
+time, who at least spent some of their active working career in their
+native land. The same words apply to artists who succeeded in other
+branches of the profession, men like John Doyle (1797-1868), a
+caricaturist with all the power, without the coarseness, of his
+predecessors; his son, Richard Doyle (1824-1883), a refined and
+delicate artist; John Leech (1817-1864), the humorist, a member of an
+Irish Catholic family; Paul Gray (1842-1866), who died before his
+powers had fully matured; and Matthew James Lawless (1837-1864), who
+also died too early. William Collins, R.A. (1788-1847) and Clarkson
+Stanfield, R.A. (1793-1867), both eminent representatives of English
+art, though of Irish extraction, more properly belong to England than
+to Ireland.
+
+Not discouraged by the melancholy history of many gifted Irish
+artists, Ireland still produces men who are not unworthy of
+association with the best who have gone before. Our most recent
+losses have been heavy--notably those of Walter F. Osborne
+(1859-1903) and Patrick Vincent Duffy (1832-1909), but we still have
+artists of genius in the persons of Nathaniel Hone, a direct
+descendant of his famous namesake; John Butler Yeats; John Lavery,
+A.R.A.; and William Orpen, A.R.A. Many other names might be given,
+but already this attempt at a survey suffers by its enumeration of
+artists, who, however, could hardly be neglected in such a record.
+
+Crowded as the list may be, it is a careful selection, and it
+demonstrates that, notwithstanding all the disadvantages under which
+Ireland suffers, the country has an almost unlimited capacity for
+fine achievement, and that, with prosperity and contentment, she may
+be expected to rival the most illustrious of art centres. It is only
+within living memory that any attempt has been made to direct the
+known artistic skill of the Irish people to industrial effort. But
+the remarkable success achieved in the modern designs for Irish lace
+in the English art competitions is an instance of what might be done
+generally in the applied arts. Though they are in their infancy, the
+new carpet and stained glass industries in Ireland also hold out
+considerable hope for the future. But one can only barely indicate
+what has been and might be done in the furtherance of Irish art. If
+we only had under one roof a judiciously made collection of all the
+best work done by Irish artists of all styles and periods, it would
+more eloquently justify our claim than endless columns of praise.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Anthony Pasquin [John Williams]: History of Professors of Painting in
+Ireland (1795); T.J. Mulvany: Life of James Gandon; John O'Keeffe:
+Reminiscences, vol. I; Taft: American Sculpture; W.G. Strickland:
+Dictionary of Irish Artists (2 vols., 1913).
+
+
+
+IRELAND AT PLAY
+
+By THOMAS E. HEALY,
+
+_Editor of "Sport," Dublin_.
+
+
+On the face of the earth there is no nation in which the love of
+clean and wholesome sport is more strongly developed than in the
+Irish. Against us it cannot be urged that we take our pleasures
+sadly. We enter into them with entire self-abandon, whole-hearted
+enthusiasm, and genuine exuberance of spirit. There is nothing
+counterfeit about the Irishman in his play. His one keen desire is to
+win, be the contest what it may; and towards the achievement of that
+end he will strain nerve and muscle even to the point of utter
+exhaustion. And how the onlookers applaud at the spectacle of a
+desperately contested race, whether between horses, men, motorcars,
+bicycles, or boats, or of a match between football, hurling, or
+cricket teams! It matters not which horse, man, car, cycle, boat, or
+team is successful: the sport is the thing that counts; the
+strenuousness of the contest is what stimulates and evokes the
+rapturous applause. At such a moment it is good to be alive. Scenes
+similar to those hinted at may be witnessed on any sports-field or
+racetrack in our dear little Emerald Isle almost any day of the year.
+All is good fellowship; all is in the cause of sport.
+
+No one can question that in some departments of horse-racing Ireland
+is today supreme. The Irish devotion to the horse is of no recent
+growth. Everybody knows how, in the dim and distant days when King
+Conor macNessa ruled at Emain, the war-steeds of the Ultonians
+neighed loudly in their stalls on the first dramatic appearance of
+Cuchulainn of Muirthemne at the northern court. Cuchulainn's own two
+steeds, Liath Macha, "the Roan of Macha", and Dub Sainglenn, "Black
+Sanglan", are celebrated in story and song:
+
+      Never hoofs like them shall ring,
+      Rapid as the winds of spring.
+
+To read of the performances of Cuchulainn and his war-horses and his
+charioteer and friend, Laeg macRiangahra, at the famous battle of
+Rosnaree, and again at the last fight between the Red Branch Knights
+and the forces of Queen Medb of Connacht, does truly, in the words
+used by Sir Philip Sidney in another connection, stir the heart like
+the sound of a trumpet.
+
+As time went on, the Irish war-horse became more and more famous, and
+always carried his rider in gallant style. Stout was the steed that,
+bestridden by Godfrey O'Donnell at the battle of Credan-Kille,
+withstood the shock of Lord Maurice Fitzgerald's desperate onslaught,
+and by his steadiness enabled the Tyrconnell chieftain to strike
+senseless and unhorse his fierce Norman foe. More celebrated still
+was the high-spirited animal which Art MacMurrogh rode in 1399 to his
+ineffectual parley with King Richard the Second's representative, the
+Earl of Gloucester. The French chronicler who was a witness of that
+historic scene tells us that a horse more exquisitely beautiful, more
+marvellously fleet, he had never seen. "In coming down," he says, "it
+galloped so hard that, in my opinion, I never saw hare, deer, sheep,
+or any other animal, I declare to you for a certainty, run with such
+speed as it did." Edmund Spenser, the poet of _The Faerie Queene_,
+writing in 1596, bears this striking testimony to the Irish
+horse-soldier and inferentially to the Irish horse: "I have hearde
+some greate warriours say, that, in all the services which they had
+seene abroade in forrayne countreys, they never sawe a more comely
+horseman than the Irish man, nor that cometh on more bravely in his
+charge." The feats performed at the Battle of the Boyne, in 1690, by
+the Irish horse-soldiers under Hamilton and Berwick were really
+wonderful, and well-nigh turned disaster into victory on that
+memorable day which decided the fate of nations as well as of
+dynasties. And surely those were fleet and stout-hearted steeds that,
+on August 12, 1690, carried Sarsfield and his chosen five hundred on
+their dare-devil midnight ride from the Keeper Hills to Ballyneety,
+where in the dim morning twilight they captured and destroyed William
+of Orange's wonderful siege-train, and thereby heartened the
+defenders of beleaguered Limerick.
+
+Writing in 1809, Lawrence, in his _History and Delineation of the
+Horse_, said: "From Ireland alone we import [into England] many
+saddle horses, as many perhaps as 1,500 in a year; upwards in some
+years. The Irish are the highest and steadiest leapers in the world.
+Ireland has bred some good racers, and the generality of Irish horses
+are, it appears, warmer tempered than our own; and, to use the
+expression, sharper and more frigate-built."
+
+It is not to be wondered at therefore if in such a country there
+developed an ardent love of the noble sport of horse-racing. The
+Curragh of Kildare, the long-standing headquarters of the Irish Turf
+Club, was celebrated far back in the eighteenth century as the venue
+of some great equine contests; and to this day, with its five
+important fixtures every year, it still holds pride of place. There
+are numerous other race-courses all over the country, from
+Punchestown, Leopardstown, Phoenix Park, and Baldoyle in the east to
+Galway in the west, and from The Maze in the north to rebel Cork in
+the south. Horse-racing has not inappropriately been termed the
+national pastime of Ireland. The number of people now giving their
+attention to it has called for a notable increase in the number of
+race-meetings, and stake-money is being put up on a more generous
+scale than at any previous time in the history of the sport. For
+example, the Irish Derby, run at the Curragh, was in 1914 worth
+L2,500; and there are besides several stakes of L1,500 and L1,000.
+The result of this forward policy is that increasing numbers come to
+our race-meetings and that the turf has never been more popular than
+it is today. Men and women of wealth and position find in the
+national pastime a pleasant method of employing their leisure, and in
+expending their surplus wealth in its pursuit and in the raising of
+horses of the highest class they realize that they confer a real
+benefit on the country.
+
+It is, of course, now universally known that Ireland has an
+international reputation as a country eminently fitted for
+horse-breeding. If proof were needed, it would be found in the
+extensive purchases effected by English, French, Italian, German,
+Russian, and American buyers at the great Dublin Horse Show held in
+August every year. Horses bought in Ireland have seldom failed to
+realize their promise. The English classic races and many of the
+principal handicaps on the flat have been often won by Irish-bred
+horses, such as Galtee More, Ard Patrick, Orby, Kilwarlin,
+Barcaldine, Umpire, Master Kildare, Kilsallaghan, Bendigo, Philomel,
+The Rejected, Comedy, Winkfield's Pride, Bellevin, Royal Flush,
+Victor Wild, Bachelor's Button, Irish Ivy, and Hackler's Pride. If
+only a few of the star performers are here set down, it is not from
+lack of means to continue, but merely from a desire to avoid the
+compilation of a mere string of names. In France, too, the Irish
+racer has made his mark. It is, however, in the four-and-a-half
+miles' Liverpool Grand National Steeplechase, the greatest
+cross-country race in the world, the supreme test of the leaper,
+galloper, and stayer, that Irish-bred horses have made perhaps the
+most wonderful record. The list of winners of that great event
+demonstrates in an unmistakable manner that we are second to none in
+the art of breeding steeplechase horses. Among many other noted
+Irish-bred winners of this race there stand boldly forth the names of
+The Lamb, Empress, Woodbrook, Frigate, Come Away, Cloister, Wild Man
+from Borneo, and Manifesto. In fact, it is the exception when another
+than an Irish-bred horse annexes the blue riband of steeplechasing.
+
+Closely allied to horse-racing is fox-hunting, and fox-hunting, as
+well as the hunting of the stag and of the hare, has flourished
+exceedingly in Ireland for a long time past. A great deal of needed
+employment is one of the results. Dogs are specially bred and trained
+for each of these branches of sport. Irish foxhounds, staghounds,
+harriers, and beagles have a high reputation. More native to the
+soil, and so interwoven with the history of the country that it is
+often used as one of its symbols, is the Irish wolfhound. This is
+probably the animal to which Aurelius Symmachus, a Roman consul in
+Britain, referred when, writing to his brother in Ireland in A.D.
+391, he acknowledged the receipt of seven Irish hounds. The wolfhound
+played a sinister part in the Irish history of the eighteenth
+century, for, as Davis says in his poem, "The Penal Days":
+
+      Their dogs were taught alike to run
+      Upon the scent of wolf and friar.
+
+The Irish wolfhound is now very scarce, and a genuine specimen is a
+valued and highly coveted possession. The greyhound, too, figures
+prominently in present-day sport, and in many parts of the country
+are held coursing meetings, which frequently result in several
+spirited contests. A famous Irish greyhound was Lord Lurgan's black
+and white dog, Master McGrath. Master McGrath achieved the rare
+distinction of winning the Waterloo Cup three times, in 1868, 1869,
+and 1871. When it is remembered that the Waterloo Cup is to coursing
+what the Liverpool Grand National is to steeplechasing, or the Epsom
+Derby to flat racing, the merit of this triple performance will at
+once be apparent.
+
+Compared with the sports in which horse and hound participate, all
+other outdoor pastimes in Ireland take rather a minor place. Still,
+the Irishman's love of sport is diversified. Few there are who have
+not many inclinations, and as a nation our taste in sport is
+catholic. We take part in nearly every pastime; in many we excel. The
+prize ring has fallen from its high estate, nor is it the intention
+here to try to cast any glamour over it. The subject is introduced,
+in a passing way, for the sole purpose of showing that, in what at
+least used to be the manly art of self-defense, Ireland in days gone
+by as well as at the present time has more than held her own. The
+most conspicuous of the representatives of her race in this
+department are perhaps Heenan, Ryan, Sullivan, Corbett, Maher,
+McAuliffe, McFarland, and McGoorty. There is one other prize-fighter,
+Dan Donnelly by name, who became a sort of national hero, of whom all
+Irishmen of his day were not a little proud, because he laid the
+English champion low, and whose performance, now haloed by the
+antiquity of more than a hundred years, we may with equanimity, as
+without offense, contemplate, with perhaps a sigh for the good old
+times. The famous encounter between Donnelly and Cooper took place on
+the Curragh, and after eleven rounds of scientific boxing Donnelly
+knocked his opponent over the ropes and won the world's championship
+for the Emerald Isle. The spot where the battle came off has ever
+since been known as Donnelly's Hollow, and a neat monument there
+erected commemorates the Dublin man's pluck and skill. A ballad
+recounting the incidents of the fight and, as ballads go, not badly
+composed, had a wonderful vogue, and was sung at fair and market and
+other meeting place within the memory of men who are not now more
+than middle-aged.
+
+A search in other domains of sport will be by no means barren of
+results. Take running, for instance. Who has not heard of the
+wondrous little Thomas Conneff from the short-grass county of
+Kildare? Who does not know of his brilliant performances on the
+track? We in Ireland, who had seen him defeat Carter, the great
+Canadian, over the four-mile course at Ballsbridge one summer's eve
+now nearly twenty golden years ago, knew his worth before he crossed
+the broad Atlantic to show to thousands of admiring spectators in
+America that Ireland was the breeder of fleet-footed sons, who lacked
+neither the courage, nor the thews and sinews, nor the staying power,
+to carry them at high speed over any distance of ground. May the
+earth lie light on Conneff, for in a small body he had a great heart!
+Then there was the mighty runner, James J. Daly, a true hero from
+Galway, the idol of the crowd in his native land as well as in the
+United States. Daly was the champion long distance cross-country
+runner of his day at home, and he showed before various nationalities
+in the Greater Ireland beyond the seas that he could successfully
+compete with the best from all countries.
+
+In high jumping, Patrick Davin, P. Leahy, and Peter O'Connor were for
+long in the foremost rank; Daniel Ahearne was famous for his
+hop-step-and-jump performance; Maurice Davin, Matthew McGrath, and
+Patrick Ryan have, each in his own day, thrown the 16-pound hammer to
+record distance; in shot-putting there are Sheridan, Horgan, John
+Flanagan, and others bearing true Irish names, who are right in
+front; and before their time we had a redoubted champion in W.J.M.
+Barry. All previous performances in the shot-putting line have,
+however, been recently eclipsed by Patrick J. McDonald, of the
+Irish-American Club, who at Celtic Park, Long Island, on May 30,
+1914, made a new world's record by putting the 18-pound shot 46 feet
+2-3/4 inches. The climax of achievement was reached when T.F. Kiely
+won the all-round championship of the world at New York. The
+distinguished part taken by Irishmen or sons of Irishmen in all
+departments of the Olympic games is so recent and so well known as to
+call for no comment. Ireland is far indeed from being degenerate in
+her athletes.
+
+In international strife with England, Scotland, Wales, and France at
+Rugby football, Ireland has likewise won her spurs. She has never
+been beaten by the representatives of Gaul; and though for long
+enough she had invariably to succumb in competition with the other
+three countries, such is not the case nowadays, nor has it been for
+many years past. The Irish team has ever to be reckoned with. In
+Association football, too, Ireland is coming into her own. This
+branch of the game has developed enormously within a comparatively
+few seasons. The people flock in their thousands to witness matches
+for the principal league contests or cup ties. But the greatest
+crowds of all go to see Gaelic football, the national game; and to
+hurling, also distinctively Irish, they foregather in serried masses.
+Since the Gaelic Athletic Association was founded both football and
+hurling have prospered exceedingly. They are essentially popular
+forms of sport, and the muscular manhood of city and country finds in
+them a natural outlet for their characteristic Celtic vigor. The
+Gaelic Association has fostered and developed these sports, and has
+organized them on so sound a basis that interest in them is not
+confined to any particular district but spreads throughout the length
+and breadth of Ireland.
+
+When the America Cup was to be challenged for, into the breach
+stepped the Earl of Dunraven and flung his gage to the holders of the
+trophy. This distinguished Irish nobleman furnished a contender in
+his Valkyrie II. in the fall of 1893, and his patriotic spirit in
+doing so stirred the sport-loving Irish nation to the greatest
+enthusiasm. His lordship was not successful, but he was not
+disheartened. He tried again with Valkyrie III., but again he was
+only second best, for, though his yacht sailed to victory in home
+waters, she proved unequal to the task of lifting the cup. No
+Englishman was prepared to tempt fortune, but not so that sterling
+Irishman, Sir Thomas Lipton, who, win or lose, would not have it laid
+to the charge of Ireland that an attempt should not be made. His
+Shamrock, Shamrock II., and Shamrock III.--surely a deep sense of
+patriotism prompted nomenclature such as that--each in succession
+went down to defeat; but Sir Thomas has not done yet. Like King
+Bruce, he is going to try again, and Shamrock IV. is to do battle
+with the best that America can range against her. All honor to Lord
+Dunraven and to Sir Thomas Lipton for their persistent efforts to
+engage in generous rivalry with the yachtsmen across the sea.
+
+Lawn-tennis, cricket, and golf we play, and play well; to rowing many
+of us are enthusiastically devoted; and at handball our young
+men--and some not so young--are signally expert. The champion
+handball player has always been of Irish blood. Baseball we
+invented--and called it rounders. It is significant that the great
+American ball game is still played according to a code which is
+scarcely modified from that which may be seen in force any summer day
+on an Irish school field or village green. Perhaps something of
+hereditary instinct is to be traced in the fact that many of the best
+exponents of American baseball are the bearers of fine old Irish
+names.
+
+This brief and cursory review of Ireland at Play must now conclude.
+It is scarcely more than a glossary, and not a complete one at that.
+It may, however, serve to show that Ireland's record in sport, like
+her record in so many other things set forth in this book, is great
+and glorious enough to warrant the insertion of this short chapter
+among those which tell of old achievements and feats of high emprize.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Racing--Irish Racing Calendar: 1790-1914, 124 vols. (Dublin, Brindley
+and Son); The Racing Calendar: 1774-1914 (London, Weatherby and
+Sons). Breeding--The General Stud Book: 1908-1913, 22 vols. (London,
+Weatherby and Sons). Racing and Breeding Generally--Cox: Notes on the
+History of the Irish Horse (Dublin, 1897). Boxing and
+Athletics--Files of _Sport_ and _Freeman's Journal_.
+
+
+
+THE FIGHTING RACE
+
+By JOSEPH I.C. CLARKE,
+
+_President, American Irish Historical Society_.
+
+
+I.--THE FIGHTING RACE AT HOME.
+
+"War was the ruling passion of this people," says MacGeoghegan,
+meaning the Milesians who were the latest of the peoples that overran
+ancient Ireland up to the coming of Christ. How many races had
+preceded them remains an enigma of history not profitable to examine
+here, but whoever they were, or in what succession they arrived, they
+must, like all migrating people, have been prepared to establish
+themselves at the point of the spear and the edge of the sword. Two
+races certainly were mingled in the ancient Irish, the fair or auburn
+haired with blue eyes, and the dark haired with eyes of gray or
+brown. The Milesians appear to have reached Ireland through Spain.
+They came swiftly to power, more than a thousand years before our
+Lord, and divided the country into four provinces or kingdoms, with
+an _ard-ri_, or high-king, ruling all in a loose way as to service,
+taxes, and allegiance. The economic life was almost entirely
+pastoral. Riches were counted in herds of cattle. "Robustness of
+frame, vehemence of passion, elevated imagination," Dr. Leland says,
+signalized this people. Robust, they became athletic and vigorous and
+excelled in the use of deadly weapons; passionate, they easily went
+from litigation to blows; imaginative, they leaned toward poetry and
+song and were strong for whatever religion they practised. The latter
+was a polytheism brought close to the people through the Druids. Some
+stone weapons were doubtless still used; they had also brazen or
+bronze swords, and spears, axes, and maces of various alloys of
+copper and tin. Socially they remained tribal. Heads of tribes were
+petty kings, each with his stronghold of a primitive character, each
+with his tribal warriors, bards, harpers, and druids, and the whole
+male population more or less ready to take part in war.
+
+The great heroes whose names have come down to us, such as Finn, son
+of Cumhal, and Cuchulainn, were reared in a school of arms. Bravery
+was the sign of true manhood. A law of chivalry moderated the excess
+of combat. A trained militia, the Fianna, gave character to an era;
+the Knights of the Red Branch were the distinguishing order of
+chevaliers. The songs of the bards were songs of battle; the great
+Irish epic of antiquity was the_ Tain Bo Cualnge_, or Cooley
+Cattle-raid, and it is full of combats and feats of strength and
+prowess. High character meant high pride, always ready to give
+account of itself and strike for its ideals: "Irritable and bold", as
+one historian has it. They were jealous and quick to anger, but
+light-hearted laughter came easily to the lips of the ancient Irish.
+They worked cheerfully, prayed fervently to their gods, loved their
+women and children devotedly, clung passionately to their clan, and
+fought at the call with alacrity.
+
+Nothing, it will be seen, could be further from the minds of such a
+people than submission to what they deemed injustice. The habit of a
+proud freedom was ingrained. Their little island of 32,000 square
+miles in the Atlantic Ocean, the outpost of Europe, lay isolated save
+for occasional forays to and from the coasts of Scotland and England.
+The Roman invasions of western Europe never reached it. England the
+Romans overran, but never Scotland or Ireland. Self-contained,
+Ireland developed a civilization peculiarly its own, the product of
+an intense, imaginative, fighting race. War was not constant among
+them by any means, and occupied only small portions of the island at
+a time, but, since the bards' best work was war songs and war
+histories, with much braggadocio doubtless intermixed, a different
+impression might prevail. Half of their kings may have been killed in
+broil or battle, and yet great wars were few. If is undoubted that
+Scotic, that is, Irish, invasion and immigration peopled the western
+shores of Scotland and gave a name to the country. In the first
+centuries of the Christian era they were the men who with the Picts
+fought the Romans at the wall of Severus. The Britons, it will be
+remembered, enervated by Roman dominance, had failed to defend their
+"border" when Rome first withdrew her legions.
+
+At this time, too, began the first appearance of Ireland as a power
+on the sea. In the fourth century the high-king, Niall of the
+Hostages, commanding a large fleet of war galleys, invaded Scotland,
+ravaged the English coasts, and conquered Armorica (Brittany),
+penetrating as far as the banks of the Loire, where, according to the
+legend, he was slain by an arrow shot by one of his own men. One of
+the captives he brought from abroad on one of his early expeditions
+was a youth named Patrick, afterwards to be the Apostle of Ireland.
+Niall's nephew, Dathi, also ard-ri, was a great sea king. He invaded
+England, crossed to Gaul, and marched as far as the Alps, where he
+was killed by lightning. He was the last pagan king of Ireland. In
+perhaps a score of years after the death of Dathi, all Ireland had
+been converted to Christianity, and its old religion of a thousand
+years buried so deep that scholars find the greatest difficulty in
+recovering anything about it. This conservative, obstinate, jealous
+people overturned its pagan altars in a night, and, ever since, has
+never put into anything else the devotion, soul and body, of its
+sacrifices for religion. Christianity profoundly modified Irish life,
+softened manners, and stimulated learning. Not that the fighting
+propensities were obliterated. There were indeed many long and
+peaceful reigns, but the historians record neat little wars,
+seductive forays and "hostings", to use the new-old word, to the
+heart's content. The Irish character remained fixed in its
+essentials, but, under the influence of religious enthusiasm, Ireland
+progressed and prospered in the arts of peace. It would undoubtedly
+have shared the full progress of western Europe from this time on,
+but for its insularity. Hitherto its protection, it was now to be its
+downfall. A hostile power was growing of which it knew nothing.
+
+The Norsemen--the hardy vikings of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark--had
+become a nation of pirates. Undaunted fighters and able mariners,
+they built their shapely long ships and galleys of the northern pine
+and oak, and swept hardily down on the coasts of England, Ireland,
+France, Spain, and Italy, and the lands of the Levant, surprising,
+massacring, plundering. In France (Normandy), in England, and lastly
+in Ireland they planted colonies. Their greatest success was in
+England, which they conquered, Canute becoming king. Their greatest
+battles and final defeat were in Ireland. From the end of the eighth
+century to the beginning of the eleventh the four shores of Erin were
+attacked in turn, and sometimes all together, by successive fleets of
+the Norsemen. The waters that had been Ireland's protection now
+became the high roads of the invaders. By the river Shannon they
+pushed their conquests into the heart of the country. Dublin Bay,
+Waterford Harbor, Belfast Lough, and the Cove of Cork offered shelter
+to their vessels. They established themselves in Dublin and raided
+the country around. Churches and monasteries were sacked and burned.
+To the end these Norsemen were robbers rather than settlers. To these
+onslaughts by the myriad wasps of the northern seas, again and again
+renewed, the Irish responded manfully. In 812 they drove off the
+invaders with great slaughter, only to find fresh hordes descending a
+year or two later. In the tenth century, Turgesius, the Danish
+leader, called himself monarch of Ireland, but he was driven out by
+the Irish king, Malachi. The great effort which really broke the
+Danish power forever in Ireland was at the battle of Clontarf, on
+Dublin Bay, Good Friday, 1014, when King Brian Boru, at the head of
+30,000 men, utterly defeated the Danes of Dublin and the Danes of
+oversea. Fragments of the Northmen remained all over Ireland, but
+henceforth they gradually merged with the Irish people, adding a
+notable element to it's blood. One of the most grievous chapters of
+Irish history, the period of Norse invasion, literally shines with
+Irish valor and tenacity, undimmed through six fighting generations.
+As Plowden says:
+
+"Ireland stands conspicuous among the nations of the universe, a
+solitary instance in which neither the destructive hand of time, nor
+the devastating arm of oppression, nor the widest variety of changes
+in the political system of government could alter or subdue, much
+less wholly extinguish, the national genius, spirit, and character of
+its inhabitants." This is true not only of the Danish wars which
+ended nine hundred years ago, but of many a dreadful century since
+and to this very day.
+
+Now followed a troubled period, Ireland weakened by loss of blood and
+treasure, its government failing of authority through the defects of
+its virtues. It was inevitable, sooner or later, that England, as it
+became consolidated after its conquest by William the Norman, should
+turn greedy eyes on the fair land across the Irish sea. It was in
+1169 that "Strongbow"--Richard, earl of Pembroke--came from England
+at the invitation of a discontented Irish chieftain and began the
+conquest of Ireland. Three years later came Henry II. with more
+troops and a Papal bull. After a campaign in Leinster, he set himself
+up as overlord of Ireland, and then returned to London. It was the
+beginning only. An English Lord Deputy ruled the "Pale", or portion
+of Ireland that England held more or less securely, and from that
+vantage ground made spasmodic war upon the rest of Ireland, and was
+forever warred on, in large attacks and small, by Irish chieftains.
+
+The Irish were the fighting race now if ever. Without hope of outside
+assistance, facing a foe ever reinforced from a stronger, richer,
+more fully organized country, nothing but their stubborn character
+and their fighting genius kept them in the field. And century out and
+century in, they stayed, holding back the foreign foe four hundred
+years. It is worthy of note that it was the Norman English, racial
+cousins, as it were, of the Norsemen, who first wrought at the
+English conquest of Ireland. When some of these were seated in Irish
+places of pride, when a Butler was made Earl of Ormond and a
+Fitzgerald, Earl of Kildare, it was soon seen that they were merging
+rapidly in the Irish mass, becoming, as it was said, "more Irish than
+the Irish themselves." Many were the individual heroic efforts to
+strike down the English power. Here and there small Irish chiefs
+accepted the English rule, offsetting the Norman Irish families who
+at times were "loyal" and at times "rebel." The state of war became
+continuous and internecine, but three-fourths of Ireland remained
+unconquered. The idea of a united Ireland against England had,
+however, been lost except in a few exalted and a few desperate
+breasts. A gleam of hope came in 1316, when, two years after the
+great defeat of England by the Scotch under Robert the Bruce at
+Bannockburn, Edward, the victor-king's brother, came at the
+invitation of the northern Irish to Ireland with 6,000 Scots, landing
+near Carrickfergus. He was proclaimed king of Ireland by the Irish
+who joined him. Battle after battle was won by the allies. Edward was
+a brilliant soldier, lacking, however, the prudence of his great
+brother, Robert. The story of his two years of fighting, ravaging,
+and slaying, is hard at this distance to reconcile with intelligible
+strategy. In the end, in 1318, the gallant Scot fell in battle near
+Dundalk, losing at the same time two-thirds of his army. For two
+years Scot and Irish had fought victoriously side by side. That is
+the fact of moment that comes out of this dark period.
+
+The following century, like that which had gone before, was full of
+fighting. In 1399, on Richard II.'s second visit to Ireland, he met
+fierce opposition from the Irish septs. MacMorrough, fighting,
+harassing the king's army from the shelter of the Wicklow woods,
+fairly drove the king to Dublin. The sanguinary "Wars of the
+Roses"--that thirty years' struggle for the crown of England between
+the royal houses of York and Lancaster, 1455 to 1485--gave Ireland a
+long opportunity, which, however, she was too weak to turn to
+advantage; but fighting between Irish and English went on just the
+same, now in one province, now in another.
+
+In the reign of Henry VIII. a revolt against England started within
+the Pale itself, when Lord Thomas Fitzgerald, known as Silken Thomas,
+went before the Council in Dublin and publicly renounced his
+allegiance. He took the field--a brave, striking figure--in protest
+against the king's bad faith in dealing with his father, the Earl of
+Kildare. At one time it looked as if the rebellion (it was the first
+real Irish rebellion) would prosper. Lord Thomas made combinations
+with Irish chieftains in the north and west, and was victor in
+several engagements. He finally surrendered with assurances of
+pardon, but, as in many similar cases, was treacherously sent a
+prisoner to London, where he was executed.
+
+Queen Mary's reign was one of comparative quiet in Ireland. Her
+policy towards the Catholics was held to be of good augury for
+Ireland. The English garrison was reduced with impunity to 500 foot
+and a few horse: but another and darker day came with Elizabeth. Her
+coming to the throne, together with her fanatic devotion to the
+Reformation and an equal hatred of the old religion and all who clung
+to it, ushered in for Ireland two and a half centuries of almost
+unbroken misfortune. You cannot make people over. Some may take their
+opinions with their interest; others prefer to die rather than
+surrender theirs, and glory in the sacrifice. The proclamations of
+Elizabeth had no persuasion in them for the Irish. Her proscriptions
+were only another English sword at Ireland's throat. The disdain of
+the Irish maddened her. During her long reign one campaign after
+another was launched against them. Always fresh soldier hordes came
+pouring in under able commanders and marched forth from the Pale,
+generally to return shattered and worn down by constant harrying,
+sometimes utterly defeated with great slaughter. So of Henry Sidney's
+campaign, and so of the ill-fated Essex. Ulster, the stronghold of
+the O'Neills and the O'Donnells, remained unconquered down to the
+last years of Elizabeth's reign, although most of the greater battles
+were fought there. In Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, and "Red" Hugh
+O'Donnell, prince of Tyrconnell, Ireland had two really great
+soldiers on her side. The bravery, generalship, prudence, and
+strategy of O'Neill were worthy of all praise, and Red Hugh fell
+little short of his great compatriot. In battle after battle for
+twenty years they defeated the English with slaughter. Ireland, if
+more and more devastated by campaigns and forays, became the grave of
+tens of thousands of English soldiers and scores of high reputations.
+Writing from Cork, the Earl of Essex, after a disastrous march
+through Leinster and Munster, says:
+
+"I am confined in Cork ... but still I have been unsuccessful; my
+undertakings have been attended with misfortune.... The Irish are
+stronger and handle their arms with more skill than our people; they
+differ from us also in point of discipline. They likewise avoid
+pitched battles where order must be observed, and prefer skirmishes
+and petty warfare ... and are obstinately opposed to the English
+government."
+
+They did not like attacking or defending fortified places, he also
+believed. It was only his experience. The campaigns of Shane O'Neill,
+a bold but ill-balanced warrior, were full of such attacks, but one
+potent cause for Irish reluctance to make sieges a strong point of
+their strategy was that the strongest fortresses were on the sea. An
+inexhaustible, powerful enemy who held the sea was not in the end to
+be denied on sea or land, but the Irish in stubborn despair or
+supreme indifference to fate fought on. Religious rancor was added to
+racial hate. Most of the English settlers, or "garrison," as they
+came to be called, had become Protestants at the royal order. Ruin
+perched upon Ireland's hills and made a wilderness of her fertile
+valleys. The Irish chieftains with their faithful followers moved
+from place to place in woods and hollows of the hills. English
+colonists were settled on confiscated lands, and were harried by
+those who had been driven from their homes. It was war among graves.
+At last O'Neill made composition with the government when all was
+lost in the field, but the passionate Irish resolve never to submit
+still stalked like a ghost, as if it could not perish.
+
+When Elizabeth died it was thought that better things were coming to
+Ireland with James I., the son of Mary, Queen of Scots. Nothing of
+the kind. That curiously minded creature at once made an ingenuous
+proclamation:
+
+"Whereas his Majesty was informed that his subjects of Ireland had
+been deceived by _a false report that his Majesty was disposed to
+allow them liberty of conscience_ and the free choice of religion,
+now, etc." Fresh "transplanting" of English and Scotch settlers on
+the lands of the Irish was the gist of his answer to the "false
+reports." So again the war of surprise, ambush, raid, and foray went
+on in a hundred places at once, but the result was that the English
+power was even more firmly seated than before.
+
+In the time of Charles I. there were terrible slaughters both of
+Protestants and Catholics. Patriotism and loyalty as moving causes
+had disappeared, but religion fiercely took their place. With
+Cromwell, the religious persecution took on an apocalyptic note of
+massacre, but the Irish were still showing that they were there with
+arms in their hands. The names of Owen Roe O'Neill and his splendid
+victory, in 1646, at Benburb over the English and Scotch, where he
+slew more than 3,000 men, and of another Hugh O'Neill, who made such
+a brilliant defense at Clonmel against Cromwell, shine brightly out
+of the darkness. But Ireland, parcelled out among the victors, was
+always the weaker after every campaign. Waves of war swept over her.
+She became mixed up in the rivalries of the English royal families,
+religion playing the most important part in the differences. It had
+armed Henry and Elizabeth, James and Charles against her. It gave
+edge to Cromwell's sword, and it led her into a great effort on
+behalf of James II. When William of Orange crossed the Boyne, all
+that followed for a century was symbolized. Athlone, Aughrim,
+Limerick, all places of great and fierce contests, were decided
+against her. French support of a kind had James, but not enough.
+Bravery and enthusiasm may win battles, but they do not carry through
+great campaigns. Once again God marched with the heaviest, best-fed,
+best-armed battalions. The great Tyrone dying in exile at Rome, Red
+Hugh O'Donnell perishing in Spain in the early days of the
+seventeenth century, were to prefigure the fighting and dying of half
+a million Irish warriors on continental soil for a hundred years
+after the fall of Limerick as the seventeenth century neared its
+close.
+
+During that period the scattered bands of the Rapparees, half
+patriots, half robbers, hiding in mountain fastnesses, dispersing,
+reassembling, descending on the English estates for rapine or the
+killing of "objectionables," represented the only armed resistance of
+the Irish. It was generally futile although picturesque.
+
+After the close of the Revolutionary War in America, Ireland received
+a new stimulation. The success of the patriots of the Irish
+parliament under Grattan, backed as they were by 100,000 volunteers
+and 130 pieces of cannon, in freeing Irish industry and commerce from
+their trammels, evoked the utmost malignity in England. Ireland
+almost at once sprang to prosperity, but it was destined to be short
+lived. A great conspiracy, which did not at first show above the
+surface, was set on foot to destroy the Irish parliament. This is not
+the place to follow the sinister machinations of the English, save to
+note that they forced both the Presbyterians and the Catholics of the
+north into preparations for revolt. The Society of United Irishmen
+was formed, and drew many of the brightest and most cultivated men in
+Ireland into its councils. It numbered over 70,000 adherents in
+Ulster alone. The government was alarmed, and began a systematic
+persecution of the peasantry all over Ireland. English regiments were
+put at "free quarters," that is, they forced themselves under order
+into the houses and cabins of the people with demands for bed and
+board. The hapless people were driven to fury. Brutal murders and
+barbarous tortures of men and women by the soldiers, savage revenges
+by the peasantry, and every form of violent crime all at once
+prevailed in the lately peaceful valleys. Prosecutions of United
+Irishmen and executions were many. It was all done deliberately to
+provoke revolt. In 1798 the revolt came. In the greater part of
+Ulster and Munster the uprising failed, but a great insurrection of
+the peasantry of Wexford shocked the country. Poorly armed, utterly
+undisciplined, without munitions of war, but 40,000 strong, they
+literally flung themselves pike in hand on the English regiments,
+sweeping everything before them for a time. Father John Murphy, a
+priest and patriot, was one of their leaders, but Beauchamp Bagenal
+Harvey was soon their commander-in-chief. At one time the "rebels"
+dominated the entire county save for a fort in the harbor and a small
+town or two, but it was natural that the commissariat should soon be
+in difficulties and their ammunition give out. The British general,
+Lake, with an army of 20,000 men and a moving column of 13,000,
+attacked the rebels on Vinegar Hill, and although the fight was
+heroic and bloody while it lasted, it was soon over and the British
+army was victorious. The rest was retreat, dispersal, and widespread
+cruelties and burnings and a long succession of murders. The "Boys of
+Wexford" funder great difficulties had given a great account of
+themselves. Dark as was that page of history, it has been a glowing
+lamp to Irish disaffection ever since. It is the soul of the effort
+that counts, and the disasters do not discredit '98 in Irish eyes.
+
+Voltaire, in his _Century of Louis XIV._, made his reflection on the
+Irish soldier out of his limited knowledge of the Williamite war in
+Ireland. He says, "The Irish, whom we have seen such good soldiers in
+France and Spain, have always fought poorly at home"! They had not
+fought poorly at home. It took four hundred years of English effort
+to complete, merely on its face, the conquest of Ireland, and all of
+that long sweep of the sword of Time was a time of battle. The Irish
+were fought with every appliance of war, backed by the riches of a
+prospering, strongly organized country, and impelled persistently by
+the greed of land and love of mastery; but there was not a mountain
+pass in Ireland, not a square mile of plain, not a river-ford, scarce
+a hill that had not been piled high with English dead in that four
+hundred years at the hands of the Irish wielders of sword and spear
+and pike.
+
+The Irish had not made their environment or their natures, and no
+power on earth could change them. Over greater England had swept the
+Romans, the Jutes, the Saxons, the Angles, the Norsemen, and the
+Normans. All found lodgment and all went to the making of England.
+Well, one might say, it had been for Ireland if she had developed
+that assimilating power which made her successive conquerors in
+process of time the feeders of her greatness, but the Irish would not
+and could not. Instead, they developed the pride of race that no
+momentary defeat could down. They became inured to battle and dreamt
+of battle when the peace of an hour was given them. When the four
+kings of Ireland were feasted in Dublin by King Richard II. of
+England, an English chronicler remarked, "Never were men of ruder
+manners"; but neither the silken array and golden glitter of
+Richard's peripatetic court nor the brave display of his thousand
+knights and thirty thousand archers filled them with longing for the
+one or fear of the other. They went back to their Irish hills and
+plains and fastnesses as obstinately Irish as ever.
+
+They fought well at home, if unfortunately, the wonder being that
+they continued to fight. The heavens and the earth seemed combined
+against them.
+
+II.--THE FIGHTING RACE ABROAD.
+
+We next see Irish soldiers fighting abroad. The blood they had shed
+so freely for the Stuarts at the Boyne, at Athlone, at Aughrim, at
+Limerick was in vain. The king of France, if he sent armies to
+Ireland, demanded Irish troops in return. The transports that brought
+the French regiments over in May, 1690, took back over five thousand
+officers and men from Ireland, who formed the first Irish Brigade in
+the service of France. This, remember, was before the battle of the
+Boyne. The men were formed on their arrival in France into three
+regiments, those of Mountcashel, O'Brien, and Dillon, named after
+their commanders, and were sent to Savoy. The French aid to James in
+Ireland helped best in giving confidence to the raw Irish levies, but
+it was more than offset by the German troops brought over by William.
+The weakness, indecision, or worse, of James before Derry, his
+chicken-hearted failure to overwhelm Schomberg when he lay at his
+mercy before the arrival of William, ruined his chances. Remember
+that the Irish army, if defeated at the Boyne, was not broken, and
+was strong enough, when pursued by William, to repulse him with 500
+killed and 1,000 wounded and to compel him to raise the siege of
+Limerick. The dash and skill of Patrick Sarsfield, Earl of Lucan,
+backed by Irish desperation, won the day. The French troops sailed
+home after William's retreat. In the next year's campaign occurred
+the crowning disasters of the war, but in any other country or with
+any other people than the English the terms of capitulation at
+Limerick, which were formulated by Ginkel and showed a soldier's
+respect for a brave and still powerful foe, would have ushered in an
+era of peace.
+
+The Irish soldiers' distrust of the conquerors was shown in the fact
+that, since the stipulations allowed the free departure of the
+garrison with honors of war, 19,059 officers and men took service
+with France, and sailed in October, 1691, on the French fleet, which
+by the irony of fate had arrived in the Shannon too late, on the very
+day after the signing of the treaty of Limerick. Never in the whole
+course of the history of nations has more hideous treachery been
+shown than in the immediate breaking of that treaty; and dearly has
+England paid for it ever since, although, for the hundred years that
+followed, Ireland sank to the very depths under the penal laws, with
+her trade ruined, her lands stolen, her religion persecuted, and all
+education and enlightenment forbidden by abominable, drastic laws.
+
+If, as has been computed, 450,000 Irish fought and died in the
+service of France between 1690 and 1745, a further 30,000 are to be
+added down to 1793. A French writer estimates the whole Irish
+contingent at 750,000, but, for a roster of seekers of glory from an
+impoverished people, the more reasonable half-million should surely
+suffice.
+
+Long would be the story to follow the fighting fortunes of the Irish
+Brigades. Officered by Irish gentlemen and drilled to perfection,
+they soon came to hold in the French service the esteem that later
+was given to Irish regiments in the service of England. King Louis
+welcomed them heartily and paid them a higher wage than his native
+soldiers. No duty was too arduous or too dangerous for the Irish
+Brigades. Seldom were they left to rust in idleness. Europe was a
+caldron of wars of high ambitions.
+
+The Irish regiments fought through the war in Flanders. At Landen,
+July 29, 1693, the French under the duke of Luxembourg defeated the
+English under William III. with a slaughter of 10,473 men, losing
+8,000 men themselves. In the retreat, Ginkel, William's general in
+the Irish campaign, was almost drowned in the river Greete. The Irish
+Royal Regiment of Footguards, that of Dorrington, was the first corps
+to break through the English intrenchments, its gallant leader,
+Colonel Barrett, falling as he headed the charge. Here also was
+stricken Lieutenant-Colonel Nugent of Sheldon's Irish Regiment. Here
+also fell--saddest loss of all--Patrick Sarsfield, Earl of Lucan,
+brave, resourceful, a true unfaltering-soldier and lover of his
+country. The legend of his life blood flowing before his eyes and his
+utterance, "Would it had been shed for Ireland", may and should be
+true, although he lived three days after the battle. Would, indeed,
+it had been shed for Ireland--after such a day!
+
+It was in 1703 that the celebrated defence of Cremona lifted Irish
+renown to great heights throughout Europe. There were but 600 Irish
+troopers all told in that long day's work, and from the break of day
+till nightfall they held at bay Prince Eugene's army of 10,000 men.
+The two battalions of Bourke and Dillon were surprised at early morn
+to learn that the Austrians--and there were Irish officers among
+them--were in the town. Major O'Mahony and his men ran from their
+beds to the gates, and neither the foes without nor the foes within
+could make them budge. Terribly they suffered under concentrated
+attacks, but a withering fire from the Irish met every assault. It
+was nightfall before relief came, and then the sons of Ireland who
+had held Cremona for the French were acclaimed by all, but of their
+600 they had lost nearly 350. Small wonder that the honor list that
+day was long. In Bourke's battalion the specially distinguished were
+Captains Wauchop, Plunkett, Donnellan, MacAuliffe, Carrin, Power,
+Nugent, and Ivers; in Dillon's, Major O'Mahony, Captains Dillon,
+Lynch, MacDonough, and Magee, and Lieutenants Dillon and Gibbon, John
+Bourke and Thomas Dillon. Major O'Mahony was sent to Paris to carry
+the news of the victory to the king, who presented him with a purse
+of 1,000 louis d'or, a pension of 1,000 livres, and the brevet of
+colonel.
+
+So the history proceeds, the Irish regiments lost in the array of the
+French forces, but showing here and there a glint of charging
+bayonets, captured trenches, and gushes of Irish blood. In 1703 the
+brigade regiments fought in Italy and Germany under the Duc de
+Vendome. We hear of the regiments of Berwick, Bourke, Dillon, Galmoy,
+and Fitzgerald vigorously engaged. In Germany the story is of
+Sheldon's Horse and two battalions of the regiments of Dorrington and
+Clare. At the first battle of Blenheim, September 20, 1703, the
+regiment of Clare lost one of its colors, rallied, charged with the
+bayonet and recovered it, taking two colors from the enemy. This was
+a French victory. Not so the great battle of Blenheim, August, 1704,
+when Marlborough and Prince Eugene severely defeated the French and
+Bavarians. Three Irish battalions shared in the disaster. In 1705 at
+Cassano in Italy an Irish regiment, finding itself badly galled by
+artillery fire from the opposite bank of the Adda, declared they
+could stand it no longer, and thereupon jumped in, swam the river,
+and captured the battery. In 1705 Colonel O'Mahony of Cremona fame
+distinguished himself in Spain. In the next year at the battle of
+Ramillies, in which Marlborough with the Dutch defeated the French
+under Villeroi, Lord Clare's regiment captured the colors of the
+English Churchill regiment and of the Scottish regiment in the Dutch
+service. In the same year and the next, the Irish Brigade fought many
+battles in Spain. One cannot pursue the details of the engagements.
+Regiments ever decimated were ever recruited by the "Wild Geese" from
+Ireland--the adventurous Catholic youth of the country who sought
+congenial outlet for their love of adventure and glory. Many Irish
+also joined the French army after deserting from the English forces
+in Flanders.
+
+It was, however, at Fontenoy, May 11, 1745, that the Irish Brigade
+rendered their most signal service to France. The English under the
+Duke of Cumberland, son of George II., with 55,000 men including a
+large German and Dutch auxiliary, met the French under Marshal Saxe,
+and in the presence of the French king Louis XV., near Tournai in
+Belgium. Saxe had 40,000 men in action and 24,000 around Tournai,
+which town was the objective of the English advance. Among the troops
+on the field were the six Irish regiments of Clare, Dillon, Bulkeley,
+Roth, Berwick, and Lally, all under Charles O'Brien, Viscount Clare,
+afterwards Marshal Thomond of France. After fierce cannonading on
+both sides and a check to the allies on their right and left, a great
+column of English veterans advanced on the French centre, breaking
+through with sheer force. They had thus reached high ground when some
+cannonading halted them. It was at this moment of gravest peril to
+the French that the Irish regiments with unshotted guns charged
+headlong up the slope on their ancient enemies, crying, "Remember
+Limerick and British Faith!" The great English column, already
+roughly handled by the cannon, broke and fled in wild disorder before
+that irresistible onslaught, and France had won a priceless victory,
+but the six Irish regiments lost one-third of their gallant men by a
+single volley as they followed their steel into the English lines.
+
+When Charles Edward, the Stuart Pretender, landed in Scotland in
+1745, he was followed by a small French force, including 500 Irishmen
+from the Brigade. Colonel John O'Sullivan was much relied on by the
+prince in his extraordinary campaign. Sir Thomas Sheridan also
+distinguished himself. There were 475 Irish at the battle of
+Culloden, that foredoomed defeat of the Stuart cause, and two days
+later a score of Irish officers were among those who surrendered at
+Inverness.
+
+In Spain at the beginning of the 18th century there were hundreds of
+Irish officers in the military service, and eight Irish regiments.
+Among the officers were thirteen Kellys, thirteen Burkes, and four
+Sheas. It seemed that Ireland had soldiers for the world. Don
+Patricio, Don Miguel, Don Carlos, Don Tadeo took the place of
+Patrick, Michael, Charles, and Thadeus. O'Hart gives a list of sixty
+descendants of the "Wild Geese" in places of honor in Spain. General
+Prim was a descendant of the Princes of Inisnage in Kilkenny. An
+O'Donnell was Duke of Tetuan and field marshal of Spain. Ambrose
+O'Higgins, born in county Meath, Ireland, was the foremost Spanish
+soldier in Chile and Peru; Admiral Patricio Lynch was one of its most
+distinguished sailors; and James McKenna its greatest military
+engineer. The son of O'Higgins was foremost among those who fought
+for Chilean independence and gained it, and one of his ablest
+lieutenants was Colonel Charles Patrick O'Madden of Maryland.
+
+In Austria the Irish soldiers were particularly welcome. They count
+forty-one field-marshals, major-generals, generals of cavalry, and
+masters of ordnance of Irish birth in the Austrian service.
+O'Callaghan relates that on March 17, 1766, His Excellency Count
+Mahony (son of the O'Mahony of Cremona), ambassador from Spain to the
+court of Vienna, gave a grand entertainment in honor of St. Patrick,
+to which he invited all persons of condition who were of Irish
+descent. Among many others, there were present Count Lacy, President
+of the Council at War, the generals O'Donnell, McGuire, O'Kelly,
+Browne, Plunkett, and MacElligot, four chiefs of the Grand Cross, two
+governors, several knights military, six staff officers, and four
+privy councillors, with the principal officers of State. All wore
+Patrick's crosses in honor of the Irish nation, as did the whole
+court that day. Emperor Francis I. said: "The more Irish officers in
+the Austrian service the better; bravery will not be wanting; our
+troops will always be well disciplined." The Austrian O'Reillys and
+Taaffes were famous. It was the dragoon regiment of Count O'Reilly
+that by a splendid charge saved the remnant of the Austrian army at
+Austerlitz.
+
+In the American war of the Revolution, General Charles Geoghegan of
+the Irish Brigade made the campaigns of Rochambeau and Lafayette. He
+received the order of the Cincinnati from Washington and was ever
+proud of it. Lieutenant General O'Moran also served in America. He
+was afterwards executed in the French Revolution, for the "Brigade"
+remained royalist to the end. General Arthur Dillon, who served in
+the Brigade, was also guillotined in 1794, crying, "_Vive le roi!_"
+At the foot of the scaffold a woman, probably Mme. Hebert, also
+condemned, stood beside him. The executioner told her to mount the
+steps. "Oh, Monsieur Dillon," she said, "pray go first." "Anything to
+oblige a lady," he answered gaily, and so faced his God.
+
+Lord Macaulay, commenting upon these things and deploring the
+policies that brought them about, says with great significance:
+
+"There were Irish Catholics of great ability, but they were to be
+found everywhere except in Ireland--at Versailles, at St. Ildefonso,
+in the armies of Frederic, in the armies of Maria Theresa. One exile
+(Lord Clare) became a marshal of France, another (General Wall)
+became Prime Minister of Spain.... Scattered all over Europe were to
+be found brave Irish generals, dexterous Irish diplomatists, Irish
+counts, Irish barons, Irish knights of St. Louis and St. Leopold, of
+the White Eagle, and of the Golden Fleece, who if they remained in
+the house of bondage, could not have been ensigns of marching
+regiments or freemen of petty corporations."
+
+The old Irish brigades ended with the French monarchy. Battalions of
+the regiments of Dillon and Walsh were with the French fleet in the
+West Indies at Grenada and St. Eustache, also at Savannah, and under
+Rochambeau at Yorktown, but, except as to the officers, the surviving
+regiments of Berwick, Dillon, and Walsh were largely French. With the
+better times under Grattan's Parliament in Ireland, the soldier
+emigration to France had all but ceased. The Irish Volunteers of 1782
+numbered 100,000 men, of whom an appreciable proportion were
+Catholics. Many Irish went into the English army and navy, but there
+was another stream of fighting emigrants, that which flocked to the
+standard of revolt against England in America, of which much was to
+be heard thereafter.
+
+In the American colonies before the Revolution there were thousands
+of descendants of the Catholic Irish who had settled in Maryland and
+Pennsylvania during the seventeenth century, as well as hardy Irish
+Presbyterians from Ulster, who came in great multitudes during the
+first half of the eighteenth century. They had suffered persecution
+in Ireland for conscience sake from their fellow-Protestants. In
+Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and the Carolinas
+they constituted entire communities. The emigration of the Catholic
+or purely Celtic Irish to America in the seventeenth and eighteenth
+centuries was often compulsory. At any rate, after the middle of the
+eighteenth century it was large and became continuous--a true drift.
+Catholics and Presbyterians alike brought hostility to the English
+government with them, and their voices fed the storm of discontent.
+The Irish schoolmasters, of whom there were hundreds, were especially
+efficient in this. They came in every ship to the colonies. They had
+no love for England, for they had experienced in Ireland the tyranny
+of English law, and they would be more than human if they did not
+imbue the minds of the American children under their care with their
+own hatred of oppression and wrong and English domination. The log
+schoolhouse of the Irish teacher became the nursery of revolution.
+They were a very important factor, therefore, in the making of the
+Revolution, and many of them took an active part as soldiers in the
+field.
+
+The Irish, both Catholics and Protestants, poured into the patriot
+ranks once the standard of revolt was raised in 1775. The
+Pennsylvania line, which General Lee called "the line of Ireland,"
+was almost entirely Irish, and the rosters of several of the Maryland
+and Virginia regiments contain a remarkably large proportion of Irish
+names, in some cases running as high as 60 per cent. It is computed
+that the Irish furnished not less than a third of the whole American
+forces. A common cause blotted out all old religious prejudices
+between Irishmen in the American service. It was John Sullivan, of
+New Hampshire, son of a Limerick schoolmaster, who began the revolt
+by seizing the fort of William and Mary and its storehouses filled
+with that powder which charged the guns at Bunker Hill in the
+following year. It was Captain Jeremiah O'Brien, with his brothers,
+who made the first sea attack on the British off Machias, Maine, in
+May, 1775, an engagement which Fenimore Cooper calls "the Lexington
+of the Seas." There were fifteen Celtic Irish names among the Minute
+Men at the Battle of Lexington. Colonel Barrett, who commanded at
+Concord, was Irish. There were 258 Celtic Irish names on the rosters
+of the American forces at the battle of Bunker Hill. John Sullivan
+had been made a major-general, thereafter to be a notable figure in
+the war at Princeton, Trenton, Newport, and in his Indian campaign.
+The Connecticut line was thick with Irish names. Around Washington
+himself was a circle of brilliant Irishmen: Adjutant-General Edward
+Hand leading his rifles, Stephen Moylan his dragoons, General Henry
+Knox and Colonel Proctor at the head of his artillery, John Dunlop
+his body-guard, Andrew Lewis his brigadier-general, Ephraim Elaine
+his quartermaster, all of Irish birth or ancestry. Commodore John
+Barry, born in Wexford in 1739 and bred to the sea, was a ship
+captain in his early twenties, trading from Philadelphia. When the
+Continental Congress met, he at once volunteered, and was given
+command of the _Lexington_, the first American ship to capture a
+British war vessel. Later, after gallant fighting on sea and land, he
+was given command of the U.S. frigate _Alliance_, in which he crossed
+the Atlantic to France, and fought and captured in a rattling battle
+two British warships, the _Atlanta_ and the _Trepasay_. He was the
+Father of the American navy, holding captain's certificate No. 1,
+signed by Washington himself--the highest rank then issued.
+
+General Richard Montgomery, the brave and able soldier who fell at
+Quebec as he charged the heights, was an Irishman. General George
+Clinton, son of an Irishman, was a brigadier-general, governor of New
+York and twice Vice-President of the United States. Fifty-seven
+officers of New York regiments in the Revolution were Irish, and a
+large number of the officers in the Southern regiments of the line,
+as well as of the militia, were native Irish or of Irish descent. The
+rosters of the enlisted Irishmen of the New York regiments run into
+the thousands. Hundreds of Irish soldiers suffered in the prison
+ships of New York, the horrors of which served so conspicuously to
+stimulate American determination to carry the war to the only
+rightful conclusion. Washington always recognized America's debt to
+the Irish. "St. Patrick" he made the watchword in the patriot lines
+the night before the English evacuated Boston forever on the
+memorable 17th of March, 1776. After the war he was made, with his
+own consent, an honorary member of the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick.
+Major-General Richard Butler and his four brothers, all officers, and
+Brigadier-Generals John Armstrong, William Irvine, William Thompson,
+James Smith, and Griffith Rutherford all fought with distinction. All
+of these officers were Irish-born. It was in truth an Irish war, so
+far as Irish sentiment and whole-hearted service could make it. The
+record of Irish soldiers' names alone would fill volumes.
+
+The thirst of the Irish race for the glory of war is shown in the
+large enlistments in the last quarter of the eighteenth century, and
+since, in the English army and navy. Grattan, in pleading for
+Ireland, claimed that a large percentage of the British forces were
+Irish. Wolfe Tone avers that there were 210 Irishmen out of 220 in
+the crew of a British frigate that overhauled his ship on its way to
+America. Bonaparte had in his armies an Irish Legion that did good
+service in Holland, Spain, Portugal, and Germany. Marshal Clarke,
+Duke of Feltre, French Minister of War in 1809, was Irish. Up and
+down the Spanish Peninsula, Irish blood was shed in abundance in the
+armies of Wellington. Never was more brilliant fighting done than
+that which stands to Irish credit from the lines of Torres Vedras to
+Badajos and Toulouse. Of the Waterloo campaign volumes have been
+written in praise of Irish valor. As Maxwell says in his _Tales of
+Waterloo_:--"The victors of Marengo and Austerlitz reeled before the
+charge of the Connaught Rangers." Wellington himself was Irish, as in
+the later wars of England Lord Gough, Lord Wolseley, Lord Roberts,
+Lord Kitchener, and General French came from Ireland. The Irish
+soldiers in the English service by a pitiful irony of fate helped
+materially to fasten the chains of English domination on the peoples
+of India in a long series of wars.
+
+In America, the War of 1812 once more gave opportunity to the
+Fighting Race. The commanding figure of the war, which opened so
+inauspiciously for the United States, was General Andrew Jackson, the
+hero of the battle of New Orleans, and afterwards twice elected
+President of the United States. "Old Hickory", as he came to be
+lovingly called, was proud of his Irish father, and sympathized with
+the national longings of the Irish people. He was a splendid soldier,
+and his defeat of the English general, Pakenham, on January 8, 1815,
+which meant the control of the mouths of the Mississippi, as well as
+safeguarding the city of New Orleans, reflected the highest credit on
+his skill and unflagging energy. The English had superior numbers,
+between 8,000 and 9,000 men, against a scant 6,000 under Jackson, and
+their force was made up of veterans of the European wars. In command
+of the left of his line Jackson placed the gallant general William
+Carroll, born in Philadelphia, but of Irish blood, who was afterwards
+twice governor of Tennessee. The British general made the mistake of
+despising the soldier value of his enemy, yet before evening of that
+day he saw his artillery silenced and his lines broken, as he died of
+a wound on the field. The battle was actually fought after the
+signing of the treaty of peace at Ghent; it annihilated British
+pretensions in this part of the world, anyway.
+
+After Commodore Perry, the victor in the battle of Lake Erie, and
+himself the son of an Irish mother, the northern naval glory of the
+War of 1812 falls to Lieutenant Thomas MacDonough, of Irish descent,
+whose victory on Lake Champlain over the British squadron was almost
+as important as Perry's. Admiral Charles L. Stewart ("Old
+Ironsides"), who commanded the frigate _Constitution_ when she
+captured the _Cyane_ and the _Levant_, fighting them by moonlight,
+was a great and renowned figure. His parents came from Ireland, and
+Charles Stewart Parnell's mother was the great sea-fighter's
+daughter. Lieutenant Stephen Cassin commanded the _Ticonderoga_ and
+fought her well. Captain Johnston Blakely, who was born in Ireland,
+captured in the _Wasp_ of 18 guns the much larger British _Reindeer_
+of 20 guns and 175 men in a splendid fight, and later sank the
+_Avon_, an 18-gun brig. After capturing a great prize, which he sent
+to Savannah, he sailed for the Spanish main and was never heard of
+more. Captain Boyle, in the privateer _Comet_ of Baltimore, fought
+the _Hibernia_, of 18 guns, and later in the _Chasseur_, known as the
+phantom ship, so fast she sailed, took eighty prizes on the high
+seas. General A.E. Maccomb, who commanded victoriously at Plattsburg,
+was of Irish descent, and Colonel Robert Carr, who distinguished
+himself in the same campaign, was born in Ireland. Major George
+Croghan of Kentucky, the hero of Fort Stephenson, was the son of an
+Irish father who had been a soldier in the Revolution. Colonel Hugh
+Brady, of the 22nd Infantry, commanded at Niagara. He remained in the
+army and fought in Mexico. William McRee, of Irish descent, was
+General Browne's chief engineer in laying out the military works of
+the American army at Niagara.
+
+Let it not be forgotten that in this memorable company brave Mrs.
+Doyle has a place. Her husband, Patrick Doyle, an Irish artilleryman,
+had been taken prisoner by the British in the affair at Queenston and
+had been refused a parole. Accordingly, when the guns were trained on
+the English lines before Fort Niagara, Mary, emulating the example of
+her countrywoman, "Molly" Pitcher, at Monmouth, determined to take
+her husband's place, and, regardless of flying British balls, tended
+a blacksmith's bellows all day, providing red-hot shot for the
+American gun battery, and sending a prayer with every shot into the
+British lines.
+
+After the Queenston affair, it is well to note, the English doctrine
+of perpetual allegiance was abated. Twenty-three Irish-born men were
+among the captives of the English in that engagement. They were
+manacled to be sent to Ireland to be tried for treason, not as
+enemies taken in the field. Winfield Scott, then lieutenant-colonel,
+was also a prisoner with them. He protested loudly against this
+infamous course. Upon his release he laid aside twenty-three British
+prisoners to be treated like the Irishmen, eye for eye and tooth for
+tooth. As a result, the Irish prisoners were exchanged.
+
+Colonel John Allen, who fell at the head of the First Regiment of
+Kentucky Riflemen at the battle of the river Raisin on January 21,
+1813, was one of the Irish Allens of Kentucky. His father and mother
+were natives of Ireland.
+
+The Mexican War (1846-48) again showed Irish valor at the front. It
+was not a great war, though brilliantly fought and rich in
+territorial accessions. The campaigning comprised the work of two
+main expeditions and a subsidiary movement in California. One column,
+under General Zachary Taylor, penetrated northern Mexico and fought
+the battles of Matamoras, Palo Alto, and Resaca de la Palma, in May,
+1846, with a force of 2,200 men; forced the evacuation of Monterey in
+September, his army swelled to 5,000; and defeated Santa Anna at
+Buena Vista in February, 1847. General Winfield Scott, with a naval
+expediton, attacked Vera Cruz from the sea in March, 1847, and took
+up the march, 13,000 strong, to Mexico City, fighting the battles of
+Cerro Gordo, Contreras, Churubusco, Molino del Rey, and Chapultepec,
+and entered Mexico City on September 14. General James Shields, born
+in Tyrone, Ireland, in 1810, was in command with his brigade under
+Scott. A brilliant soldier, he was severely wounded at Cerro Gordo
+and again at Chapultepec. He served as United States Senator after
+the war and again took the field in the Civil War, his forces
+defeating Stonewall Jackson at the first battle of Winchester in
+1862. The glamour of chivalry lights the name of Phil Kearney. Here
+was a born soldier. He was a volunteer with the French in Algiers in
+1839-40. He also commanded under Scott with brilliant bravery, and
+was brevetted major on the field for "gallant and meritorious
+conduct" at the battles of Contreras and Churubusco. In the French
+war with Austria in 1859-60, Kearney fought with the French,
+distinguishing himself at the decisive and bloody battle of
+Solferino. In the Civil War he was brigadier-general of New Jersey
+troops in 1861 and major-general in 1863, taking distinguished part
+in the battles of the Peninsula and second Bull Run, and was killed
+while reconnoitring at Chantilly. General Stephen W. Kearney, with
+the Army of the West, by dint of long marches, secured California
+among the fruits of the war. General Bennet Riley, born in Maryland
+of Irish ancestry, commanded a brigade at Contreras, making a
+wonderful charge, and also fought brilliantly at Cerro Gordo and
+Churubusco, and was brevetted brigadier-general. He attained the army
+rank in 1858. Major-General William O. Butler, under Zachary Taylor,
+was one of the heroes of Monterey. Born in Kentucky, son of Percival
+Butler of Kilkenny, who was one of the famous five Butler brothers of
+the Revolutionary War whom Washington once toasted as "The Butlers
+and their five sons," General Butler succeeded General Scott in
+command of the entire American army in Mexico in February, 1848.
+Another of clear Irish descent who fought under Zachary Taylor was
+Major-General George Croghan, whose father, born in Sligo, Ireland,
+had fought in the Revolution. He himself took part, as we have seen,
+in the War of 1812, and now was at the front before Monterey. Once,
+when a Tennessee regiment wavered under a hot converging fire,
+Croghan rushed to the front and, taking off his hat, shouted, "Men of
+Tennessee, your fathers conquered with Jackson at New Orleans. Come,
+follow me!" and they followed in a successful assault. Major-General
+Robert Paterson, who was born at Strabane, Ireland, and was the son
+of a '98 man, saw service in 1812, and became major-general of
+militia in Pennsylvania, whence he went to the Mexican War. He also
+lived to serve in the War of the States.
+
+Among Irish-named officers mentioned honorably in official despatches
+are Major Edward H. Fitzgerald, Major Patrick J. O'Brien; Captain
+Casey, chosen to lead the first storming party at Chapultepec;
+Captains Hogan, Byrne, Kane, McElvin, McGill, Burke, Barny,
+O'Sullivan, McCarthy, McGarry, and McKeon. Captain Mayne Reid, the
+novelist, a native of Ireland, was in the storming of Chapultepec.
+Theodore O'Hara, the poet, served with the Kentucky troops and was
+brevetted major for gallantry at Contreras and Churubusco, while on
+the staff of General Franklin Pierce (afterwards President of the
+United States). O'Hara's magnificent poem, "The Bivouac of the Dead,"
+has made his name immortal. It was written on the occasion of the
+interment at Frankfort, Ky., of the Kentucky dead of the Mexican War,
+where
+
+      "Glory guards with solemn round
+      The bivouac of the dead."
+
+Irwin C. McDowell, who was brevetted captain at Buena Vista,
+commanded a corps in the Civil War. George A. McCall, brevetted
+lieutenant-colonel at Palo Alto, was a major-general in the Civil
+War. Francis T. Bryan was a hero of Buena Vista. Lieutenant-Colonel
+Thomas P. Moore and Captain James Hogan both won fame in the 3rd
+Dragoons. Lieutenant Thomas Claiborn of the Mounted Rifles became a
+colonel in the Confederate Army. Lieutenant-Colonel J.W. Geary fought
+brilliantly and was to be heard from later with renown.
+
+Colonel John F. Reynolds of the 3rd Artillery lived to be
+major-general in the Civil War, and to fall gloriously at Gettysburg.
+Nor must we forget Major Folliot Lally's bravery at Cerro Gordo;
+Second Lieutenant Thomas W. Sweeny, a brigadier-general of the Civil
+War and the planner of the Fenian invasion of Canada in 1866;
+Lieutenant Henry B. Kelly of the 2nd Infantry, afterwards a
+Confederate colonel; Captain Martin Burke of the 1st Artillery,
+killed at Churubusco; nor Lieutenant William F. Barry of the 2nd
+Artillery, a brigadier-general in the Civil War. There were scores of
+other Irish named officers. In the whole American force of 30,000
+engaged, the Irish born and Irish descended troops of all arms were
+numbered by thousands.
+
+It was, however, in the Civil War that the flood of Irish valor and
+loyalty to the American Republic was at its height. The 2,800,000
+enlistments on the Northern side stood probably for 1,800,000
+individual soldiers serving during the four years of the war. Not
+less than 40 per cent, of these were Irish born or of Irish descent.
+Of the 337,800 men furnished by the State of New York, 51,206 were
+natives of Ireland out of the total of 134,178 foreign born, or 38
+per cent, of the latter, while not less than 80,000 of Irish descent
+figured among the 203,600 native born soldiers. Of the 2,261
+engagements in the war, few there were that saw no Irishmen in arms,
+and certainly, in every one of the 519 engagements that made Virginia
+a great graveyard, the Irish figured largely. Of the 1,000,516
+mustered out in 1865, not less than 150,000 were natives of Ireland,
+while those of Irish descent numbered hundreds of thousands. They
+fought well everywhere, and it would require volumes to give the
+names and deeds of those who distinguished themselves more than their
+fellows.
+
+One name, however, shines with a great blaze above them all, the name
+of Philip H. Sheridan, one of the three supreme soldiers of the
+Union, Ulysses S. Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman being the
+others. Had Ireland furnished only Sheridan to the Union cause, her
+service would be beyond reward. He was born in Albany, N.Y., in
+March, 1831, the year after his parents, John and Mary Sheridan,
+arrived there from the Co. Cavan, in Ireland. The family moved to
+Somerset, Perry Co., Ohio, the following year. There Philip began
+village life. How he gained the beginning of an education; worked in
+a grocery store; became a bookkeeper; longed for a West Point
+nomination and got it; how he worked through the Academy in 1853;
+served as lieutenant on the frontier, in Texas, California, and
+Oregon, until the outbreak of the Civil War, when he was promoted
+captain and ordered east, can be quickly told. His history until the
+fall of the Confederacy would need many long chapters. His military
+genius included all the requirements of a great captain, and his
+opportunties of exhibiting all his qualities in action came in rapid
+succession. In every service from quartermaster to army commander his
+talents shone. His tremendous vigor, incredible mental alertness, and
+genius for detail, added to his skill and outreach, continually set
+him forward. He stood 5 feet 5 inches high, but somehow looked
+taller, owing to his erect, splendid bearing. There was something in
+the full chest, the thick muscular neck, the heavy head, the dark
+blazing eyes, and the quick bodily movements that arrested attention.
+His name has come down to this generation mainly as a great cavalry
+leader, but he was a natural commander of all arms, a great
+tactician, a born strategist. His campaign of the Shenandoah Valley
+was a whirlwind of success. His great battles around Richmond were
+wonderful. General Grant's opinion of Sheridan, given thirteen years
+after the war, sums up the man. It is here quoted from J.R. Young's
+book, _Around the World with General Grant_. It runs, in part, as
+follows:
+
+"As a soldier, as a commander of troops, as a man capable of doing
+all that is possible with any number of men, there is no man living
+greater than Sheridan. He belongs to the very first rank of soldiers,
+not only of our country but of the world. I rank Sheridan with
+Napoleon and Frederick and the great commanders in history. No man
+ever had such a faculty of finding things out as Sheridan, of knowing
+all about the enemy. He was always the best informed of his command
+as to the enemy. Then he had that magnetic quality of swaying men,
+which I wish I had, a rare quality in a general. I don't think anyone
+can give Sheridan too high praise."
+
+Praise from U.S. Grant is praise indeed. A peculiar feature of the
+Civil War was the growth of the generals: Grant, Sherman, Sheridan,
+Thomas, Meade, all conspicuously experienced it. With Sheridan,
+however, one point is notable, namely, that He triumphed in every
+branch in each successive extension of the field of his duties, and
+he went from captain to major-general in three years of the regular
+army. His care for his men was constant. His troops were always the
+best fed, best clothed, best rested in the armies en either side, but
+on no troops was there more constant call for endeavor, and they were
+never found to fail him. In action he is described as severe,
+peremptory, dominating, but his determinations were mighty things,
+not to be interfered with. He wanted things done and done at once.
+His men of all grades soon conceded that he knew best what to do, and
+set about doing it accordingly. Out of action he was joyous of
+spirit, but, in fight or out of it, his alertness and his
+lightning-like decisions marked him apart from every other commander.
+His career in the Tennessee campaign was meteoric. Of his score and
+more of great conflicts, the most picturesque was his wonderful
+battle at Cedar Creek, to fight which he rode at breakneck speed
+"from Winchester twenty miles away" through the dust and debris of a
+broken army to the extreme front, rallying the scattered regiments
+and turning a defeat into a crushing victory, which recovered all
+that had been lost, taking 25 cannon and 1,200 prisoners, and driving
+for miles the lately victorious enemy under Early. Captain P.J.
+O'Keefe was one of the two who made the ride beside him. The battles
+of Waynesboro, Five Forks, and Sailor's Creek showed the same
+brilliant generalship on the part of Sheridan. His hold on the
+affection of the army and the admiration of the people continued to
+the day of his death, August 5, 1888, when he held the headship of
+the United States army as general in succession to the great Sherman.
+
+General Sheridan, towards the end of the war, had a soldier's
+difference with Major-General George G. Meade, commander of the Army
+of the Potomac, but that did not blind "Little Phil" to the real
+merit of the victor in the tremendous three days' battle of
+Gettysburg, handling an army new to his hand against Robert E. Lee.
+The Meade family is of Irish descent. George Meade, the grandfather,
+came from Dublin and was a patriot in the American Revolutionary War.
+General Meade commanded a division at Antietam and a corps at
+Fredericksburg, and held command of the Army of the Potomac to the
+end of the war. He was a fine soldier and gentleman. Of quiet manners
+at most times, he was most irascible in the hour of battle, but his
+temper did not becloud his judgment. General James Shields and
+General Irwin McDowell, both fine Irish soldiers, have already been
+mentioned.
+
+It would be hard to compass in a brief article even the names of the
+general officers of Irish blood in the Civil War. General John Logan,
+who fought with the western armies, is worthy of high and honorable
+mention, as is General Thomas Francis Meagher, a patriot in Ireland,
+a prisoner in Australia, a soldier of dash in the Civil War.
+Meagher's Irish Brigade left a record of valor unsurpassed: their
+charge at Fredericksburg up Marye's Heights alone should give them
+full meed of fame. General Michael Corcoran, a native of Ireland,
+commanded the wholly Irish 69th Regiment when it departed for the war
+in 1861, and after his exchange from a Confederate prison raised and
+organized the Corcoran Legion. Major-General McDowell McCook
+commanded brilliantly in the western campaigns. Who has not heard of
+the Fighting McCooks?--a family of splendid men and hardy warriors.
+Brigadier-General Thomas C. Devin was a superb cavalry commander, who
+led the first division of Sheridan's Shenandoah army through all its
+great operations. General James Mulligan of Illinois was of the true
+fighting breed. Colonel Timothy O'Meara led his superb Irish Legion
+from Illinois up Missionary Ridge. Brigadier-General C.C. Sullivan of
+western army fame was one of the five generals, headed by Rosecrans,
+who recommended Phil Sheridan for promotion to brigadier-general
+after the battle of Booneville as "worth his weight in gold." General
+Brannan was a gallant division commander in the Middle Tennessee
+campaign. Colonel William P. Carlin made a name at Stone River.
+General James T. Boyle, of the Army of the Ohio under Buell, was the
+brave man whose promotion to division commander left a vacancy for
+"Little Phil", that was to be an immediate stepping stone to higher
+opportunity. Brigadier-General McMillan, who commanded the second
+brigide at Cedar Creek; Colonel Thomas W. Cahill, 9th Connecticut;
+Lieutenant-Colonel Alfred Neafie of the 156th New York; Captain
+Charles McCarthy of the 175th New York; Lieutenant-Colonel Alex. J.
+Kenny of the 8th Indiana; Lieutenant Terrence Reilly of the Horse
+Artillery, all won distinction in the Shenandoah Valley. Such
+splendid fighters as General James R. O'Beirne, Colonel Guiney,
+Colonel Cavanagh, Colonel John P. Byron, Colonel Patrick Gleason,
+General Denis F. Burke, wrote their names red over a score of battle
+fields, but one cannot hope to cover more than a fraction of the
+brilliant men of Irish blood who led and bled in the long, hard, and
+strenuous struggle. The 69th New York Regiment was the mother of a
+dozen Irish regiments, including the Irish Brigade of Meagher and the
+Corcoran Legion. The 9th, 28th, and 29th regiments of Massachusetts
+were all Irish. A gallant Irishman, born at Fermoy, was
+Brigadier-General Thomas Smyth, who made a name and died in the
+battles around Richmond. There was not a regiment from the middle
+western and western States that did not hold its quota of Irishmen
+and sons of the Irish. After the names of Porter and Farragut in the
+Navy stands next highest in honor that of Vice-Admiral Stephen C.
+Rowan, born in Dublin, of the famous family that produced Hamilton
+Rowan, one of the foremost of the United Irishmen. It was the son of
+the vice-admiral, a lieutenant in the army, who carried "the message
+to Garcia" from the United States War Department to the Cuban
+commander in the eastern jungle of Cuba, before the outbreak of the
+war with Spain, and did it so well and bravely through such
+difficulties and dangers that his name will stand for "the faithful
+messenger" forever.
+
+As a consequence of their stand with the American people in the Civil
+War, the position of the whole mass of the Irish and Irish-American
+people was vastly uplifted in American eyes. The unlettered poverty
+of scores of thousands of Irish immigrants, who came in multitudes
+from 1846 on, had made an unfavorable and false impression; their red
+blood on the battle field washed it out.
+
+On the southern side as well, Irish valor shone. While the great
+flood of the mid-century Irish immigration had spread itself mainly
+north, east, and west, the larger cities of the South also received a
+share. The slave system precluded the entry of free labor into the
+cotton, corn, lumber, and sugar lands of the South, but such cities
+as New Orleans, Mobile, Charleston, Savannah, Vicksburg, and Richmond
+gave varied employment to many of the Irish who made their homes in
+the Southland, and so they came to furnish thousands of recruits to
+the local Confederate levies. The "Louisiana Tigers", who fought so
+valiantly at Gettysburg on the Southern side, included many Irish.
+The Georgia brigade, that held the Confederate line atop of Marye's
+Heights at Fredericksburg, up which the Irish brigade so heroically
+charged, had whole companies of Irish. There were scores of Irish in
+many of the regiments that made Pickett's memorable charge at
+Gettysburg. All through the Confederate armies were valiant
+descendants of the earlier Irish immigration that settled the uplands
+of the Carolinas and Virginia and the blue grass region of Kentucky.
+Most famous, most glorious of these was "Stonewall"
+Jackson--Lieutenant-General Thomas Jonathan Jackson--next to Robert
+E. Lee the greatest soldier on the southern side. No more splendid
+soldier-figure rises out of the contest. Educated at West Point,
+serving in Mexico, then a professor of philosophy--and
+artillery--next a volunteer with his State when Virginia took arms
+against the Union, his long and brilliant service included a large
+share in the victories at Bull Run, Gaines Mill, Malvern Hill, Cedar
+Mountain, Harper's Ferry, Antietam, Fredericksburg, and
+Chancellorsville, where he was accidentally wounded by his own men.
+He was once defeated by General Shields, as has been noted. The piety
+and purity of his life belie the supposed necessity for the coarser
+traits that are thought to go with the terrible trade. General
+Patrick R. Cleburne was born in 1828, near Cork, Ireland. He was in
+the English army three years, and, coming to the United States,
+became a lawyer at Helena, Ark. He enlisted in the Confederate army
+as a private, rose rapidly to the command of a brigade, and made a
+great name at Shiloh. As major-general he led divisions at
+Murfreesboro and Chickamauga, and was thanked by the Confederate
+Congress. He fell at the battle of Franklin--a soldier of commanding
+presence, skill, and daring, beloved by the whole Army of the West.
+The gallant colonel Thomas Claiborne was a striking cavalryman. It
+was Lieutenant Thomas A. Claiborne of the 1st South Carolina who,
+with Corporal B. Brannan, lashed the broken flagstaff on Fort Sumter
+in June, 1864, when, under a withering fire, the flag of the
+Confederacy had been shot away. The fighting of Major-General Gary of
+South Carolina around Richmond was desperate. He was the last to
+leave the city when it fell, as told by Captain Sullivan: "He
+galloped at night through the burning city, and at the bridge over
+the James cried out, 'We are the rear guard. It is all over; blow the
+bridge to h--l!' and went on into the night"
+
+The story of the Civil War is a mine of honor to the Irish, and
+Irishmen should set it forth at length. Here it can be merely glanced
+at.
+
+The war of 1898 with Spain--that great patriotic efflorescence--was
+brief in its campaigning. Immediately provoked by the blowing up of
+the U.S.S. _Maine_ in Havana harbor on February 15, war was declared
+on April 19. Admiral Dewey sank the Spanish fleet in Manila Harbor,
+May 1. The first troops landed on Cuban soil June 1. The first--and
+last--real land battle before Santiago occurred on July 1-2, with
+13,500 troops on the American side against an available Spanish force
+somewhat less in number, but holding strongly fortified and
+entrenched positions around the town. The advance and charges uphill
+necessary to capture El Caney and the steep heights of San Juan
+called for desperate courage. It was there, however, and the Irish in
+the army exhibited dash and persistence, as duty demanded. In the
+second day's fighting the Spanish assaults on the American positions
+were repelled, and the land fighting was over. The Americans in the
+two days lost over 10 per cent killed and wounded. The destruction of
+Cervera's fleet on its attempt to escape from Santiago on July 3
+ended the struggle. With the regiment of Rough Riders, under Theodore
+Roosevelt--who says he reckons "an O'Brien, a Redmond, and a man from
+Ulster" among his for-bears--were many gallant Irishmen--Kellys,
+Murphys, Burkes, and Doyles, for instance. His favorite captain,
+"Bucky" O'Neill of Arizona, fell at the foot of San Juan. The white
+regiments of the regular army had their quota of Irish, as had most
+of the volunteers. The 9th Massachusetts was all Irish. The 69th New
+York, all Irish, never reached the front in the war, but shared the
+fate of the 150,000 troops cantoned through the Southern States,
+their only effective enemies being dysentery, typhoid, and malaria.
+
+A little splash of Irish blood came with the Fenian dash into Canada
+on June 1, 1866. There had been active preparations for a real
+invasion by some 50,000 Irish-born or Irish-fathered soldiers who had
+served in the Civil War. The American government, using its army
+force, intervened to prevent the bellicose movement, not, however,
+before Colonel John O'Neill, who had served in the cavalry with
+Sherman on his march to the sea, with Captain Starr, one of
+Kilpatrick's cavalry, Captain O'Brien, and about 700 well-armed men,
+all Civil War veterans, had slipped across the Niagara River at Fort
+Erie. They made short work of all in sight, threw out a couple of
+hundred men who burned a bridge and tore up the railroad tracks.
+Their scouts fired on a small British detachment, which ran. On the
+morning of June 2 news came of a larger Canadian force advancing, and
+O'Neill went out to meet them. Deploying his men in a field near the
+high road at a place called Ridgway, he sent his pickets forward.
+They found heavy ground in front and about three-quarters of a mile
+away some 1,400 men of the "Queen's Own" of Toronto and the Hamilton
+Volunteers advancing rapidly in line. O'Neill, after a few rounds,
+withdrew his pickets, and the Canadians, taking the movement for
+flight, came briskly on. As soon as they were clear of cover,
+O'Neill, firing a volley, gave orders for a charge. At it they went
+with a cheer, and the whole Canadian line gave way. They ran as fast
+as their legs could carry them, leaving some fifty killed and
+wounded. After chasing them for two miles, O'Neill halted his men and
+brought them back to Fort Erie, where they intrenched. The Canadians
+did not stop until they reached Colburne, eighteen miles away. The
+Fenian loss was twenty-five. In the night O'Neill learned that no
+help was coming from the United States' side, while news reached him
+that a force of 5,000 Canadian and British regulars was advancing on
+Fort Erie. Accordingly, at 2 a.m. on June 3, he surrendered to the
+United States forces with 400 of his men, who were detained for a few
+days on the U.S.S. _Michigan_ and then let go. The balance of his
+force, about 250 men, escaped in groups across the river. There was
+another little victorious skirmish with the Canadians lower down
+under Captain Spear, who also slipped back over the border unpursued.
+What fighting took place was workmanlike and creditable.
+
+There was a flicker of Irish fighting spirit in the Boer War. Many
+thousands, no doubt, were in the English army of 250,000 men brought
+against the 30,000 Boers, but there was a small "Irish Brigade" that
+fought on the Boer side, and was notably engaged at Spion Kop, where
+the English were driven so sweepingly from their position by
+desperate charges.
+
+In the War of 1870, between France and Prussia, the good wishes of
+the Irish went with France, for the sake of the old friendship,
+largely helped, no doubt, by the fact that at the summit of army
+command was Marshal MacMahon, a descendant of a warrior of the old
+Irish Brigade. His service in Algiers; his skill and daring in the
+Crimean War before Sebastopol, where he led the division which
+stormed the Malakoff; his victories in the Italian War of 1859
+against Austria, including the great battle of Magenta, all made him
+a striking, romantic figure. He failed in 1870 against the Prussians
+at Worth, and was made prisoner with his army at Sedan, but he
+suppressed the Commune after the war and was President of France from
+1873 to 1879. The device by which 300 Irishmen took part on the
+French side in the war with Germany has a grim humor. They went as
+aides in an ambulance corps fitted out in Dublin by subscription,
+but, once on French soil, enlisted in the army. "Maybe we can kill as
+well as we can cure," said one of them. The _Compagnie irlandaise_,
+as it was called, did creditable work, and was in the last combat
+with the Prussians at Montbellard. Their captain, M.W. Kirwan, was
+offered a Cross of the Legion of Honor, but for some reason declined
+it. Dr. Constantine J. McGuire, who won the decoration for bravery
+before Paris during the siege of the Commune, did, however, accept
+it, receiving the cross from the hands of Marshal MacMahon, and, hale
+and hearty, wears the red ribbon on occasion in New York today.
+
+Even as this chronicle of daring deeds and daring doers is being
+penned, in the ranks and as commanding officers on the side of the
+allies in the far-flung battle lines of the great European war, are
+men of Irish birth, and, let it not be forgotten, not a few of the
+opposing side are the descendants of the Irish military geniuses who,
+in days gone by, fought so gallantly across the continent "from
+Dunkirk to Belgrade". They are all, every man of them, bearing
+bravely, as of yore, their own part amid the dangers and chances of
+the fray.
+
+If the inspiring story is of necessity here barely sketched in
+outline, it nevertheless clearly indicates that, as it has been for
+two thousand years of Irish history, so it will be to the end of the
+human chapter--the Irish race is the Fighting Race, and willing, even
+eager, to risk life itself for vital issues.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Keating's, MacGeoghegan's, Mitchel's Histories of Ireland; J.C.
+O'Callaghan: The Irish Brigades in the Service of France, The Green
+Book; Lossing: Field Book of the Revolution, Field Book of the War of
+1812; Several Mexican War Histories; Battles and Leaders of the Civil
+War; The Irish at Home and Abroad (New York, 1856); Canon O'Hanlon:
+Irish-American History of the United States; O'Hart; Irish Pedigrees;
+Martin I. Griffin: Life of Commodore Barry; John D. Crimmins: Irish
+Miscellany; Joseph Denieffe: Fenian Recollections; Plowden:
+Historical Review of the State of Ireland (London, 1803); Hays:
+History of the Irish (1798) Rebellion; Macaulay: History of England;
+J. R. Young: Around the World with General Grant; several valuable
+articles and records of research by Michael J. O'Brien of New York.
+
+
+
+THE SORROWS OF IRELAND
+
+By JOHN JEROME ROONEY, A.M., LL.D
+
+
+"The sorrows of Ireland"! What a vision of woe the words conjure up.
+The late Goldwin Smith, himself an Englishman and a Unionist, in his
+_Irish History and the Irish Question_, finds that "of all histories,
+the history of Ireland is the saddest. For nearly seven centuries it
+was a course of strife between races, bloodshed, massacre,
+misgovernment, civil war, oppression, and misery."
+
+The first of the great scourges of Erin was the coming of the Danes,
+the bloodthirsty and conquest-loving Vikings of the North, the
+worshipers of Thor and Odin, the gods of thunder and of strife. These
+warriors, in never-ending invasions, had for four hundred years
+overrun Britain and finally conquered the northern provinces of Gaul.
+Until the end of the eighth century Ireland had been free from the
+Scandinavian scourge. About this time the invaders made lodgments
+along the caasts, passed inward through the island, burned and looted
+religious houses and schools of learning, levied tribute upon the
+inhabitants, and at length established themselves firmly at Limerick,
+Waterford, Dublin, Wexford, and Carlingford. Fortified towns were
+built, trading communications with Britain and the continent were set
+up, and the Northman, though not in actual possession of the interior
+of the island, was apparently in substantial control of its
+destinies. Brian Borumha, or Boru, brother of the king of Munster, of
+the Dalcassian race of O'Brien, refused to submit, roused his
+brother, fought the Danes of Limerick at Sulchoid (A.D. 968), and
+captured Limerick. Brian later succeeded his brother, became
+sovereign of all Ireland (A.D. 1001), and, on Good Friday, A.D.
+1014, joined battle with the Danes upon the famous field of Clontarf.
+Here the power of the Northmen was forever broken, Brian falling at
+the moment of victory, while in his tent, by the hand of a fugitive
+Dane.
+
+With the death of Brian the united government dissolved. The
+provincial kings, or princes, resumed separate authority and a
+struggle arose among them, with varying success, for the national
+sovereignty. The central government never had been strong, as the
+nation was organized on a tribal or family basis. In this weakened
+condition Dermot MacMurrough, king of Leinster, abducted the wife of
+O'Rourke, prince of Breffni, while the latter was on a pilgrimage.
+MacMurrough was compelled to fly to England. He sought the protection
+of the Angevin English king, Henry Plantagenet. As a result of this
+appeal, a small expedition, headed by Strongbow (A.D. 1169), was sent
+to Ireland, and Waterford, Wexford, and Dublin were taken. Then came
+Henry himself, in 1171, with a fleet of 240 ships, 400 knights, and
+4,000 men, landing at Waterford. This expedition was the beginning of
+the English attempted conquest of Ireland--a proceeding that, through
+all the ruin and bloodshed of 800 years, is not yet accomplished.
+Henry's first act was to introduce the feudal system into that
+southern half of the island which he controlled; he seized great
+tracts of land, which he in turn granted to his followers under
+feudal customs; he introduced the offices of the English feudal
+system and the English laws, and placed his followers in all the
+positions of power, holding their lands and authority under the
+feudal conditions of rendering him homage and military service.
+
+This was the root of the alien "landlordism" and foreign political
+control of future times which became the chief curses of Ireland, the
+prolific source of innumerable woes. The succeeding years till the
+reign of Henry VIII. witnessed the extension, and at times the
+decline, of the Anglo-Norman rule. When Henry VII. became king of
+England the Anglo-Norman colony or "Pale" had shrunk to two counties
+and a half around Dublin, defended by a ditch. Many of the original
+Norman knights had become "more Irish than the Irish themselves."
+Such was the great family of the Geraldines or Fitzgerald--the most
+powerful, with the O'Neills of the North, in Ireland. A united attack
+at this time would most certainly have driven out the invader; for it
+must be remembered that Dublin, the "Pale"--"the Castle government"
+of later times--was the citadel of the English foreign power, and
+before a united nation would most certainly have succumbed.
+
+When Henry VIII. ascended the throne of England, the policy of peace
+in Ireland was continued during the early portion of his reign. Then
+came Henry's break with the Pope over the royal divorce. The Irish
+beyond the Pale, and many within it, were loyal to the Church of
+their fathers, to the faith of Patrick, the faith of the Roman See.
+To Henry and his daughter Elizabeth, the daughter of Anne Boleyn, who
+displaced Henry's lawful wife, this was treason. Henceforth, to the
+bitterness of race hatred and the pride of the conqueror were to be
+added the blackest of religious feuds, the most cruel of religious
+persecutions in the history of the world. Again let Goldwin Smith,
+the English Unionist, describe the result: "Of all the wars waged by
+a civilized on a barbarous _(sic)_ and despised race these wars waged
+by the English on the Irish seem to have been the most hideous. No
+quarter was given by the invader to man, woman, or child. The
+butchering of women and children is repeatedly and brutally avowed.
+Nothing can be more horrible than the cool satisfaction with which
+English commanders report their massacres." Famine was deliberately
+added to the other horrors. What was called law was more cruel than
+war: it was death without the opportunity for defense and with the
+hypocrisy of the forms of justice added.
+
+Out of this situation came the infamous Penal Code, which, by the
+period of William the Third, about 1692, became a finished system.
+This is the "Irish Code" of which Lord Brougham said: "It was so
+ingeniously contrived that an Irish Catholic could not lift his hand
+without breaking it." And Edmund Burke said: "The wit of man never
+devised a machine to disgrace a realm or destroy a kingdom so perfect
+as this." Montesquieu, the great French jurist-philosopher, the
+author of the epoch-making _Spirit of the Laws_, commented: "It must
+have been contrived by devils; it ought to have been written in
+blood; and the only place to register it is in hell." Yet for two
+hundred years this code of death, national and individual, was the
+supreme law of Ireland.
+
+Wendell Phillips, the great American orator, in his lecture on
+"Daniel O'Connell," summed up this Penal Code in words that will not
+soon be forgotten by the world. His reference to Mr. Froude is to
+James Anthony Froude, the English historian. He says:
+
+"You know that, under it, an Irish Catholic could not sit in the
+House of Commons; he could not hold any commission from the Crown,
+either civil or military; he could be a common soldier--nothing more.
+He could neither vote, nor sit on a jury, nor stand on a witness
+stand, nor bring a suit, nor be a doctor, nor be a lawyer, nor travel
+five miles from his own home without a permit from a justice of the
+peace. The nearest approach that ever was made to him was a South
+Carolina negro before the war. He had no rights that a Protestant
+needed to respect. If he was a land-holder, if all his children were
+Catholics, he was obliged to divide the land equally between them.
+This was the English plan for eliminating the Catholic tenure of the
+land and letting it slip out of their hands. Then, if any of the
+children, during their father's life, concluded to become
+Protestants, in such case they took the whole estate; or, indeed,
+they might compel the father to put his estate in trust for their
+benefit. So, if the Catholic wife would not go to an Episcopalian
+church once a month--which she deemed it a sin to do--she forfeited
+her dower. But if she went regularly, she could have all the estate.
+If a Catholic had a lease, and it rose one-quarter in value, any
+Protestant could take it from him by bringing that fact to the notice
+of a justice of the peace. Three justices of the peace might summon
+any Catholic before them, and oblige him to give up his faith, or
+quit the realm. Four justices could oblige him to abjure his faith or
+sell his estates. If a Protestant paid one dollar tax, the Catholic
+paid two. If a Protestant lost a ship, when at war with a Catholic
+power--and at the time there was only _one_ Protestant power in
+Europe, besides Great Britain; that was Holland: so that the chances
+were nine to one that, in case of war, Great Britain would be at war
+with a Catholic power--in such a case, if a Protestant lost a ship,
+he went home and assessed the value on his Catholic neighbors, and
+was reimbursed. So, of education. We fret a great deal on account of
+a class of Irishmen who come to our shores and are lacking in
+education, in culture, and refinement. But you must remember the bad
+laws, you must remember the malignant legislation, that sentenced
+them to a life of ignorance, and made education a felony in Catholic
+Ireland. If an Irishman sent his child to a Protestant schoolmaster,
+all right; but if the parent would not do so, and sent him to a
+Catholic school, the father was fined ten pounds a week; and the
+schoolmaster was fined five pounds a week; and for the third offense
+he was hung! But, if the father determined that his child should be
+educated, and sent him across the Channel to France, the boy
+forfeited his citizenship and became an alien; and, if discovered,
+the father was fined one hundred pounds; and anybody, except the
+father, who harbored him, forfeited all civil rights--that is, he
+could not sue in a court of law, nor could he vote. Indeed, a
+Catholic could not marry! If he married a Protestant, the marriage
+was void; the children were illegitimate. And, if one Catholic
+married another, it required the presence of a priest, and if a
+priest landed in Ireland for twenty minutes, it was death! To this
+ferocious 'Code', Sir Robert Peel, in our own day, added the climax,
+that no Catholic should quit his dwelling between the hours of sunset
+and sunrise, an exaggeration of the 'Curfew Law' of William the
+Conqueror. Now, you will hardly believe that this was enacted as a
+law. But Mr. Froude alludes to this code. Yes; he was very honest; he
+would paint England as black as she deserved. He said of Queen
+Elizabeth that she failed in her duty as a magistrate; she failed
+towards Ireland in her capability of being a great ruler. And then he
+proceeded, after passing sentence, to give us the history of her
+reign, and showed that, in very many cases, she could not have done
+any different. For instance--oh! it is the saddest, blackest, most
+horrible statement of all history; it makes you doubt the very
+possibility of human nature--when you read that Spenser, the poet,
+who had the most ardent, most perfect ideas in English
+poetry--Spenser sat at the council board that ordered the wholesale
+butchery of a Spanish regiment captured in Ireland, and, to execute
+the order, he chose Sir Walter Raleigh, the scholar, the gentleman,
+the poet, the author, and the most splendid Englishman of his age!
+And Norris, a captain under Sidney, in whose veins flowed the blood
+of Sir Philip, writing home to Elizabeth, begs and persuades her to
+believe in O'Neill's crimes, and asks for leave to send a hired man
+to poison him! And the Virgin Queen makes no objection! Mr. Froude
+quotes a letter from Captain Norris, in which he states that he found
+himself in an island where five hundred Irish (all women and
+children; not a man among them) had taken refuge from the war; and he
+deliberately butchered every living soul! And Queen Elizabeth, in a
+letter still extant, answers by saying: 'Tell my good servant that I
+will not forget his good services.' He tells us that 'The English
+nobility and gentry would take a gun as unhesitatingly as a fowler,
+and go out to shoot an Irishman as an Indian would a buffalo.' Then
+he tells us, with amazement, that you never could make an Irishman
+respect an Englishman! He points to some unhappy Kildare, the sole
+relic of a noble house, whose four uncles were slaughtered in cold
+blood--that is the only word for this kind of execution,
+_slaughtered_--and he, left alone, a boy, grows up characterless and
+kills an archbishop. Every impetuous, impatient act is dragged before
+the prejudiced mind. But when Mr. Froude is painting Sir Walter and
+Spenser, blind no longer, he says: 'I regret--it is very sad to
+think--that such things should ever have been!'"
+
+Such was the cup from which Ireland drank even into the days of men
+now living. Nor was this all. The rise of English manufactures
+brought a new chapter of woes to Ireland. The Irish cattle trade had
+been killed by an Act of Charles II. for the benefit of English
+farmers. The Irish then took up the raising of wool and woolen
+manufactures. A flourishing trade grew up. An English law destroyed
+it. In succession the same greed killed the cotton, the glovemaking,
+the glassmaking, and the brewing trades. These were reserved for the
+English maker and merchant. These crimes upon Irish industry
+surpassed a thousand-fold the later English attempts upon the
+industries of the American colonies.
+
+Under the Code, and through the extreme poverty produced thereby,
+substantially all the land of Ireland passed out of the hands of the
+people. They became mere serfs upon the soil. Their tribute was paid
+through a rapacious agent to a foreign landlord. The improvement of
+the land by the labor of the tenant brought increase of rent. There
+was no fixity of tenure of the land. It was held at the will of the
+agent, reflecting the rapacity of the non-resident landlord. Upon
+these holdings the principal crop was the potato. A failure of this
+crop was a failure to pay rent, eviction on the roadside, and
+starvation. The results, after the enactment of the Penal Code, and
+during the greater part of the eighteenth century, are thus described
+by Goldwin Smith: "On such a scene of misery as the abodes of the
+Irish cotters the sun has rarely looked down. Their homes were the
+most miserable hovels, chimneyless, filthy. Of decent clothing they
+were destitute. Their food was the potato; sometimes they bled their
+cattle and mixed the blood with sorrel. The old and sick were
+everywhere dying by cold and hunger, and rotting amidst filth and
+vermin. When the potato failed, as it often did, came famine, with
+disease in its train. Want and misery were in every face, the roads
+were spread with dead and dying, there was sometimes none to bear the
+dead to the grave, and they were buried in the fields and ditches
+where they perished. Fluxes and malignant fevers followed, laying
+these villages waste. 'I have seen,' says a contemporaneous witness,
+'the laborer endeavoring to work at his spade, but fainting for want
+of food and forced to quit it. I have seen the helpless orphan
+exposed on the dunghill, and none to take him in for fear of
+infection. And I have seen the hungry infant sucking at the breast of
+the already expired parent.'"
+
+All these are not only the horrors of a hundred or two hundred years
+ago; they were repeated in ten thousand forms in the awful famine
+days of 1847. In 1841 the population of Ireland was 8,796,545
+persons. In 1851, after four years of famine, the population was
+6,551,970, leaving 2,244,575 persons to be accounted for, and taking
+no account of the natural increase of the population during the ten
+years. Not less than a million and a half of these died of starvation
+and the fevers brought on by famine. The remainder emigrated to
+foreign lands.
+
+In this account of the Sorrows of Ireland nothing has been said of
+the vast emigrations, thousands upon thousands of persons in the
+seventeenth and eighteenth centuries leaving Ireland under forced
+deportations, in a practical selling into slavery. The sum total of
+this loss to Ireland cannot be less than 5,000,000 souls. The earlier
+deportations were carried out under the most atrocious circumstances.
+Families were broken up and scattered to distant and separate
+colonies, such as Barbados, the New England States, and later to the
+South Pacific.
+
+This is but a glance at some of the wrongs to Ireland's religious,
+intellectual, and material welfare, wrongs that have plunged her into
+an age-long poverty. But one of the greatest of all her sorrows has
+been the denial of her national life, the attempt to strangle her
+rightful aspirations as a free people. Her autonomy was taken from
+her; her smallest legislative act was the act of a stranger; in fine,
+every mark of political slavery was put upon her. A foreign soldiery
+was, and still is, quartered upon her soil. The control of her
+revenues, of the system of taxation, was wrested from her. These
+became the function of a hateful resident oligarchy, alien in
+everything to the Irish people, and of the English parliament, to
+which she was not admitted until the days of Daniel O'Connell. And
+then she was admitted only through fear of revolution.
+
+The dawn has come. The dark night is almost past; the heroic struggle
+of Ireland is about to close in triumph. Her loyalty to her ideals of
+freedom and religion is to meet its reward. The epitaph of Robert
+Emmet will soon be written, for at last Ireland is certain of "taking
+her place among the nations of the earth."
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+D'Alton: History of Ireland; J.P. Prendergast: Cromwellian
+Settlement; Barrington: Rise and Fall of the Irish Nation; McNevin:
+Confiscation of Ulster; R.R. Madden: History of the Penal Laws;
+Murphy: Cromwell in Ireland; T.A. Emmet: Ireland under English Rule,
+2 vols.; Mrs. J.R. Green: Irish Nationality; Walpole: A Short History
+of the Kingdom of Ireland; A.M. Sullivan: Story of Ireland; Thomas
+Moore: History of Ireland; Edmund Spenser: View of the State of
+Ireland; C. Gavan Duffy: Four Years of Irish History, 1845-49; Isaac
+Butt: Land Tenure in Ireland; Justin McCarthy: History of our own
+Times; Johnston and Spencer: Ireland's Story; MacGeoghegan's History
+of Ireland and its continuation by John Mitchel; William Sampson:
+Memoirs of an Irish Exile, 1832; John Curry: A Historical and
+Critical Review of the Civil Wars in Ireland (1775); John Boyle: The
+Battlefields of Ireland (1879); Speeches of Edmund Burke, Daniel
+O'Connell, Henry Grattan; Wendell Phillips's Speech on Daniel
+O'Connell; Father Tom Burke: Lectures on Ireland.
+
+
+
+IRISH LEADERS
+
+By SHANE LESLIE.
+
+
+Irish leaders have proved far-famed but not long-lived. Their short
+and strenuous careers have burnt out in their prime, and their ends
+have been such as attend conflagrations. More often they have left a
+pall than a light in the heavens, for the most brilliant lives in
+Irish history have led to the most tragic deaths. The Destiny which
+allotted them impossible tasks has given them immortality on the
+scenes of their glorious failure.
+
+They differ from leaders of other countries, who divide the average
+pittances of success or ill success on the road to honored
+retirement. Few of the heroes among modern nations have left such
+vivid and lasting memory as "the strong men of Ireland." During the
+nineteenth century their lore and cult have traversed the whole world
+in the wake of the great emigrations. Whether they failed or
+succeeded in wresting the independence and ideals of Ireland for a
+while from the fell clutch of circumstance, they live with their race
+forever.
+
+Under Plantagenet and Tudor rule, the Irish leaders presented a
+sullen but armed resistance. A never completed invasion was met by
+sporadic raids and successive risings. A race of military outlaws was
+fashioned, which accounts for much in Irish character today.
+Previously the Irish, like all Celtic civilization, was founded on
+the arts, on speech, and on law, rather than on war and feudalism.
+
+Even Irish militancy was crushed in the Williamite wars, and the
+race, deprived of its original subsistence as well as of its acquired
+defense, sank into the stupor of penal times. Those who should have
+been leaders of Ireland became marshals of Austria and France.
+
+Gradually it was learnt that the pen is mightier than the sword and
+the human voice more potent than the sound of cannon--and the
+constitutional struggle developed, not without relapse and reverse.
+To Dean Swift must be attributed the change in the national weapon
+and the initiation of a leadership of resistance within the law,
+which has lasted into modern times. Accident made Swift an Irishman,
+and a chance attempt to circulate debased coins in Ireland for the
+benefit of a debased but royal favorite made him a patriot. Swift
+drove out Wood's halfpence at the pen-point. He shamed the
+government, he checked the all-powerful Walpole, and he roused the
+manhood of Ireland towards independence in legislation. He never
+realized what a position history would give him. To himself he seemed
+a gloomy failure, to his contemporaries a popular pamphleteer, but to
+posterity he is the creator of public conscience in Ireland. He was
+the father of patriotic journalism, and the first to defend Ireland's
+rights through literature. Though his popularity was quenched in
+lunacy, his impress upon Irish politics remains as powerful and
+lasting as upon English literature.
+
+Within the so-called Irish parliament sprang forth the first of a
+long line of orators, Henry Flood. He was the first to study the
+Constitution for purposes of opposition. He attacked vice-regal
+government in its own audit-house. Pension and corruption he laid
+bare, and upon the people he breathed a spirit of independence.
+Unfortunately he was not content with personal prominence. He
+accepted office, hoping thereby to benefit Ireland. His voice became
+lost to the higher cause, and another man rose in his stead, Henry
+Grattan. The American war tested the rival champions of Liberty.
+Flood favored sending Irish troops, "armed negotiators" he called
+them, to deal with the revolted colonists. Grattan nobly reviled him
+for standing--"with a metaphor in his mouth and a bribe in his
+pocket, a champion against the rights of America, the only hope of
+Ireland and the only refuge of the liberties of mankind." Flood
+collapsed under his ignoble honors. He was not restored by returning
+to patriotic opposition. Grattan's leadership proved permanent
+politically and historically. His name connotes the high water-mark
+of Irish statesmanship. The parliament which he created and whose
+rights he defined became a standard, and his name a talisman and a
+challenge to succeeding generations. The comparative oratory of
+Grattan and Flood is still debated. Both after a manner were unique
+and unsurpassed. Flood possessed staying power in sheer invective and
+sustained reasoning. Grattan was fluent in epigram and most inspiring
+when condensed, and he had an immense moral advantage. The parliament
+which made him a grant was independent, but it was from one of
+subservience that Flood drew his salary. Henceforth Grattan was
+haunted by the jealous and discredited herald of himself. A great
+genius, Flood lacked the keen judgment and careless magnanimity
+without which leadership in Ireland brings misunderstanding and
+disaster. In the English House he achieved total failure. Grattan
+followed him after the Union, but retained the attention if not the
+power of Dublin days. Neither influenced English affairs, and their
+eloquence curiously was considered cold and sententious. Their
+rhapsody appeared artificial, and their exposition labored. The
+failure of these men was no stigma. What is called "Irish oratory"
+arose with the inclusion of the Celtic under strata in politics.
+
+Burke's speeches were delivered to an empty house. Though he lived
+out of Ireland and never became an Irish leader in Ireland, Burke had
+an influence in England greater than that of any Irishman before or
+since. The beauty and diction of his speech fostered future
+parliamentary speaking. Macaulay, Gladstone, Peel, and Brougham were
+suckled on him. His farthest reaching achievement was his treatment
+of the French Revolution. His single voice rolled back that storm in
+Europe. But no words could retard revolution in Ireland herself.
+Venal government made the noblest conservative thinking seem treason
+to the highest interests of the country. The temporary success of
+Grattan's parliament had been largely won by the Volunteers. They had
+been drilled, ostensibly against foreign invasion, but virtually to
+secure reforms at home. Their power became one with which England had
+to reckon, and which she never forgave. Lord Charlemont, their
+president, was an estimable country gentleman, but not a national
+leader. A more dashing figure appeared in the singular Earl of
+Bristol. Though an Irish bishop and an English peer, he set himself
+in the front rank of the movement, assuming with general consent the
+demeanor and trappings of royalty. He would not have hesitated to
+plunge Ireland into war, had he obtained Charlemont's position. But
+it was not so fated.
+
+After forcing parliamentary independence the Volunteers meekly
+disbanded, and the United Irishmen took their place. The brilliancy
+of Grattan's parliament never fulfilled national aspirations. Bristol
+was succeeded by another recruit from the aristocracy--Lord Edward
+Fitzgerald. With Wolfe Tone and Robert Emmet he has become legendary.
+All three attained popular canonization, for all three sealed their
+brief leadership with death.
+
+Lord Edward was a dreamer, an Irish Bayard, too chivalrous to
+conspire successfully and too frankly courageous to match a
+government of guile. Tone was far more dangerous. He realized that
+foreign invasion was necessary to successful rebellion, and he
+allowed no scruple or obstacle in his path. He washed his hands of
+law and politics entirely. To divert Napoleon to Ireland was his
+object and the total separation of Ireland his ambition. The United
+Irishmen favored the invasion, which the Volunteers had been formed
+to repel. The feud between moral and physical force broke out. The
+failure of the sterner policy in 1798 did not daunt Emmet from his
+ill-starred attempt in 1803. He combined Lord Edward's chivalry with
+some abilities worthy of Tone, but he failed. The failure he redeemed
+by a swan-song from the dock and a demeanor on the scaffold which
+have become part of Irish tradition.
+
+After the Union, Irish leaders sprang up in the English House, which
+Pitt had unwittingly made the cockpit of the racial struggle. Far
+from absorbing the Irish element, the Commons found themselves forced
+to resist, rally, and finally succumb.
+
+The Irish House cannot be dismissed without mention of Curran. He was
+a brilliant enemy of corruption and servility. O'Connell said "there
+was never so honest an Irishman," which may account for his greater
+success as a lawyer than a politician. To be an Irish leader and a
+successful lawyer is given to no man. For the former the sacrifice of
+a great career is needed. This sacrifice Daniel O'Connell was
+prepared to make. His place in history will never be estimated, for
+few have been so loved or hated, or for stronger reasons. Never did a
+tribune rising to power lift his people to such sudden hope and
+success. Never did a champion leave his followers at his death and
+decline to more terrible despair. Friend and foe admit his immensity.
+He was the greatest Irishman that ever lived or seemingly could live.
+In his own person he contained the whole genius of the Celt. Ireland
+could not hold his emotions, which overflowed into the world for
+expression. He rose on the crest of a religious agitation, but,
+Emancipation won, he had the foresight to associate the Irish cause
+with the advent of Reform and Liberalism throughout Europe. He
+sounded the notes of free-trade and anti-slavery. What he said in
+parliament one day, Ireland re-echoed the next. To her he was all in
+all, her hero and her prophet, her Messias and her strong deliverer.
+On the continent he roughly personified Christian Democracy.
+
+In public oratory O'Connell introduced a new style. Torrential and
+overwhelming as Flood and Grattan had never been, he proved more
+successful if less polished. The exaggerations of Gaelic speech found
+outburst in his English. Peel's smile was "the silver plate on a
+coffin", Wellington "a stunted corporal", and Disraeli "the lineal
+descendant of the impenitent thief."
+
+It sounds bombastic, but in those feudal forties it rang more
+magnificent than war. Single-voiced he overawed the host of bigots,
+dullards, and reactionaries. Unhappily, he let his people abandon
+their native tongue, while teaching them how to balance the rival
+parties in England, the latter a policy that has proved Ireland's
+fortune since. He loosed the spirit of sectarianism in the tithe war,
+and he crushed the Young Ireland movement, which bred Fenianism in
+its death agony. But he made the Catholic a citizen. Results
+stupendous as far-reaching sprang from his steps every way.
+
+The finest pen-sketch of O'Connell is by Mitchel, who says, "besides
+superhuman and subterhuman passions, yet withal, a boundless fund of
+masterly affectation and consummate histrionism, hating and loving
+heartily, outrageous in his merriment and passionate in his
+lamentation, he had the power to make other men hate or love, laugh
+or weep, at his good pleasure."
+
+Yet during his lifetime there lived others worthy of national
+leadership. O'Brien, Duffy, and Davis played their part in England as
+well as in Ireland. Father Mathew founded the Temperance, as Feargus
+O'Conor the Chartist, movement. And there was an orator who
+fascinated Gladstone--Sheil.
+
+Father Mathew succeeded in keeping many millions of men sober during
+the forties until the great Famine engulfed his work as it did
+O'Connell's. To him is due, as a feature of Irish life, the brass
+band with banners, which he originally organized as a
+counter-intoxicant.
+
+Feargus O'Conor founded Radical Socialism in England. As the Lion of
+Freedom, he enjoyed a popularity with English workmen approaching
+that of O'Connell in Ireland. He ended in lunacy, but he had the
+credit of forwarding peasant proprietorship far in advance of his
+times.
+
+Sheil was a tragic orator--"an iambic rhapsodist", O'Connell called
+him--who might have been leader, did not a greater tragedian occupy
+the stage. And Sheil was content to be O'Connell's organizer. Without
+O'Connell's voice or presence, he was his rhetorical superior,
+excelling in irony and the by-plays of speech for which O'Connell was
+too exuberant. Shell's speeches touch exquisite though not the deep
+notes of O'Connell, whom he criticized for "throwing out broods of
+sturdy young ideas upon the world without a rag to cover them." He
+discredited his master and his cause by taking office. The fruits of
+Emancipation were tempting to those who had borne the heat of the
+day, but there was a rising school of patriots who refused
+acquiescence to anything less than total freedom.
+
+The Young Irelanders reincarnated the men of "ninety-eight." They
+were neither too late nor too soon. They snatched the sacred torch of
+Liberty from the dying hands of O'Connell, who summoned in vain old
+Ireland against his young rivals. But men like Davis and Duffy
+appealed to types O'Connell never swayed. He could carry the mob, but
+poet, journalist, and idealist were enrolled with Young Ireland. For
+this reason the history of their failure is brighter in literature
+than the tale of O'Connell's triumphs. To read Duffy's "Young
+Ireland" and Mitchel's "Jail Journal", with draughts from the _Spirit
+of the Nation_. is to relive the period. Without the Young
+Irelanders, Irish Nationalism might not have survived the Famine.
+
+Mitchel, as open advocate of physical force, became father to
+Fenianism. An honest conspirator and brilliant writer, he proved that
+the pen of journalism was sharper than the Irish pike. Carlyle
+described him as "a fine elastic-spirited young fellow, whom I
+grieved to see rushing on destruction palpable, by attack of
+windmills." Destruction came surely, but coupled with immortality. He
+was transported as a felon before the insurrection, while his
+writings sprang up in angry but unarmed men.
+
+Mitchel and O'Connell both sought the liberation of Ireland, but
+their viewpoint differed. Mitchel thought only of Liberty; O'Connell
+not unnaturally considered the "Liberator." His refusal to allow a
+drop of blood to be shed caused Young Ireland to secede. Only when
+death removed his influence could the pent-up feelings of the country
+break out under Smith O'Brien. If Mitchel was an Irish Robespierre,
+O'Brien was their Lafayette. His advance from the level of dead
+aristocracy had been rapid. From defending Whigs in Parliament he
+passed to opposition and "contempt of the House." He resigned from
+the Bench from which O'Connell had been dismissed, became a Repealer,
+adding the words "no compromise," and finally gloried in his treason
+before the House. His next step brought a price upon his head.
+
+Grave and frigid, but inwardly warmhearted and passionate, O'Brien
+had little aptitude for rebellion. But the death penalty (commuted to
+transportation) which he incurred went far to redeem his forlorn
+failure. Mitchel, who shared his Australian imprisonment, left a fine
+picture of "this noblest of Irishmen, thrust in among the
+off-scourings of England's gaols, with his home desolated and his
+hopes ruined, and defeated life falling into the sere and yellow
+leaf. A man, who cannot be crushed, or bowed, or broken; anchored
+immovably upon his own brave heart within; his clear eye and soul
+open as ever to all the melodies and splendors of heaven and earth,
+and calmly waiting for the angel, Death."
+
+The Irish cause was not revived until the Fenian movement. Disgust
+with the politicians drove the noblest into their ranks. In Stephens
+they found an organizing chief, in Boyle O'Reilly a poet, and in John
+O'Leary a political thinker, men who under other conditions had
+achieved mundane success. The Fenians were defended by Isaac Butt, a
+big-hearted, broad-minded lawyer, who afterwards organized a party to
+convince Englishmen that Repeal was innocuous, when called "Home
+Rule." The people stood his patient ways patiently, but when a more
+desperate leader arrived they transferred allegiance, and Butt died
+of a broken heart.
+
+Parnell took his place and began to marshal the broken forces of
+Irish democracy against his own class. Butt had been a polite
+parliamentarian, reverencing the courtesy of debate and at heart
+loving the British Constitution. Parnell felt that his mission lay in
+breaking rather than interpreting the law. The well-bred House stared
+and protested when he defied their chosen six hundred. Parnell faced
+them with their own marble callousness. He outdid them in political
+cynicism and out-bowed them in frigid courtesy, while maintaining a
+policy before which tradition melted and a time-honored system
+collapsed. In one stormy decade he tore the cloak from the Mother of
+Parliaments, reducing her to a plain-speaking democratic machine.
+Through the breach he made, the English labor party has since
+entered.
+
+He united priest and peasant, physical and moral force, under him. He
+could lay Ireland under storm or lull at his pleasure. His
+achievement equalled his self-confidence. He reversed the Irish land
+system and threw English politics out of gear. With the balance of
+power in his hand, he made Tory and Radical outbid each other for his
+support. He was no organizer or orator, but he fascinated able men to
+conduct his schemes, as Napoleon used his marshals. On a pregnant day
+he equaled the achievement of St. Paul and converted Gladstone, who
+had once been his gaoler. Gladstone became a Home Ruler, and
+henceforth English politics knew no peace.
+
+Parnell stood for the fall and rise of many. Under his banner Irish
+peasants became human beings with human rights. He felled the feudal
+class in Ireland and undermined them in England. Incalculable forces
+were set to destroy him. A forged letter in the _Times_ classed him
+with assassins, while an legal Commission was sent to try his whole
+movement. It is history that his triumphant vindication was followed
+by a greater fall. The happiness of Ireland was sucked into the
+maelstrom of his ruin. He refused to retire from leadership at
+Gladstone's bidding, and Ireland staggered into civil war. The end is
+known--Parnell died as he had lived. Of his moral fault there is no
+palliation, but it may be said he held his country's honor dearer
+than his own, for he could not bear to see her win even independence
+by obeying the word of an Englishman.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Lecky: Leaders of Irish Opinion; Mitchel: Jail Journal; Duffy: Young
+Ireland; O'Brien: Life of Parnell; D'Alton: History of Ireland.
+
+
+
+IRISH HEROINES
+
+By Alice Milligan
+
+
+The worth and glory of a nation may well be measured and adjudged by
+the typical character of its womanhood: not so much, I would say, by
+the eminence attained to by rarely gifted, exceptionally developed
+individuals, as by the prevalence of noble types at every period, and
+amongst all classes of the community, and by their recurrence from
+age to age under varying circumstances of national fortune.
+
+Judged by such a standard, Ireland emerges triumphant and points to
+the roll of her chequered history, the story of her ancient race,
+with confidence and pride. Gaze into the farthest vistas of her
+legendary past, into the remotest eras of which tradition preserves a
+misty memory, and the figure of some fair, noble woman stands forth
+glimmering like a white statue against the gloom. At every period of
+stern endeavor, through all the generations of recorded time, the
+pages of our annals are inscribed with the names of mothers, sisters,
+wives, not unworthy to stand there beside those of the world-renowned
+heroes of the Gael.
+
+In the ancient tales of Ireland we read of great female physicians
+and distinguished female lawyers and judges. There were _ban-file_,
+or women-poets, who, like the _file_, were at the same time
+soothsayers and poetesses, and there are other evidences of the high
+esteem in which women were held. There can be no doubt, to judge by
+the elaborate descriptions of garments in the saga-texts, that the
+women were very skilful in weaving and needlework. The Irish peasant
+girls of today inherit from them not a little of their gift for
+lace-making and linen-embroidery. Ladies of the highest rank
+practiced needlework as an accomplishment and a recreation. Some of
+the scissors and shears they used have come to light in excavations.
+
+In the stories of the loves of the ancient Irish, whether immortals
+or mortals, the woman's role is the more accentuated, while in
+Teutonic tradition man plays the chief part. Again, it has often been
+remarked that the feminine interest is absent from the earlier heroic
+forms of some literatures. Not so, however, in the earliest
+saga-texts of the Irish. Many are the famous women to whom the old
+tales introduce us and who stand out and compel attention like the
+characters of the Greek drama. Everyone knows of the faithful
+Deirdre, the heroine of the touching story of the "Exile of the Sons
+of Usnech", and of her death; of the proud and selfish Medb. the
+ambitious queen of Connacht, the most warlike and most expert in the
+use of weapons of the women of the Gael--far superior in combat and
+counsel to her husband, Ailill; of Emer, the faithful wife of
+Cuchulainn; of Etain of the Horses (that was her name in Fairyland);
+and of many others too numerous to mention.
+
+It is with the introduction of Christianity into Ireland that the
+Irish woman came into her rightful place, and attained the
+preponderating influence which she, ever since, has held among the
+Celtic people. In the period which followed the evangelization of the
+island many were the "women of worth" who upheld the honor and glory
+of "Inisfail the Fair", and women were neither the less numerous nor
+the less ardent who hung upon the lips of the Apostle of Ireland.
+
+Amid the galaxy of the saints, how lustrous, how divinely fair,
+shines the star of Brigid, the shepherd maiden of Faughard, the
+disciple of Patrick the Apostle, the guardian of the holy light that
+burned beneath the oak-trees of Kildare! Over all Ireland and through
+the Hebridean Isles, she is renowned above any other. We think of
+her, moreover, not alone, but as the centre of a great company of
+cloistered maidens, the refuge and helper of the sinful and
+sorrowful, who found in the gospel that Patrick preached a message of
+consolation and deliverance. Let it be remembered that the shroud of
+Patrick is deemed to have been woven by Brigid's hand; that when she
+died, in 525, Columcille, the future apostle of Scotland, was a child
+of four. So she stands midmost of that trilogy of saints whose dust
+is said to rest in Down.
+
+Who that hears of Columcille will forget how He won that name, "dove
+of the Church", because of his early piety, and that surely bespeaks
+a mother's guiding care. Ethne, mother of Columcille, remains a vague
+but picturesque figure, seen against the background of the rugged
+heath-clad hills of Tir-Conal by the bright blue waters of Gartan's
+triple lake. Her hearth-stone or couch is shown there to this day,
+where once in slumber, before the birth of her son, she saw in a
+glorious visionary dream a symbol of his future greatness. A vast
+veil woven of sunshine and flowers seemed to float down upon her from
+heaven: an exquisitely poetic thought, which gives us warrant to
+believe that Columcille's poetic skill was inherited from his mother.
+
+Ronnat, the mother of his biographer, St. Adamnan, plays a more
+notable part in history, for, according to an ancient Gaelic text
+recently published, it was to her that the women of Ireland owed the
+royal decree which liberated them from military service. The story
+goes that once, as she walked beside the Boyne, after some sanguinary
+conflict, she came upon the bodies of two women who had fallen in
+battle. One grasped a reaping hook, the other a sword, and dreadful
+wounds disfigured them. Horrified at the sight, she brought strong
+pressure to bear upon her son, and his influence in the councils of
+the land availed to bring about the promulgation of the decree which
+freed women from war-service.
+
+Our warrior kings had noble queens to rule their households, and of
+these none stands out so distinctly after long lapse of time as
+Gormlai, the daughter of Flann Siona, and wife of Nial Glondubh. Her
+story has in it that element of romance which touches the heart and
+wins the sympathy of all who hear it.
+
+Her father was king of the Meathan branch of the Clan Nial, and
+_ard-ri_ of Ireland for thirty-seven years. Nial Glondubh was king of
+Tir-Eoghain, and heir of Flann in the high kingship, for at that era
+it was the custom for the kings of Meath and of Tyrone to hold the
+supreme power alternately. In order to knit north and south, Flann
+betrothed his beautiful daughter to Cormac macCuillenan, king of
+Cashel, an ideal husband, one would have thought, for a poetess like
+Gormlai, for Cormac was the foremost scholar of the day; but his mind
+was so set on learning and religion that he took holy orders and
+became bishop-king of Cashel, repudiating his destined bride. Gormlai
+was then given as wife to Cearbhail, king of Leinster, and war was
+waged against Cormac who was killed in the battle of Ballymoon.
+Coming home wounded, Cearbhail lay on his couch, and while tended by
+Gormlai and her ladies told the story of the battle and boasted of
+having insulted the dead body of King Cormac. Gormlai reproached him
+for his ignoble conduct in such terms that his anger and jealousy
+flamed up, and striking her with his fist he hurled her to the
+ground.
+
+Gormlai rose indignant and left his house forever, returning to the
+palace of King Flann, and on Cearbhail's death she at last found a
+true lover and worthy mate in Nial Glondubh, who brought her
+northward to rule over the famous palace of Aileach. In 916 Nial
+became high king, but the place of honor was also the place of
+danger, and soon he led the mustered hosts of the north against the
+pagan foreigners, who held Dublin and Fingal, and he fell in battle
+at Rathfarnham.
+
+A poem, preserved for us ever since, tells us that Gormlai was
+present at his burial and chanted a funeral ode. Her long widowhood
+was a period of disconsolate mourning. At length it is said she had a
+dream or vision, in which King Nial appeared to her in such life-like
+shape that she spread her arms to embrace him, and thus wounded her
+breast against the carven head-post of her couch, and of that wound
+she died.
+
+Many saintly, many noble, many hospitable and learned women lightened
+the darkness that fell over Ireland after the coming of the Normans.
+
+I pass to the time when a sovereign lady filled the throne of
+England, "the spacious days of great Elizabeth," which were also the
+period of Ireland's greatest, sternest struggle against a policy of
+extermination towards her nobles and suppression of her ancient
+faith. Amid all the heroes and leaders of that wondrous age in
+Ireland, there appears, like a reincarnation of legendary Medb, a
+warlike queen in Connacht, Grace O'Malley, "Granuaile" of the
+ballads. Instead of a chariot, she mounts to the prow of a
+swift-sailing galley, and sweeps over the wild Atlantic billows, from
+isle to isle, from coast to coast, taking tribute (or is it plunder?)
+from the clans. First an O'Flaherty is her husband, then a Norman
+Burke. In Clare Island they show her castle tower, with a hole in the
+wall, through which they say she tied a cable from her ship, ready by
+day or night for a summons from her seamen. She voyaged as far as
+London town, and stood face to face with the ruffed and hooped
+Elizabeth, meeting her offer of an English title with the assertion
+that she was a princess in her own land.
+
+The mother of Red Hugh O'Donnell, Ineen-dubh, though daughter of the
+Scottish Lord of the Isles, was none the less of the old Irish stock.
+Her character is finely sketched for us by the Franciscan chronicler
+who wrote the story of the captivity and mighty deeds of her son.
+When the clans of Tir-Conal assembled to elect the youthful
+chieftain, he writes: "It was an advantage that she came to the
+gathering, for she was the head of the advice and counsel of the
+Cinel-Conail, and, though she was slow and deliberate and much
+praised for her womanly qualities, she had the heart of a hero and
+the soul of a soldier." Her daughter, Nuala, is the "woman of the
+piercing wail" in Mangan's translation of the bard's lament for the
+death of the Ulster chieftains in Rome.
+
+Modern critics like to interpret the "Dark Rosaleen" poem as an
+expression of Red Hugh's devotion to Ireland, but I think that Rose,
+O'Doherty's daughter, wife of the peerless Owen Roe, deserves
+recognition as she whose
+
+      "Holy delicate white hands should girdle him with steel."
+
+The record has come down to us that she prompted and encouraged her
+husband to return from the low-countries and a position of dignity in
+a foreign court to command the war in Ireland, and in her first
+letter, ere she followed him over sea, she asked eagerly: "How stands
+Tir-Conal?" True daughter of Ulster was Owen's wife, so let us
+henceforth acknowledge her as the _Roisin_ dubh, "dark Rosaleen", of
+the sublimest of all patriot songs.
+
+In the Cromwellian and Williamite wars, we see the mournful mothers
+and daughters of the Gaeldom passing in sad procession to Connacht,
+or wailing on Shannon banks for the flight of the "Wild Geese." But
+what of Limerick wall, what of the valorous rush of the women of the
+beleaguered city to stem the inroads of the besiegers and rally the
+defenders to the breach? The decree of St. Adamnan was quite
+forgotten then, and when manly courage for a moment was daunted,
+woman's fortitude replaced and reinspired it.
+
+And fortitude was sorely needed through the black years that
+followed--the penal days, when Ireland, crushed in the dust, bereft
+of arms, achieved a sublimer victory than did even King Brian
+himself, champion of the Cross, against the last muster of European
+heathendom.
+
+Yes, her women have done their share in making Ireland what she is, a
+heroic land, unconquered by long centuries of wrath and wrong, a land
+that has not abandoned its Faith through stress of direst persecution
+or bartered it for the lure of worldly dominion; no--nor ever yielded
+to despair in face of repeated national disaster.
+
+It was this fidelity to principle on the part of the Irish Catholic
+people which won for them the alliance of all that were worthiest
+among the Protestants of north and south in the days of the
+Volunteers and the United Irishmen. What interesting and pathetic
+portraits of Irishwomen are added to our roll at this period! None is
+more tenderly mournful than that of Sarah Curran, the beloved of
+Robert Emmet. The graceful prose of Washington Irving, the poignant
+verses of Moore, have enshrined the memory of her, weeping for him in
+the shadow of the scaffold, dying of heart-break at last in a far-off
+land. No more need be said of her, for whom the pity of the whole
+world has been awakened by song allied to sweetest, saddest music.
+What of Anne Devlin, Emmet's faithful servant, helping in his
+preparations for insurrection, aiding his flight, shielding him in
+hiding, even when tortured, scourged, half-hanged by a brutal
+soldiery, with stern-shut lips refusing to utter a word to compromise
+her "Master Robert"?
+
+What of the sister of Henry Joy McCracken, Mary, the friend and
+fellow-worker with the Belfast United Irishmen? An independent,
+self-reliant business woman, she earned the money which she gave so
+liberally in the good cause, or to help the poor and distressed,
+through the whole period of a long life. Some still living have seen
+Mary passing along the streets of Belfast, an aged woman, clad in
+sombre gown, to whom Catholic artisans raised their caps reverently,
+remembering how in '98 she had walked hand in hand with her brother
+to the steps of the scaffold, and how, in 1803, she had aided Thomas
+Russell in his escape from the north after Emmet's failure, had
+bribed his captors after arrest, provided for his defence, and
+preserved for futurity a record of his dying words. Madden's _History
+of the United Irishmen_, as far as it tells of the north, is mainly
+the record that she kept as a sacred trust in letters, papers,
+long-treasured memories of the men who fought and died to make
+Ireland a united nation.
+
+And now a scene in America comes last to my mind. Wolfe Tone, a
+political fugitive who has served Ireland well and come through
+danger to safety, is busy laying the foundations of a happy and
+prosperous future, with a beloved wife and sister and young children
+to brighten his home. An estate near Princeton, New Jersey, has been
+all but bought, possibilities of a career in the new republic open
+before him, when a letter comes from Belfast, asking him to return to
+the post of danger, to undertake a mission to France for the sake of
+Ireland. Let his own pen describe what happened: "I handed the letter
+to my wife and sister and desired their opinion.... My wife
+especially, whose courage and whose zeal for my honor and interest
+were not in the least abated by all her past sufferings, supplicated
+me to let no consideration of her or our children stand for a moment
+in the way of my duty to our country, adding that she would answer
+for our family during my absence and that the same Providence which
+had so often, as it were, miraculously preserved us would not desert
+us now."
+
+Inspired by the fortitude of this noble woman, Tone went forth on his
+perilous mission, and similarly the Young Ireland leaders, Mitchel
+and Smith O'Brien, were sustained by the courage of their nearest and
+dearest. "Eva," the poetess of the _Nation_, gave her troth-plight to
+one who had prison and exile to face ere he could claim her hand.
+Other names recur to me--"Speranza", with her lyric fire; Ellen
+O'Leary, fervent and still patient and wise; Fanny Parnell and her
+sister.
+
+And what of the women of Ireland today? Shall they come short of the
+high ideal of the past, falter and fail, if devotion and sacrifice
+are required of them? Never: whilst they keep in memory and honor the
+illustrious ones of whom I have written. The name of Irishwoman today
+stands for steadfast virtue, for hospitality, for simple piety, for
+cheerful endurance, and in a changing world let us trust it is the
+will of God that in this there will be no change.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+On Ethne, mother of St. Columcille: The Visions, Miracles, and
+Prophecies of St. Columba (Clarendon Press Series). On Ronnat: S. Mac
+an Bhaird, Life (in Irish) of Adamnan (Letterkenny); Reeves, St.
+Adamnan's Life of St. Columba; The Mother of St. Adamnan, an old
+Gaelic text, ed. by Kuno Meyer (Berlin). On Gormlai: Thomas
+Concannon, Gormflath (in Irish; The Gaelic League, Dublin). On
+Granuaile: Elizabethan State Papers (Record Office Series); William
+O'Brien, A Queen of Men. On Ineen-Dubh: O'Clery's Life of Red Hugh
+(contemporary), ed. by Denis Murphy, S. J. (Dublin, 1894); Standish
+O'Grady, The Flight of the Eagle, or Red Hugh's Captivity. On Rose,
+wife of Owen Roe O'Neill, see references in Father Meehan's The
+Flight of the Earls, and in Sir John Gilbert's History of the
+Confederate War (Dublin, 1885). On the wife of Wolfe Tone, see Wolfe
+Tone's Autobiography, ed. by R. Barry O'Brien (London, 1894). The
+American edition has a fuller account of Tone's wife, her courage and
+devotion in educating her son, and her interviews with Napoleon, and
+life in America. The women of the United Irish period are fully dealt
+with in K. R. Madden's Lives and Times of the United Irishmen. On
+Mary McCracken, see Mrs. Milligan Fox, The Annals of the Irish
+Harpers. On the women of the Young Ireland period, see C. Gavan
+Duffy's Young Ireland (Dublin), and John O'Leary's Fenians and
+Fenianism. On the women of Limerick, see Rev. James Dowd, Limerick
+and its Sieges (Limerick, 1890). For the women under Cromwellian
+Plantation persecutions and the Penal Laws, see Prendergast's
+Cromwellian Settlement, Rev. Denis Murphy's Cromwell in Ireland, and
+R. R. Madden's History of the Penal Laws.
+
+
+
+IRISH NATIONALITY
+
+By LORD ASHBOURNE
+
+
+[NOTE.--This chapter was written by Lord Ashbourne in French, because
+he is so strong an Irishman that he objects to write in English. The
+translation has been made by the Editors.]
+
+
+To those of us who are interested in the future of our country there
+is at this very moment presented a really serious problem. The
+political struggle of the last century has been so intense that many
+of our people have come to have none but a political solution in
+view. For them the whole question is one of politics, and they will
+continue to believe that Ireland will have found salvation the moment
+we get Home Rule or something like it. Such an attitude seems natural
+enough when we remember what our people have suffered in the past.
+Nevertheless, on a little reflection, this error--for error it is,
+and an enormous one, too--will be quickly dissipated. In the first
+place, the political struggle of today is only the continuation of a
+conflict which has lasted seven hundred years, and in point of fact
+we have a right to be proud that after so many trials there still
+remains to us anything of our national inheritance. We find ourselves
+indeed on the battlefield somewhat seriously bruised, but we can
+console ourselves with the thought that our opponent is in equally
+doleful case, that he is beginning to suffer from a fatal weariness,
+and that he is anxious to make peace with us.
+
+In order to place the present political situation in its true light
+and to take into account its comparatively limited importance, we
+must not lose sight of the fundamental fact that what Home Rule
+connotes is rather a tender of peace on the part of Ireland than a
+gift which England presents us of her own free will. In fact, our
+neighbor across the Channel has as much interest as ourselves, and
+perhaps even more, in bringing the struggle to an end. Through us,
+England has already lost much prestige, and that famous British
+Constitution, which in times past everyone admired while trying in
+vain to imitate it, has lost caste considerably. I am not now
+speaking of the danger which an Ireland discontented, and even
+hostile, and having nothing to lose, would constitute for England in
+case of war. It is especially from our neighbor's point of view that
+we can cry up Home Rule or any other solution that will bring peace.
+But let us leave to Great Britain the task of getting out of trouble
+as best she may. On our side, what shall we say of it?
+
+In our conflict with the English we are not wearied; rather are we
+hardened for the fray. We have acquired the habit of fighting, and
+many of us can now scarcely regulate our conduct in a manner suitable
+to a state of peace with England. Nevertheless, as I have already
+said, we have not emerged unscathed from this war of the centuries.
+National sentiment remains with us, no doubt, and our traditions are
+not wholly lost, especially among the country people of the West. But
+our commerce is almost ruined and the national language is no longer
+spoken throughout the greater part of the country. It is true that a
+continuation of the hitherto existing state of war cannot do us much
+more harm; that for purposes of mere destruction all the advantages
+are on our side; and that on the other hand we can begin a
+reconstruction at home without waiting for a treaty of peace to be
+signed. But we have some things to do for which a home government
+would be useful to us, and further, in the absence of such a
+government, it would be difficult to imagine what means could be
+employed to turn the people away from their too exclusive absorption
+in Anglo-Irish politics.
+
+It is, then, from a practical point of view that we wish for peace.
+But, we may lawfully ask, will not this peace bring with it a special
+danger, against which we ought to take precautions? As a matter of
+fact, there is such a danger, and it lies in the fact that the people
+have been to so great an extent obsessed by the political struggle
+that they run the risk, once their end is attained, of collapsing and
+of losing interest in the national question. Let us not forget that
+that question is to save our language and our civilization; without
+that, it is all over with our nationality. Let us endeavor to turn
+our parliament to account in order to work seriously on the
+reconstruction of our national life, and it is certain that Ireland
+will find therein her salvation.
+
+We can, therefore, take advantage either of England's prolonged
+resistance or of peace. If England decides to continue the contest,
+she will suffer more from it than we. Her empire, her institutions,
+her safety, will be more and more impaired, while, as for us, there
+will result a strong growth in patriotism and in anti-British
+bitterness. What we have to do, right now, is to take our bearings in
+such a way that, no matter what happens to England, our own future
+shall be assured. We can do it if we wish it: the question is, shall
+we wish it?
+
+Here it may be objected, _Cui bono_ The English language is quite
+enough for us. We have it now and we speak it, sometimes, even better
+than the English people themselves. We are proud of using the same
+language as Sheridan, Burke, and Grattan used. Such an opinion has
+its modicum of truth, though less now than a hundred years ago.
+Formerly there was in Ireland, and especially around Dublin, a little
+colony of Anglo-Irish. The members of this colony spoke a very pure
+and classic English, and this fact is largely responsible for the
+place which Ireland at one time held in English literature. But
+during the last century the remains of this colony have been swamped
+beneath a flood of half-Anglicized people, of Irishmen from the
+country districts, who were formerly excluded, and who brought with
+them such a mixture of expressions and of phonetic tendencies derived
+from the Gaelic that the language of Grattan, Sheridan, and Burke has
+well-nigh gone out of existence. The reason of this is that since the
+date of Catholic emancipation, most careers are open to everybody.
+The result has been that the newly enfranchised majority has
+ultimately absorbed the minority, and that the atmosphere of culture,
+of which we have just spoken, has disappeared. We thus reach an
+Ireland which, in a sense, has neither culture nor language, a
+country in which the Gaelic spoken by a people humiliated and deeply
+demoralized by an anti-Catholic legislation, which was both savage
+and degrading, tended to coalesce with an English already condemned
+to death. It is from the moment when the Catholics had finally
+triumphed over persecution that we must date the beginning of that
+political struggle with which we are familiar, a struggle which has
+resulted in absorbing all the energies of a great part of the
+population. That is why this tremendous problem presents itself to
+us, at the very time when we should be justified in feeling ourselves
+elated by triumph because of our victories in parliament. And let not
+England rejoice too much at our dilemma. If we are doomed to die, she
+will die with us, for before disappearing we shall prove to be a
+great destructive force, and out of the ruins of the British power we
+shall raise such a monument that future generations will know what it
+costs to murder a nation.
+
+But, if possible, we must live and let live. The elements of
+reconstruction are always at hand. Anglo-Irish culture is indeed
+dead, but Gaelic culture is only seriously sick, and on that side
+there is always room for hope. Sooth to say, its sickness consists
+above all in the fact that the Irish language is no longer spoken in
+a great part of the country. But, on the other hand, where it is
+preserved, that same language is spoken in all its purity. By going
+there to find it all Ireland will gradually become Gaelic.
+
+But, it will be objected, what a loss of time and energy! If it is a
+question of languages, why not learn one of the more useful ones? To
+this we may reply that, while English deforms the mouth and makes it
+incapable of pronouncing any language which is not spoken from the
+tip of the lips, Gaelic, on the contrary, so exercises the organs of
+speech that it renders easy the acquisition and the practice of most
+European idioms. Let us add, by way of example, that French, which is
+usually difficult for strangers, is much more within the compass of
+Irishmen who speak Irish, no less because of certain linguistic
+customs than from the original relationship between the two
+languages.
+
+This remark brings us to another objection which is often lodged
+against our movement. It is urged that Ireland is already isolated
+enough, and that by making it a Gaelic-speaking nation, we shall make
+that state of affairs still worse. English, say the objectors, is
+spoken more or less everywhere, while Gaelic will never be able to
+claim the position of a quasi-universal language. To this line of
+reasoning it might be answered, for one thing, that no one can tell
+how far Gaelic will go, in case our movement is a success, and that
+many a language formerly "universal" is today as dead as a door-nail.
+But we must look at the question from another point of view. John
+Bull's language is spread everywhere, while he himself retains the
+most exclusive insularity. He travels to every land and there finds
+his own language and his own customs. Now it goes without saying that
+from this very universalization his language is corrupted and becomes
+vulgarized. The idiom of Shakespeare and Milton gives place gradually
+to the idiom of the seaports. Furthermore, far from isolating us,
+Gaelic will tend to put us in touch with the civilization of the
+West. As a people Anglicised, and badly Anglicised at that, we share,
+and even exaggerate, the faults which I have just described. It is
+Anglo-Saxon speech which isolates us, and we wish on this ground to
+break with it and to hold out our hand to our brothers of the
+continent.
+
+But, it may be said, what a pity to dig yet another abyss between
+Ireland and Great Britain, for it is with the latter that our
+geographical position will always link us for common defense. For,
+while it is true that history does not show us a single case of an
+empire which has not sooner or later fallen to pieces, nevertheless,
+whatever happens, the two islands will be necessarily forced to
+co-operate for the common good. Well, let us take it that things will
+so fall out, and let us suppose an Anglicised Ireland called upon to
+face such a situation. It would be a revolutionary Ireland, a
+restless Ireland, an Ireland seeking vaguely for revenge on someone,
+deprived of really national character, and, in a general way,
+suspecting England of responsibility for the disappearance from our
+country of everything that constitutes the idea of nationality. And
+let us remark that we are no longer living in those good old times
+when entire nations allowed themselves to be absorbed by their
+conquerors. The art of printing has changed all that. Today a
+"suppressed" nation is one that will sooner or later have its
+revenge. Thus let us suppose that we are destined to make political
+peace with England and to enter of our own accord into a
+Hiberno-Britannic confederation. From our point of view, what would
+be the result of that arrangement? The result would be strange. Here
+again, as in the case of Home Rule, it is rather we who offer
+advantages to England than she who offers them to us. Only, in this
+latter case, the result depends on ourselves alone. If we die, it
+will be because we have wished it. Our language is not dead; on the
+contrary, although not widely spread, it is in itself much more alive
+than English, which as a literary language is in full decay. We may
+congratulate ourselves that our idiom is intact. Our civilization is
+old, but it has not yet lived its full life. If we wish, the future
+is ours. And let us truly believe that that is worth while, for the
+race which has produced epics like those of Ossian and all that
+magnificent literature which has been preserved for us through the
+ages, the race that gave to Europe that great impulse of missionary
+activity which is associated with the names of Columcille, Brendan,
+Columbanus, and Gall, not to mention men like the famous Scotus
+Erigena--that race is certainly called upon to play an important part
+in the modern world. But--let us repeat it--it must have the wish.
+
+
+
+FAMOUS IRISH SOCIETIES
+
+By JOHN O'DEA,
+
+_National Historian, A.O.H._.
+
+
+In the social organization of no nation of antiquity were societies
+of greater influence than in pagan Ireland. During many centuries
+these societies, composed of the bards, ollamhs, brehons, druids, and
+knights, contended for precedence. In no country did the literary
+societies display greater vigor and exercise a more beneficent power
+than in pagan Ireland. Although the Hebrews and other Asiatic nations
+had societies organized from among the professions, yet in Ireland
+alone these societies seem to have been constructed with a patriotic
+purpose, and in Ireland alone they seem to have had ceremonies of
+initiation, with constitutions and laws. These societies existed from
+the earliest times until after the coming of St. Patrick. Traces of
+them are visible during all the centuries from the conversion of
+Ireland down to the Anglo-Norman epoch, and it is apparent that the
+clan system and the introduction of the feudal system by the English
+failed to eliminate completely their influence.
+
+When the Irish emigration flowed towards the American colonies in the
+eighteenth century, the social instinct early found expression in
+societies. One of the earliest of these was founded in Boston, where,
+in 1737, twenty-six "gentlemen merchants and others, natives of
+Ireland or of Irish extraction", organized the Charitable Irish
+Society. In Pennsylvania, where the Irish emigration had been larger
+than in any other colony, the Hibernian Fire Company was organized in
+1751. The Friendly Sons of St. Patrick was founded in Philadelphia in
+1771, and about that time societies bearing this name were founded in
+Boston and New York, as convivial clubs welcoming Irish emigrants to
+their festive boards. These societies were formed upon the model of
+the Friendly Brothers of St. Patrick, which had existed in Dublin and
+other Irish cities a generation before, and was well and favorably
+known throughout Ireland.
+
+The Society of the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick in Philadelphia
+contained some of the most prominent merchants and leading citizens
+of the city, and in 1780 they subscribed L103,000, or one-third of
+the sum collected, to supply the Continental army with food. Among
+its members were Commodore Barry, the Father of the American Navy;
+General Stephen Moylan; General Anthony Wayne; and the great
+merchants, Blair McClenachan, Thomas Fitzsimons, and Robert Morris.
+Washington, who was an honorary member, described it "as a society
+distinguished for the firm adherence of its members to the glorious
+cause in which we are embarked." Whether upon the field or upon the
+sea, in council or in the sacrifice of their wealth, their names are
+foremost in the crisis of the Revolution.
+
+The Hibernian Society for the Relief of Emigrants from Ireland was
+founded in Philadelphia on March 3, 1790. Other Hibernian Societies,
+with the same title and organized for the same purpose, were founded
+in other cities along the Atlantic coast in the early years of the
+nineteenth century, but the Philadelphia Hibernian Society was, from
+the character of its members, the extent of its beneficence, and the
+length of its existence, the most famous. The emigrants from Ireland
+during the eighteenth century had pushed on to the frontier, or, in
+some instances, remained in the cities and engaged successfully in
+mercantile pursuits. The emigration which came after the Revolution
+was, however, in great part composed of families almost without
+means. Unable to subsist while clearing farms in the virgin forest,
+thousands were congested in the cities. The Hibernian Society
+extended a ready and strong hand to these helpless people, and not
+only aided the emigrants with gifts of money, but also secured for
+them employment, disseminated among them useful information, and
+provided them with medical attendance. While the Hibernian Society
+was regarded as the successor of the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick,
+yet the two societies, which contained largely a membership roll
+bearing the same names, flourished, in the work of patriotism, side
+by side. The first officers of the Hibernian Society for the Relief
+of Emigrants from Ireland were: President, Chief Justice Thomas
+McKean; Vice-President, General Walter Stewart; Secretary, Matthew
+Carey, the historian; Treasurer, John Taylor. It was said that no
+other society in America contained so many men distinguished in
+civil, military, and official life as the Hibernian Society. In
+almost every city where the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick and the
+Hibernian Society for the Relief of Emigrants were found, there was a
+close and intimate connection between them, which ultimately resulted
+in amalgamation.
+
+The Ancient Order of Hibernians traces its origin to those orders
+which flourished in pagan Ireland, and which exercised so potent an
+influence upon the history of the Celtic race. The order of
+knighthood was the first of these orders to be founded. It existed
+from the earliest times, and is visible in the annals of the nation,
+until the Anglo-Normans invaded the land in the twelfth century. In
+pagan Ireland the knightly orders became provincial standing armies,
+and there are many glorious pages describing the feats of the Clanna
+Deagha of Munster, the Clanna Morna of Connacht, the Feni of
+Leinster, and the Knights of the Red Branch of Ulster. When the
+island was Christianized, these knightly orders were among the
+staunchest supporters of the missionary priests, and were consecrated
+to the service of the church in the sixth century, assuming the cross
+as their distinctive emblem, and becoming the defenders of religion.
+
+Among the names which are upon the rolls of the ancient orders of
+knighthood are those of most of the kings, bards, saints, and
+statesmen, and in the long list there was no family of greater renown
+than that of Roderick the Great, to which belonged Conall Cearnach
+and Lugaidh, who, according to MacGeoghegan and others, were the
+direct ancestors of the O'Mores of Leix. In this family the ancient
+splendor of the knightly orders was a tradition which survived for
+centuries, and they were in almost continual rebellion against the
+English, from the siege of Dublin by Roderick O'Connor until the
+rebellion against Queen Elizabeth, led by Rory Oge O'More and his son
+Owen in the latter part of the sixteenth and the early seventeenth
+century. A nephew of Rory Oge, the sagacious and statesmanlike Rory
+O'More, revived the ancient orders in the Catholic Confederation of
+Kilkenny in 1642. A grandson of Rory O'More, Patrick Sarsfield, Earl
+of Lucan, was the most distinguished commander of Irish armies who
+opposed, in Ireland, the forces of William of Orange.
+
+There is no stranger story in all history than the intimate
+connection of the O'More family with the annals of the Ancient Order
+of Hibernians. The lineage of this family furnishes the links
+connecting the ancient orders of pagan Ireland through the centuries
+with the Ancient Order in modern times. Under the names of Rapparees,
+Whiteboys, Defenders, Ribbonmen, etc., the Confederation of Kilkenny
+was carried on through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries until
+the nineteenth. At various times the duties of these organizations
+were subject to local conditions. Thus the Defenders were occupied in
+protecting themselves and their priests against the hostility of the
+Penal Laws, engaging in armed conflict with the Orangemen in the
+north, while the Whiteboys were waging war against the atrocities of
+landlordism in the south. Between these two organizations there was a
+secret code, which operated until they were combined, under the name
+of Ribbonmen, in the early nineteenth century. The contentions of the
+Whiteboys regarding Irish landlordism have since been acknowledged to
+be just, and have been enacted into statutes. The Defenders joined
+with Wolfe Tone in the formation of the United Irishmen.
+
+About 1825 the Ribbonmen changed their name to St. Patrick's
+Fraternal Society, and branches were established in England and
+Scotland under the name of the Hibernian Funeral Society. In 1836 a
+charter was received by members in New York City, and in Schuylkill
+County, Pennsylvania. The headquarters were for some years in
+Pennsylvania, but in 1851 a charter was granted to the New York
+Divisions under the name of "The Ancient Order of Hibernians." New
+York thus became the American headquarters. National conventions were
+held there until 1878, since which year they have been held in many
+other cities biennially. Many of the most distinguished leaders of
+the Irish race in America have been members of the Order, and from a
+humble beginning, with a few emigrants gathered together in a strange
+land, the membership has grown to nearly 200,000. General Thomas
+Francis Meagher, Colonel Michael Doheny, General Michael Corcoran,
+and Colonel John O'Mahony were among the members in the late '50's.
+
+Among the organizations which have sprung from the ranks of the
+A.O.H. were the powerful Fenian Brotherhood, the Emmet Monument
+Association, and scores of smaller associations in all sections of
+the United States and Canada. During the Know Nothing riots, the
+Order furnished armed defenders for the Catholic churches in New
+York, Philadelphia, and Charleston, and it has ever been foremost in
+preserving its position as the hereditary defender of the faith. In
+1894, the Ladies' Auxiliary was founded, and this body of women
+numbered in 1914 over 63,000, and had donated great sums to charity,
+education, and religion. The A.O.H. had, in 1914, assets of
+$2,230,000. It pays annually, for charity, sick and death benefits,
+and maintenance, over $1,000,000, and during its existence in America
+has donated nearly $20,000,000 to works of beneficence. One of the
+most celebrated of the gifts of the Order was the endowment of the
+Chair of Celtic in the Catholic University of America, and one of its
+greatest gifts to charity was its contribution of $40,000 to the
+sufferers from the San Francisco earthquake.
+
+The Clan-na-Gael is a society organized to secure the independence of
+Ireland by armed revolution. Its organization is secret and it is the
+successor of the Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood, called in America
+the Fenian Brotherhood, which promoted many daring raids and risings
+in Ireland in 1867. The I.R.B. was perfected by James Stephens in
+Ireland, and by John O'Mahony in America, from 1857 to 1867. An
+invasion of Canada was made in great force under the general
+direction of Colonel William R. Roberts, president of the Fenian
+Brotherhood, but was unsuccessful owing to the attitude of the United
+States Government, which declared that the Fenians were violating the
+principles of neutrality. After the disorganization of the Fenian
+Brotherhood, the idea of revolution languished until revived by the
+founding of the Clan-na-Gael by Jerome J. Collins in 1869, and the
+membership during the twenty years from 1880 to 1900 included almost
+fifty thousand of the flower of the men of Irish blood in America.
+The principle of revolution was first given organized public
+expression in America through the formation in 1848 of the Irish
+Republican Union, which was succeeded by the Emmet Monument
+Association, these societies influencing the creation of the
+Sixty-Ninth and Seventy-Fifth Regiments of the New York State
+Militia, and the Ninth Massachusetts, which became so famous for
+valor during the Civil War. Although not putting forth all its
+strength, so as to allow full scope to the parliamentary efforts to
+ameliorate the state of the Irish people, the Clan-na-Gael is as
+vigorous a section as ever of the forces organized for the service of
+patriotism.
+
+The Land League, founded in Ireland in 1879, was transplanted to
+America in 1880, when the first branch was established in New York
+City through the efforts of Patrick Ford, John Boyle O'Reilly, John
+Devoy, and others. Michael Davitt soon after came to America and
+travelled through the country founding branches of the League. In a
+few years the whole American continent was organized, and in this
+organization Michael Davitt declared that the members of the Ancient
+Order of Hibernians and the Clan-na-Gael were everywhere foremost. To
+the enormous sums collected by the League in this country, and to the
+magnificent labors of Parnell, Davitt, Redmond, Ferguson, Dillon,
+Kettle, Webb, and others in Ireland, is due in a large measure the
+present improved state of the people, resulting from the sacrifices
+made by those who supported this greatest of leagues devoted to the
+amelioration of unbearable economic conditions. A Ladies' Auxiliary
+to the Land League was established by the sisters of Parnell, and was
+for some years a brilliant vindication of the power and justice of
+feminine participation in public questions.
+
+The Land League, the name of which was changed to the Irish National
+League in the early '80's, having prepared the path to eventual
+victory, declined in potency after the political movement was divided
+into Parnellites and Anti-Parnellites in 1890. The elements composing
+these rival parties were, through the initiative of William O'Brien,
+M.P., and in commemoration of the one hundredth anniversary of the
+United Irishmen of Wolfe Tone's day, joined in 1898 under the name of
+the United Irish League, John E. Redmond becoming the first
+president, and also the chairman of the Parliamentary Party which it
+had been instrumental in uniting. This organization is now a living,
+vital force in the affairs of Ireland on both sides of the Atlantic,
+Mr. Redmond being still its head, with Michael J. Ryan, of
+Philadelphia, as president of the American Branch.
+
+The Knights of Columbus were organized in 1881 by Rev. Michael
+McGivney, in New Haven, Connecticut, and a charter was granted by the
+Connecticut Legislature on March 29,1882. At first the activity of
+the organization was confined to Connecticut, but the time was ripe
+for its mission, and it soon spread rapidly throughout New England.
+In 1896 it began to attract the attention of Catholic young men in
+other parts of the nation, and during the next few years its appeal
+was made irresistibly in almost every State. It now exists in all the
+States of the Union, the Dominion of Canada, Nova Scotia,
+Newfoundland, Panama, Porto Rico, Mexico, Cuba, and the Philippine
+Islands, with a total membership of 328,000, of whom 108,000 are
+insurance members and 220,000 associate members. Its mortuary reserve
+fund is $4,500,000, being over $1,000,000 more than is required by
+law. It is one of the most successful fraternal societies ever
+organized, and the Irish-American Catholics have given to it the full
+strength of their enthusiasm and purpose.
+
+The temperance movement among Catholics was, from the visit of Father
+Mathew in 1849, largely Irish. The societies first formed were united
+by no bond until 1871, when the Connecticut societies formed a State
+Union. Other States formed unions and a national convention in
+Baltimore in 1872 created a National Union. In 1878 there were 90,000
+priests, laymen, women, and children in the Catholic Total Abstinence
+Benevolent Union. In 1883 the Union was introduced into Canada, and
+in 1895 there were 150,000 members on the American continent. From
+the C.T.A.B.U. were formed the Knights of Father Mathew, a total
+abstinence and semi-military body, first instituted in St. Louis in
+1872.
+
+The Catholic Knights of America, with a membership chiefly
+Irish-American, were organized in Memphis, Tennessee, in 1877, and
+the advantages offered for insurance soon attracted 20,000 members.
+The decade of the '70's was prolific of Irish Catholic associations.
+The Catholic Benevolent Legion was founded in 1873, shortly followed
+by the Catholic Mutual Benevolent Association, the Catholic Order of
+Foresters (which started in Massachusetts and spread to other
+States), the Irish Catholic Benevolent Union, and the Society of the
+Holy Name, which latter, although tracing its origin to Lisbon in
+1432, is yet dominantly Irish in America.
+
+In the large industrial centres there are scores of Irish county and
+other societies composed of Irishmen and Irish-Americans, organized
+for the service of country and faith, beneficence and education, and
+all dedicated to the uplifting of humanity and to the progress of
+civilization. The ancient genius for organization has not been lost,
+the spirit of brotherhood pulsates strongly in the Irish heart, and
+through its powerful societies the race retains its place in the
+advance of mankind.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+John M. Campbell: History of the Friendly Sons of St. Patrick and
+Hibernian Society; Maguire: The Irish in America; McGee: Irish
+Settlers in America; John O'Dea: History of the Ancient Order of
+Hibernians and Ladies' Auxiliary in America; Michael Davitt: The Fall
+of Feudalism in Ireland; Cashman: Life of Michael Davitt; T.P.
+O'Connor: The Parnell Movement; Joseph Denieffe: Recollections of the
+Irish Revolutionary Brotherhood; Articles in the Catholic
+Encyclopedia; Report of the Knights of Columbus, 1914; The Tidings,
+Los Angeles, 7th annual edition.
+
+
+
+THE IRISH IN THE UNITED STATES
+
+By MICHAEL J. O'BRIEN,
+
+_Historiographer, American Irish Historical Society_.
+
+
+Students of early American history will find in the Colonial records
+abundant evidence to justify the statement of Ramsay, the historian
+of South Carolina, when he wrote in 1789, that:
+
+"The Colonies which now form the United States may be considered as
+Europe transplanted. Ireland, England, Scotland, France, Germany,
+Holland, Switzerland, Sweden, Poland, and Italy furnished the
+original stock of the present population, and are generally supposed
+to have contributed to it in the order named. For the last seventy or
+eighty years, no nation has contributed so much to the population of
+America as Ireland."
+
+It will be astonishing to one who looks into the question to find
+that, in face of all the evidence that abounds in American annals,
+showing that our people were here on this soil fighting the battles
+of the colonists, and in a later day of the infant Republic, thus
+proving our claim to the gratitude of this nation, America has
+produced men so ignoble and disingenuous as to say that the Irish who
+were here in Revolutionary days "were for the most part heartily
+loyal," that "the combatants were of the same race and blood", and
+that the great uprising became, in fact, "a contest between
+brothers"!
+
+Although many writers have made inquiries into this subject, nearly
+all have confined themselves to the period of the Revolution. We are
+of "the fighting race", and in our enthusiasm for the fighting man
+the fact seems to have been overlooked that in other noble fields of
+endeavor, and in some respects infinitely more important, men of
+Irish blood have occupied prominent places in American history, for
+which they have received but scant recognition. The pioneers before
+whose hands the primeval forests fell prostrate; the builders, by
+whose magic touch have sprung into existence flourishing towns and
+cities, where once no sounds were heard save those of nature and her
+wildest offspring; the orators who roused the colonists into activity
+and showed them the way to achieve their independence; the
+schoolmasters who imparted to the American youth their first lessons
+in intellectuality and patriotism; all have their place in history,
+and of these we can claim that Ireland furnished her full quota to
+the American colonies.
+
+It must now be accepted as an indisputable fact that a very large
+proportion of the earliest settlers in the American colonies were of
+Irish blood, for the Irish have been coming here since the beginning
+of the English colonization. It has been estimated by competent
+authorities that in the middle of the seventeenth century the
+English-speaking colonists numbered 50,000. Sir William Petty, the
+English statistician, tells us that during the decade from 1649 to
+1659 the annual emigration from Ireland to the western continent was
+upwards of 6000, thus making, in that space of time, 60,000 souls, or
+about one-half of what the whole population must have been in 1659.
+And from 1659 to 1672 there emigrated from Ireland to America the
+yearly number of 3000 (Dobbs, on Irish Trade, Dublin, 1729).
+Prendergast, another noted authority, in the _Cromwellian Settlement
+of Ireland_, furnishes ample verification of this by the statistics
+which he quotes from the English records. Richard Hakluyt, the
+chronicler of the first Virginia expeditions, in his _Voyages,
+Navigations, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the English Nation_
+(London, 1600), shows that Irishmen came with Raleigh to Virginia in
+1587 and, in fact, the ubiquitous Celts were with Sir John Hawkins in
+his voyage to the Gulf of Mexico twenty years earlier. The famous
+work of John Camden Hotten, entitled "The Original Lists of Persons
+of Quality, Emigrants, Religious Exiles, Political Rebels, Serving
+Men sold for a term of years," etc., who were brought to the Virginia
+plantations between 1600 and 1700, as well as his "List of the
+Livinge and the Dead in Virginia in 1623," contains numerous Celtic
+names, and further evidence of these continuous migrations of the
+Irish is contained in "A Booke of Entrie for Passengers passing
+beyond the Seas", in the year 1632. The Virginia records also show
+that as early as 1621 a colony of Irish people sailed from Cork in
+the _Flying Harte_ under the patronage of Sir William Newce and
+located at what is now Newport News, and some few years later Daniel
+Gookin, a merchant of Cork, transported hither "great multitudes of
+people and cattle" from England and Ireland.
+
+In the "William and Mary College Quarterly," in the transcripts of
+the original records published by the Virginia Historical Society,
+and in all County histories of Virginia, there are numerous
+references to the Irish "redemptioners" who were brought to that
+colony during the seventeenth century. But the redemptioners were not
+the only class who came, for the colonial records also contain many
+references to Irishmen of good birth and education who received
+grants of land in the colony and who, in turn, induced many of their
+countrymen to emigrate. Planters named McCarty, Lynch, O'Neill,
+Sullivan, Farrell, McDonnell, O'Brien, and others denoting an ancient
+Irish lineage appear frequently in the early records. Much that is
+romantic is found in the lives of these men and their descendants.
+Some of them served in the Council chamber and the field, their sons
+and daughters were educated to hold place, with elegance and dignity,
+with the foremost of the Cavaliers, and when in after years the great
+conflict with England began, Virginians of Irish blood were among the
+first and the most eager to answer the call. Those historians who
+claim that the South was exclusively an "Anglo-Saxon" heritage would
+be completely disillusioned were they to examine the lists of
+Colonial and Revolutionary troops of Celtic name who held the Indians
+and the British at bay, and who helped in those "troublous times" to
+lay the foundations of a great Republic.
+
+There is no portion of the Atlantic seaboard that did not profit by
+the Irish immigrations of the seventeenth century. We learn from the
+"Irish State Papers" of the year 1595 that ships were regularly
+plying between Ireland and Newfoundland, and so important was the
+trade between Ireland and the far-distant fishing banks that "all
+English ships bound out always made provisions that the convoy out
+should remain 48 hours in Cork." In some of Lord Baltimore's accounts
+of his voyages to Newfoundland he refers to his having "sailed from
+Ireland" and to his "return to Ireland," and so it is highly probable
+that he settled Irishmen on his Avalon plantations. After Baltimore's
+departure, Lord Falkland also sent out a number of Irish colonists,
+and "at a later date they were so largely reinforced by settlers from
+Ireland that the Celtic part of the population at this day is not far
+short of equality in numbers with the Saxon portion"--(Hatton and
+Harvey, _History of Newfoundland_, page 32). Pedley attributes the
+large proportion of Irishmen and the influence of the Catholics in
+Newfoundland to Lord Falkland's company, and Prowse, in his History
+(pp. 200-201), refers to "the large number of Irishmen" in that
+colony who fled from Waterford and Cork "during the troubled times"
+which preceded the Williamite war (1688). Many of these in after
+years are known to have settled in New England.
+
+But it was to Maryland and Pennsylvania that the greatest flow of
+Irish immigration directed its course. In the celebrated "Account of
+the Voyage to Maryland," written in the year 1634 by Mutius
+Vitellestis, the general of the Jesuit Order, it is related that when
+the _Arke_ and the _Dove_ arrived in the West Indies in that year,
+they found "the island of Montserrat inhabited by a colony of
+Irishmen who had been banished from Virginia on account of their
+professing the Catholic faith." It is known also that there were many
+families in Ireland of substance and good social standing who, at
+their own expense, took venture in the enterprise of Lord Baltimore
+and afterwards in that of William Penn, and who applied for and
+received grants of land, which, as the deeds on record show, were
+afterwards divided into farms bought and settled by O'Briens,
+McCarthys, O'Connors, and many others of the ancient Gaelic race, the
+descendants of those heroic men whose passion for liberty, while
+causing their ruin, inspired and impelled their sons to follow
+westward "the star of empire."
+
+After the first English colonies in Maryland were founded, we find in
+all the proclamations concerning these settlements by the proprietary
+government, that they were limited to "persons of British or Irish
+descent." The religious liberty established in Maryland was the
+magnet which attracted Irish Catholics to that Province, and so they
+came in large numbers in search of peace and comfort and freedom from
+the turmoil produced by religious animosities in their native land.
+The major part of this Irish immigration seems to have come in
+through the ports of Philadelphia and Charleston and a portion
+through Chesapeake Bay, whence they passed on to Pennsylvania and the
+southern colonies.
+
+The "Certificates of Land Grants" in Maryland show that it was
+customary for those Irish colonists to name their lands after places
+in their native country, and I find that there is hardly a town or
+city in the old Gaelic strongholds in Ireland that is not represented
+in the nomenclature of the early Maryland grants. One entire section
+of the Province, named the "County of New Ireland" by proclamation of
+Lord Baltimore in the year 1684, was occupied wholly by Irish
+families. This section is now embraced in Cecil and Harford Counties.
+New Ireland County was divided into three parts, known as New
+Connaught, New Munster, and New Leinster. New Connaught was founded
+by George Talbot from Roscommon, who was surveyor-general of the
+Province; New Munster, by Edward O'Dwyer from Tipperary; and New
+Leinster, by Bryan O'Daly from Wicklow, all of whom were in Maryland
+prior to 1683. Among the prominent men in the Province may be
+mentioned Charles O'Carroll, who was secretary to the proprietor;
+John Hart from county Cavan, who was governor of Maryland from 1714
+to 1720; Phillip Conner from Kerry, known in history as the "Last
+Commander of Old Kent"; Daniel Dulany of the O'Delaney family from
+Queen's County, one of the most famous lawyers in the American
+Colonies; Michael Tawney or Taney, ancestor of the celebrated judge,
+Roger Brooke Taney; the Courseys from Cork, one of the oldest
+families in the State; the Kings from Dublin; and many others.
+
+The only place in the State bearing a genuine Irish name which has
+reached any prominence is Baltimore. Not alone has the "Monumental
+City" received its name from Ireland, but the tract of land on which
+the city is now situate was originally named (in 1695) "Ely
+O'Carroll," after the barony of that name in King's and Tipperary
+counties, the ancient home of the Clan O'Carroll. To subdivisions of
+the tract were given such names as Dublin, Waterford, Tralee, Raphoe,
+Tramore, Mallow, Kinsale, Lurgan, Coleraine, Tipperary, Antrim,
+Belfast, Derry, Kildare, Enniskillen, Wexford, Letterkenny, Lifford,
+Birr, Galway, Limerick, and so on, all indicating the nationality of
+the patentees, as well as the places from which they came.
+
+From such sources is the evidence available of the coming of the
+Irish to Maryland in large numbers, and so it is that we are not
+surprised to find on the rosters of the Maryland Revolutionary
+regiments 4633 distinctive Irish names, exclusive of the large
+numbers who joined the navy and the militia, as well as those who
+were held to guard the frontier from Indian raids, whose names are
+not on record. However, it is not possible now to determine the
+proportion of the Revolutionary soldiers who were of Irish birth or
+descent, for where the nationality is not stated in the rosters all
+non-Irish names must be left out of the reckoning. The first census
+of Maryland (1790), published by the United States Government,
+enumerates the names of all "Heads of Families" and the number of
+persons in each family. A count of the Irish names shows
+approximately 21,000 persons. This does not take into account the
+great number of people who could not be recorded under that head, as
+it is known there were many thousand Irish "redemptioners" in
+Maryland prior to the taking of the census, and while no precise data
+exist to indicate the number of Irish immigrants who settled in
+Maryland, I estimate that the number of people of Irish descent in
+the State in 1790 was not far short of 40,000.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The Land Records and Council Journals of Georgia of the last half of
+the seventeenth and the first half of the eighteenth century afford
+like testimony to the presence of the Irish, who crossed the sea and
+colonized the waste places of that wild territory, and whose
+descendants in after years contributed much of the strength of the
+patriot forces who confronted the armed cohorts of Carleton and
+Cornwallis. From the Colonial Records of Georgia, published under the
+auspices of the State Legislature, I have extracted a long list of
+people of Irish name and blood who received grants of land in that
+colony. They came with Oglethorpe as early as 1735 and continued to
+arrive for many years. It was an Irishman named Mitchell who laid out
+the site of Atlanta, the metropolis of the South; an O'Brien founded
+the city of Augusta; and a McCormick named the city of Dublin,
+Georgia.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+From the records of the Carolinas we obtain similar data, many of an
+absorbingly interesting character, and the number of places in that
+section bearing names of a decidedly Celtic flavor is striking
+evidence of the presence of Irish people, the line of whose
+settlements across the whole State of North Carolina may be traced on
+the high roads leading from Pennsylvania and Virginia. Hawk, one of
+the historians of North Carolina, refers to the "Irish Romanists" who
+were resident in that Province as early as 1700, and Williamson says
+that "the most numerous settlers in the northwestern part of the
+Province during the first half of the eighteenth century were from
+Ireland." The manuscript records in the office of the Secretary of
+State refer to "a ship load of immigrants" who, in the year 1761,
+came to the Carolinas from Dublin. The names of the Irish pioneers in
+the Carolinas are found in every conceivable connection, in the
+parochial and court records, in the will books, in the minutes of the
+general Assembly, in the quaint old records of the Land and
+Registers' offices, in the patents granted by the colonial
+Government, and in sundry other official records. In public affairs
+they seem to have had the same adaptability for politics which, among
+other things, has in later days brought their countrymen into
+prominence. Florence O'Sullivan from Kerry was surveyor-general of
+South Carolina in 1671. James Moore, a native of Ireland and a
+descendant of the famous Irish chieftain, Rory O'More, was governor
+of South Carolina in 1700; Matthew Rowan from Carrickfergus was
+president of the North Carolina Council during the term of office of
+his townsman, Governor Arthur Dobbs (1754 to 1764); John Connor was
+attorney-general of the Province in 1730, and was succeeded in turn
+by David O'Sheall and Thomas McGuire. Cornelius Hartnett, Hugh
+Waddell, and Terence Sweeny, all Irishmen, were members of the Court,
+and among the members of the provincial assembly I find such names as
+Murphy, Leary, Kearney, McLewean, Dunn, Keenan, McManus, Ryan,
+Bourke, Logan, and others showing an Irish origin. And, in this
+connection, we must not overlook Thomas Burke, a native of "the City
+of the Tribes", distinguished as lawyer, soldier, and statesman, who
+became governor of North Carolina in 1781, as did his cousin Aedanus
+Burke, also from Galway, who was judge of the Supreme Court of South
+Carolina in 1778. John Rutledge, son of Dr. John Rutledge from
+Ireland, was governor of South Carolina in 1776 and his brother
+Edward became governor of the State in 1788.
+
+But there were Irishmen in the Carolinas long before the advent of
+these, and indeed Irish names are found occasionally as far back as
+the records of those colonies reach. They are scattered profusely
+through the will books and records of deeds as early as 1676 and down
+to the end of the century, and in a list of immigrants from Barbados
+in the year 1678, quoted by John Camden Hotten in the work already
+alluded to, we find about 120 persons of Irish name who settled in
+the Carolinas in that year. In 1719, 500 persons from Ireland
+transported themselves to Carolina to take the benefit of an Act
+passed by the Assembly by which the lands of the Yemmassee Indians
+were thrown open to settlers, and Ramsay (_History of South
+Carolina_, vol. I, page 20) says: "Of all countries none has
+furnished the Province with so many inhabitants as Ireland."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In the Pennsylvania records one is also struck with the very frequent
+mention of Irish names. William Penn had lived in Ireland for several
+years and was acquainted with the sturdy character of its people, and
+when he arrived on board _The Welcome_ in 1682 he had with him a
+number of Irishmen, who are described as "people of property and
+people of consequence." In 1699 he brought over a brilliant young
+Irishman, James Logan from Lurgan, who for nearly half a century
+occupied a leading position in the Province and for some time was its
+governor. But the first Irish immigration to Pennsylvania of any
+numerical importance came in the year 1717. They settled in Lancaster
+County. "They and their descendants," says Rupp, an impartial
+historian, "have always been justly regarded as among the most
+intelligent people in the County and their progress will be found to
+be but little behind the boasted efforts of the Colony of Plymouth."
+In 1727, as the records show, 1155 Irish people arrived in
+Philadelphia and in 1728 the number reached the high total of 5600.
+"It looks as if Ireland is to send all her inhabitants hither," wrote
+Secretary Logan to the provincial proprietors in 1729, "for last week
+not less than six ships arrived. The common fear is that if they
+continue to come they will make themselves proprietors of the
+Province" (Rupp's _History of Dauphin County_).
+
+The continuous stream of Irish immigration was viewed with so much
+alarm by the Legislature, that in 1728 a law was passed "against
+these crowds of Irish papists and convicts who are yearly powr'd upon
+us"--(the "convicts" being the political refugees who fled from the
+persecutions of the English Government!). But the operations of this
+statute were wholly nullified by the captains of the vessels landing
+their passengers at Newcastle, Del., and Burlington, N, J., and, as
+one instance of this, I find in the Philadelphia _American Weekly
+Mercury_ of August 14, 1729, a statement to this effect: "It is
+reported from Newcastle that there arrived there this last week about
+2000 Irish and an abundance more daily expected." This expectation
+was realized, for according to "An Account of Passengers and Servants
+landed in Philadelphia between December 25, 1728, and December 25,
+1729", which I find in the _New England Weekly Journal_ for March 30,
+1730, the number of Irish who came in via the Delaware river in that
+year was 5655, while the total number of all other Europeans who
+arrived during the same period was only 553. Holmes, in his _Annals
+of America_, corroborates this. The Philadelphia newspapers down to
+the year 1741 also contained many similar references, indicating that
+the flood of Irish immigration was unceasing and that it was at all
+times in excess of that from other European countries. Later issues
+of the _Mercury_ also published accounts of the number of ships from
+Ireland which arrived in the Delaware, and from these it appears that
+from 1735 to 1738 "66 vessels entered Philadelphia from Ireland and
+50 cleared thereto." And in the _New York Gazette and Weekly
+Post-Boy_ of the years 1750 to 1752, I find under the caption,
+"Vessels Registered at the Philadelphia Custom House," a total of 183
+ships destined from or to Ireland, or an average of five sailings per
+month between Irish ports and the port of Philadelphia alone. A
+careful search fails to disclose any record of the number of persons
+who came in these ships, but, from the fact that it is stated that
+all carried passengers as well as merchandise from Irish ports, we
+may safely assume that the "human freight" must have been very large.
+
+Spencer, in his _History of the United States_, says: "In the years
+1771 and 1772 the number of emigrants to America from Ireland was
+17,350, almost all of whom emigrated at their own expense. A great
+majority of them consisted of persons employed in the linen
+manufacture or farmers possessed of some property, which they
+converted into money and brought with them. Within the first
+fortnight of August, 1773, there arrived at Philadelphia 3500
+immigrants from Ireland. As most of the emigrants, particularly those
+from Ireland and Scotland, were personally discontent with their
+treatment in Europe, their accession to the colonial population, it
+might reasonably be supposed, had no tendency to diminish or
+counteract the hostile sentiments toward Britain which were daily
+gathering force in America." Marmion, in his _Ancient and Modern
+History of the Maritime Ports of Ireland_, verifies this. He says
+that the number of Irish who came during the years 1771, 1772, and
+1773 was 25,000. The bulk of these came in by way of Philadelphia and
+settled in Pennsylvania and the Virginias.
+
+The Irish were arriving in the Province in such great numbers during
+this period as to be the cause of considerable jealousy on the part
+of other settlers from continental Europe. They were a vigorous and
+aggressive element. Eager for that freedom which was denied them at
+home, large numbers of them went out on the frontier. While the
+war-whoop of the savage still echoed within the surrounding valleys
+and his council fires blazed upon the hills, those daring adventurers
+penetrated the hitherto pathless wilderness and passed through
+unexampled hardships with heroic endurance. They opened up the roads,
+bridged the streams, and cut down the forests, turning the wilderness
+into a place fit for man's abode. With their sturdy sons, they
+constituted the skirmish line of civilization, standing as a bulwark
+against Indian incursions into the more prosperous and populous
+settlements between them and the coast. From 1740 down to the period
+of the Revolution, hardly a year passed without a fresh infusion of
+Irish blood into the existing population, and, as an indication that
+they distributed themselves all over the Province, I find, in every
+Town and County history of Pennsylvania and in the land records of
+every section, Irish names in the greatest profusion. They settled in
+great numbers chiefly along the Susquehanna and its tributaries; they
+laid out many prosperous settlements in the wilderness of western
+Pennsylvania, and in these sections Irishmen are seen occupying some
+of the foremost and most coveted positions, and their sons in after
+years contributed much to the power and commercial greatness of the
+Commonwealth. They are mentioned prominently as manufacturers,
+merchants, and farmers, and in the professions they occupied a place
+second to none among the natives of the State. In several sections,
+they were numerous enough to establish their own independent
+settlements, to which they gave the names of their Irish home places,
+several of which are preserved to this day. It is not to be wondered
+at then that General Harry Lee named the Pennsylvania line of the
+Continental army, "the Line of Ireland"!
+
+Ireland gave many eminent men to the Commonwealth, among whom may be
+mentioned: John Burns, its first governor after the adoption of the
+Constitution, who was born in Dublin; George Bryan, also a native of
+Dublin, who was its governor in 1788; James O'Hara, one of the
+founders of Pittsburgh; Thomas FitzSimmons, a native of Limerick,
+member of the first Congress under the Constitution which began the
+United States Government and father of the policy of protection to
+American industries; Matthew Carey from Dublin, the famous political
+economist; and many others who were prominent as nation-builders in
+the early days of the "Keystone State."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+While the historians usually give all the credit to England and to
+Englishmen for the early colonization of New England, whose results
+have been attended with such important consequences to America and
+the civilized world, Ireland and her sons can also claim a large part
+in the development of this territory, as is evidenced by the town,
+land, church, and other colonial records, and the names of the
+pioneers, as well as the names given to several of the early
+settlements. That the Irish had been coming to New England almost
+from the beginning of the English colonization is indicated by an
+"Order" entered in the Massachusetts record under date of September
+25, 1634, granting liberty to "the Scottishe and Irishe gentlemen who
+intend to come hither, to sitt down in any place upp Merimacke
+river." This, doubtless, referred to a Scotch and Irish company
+which, about that time, had announced its intention of founding a
+settlement on the Merrimac. It comprised in all 140 passengers, who
+embarked in the _Eagle Wing_, from Carrickfergus in September, 1636,
+bringing with them a considerable quantity of equipment and
+merchandise to meet the exigencies of their settlement in the new
+country. The vessel, however, never reached its destination and was
+obliged to return to Ireland on account of the Atlantic storms, and
+there is no record of a renewal of the attempt. In the Massachusetts
+records of the year 1640 (vol. I, p. 295) is another entry relating
+to "the persons come from Ireland," and in the Town Books of Boston
+may be seen references to Irishmen who were residents of the town in
+that year.
+
+From local histories, which in many cases are but verbatim copies of
+the original entries in the Town Books, we get occasional glimpses of
+the Irish who were in the colony of Massachusetts Bay between this
+period and the end of the century. For example, between 1640 and
+1660, such names as O'Neill, Sexton, Gibbons, Lynch, Keeney, Kelly,
+and Hogan appear on the Town records of Hartford, and one of the
+first schoolmasters who taught the children of the Puritans in New
+Haven was an Irishman named William Collins, who, in the year 1640,
+came there with a number of Irish refugees from Barbados Island. An
+Irishman named Joseph Collins with his wife and family came to Lynn,
+Mass., in 1635. Richard Duffy and Matthias Curran were at Ipswich in
+1633. John Kelly came to Newbury in 1635 with the first English
+settlers of the town. David O'Killia (or O'Kelly) was a resident of
+Old Yarmouth in 1657, and I find on various records of that section a
+great number of people named Kelley, who probably were descended from
+David O'Killia. Peter O'Kelly and his family are mentioned as of
+Dorchester in 1696. At Springfield in 1656 there were families named
+Riley and O'Dea; and Richard Burke, said to be of the Mayo family of
+that name, is mentioned prominently in Middlesex County as early as
+1670. The first legal instrument of record in Hampden County was a
+deed of conveyance in the year 1683 to one Patrick Riley of lands in
+Chicopee. With a number of his countrymen, Riley located in this
+vicinity and gave the name of "Ireland Parish" to their settlement.
+John Molooney and Daniel MacGuinnes were at Woburn in 1676, and
+Michael Bacon, "an Irishman", of Woburn, fought in King Philip's war
+in 1675. John Joyce was at Lynn in 1637, and I find the names of
+Willyam Heally, William Reyle, William Barrett, and Roger Burke
+signed to a petition to the General Court of Massachusetts on August
+17, 1664. Such names as Maccarty, Gleason, Coggan, Lawler, Kelly,
+Hurley, MackQuade, and McCleary also appear on the Cambridge Church
+records down to 1690. These are but desultory instances of the first
+comers among the Irish to Massachusetts, selected from a great mass
+of similar data.
+
+In the early history of every town in Massachusetts, without
+exception, I find mention of Irish people, and while the majority
+came originally as "poor redemptioners", yet, in course of time and
+despite Puritanical prejudices, not a few of them rose to positions
+of worth and independence. Perhaps the most noted of these was
+Matthew Lyon of Vermont, known as "the Hampden of Congress," who, on
+his arrival in New York in 1765, was sold as a "redemptioner" to pay
+his passage-money. This distinguished American was a native of county
+Wicklow. Other notable examples of Irish redemptioners who attained
+eminence in America were George Taylor, a native of Dublin, one of
+Pennsylvania's signers of the Declaration of Independence; Charles
+Thompson, a native of county Tyrone, "the perennial Secretary of the
+Continental Congress", and William Killen, who became chief justice
+and chancellor of Delaware. Some of the descendants of the Irish
+redemptioners in Massachusetts are found among the prominent New
+Englanders of the past hundred years. The Puritans of Massachusetts
+extended no welcoming hand to the Irish who had the temerity to come
+among them, yet, as an historical writer has truly said, "by one of
+those strange transformations which time occasionally works, it has
+come to pass that Massachusetts today contains more people of Irish
+blood in proportion to the total population than any other State in
+the Union."
+
+So great and so continuous was Irish immigration to Massachusetts
+during the early part of the eighteenth century that on Saint
+Patrick's Day in the year 1737 a number of merchants, who described
+themselves as "of the Irish Nation residing in Boston," formed the
+Charitable Irish Society, an organization which exists even to the
+present day. It was provided that the officers should be "natives of
+Ireland or of Irish extraction," and they announced that the Society
+was organized "in an affectionate and Compassionate concern for their
+countrymen in these Parts who may be reduced by Sickness, Shipwrack,
+Old Age, and other Infirmities and unforeseen Accidents." I have
+copied from the Town Books, as reproduced by the City of Boston, 1600
+Irish names of persons who were married or had declared their
+intentions of marriage in Boston between the years 1710 and 1790,
+exclusive of 956 other Irish names which appear on the minutes
+between 1720 and 1775.
+
+In 1718, one of the largest single colonies of Irish arrived in
+Boston. It consisted of one hundred families, who settled at
+different places in Massachusetts. One contingent, headed by Edward
+Fitzgerald, located at Worcester and another at Palmer under the
+leadership of Robert Farrell, while a number went to the already
+established settlement at Londonderry, N.H. About the same time a
+colony of fishermen from the west coast of Ireland settled on the
+Cape Cod peninsula, and I find a number of them recorded on the
+marriage registers of the towns in this vicinity between 1719 and
+1743. In 1720, a number of families from county Tyrone came to
+Shrewsbury, and eight years later another large contingent came to
+Leicester County from the same neighborhood, who gave the name of
+Dublin to the section where they located. The annals of Leicester
+County are rich in Irish names. On the Town Books of various places
+in this vicinity and on the rosters of the troops enrolled for the
+Indian war, Irishmen are recorded, and we learn from the records that
+not a few of them were important and useful men, active in the
+development of the settlements, and often chosen as selectmen or
+representatives. On the minutes of the meetings of the selectmen of
+Pelham, Spencer, Sutton, Charlestown, Canton, Scituate, Stoughton,
+Salem, Amesbury, Stoneham, and other Massachusetts towns, Irish names
+are recorded many years before the Revolution. In local histories
+these people are usually called "Scotch-Irish," a racial misnomer
+that has been very much overworked by a certain class of historical
+writers who seem to be unable to understand that a non-Catholic
+native of Ireland can be an Irishman. In an exhaustive study of
+American history, I cannot find any other race where such a
+distinction is drawn as in the case of the non-Catholic, or so-called
+"Scotch," Irish. In many instances, this hybrid racial designation
+obviously springs from prejudice and a desire to withhold from
+Ireland any credit that may belong to her, although, in some cases,
+the writers are genuinely mistaken in their belief that the Scotch as
+a race are the antithesis of the Irish and that whatever commendable
+qualities the non-Catholic Irish are possessed of naturally spring
+from the Scotch.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The first recorded Irish settlement in Maine was made by families
+named Kelly and Haley from Galway, who located on the Isles of Shoals
+about the year 1653. In 1692, Roger Kelly was a representative from
+the Isles to the General Court of Massachusetts, and is described in
+local annals as "King of the Isles." The large number of islands,
+bays, and promontories on the Maine coast bearing distinctive Celtic
+names attests the presence and influence of Irish people in this
+section in colonial times. In 1720, Robert Temple from Cork brought
+to Maine five shiploads of people, mostly from the province of
+Munster. They landed at the junction of the Kennebec and Eastern
+rivers, where they established the town of Cork, which, however,
+after a precarious existence of only six years, was entirely
+destroyed by the Indians. For nearly a century the place was
+familiarly known to the residents of the locality as "Ireland." The
+records of York, Lincoln, and Cumberland counties contain references
+to large numbers of Irish people who settled in those localities
+during the early years of the eighteenth century. The Town Books of
+Georgetown, Kirtery, and Kennebunkport, of the period 1740 to 1775,
+are especially rich in Irish names, and in the Saco Valley numerous
+settlements were made by Irish immigrants, not a few of whom are
+referred to by local historians as "men of wealth and social
+standing." In the marriage and other records of Limerick, Me., as
+published by the Maine Historical and Genealogical Recorder, in the
+marriage registers of the First Congregational Church of Scarborough,
+and in other similarly unquestionable records, I find a surprisingly
+large number of Irish names at various periods during the seventeenth
+and eighteenth centuries. In fact, there is not one town in the
+Province that did not have its quota of Irish people, who came either
+direct from Ireland or migrated from other sections of New England.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The records of New Hampshire and Rhode Island are also a fruitful
+source of information on this subject, and the Provincial papers
+indicate an almost unbroken tide of Irish immigration to this
+section, beginning as early as the year 1640. One of the most noted
+of Exeter's pioneer settlers was an Irishman named Darby Field, who
+came to that place in 1631 and who has been credited by Governor
+Winthrop as "the first European who witnessed the White Mountains."
+He is also recorded as "an Irish soldier for discovery," and I find
+his name in the annals of Exeter as one of the grantees of an Indian
+deed dated April 3, 1638, as well as several other Irish names down
+to the year 1664. In examining the town registers, gazeteers, and
+genealogies, as well as the local histories of New Hampshire, in
+which are embodied copies of the original entries made by the Town
+Clerks, I find numerous references to the Irish pioneers, and in many
+instances they are written down, among others, as "the first
+settlers." Some are mentioned as selectmen, town clerks,
+representatives, or colonial soldiers, and it is indeed remarkable
+that there is not one of these authorities that I have examined, out
+of more than two hundred, that does not contain Irish names. From
+these Irish pioneers sprang many men who attained prominence in New
+Hampshire, in the legislature, the professions, the military, the
+arts and crafts, and in all departments of civil life, down to the
+present time. In the marriage registers of Portsmouth, Boscawen, New
+Boston, Antrim, Londonderry, and other New Hampshire towns, are
+recorded, in some cases as early as 1716, names of Irish persons,
+with the places of their nativity, indicating that they came from all
+parts of Ireland. At Hampton, I find Humphrey Sullivan teaching
+school in 1714, while the name of John Sullivan from Limerick,
+schoolmaster at Dover and at Berwick, Me., for upwards of fifty
+years, is one of the most honored in early New Hampshire history.
+
+This John Sullivan was surely one of the grandest characters in the
+Colony of Massachusetts Bay, and the record of his descendants serves
+as an all-sufficient reply to the anti-Irish prejudices of some
+American historians. He was the father of a governor of New Hampshire
+and of a governor of Massachusetts; of an attorney-general of New
+Hampshire and of an attorney-general of Massachusetts; of New
+Hampshire's only major-general in the Continental army; of the first
+judge appointed by Washington in New Hampshire; and of four sons who
+were officers in the Continental army. He was grandfather of an
+attorney-general of New Hampshire, of a governor of Maine, and of a
+United States Senator from New Hampshire. He was great-grandfather of
+an attorney-general of New Hampshire, and great-great-grandfather of
+an officer in the Thirteenth New Hampshire regiment in the Civil War.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In Rhode Island, Irish people are on record as far back as 1640, and
+for many years after that date they continued to come. Edward Larkin
+was an esteemed citizen of Newport in 1655. Charles McCarthy was one
+of the founders of the town of East Greenwich in 1677, while in this
+vicinity as early as 1680 are found such names as Casey, Higgins,
+Magennis, Kelley, Murphy, Reylie, Maloney, Healy, Delaney, Walsh, and
+others of Irish origin. On the rosters of the Colonial militia who
+fought in King Philip's war (1675) are found the names of 110
+soldiers of Irish birth or descent, some of whom, for their services
+at the battle of Narragansett, received grants of land in New
+Hampshire and Massachusetts. The New England Historical and
+Genealogical Register for 1848 contains some remarkable testimony of
+the sympathy of the people of Ireland for the sufferers in this cruel
+war, and the "Irish Donation," sent out from Dublin in the year 1676,
+will always stand in history to Ireland's credit and as an instance
+of her intimate familiarity with American affairs, one hundred years
+prior to that Revolution which emancipated the people of this land
+from the same tyranny under which she herself has groaned. And yet,
+what a cruel travesty on history it reads like now, when we scan the
+official records of the New England colonies and find that the Irish
+were often called "convicts", and it was thought that measures should
+be taken to prevent their landing on the soil where they and their
+sons afterwards shed their blood in the cause of their fellow
+colonists! In the minutes of the provincial Assemblies and in the
+reports rendered to the General Court, as well as in other official
+documents of the period, are found expressions of the sentiment which
+prevailed against the natives of the "Island of Sorrows." Only twenty
+years before the outbreak of King Philip's war, the government of
+England was asked to provide a law "to prevent the importation of
+Irish Papists and convicts that are yearly pow'rd upon us and to make
+provision against the growth of this pernicious evil." And the
+colonial Courts themselves, on account of what they called "the cruel
+and malignant spirit that has from time to time been manifest in the
+Irish nation against the English nation," prohibited "the bringing
+over of any Irish men, women, or children into this jurisdiction on
+the penalty of fifty pounds sterling to each inhabitant who shall buy
+of any merchant, shipmaster, or other agent any such person or
+persons so transported by them." This order was promulgated by the
+General Court of Massachusetts in October, 1654, and is given in full
+in the American Historical Review for October, 1896.
+
+With the "convicts" and the "redemptioners" came the Irish
+schoolmaster, the man then most needed in America. And the fighting
+man, he too was to the fore, for when the colonies in after years
+called for volunteers to resist the tyranny of the British, the
+descendants of the Irish "convicts" were among the first and the most
+eager to answer the call.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Although it does not appear that Irish immigrants settled in the
+Province of New York in such large numbers as in other sections, yet,
+as far back as the third quarter of the seventeenth century, Irish
+names are found on the records of the Colony. O'Callaghan, the
+eminent archivist and historian, refers to "Dr. William Hayes,
+formerly of Barry's Court, Ireland," as one of New York's physicians
+in the year 1647, and from the same authority we learn that there
+were "settlers and Indian fighters in New Netherland" named Barrett,
+Fitzgerald, Dowdall, Collins, and Quinn in 1657. In records relating
+to the war with the Esopus Indians (1663), and in fact as early as
+1658, frequent references are made to "Thomas the Irishman", whose
+name was Thomas Lewis, a refugee from Ireland to Holland after the
+Cromwellian war. Lewis is on record in 1683 as one of the wealthiest
+merchants of New York and a large owner of real estate in the present
+downtown portion of the city. Such names as Patrick Hayes, John Daly,
+John Quigly, and Dennis McKarty appear among its business men between
+1666 and 1672, and in a "Census of the City of New York of the year
+1703" we find people named Flynn, Walsh, Dooley, Gillen, Carroll,
+Kenne, Gurney, Hart, Mooney, Moran, Lynch, Kearney, and others, all
+"Freemen of the City of New York." In the "Poll List" of the city
+from 1741 to 1761, more than one hundred such names appear, while
+among the advertisers in the New York newspapers all through the
+eighteenth century I find a large number of characteristic Irish
+names.
+
+One would scarcely expect to find an Irishman in the old Dutch
+settlement of Beverwyck as early as 1645. Yet such is the case, for
+"Jan Andriessen, de Iersman van Dublingh"--(John Anderson, the
+Irishman from Dublin)--is mentioned as the owner of considerable
+landed property in the neighborhood of Albany and Catskill, and in
+every mention of this ancient pioneer he is referred to as "the
+Irishman." At Albany, between 1666 and 1690, we find people named
+Connell, Daly, Larkin, Shaw, Hogan, and Finn, all Irishmen, and in
+Jonathan Pearson's "Genealogies of the First Settlers of the Ancient
+County of Albany" and in his "Genealogies of the First Settlers of
+the Patent and City of Schenectady", I find 135 distinctive Irish
+names. These were mostly merchants, farmers, artisans, millers, and
+backwoodsmen, the pioneers, who, with their Dutch neighbors, blazed
+the trail of civilization through that section, rolled back the
+savage redman, and marked along the banks of the Hudson and Mohawk
+rivers the sites of future towns and cities. In the rate lists of
+Long Island between 1638 and 1675, I find Kelly, Dalton, Whelan,
+Condon, Barry, Powers, Quin, Kane, Sweeney, Murphy, Reilly, as well
+as Norman-Irish and Anglo-Irish names that are common to Irish
+nomenclature. Hugh O'Neale was a prominent resident of Newtown, L.I.,
+in 1655. In a "Report to the Lord President," dated September 6,
+1687, Governor Dongan recommended "that natives of Ireland be sent to
+colonize here where they may live and be very happy." Numbers of them
+evidently accepted the invitation, for many Irishmen are mentioned in
+the public documents of the Province during the succeeding twenty
+years.
+
+That the Irish continued to settle in the Province all through the
+eighteenth century may be seen from the announcements in the New York
+newspapers of the time and other authentic records. The most
+important of these, in point of numbers and character of the
+immigrants, were those made in Orange County in 1729 under the
+leadership of James Clinton from Longford, and at Cherry Valley, in
+Otsego County, twelve years later. On the Orange County assessment
+and Revolutionary rolls, and down to the year 1800, there is a very
+large number of Irish names, and in some sections they constituted
+nearly the entire population. In the northwestern part of New York,
+Irishmen are also found about the time of the Franco-English war.
+They were not only among those settlers who followed the peaceful
+pursuits of tilling and building, but they were "the men behind the
+guns" who held the marauding Indians in check and repelled the
+advances of the French through that territory. In this war, Irish
+soldiers fought on both sides, and in the "Journals of the Marquis of
+Montcalm" may be seen references to the English garrison at Oswego,
+which, in August, 1756, surrendered to that same Irish Brigade by
+which they had been defeated eleven years before on the battlefield
+of Fontenoy. In the "Manuscripts of Sir William Johnson", are also
+found some interesting items indicating that Irishmen were active
+participants in the frontier fighting about that time, and in one
+report to him, dated May 28, 1756, from the commandant of an English
+regiment, reference is made to "the great numbers of Irish Papists
+among the Delaware and Susquehanna Indians who have done a world of
+prejudice to English interests."
+
+The early records, with hardly an exception, contain Irish names,
+showing that the "Exiles from Erin" came to the Province of New York
+in considerable numbers during the eighteenth century. The baptismal
+and marriage records of the Dutch Reformed and Protestant churches of
+New York City; of the Dutch churches at Kingston, Albany,
+Schenectady, and other towns; the muster rolls of the troops enrolled
+for the French, Indian, and Revolutionary wars; the Land Grants and
+other provincial records at Albany; the newspapers; the Town, County,
+and family histories, and other early chronicles, supplemented by
+authoritative publications such as those of the New York Historical
+and Genealogical and Biographical Societies--these are the
+depositories of the evidence that thousands of Irish people settled
+in the Province of New York and constituted no inconsiderable
+proportion of the total population.
+
+The majority of the Irish residents of New York whose marriages are
+recorded in the Dutch Reformed church were, doubtless, of the
+Catholic faith, but, as it was necessary to comply with the
+established law, and also so that their offspring might be
+legitimate, they could be bound in wedlock only by a recognized
+Minister of the Gospel. As there was no Catholic church in New York
+prior to 1786, the ceremony had to be performed in the Dutch Reformed
+or Protestant church. Many of these Catholics were refugees from
+Ireland on account of the religious persecutions. Like the people of
+Ireland in all ages, they were devoted to their religion, and while,
+no doubt, they eschewed for a while association with the established
+churches, yet, as time went on, they and their children were
+gradually drawn into religious intercourse with the other sects,
+until eventually they became regular communicants of those churches.
+The variations which from time to time were wrought in their names
+brought them further and further away from what they had been; in
+their new surroundings, both social and religious, they themselves
+changed, so that their children, who in many cases married into the
+neighboring Dutch and French families, became as wholly un-Irish in
+manner and sentiment as if they had sprung from an entirely different
+race. That fact, however, does not admit of their being now included
+in the category "Anglo-Saxon."
+
+In a work entitled "Names of Persons for whom Marriage Licenses were
+issued by the Secretary of the Province of New York, previous to
+1784," compiled by Gideon J. Tucker (when Secretary of State), and
+taken from the early records of the office of the Secretary of State
+at Albany, we find ample corroboration of the church records. Page
+after page of this book looks more like some record of the Province
+of Munster than of the Province of New York. It is a quarto volume
+printed in small type in double columns, and there are eleven pages
+wholly devoted to persons whose names commence with "Mac" and three
+to the "O's." Nearly every name common to Ireland is here
+represented.
+
+New York, as a Province and as a State, is much indebted to Irish
+genius. Ireland gave the Province its most noted governor in the
+person of Thomas Dongan from Co. Kildare, and in later years Sir
+William Johnson from Co. Meath, governor of the Indians from New York
+to the Mississippi. It gave the State its first governor, George
+Clinton, son of an immigrant from Co. Longford, and to the city its
+first mayor after the Revolution, James Duane, son of Anthony Duane
+from Co. Galway. Fulton, an Irishman's son, gave America priority in
+the "conquest of the seas." Christopher Colles, a native of Cork, was
+the originator of the grand scheme which united the waters of the
+Atlantic and the Lakes--one of the greatest works of internal
+improvement ever effected in the United States--while the gigantic
+project was carried to a successful end through the influence and
+direction of Governor DeWitt Clinton, the grandson of an Irishman.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Many of the pioneer settlers of New Jersey were Irish. As early as
+1683 "a colony from Tipperary in Ireland" located at Cohansey in
+Salem County, and in the same year a number of settlers, also
+described as "from Tipperary, Ireland," located in Monmouth County.
+In the County records of New Jersey, Irish names are met with
+frequently between the years 1676 and 1698. Several of the local
+historians testify to the presence and influence of Irishmen in the
+early days of the colony, and in the voluminous "New Jersey Archives"
+may be found references to the large numbers of Irish
+"redemptioners," some of whom, after their terms of service had
+expired, received grants of land and in time became prosperous
+farmers and merchants. Perhaps the most noted Irishman in New Jersey
+in colonial days was Michael Kearney, a native of Cork and ancestor
+of General Philip Kearney of Civil War fame, who was secretary and
+treasurer of the Province in 1723.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+All through the west and southwest, Irishmen are found in the
+earliest days of authentic history. Along the Ohio, Kentucky, Wabash,
+and Tennessee rivers they were with the pioneers who first trod the
+wilderness of that vast territory. As early as 1690, an Irish trader
+named Doherty crossed the mountains into what is now Kentucky, and we
+are told by Filson, the noted French historian and explorer of
+Kentucky, that "the first white man who discovered this region"
+(1754) was one James McBride, who, in all probability, was an
+Irishman. The first white child born in Cincinnati was a son of an
+Irish settler named John Cummins; the first house built on its site
+was erected by Captain Hugh McGarry, while "the McGarrys, Dentons,
+and Hogans formed the first domestic circle in Kentucky." Prior to
+the Revolution, Indian traders from Western Pennsylvania had
+penetrated into this region, and we learn from authentic sources that
+no small percentage of those itinerant merchants of the west were
+Irishmen. Among the leading and earliest colonists of the "Blue Grass
+State" who accompanied Daniel Boone, the ubiquitous Irish were
+represented by men bearing such names as Mooney, McManus, Sullivan,
+Drennon, Logan, Casey, Fitzpatrick, Dunlevy, Cassidy, Doran,
+Dougherty, Lynch, Ryan, McNeill, McGee, Reilly, Flinn, and the noted
+McAfee brothers, all natives of Ireland or sons of Irish immigrants.
+
+Irishmen and their sons figured prominently in the field of early
+western politics. In the Kentucky legislature, I find such names as
+Connor, Cassidy, Cleary, Conway, Casey, Cavan, Dulin, Dougherty,
+Geohegan, Maher, Morrison, Moran, McMahon, McFall, McClanahan,
+O'Bannon, Powers, and a number of others evidently of Irish origin.
+On the bench we find O'Hara, Boyle, and Barry. Among the many
+distinguished men who reflected honor upon the west, Judge William T.
+Barry of Lexington ranks high for great ability and lofty virtues.
+Simon Kenton, famed in song and story, who "battled with the Indians
+in a hundred encounters and wrested Kentucky from the savage," was an
+Irishman's son, while among its famous Indian fighters were Colonels
+Andrew Hynes, William Casey, and John O'Bannon; Majors Bulger,
+McMullin, McGarry, McBride, Butler, and Cassidy; and Captains
+McMahon, Malarkie, Doyle, Phelon, and Brady. Allen, Butler, Campbell,
+Montgomery, and Rowan counties, Ky., are named after natives of
+Ireland, and Boyle, Breckinridge, Carroll, Casey, Daviess, Magoffin,
+Kenton, McCracken, Meade, Menifee, Clinton, and Fulton counties were
+named in honor of descendants of Irish settlers.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In the councils of the first territorial legislature of Missouri were
+Sullivan, Cassidy, Murphy, McDermid, McGrady, Flaugherty, McGuire,
+Dunn, and Hogan, and among the merchants, lawyers, and bankers in the
+pioneer days of St. Louis there were a number of Irishmen, the most
+noted of whom were Mullanphy, Gilhuly, O'Fallon, Connor, O'Hara,
+Dillon, Ranken, Magennis, and Walsh. In all early histories of
+Missouri towns and counties, Irish names are mentioned, and in many
+instances they are on record as "the first settlers."
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+And so it was all through the west. In Ohio, Indiana, Iowa, and
+Illinois, across the rolling prairies and the mountains, beyond the
+Mississippi and the Missouri, in the earliest days of colonization of
+that vast territory, we can follow the Irish "trek" in quest of new
+homes and fortunes. They were part of that irresistible human current
+that swept beyond the ranges of Colorado and Kansas and across the
+Sierra Nevada until it reached the Pacific, and in the forefront of
+those pathfinders and pioneers we find Martin Murphy, the first to
+open a wagon trail to California from the East. The names of Don
+Timoteo Murphy, of Jasper O'Farrell, of Dolans, Burkes, Breens, and
+Hallorins are linked with the annals of the coast while that
+territory was still under Spanish rule, and when Fremont crossed the
+plains and planted the "Bear flag" beyond the Sierras, we find
+Irishmen among his trusted lieutenants. An Irishman, Captain Patrick
+Connor, first penetrated the wilderness of Utah; a descendant of an
+Irishman, Hall J. Kelly, was the explorer of Oregon; Philip Nolan and
+Thomas O'Connor were foremost among those brave spirits "whose daring
+and persistency finally added the Lone Star State to the American
+Union"; and the famous Arctic explorer, scientist, and scholar, Dr.
+Elisha Kent Kane, was a descendant of John O'Kane who came from
+Ireland to the Province of New York in 1752.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+To form any reliable estimate of the numerical strength of the Irish
+and their descendants in the United States would, I believe, be a
+hopeless task, and while several have attempted to do so, I am of the
+opinion that all such estimates should be discarded as mere
+conjecture. Indeed, there is no standard, or fixed rule or principle,
+by which a correct judgment of the racial composition of the early
+inhabitants of the United States can now be formed, and the available
+statistics on the subject are incomplete and confusing. The greatest
+obstacle in determining this question is found in the names of the
+immigrants themselves. With names such as Smith, Mason, Carpenter,
+and Taylor; White, Brown, Black, and Gray; Forrest, Wood, Mountain,
+and Vail, and other names that are similarly derived, the first
+thought is that they are of English origin. Yet we know that for
+centuries past such names have been numerous in Ireland, and there
+are many Irish families so named who are of as pure Celtic blood as
+any bearing the old Gaelic patronymics. By a law passed in the second
+year of the reign of Edward IV., natives of Ireland were forced to
+adopt English surnames. This Act was, substantially, as follows: "An
+Act that Irishmen dwelling in the Counties of, etc.... shall go
+appareled like Englishmen and wear their beards in English manner,
+swear allegiance and take English sirnames, which sirnames shall be
+of one towne, as Sutton, Chester, Trim, Skryne, Cork, Kinsale; or
+colours, as white, black, brown; or arts, or sciences, as smith or
+carpenter; or office, as cook, butler, etc., and it is enacted that
+he and his issue shall use his name under pain of forfeyting of his
+goods yearly", etc.
+
+This Act could be enforced only upon those Irish families who dwelt
+within the reach of English law, and as emigrants from those
+districts, deprived of their pure Celtic names, came to America in an
+English guise and in English vessels, they were officially recorded
+as "English." Moreover, numbers of Irish frequently crossed the
+channel and began their voyage from English ports, where they had to
+take on new names, sometimes arbitrarily, and sometimes voluntarily
+for purposes of concealment, either by transforming their original
+names into English or adopting names similar to those above referred
+to. These names were generally retained on this side of the Atlantic
+so as not to arouse the prejudice of their English neighbors. In
+complying with the statute above quoted, some Irish families accepted
+the rather doubtful privilege of translating their names into their
+English equivalents. We have examples of this in such names as
+Somers, anglicised from McGauran (presumably derived from the Gaelic
+word signifying "summer"); Smith from McGowan (meaning "the son of
+the smith"); Jackson and Johnson, a literal translation from MacShane
+(meaning "the son of John"); and Whitcomb from Kiernan (meaning,
+literally, "a white comb").
+
+In addition to this, in the case of some of those Irish immigrants
+whose family names were not changed in Ireland, their descendants
+appear in a much disguised form in the colonial records. Through the
+mistakes of clergymen, court clerks, registrars, and others who had
+difficulty in pronouncing Gaelic names, letters became inserted or
+dropped and the names were written down phonetically. In the
+mutations of time, even these names became still further changed, and
+we find that the descendants of the Irish themselves, after the lapse
+of a generation or two, deliberately changed their names, usually by
+suppressing the Milesian prefixes, "Mac" and "O". Thus we have the
+Laflin and Claflin families, who are descended from a McLaughlin, an
+Irish settler in Massachusetts in the seventeenth century; the Bryans
+from William O'Brian, a captain in Sarsfield's army, who, after the
+fall of Limerick in 1691, settled in Pasquetank County, N.C., and one
+of whose descendants is William Jennings Bryan, now Secretary of
+State; the Dunnels of Maine, from an O'Donnell who located in the
+Saco Valley; and at the Land Office at Annapolis I have found the
+descendants of Roger O'Dewe, who came to Maryland about 1665,
+recorded under the surnames of "Roger", "Dew", and "Dewey". I find
+Dennis O'Deeve or O'Deere written down on the Talbot County (Md.)
+records of the year 1667 with his name reversed, and today his
+descendants are known as "Dennis". Many such instances appear in the
+early records, and when we find a New England family rejoicing in the
+name of "Navillus" we know that the limit has been reached, and while
+we cannot admire the attempt to disguise an ancient and honorable
+name, we are amused at the obvious transposition of "Sullivan".
+
+Thus we see, that, numerous though the old Irish names are on
+American records, they do not by any means indicate the extent of the
+Celtic element which established itself in the colonies, so that
+there is really no means of determining exactly what Ireland has
+contributed to the American Commonwealth. We only know that a steady
+stream of Irish immigrants has crossed the seas to the American
+continent, beginning with the middle of the seventeenth century, and
+that many of those "Exiles from Erin", or their sons, became
+prominent as leaders in every station in life in the new country.
+
+Nor is the "First Census of the United States" any criterion in this
+regard, for the obvious reason that the enumerators made no returns
+of unmarried persons. This fact is important when we consider that
+the Irish exodus of the eighteenth century was largely comprised of
+the youth of the country. Although the First Census was made in 1790,
+the first regular record of immigration was not begun until thirty
+years later, and it is only from the records kept after that time
+that we can depend upon actual official figures. During the decade
+following 1820, Ireland contributed more than forty per cent, of the
+entire immigration to America from all European countries, and the
+Irish Emigration Statistics show that between 1830 and 1907 the
+number of people who left Ireland was 6,049,432, the majority of whom
+came to America. The _Westminster Review_ (vol. 133, p. 293), in an
+article on "The Irish-Americans", puts a series of questions as
+follows: "Is the American Republic in any way indebted to those Irish
+citizens? Have they with their large numbers, high social standing,
+great places of trust, contributed aught to her glory or added aught
+to her commercial greatness, refined her social taste or assisted in
+laying the foundations of the real happiness of her people, the real
+security of her laws, the influence of her civic virtues, which more
+than anything else give power and permanency to a naissant and mighty
+nation? The answer is unquestionably affirmative. We have only to
+look back on the past, and to scan the present state of American
+affairs, to feel certain of this." If it be further asked: "Does this
+statement stand the test of strict investigation?" the answer must
+also be in the affirmative, for in almost every line of progress the
+Irish in America have contributed their share of leaders and
+pioneers, thus proving that there are characteristics among even the
+poor Irish driven to emigration for an existence that are as capable
+of development as those possessed by any other race. When we scan the
+intellectual horizon, we see many men of great force of character:
+preachers and teachers; statesmen and scholars; philanthropists and
+founders of institutions; scientists and engineers; historians and
+journalists; artists and authors; lawyers and doctors, of Celtic race
+and blood, while, in the industrial field, as builders of steamships
+and railroads and promoters of public works, as merchants,
+manufacturers, and bankers, and in all other fields of endeavor, we
+find the American Irish controlling factors in the upbuilding of the
+Republic.
+
+Of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, Thornton, Taylor,
+and Smith were natives of Ireland; McKean, Read, and Rutledge were of
+Irish parentage; Lynch and Carroll were grandsons of Irishmen;
+Whipple and Hancock were of Irish descent on the maternal side; and
+O'Hart (_Irish Pedigrees_) declares that Robert Treat Paine was a
+great-grandson of Henry O'Neill, hereditary prince of Ulster, who
+"changed his name to that of one of his maternal ancestors so as to
+save his estates". It was an Irishman who first read the immortal
+Document to the public; an Irishman first printed it; and an Irishman
+published it for the first time with facsimiles of the signatures.
+
+At least six American Presidents had more or less of the Celtic
+strain. President Jackson, whose parents came from Co. Down, more
+than once expressed his pride in his Irish ancestry. Arthur's parents
+were from Antrim, Buchanan's from Donegal, and McKinley's
+grandparents came from the same vicinity. Theodore Roosevelt boasts
+among his ancestors two direct lines from Ireland, and the first
+American ancestor of President Polk was a Pollock from Donegal. The
+present occupant of the White House, Woodrow Wilson, is also of Irish
+descent. Among the distinguished Vice-Presidents of the United States
+were George Clinton and John C. Calhoun, sons of immigrants from
+Longford and Donegal respectively, and Calhoun's successor as
+chairman of the committee on foreign relations was John Smilie, a
+native of Newtownards, Co. Down.
+
+Among American governors since 1800, we find such names as Barry,
+Brady, Butler, Carroll, Clinton, Conway, Carney, Connolly, Curtin,
+Collins, Donaghey, Downey, Early, Fitzpatrick, Flannegan, Geary,
+Gorman, Hannegan, Kavanagh, Kearney, Logan, Lynch, Murphy, Moore,
+McKinley, McGill, Meagher, McGrath, Mahone, McCormick, O'Neal,
+O'Ferrall, Orr, Roane, Filey, Sullivan, Sharkey, Smith, Talbot, and
+Welsh, all of Irish descent. Today we have as governors of States,
+Glynn in New York, Dunne in Illinois, Walsh in Massachusetts, O'Neal
+in Alabama, Burke in North Carolina, Carey in Wyoming, McGovern in
+Wisconsin, McCreary in Kentucky, and Tener in Pennsylvania, and not
+alone is the governor of the last-mentioned State a native of
+Ireland, but so also are its junior United States Senator, the
+secretary of the Commonwealth, and its adjutant-general.
+
+In the political life of America, many of the sons of Ireland have
+risen to eminence, and in the legislative halls at the National
+Capital, the names of Kelly, Fitzpatrick, Broderick, Casserly,
+Farley, Logan, Harlan, Hannegan, Adair, Barry, Rowan, Gorman,
+Kennedy, Lyon, Fitzgerald, Fair, Sewall, Kernan, Butler, Moore,
+Regan, Mahone, Walsh, and Flannegan, are still spoken of with respect
+among the lawmakers of the nation. William Darrah Kelly served in
+Congress for fifty years, and it remained for James Shields to hold
+the unique distinction of representing three different States, at
+different times, in the Senate of the United States. Senator Shields
+was a native of Co. Tyrone.
+
+In the judiciary have been many shining lights of Irish origin. The
+Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court is Edward D. White,
+grandson of a '98 rebel, and one of his ablest associates is Joseph
+McKenna. No more erudite or profound lawyer than Charles O'Conor has
+adorned his profession and it can be said with truth that his career
+has remained unrivalled in American history. James T. Brady, Daniel
+Dougherty, Thomas Addis Emmet, and Charles O'Neill were among the
+most eminent lawyers America has known, while the names of Dennis
+O'Brien, Chief Justice of the New York Court of Appeals, John D.
+O'Neill, who occupied a like elevated place on the bench of South
+Carolina, John D. Phelan of the Alabama Supreme Court, Richard
+O'Gorman, Charles P. Daly, Hugh Rutledge, Morgan J. O'Brien, and
+others of like origin, are household words in the legal annals of
+America. There is no State in the Union where an Irish-American
+lawyer has not distinguished himself.
+
+The history of medicine in the United States is adorned with the
+names of many physicians of Irish birth or blood. Several Irish
+surgeons rendered valuable services in the army of the Revolution,
+among whom are found Drs. McDonough, McHenry, McCloskey, McCalla,
+Burke, Irvine, and Williamson. Dr. John Cochran was appointed by
+Washington surgeon-general of the army. Dr. James Lynah of
+Charleston, a native of Ireland, became surgeon-general of South
+Carolina in recognition of his valuable services to the patriot army.
+Dr. John McKinley, a native of Ireland, who was a famous physician in
+his day, became the first governor of Delaware. Dr. Ephraim McDowell
+is known in the profession as the "Father of Ovariotomy", as is Dr.
+William J. McNevin the "Father of American Chemistry". Dr. John Byrne
+of New York had a world-wide fame, and his papers on gynecology have
+been pronounced by the medical press as "the best printed in any
+language". One of the most conspicuous figures in medicine in the
+United States was Dr. Jerome Cochran of Alabama. Drs. Junius F. Lynch
+of Florida; Charles McCreery of Kentucky; Hugh McGuire and Hunter
+McGuire of Virginia; Matthew C. McGannon of Tennessee; and James
+Lynch, Charles J. O'Hagan, and James McBride of South Carolina are
+mentioned prominently in the histories of their respective localities
+as the foremost medical men of their times, while in Wisconsin the
+pioneer physician was Dr. William H. Fox, and in Oregon, Dr. John
+McLoughlin. Among New York physicians who achieved high reputations
+in their profession were Drs. Thomas Addis Emmet, Frank A. McGuire,
+Daniel E. O'Neill, Charles McBurney, Isaac H. Reiley, Alfred L.
+Carroll, Howard A. Kelly, Joseph O'Dwyer, and James J. Walsh. These
+and many others of Irish descent have been honored by medical
+societies as leaders and specialists, while it can be said that no
+surgeon of the present day has achieved such a world-wide reputation
+as Dr. John B. Murphy of Chicago. Among experts in medico-legal
+science, the names of Drs. Benjamin W. McCreedy and William J.
+O'Sullivan of New York stand out prominently, and among the most
+noted contributors to medical journals in the United States, and
+recognized as men of great professional skill and authorities in
+their respective specialties, have been Drs. F.D. Mooney of St.
+Louis; Thomas Fitzgibbon of Milwaukee; John D. Hanrahan of Rutland;
+James McCann and James H. McClelland of Pittsburgh; John A. Murphy
+and John McCurdy of Cincinnati; John Keating of Philadelphia; John H.
+Murphy of St. Paul; John W.C. O'Neal of Gettysburg; and Arthur
+O'Neill of Meadville, Pa. Indeed, it can be said that American
+medical science owes an incalculable debt to Irish genius.
+
+Theodore Vail, the presiding genius of the greatest telephone system
+in the world, is Irish, and so is Carty, its chief engineer. Morse,
+the inventor of the telegraph, was the grandson of an Irishman; Henry
+O'Reilly built the first telegraph line in the United States; and
+John W. Mackey was the president of the Commercial Cable Company.
+John P. Holland, the inventor of the submarine torpedo boat, was a
+native of Co. Clare; and McCormick, the inventor of the reaping and
+mowing machine, was an Irishman's grandson.
+
+Sons of Irishmen have stood in the front rank of American statesmen
+and diplomats who represented their country abroad. To mention but a
+few: Richard O'Brien, appointed by Jefferson American representative
+at Algiers; James Kavanagh, Minister to Portugal; and Louis McLane,
+Minister to England in 1829 and afterwards Secretary of State in
+1832. In recent years, an O'Brien has represented American interests
+in Italy and Japan; a Kerens in Austria; an Egan in Chili and another
+of the same name in Denmark; an O'Shaughnessy in Mexico; a Sullivan
+in Santo Domingo; and an O'Rear in Bolivia.
+
+Among historians were John Gilmary Shea, author of numerous
+historical works; Dr. Robert Walsh, a learned historian and
+journalist of the last century, whose literary labors were extensive;
+McMahon and McSherry, historians of Maryland; Burk, of Virginia;
+O'Callaghan, Hastings, and Murphy of New York; Ramsay of South
+Carolina; and Williamson of North Carolina, all native Irishmen or
+sons of Irish immigrants.
+
+In the field of American journalism have been many able and forcible
+writers of Irish birth or descent. Hugh Gaine, a Belfast man, founded
+the New York _Mercury_ in 1775. John Dunlap founded the first daily
+paper in Philadelphia, John Daly Burk published the first daily paper
+in Boston, and William Duane edited the _Aurora_ of Philadelphia in
+1795. All these were born in Ireland. William Coleman, founder of the
+New York _Evening Post_ in 1801, was the son of an Irish rebel of
+1798; Thomas Fitzgerald founded the Philadelphia _Item_; Thomas Gill,
+the New York _Evening Star_; Patrick Walsh, the Augusta _Chronicle_;
+Joseph Medill, the Chicago _Tribune_. Henry W. Grady edited the
+Atlanta _Constitution_; Michael Dee edited the Detroit _Evening News_
+for nearly fifty years; Richard Smith, the Cincinnati _Gazette_;
+Edward L. Godkin, the New York _Evening Post_; William Laffan, the
+New York _Sun_; and Horace Greeley, the New York _Tribune_. All of
+these were either natives of Ireland or sprung from immigrant
+Irishmen, as were Oliver of the Pittsburgh _Gazette_, O'Neill of the
+Pittsburgh _Despatch_, John Keating of Memphis, William D. O'Connor,
+and many other shining lights of American journalism during the last
+century. Fitz James O'Brien was "a bright, particular star" in the
+journalistic firmament; John MacGahan achieved fame as a war
+correspondent; Patrick Barry of Rochester, an extensive writer on
+horticultural and kindred subjects, was the recognized leader of his
+craft in the United States; and William Darby, son of Patrick and
+Mary Darby, and Michael Twomey were the ablest American geographers
+and writers on abstruse scientific subjects.
+
+In the field of poetry, we have had Theodore O'Hara, the author of
+that immortal poem, "The Bivouac of the Dead"; John Boyle O'Reilly;
+Thomas Dunn English, author of "Ben Bolt"; Father Abram Ryan, "the
+poet priest of the South"; James Whitcomb Riley; Eleanor Donnelly;
+M.F. Egan; T.A. Daly; and Joseph I.C. Clarke, president of the
+American Irish Historical Society.
+
+To recount the successful men of affairs of Irish origin it would be
+necessary to mention every branch of business and every profession.
+Recalling but a few, Daniel O'Day, Patrick Farrelly, John and William
+O'Brien, Alexander T. Stewart, John Castree, Joseph J. O'Donohue,
+William R. Grace, John McConville, Hugh O'Neill, Alexander E. Orr,
+William Constable, Daniel McCormick, and Dominick Lynch, all of New
+York, were dominant figures in the world of business. Thomas Mellon
+of Pittsburgh; John R. Walsh and the Cudahy brothers of Chicago;
+James Phelan, Peter Donahue, Joseph A. Donohoe, and John Sullivan of
+San Francisco; William A. Clark and Marcus Daly of Montana; George
+Meade, the Meases and the Nesbits, Thomas FitzSimmons and Thomas
+Dolan of Philadelphia; Columbus O'Donnell and Luke Tiernan of
+Baltimore, all these have been leading merchants in their day. Few
+American financiers occupy a more conspicuous place than Thomas F.
+Ryan, and no great industrial leader has reached the pinnacle of
+success upon which stands the commanding figure of James J. Hill,
+both sons of Irishmen. The names of Anthony N. Brady, Eugene Kelly,
+James S. Stranahan, and James A. Farrell, president of the United
+States Steel Corporation, are household words in business and
+financial circles.
+
+John Keating, the first paper manufacturer in New York (1775); Thomas
+Faye, the first to manufacture wall-paper by machinery, who won for
+this distinction the first gold medal of the American Institute; John
+and Edward McLoughlin of New York, for many years the leading
+publishers of illustrated books; and John Banigan of Providence, one
+of the largest manufacturers of rubber goods in America, were natives
+of Ireland. John O'Fallon and Bryan Mullanphy of St. Louis, and John
+McDonough of Baltimore, who amassed great wealth as merchants, were
+large contributors to charitable and educational institutions;
+William W. Corcoran, whose name is enshrined in the famous Art
+Gallery at Washington, contributed during his lifetime over five
+million dollars to various philanthropic institutions; and one of the
+most noted philanthropists in American history, and the first woman
+in America to whom a public monument was erected, was an Irishwoman,
+Margaret Haughery of New Orleans.
+
+Irishmen have shown a remarkable aptitude for the handling of large
+contracts, and in this field have been prominent John H. O'Rourke,
+James D. Leary, James Coleman, Oliver Byrne, and John D. Crimmins in
+New York; John B. McDonald, the builder of New York's subways; George
+Law, projector and promoter of public works, steamship and railroad
+builder; and John Roach, the famous ship-builder of Chester, Pa. John
+Sullivan, a noted American engineer one hundred years ago, completed
+the Middlesex Canal; and John McL. Murphy, whose ability as a
+constructing engineer was universally recognized, rendered valuable
+service to the United States during the Civil War. Among pioneer
+ship-builders in America are noted Patrick Tracy fron Wexford and
+Simon Forrester from Cork, who were both at Salem, Mass., during the
+period of the Revolution and rendered most valuable service to the
+patriot cause; and the O'Briens, Kavanaghs, and Sewalls in Maine.
+
+But it is not in the material things of life alone that the Irish
+have been in the van. Thousands of Americans have been charmed by the
+operas of Victor Herbert, a grandson of Samuel Lover, and with lovers
+of music the strains of Patrick Sarsfield Gilmore's band still linger
+as a pleasant memory. Edward A. MacDowell, America's most famous
+composer, was of Irish descent. The colossal statute of "America" on
+the dome of the National Capitol was executed by Thomas Crawford, who
+was born in New York of Irish parents in 1814; Henry Inman, one of
+the very best of portrait painters, was also born in New York of
+Irish parents; John Singleton Copley, the distinguished artist, came
+to Boston from Co. Clare in 1736; Thompson, the sculptor, was born in
+Queen's Co.; another noted sculptor was William D. O'Donovan of
+Virginia; and Augustus Saint Gaudens, one of the greatest sculptors
+of modern times, was born in Dublin. Other sculptors of Irish race
+have been elsewhere mentioned. Among America's most talented artists
+and portrait painters may be mentioned George P. Healy, William J.
+Hennessy, Thomas Moran, Henry Pelham, Henry Murray, John Neagle, and
+William Magrath, all of Irish birth or descent.
+
+Ireland has given many eminent churchmen to the United States. The
+three American Cardinals, Gibbons, Farley, and O'Connell, stand out
+prominently, as do Archbishops Carroll, Hughes, McCloskey, Kenrick,
+Ryan, Ireland, Glennon, Corrigan, and Keane, all of whom have shed
+lustre on the Church. History has given to an Irishman, Francis
+Makemie of Donegal, the credit of founding Presbyterianism in
+America, while among noted Presbyterian divines of Irish birth were
+James Waddell, known as "the blind preacher of the wilderness,"
+Thomas Smyth, John Hall, Francis Allison, William Tennant, and James
+McGrady, all men of great ability and influence in their day. Samuel
+Finley, President of Princeton College in 1761, was a native of
+Armagh, and John Blair Smith, famous as a preacher throughout the
+Shenandoah Valley and the first president of Union College (1795),
+was of Irish descent. Among the pioneer preachers of the western
+wilderness were McMahon, Dougherty, Quinn, Burke, O'Cool, Delaney,
+McGee, and many others of Irish origin.
+
+Irishmen and their sons have founded American towns and cities, and
+the capital of the State of Colorado takes its name from General
+James Denver, son of Patrick Denver, an emigrant from county Down in
+the year 1795. Sixty-five places in the United States are named after
+people bearing the Irish prefix "O" and upwards of 1000 after the
+"Macs", and there are 253 counties of the United States and
+approximately 7000 places called by Irish family or place names.
+There are 24 Dublins, 21 Waterfords, 18 Belfasts, 16 Tyrones, 10
+Limericks, 9 Antrims, 8 Sligos, 7 Derrys, 6 Corks, 5 Kildares, and so
+on.
+
+Immigrant Irishmen have also been the founders of prominent American
+families. One of the most ancient of Irish patronymics, McCarthy, is
+found in the records of Virginia as early as 1635 and in
+Massachusetts in 1675, and all down through the successive
+generations descendants of this sept were among the leading families
+of the communities where they located. In Virginia, the McCormick,
+Meade, Lewis, Preston, and Lynch families; in the Carolinas, the
+Canteys, Nealls, Bryans, and Butlers; and in Maryland, the Carrolls
+and Dulanys are all descended from successful Irish colonizers.
+
+Even from this very incomplete summary, we can see that Irish blood,
+brain, and brawn have been a valuable acquisition to the building of
+the fabric of American institutions, and that the sons of Ireland
+merit more prominent recognition than has been accorded them in the
+pages of American history. The pharisees of history may have withheld
+from Ireland the credit that is her due, but, thanks to the
+never-failing guidance of the records, we are able to show that at
+all times, whether they came as voluntary exiles or were driven from
+their homes by the persecutions of government, her sons have had an
+honorable part in every upward movement in American life. Testimony
+adduced from the sources from which this imperfect sketch is drawn
+cannot be called into question, and its perusal by those who so
+amusingly glorify the "Anglo-Saxon" as the founder of the American
+race and American institutions would have a chastening influence on
+their ignorance of early American history, and would reopen the long
+vista of the years, at the very beginning of which they would see
+Celt and Teuton, Saxon and Gaul, working side by side solidifying the
+fulcrum of the structure on which this great nation rests.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+The archives, registers, records, reports, and other official
+documents mentioned in the text; the various Town, County, and State
+Histories; the collections and publications of the following
+societies: Massachusetts Historical Society, Genealogical Society of
+Pennsylvania, New York Historical Society (34 vols.), New York
+Genealogical and Biographical Society (44 vols.), Maine Historical
+Society, Rhode Island Historical Society, Connecticut Historical
+Society, South Carolina Historical Society, and American Historical
+Society; New England Historical and Genealogical Register (67 vols.,
+Boston, 1847-1913); New England Historical and Biographical Record;
+Hakluyt: Voyages, Navigations, Traffiques, and Discoveries of the
+English Nation (London, 1607); Dobbs: The Trade and Improvement of
+Ireland (Dublin, 1729); Hutchinson: History of Massachusetts from the
+First Settlement in 1628 until 1750 (Salem, 1795); Proud: History of
+Pennsylvania, 1681-1770 (Philadelphia, 1797-1798); Savage:
+Genealogical Dictionary of the First Settlers of New England (Boston,
+1860-1862); Morris (ed.): The Makers of New York (Philadelphia,
+1895); Pope: The Pioneers of Massachusetts (Boston, 1900), The
+Pioneers of Maine and New Hampshire (Boston, 1908); Richardson:
+Side-lights on Maryland History (Baltimore, 1913); Spencer: History
+of the United States; Ramsay: History of the United States;
+Prendergast: Cromwellian Settlement of Ireland.
+
+
+
+THE IRISH IN CANADA
+
+By JAMES J. WALSH, M.D., Ph.D., Litt.D., Sc.D.
+
+
+When Wolfe captured Quebec and Canada came under British rule, some
+of the best known of his officers and several of his men were Irish.
+After the Peace was signed many of them settled in Canada, not a few
+of them marrying French wives, and as a consequence there are
+numerous Irish, Scotch, and English names among the French speaking
+inhabitants of Lower Canada. Two of Wolfe's officers, Colonel Guy
+Carleton, born at Strabane in the county Tyrone, and General Richard
+Montgomery, born only seven miles away at Convoy, in the same county,
+were destined to play an important role in the future history of
+Canada. Montgomery was in command of the Revolutionary Army from the
+Colonies, when it attempted to take Quebec, and Carleton, who had
+been a trusted friend of General Wolfe, was in command of the
+Canadian forces. The two men were the lives of their respective
+commands, and with the death of Montgomery Carleton's victory was
+assured.  Carleton was made Governor-in-Chief of Canada, and during
+the trying years of the early British rule of New France and the
+American Revolution, his tact did more than anything else to save
+Canada for the British. Bibaud, the French historian, says, "the man
+to whom the administration of the government was entrusted had known
+how to make the Canadians love him, and this contributed not a little
+to retain at least within the bounds of neutrality those among them
+who might have been able, or who believed themselves able, to
+ameliorate their lot by making common cause with the insurgent
+colonies." Shortly after being made governor, Carleton went to
+England and secured the passage of the Quebec Act through the English
+parliament, which gave the Canadian French assurance that they were
+to be ruled without oppression by the British Government.
+Subsequently, in 1786, Carleton, as Lord Dorchester, became the first
+governor-general of Canada, being given jurisdiction over Nova Scotia
+and New Brunswick as well as Upper and Lower Canada, and to him more
+than to any other is due the early loyalty to the British crown in
+the Dominion.
+
+After the army the next important source of Irish population in
+Canada were the loyalists who after the Revolution removed from the
+United States to the British Dominions in America. There were
+probably many thousands of them, more than enough to make up for the
+French who left Canada for France when the territory passed over to
+England. Among the Irish loyalists who went to Canada was the Rev.
+John Stuart, who had become very well known as a missionary in the
+Mohawk Valley before the Revolution, and who, though born a
+Presbyterian, was destined to win the title of the "Father of the
+Church of England in Upper Canada." When the first Canadian
+parliament met in December 1792, Edward O'Hara was returned for
+Gaspe, in Lower Canada, and D'Arcy McGee could boast that
+henceforward Lower Canada was never without an Irish representative
+in its legislative councils.
+
+When the question of settling Upper Canada with British colonists
+came up, Colonel Talbot, a county Dublin man, was the most important
+factor. He obtained a large grant of land near what is now London and
+attracted settlers into what was at that time a wilderness. The tract
+settled under his superintendence now comprises twenty-nine townships
+in the most prosperous part of Canada.
+
+The maritime Provinces had been under British rule before the fall of
+Quebec and contained a large element of Irish population. In
+Newfoundland in 1753 out of a total population of some thirteen
+thousand, Davin says that there were nearly five thousand Catholics,
+chiefly Irish. In 1784 a great new stimulus to Irish immigration to
+Newfoundland was given by Father O'Connell, who in 1796 was made
+Catholic bishop of the island. Newfoundland, for its verdure, the
+absence of reptiles, and its Irish inhabitants, was called at this
+time "Transatlantic Ireland", and Bonnycastle says that more than one
+half of the population was Irish.
+
+In 1749 Governor Cornwallis brought some 4,000 disbanded soldiers to
+Nova Scotia and founded Halifax. Ten years later it was described as
+divided into Halifax proper, Irishtown or the southern, and Dutchtown
+or the northern, suburbs. The inhabitants numbered 3,000, one-third
+of whom were Irish. They were among the most prominent men of the
+city and province. In the Privy Council for 1789 were Thomas Corcoran
+and Charles Morris. Morris was president of the Irish Society and
+Matthew Cahill the sheriff of Halifax in that year. A large number of
+Irish from the north of Ireland settled in Nova Scotia in 1763,
+calling their settlement Londonderry. They provided a fortunate
+refuge for the large numbers of Irish Presbyterians who were expelled
+from New England by the intolerant Puritans the following year. They
+also welcomed many loyalists who came from New York and the New
+England States after the acknowledgment of the independence of the
+American Colonies by Great Britain. Between the more eastern settlers
+around Halifax and those in the interior, the greater part of the
+population of Nova Scotia was probably Irish in origin.
+
+It was in the Maritime Provinces that the first step in political
+emancipation for Catholics under British rule was made. In 1821
+Lawrence Cavanaugh, a Roman Catholic, was returned to the Assembly of
+the Province for Cape Breton. He would not subscribe to the
+declaration on Transubstantiation in the oath of office tendered him,
+and as a consequence was refused admittance to the Assembly. But he
+was elected again and again, and six years afterwards Judge
+Haliburton, better known by his _nom de plume_ of "Sam Slick", in an
+able speech, seconded the motion to dispense with the declaration,
+and Cavanaugh was permitted to take the oath without the declaration.
+
+The War of 1812 brought over from Ireland a number of Irish soldiers
+serving in the British army, many of whom after the war settled down
+and became inhabitants of the country. They were allotted farm lands
+and added much to Canada's prosperity. A type of their descendants
+was Sir William Hingston, whose father was at this time a lieutenant
+adjutant in the Royal 100th Regiment, "the Dublins." Sir William's
+father died when his son was a mere boy, but the lad supported his
+mother, worked his way through the medical school, saved enough money
+to give himself two years in Europe, and became a great surgeon. He
+was elected three times mayor of Montreal, serving one term with
+great prestige under the most trying circumstances. He afterwards
+became a senator of the Dominion and was knighted by Queen Victoria.
+
+Prince Edward Island was settled mainly by the Scotch and French, and
+yet many Irish names are to be found among its old families. It was
+ceded to Great Britain in 1763, and the first Governor appointed was
+Captain Walter Patterson, whose niece, Elizabeth Patterson, was
+married to Jerome Bonaparte in Baltimore in 1803. Captain Patterson
+was so ardent an Irishman that through his influence he had an act
+passed by the Assembly changing the name of the island to New
+Ireland, but the home Government refused to countenance the change.
+At this time the island was known as St. John's, and the name Prince
+Edward was given to it in honor of the Duke of Kent in 1789. One of
+the most popular governors of the island was Sir Dominick Daly,
+knighted while in office. He was a member of a well known Galway
+family, and first came to America as secretary to one of the
+governors. He afterwards became provincial secretary for Lower
+Canada.
+
+Canada suffered from the aftermath of the revolutions which took
+place in Europe during the early part of the nineteenth century. The
+year 1837 saw two revolutions, one in Upper, the other in Lower,
+Canada, though neither of them amounted to more than a flash in the
+pan. As might be expected, there were not a few Irish among the
+disaffected spirits who fostered these revolutions. Their experience
+at home led them to know how little oppressed people were likely to
+obtain from the British Government except by a demonstration of
+force. There were serious abuses, especially "the Family Compact",
+the lack of anything approaching constitutional guarantees in
+government, and political disabilities on the score of religion.
+However, most of the Irish in Canada were ranged on the side of the
+government. Sir Richard Bonnycastle, writing in 1846, said "The
+Catholic Irish who have been long settled in the country are by no
+means the worst subjects in this transatlantic realm, as I can
+personally testify, having had the command of large bodies of them
+during the border troubles of 1837-8. They are all loyal and true."
+Above all Bonnycastle pledged himself for the loyalty of the Irish
+Catholic priesthood.
+
+One of the Irishmen who came into prominence in the rebellions of
+1837 was Edmund Bailey O'Callaghan, the editor of the _Vindicator_,
+the newspaper by means of which Papineau succeeded in arousing much
+feeling among the people of Lower Canada and fomented the Revdlution.
+O'Callaghan escaped to the United States and settled at Albany, where
+he became the historian of New York State. To him, more than to any
+other, we owe the preservation of the historical materials out of
+which the early history of the State can be constructed. Rare volumes
+of the Jesuit Relations, to the value of which for historical
+purposes he had called special attention, were secured from his
+library for the Canadian library at Ottawa.
+
+Towards the middle of the nineteenth century, when the population of
+Ireland reached its highest point of over 8,000,000, the pressure on
+the people caused them to emigrate in large numbers, and then the
+famine came to drive out great crowds of those who survived. In
+proportion to its population Canada received a great many more of
+these Irish emigrants than did the United States. Unfortunately the
+conditions on board the emigrant sailing vessels in those days cost
+many lives. They were often becalmed and took months to cross the
+ocean. My grandmother coming in the thirties was ninety-three days in
+crossing, landing at Quebec after seven weeks on half rations, part
+of the time living on nothing but oatmeal and water. Ship fever, the
+dreaded typhus, broke out on her vessel as on so many others, and
+more than half the passengers perished. Many, many thousands of the
+Irish emigrants thus died on ship-board or shortly after landing. In
+1912, the Ancient Order of Hibernians erected near Quebec a monument
+to the victims. In spite of the untoward conditions, emigration
+continued unabated, and in 1875, in the population of Ontario,
+Quebec, New Brunswick, and Nova Scotia, it was calculated that the
+Irish numbered 846,414 as compared with 706,369 English and 549,946
+Scotch (Hatton, quoted by Davin in _The Irishman In Canada_).
+
+It had become clear that Canada would prosper more if united than in
+separate provinces jealous of each other. The first move in this
+direction came from the Maritime Provinces, where the Irish element
+was so much stronger than elsewhere, and when a conference of the
+leading statesmen of these Provinces was appointed to be held at
+Charlottetown, P.E.I., September 1864, representatives of Upper and
+Lower Canada asked to be allowed to be present to bring forward a
+plan for a Federation of all the British Provinces in North America.
+The British North America Act was passed, and received the royal
+assent, the queen appointing July 1, 1867 as the formal beginning of
+the Dominion of Canada.
+
+Among the men who were most prominent in bringing about federation
+and who came to be known as the Fathers of Confederation were several
+distinguished Irishmen. Thomas D'Arcy McGee was the best known and
+probably did more than any other Canadian to make the idea of
+confederation popular by his writings and speeches. He had come to
+Canada as a stranger, edited a newspaper in Montreal, and was elected
+to the Assembly after a brief residence, in spite of the opposition
+cries of "Irish adventurer" and "stranger from abroad," was
+subsequently elected four times by acclamation, and was Minister of
+Agriculture and Education and Canadian Commissioner to the Paris
+Exposition of 1867. His letters to the Earl of Mayo, pleading for the
+betterment of conditions in Ireland, were quoted by Gladstone during
+the Home Rule movement as "a prophetic voice from the dead coming
+from beyond the Atlantic."
+
+Another of the Fathers of Confederation was the Honorable Edward
+Whalen, born in the county Mayo, who as a young man went to Prince
+Edward Island, where he gained great influence as a popular
+journalist. He was an orator as well as an editor, and came to have
+the confidence of the people of the island, and hence was able to do
+very much for federation. A third of the Fathers of Confederation
+from the Maritime Provinces was the Honorable, afterwards Sir, Edward
+Kenny, who, when the first Cabinet of the New Dominion was formed,
+was offered and accepted one of the portfolios in recognition of the
+influence which he had wielded for Canadian union.
+
+At all times in the history of Canada the Catholic hierarchy has been
+looked up to as thoroughly conservative factors for the progress and
+development of the country. After the Irish immigration most of the
+higher ecclesiastics were Irish by birth or descent, and they all
+exerted a deep influence not only on their own people but on their
+city and province. One of the Fathers of Confederation was Archbishop
+Connolly, of Halifax, of whom the most distinguished Presbyterian
+clergyman of the Lower Provinces said the day after his death: "I
+feel that I have not only lost a friend, but as if Canada had lost a
+patriot; in all his big-hearted Irish fashion he was ever at heart,
+in mind, and deed, a true Canadian." Among his colleagues of the
+hierarchy were such men as his predecessor Archbishop Walsh,
+Archbishop Lynch, the first Metropolitan of Upper Canada when Toronto
+was erected into an archbishopric, Bishop Hogan of Kingston,
+Archbishop Hannan of Halifax, Archbishop Walsh of Toronto, and
+Archbishop O'Brien of Halifax, all of whom were esteemed as faithful
+Canadians working for the benefit of their own people more
+especially, but always with the larger view of good for the whole
+commonwealth of Canada.
+
+The Irish continued to furnish great representative men to Canada.
+The first governor, Guy Carleton, was Irish, and his subsequent
+governor-generalship as Lord Dorchester did much to make Canada loyal
+to Great Britain. During the difficult times of the Civil War in the
+United States, Lord Monck, a Tipperary man, was the tactful
+governor-general, "like other Irish Governors singularly successful
+in winning golden opinions" (Davin). Probably the most popular and
+influential of Canada's governors-general was Lord Dufferin, another
+Irishman. Some of the most distinguished of Canadian jurists,
+editors, and politicians have been Irishmen, and Irishmen have been
+among her great merchants, contractors, and professional men. In our
+own time Sir William Hingston among the physicians, Sir Charles
+Fitzpatrick among the jurists, and Sir Thomas George Shaughnessy
+among the administrative financiers are fine types of Irish
+character.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Davin: The Irishman in Canada (Toronto, 1877); McGee: Works; Tracy:
+The Tercentenary History of Canada (New York, 1908); Walsh: Sir
+William Hingston, in the Amer. Catholic Quarterly (January, 1911),
+Edmund Bailey O'Callaghan, in the Records of the Amer. Catholic
+Historical Society (1907); McKenna: A Century of Catholicity in
+Canada, in the Catholic World, vol. 1, p. 229.
+
+
+
+THE IRISH IN SOUTH AMERICA
+
+By MARION MULHALL.
+
+
+I.--FROM THE SPANISH CONQUEST TO THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.
+
+South America, although comparatively little known until recent times
+to the outside world, contains much to interest the missionary, the
+scientist, the historian, the traveler, and the financier. The
+twentieth century will probably see hundreds following in the
+footsteps of their predecessors. In the meantime, the brilliant
+achievements of numerous Irish men and women in that part of the
+world are falling into oblivion, and call for a friendly hand to
+collect the fragments of historical lore connected with their
+exploits.
+
+This paper will cover three periods:--
+
+(1). From the Spanish Conquest to the War of Independence: here the
+principal actors were maritime explorers, buccaneers, and mercantile
+adventurers;
+
+(2). The War of Independence from 1810 to 1826: in this period
+Irishmen performed feats of valor worthy to rank with those in Greek
+or Roman history.
+
+(3). Since the Independence; a period of commercial and industrial
+development, in which Irishmen have played a foremost part.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+It has been said that George Barlow, the companion of Sebastian
+Cabot, was an Irishman. Cabot was the first Britisher to sail up the
+Rio de la Plata, and gave it its name just thirty-five years after
+the discovery of America. Barlow was in the service of the king of
+Spain, and in that country met Cabot, who had been appointed Pilot
+Major to his Majesty in the year 1518. In 1577 we read of the famous
+Admiral Drake's expedition to the River Plate, which he reached on
+April 14, 1578. Evidently it was a successful one in the opinion of
+Queen Elizabeth, for on Drake's return to Plymouth, September 26,
+1580, she came aboard his ship and knighted him. There seem to have
+been three Irishmen on this expedition, Fenton, Merrick, and Ward.
+Fenton, who was in command of two vessels, was attacked by a Spanish
+squadron between Brazil and the River Plate, and the battle continued
+by moonlight until one of the Spaniards was sunk. The Spanish
+historian adds that Fenton might have sunk another of the enemy's
+ships, but refrained because there were several women on board.
+
+Lozana in his _History_ mentions a revolution in Paraguay in 1555,
+which was headed by an Irishman named Nicholas Colman. This
+revolution was quickly suppressed by the Spanish viceroy, Yrala, but
+Colman led a second revolution in 1570, when Captain Rigueline was
+governor of Guayra. The mutineers named Colman for their chief, put
+their treasures into canoes, and floated down the Parana until their
+boats were capsized by some rapids, probably the falls of Apipe in
+Misiones. The viceroy, on hearing of the revolt, sent troops to bring
+back the fugitives, and the latter were treated with unusual
+clemency. Lozana describes Colman as a daring, turbulent buccaneer.
+For fifteen years he seems to have played an important part in
+Guayra; his subsequent fate is unknown.
+
+In 1626 an expedition commanded by James Purcell, an Irishman,
+established itself on the island of Tocujos, in the mouth of the
+Amazon.
+
+Captain Charles O'Hara was sent by Governor Arana from Montevideo in
+March, 1761, to destroy the old landmarks of Rio Negro and Ching
+between the dominions of Portugal and Spain. The officer next under
+him was Lieutenant Charles Murphy, afterwards governor of Paraguay.
+This expedition suffered great hardships.
+
+Several of the expeditions of the privateers of the eighteenth
+century sailed from Ireland. Dampier, a skilful navigator, went on a
+cruise to intercept the Spanish galleons returning from the River
+Plate with booty supposed to be worth L600,000 sterling. He sailed
+from Kinsale in September, 1703, with two vessels, and no doubt
+amongst the crews were many Irishmen. It was on this expedition that
+Alexander Selkirk, a Scotch sailor, was put on shore at Juan
+Fernandez in 1704, where he remained until rescued by Captain Rogers,
+who commanded the _Duke_, a vessel of 320 tons, which sailed from
+Cork on September 1, 1708, touched by chance at Juan Fernandez, and
+found the original of Defoe's remarkable story, _Robinson Crusoe_,
+who presented a wild appearance dressed in his goatskins.
+
+In 1765 Captain Macnamara, with two vessels called the _Lord Clive_
+and the _Ambuscade_, mounting between them 104 guns, attempted to
+take Colonia, in front of Buenos Ayres, from the Spaniards. Having
+shelled the place for four hours, Macnamara expected every moment to
+see a white flag hoisted, when, by some mishap, the _Lord Clive_ took
+fire, and 262 persons perished. The Spaniards fired upon the poor
+fellows in the water, only 78 escaping to land. Macnamara was seen to
+sink. His sword was found a few years ago by a Colonia fisherman, who
+presented it to the British consul at Montevideo. Most of the Irish
+names still extant in the Argentine provinces, such as Sarsfield,
+Carrol, and Butler, are probably derived from these captives. Among
+the descendants of the survivors of Macnamara's expedition may be
+mentioned the ablest lawyer ever known in Buenos Ayres and for many
+years Prime Minister, the late Dr. Velez Sarsfield, and also Governor
+O'Neill.
+
+The year 1586 saw an expedition of a very different character,
+consisting of the first Jesuits sent to convert Paraguay, under the
+direction of Father Thomas Field, an Irishman, and son of a Limerick
+doctor. Their vessel fell into the hands of English privateers off
+the Brazilian coast, but the sea rovers respected their captives, and
+after sundry adventures the latter landed at Buenos Ayres, whence
+they proceeded over land to Cordoba. The year following they set out
+for Paraguay, where Father Field and his companions laid the
+foundation of the Jesuit commonwealth of Misiones, which had such
+wonderful development in the following two centuries as to cause
+Voltaire to admit that "the Jesuit establishment in Paraguay seems to
+be the triumph of humanity."
+
+Another Irish Jesuit, Father Thaddeus Ennis, appears in authority in
+Misiones shortly before the downfall. In 1756, when Spain ceded San
+Miguel and other missions to Portugal, Father Ennis was entrusted
+with the removal lower down to Parana of such tribes as refused to
+become Portuguese subjects.
+
+Yet another Jesuit, Father Falkiner, son of an Irish Protestant
+doctor in Manchester, who had himself studied medicine, was one of
+the most successful travellers and missionaries of the 18th century.
+Among his friends in London was a ship-captain who traded from the
+coast of Guinea to Brazil, carrying slaves for the company recently
+established by Queen Anne's patent, and he it doubtless was who
+prevailed on the young physician to try a seafaring life. In one of
+his voyages as ship surgeon, from Guinea to Buenos Ayres, he fell ill
+at the latter port, and, there being no hotels, he had the good
+fortune to enjoy the hospitality of the Jesuit superior, Father
+Mahony, whose name proclaims his Irish nationality. Such was the
+impression made on Falkiner by the kindness of the Jesuits that he
+shortly afterwards was received into the Church and entered as a
+novice in the College of St. Ignatius at Buenos Ayres. He spent the
+first years of his missionary career in Misiones and Tucuman. Later
+on he was despatched by his superior to Patagonia, and his success
+there during 27 years was almost equal to what has already been
+mentioned of Father Field in Paraguay. He converted many tribes, and
+traversed nearly every part of Patagonia from Rio Negro to Magellan's
+Straits, and as far inland as the Andes. He knew most of the Indian
+tongues, and by his winning manners and knowledge of medicine gained
+a great influence over the savages. When he published his life and
+travels, such was the effect of his book upon the king of Spain that
+he at once ordered surveys and settlements to be made along the
+Patagonian coast, which Father Falkiner represented as exposed to
+seizure by the first adventurer who should land there. Father
+Falkiner's book has been translated into French, German, and Spanish.
+He returned to England and died at Spetchly, Worcestershire, near the
+end of the 18th century.
+
+In 1774 the bishop of Ayachucho was Dr. James O'Phelan, who rebuilt
+the old Cathedral of Pasco. His father was an Irish officer in the
+Spanish army.
+
+II.--THE WAR OF INDEPENDENCE.
+
+Towards the close of the 18th century the Pitt administration lent a
+willing ear to a Venezuelan patriot, General Miranda, who proposed
+that Great Britain should aid South America to expel the Spanish
+rulers and set up a number of independent states. Spain being the
+ally of France and paying an annual subsidy to Napoleon, it became
+moreover the object of England to seize the treasure-ships
+periodically arriving from the River Plate.
+
+Hostilities having broken out in Europe in 1803, an English squadron
+under an Irish commander, Captain Moore, captured in the following
+year some Spanish galleons laden with treasure at the mouth of the
+River Plate. In June, 1806, Major General William Carr Beresford with
+a British squadron cast anchor about twelve miles from Buenos Ayres,
+and with a force of only 1635 men took possession of that city of
+60,000 inhabitants. The indignation which such a humiliation at first
+caused among the people was in large measure calmed by the manifesto
+which the conquering commander issued on the occasion. In the
+_Memoirs_ of General Belgrano we read: "It grieved me to see my
+country subjugated in this manner, but I shall always admire the
+gallantry of the brave and honorable Beresford in so daring an
+enterprise." Beresford was, however, unable to hold his ground, for
+the Spaniards got together an army of 10,000 men, and re-took the
+city. Beresford was made prisoner, but after five months' detention
+he and his brother-officers, among whom was another Irishman, Major
+Fahy, managed to escape. Thus ended the expedition of this brave
+general, who nevertheless had covered himself and his little army
+with glory, for he held Buenos Ayres as a British colony for 45 days,
+and had he been properly supported from home the result would in all
+probability have been vastly different.
+
+General Beresford was one of the most distinguished men of his time.
+He was the illegitimate son of the Marquis of Waterford, entered the
+army at 16, and served in every quarter of the globe. After his
+defeat at Buenos Ayres he captured Madeira, and was made governor of
+that island. In 1808 he successfully covered the retreat of Sir John
+Moore to Corunna, a difficult feat, for which he received a marshal's
+baton, and was made commander-in-chief in Portugal. In 1811 he
+defeated Marshal Soult at Albuera, and subsequently took part in the
+victories of Salamanca and Vittoria. For these services he was made
+Duke of Elvas, and the British government conferred on him in 1814
+the title of Baron Beresford of Albuera and Dungannon. The same year
+he was sent as minister to Brazil, and on his return was created
+viscount. He married the widow of Thomas Hope the banker, and settled
+down on his estates in Kent, where he died in 1854.
+
+The brilliancy of Beresford's achievement in capturing Buenos Ayres
+with a handful of men had dazzled the minds of English statesmen, who
+felt that 10,000 British troops were enough to subdue the whole of
+the vast continent of South America. In May, 1807, an expedition
+comprising several frigates and transports with 5,000 troops appeared
+off Montevideo from England. A month later Lieutenant-General
+Whitelock arrived with orders to assume the chief command, and among
+his officers were the gallant Irishmen, Major Vandeleur, who
+commanded a wing of the 88th Regiment, and Lieutenant-Colonel Nugent,
+of the 38th. Whitelock endeavored, but failed, to retake Buenos
+Ayres. During the siege a small detachment of Spanish troops under
+Colonel James Butler, after a terrific conflict, in which they sold
+their lives dearly, were all killed. Agreeably to Colonel Butler's
+request his remains were buried on the spot he had so valiantly
+defended, and his tombstone was visible there until 1818.
+
+It is a remarkable fact that several of the South American countries,
+Mexico, Peru, and Chile, were governed by viceroys of Irish birth in
+the critical period preceding the Independence, although Spanish law
+forbade such office to any but Spaniards born. It was in recognition
+of gallant services in Spain, in combination with the Duke of
+Wellington, that General O'Donoghue was made viceroy of Mexico in
+1821, but the elevation of the great viceroy of Peru, Ambrose
+O'Higgins, was due to the splendid talents of administration already
+displayed by him during twenty years of service in Chile. He was born
+at Summerhill, Co. Meath, about 1730. An uncle of his was one of the
+chaplains at the court of Madrid, and at his expense O'Higgins was
+educated at a college in Cadiz. He then entered the Spanish engineer
+corps, and in 1769 was given the command of the commission sent to
+Chile to strengthen the fortifications of Valdivia. He was made
+captain-general of Chile in 1788, was subsequently created marquis of
+Osorno, and in 1796 was nominated viceroy of Peru, a position which
+he held until his death in 1801.
+
+The great viceroy left only one son, Bernard O'Higgins, who succeeded
+General Carreras in the supreme command of the patriot army against
+the Spaniards in 1813. In 1817 O'Higgins took a principal part in the
+victory of Chacabuco, and was almost immediately appointed supreme
+director of Chile, with dictatorial powers. During his
+administration, which lasted six years, he gave every proof of his
+fitness for the position. But, alas! it was the misfortune of South
+America to surpass the republics of antiquity in the ingratitude
+shown towards its greatest benefactors. It is then not surprising to
+find that the Father of his Country, as O'Higgins is affectionately
+styled, was deposed by a military revolution, and obliged to take
+refuge in Peru, from which country he never returned. General Miller
+and Lord Cochrane, in their _Memoirs_, give frequent testimony to the
+honesty and zeal of Bernard O'Higgins. He was always treated as an
+honored guest in Lima, in which city he died on October 24, 1842. He
+left a son, Demetrio O'Higgins, a wealthy land-owner, who contributed
+large sums for the patriot army against Spain.
+
+Among other Irish commanders in Chile and Peru, who, during the War
+of Independence, fought their way to dignity and rank, was General
+MacKenna, the hero of Membrillar. He was born in 1771, at Clogher,
+Co. Tyrone; his mother belonged to the ancient Irish sept of
+O'Reilly, whose estates were confiscated after the fall of Limerick
+in 1691.
+
+General Thomond O'Brien, who won his spurs at the battle of
+Chacabuco, seems to have been born in the south of Ireland about
+1790. He joined the army of San Martin, and accompanied that general
+through the campaigns of Chile and Peru until the overthrow of the
+Spanish regime and the proclamation of San Martin as protector of
+Peru. On the day (July 28, 1821) when independence was declared at
+Lima, the protector took in his hand the standard of Pizarro and
+said, "This is my portion of the trophies." Then, taking the state
+canopy of Pizarro, a kind of umbrella always borne over the viceroys
+in processions, he presented it to General O'Brien, saying, "This is
+for the gallant comrade who fought so many years by my side in the
+cause of South America." The inscription on the canopy, in O'Brien's
+hand, says that it was brought to Peru on Pizarro's second journey
+from Spain. Little did the viceroys think that its last owner would
+be an Irishman.
+
+General O'Connor, one of the most distinguished soldiers of the War
+of Independence, played an important part in the final victory of
+Ayachucho. For his gallantry on that day he was promoted to the rank
+of general by the commander-in-chief, General Bolivar. After the War
+of Independence he became Minister of War in Bolivia. General
+O'Connor went to South America as an ensign in the Irish Legion under
+General Devereux. He claimed direct descent from Roderic O'Conor,
+last king of Ireland, 1186.
+
+Captain Esmonde also fought in the War of Independence. He was
+brother to the then baronet, Sir Thomas Esmonde, of Co. Wexford. In
+later years Captain Esmonde was employed by the Peruvian government
+to report on some proposed canals at Tarapaca. The vessel in which he
+embarked was never more heard of.
+
+Colonel Charles Carroll had served in Spain, but joined the Chilian
+army after independence was gained. He was one of the most popular
+officers in the army, and met with a sad fate. Being sent with too
+small a detachment against the savage Indians, their commander,
+Benavides, cut his forces in pieces and murdered all the officers in
+a most cruel manner. O'Carroll had his tongue cut out and was then
+butchered.
+
+Lieutenant Colonel Moran, who commanded the Colombian legion at the
+battle of Ayachucho, probably came out in the legion of General
+Devereux.
+
+Colonel (afterwards General) O'Leary was first aide-decamp to General
+Bolivar, the Liberator, and received his last breath. He was nephew
+to the famous Father Arthur O'Leary. Bolivar employed him on various
+missions of great trust and says "he acquitted himself with great
+ability." After the war, General O'Leary was appointed British charge
+d'affaires at Bogota, and died in Rome in 1868. General Arthur
+Sandes, a native of Dublin, was entrusted with an important garrison
+in Peru on the close of the War of Independence.
+
+Admiral Brown, the distinguished commander and hero of the War of
+Independence, whose exploits may be ranked, like those of Nelson,
+"above all Greek, above all Roman fame," was born at Foxford, Co.
+Mayo, Ireland, on the 22nd of June, 1777. His father emigrated with
+his family to Pennsylvania. A ship captain who was about to sail from
+Philadelphia offered to take the intelligent Irish boy with him, and
+the offer was promptly accepted. During twenty years he seems to have
+voyaged to many countries; at one time we find him at Archangel.
+Brown had been in Buenos Ayres just two years when the patriot
+government offered him command of a squadron to commence hostilities
+against the Spanish navy, then mistress of all the coasts and waters
+of South America. On the memorable 8th of March, 1814, Brown sailed
+out of the port of Buenos Ayres with three ships to commence a
+campaign, which was destined to destroy the Spanish navy in this part
+of the waters of the New World. With him went his fellow-countrymen,
+Captains Seaver and Kearney. Brown's next exploits were against
+Spanish shipping in the Pacific, and his entirely successful campaign
+at sea against Brazil, in which he gained the mastery by his
+wonderful skill, courage, and perseverance, keeping at bay the great
+naval power of that country (which consisted at one time of fifty war
+vessels) with his few, small, ill-supplied, and ill-armed craft.
+After these great exploits Brown spent some months among the wild
+scenery of Mayo, so dear to him in boyhood, and, returning to Buenos
+Ayres, devoted himself to the quiet life of a country gentleman. He
+died surrounded by his family and friends on May 3, 1857, and the day
+of his funeral was one of national mourning. His widow erected a
+monument to his memory in the Recoleta cemetery, and in 1872 the
+municipality of Buenos Ayres granted a site for a public statue on
+the Pasco Julio, which so often rang with the plaudits of the people
+as they welcomed this great Irishman returning from victory.
+
+No brighter pages occur in the history of the New World than those
+which commemorate the gallantry and self-devotion of the Irish
+soldiers who aided South Americans to throw off the yoke of Spain. In
+1819 an Irish Legion of 1729 men arrived under the command of General
+Devereux, a Wexford landowner, called the Lafayette of South America,
+to fight in the campaign of General Bolivar. Devereux was
+distinguished for his great bravery. After the War of Independence he
+returned to Europe, being commissioned to form a company for mining
+operations in Colombia, which country had appointed him envoy
+extraordinary to various European courts.
+
+Colonel Ferguson and Captain Talbot were both Irishmen and among the
+last survivors of Devereux's Legion. It is computed that one-third of
+the Irish who came out under General Devereux died in hospital. It
+was this legion which won the decisive battle of Carabobo, June 26,
+1821, going into action 1100 strong and leaving 600 on that
+hard-fought field.
+
+Among the officers who composed Bolivar's Albion Rifles we find the
+Irish names of Pigott, Tallon, Peacock, Phelan, O'Connell, McNamara,
+Fetherstonhaugh, French, Reynolds, Byrne, and Haig, and the medical
+officer was Dr. O'Reilly. We find mention in General Millar's
+_Memoirs_ of Dr. Moore, an Irishman, who attended Bolivar in most of
+his campaigns and was devotedly attached to the person of the
+Liberator. Lieutenant-Colonel Hughes, Major Maurice Hogan, Lieutenant
+William Keogh, Captain Laurence McGuire, Lieutenant-Colonel S.
+Collins also served in the struggle for independence.
+
+The period of independence found a small number of Irish residents in
+Buenos Ayres, mostly patrician families, such as Dillon, MacMurrough,
+Murphy, French, O'Gorman, Orr, Butler, O'Shee, who had been exiled or
+had fled from Ireland and obtained the king of Spain's permission to
+settle in Spanish America. The descendants of these families are now
+so intermarried in the country that they have mostly forgotten the
+language and traditions of their ancestors; but they occupy high
+positions in political, legal, and commercial circles.
+
+III.--THE PERIOD AFTER THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.
+
+A remarkable influx of settlers from Ireland occurred between 1825
+and 1830, to work in the _saladeros_, or salt mines, of the Irish
+merchants, Brown, Dowdall, and Armstrong. Previous to this a few
+Irish mechanics and others had come from the United States. In 1813
+Bernard Kiernan came from New Brunswick. He seems to have devoted
+himself to science, as the papers mention his discovery of a comet in
+the Magellan clouds on March 19, 1830. His son, James Kiernan, became
+editor of the government paper, _Gaceta Mercantil_, in 1823, and held
+this post for twenty years; his death occurred in 1857. There is
+reason to believe that the first Irishman who landed in Buenos Ayres
+in the 19th century, exclusive of Beresford's soldiers, was James
+Coyle, a native of Tyrone, who came in the _Agreable_ in 1807, and
+died in 1876 at the age of 86.
+
+In 1830 some survivors of an Irish colony of 300 persons in Brazil
+made their way to Buenos Ayres. They had come out from Europe in the
+barque _Reward_ in 1829.
+
+The banker, Thomas Armstrong, who arrived in Buenos Ayres in 1817,
+occupied the foremost place for half a century in the commerce of
+that city. He was of the ancient family of Armstrong in the King's
+county, one of whose members was General Sir John Armstrong, founder
+of Woolwich arsenal. Having married into the wealthy family of
+Villanueva he became intimately connected with all the leading
+enterprises of the day, such as railways, banks, loans, etc. He took
+no part in politics, but interested himself in charities of every
+kind.
+
+In 1865 another Irishman, James P. Cahill, introduced into Peru from
+the United States the first complete machinery for sugar growing and
+refining.
+
+Still another Irishman, Peter Sheridan, was one of the chief founders
+of the sheep farming industry in Argentina. His family claimed
+descent from the same stock in Co. Cavan as Richard Brinsley
+Sheridan, the great statesman and dramatist. Sheridan died at the age
+of 52, in 1844, and was succeeded in the _estancia_ or sheep-farming
+business by his nephew, James, whose brother Dr. Hugh Sheridan had
+served under Admiral Brown.
+
+The number and wealth of the Irish _estancieros_, or sheep-farmers,
+in Argentina have never been exactly ascertained, but after the old
+Spanish families they are the most important. It would be impossible
+to give all the Irish names to be met with. Some of them own immense
+tracts of land. Men whose fathers arrived in Argentina without a
+shilling are today worth millions. Their _estancia_ houses display
+all the comforts of an American or English home; their hospitality is
+proverbial; and most of them have built on their land fine schools
+and beautiful little chapels, in which the nearest Irish priest
+officiates.
+
+Many of the _partidos_ or districts of the various provinces of
+Argentina may be compared to Irish counties, the railway stations
+being called after the owners of the land on which they are situated.
+Among the earliest families settled in Argentina in the farming
+industries, we find Duggans, Torneys, Harringtons, O'Briens,
+Dowlings, Gaynors, Murphys, Moores, Dillons, O'Rorkes, Kennys, Raths,
+Caseys, Norrises, O'Farrells, Brownes, Hams, Duffys, Ballestys,
+Gahans, and Garaghans.  Dr. Santiago O'Farrell, son of one of the
+earliest Irish pioneers, holds a foremost position among the
+distinguished lawyers of the present day. An Irish engineer, Mr. John
+Coghlan, gave Buenos Ayres its first waterworks. The British hospital
+has at present for its leading surgeon a distinguished Irishman, Dr.
+Luke O'Connor. A son of Peter Sheridan, educated in England, has left
+the finest landscapes of South America by any artist born in America.
+He died at Buenos Ayres in his 27th year, 1861. Among the public men
+of Irish descent, fifty years ago, in Buenos Ayres, are to be
+mentioned the distinguished lawyer and politician, Dalmacio Velez
+Sarsfield, and John Dillon, commissioner of immigration. Dillon was
+the first to start a brewery in Buenos Ayres, for which purpose he
+brought out workmen and machinery from Europe. All of his sons
+occupied distinguished positions. Richard O'Shee, president of the
+Chamber of Commerce in Buenos Ayres, was born at Seville of an old
+Irish family banished by William III. Among the many valuable
+citizens of Buenos Ayres who perished during the cholera of 1868 was
+Dr. Leslie, a native of Cavan, whose benevolence to the poor was
+unceasing. Henry O'Gorman, for some years chief of police in Buenos
+Ayres and afterwards governor of the penitentiary, was descended from
+an Irish family which went to Buenos Ayres in the eighteenth century.
+His brother, Canon O'Gorman, was one of the dignitaries of the
+archdiocese, and director of the boys' reformatory. General Donovan,
+son of an Irish Dr. Donovan of Buenos Ayres, had command of one of
+the sections of the new Indian frontier.
+
+The first Irish chaplain was Father Burke, a venerable friar
+mentioned by Mr. Love in 1820 as over 70 years of age and much
+esteemed. When Rivadavia suppressed the Orders in 1822, he allowed
+Father Burke to remain in the convent of Santo Domingo. After his
+death the Irish residents, in 1828, petitioned Archbishop Murray of
+Dublin for a chaplain. Accordingly the Rev. Patrick Moran was
+selected, and he arrived in Buenos Ayres in 1829. He died in the
+following year, and was succeeded by the Rev. Patrick O'Gorman from
+Dublin, who continued as chaplain during 16 years till his death in
+1847.
+
+The year 1843 is memorable for the arrival of Rev. Anthony Fahy, with
+whose name the advancement of the Irish in Argentina will be forever
+identified. This great patriarch was born at Loughrea, Co. Galway, in
+1804, and made his ecclesiastical studies at St. Clement's convent of
+Irish Dominicans at Rome. Being sent to the western states of
+America, he passed ten years in Ohio and Kentucky, after which, on
+the invitation of the Irish community of Buenos Ayres and by
+permission of the superior of his Order, he came to the river Plate
+at a time when the prospects of the country and of the Irish
+residents were far from promising. The history of the Irish community
+since that time is in some measure a recital of the labors of Father
+Fahy. He it was who helped his countrymen to choose and buy their
+lands which now are of such enormous value. Their increasing numbers
+and prosperity in the camp districts obliged him to endow each of the
+provincial _partidos_ was a resident chaplain. Most of these
+clergymen were educated in Dublin, and soon showed their zeal not
+merely in religious, but also in social spheres. Irish reading-rooms,
+libraries, and schools sprang up and laid the foundation for the
+refined Irish life of the present day in those districts. Among other
+services, Father Fahy founded the Irish convent, bringing out some
+Sisters of Mercy under Mrs. Mary Evangelist Fitzpatrick from Dublin,
+to whom he gave it in charge. Father Fahy died in harness in 1871 of
+yellow fever; he attended a poor Italian woman and on returning home
+was at once taken ill. He lasted only three days and expired
+peacefully, a martyr to his sacred calling. He died so poor that Mr.
+Armstrong had to discharge for him some small debts, and five others
+of his countrymen paid his funeral expenses. A fitting memorial of
+the deceased priest, the Fahy College for Irish orphan boys in
+Argentina, has been erected in Buenos Ayres, and a magnificent
+monument of Irish marble, carved in Ireland, also perpetuates his
+fame.
+
+The priests, still living, who were co-workers with Father Fahy and
+appointed by him to various _partidos_, are Monsignor Samuel
+O'Reilly, deservedly beloved by his parishioners, and the Rev. Father
+Flannery, whose appointment to San Pedro brought a great influx of
+Irish farmers into that district. Among those who have gone to enjoy
+their eternal reward are the brothers, Rev. Michael and Rev. John
+Leahy, both of whom were indefatigable during the yellow fever in
+Buenos Ayres. Rev. Father Mulleady, Rev. Patrick Lynch, Rev. James
+Curran, and Monsignor Curley were also among the Irish priests of
+that time.
+
+The Fahy College is entrusted to the care of the Marist Brothers, who
+are largely Irish. The community of Holy Cross of the Passionist
+Fathers, who have as provincial the distinguished North American
+scholar Father Fidelis Kent Stone, is almost entirely composed of
+Irish and Irish-Americans. They have several establishments in
+various provinces of Argentina. Irish priests are to be met with all
+over the country. In Patagonia and the Chaco we also find a number of
+Protestant missionaries sent out by the Irish branch of the South
+American Missionary Society.
+
+Archdeacon Dillon succeeded Father Fahy as Irish chaplain in Buenos
+Ayres, and, although by birth and education an Irishman, he became
+one of the principal dignitaries of the archdiocese. He was for some
+time professor of theology in the ecclesiastical seminary of Buenos
+Ayres, and accompanied Archbishop Escalada as theologian to the
+Vatican Council in 1869. He was the founder of the _Southern Cross_
+in 1874, the Irish weekly paper which is now so ably edited by the
+gifted Irishman, Mr. Gerald Foley.
+
+The first daily paper to appear in English in South America was the
+_Standard_, founded in 1861 by Michael G. Mulhall, the distinguished
+statistician, and it is still one of the leading papers in the
+country. In conducting it Michael G. Mulhall was joined by his
+brother, Edward T. Mulhall, in 1862, and for many years it was
+continuously under their care. The _Standard_ still remains in the
+Mulhall family, and has for its editor a cousin of the former
+editor's, Mr. John Mulhall, who wisely directs its course. The
+_Argentina_, an important paper in Spanish, was founded a few years
+since by Edward T. Mulhall, Jr., a brilliant son of the late Edward
+Mulhall of the _Standard_. The _Hyberno-Argentine Review_, a new
+Irish weekly, is edited by another able Irishman, James B. Sheridan.
+In Rio Janeiro the _Anglo-Brasilian Times_ was founded in 1864 by an
+Irishman, Mr. Scully, who also wrote an important book on Brazil.
+
+Ireland had also its representatives in South American diplomacy and
+the making of treaties. As early as 1809 Colonel James Burke was sent
+by Lord Strangford, British minister at Rio, on a confidential
+mission to Buenos Ayres to negotiate the establishment of a separate
+kingdom on the river Plate, with the Princess Charlotte as queen. In
+1867 Mr. Gould, an Irishman, British charge d'affaires, endeavored to
+mediate between the allies, Brazil and Argentina, and President Lopez
+of Paraguay, but without success. Stephen H. Sullivan, British charge
+d'affaires for Chile, signed the treaty of commerce and navigation
+between England and Chile on the 10th of May, 1852. He was afterwards
+appointed British minister at Lima, where he was murdered. The late
+Chilian ministers to Buenos Ayres and London, William Blest Gana and
+Albert Blest Gana, were the sons of an Irish Doctor Blest from Sligo,
+who settled in Chile. In 1859 George Fagan signed a treaty with
+General Guido for compensation of losses to British subjects during
+the civil wars after the Independence.
+
+The mining industry had among its pioneers brave sons of Erin. J. O.
+French went to Buenos Ayres in 1826, and after an arduous mountain
+journey arrived at the foot of the Cerro Morado, where he found
+auriferous ores. Chevalier Edmond Temple, an Irish gentleman who had
+served in Spain in a dragoon regiment, also landed in Buenos Ayres in
+1826, and started across the Pampas, then almost uninhabited, until
+he came to the mountainous country where the Potosi mines were
+situated. In one of the defiles he lost his favorite horse, and in
+his book he bids a touching farewell to the friendly steed which had
+shared with him so many toils and dangers. Temple's successor in the
+Argentine mining provinces was Major Rickard Seaver, a member of an
+old Co. Dublin family.
+
+Several books of travel in South America have been published by Irish
+writers during the last fifty years. MacCann's _Travels in the
+Argentine Provinces_, 1846-49, contains much that is valuable
+concerning the history and manners of the country. Major Rickard
+Seaver issued in 1863 an interesting narrative of his crossing the
+Andes. Consul Hutchinson, an Irishman, published in 1864 his book
+_Argentine Gleanings_, which was followed by another in 1869 called
+_South American Recollections_. Robert Crawford, an Irish engineer,
+led an expedition from Buenos Ayres in November, 1871, across the
+Indian Pampas and over the pass of the Planchon in the Andes, to
+survey an overland route to Chile, and subsequently published an
+interesting account of his journey. The first book printed and
+published in English, in South America, was the _Handbook of the
+River Plate_, written by Michael G. Mulhall and published by the
+_Standard_, in 1861. The same author also published the _Rural Code
+of Buenos Ayres_ in 1867, and the _Handbook of Brazil_ in 1877. In
+1871 he published an account of his travels among the German colonies
+in Rio Grande do Sul. Twenty years ago the writer of this sketch
+published _Between the Amazon and the Andes_ and the _Story of the
+Jesuit Missions of Paraguay_. These books derive special interest
+from the fact that she was the first foreign woman ever seen in
+Cuyaba, the capital of Matto Grosso, whither she accompanied her
+husband, 2500 miles from either the Atlantic or the Pacific seaboard.
+They arrived as far as the Diamantina Mountains, beyond Cuyaba, and
+saw the little rivers which form the sources of the mighty Amazon.
+
+Casting a glance over South America, we see in every country and
+province evidences of Irish genius employed not only in fighting but
+in the development of natural resources. To quote Consul Cowper's
+report to the Foreign Office in London: "The progress of Buenos Ayres
+is mainly due to the industrious Irish sheep farmers." No other
+nationality contributed so largely to the export trade of the
+country. At one time it was shown by the tables of Mr. Duggan and
+other wool exporters that the quantity of this staple industry yearly
+sold by Irishmen in Buenos Ayres exceeded that sold by all other
+nationalities. In later years the Irish sheep farmers in the province
+of Buenos Ayres have turned their lands into wheat lands, and the
+great industries of the country, sheep and cattle, have been moved to
+the outside camps, especially to that wonderful grazing region in the
+Andine valleys recently visited by Col. Roosevelt and his party. It
+may be interesting to mention that at the first English races ever
+held in South America, on November 6, 1826, the principal event, in
+which ten horses ran, was easily won by an Irish horse with the
+appropriate name of "Shamrock."
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Beaumont: Travels In Buenos Ayres (1828); Wilson: Travels In South
+America (1796); Pinkerton: Travels (1808), Captain Weddell: Cape Horn
+and South Atlantic Surveys; Major Gillesple: Buenos Ayres and
+Provinces; Mrs. Williams, on Humboldt's Travels (1826); Captain
+Master: At Home with the Patagonians (1891); Hadfield: Notes of
+Travel in Brazil and La plata (1863); Hinchcliff: South American
+Sketches (1862); Captain Burton: Highlands of Brazil; Ross Johnston:
+A Vacation in the Argentine Alps (1867); MacCann: Travels in the
+Argentine Provinces (1846-1849); Hutchinson: Argentine Gleanings and
+South American Recollections; Major Seaver: Crossing the Andes;
+Crawford: Across the Pampas; V. MacKenna: Life of O'Higgins; Life of
+Diego Rimagro; History of Santiago; History of Valparaiso; MacKenna:
+Archives of Spanish America, 50 vols.; Miller: Memoirs; Lives of
+Belgrano and San Martin; Mulhall; English In South America.
+
+
+
+THE IRISH IN AUSTRALASIA
+
+By BROTHER LEO, F.S.C., M.A.
+
+
+Should one be called upon to give in brief the history of the Irish
+in the land of the Southern Cross, he could do nothing more to the
+purpose than to relate the story of the "Holy House of Australia."
+The episode, indeed, is characteristic, not merely of the Irish in
+Australia, but of the Irish in every land and clime where they have
+striven and conquered.
+
+On the fourteenth of November, 1817, there landed in Sydney an Irish
+Cistercian Father, Jeremiah F. Flynn. He had heard in Rome of the
+spiritual destitution of the Irish Catholics in Australia, and he
+secured the permission of his superiors to minister to the needs of
+his compatriots in the Antipodes. Shortly after his arrival he
+celebrated Mass in the house of an Irishman named William Davis, who
+had been transported for making pikes for the insurgents in the days
+of '98, and then, on the first opportunity that presented itself, he
+sought the authorization of the colonial governor to exercise the
+functions of his sacred ministry. Far from hospitable was the
+reception accorded him by Governor Macquarie. The priest was told,
+with the bluntness characteristic of British officialdom, that the
+presence of no "popish missionary" would be tolerated in the
+settlement, and that the profession of the Protestant form of belief
+was obligatory on every person in the penal colony.
+
+With the example of the "priesthood hunted down like wolves" before
+him, Father Flynn saw but one consistent course to pursue. His fellow
+Catholics, his fellow Irishmen, were in sore need of his help; that
+help they must receive, even though the civil powers refused their
+sanction. So for several months he went about as secretly as he
+could, hearing confessions, offering the Holy Sacrifice, and breaking
+the bread of good counsel. During this trying period, Davis was his
+host and defender and friend. Eventually the presence of the priest
+was detected; he was arrested and promptly sent back to England.
+Before the ship sailed he tried repeatedly to return to the house of
+Davis where the Blessed Sacrament was preserved in a cedar
+clothes-press, but the surveillance of his captors was strict and
+unsleeping. So in the dwelling of the convict Irishman the Sacred
+Species remained. Before this unwonted repository Davis kept a light
+ever burning day and night; and day and night crept the loyal
+Irishmen of the settlement to kneel in prayer before the improvised
+shrine. The "Holy House of Australia", as the Davis dwelling came to
+be known, remained the only Catholic church in the colony until 1821,
+when two Irish priests, Father John Joseph Therry of Cork and Father
+Philip Connolly of Kildare, were permitted to attend to the spiritual
+needs of the Irish Catholics. Their coming marked the beginning of
+religious toleration in Australia and the termination of the
+sufferings and sacrifices of the Irish colonists, several of whom had
+had to pay dearly for their religious convictions. Davis himself had
+been twice flogged and once imprisoned for refusing to attend
+Protestant service.
+
+Today, on the site of the "Holy House of Australia", stands the
+church of St. Patrick. Davis gave the land and the sum of one
+thousand pounds to the church, and his fellow exiles contributed
+according to their means. This episode in the history of the Irish in
+Australia pays a touchingly eloquent tribute to the spirit of loyalty
+to God and country which has characterized the sons and daughters of
+St. Patrick everywhere whither their feet have strayed. It is the
+spirit which has embodied itself in the imposing cathedral of St.
+Patrick in Melbourne and the splendidly equipped college of St.
+Patrick in Sydney. It is the spirit which has made the Irish play so
+conspicuous a role in the civic and commercial history of
+Australasia.
+
+Originally known as New Holland, Australia became an English penal
+colony after the outbreak of the Revolutionary War in the United
+States of America. An Irish element came into the colony in the last
+decade of the eighteenth century when, during the Orange reign of
+terror, upwards of a thousand people from the west of Ireland were
+deported by the Ulster magistrates and by Lord Carhampton, the
+notorious "Satanides", who was charged with the pacification of
+Connacht. And during the first three decades of the nineteenth
+century the stream of Irish transportation flowed on. As a result of
+the Tithes agitation, the Charter and Reform movements, the
+Combination Laws and the Corn Laws, many more Irishmen were forced
+across the sea. It was not until 1868 that the convict system was
+permanently abolished.
+
+It is difficult for us of a later day to realize the meaning of that
+word, transportation. Let us form some conception of what the Irish
+exiles suffered from the graphic picture painted in colors, somber
+but not untrue, by one who knew from firsthand experience the lot of
+the political prisoner. Writes Dr. Ullathorne in _The Horrors of
+Transportation_:
+
+"Take any one of you, my dear readers; separate him from his wife,
+from his children, from all those whose conversation makes life dear
+to him; cast him on the ends of the earth; let him there fall amongst
+reprobates who are the last stain and disgrace of our common nature;
+give him those obscene-mouthed monsters for his constant companions
+and consolers; let the daily vision of their progress from infamy to
+infamy, until the demon that inspires them has exhausted invention
+and the powers of nature together, be his only example; house him, at
+night, in a bark hut on a mud floor, where he has less comfort than
+your cattle in their stalls; awake him from the troubled dreams of
+his wretched wife and outcast children, to feel how far he is from
+their help, and take him out at sunrise; work him under a burning
+sun, and a heartless overseer, and the threat of the lash until the
+night fall; give him not a penny's wages but sorrow; leave him no
+hope but the same dull, dreary round of endless drudgery for many
+years to come; let him see no opening by which to escape, but through
+a long, narrow prospect of police courts, of gaols, of triangles, of
+death cells, and of penal settlements; let him all the while be
+clothed in a dress of shame, that shows to every living soul his
+degradation; and if he dare to sell any part of that clothing, then
+flog him worse than any dog! And thus, whilst severed from all
+kindness and all love, whilst the stern harsh voice of his
+task-master is grating in incessant jars within his ear, take all
+rest out of his flesh, and plant the thorn; take all feeling out of
+his heart, and leave the withered core; take all peace out of his
+conscience, and leave the worm of remorse; and then let any one come
+and dare to tell me that the man is happy because he has bread and
+meat. Is it not here, if ever there was such a case, where the taste
+of bread is a taste of misery, and where to feed and prolong life is
+to feed and lengthen our sorrow? And in pondering these things, do
+not those strong words of Sacred Scripture bring down their load of
+truth in heavy trouble to our thoughts, that, 'Their bread is
+loathsome to their eye, and their meat unto their soul.'"
+
+But the bright side of the story of the Irish in Australia and New
+Zealand unfolds in the subsequent years. The men who had been sent
+forth from Erin with the brand of the convict upon them became the
+founders of a new commonwealth. To them were joined the numerous
+voluntary settlers who, attracted by the natural resources of the
+island-continent and especially by the gold discoveries of the
+fifties, migrated to Queensland, Victoria, and New South Wales. When
+in 1858 William E. Gladstone sought to establish a new colony to be
+known as North Australia, he opened a fresh field for Irish
+initiative. As a result of his effort there stands today, on a
+terrace overlooking Port Curtis, the city of Gladstone, the terminal
+of the Australian railway system. It was here, according to Cardinal
+Moran, that in 1606, Mass was first celebrated in Australia, when the
+Spaniards sought shelter in the "Harbor of the Holy Cross." The first
+government resident at Gladstone was Sir Maurice Charles O'Connell, a
+relative of the great Liberator; he was four times acting-governor of
+Queensland.
+
+The list of Irish pioneer settlers in Australasia is a lengthy one.
+The name of Thomas Poynton stands out prominently. He was a New
+Zealand pioneer who had married an Irish girl in Sydney. The devotion
+of Poynton and his wife to the faith of their fathers is evidenced by
+the fact that he several times made the long journey from his home to
+Sydney to interest the church authorities in the wants of the New
+Zealand Irish Catholics, and that she twice made the same arduous
+trip to have her children baptized. Thomas Mooney has the distinction
+of being the first Irish pioneer in Western Australia; and yet
+another Irishman, Cassidy by name, carried out a policy of benevolent
+assimilation by marrying the daughter of a Maori chief.
+
+Among the pioneer ecclesiastics were Father William Kelly of
+Melbourne and Father John McEncroe, a native of Tipperary and a
+Maynooth man, who for thirty years and more was a prominent figure in
+the religious and civic life of New South Wales. Father John Brady,
+another pioneer priest, became Bishop of Perth. Irish names occupy a
+conspicuous and honored place in the roster of the Australian
+episcopate. Notable on the list are Bishop Francis Murphy of
+Adelaide, who was born in Co. Meath, and Archbishop Daniel Murphy of
+Sydney, a native of Cork, the man who delivered the eulogy on the
+occasion of Daniel O'Connell's funeral at Rome. But scant reference
+can here be made to the illustrious primate of Australia, Cardinal
+Moran, archbishop of Sydney from 1884 to 1911, who was such a potent
+force in the land of his adoption, and whose masterly _History of the
+Catholic Church in Australasia_ puts him in the forefront of
+ecclesiastical historians. On his death he was succeeded in the see
+of Sydney by another Irishman, Archbishop Michael Kelly of Waterford.
+Archbishop O'Reily of Adelaide is a recognized authority on music,
+and has written several pamphlets on that subject. A Galway man, Dr.
+T. J. Carr, a great educator, is now (1914) archbishop of Melbourne,
+and a Clare man, Dr. J. P. Clune, holds sway in Perth.
+
+Irishmen in Australia have figured largely in the iron and coal
+industries, in the irrigation projects, in the manufacturing
+activities, and in the working of the gold mines. But they have
+likewise distinguished themselves in other fields of endeavor.
+Prominent on the beadroll of Australian fame stand the names of Sir
+Charles Gavan Duffy (1816-1903), founder of the _Nation_ newspaper in
+Dublin, member of the British house of commons, and afterwards
+premier of Victoria and speaker of the legislative assembly, and his
+sons, John Gavan Duffy and Frank Gavan Duffy, public-spirited
+citizens and authorities on legal matters. The Currans, father and
+son, active in the public life of Sydney, were afterwards members of
+the British parliament. Distinguished in the records of the
+Australian judiciary are Judges Quinlan, Casey, Brennan, and O'Dowd.
+The Rev. J. Milne Curran, F.G.S., is a geologist who has achieved
+more than local fame. Other Irishmen who have loomed large in
+Australasian affairs are Daniel Brophy, John Cumin, Augustus Leo
+Kenny, James Coghlan, Sir Patrick Buckley, Sir John O'Shannessy, and
+Nicholas Fitzgerald. Louis C. Brennan, C.B., who was born in Ireland
+in 1852, emigrated to Australia when a boy and while working in a
+civil engineer's office in Melbourne conceived the idea of the
+"Brennan Torpedo", which he afterwards perfected, and then in 1897
+sold the invention to the British Admiralty for L110,000. Another
+Brennan, Frank by name, is president of the Knights of Our Lady of
+the Southern Cross and has been a labor member of the federal
+parliament since 1911; a third, Christopher John, is assistant
+lecturer in modern literature in the University of Sydney; and a
+fourth, James, of the diocese of Perth, was made a Knight of St.
+Silvester by Pius X. in 1912. Young Australia and New Zealand may be
+as the world goes, but already both have much to their credit in the
+domains of music, art, and literature; and here, as usual, the Irish
+have been to the fore. In the writing of poetry, history, and fiction
+the Celtic element has been especially distinguished. Not to speak of
+the writers mentioned elsewhere in this sketch, scores of Irish men
+and women have been identified with the development of an Australian
+literature which, though delightfully redolent of the land whence it
+sprang, nevertheless possesses the universal note which makes it a
+truly human product. Many years ago one of the most gifted of
+Irish-Australian singers, "Eva"' of the _Nation_, voiced a tentative
+plaint:
+
+      "O barren land! O blank, bright sky!
+         Methinks it were a noble duty
+      To kindle in that vacant eye
+         The light of spirit--beauty--
+      To fill with airy shapes divine
+         Thy lonely plains and mountains,
+      The orange grove, the bower of vine,
+         The silvery lakes and fountains;
+      To wake the voiceless, silent air
+         To soft, melodious numbers;
+      To raise thy lifeless form so fair
+         From those deep, spell-bound slumbers.
+      Oh, whose shall be the potent hand
+         To give that touch informing,
+      And make thee rise, O Southern Land,
+         To life and poesy warming?"
+
+Mrs. O'Doherty herself, who long lived in that Queensland which she
+thus apostrophized, helped in no uncertain way to answer her own
+question. So did John Farrell, the author of the truly remarkable
+"Jubilee Ode" of 1897 and of a collection of poems which include the
+well known "How He Died." And so, long before, had the non-Catholic
+Irishman, Edward O'Shaughnessy, who went to Australia as a convict,
+but who laughed in lockstep and made music with his chains.
+
+James Francis Hogan, author and journalist, was born in Tipperary in
+1855 and shortly afterward was brought by his parents to Melbourne
+where he received his education. On his return to Ireland he was
+elected to represent his native county in parliament. He is an
+authority on Australian history and in his book on _The Gladstone
+Colony_ has given us a fine specimen of modern historical method.
+With him must be mentioned Roderick Flanagan, whose _History of New
+South Wales_ appeared in 1862.
+
+Other Irish names distinguished in Australasian literature are those
+of the New Zealand poet, Thomas Bracken; Roderick Quinn; Desmond
+Byrne; J.B. O'Hara; the eccentric convict-writer, George "Barrington"
+Waldron; Victor J. Daley; Bernard O'Dowd; Edwin J. Brady; the Rev.
+J.J. Malone; and the Rev. W. Kelly.
+
+Finally, the Irish in Australia have done more than their share in
+the work of education and social service. Under Irish auspices
+several of the Catholic teaching congregations, including the
+Christian Brothers and the Presentation Nuns, were introduced, and
+their work has borne goodly fruit. A mighty power for good is the
+Hibernian Australasian Benefit Society. The organization, which was
+founded in 1871, has spread rapidly and has a large active
+membership.
+
+Truly the land of the Southern Cross is not the dimmest jewel in the
+coronet of Ireland's glories.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Hogan: The Irish in Australia (1888), The Gladstone Colony (1898);
+Mennell: Dictionary of Australian Biography (1892); Duffy: Life in
+Two Hemispheres (1903); Kenny: The Catholic Church in Australia to
+the Year 1840; Moran: History of the Catholic Church in Australasia
+(1898); Davitt: Life and Progress in Australasia (1898); Bonwick: The
+First Twenty Years of Australia (1883); Flanagan: History of New
+South Wales (1862); Byrne: Australian Writers (1896); Wilson: The
+Church in New Zealand (1910); Hocken: A Bibliography of the
+Literature Relating to New Zealand (1909).
+
+
+
+THE IRISH IN SOUTH AFRICA
+
+By A. MILLIARD ATTERIDGE.
+
+
+The tide of emigration from Ireland has set chiefly towards America
+and Australia. In South Africa, therefore, the Irish element among
+the colonists has never been a large one. But, despite its
+comparatively small numbers, it has been an important factor in the
+life of South Africa. Here, as in so many other countries, it has
+been the glory of the sons of Erin to be a missionary people. To
+their coming is due the very existence of the Catholic Church in
+these southern lands.
+
+When Dr. Ullathorne touched at the Cape on his way to Australia in
+1832, he found at Cape Town "a single priest for the whole of South
+Africa," an English Benedictine, who soon afterwards returned to
+Europe in broken health. Few Irish immigrants had by that time found
+their way to the Cape. They began to arrive in numbers only after the
+famine year.
+
+The founder of the Catholic hierarchy in South Africa was the Irish
+Dominican, Patrick R. Griffith, who, in 1837, was sent to Cape Town
+by Gregory XVI. as the first Vicar Apostolic of Cape Colony. His
+successors at the Cape, Bishops Grimley, Leonard, and Rooney, have
+all been Irishmen, and nine in every ten of their flock have from the
+first been Irish by birth or descent. In the earlier years of Bishop
+Griffith's episcopate there was a large garrison in South Africa on
+account of the Kaffir wars. Many of these soldiers were Irishmen. At
+Grahamstown in 1844 the soldiers of an Irish regiment stationed there
+did most of the work of building St. Patrick's Church, one of the
+oldest Catholic churches in South Africa. They worked without wages
+or reward of any kind, purely out of their devotion to their Faith,
+giving up most of their leisure to this voluntary labor.
+
+Ten years after Bishop Griffith's appointment, Pius IX. separated
+Natal and the eastern districts of Cape Colony from Cape Town, and
+erected the Eastern Vicariate Apostolic. Once more an Irish prelate
+was the first Bishop--Aidan Devereux, who was consecrated by Bishop
+Griffith at Cape Town in the Christmas week of 1847. The great
+emigration from Ireland had now begun, and a stream of immigrants was
+arriving at the Cape. Bishop Devereux fixed his residence at Port
+Elizabeth, and of his four successors up to the present day three
+have been Irish. Bishop Moran, who went out to Port Elizabeth in
+1854, was consecrated at Carlow in Ireland by Archbishop (afterwards
+Cardinal) Cullen. The third Vicar Apostolic was Bishop Ricards, and
+the present bishop is another Irishman, Dr. Hugh McSherry, who
+received his consecration from the hands of Cardinal Logue in St.
+Patrick's Cathedral at Armagh.
+
+Until the discovery of the diamond deposits in what is now the
+Kimberley district, some forty years ago, the Irish immigrants had
+chiefly settled in the ports and along the coast. But among the
+crowds who went to seek their fortunes at the diamond fields were
+large numbers of adventurous Irishmen. The mission church established
+at Kimberley became the centre of a new bishopric in 1886, when the
+Vicariate of Kimberley, which for some time included the Orange Free
+State, was established, and an Irish Oblate, Father Anthony Gaughran,
+was appointed its first bishop. He was succeeded in 1901 by his
+namesake and fellow countryman, the present Bishop Matthew Gaughran.
+
+The gold discoveries on the Witwatersrand about Johannesburg produced
+another rush into the interior in the days after the first Transvaal
+war. A great city of foreign immigrants--the "Uitlanders"--grew up
+rapidly on the upland, where a few months before there had been only
+a few scattered Boer farms. Irishmen from Cape Colony and Natal, from
+Ireland itself, and from the United States formed a large element in
+the local mining and trading community. They were mostly workers. Few
+of them found their way into the controlling financier class, which
+was largely Jewish. The Irish were better out of this circle of
+international gamblers, whose intrigues finally produced the terrible
+two years' bloodshed of the great South African war. Many engineers
+of the mines were Irish-Americans. Huge consignments of mining
+machinery arrived from the United States, and many of the engineers
+who came to fit it up remained in the employ of the mining companies.
+Until after the war, the Transvaal and Johannesburg had depended
+ecclesiastically on the Vicar Apostolic of Natal, but in 1904 a
+Transvaal Vicariate was erected, and once more the first bishop was
+an Irishman, Dr. William Miller, O.M.I.
+
+We have seen how Irish the South African episcopate has been from the
+very outset. Most of the clergy belong to the same missionary race,
+as also do the nuns of the various convents, and the Christian
+Brothers, who are in charge of many of the schools. Of the white
+Catholic population of the various states of the South African Union,
+the greater part are Irish. There are about 25,000 Irish in Cape
+Colony in a total population of over two millions. There are some
+7,000 in Natal, I,500 in Kimberley, and about 2,000 in the Orange
+River Colony. In the Transvaal, chiefly in and about Johannesburg,
+there are some 12,000 Irish. A few thousand more are to be found
+scattered in Griqualand and Rhodesia.
+
+As has been already said, the total numbers are not large in
+proportion to that of the population generally, and they belong
+chiefly to the industrial and trading classes. The most notable names
+among them are those of prelates, priests, and missionaries, who have
+founded and built up the organization of the Catholic Church in South
+Africa. But there are some names of note also in civil life. Sir
+Michael Gallwey was for many years Chief Justice of Natal; the Hon.
+A. Wilmot, who has not only held high official posts, but has also
+done much to clear up the early history of South Africa, is Irish on
+the mother's side; Mr. Justice Shiel is a judge of the Cape Courts;
+Eyre and Woodbyrne are Irish names among the makers of Rhodesia; and
+amongst those who have done remarkable work in official life may also
+be named Sir Geoffrey Lagden, Sir William St. John Carr, and the Hon.
+John Daverin. Lagden was for many years British Resident in
+Basutoland, the Switzerland of South Africa, where the native tribes
+are practically independent under a British protectorate. Griffith,
+the paramount chief of the Basuto nation, has been a Catholic since
+1911. Sir Geoffrey's tactful policy and wise counsels did much to
+promote the prosperity of this native state, and during the trying
+days of the South African War, he was able to secure the neutrality
+of the tribesmen.
+
+In the Boer wars, Irishmen fought with distinction on both sides.
+General Colley, who fell at Majuba in the first Boer War, was a
+distinguished Irish soldier. Another great Irishman, General Sir
+William Butler, has written the story of Colley's life. Butler
+himself was in command of the troops at the Cape before the great
+war. If his wise counsels had been followed by the Government, the
+war would undoubtedly have been avoided. He refused to have any part
+in the war-provoking policy of Rhodes and Chamberlain, and warned the
+Home Government that an attack on the Dutch republics would be a
+serious and perilous enterprise. When the war came, England owed much
+to the enduring valor of Irish soldiers and to the leadership of
+Irish generals. One need only name General Hart, of the Irish
+Brigade; General French, who relieved Kimberley, and who is now
+(1914) Field-Marshal and Commander-in-Chief of the British army in
+France; General Mahon, who raised the siege of Mafeking; Colonel
+Moore, of the famous Connaught Rangers, now (1914) commandant and
+chief military organizer of the Irish National Volunteers; and,
+finally, Lord Roberts, who took over the chief command and saved the
+situation after the early disasters. Lord Kitchener, who acted as
+Roberts's chief-of-staff, succeeded him in the command, and brought
+the war to an end by an honorable treaty with the Boer leaders, is a
+native of Ireland, but of English descent, and he passed most of his
+boyhood in Ireland, in Co. Kerry, where his father had bought a small
+property. I used to know an Irish Franciscan lay brother who told me
+he had taught the future soldier "many games" when he was quite a
+little fellow.
+
+Of the regiments which took part in the war none won a higher fame
+than the Munster and the Dublin Fusiliers and the Connaught Rangers.
+It was in recognition of their splendid valor that the new regiment
+of Irish Guards was added to the British Army.
+
+But the majority of Irishmen sympathized with the Boer republics, and
+many of them fought under the Boer flag, of these were legally
+British subjects, but many were naturalized burghers of the
+Transvaal, and many more were United States citizens, Irish-Americans
+from the Rand gold mines. There were two small Irish brigades under
+the Boer flag, those of McBride and Lynch (the latter now a member of
+the British House of Commons), and an engineer corps commanded by
+Colonel Blake, an American. At the first battle before Ladysmith it
+was one of the Irish brigades that kept the Boer guns in action,
+bringing up ammunition under a rain of shellfire. During the Boer
+retreat and Roberts's advance on Pretoria, Blake's engineers were
+always with the Boer rearguard and successfully destroyed every mile
+of the railway as they went back. Blake had served in the United
+States cavalry, had learned mining while on duty in Nevada, and had
+then gone to seek his fortune at Johannesburg. The great leader of
+the Boer armies, now the Prime Minister of the new South Africa which
+has happily arisen out of the storm of war, has Irish connections.
+Louis Botha lived before the war in the southeast Transvaal, not far
+from Laings Nek, and near neighbors of his were a family of Irish
+settlers bearing the honored name of Emmet. The Emmets and the Bothas
+were united by ties of friendship and intermarriage, and one of the
+Emmets served with Louis Botha during the war.
+
+The Irish colonists of South Africa keep their love for faith and
+fatherland, but, as in the United States, they have thoroughly and
+loyally thrown in their lot with the new country of which they have
+become citizens. Few in number though they are, they are an important
+factor in the new Dominion, for their national tradition inspires
+them with civic patriotism, and their religion gives them a high
+standard of conduct and puts before them, as guides in the work of
+life and the solution of the problems of the day, the Christian
+principles of justice and charity.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Government Census Returns, South Africa; Catholic Directory for
+British South Africa (Cape Town, since 1904); The Catholic Magazine,
+Cape Town; Wilmot and Chase: History of Cape Colony (London, 1896);
+Theal: History of South Africa (5 vols., London, 1888-1893); for the
+war period, the _Times_ History of the South African War, and the
+British Official History.
+
+
+
+IRISH LANGUAGE AND LETTERS
+
+By DOUGLAS HYDE, LL.D., M.R.I.A.
+
+
+The Celtic languages consist of two divisions, (a) the Gaelic or
+Irish division, and (b) the Kymric or Welsh division. Between them
+they comprise (a) Irish, Scotch-Gaelic, and Manx, and (b) Welsh,
+Armorican, and Cornish. All these languages are still alive except
+Cornish, which died out about a hundred years ago.
+
+Of all these languages Irish is the best preserved, and it is
+possible to follow its written literature back into the past for some
+thirteen hundred years; while much of the most interesting matter has
+come down to us from pagan times. It has left behind it the longest,
+the most luminous, and the most consecutive literary track of any of
+the vernacular languages of Europe, except Greek alone.
+
+For centuries the Irish and their language were regarded by the
+English as something strange and foreign to Europe. It was not
+recognized that they had any relationship with the Greeks or Romans,
+the French, the Germans, or the English. The once well-known
+statesman, Lord Lyndhurst, in the British parliament denounced the
+Irish as aliens in religion, in blood, and in language. Bopp, in his
+great Comparative Grammar, refused them recognition as
+Indo-Europeans, and Pott in 1856 also denied their European
+connection. It was left for the great Bavarian scholar, John Caspar
+Zeuss, to prove to the world in his epoch-making "Grammatica Celtica"
+(published in Latin in 1853) that the Celts were really
+Indo-Europeans, and that their language was of the highest possible
+value and interest. From that day to the present it is safe to say
+that the value set upon the Irish language and literature has been
+steadily growing amongst the scholars of the world, and that in the
+domain of philology Old Irish now ranks close to Sanscrit for its
+truly marvellous and complicated scheme of word-forms and
+inflections, and its whole verbal system.
+
+The exact place which the Celtic languages (of which Irish is
+philologically far the most important) hold in the Indo-European
+group has often been discussed. It is now generally agreed upon that,
+although both the Celtic and Teutonic languages may claim a certain
+kinship with each other as being both of them Indo-European, still
+the Celtic is much more nearly related to the Greek and the Latin
+groups, especially to the Latin.
+
+All the Indo-European languages are more or less related to one
+another. We Irish must acknowledge a relationship, or rather a very
+distant connecting tie, with English. But, to trace this home, Irish
+must be followed back to the very oldest form of its words, and
+English must be followed back to Anglo-Saxon and when possible to
+Gothic. The hard mutes (p, t, c) of Celtic (and, for that matter, of
+Sanscrit, Zend, Greek, Latin, Slavonic, and Lithuanian) will be
+represented in Gothic by the corresponding soft mutes (b, d, g), and
+the soft mutes in Celtic by the corresponding, hard mutes in Gothic.
+Thus we find the Irish _dia_ (god) in the Anglo-Saxon _tiw_, the god
+of war, whose name is perpetuated for all time in Tiwes-daeg, now
+"Tuesday", and we find the Irish _dead_ in the Anglo-Saxon "toth",
+now "tooth", and so on. But of all the Indo-European languages Old
+Irish possesses by far the nearest affinity to Latin, and this is
+shown in a great many ways, not in the vocabulary merely, but in the
+grammar, which for philologists is of far more importance,--as, for
+example, the _b_-future, the passive in-_r_, the genitive singular
+and nominative plural of "o stems", etc. Thus the Old Irish for
+"man", nom. _fer_, gen. _fir_, dat. _fiur_, acc. _fer n_--, plur.
+nom. _fir_, gen. _fer n_--, is derived from the older forms _viros,
+viri, viro, viron_, nom. plur. _viri_, gen. plur. _viron_, which
+everyone who knows Latin can see at a glance correspond very closely
+to the Latin inflections, _vir, viri, viro, virum_, nom. plur.
+_viri_, etc.
+
+So much for the language. When did this language begin to be used in
+literature? This question depends upon another--When did the Irish
+begin to have a knowledge of letters; when did they begin to commit
+their literature to writing; and whence did they borrow their
+knowledge of this art?
+
+The oldest alphabet used in Ireland of which remains exist appears to
+have been the Ogam, which is found in numbers of stone inscriptions
+dating from about the third century of our era on. About 300 such
+inscriptions have already been found, most of them in the southwest
+of Ireland, but some also in Scotland and Wales, and even in Devon
+and Cornwall. Wherever the Irish Gael planted a colony, he seems to
+have brought his Ogam writing with him.
+
+The Irishman who first invented the Ogam character was probably a
+pagan who obtained a knowledge of Roman letters. He brought back to
+Ireland his invention, or, as is most likely, invented it on Irish
+soil. Indeed, the fact that no certain trace of Ogam writing has been
+found upon the European continent indicates that the alphabet was
+invented in Ireland itself. An inscription at Killeen Cormac, Co.
+Kildare, survives which seems to show that the Roman alphabet was
+known in Ireland in pagan times. Ogam is an alphabet suitable enough
+for chiselling upon stones, but too cumbrous for the purposes of
+literature. For this the Roman alphabet must have been used. The Ogam
+script consists of a number of short lines straight or slanting, and
+drawn either below, above, or through one long stem-line. This
+stem-line is generally the sharp angle between two faces or sides of
+a long upright rectangular stone. Thus four cuts to the right of the
+long line stand for S; to the left of it they mean C; passing through
+it, half on one side and half on the other, they mean Z. The device
+was rude, but it was applied with considerable skill, and it was
+undoubtedly framed with much ingenuity. The vowels occurring most
+often are also the easiest to cut, being scarcely more than notches
+on the edge of the stone. The inscription generally contains the name
+of the dead warrior over whom the memorial was raised; it usually
+begins on the left corner of the stone facing the reader and is to be
+read upwards, and it is often continued down on the right hand
+angular line as well.
+
+The language of the Ogam inscriptions is very ancient and nearly the
+same forms occur as in what we know of Old Gaulish. The language, in
+fact, seems to have been an antique survival even when it was first
+engraved, in the third or fourth century. The word-forms are probably
+far older than those used in the spoken language of the time. This is
+a very important conclusion, and it must have a far-reaching bearing
+upon the history of the earliest epic literature. Because if forms of
+language much more ancient than any that were then current were
+employed on pillar-stones in the third or fourth century, it follows
+that this obsolescent language must have survived either in a written
+or a regularly recited form. This immediately raises the probability
+that the substance of Irish epic literature (which was written down
+on parchment in the sixth or seventh century) really dates from a
+period much more remote, and that all that is purely pagan in it was
+preserved for us in the same antique language as the Ogam
+inscriptions before it was translated into what we now call "Old
+Irish."
+
+The following is the Ogam alphabet as preserved on some 300 ancient
+pillars and stones, in the probably ninth-century treatise in the
+Book of Ballymote, and elsewhere:
+
+[Illustration: Ogam Alphabet]
+
+There are a great many allusions to this Ogam writing in the ancient
+epics, especially in those that are purely pagan in form and
+conception, and there can be no doubt that the knowledge of letters
+must have reached Ireland before the island became Christianized.
+With the introduction of Christianity and of Roman letters, the old
+Ogam inscriptions, which were no doubt looked upon as flavoring of
+paganism, quickly fell into disuse and disappeared, but some
+inscriptions at least are as late as the year 600 or even 800. In the
+thoroughly pagan poem, _The Voyage of Bran_, which such authorities
+as Zimmer and Kuno Meyer both consider to have been committed to
+parchment in the seventh century, we find it stated that Bran wrote
+the fifty or sixty quatrains of the poem in Ogam. Cuchulainn
+constantly used Ogam writing, which he cut upon wands and trees and
+standing stones for Queen Medb's army to read, and these were always
+brought to his friend Fergus to decipher. Cormac, king of Cashel, in
+his glossary tells us that the pagan Irish used to inscribe the wand
+they kept for measuring corpses and graves with Ogam characters, and
+that it was a source of horror to anyone even to take it in his hand.
+St. Patrick in his Confession, the authenticity of which no one
+doubts, describes how he dreamt that a man from Ireland came to him
+with innumerable letters.
+
+In Irish legend Ogma, one of the Tuatha De Danann who was skilled in
+dialects and poetry, seems to be credited with the invention of the
+Ogam alphabet, and he probably was the equivalent of the Gaulish god
+Ogmios, the god of eloquence, so interestingly described by Lucian.
+
+We may take it then that the Irish pagans knew sufficient letters to
+hand down to Irish Christians the substance of their pagan epics,
+sagas, and poems. We may take it for granted also that the greater
+Irish epics (purely pagan in character, utterly untouched in
+substance by that Christianity which so early conquered the country)
+really represent the thoughts, manners, feelings, and customs of
+pagan Ireland.
+
+The effect of this conclusion must be startling indeed to those who
+know the ancient world only through the medium of Greek and Roman
+literature. To the Greek and to his admiring master, the Roman, all
+outside races were simply barbarians, at once despised,
+misinterpreted, and misunderstood.
+
+We have no possible means of reconstructing the ancient world as it
+was lived in by the ancestors of some of the leading races in Europe,
+the Gauls, Spaniards, Britons, and the people of all those countries
+which trace themselves back to a Celtic ancestry, because these races
+have left no literature or records behind them, and the Greeks and
+Romans, who tell us about them, saw everything through the false
+medium of their own prejudices. But now since the discovery and
+publication of the Irish sagas and epics, the descendants of these
+great races no longer find it necessary to view their own past
+through the colored and distorting glasses of the Greek or the Roman,
+since there has now opened for them, where they least expected to
+find it, a window through which they can look steadily at the life of
+their race, or of one of its leading offshoots, in one of its
+strongholds, and reconstruct for themselves with tolerable accuracy
+the life of their own ancestors. It is impossible to overrate the
+importance of this for the history of Europe, because neither Teutons
+nor Slavs have preserved pictures of their own heroic past, dating
+from pagan times. It is only the Celts, and of these the Irish, who
+have handed down such pictures drawn with all the fond intimacy of
+romance, and descriptions which exhibit the life of western Europeans
+at an even earlier culture-stage in the evolution of humanity than do
+the poems of Homer.
+
+This conclusion, to which a study of the literature invites us, falls
+in exactly with that arrived at from purely archaeological sources.
+Professor Ridgeway of Cambridge University, working on archaeological
+lines, expresses himself as follows: "From this survey of the
+material remains of the _la Tern_ period found actually in Ireland,
+and from the striking correspondence between this culture and that
+depicted in the _Tain Bo Cualnge_, and from the circumstance that the
+race who are represented in the epic as possessing this form of
+culture resemble in their physique the tall, fair-haired, grey-eyed
+Celts of Britain and the continent, we are justified in inferring (1)
+that there was an invasion (or invasions) of such peoples from Gaul
+in the centuries immediately before Christ, as is ascribed by the
+Irish traditions, and (2) that the poems themselves originally took
+shape when the _la Tene_ culture was still flourishing in Ireland.
+But as this could hardly have continued much later than A.D. 100, we
+may place the first shaping of the poems not much later than that
+date and possibly a century earlier."
+
+This conclusion would make the earliest putting together of the Irish
+epics almost contemporaneous with Augustus Caesar.
+
+So much for the history and growth of Irish letters.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Brash: Ogam inscribed Monuments of the Gaedhil (1879); MacAlister:
+Studies in Irish Epigraphy, vol. 1 (1897), vol. 2 (1902), vol. 3
+(1907); Rhys: in Proceedings of the Scottish Society of Antiquaries
+(Edinburgh, 1892); Ridgeway: Date of the First Shaping of the
+Cuchulain Saga (1905), in Proceedings of the British Academy, vol.
+II; Joyce: Social History of Ancient Ireland, vol. I, Chap. 2;
+Preface to fac-simile edition of the Book of Ballymote.
+
+
+
+NATIVE IRISH POETRY
+
+By PROFESSOR GEORGES DOTTIN.
+
+
+[Note.--This chapter was written in French by M. Dottin, who is a
+distinguished professor and dean at the University of Renacs, France.
+The translation into English has been made by the Editors.]
+
+By the year 1200 of the Christian era, a time at which the other
+national literatures of Europe were scarcely beginning to develop,
+Ireland possessed, and had possessed for several centuries, a Gaelic
+poetry, which was either the creation of the soul of the people or
+else was the work of the courtly bards. This poetry was at first
+expressed in rhythmical verses, each containing a fixed number of
+accented syllables and hemistichs separated by a pause:
+
+
+
+
+      _Crist_ lim,    |  _Crist_ reum,   |  _Crist_ in degaid
+      _Crist_ indium  |  _Crist_ issum   |  _Crist_ uasum
+                      |  _Crist_ dessum  |  _Crist_ uasum
+
+This versification, one of the elements of which was the repetition
+of words or sounds at regular intervals, was transformed about the
+eighth century into a more learned system. Thenceforward
+alliteration, assonance, rhyme, and a fixed number of syllables
+constituted the characteristics of Irish verse:
+
+      Messe ocus Pangur bAN
+      cechtar nathar fria saindAN
+      bith a _menma_ sam fri SEILGG
+      mu _menma_ cein im sainchEIRDD.
+
+As we see, the consonants in the rhyme-words were merely related: _l,
+r, n, ng, m, dh, gh, bh, mh, ch, th, f_ could rime together just as
+could _gg, dd, bb_. Soon the poets did not limit themselves to
+end-rhymes, which ran the risk of becoming monotonous, but introduced
+also internal rhyme, which set up what we may call a continuous chain
+of melody:
+
+      is aire caraim DOIRE
+      ar a reidhe ar a ghlOINE
+      's ar iomad a aingel fIND
+      o 'n CIND go aoich arOILE.
+
+This harmonious versification was replaced in the seventeenth century
+by a system in which account was no longer taken of consonantal rhyme
+or of the number of syllables.
+
+The rules of Irish verse have nothing in common with classical Latin
+metres, which were based on the combination of short and long
+syllables. In Low-Latin, indeed, we find occasionally alliteration,
+rhyme, and a fixed number of syllables, but these novelties are
+obviously of foreign origin, and date from the time when the Romans
+borrowed them from the nations which they called barbarous. We cannot
+prove beyond yea or nay that they are of Celtic origin, but it is
+extremely probable that they are, for it is among the Celts both of
+Ireland and of Wales that the harmonizing of vowels and of consonants
+has been carried to the highest degree of perfection.
+
+This learned art was not acquired without long study. The training of
+a poet (_file_) lasted twelve years, or more. The poets had a regular
+hierarchy. The highest in rank, the _ollamh_, knew 350 kinds of verse
+and could recite 250 principal and 100 secondary stories. The
+_ollamhs_ lived at the court of the kings and the nobles, who granted
+them freehold lands; their persons and their property were sacred;
+and they had established in Ireland schools in which the people might
+learn history, poetry, and law. The bards formed a numerous class, of
+a rank inferior to the _file_; they did not enjoy the same honors and
+privileges; some of them even were slaves; according to their
+standing, different kinds of verse were assigned to them as a
+monopoly.
+
+The Danish invasions in the ninth century set back for some time the
+development of Irish poetry, but, when the Irish had driven the
+fierce and aggressive sea-rovers from their country, there was a
+literary renascence. This was in turn checked by the Anglo-Norman
+invasion in the twelfth century, and thereafter the art of
+versification was no longer so refined as it had formerly been.
+Nevertheless, the bardic schools still existed in the seventeenth
+century, more than four hundred years after the landing of Strongbow,
+and, in them, students followed the lectures of the _ollamhs_ for six
+months each year, or until the coming of spring, exercising both
+their talents for composition and their memory.
+
+A catalogue of Irish poets, which has recently been made out, shows
+that there were more than a thousand of them. We have lost many of
+the oldest poems, but the Irish scribes often modernized the texts
+which they were copying. Hence the language is not always a
+sufficient indication of date, and it is possible that, under a
+comparatively modern form, some very ancient pieces may have been
+preserved. Even if the poems attributed to Amergin do not go back to
+the tenth century B.C., as has been claimed for them, they are in any
+case old enough to be archaic, and certain poems of the mythological
+cycle are undoubtedly anterior to the Christian era.
+
+We have reason to believe that there have been preserved some genuine
+poems of Finn macCumaill (third century), a hymn by St. Patrick (d.
+461), some greatly altered verses of St. Columcille (d. 597), and
+certain hymns written by saints who lived from the seventh to the
+ninth century. The main object of the most celebrated of the ancient
+poets up to the end of the twelfth century was to render history,
+genealogy, toponomy, and lives of saints readier of access and easier
+to retain by putting them into verse-form; and it is the names of
+those scholars that have been rescued from oblivion, while lyric
+poetry, having as its basis nothing more than sentiment, has remained
+for the most part anonymous. After the Anglo-Norman invasion, the
+best poet seems to have been Donnchadh Mor O'Daly (d. 1244). Of later
+date were Teig MacDaire (1570-1652), Teig Dall O'Higinn (d. 1615),
+and Eochaidh O'Hussey, who belonged to the seventeenth and eighteenth
+centuries. The new school, which abandoned the old rules and whose
+inspiration is now personal, now patriotic, is represented by
+_caoine_ (keens or laments), _abran_ (hymns), or _aislingi_
+(visions), composed, among others, by Geoffrey Keating (d. c. 1650),
+David O'Bruadair (c. 1625-1698), Egan O'Rahilly (c. 1670-c. 1734),
+John MacDonnell (1691-1754), William O'Heffernan (fl. 1750), John
+O'Tuomy (1706-1775), and Andrew MacGrath (d. c. 1790). The greatest
+of the eighteenth century Irish poets was Owen Roe O'Sullivan (c.
+1748-1784), whose songs were sung everywhere, and who, in the opinion
+of his editor, Father Dinneen, is the literary glory of his country
+and deserves to be ranked among the few supreme lyric poets of all
+time.
+
+If, in order to study the subjects treated by the poets, we lay aside
+didactic poetry and confine ourselves to the ancient poems from the
+seventh to the eleventh century, we shall find in the latter a
+singular variety. They were at first dialogues or monologues, now
+found incorporated with the sagas, of which they may have formed the
+original nucleus. Thus, in the _Voyage of Bran_, we have the account
+of the Isles of the Blessed and the discourse of the King of the Sea;
+in the _Expedition of Loegaire MacCrimthainn_, the brilliant
+description of the fairy hosts; in _The Death of the Sons of Usnech_,
+the touching farewell of Deirdre to the land of Scotland and her
+lamentation over the dead bodies of the three warriors; and in the
+_Lay of Fothard Canann_, the strange and thrilling speech of the dead
+lover, returning after the battle to the tryst appointed by his
+sweetheart. Other poems seem never to have figured in a saga, like
+the Song of Crede, daughter of Guaire, in which she extols the memory
+of her friend Dinertach, and the affecting love-scenes between Liadin
+and Curithir; or like the bardic songs designed to distribute praise
+or blame: the funeral panegyric on King Niall, in alternate verses,
+the song of the sword of Carroll, and the satire of MacConglinne
+against the monks of Cork.
+
+Religious poetry comprised lyric fragments, which were introduced
+into the lives of the saints and there formed a kind of Christian
+saga, or else were based on Holy Writ, like the _Lamentation of Eve_;
+hymns in honor of the saints, like _The Hymn to St. Michael_, by Mael
+Isu; pieces such as the famous Hymn of St. Patrick; and philosophic
+poems like that keen analysis of the flight of thought which dates
+from the tenth century.
+
+At a time when the poets of other lands seem wholly engrossed in the
+recital of the deeds of men, one of the great and constant
+distinguishing marks of poetry in Ireland, whether we have to do with
+a short note set down by a scribe on the margin of a manuscript or
+with a religious or profane poem, is a deep, personal, and intimate
+love of nature expressed not by detailed description, but more often
+by a single picturesque and telling epithet. Thus we have the hermit
+who prays God to give him a hut in a lonely place beside a clear
+spring in the wood, with a little lark to sing overhead; or we have
+Marban, who, rich in nuts, crab-apples, sloes, watercress, and honey,
+refuses to go back to the court to which the king, his brother,
+presses him to return. Now, we have the description of the summer
+scene, in which the blackbird sings and the sun smiles; now, the song
+of the sea and of the wind, which blows tempestuously from the four
+quarters of the sky; again, the winter song, when the snow covers the
+hills, when every furrow is a streamlet and the wolves range
+restlessly abroad, while the birds, numbed to the heart, are silent;
+or yet again the recluse in his cell, humorously comparing his quest
+of ideas to the pursuit of the mice by his pet cat. This deep love of
+inanimate and animate things becomes individualized in those poems in
+which every tree, every spring, every bird is described with its own
+special features.
+
+If we remember that these original poems, which, before the twelfth
+century, expressed thoughts that were scarcely known to the
+literature of Europe before the eighteenth, are, besides, clothed in
+the rich garb of a subtle harmony, what admiration, what respect, and
+what love ought we not to show to that ancient Ireland which, in the
+darkest ages of western civilization, not only became the depositary
+of Latin knowledge and spread it over the continent, but also had
+been able to create for herself new artistic and poetic forms!
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Hyde: Love Songs of Connacht (Dublin, 1893), Irish Poetry, an Essay
+in Irish with Translation in English and a Vocabulary (Dublin, 1902),
+The Religious Songs of Connacht (London, 1906); Meyer: Ancient Gaelic
+Poetry (Glasgow, 1906), a Primer of Irish Metrics with a Glossary and
+an Appendix containing an Alphabetical List of the Poets of Ireland
+(Dublin, 1909); Dottin-Dunn: The Gaelic Literature of Ireland
+(Washington, 1906); Meyer: Selections from Ancient Irish Poetry (2d
+edition, London, 1913); Best: Bibliography of Irish Philology and of
+Printed Irish Literature (Dublin, 1913); Loth: La metrique galloise
+(Paris, 1902); Thurneysen: Mittelirische Verslehren, Irische Texte
+III.; Buile Suibhne (Dublin, 1910).
+
+
+
+IRISH HEROIC SAGAS
+
+By ELEANOR HULL.
+
+
+Ireland has the unique distinction of having preserved for mankind a
+full and vivid literary record of a period otherwise, so far as
+native memorials are concerned, clouded in obscurity. A few
+fragmentary suggestions, derived from ancient stone monuments or from
+diggings in tumuli and graves, are all that Gaul or Britain have to
+contribute to a knowledge of that important period just before and
+just after the beginning of our era, when the armies of Rome were
+overrunning western Europe and were brought, for the first time, into
+direct contact with the Celtic peoples of the West. Almost all that
+we know of the early inhabitants of these countries comes to us from
+the pens of Roman writers and soldiers--Poseidonius, Caesar,
+Diodorus, Tacitus. We may give these observers credit for a desire to
+be fair to peoples they sometimes admired and often dreaded, but
+conquerors are not always the best judges of the races they are
+engaged in subduing, especially when they are ignorant of their
+language, unversed in their lore and customs, and unused to their
+ways. Valuable as are the reports of Roman authorities, we feel at
+every point the need of checking them by native records; but the
+native records of Gaul, and in large part also those of Britain and
+Wales, have been swept away. Caesar is probably right in saying that
+the Druids, who were the learned men of their race and day, committed
+nothing to writing; if they did, whatever they wrote has been
+irrecoverably lost.
+
+But Ireland was exempt from the sweeping changes brought about
+through long periods of Roman and Saxon occupation; no great upheaval
+from without disturbed the native political and social conditions up
+to the coming of the Norse and Danes about the beginning of the ninth
+century. Agricola, standing on the western coast of Britain, looked
+across the dividing channel, and reflected upon "the beneficial
+connection that the conquest of Ireland would have formed between the
+most powerful parts of the Roman Empire," but, fortunately for the
+literature of Ireland, if not for her history, he never came. The
+early incursions of the Scotti or Irish were eastward into England,
+Wales, and Gaul, and there seem to have been few return movements
+towards the west. Ireland pursued her path of native development
+undisturbed. It is to this circumstance that she owes the
+preservation of so much of her native literature, a great body of
+material, historical, religious, poetic, romantic, showing marks of
+having originated at a very early time, and of great variety and
+interest.
+
+At what period this literature first began to be written down we do
+not know. Orosius tells us that a traveler named Aethicus spent a
+considerable time in Ireland early in the fifth century "examining
+their volumes", which tends to prove that there was writing in
+Ireland before St. Patrick. But the native bard must have made
+writing superfluous. The man who could, at a moment's notice, recite
+any one out of the 350 stories which might be called for, besides
+poetry, genealogies, and tribal records, was worth many books. Only a
+few were expert enough to read his writings, but all could enjoy his
+tales.
+
+The earliest written records that we have now existing date from the
+seventh or eighth century; but undoubtedly there is preserved for us,
+in these materials, a picture of social conditions going back to the
+very beginning of our era, and coeval with the stage of civilization
+known in archaeology as _La Tene_ or "Late Celtic".
+
+To help his memory the early "shanachie" or story-teller grouped his
+romantic story-store under different heads, such as "Tains" or
+Cattle-spoils, Feasts, Elopements, Sieges, Battles, Destructions,
+Tragical Deaths; but it is easier for us now to group them in another
+way, and to class together the series of tales referring to the
+Tuatha De Danann or ancient deities, those belonging to the Red
+Branch cycle of King Conchobar and Cuchulainn, those relating to
+Finn, and the Legends of the Kings. The hundred or more tales
+belonging to the second group are especially valuable for social
+history on account of the detailed descriptions they give of customs,
+dress, weapons, habits of life, and ethical ideas. To the historian,
+folklorist, and student of primitive civilizations they are documents
+of the highest importance.
+
+It seems likely that the Red Branch cycle of tales, including the
+epic tale of the Tain or Cattle-spoil of Cualnge, which has gathered
+round itself a number of minor tales, had some basis of historical
+fact, and arose in the period of Ulster's predominance to celebrate
+the deeds of a band of warlike champions who flourished in the north
+about the beginning of the Christian era. No one who has visited the
+raths of Emain Macha, near Armagh, where stood the traditional site
+of the ancient capital of Ulster, or has followed the well-defined
+and massive outworks of Rath Celtchair and the forts of the other
+heroes whose deeds the tales embody, could doubt that they had their
+origin in great events that once happened there. The topography of
+the tales is absolutely correct. Or again, when we cross over into
+Connacht, the remains at Rath Croghan, near the ancient palace of the
+Amazonian queen, Medb, testify to similar events. She it was who in
+her "Pillow Talk" with her husband Ailill declared that she had
+married him only because in him did she find the "strange bride-gift"
+which her imperious nature demanded, "a man without stinginess,
+without jealousy, without fear." It was in her desire to surpass her
+husband in wealth that she sent the combined armies of the south and
+west into Ulster to carry off a famous bull, the Brown Bull of
+Cooley, the only match in Ireland for one possessed by her spouse.
+This raid forms the central subject of the _Tain Bo Cualnge_. The
+motif of the tale and the kind of life described in it alike show the
+primitive conditions out of which it had its rise. It belongs to a
+time when land was plenty for the scattered inhabitants to dwell
+upon, but stock to place upon it was scarce. The possession of herds
+was necessary, not only for food and the provisioning of troops, but
+as a standard of wealth, a proof of position, and a means of
+exchange. Everything was estimated, before the use of money, by its
+value in kine or herds. When Medb and Ailill compare their
+possessions, to find out which of them is better than the other,
+their herds of cattle, swine, and horses are driven in, their
+ornaments and jewels, their garments and vats and household
+appliances are displayed. The pursuit of the cattle of neighboring
+tribes was the prime cause of the innumerable raids which made every
+man's life one of perpetual warfare, much more so than the
+acquisition of land or the avenging of wrongs. Hence a motif that may
+seem to us insufficient and remote as the subject of a great epic
+arose out of the necessities of actual life. Cattle-driving is the
+oldest of all occupations in Ireland.
+
+The conditions we find described in these tales show us an open
+country, generally unenclosed by hedges or walls. The chariots can
+drive straight across the province. There are no towns, and the
+stopping places are the large farmers' dwellings, open inns known as
+"houses of hospitality", fortified by surrounding raths or earthen
+walls, the only private property in land, in a time when the
+tribe-land was common, that we hear of at this period. Within these
+borders lay the pleasure grounds and gardens and the cattle-sheds for
+the herds, which the great landowner or chief loaned out to the
+smaller men in return for services rendered. Here were trained in
+arts of industry and fine needlework the daughters of the chief men
+of the tribe and their foster-sisters, drawn from the humbler
+families around them. The rivers as a rule formed the boundaries of
+the provinces, and the fords were constantly guarded by champions who
+challenged every wayfarer to single combat, if he could not show
+sufficient reason for crossing the borderland. These combats were
+fought actually in the ford itself, and all wars began in a long
+series of single hand-to-hand combats between equal champions before
+the armies as a whole engaged each other.
+
+To fight was every man's prime duty, and the man who had slain the
+largest number of his fellows was acclaimed as the greatest hero. It
+was the proud boast of Conall Cernach, "the Victorious", that seldom
+had a day passed in which he had not challenged a Connachtman, and
+few nights in which a Connachtman's head had not formed his pillow.
+It shows the primitive savagery of the period that skulls of enemies
+were worn dangling from the belt, and were stored up in one of the
+palaces of Emain Macha as trophies of valor. So warlike were the
+heroes that even during friendly feasts their weapons had to be hung
+up in a separate house, lest they should spring to arms in rivalry
+with their own fellows.
+
+Yet in spite of this rude barbarism of outward life, the warriors had
+formed for themselves a high and exacting code of honor, which may be
+regarded as the first steps toward what in later times and other
+countries became known as "chivalry"; save that there is in the acts
+of the Irish heroes a simplicity and sincerity which puts them on a
+higher level than the obligatory courtesies of more artificial ages.
+Generosity between enemies was carried to an extraordinary pitch.
+Twice over in fights with different foes, Conall Cernach binds his
+right hand to his side in order that his enemy, who had lost one
+hand, may fight on equal terms with him. The two severest combats
+sustained by Cuchulainn, the youthful Ulster champion, in the long
+war of the Tain are those with Loch the Great and Ferdiad, both
+first-rate warriors, who had been forced by the wiles of Medb into
+unwilling conflict against their young antagonist. In their youth
+they had been fellow-pupils in the school of the Amazon Scathach, who
+had taught them both alike the arts of war. When Loch the Great, as a
+dying request, prays Cuchulainn to permit him to rise, "so that he
+may fall on his face and not backwards towards the men of Erin," lest
+hereafter it should be said that he fell in flight, Cuchulainn
+replies: "That will I surely, for it is a warrior's boon thou
+cravest," and he steps back to allow the wounded man to reverse his
+position in the ford. The tale of Cuchulainn's combat with Ferdiad
+has become classic; nothing more pathetic or more full of the true
+spirit of chivalry is to be found in any literature. Each warrior
+estimates nobly the prowess of the other, each sorrowfully recalls
+the memory of old friendships and expeditions made together. When
+Ferdiad falls, his ancient comrade pours out over him a passionate
+lament. Each night, when the day's combat is over, they throw their
+arms round each other's neck and embrace. Their horses are put up in
+the same paddock and their charioteers sleep beside the same fire;
+each night Cuchulainn sends to his wounded friend a share of the
+herbs that are applied to his own wounds, while to Cuchulainn Ferdiad
+sends a fair half of the pleasant delicate food supplied to him by
+the men of Erin. We may recall, too, Cuchulainn's act of compassion
+towards Queen Medb near the close of the Tain. Her army is flying in
+rout homeward across the Shannon, closely pursued by Cuchulainn. As
+he approaches the ford he finds Queen Medb lying prostrate on the
+bank, unable any longer to guard the retreat of her army. She appeals
+to her enemy to aid her; and Cuchulainn, with that lovable boyish
+delight in acts of supreme generosity which is always ascribed to
+him, undertakes to shield the retreat of the disordered host from his
+own troops and to see them safely across the river, while Medb
+reposes peacefully in a field hard by. The spirit which actuates the
+heroes is well expressed by Cuchulainn when his friends would
+restrain him from going forth to his last fight, knowing that in that
+battle he must fall: "I had rather than the whole world's gold and
+than the earth's riches that death had ere now befallen me, so would
+not this shame and testimony of reproach now stand recorded against
+me; for in every tongue this noble old saying is remembered, 'Fame
+outlives life.'"
+
+The Irish tales surpass those of the Arthurian cycle in simplicity,
+in humor, and in human interest; the characters are not mere types of
+fixed virtues and vices, they have each a strongly marked
+individuality, consistently adhered to through the multitude of
+different stories in which they play a part. This is especially the
+case with regard to the female characters. Emer, Deirdre, Etain,
+Grainne may be said to have introduced into European literature new
+types of womanhood, quite unlike, in their sprightliness and humor,
+their passionate affection and heroic qualities, to anything found
+elsewhere. Stories about women play a large part in ancient Irish
+literature; their elopements, their marriages, their griefs and
+tragedies, form the subject of a large number of tales. Among the
+list of tales that any bard might be called upon to recite, the
+"Courtships" or "Wooings" probably formed a favorite group; they are
+of great variety and beauty. The Irish, indeed, may be called the
+inventors of the love-tale for modern Europe.
+
+The gravest defect of this literature (a defect which is common to
+all early literature before coming under the chastening hand of the
+master) is undoubtedly its tendency to extravagance; though much
+depended upon the individual writer, some being stylists and some
+not, all were prone to frequent and grotesque exaggerations. The lack
+of restraint and self-criticism is everywhere apparent; the old Irish
+writer seems incapable of judging how to shape his material with a
+view to presenting it in its best form. Thus, we have the feeling,
+even with regard to the _Tain Bo Cualnge_, that what has come down to
+us is rather the rough-shaped material of an epic than a completed
+design. The single stories and the groups of stories have been
+handled and rehandled at different times, but only occasionally, as
+in the Story of Deirdre (the "Sorrowful Tale of the Sons of Usnech"),
+or in the later versions of the "Wooing of Emer", or the Book of
+Leinster version of the "Wooing of Ferb", do we feel that a competent
+artist has so formed his story that the best possible value has been
+extracted from it. Yet, in spite of their defects, the old heroic
+sagas of Ireland have in them a stimulating force and energy, and an
+element of fine and healthy optimism, which is strangely at variance
+with the popular conception of the melancholy of Irish literature,
+and which, wherever they are known, make them the fountain-head of a
+fresh creative inspiration. This stimulating of the imagination is
+perhaps the best gift that a revived interest in the old native
+romance of Ireland has to bestow.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+The originals of many of the Tales of the Cuchulainn cycle of
+romances will be found, usually accompanied by English or German
+translations, in the volumes of _Irische Texte; Revue Celtique;
+Zeitschrift fuer Celt. Phil.; Eriu_; Irish Texts Society, vol. II;
+_Atlantis_; Proceed. of the R. Irish Academy (Irish MSS. Series and
+Todd Lecture Series). English translations: of the Tain Bo Cualnge
+(LU. and Y.B.L. versions), by Miss Winifred Faraday (1904); (LL.
+version with conflate readings), by Joseph Dunn (1914); of various
+stories: E. Hull, The Cuchulain Saga in Irish Literature (1898); A.
+H. Leahy, Heroic Romances of Ireland (1905-6), the Courtship of Ferb
+(1902). French translations in Arbois de Jubainville's _Epopee
+celtique en Irlande_; German translations in Thurneysen's _Sagen aus
+dem alien Irland_ (1901); free rendering by S. O'Grady in The Coming
+of Cuchullain (1904), and in his History of Ireland, the Heroic
+Period (1878). For full bibliography, see R. I. Best's Bibliography
+of Irish Philology and Printed Literature (1913), and Joseph Dunn's
+_Tain Bo Cualnge_, pp. xxxii-xxxvi (1914).
+
+
+
+IRISH PRECURSORS OF DANTE
+
+By SIDNEY GUNN, M.A.
+
+
+One of the supreme creations of the human mind is the _Divine Comedy_
+of Dante, and undoubtedly one of its chief sources is the literature
+of ancient Ireland. Dante himself was a native of Florence, Italy,
+and lived from 1265 to 1321. Like many great men, he incurred the
+hatred of his countrymen, and he spent, as a result, the last twenty
+years of his life in exile with a price on his head. He had been
+falsely accused of theft and treachery, and his indignation at the
+wrong thus done him and at the evil conduct of his contemporaries led
+him to write his poem, in which he visits Hell, Purgatory, and
+Paradise, and learns how God punishes bad actions, and how He rewards
+those who do His will.
+
+To the writing of his poem Dante brought all the learning of his
+time, all its science, and an art that has never been surpassed,
+perhaps never equalled. Of course, he did not know any Irish, but he
+knew Italian and the then universal tongue of the learned--Latin, in
+both of which were tales of visits to the other world; and the
+greater part of these tales, as well as those most resembling Dante's
+work in form and spirit, were Irish in origin.
+
+All peoples have traditions of persons visiting the realms of the
+dead. Homer tells of Odysseus going there; Virgil does the same of
+Aeneas; and the Oriental peoples, as well as the Germanic races, have
+similar tales; but no people have so many or such finished accounts
+of this sort as the ancient Irish. In pagan times in Ireland one of
+the commonest adventures attributed to a hero was a visit to "tir na
+m-beo," the land of the living, or to "tir na n-og," the land of the
+young; and this supernatural world was reached in some cases by
+entering a fairy mound and going beneath the ground to it, and in
+others by sailing over the ocean.
+
+Of the literature of pagan Ireland, though much has come down to us,
+we have only a very small fraction of what once existed, and what we
+have has been transmitted and modified by persons of later times and
+different culture, who, both consciously and unconsciously, have
+changed it, so that it is very different from what it was in its
+original form; but the subject and the main outlines still remain,
+and we have many accounts of both voyages and underground journeys to
+the other world.
+
+The oldest voyage is, perhaps, that of Maelduin, which, Tennyson has
+transmuted into English under the title _The Voyage of Maeldune_.
+This is a voyage undertaken for revenge; but vengeance, as Sir Walter
+Scott has pointed out in his preface to _The Two Drovers_, springs in
+a barbarous society from a passion for justice; and it is this
+instinct for justice that inspires the Irish hero to endure and to
+achieve what he does. Christianity has preserved this legend and
+added to it its own peculiar quality of mercy; and this illustrates
+one of the characteristics of Ireland's pagan literature--it is
+imperfectly Christian and can readily be made to express the
+Christian point of view.
+
+Another voyage of pagan Irish literature is the _Voyage of Bran_. In
+this tale idealism is the inspiration that leads the hero into the
+unknown world. A woman appears who is invisible to all but Bran, and
+whose song of the beauteous supernatural land beyond the wave is
+heard by none but him; so that, after refusing to go with her the
+first time she appears, at length he steps into her boat of glass and
+sails away to view the wonders and taste the joys of the other world.
+
+In these tales we have two main elements, one real and one ideal. The
+real element is the fact that the ancient Irish unquestionably made
+voyages and visited lands which the fervid Celtic imagination and the
+lapse of time transformed into the wonderful regions of the legends.
+The stories are thus early geographies, and they show unmistakably a
+knowledge of western Europe and of the Canary Islands or some other
+tropical regions; perhaps also, some have gone so far as to claim,
+they are reminiscent of voyages to America.
+
+The ideal element is no less important as indicating achievement, for
+it shows that the Irish poets of pagan times had not only realized,
+but had succeeded in making their national traditions embody, the
+fact that love of justice and aspiration for knowledge are the
+foundations of all enduring human achievement and all perfect human
+joy. Christianity therefore found moral and spiritual ideas of a
+highly developed order in pagan Ireland, and it did not hesitate to
+adopt whatever in the literature of the country illustrated its own
+teachings, and not only were these stories of visits to the other
+world full of suggestions as to ways of enforcing Christian doctrine,
+but the Irish church and men of Irish birth were the most active in
+spreading the faith in the early centuries of its conquest of western
+Europe.
+
+For these reasons it is not strange that all the earliest Christian
+visions of the spirit-world were of Irish origin. We find the
+earliest in the _Ecclesiastical History_ of the "Venerable Bede," who
+died in 735. It is the story of how an Irishman of great sanctity,
+Furseus by name, was taken in spirit by three angels to a place from
+which he looked down and saw the four fires that are to consume the
+world: those of falsehood, avarice, discord, fraud and impiety. In
+this there is the germ of some very fundamental things in Dante's
+poem, and we know that Dante knew Bede and had probably read his
+history, for he places him in Paradise and mentions him elsewhere in
+his works.
+
+In Bede's work there is also another vision, and though in this
+second case the man who visits the spirit-world is not an Irishman,
+but a Saxon named Drithelm, yet the story came to Bede through an
+Irish monk named Haemgils; so it, too, is connected with Ireland, and
+it also contains much that is developed further in the _Divine
+Comedy_.
+
+One of the most celebrated of the works belonging to this class of
+so-called "visionary" writings is the _Fis_ or "Vision" which goes
+under the name of the famous Irish saint, Adamnan, who was poetically
+entitled the "High Scholar of the Western World." This particular
+vision, the _Fis Adamnain_, is remarkable among other things for its
+literary quality, which is far superior to anything of the time, and
+for the fact that it represents "the highest level of the school to
+which it belonged," and that it is "the most important contribution
+made to the growth of the legend within the Christian Church prior to
+the advent of Dante."
+
+Another Irish vision of great popularity all over Europe in the
+Middle Ages is the _Voyage of Saint Brendan_. This is known as the
+Irish Odyssey, and it is similar to the pagan tales of Maelduin and
+Bran, except that instead of its hero being a dauntless warrior
+seeking vengeance or a noble youth seeking happiness, he is a
+Christian saint in quest of peace; and instead of the perils of the
+way being overcome by physical force or the favor of some capricious
+pagan deity, they are averted by the power of faith and virtue.
+
+The _Voyage of Saint Brendan_, like its pagan predecessors, has a
+real and an ideal basis; and in both respects it shows an advancement
+over its prototypes. It contains some very poetic touches, and is
+credited with being the source of some of the most effective features
+of Dante's poem. Its great popularity is shown by the fact that
+Caxton, the first English printer, published a translation of it in
+1483; so that it was among the first books printed in English, and
+for that reason must have been one of the best-known works of the
+time. Dante undoubtedly knew it, for he was a great scholar in the
+learning of his day, and especially in ecclesiastical history and the
+biography of saints.
+
+Another vision of Irish origin that Dante and other writers have
+borrowed from is that of an Irish soldier named Tundale. He is said
+to have been a very wicked and proud man, who refused to a friend who
+owed him for three horses an extension of time in which to pay for
+them. For this he was struck down by an invisible hand so that he
+remained apparently dead from Wednesday till Saturday, when he
+revived and told a story of a visit to the world of the dead that has
+many features later embodied in the _Divine Comedy_. Tundale's vision
+is said to have taken place in 1149; Dante probably wrote his poem
+between 1314 and 1321.
+
+The Irish also produced another legend of this sort that was
+enormously and universally popular, and became the chief authority on
+the nature of heaven and hell, in the story of _Saint Patrick's
+Purgatory_. Saint Patrick was said to have been granted a view of
+heaven and hell, and a certain island in Lough Derg in Donegal was
+reputed to be the spot in which he had begun his journey; and there,
+it was said, those who desired to purge themselves of their sins
+could enter as he had entered and come back to the world again,
+provided their faith was strong enough.
+
+This legend was probably known in Ireland from a very early time, but
+it had spread over all western Europe by the twelfth century. Henry
+of Saltrey, a Benedictine monk of the Abbey of that name in England,
+wrote an account in Latin of the descent of an Irish soldier named
+Owen into Saint Patrick's Purgatory in 1153; and this story soon
+became the subject of poetic treatment all over Europe. We have
+several French versions, one by the celebrated French poetess Marie
+de France, who lived about 1200; and there are others in all the
+languages of Europe, besides evidence of its wide circulation in the
+original Latin. Its importance is shown by the fact that it is
+mentioned by Matthew Paris, the chief English historian of the
+thirteenth century, and also by Froissart, the well-known French
+annalist of the fourteenth while Calderon, the great Spanish
+dramatist, has written a play based on the legend. Dante undoubtedly
+knew of Marie de France's version as well as the original of Henry of
+Saltrey and probably others besides.
+
+From what has been said it will be seen that Dante's masterpiece is
+largely based on literature of Irish origin; but there are other
+superlative exhibitions of human genius of which the same is true.
+One of these is the story of Tristan and Isolde. Tristan is the
+paragon of all knightly accomplishments, the most versatile figure in
+the entire literature of chivalry; while Isolde is an Irish princess.
+By a trick of fate these two drink a love potion inadvertently and
+become irresistibly enamored of each other, although Isolde is
+betrothed to King Mark of Cornwall, and Tristan is his nephew and
+ambassador. The story that follows is infinitely varied, intensely
+dramatic, delicately beautiful, and tenderly pathetic. It has been
+treated by several poets of great genius, among them Gottfried of
+Strassburg, the greatest German poet of his time, and Richard Wagner;
+but all the beauty and power in the works of these men existed in the
+original Celtic form of the tale, and the later writers have only
+discovered it and brought it to light.
+
+The same thing is true of the Arthurian Legend and the story of the
+Holy Grail. Dante knew of King Arthur's fame, and mentions him in the
+_Inferno_. To Dante he was a Christian hero, and the historical
+Arthur may have been a Christian; but much in the story goes back to
+the pagan Celtic religion. We can find in Irish literature many
+references that indicate a belief in a self-sustaining, miraculous
+object similar to the Holy Grail, and the fact that this object was
+developed into a symbol of some of the deepest and most beautiful
+Christian truths shows the high character of the civilization and
+literature of ancient Ireland.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Wright: St. Patrick's Purgatory (London, 1844); Krapp: The Legend of
+St. Patrick's Purgatory (Baltimore, 1900); Becker: Mediaeval Visions
+of Heaven and Hell (Baltimore, 1899); Shackford: Legends and Satires
+(Boston, 1913); Meyer and Nutt: The Voyage of Bran, edited and
+translated by K. Meyer, with an Essay on the Irish Version of the
+Happy Other World and the Celtic Doctrine of Rebirth, by A. Nutt, 2
+vols. (London, 1895); Boswell: An Irish Precursor of Dante (London,
+1908).
+
+
+
+IRISH INFLUENCE ON ENGLISH LITERATURE
+
+By E.C. QUIGGIN, M.A.
+
+
+Among the literary peoples of the west of Europe, the Irish, in late
+medieval and early modern times, were singularly little affected by
+the frequent innovations in taste and theme which influenced Romance
+and Teutonic nations alike. To such an extent is this true, that one
+is often inclined to think that far-off Iceland was to a greater
+degree in the general European current than the much more accessible
+Erin. During the age of chivalry, conditions in Ireland were not
+calculated to promote the growth of epic and lyric poetry after the
+continental manner. Some considerable time elapsed before the Norman
+barons became fully Hibernicised, previous to which their interest
+may be assumed to have turned to the compositions of the trouveres.
+In the early Norman period, the poets of Ireland might well have
+begun to imitate Romance models. But, strange to say, they did not,
+and, for this, various reasons might be assigned. The flowing verses
+of the Anglo-Norman were impossible for men who delighted in the
+trammels of the native prosody; and in the heyday of French
+influence, the patrons of letters in Ireland probably insisted on
+hearing the foreign compositions in their original dress, as these
+nobles were doubtless sufficiently versed in Norman-French to be able
+to appreciate them. But a still more potent factor was the
+conservatism of the hereditary Irish poet families. A close
+corporation, they appear to have resented every innovation, and were
+content to continue the tradition of their ancestors. The direct
+consequence of this tenacious clinging to the fashions of by-gone
+days rendered it impossible, nay almost inconceivable, that the
+literary men of Ireland should have exerted any profound or immediate
+influence upon England or western Europe. Yet, nowadays, few serious
+scholars will be prepared to deny that the island contributed in
+considerable measure to the common literary stock of the Middle Ages.
+
+We might expect to find that direct influence, as a general rule, can
+be most easily traced in the case of religious themes. Here, in the
+literature of vision, so popular in Ireland, a chord was struck which
+continued to vibrate powerfully until the time of the Reformation. In
+this branch the riotous fancy of the Celtic monk caught the medieval
+imagination from an early period. Bede has preserved for us the story
+of Fursey, an Irish hermit who died in France, A.D. 650. The greatest
+Irish composition of this class with which we are acquainted, the
+_Vision of Adamnan_, does not appear to have been known outside the
+island, but a later work of a similar nature met with striking
+success. This was the _Vision of Tundale_ (Tnudgal), written in Latin
+by an Irishman named Marcus at Regensburg, about the middle of the
+twelfth century. It seems probable that this work was known to Dante,
+and, in addition to the numerous continental versions, there is a
+rendering of the story into Middle English verse.
+
+Closely allied to the Visions are the _Imrama_ or "voyages" (Lat.
+_navigationes_). The earliest romances of this class are secular,
+_e.g., Imram Maelduin_, which provided Tennyson with the frame-work
+of his well-known poem. However, the notorious love of adventure on
+the part of the Irish monks inevitably led to the composition of
+religious romances of a similar kind. The most famous story of this
+description, the_ Voyage of St. Brendan_, found its way into every
+Christian country in Europe, and consequently figures in the South
+English Legendary, a collection of versified lives of saints made in
+the neighborhood of Gloucester towards the end of the thirteenth
+century. The episode of St. Brendan and the whale, moreover, was
+probably the ultimate source of one of Milton's best known similes in
+his description of Satan. Equally popular was the visit of Sir Owayn
+to the Purgatory of St. Patrick, which is also included in the same
+Middle English Legendary. Ireland further contributed in some measure
+to the common stock of medieval stories which were used as
+illustrations by the preachers and in works of an edifying character.
+
+When we turn to purely secular themes, we find ourselves on much less
+certain ground. Though the discussion as to the origins of the
+"romance of Uther's son", Arthur, continues with unabated vigor, many
+scholars have come think that the Celtic background of these stories
+contains much that is derived from Hibernian sources. Some writers in
+the past have argued in favor of an independent survival of common
+Celtic features, in Wales and Ireland, but now the tendency is to
+regard all such coincidences as borrowings on the part of Cymric
+craftsmen. At the beginning of the twelfth century a new impulse
+seems to have been imparted to native minstrelsy in Wales under'the
+patronage of Gruffydd ap Cynan, a prince of Gwynedd, who had spent
+many years in exile at the court of Dublin. Some of the Welsh
+rhapsodists apparently served a kind of apprenticeship with their
+Irish brethren, and many things Irish were assimilated at this time
+which, through this channel, were shortly to find their way into
+Anglo-French. Thus it may now be regarded as certain that the name of
+the "fair sword" Excalibur, by Geoffrey called Caliburnus (Welsh
+_caletfwlch_), is taken from Caladbolg, the far-famed broadsword of
+Fergus macRoig. It does not appear that the whole framework of the
+Irish sagas was taken over, but, as Windisch points out, episodes
+were borrowed as well as tricks of imagery. So, to mention but one,
+the central incident of _Syr Gawayn and the Grene Knyght_ is
+doubtless taken from the similar adventure of Cuchulainn in
+_Bricriu's Feast_. The share assigned to Irish influence in the
+_matiere de Bretagne_ is likely to grow considerably with the
+progress of research.
+
+The fairy lore of Great Britain undoubtedly owes much to Celtic
+phantasy. Of this Chaucer, at any rate, had little doubt, as he
+writes:
+
+      In th' olde dayes of the King Arthour,
+      Of which that Britons speken greet honour,
+      Al was this land fulfild of fayerye;
+      The elf-queen, with hir joly companye,
+      Daunced ful ofte in many a grene med.
+
+And here again there is a reasonable probability that certain
+features were borrowed from the wealth of story current in the
+neighboring isle. Otherwise it is difficult to understand why the
+queen of fayerye should bear an Irish name (Mab, from Irish Medb),
+and curiously enough the form of the name rathef suggests that it was
+borrowed through a written medium and not by oral tradition. On the
+other hand it is incorrect to derive Puck from Irish _puca_, as the
+latter is undoubtedly borrowed from some form of Teutonic speech.
+
+So all embracing a mind as that of the greatest English dramatist
+could not fail to be interested in the gossip that must have been
+current in London at the time of the wars in Ulster. References to
+kerns and gallowglasses are fairly frequent. He had evidently heard
+of the marvellous powers with which the Irish bards were credited,
+for, in _As You Like It_, Rosalind exclaims:
+
+"I was never so be-rhymed since Pythagoras' time, that I was an Irish
+rat, which I can hardly remember."
+
+Similarly, in _King Richard III_, mention is made of the prophetic
+utterance of an Irish bard, a trait which does not appear in the
+poet's source. Any statements as to Irish influence in Shakespeare
+that go beyond this belong to the realm of conjecture. Professor
+Kittredge has attempted to show that in Syr Orfeo, upon which the
+poet drew for portions of the plot of _A Midsummer Night's Dream_,
+the Irish story of Etain and Mider was fused with the medieval form
+of the classical tale of Orpheus and Eurydice. Direct influence is
+entirely wanting, and it is difficult to see how it could have been
+otherwise.
+
+Even in the case of the Elizabethan poet who spent many years in the
+south of Ireland, there is no trace of Hibernian lore or legend.
+Spenser, indeed, tells us himself that he had caused some of the
+native poetry to be translated to him, and had found that it
+"savoured of sweet wit and good invention." But Ireland plays an
+infinitesimal part in the _Faerie Queene_. The scenery round
+Kilcolman Castle forms the background of much of the incident in Book
+V. "Marble far from Ireland brought" is mentioned in a simile in the
+second Book, where we also read:
+
+      As when a swarme of gnats at eventide
+      Out of the fennes of Allan do arise.
+
+But Ireland supplied no further inspiration.
+
+The various plantations of the seventeenth century produced an
+Anglo-Irish stock which soon asserted itself in literature. As a
+typical example, we may take the author of _The Vicar of Wakefield_.
+At his first school at Lissoy, Oliver Goldsmith came under Thomas
+Byrne, a regular shanachie, possessed of all the traditional lore,
+with a remarkable gift for versifying. It was under this man that the
+boy made his first attempts at verse, and his memory is celebrated in
+_The Deserted Village_:
+
+      There, in his noisy mansion, skilled to rule,
+      The village master taught his little school.
+      A man severe he was, and stern to view.
+
+Unfortunately Goldsmith was removed to Elphin at the age of nine, and
+although he retained an affection for Irish music all his life, his
+intimate connection with Irish Ireland apparently ceased at this
+point. "Sweet Auburn! loveliest village of the plain" is doubtless
+full of reminiscences of the poet's early years in Westmeath, but the
+sentiments, the rhythm, and the language are entirely cast in an
+English mould. We may mention, in passing, that it has been suggested
+that Swift derived the idea of the kingdom of Lilliput from the Irish
+story of the Adventures of Fergus macLeide amongst the leprechauns.
+All that can be said is that this derivation is not impossible,
+though the fact that the tale is preserved only in a single
+manuscript rather points to the conclusion that the story did not
+enjoy great popularity in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries.
+
+We have seen that Goldsmith was removed from an Irish atmosphere at a
+tender age, and this is not the only instance of the frowning of
+fortune upon the native literature. When the fame of the ancient
+bards of the Gael was noised from end to end of Europe, it was
+through the medium of Macpherson's forgeries. _Fingal_ caught the
+fleeting fancy of the moment in a manner never achieved by the true
+Ossianic lays of Ireland. The _Reliques of Irish Poetry_, published
+by Miss Brooke by subscription in Dublin in 1789 to vindicate the
+antiquity of the literature of Erin, never went into a second
+edition. And although some of the pieces contained in that volume
+have been reprinted in such undertakings of a learned character as
+the volumes of the Dublin Ossianic Society, J.F. Campbell's _Leabhar
+na Feinne_, and Cameron's _Reliquiae Celticae_, they have aroused
+little interest amongst those ignorant of the Irish tongue.
+
+During the nineteenth century, the number of poets who drew upon
+Ireland's past for their themes increased considerably. The most
+popular of all is unquestionably the author of the _Irish Melodies_.
+But, here again, the poet owes little or nothing to vernacular
+poetry, the mould is English, the sentiments are those of the poet's
+age. Moore's acquaintance with the native language can have been but
+of the slightest, and in the case of Mangan we are told that he had
+to rely upon literal versions of Irish pieces furnished him by
+O'Donovan or O'Curry. Of the numerous attempts to reproduce the
+overelaboration of rhyme to which Irish verse has ever been prone,
+Father Prout's _Bells of Shandon_ is perhaps the only one that is at
+all widely known. When the legendary lore of Ireland became
+accessible to men of letters, owing to the labors of O'Curry,
+O'Donovan, and Hennessy, and the publication of various ancient texts
+by the Irish Archaeological Society, it was to be expected that an
+attempt would be made by some poet of Erin to do for his native land
+what the Wizard of the North had accomplished for Scotland. The task
+was undertaken by Sir Samuel Ferguson, who met with conspicuous
+success. His most ambitious effort, _Congal_, deals in epic fashion
+with the story of the battle of Moyra. Others in similar strain treat
+the story of Conaire Mor and Deirdre, whilst others such as the
+_Tain-Quest_ are more in the nature of ballads. Ferguson did more to
+introduce the English reading public to Irish story than would have
+been accomplished by any number of bald translations. His diction is
+little affected by the originals, and he sometimes treats his
+materials with great freedom, but his achievement was a notable one,
+and he has not infrequently been acclaimed as the national poet.
+
+Is it perhaps invidious to single out any living author for special
+mention, but this brief survey cannot close without noticing the
+dramatic poems of W.B. Yeats, the latest poet who attempts to present
+the old stories in an English dress. His plays _On Baile's Strand,
+Deirdre_, and others, have become familiar to English audiences
+through the excellent acting of the members of the Abbey Theatre
+Company. The original texts are now much better known than they were
+in Ferguson's day, and Mr. Yeats consequently cannot permit himself
+the same liberties. Similarly, it is only during the last twenty-five
+years that the language of Irish poetry has been carefully studied,
+and Mr. Yeats has this advantage over his predecessors that on
+occasion, e.g., in certain passages in _The King's Threshold_, he is
+able to introduce with great effect reminiscences of the
+characteristic epithets and imagery which formed so large a part of
+the stock-in-trade of the medieval bard.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Friedel and Meyer: La Vision de Tondale (Paris, 1907); Boswell: An
+Irish Precursor of Dante (London, 1908); Cambridge History of English
+Literature, vol. I, chaps, xii and xvi; Windisch: _Das Keltische
+Brittannien_ (Leipzig, 1912), more especially chap. xxxvii;
+Dictionary of National Biography; Gwynn: Thos. Moore ("English Men of
+Letters" Series, London, 1905).
+
+
+
+IRISH FOLKLORE
+
+By ALFRED PERCEVAL GRAVES.
+
+
+Among savage peoples there is at first no distinction of a definite
+kind between good and bad spirits, and when a distinction has been
+reached, a great advance in a spiritual direction has been made. For
+the key to the religion of savages is fear, and until such terror has
+been counteracted by belief in beneficent powers, civilization will
+not follow. But the elimination of the fear of the unseen is a slow
+process; indeed, it will exist side by side with the belief in
+Christianity itself, after a modification through various stages of
+better pagan belief.
+
+Ireland still presents, in its more out-of-the-way districts,
+evidence of that strong persistence in the belief in maleficent or
+malicious influences of the pre-Christian powers of the air, which it
+seems difficult to eradicate from the Celtic imagination. In the
+celebrated poem entitled _The Breastplate of St. Patrick_, there is
+much the same attitude on the part of Patrick towards the Druids and
+their powers of concealing and changing, of paralyzing and cursing,
+as was shown by Moses towards the magicians of Egypt. Indeed, in
+Patrick's time a belief in a world of fairies existed even in the
+king's household, for "when the two daughters of King Leary of
+Ireland, Ethnea the fair and Fedelma the ruddy, came early one
+morning to the well of Clebach to wash, they found there a synod of
+holy bishops with Patrick. And they knew not whence they came, or in
+what form, or from what people, or from what country; but they
+supposed them to be _Duine Sidh_, or gods of the earth, or a
+phantasm."
+
+Colgan explains the term _Duine Sidh_ thus: "Fantastical spirits," he
+writes, "are by the Irish called men of the _Sidh_, because they are
+seen, as it were, to come out of the beautiful hills to infest men,
+and hence the vulgar belief that they reside in certain subterranean
+habitations: and sometimes the hills themselves are called, by the
+Irish, _Sidhe_ or _Siodha_."
+
+No doubt, when the princesses spoke of the gods of the earth,
+reference was made to such pagan deities as Beal; Dagda the great or
+the good god; Aine, the Moon, goddess of the water and of wisdom;
+Manannan macLir, the Irish Neptune; Crom, the Irish Ceres; and
+Iphinn, the benevolent, whose relations to the Irish Oirfidh
+resembled those of Apollo towards Orpheus; and to the allegiance they
+owed to the Elements, the Wind, and the Stars. But besides these
+pagan divinities and powers, and quite apart from them, the early
+Irish believed in two classes of fairies: in the first place, a
+hierarchy of fairy beings, well and ill disposed, not differing in
+appearance, to any great degree at any rate, from human beings--good
+spirits and demons, rarely visible during the daytime; and, in the
+second place, there was the magic race of the De Danann, who, after
+conquest by the Milesians, transformed themselves into fairies, and
+in that guise continued to inhabit the underworld of the Irish hills,
+and to issue thence in support of Irish heroes, or to give their aid
+against other fairy adversaries.
+
+There is another theory to account for the fairy race. It is that
+they are angels who revolted with Satan and were excluded from heaven
+for their unworthiness, but were not found evil enough for hell, and
+therefore were allowed to occupy that intermediate space which has
+been called "the Other World." It is still a moot point with the
+Irish peasantry, as it was with the Irish saints of old, whether,
+after being compelled to dwell without death among rocks and hills,
+lakes and seas, bushes and forest, till the day of judgment, the
+fairies then have the chance of salvation. Indeed, the fairies are
+themselves believed to have great doubts of a future existence,
+though, like many men, entertaining undefined hopes of happiness; and
+hence the enmity which some of them have for mankind, who, they
+acknowledge, will live eternally. Thus their actions are balanced
+between generosity and vindictiveness towards the human race.
+
+Mr. W.Y. Evans Wentz, A.M., of Leland Stanford University,
+California, and Jesus College, Oxford, has received an honorary
+degree from the latter university for his thesis, "The Fairy Faith in
+Celtic Countries: Its Psychical Origin and Nature", a most laborious
+as well as ingenious work, whose object is to prove "that the origin
+of the fairy faith is psychical, and that fairyland, being thought of
+as an invisible world within which the visible world is immersed as
+an island in an unexplored ocean, actually exists, and that it is
+peopled by more species of living beings than this world, because
+incomparably more vast and varied in its possibilities." This may be
+added as a fourth theory to account for the existence of fairies, and
+it may be further stated here that the Irish popular belief in ghosts
+attributes to some of their departed spirits much of the same
+violence and malice with which fairies are credited. Mr. Jeremiah
+Curtin gives striking instances of this kind in his book, the _Folk
+Lore of West Kerry_.
+
+It became necessary, therefore, for the Gaels who believed in the
+preternatural powers of the fairies for good and ill to propitiate
+them as far as possible. On May eve, accordingly, cattle were driven
+into raths and bled there, some of the blood being tasted, the rest
+poured out in sacrifice. Men and women were also bled on these
+occasions. The seekers for buried treasure, over which fairies were
+supposed to have influence, immolated a black cock or a black cat to
+propitiate them. Again, a cow, suffering from sickness believed to be
+due to fairy malice, was bled and then devoted to St. Martin. If it
+recovered, it was never sold or killed. The first new milk of a cow
+was poured out on the ground to propitiate the fairies, and
+especially on the ground within a fairy rath. The first drop of any
+drink is also thrown out by old Irish people. If a child spills milk,
+the mother says, "that's for the fairies, leave it to them and
+welcome." Slops should never be thrown out of doors without the
+warning, "Take care of water!" lest fairies should be passing
+invisibly and get soiled by the discharge. Eddies of dust upon the
+road are supposed to be caused by the fairies, and tufts of grass,
+sticks, and pebbles are thrown into the centre of the eddy to
+propitiate the unseen beings. Some fairies of life size, who live
+within the green hills or under the raths, are supposed to carry off
+healthy babes to be made fairy children, their abstractors leaving
+weak changelings in their place. Similarly, nursing mothers are
+sometimes supposed to be carried off to give the breast to fairy
+babes, and handsome young men are spirited away to become bridegrooms
+to fairy brides. Again, folk suffering from falling sickness are
+supposed to be in that condition owing to the fatigue caused by
+nocturnal rides through the air with the fairies, whose steeds are
+bewitched rushes, blades of grass, straws, fern roots, and cabbage
+stalks. The latter, to be serviceable for the purpose, should be cut
+into the rude shapes of horses before the metamorphosis can take
+place.
+
+Iron of every kind keeps away malignant fairies: thus, a horseshoe
+nailed to the bottom of the churn prevents butter from being
+bewitched. Here is a form of charm against the fairies who have
+bewitched the butter: "Every window should be barred, a great turf
+fire should be lit upon which nine irons should be placed, the
+bystanders chanting twice over in Irish, 'Come, butter, come; Peter
+stands at the gate waiting for a buttered cake.' As the irons become
+heated the witch will try to break in, asking the people to take the
+irons, which are burning her, off the fire. On their refusing, she
+will go and bring back the butter to the churn. The irons may then be
+removed from the fire and all will go well."
+
+If a neighbor or stranger should enter a cottage during the churning,
+he should put his hand to the dash, or the butter will not come. A
+small piece of iron should be sewed into an infant's clothes and kept
+there until the child is baptized, and salt should be sprinkled over
+his cradle to preserve the babe from abduction. The fairies are
+supposed to have been conquered by an iron-weaponed race, and hence
+their dread of the metal.
+
+To recover a spell-bound friend, stand on All Hallows' eve at cross
+roads or at a spot pointed out by a wise woman or fairy doctor. When
+you have rubbed fairy ointment on your eyelids, the fairies will
+become visible as the host sweeps by with its captive, whom the gazer
+will then be able to recognize. A sudden gust announces their
+approach. Stooping down, you will then throw dust or milk at the
+procession, whose members are then obliged to surrender your
+spell-bound friend. If a man leaves home after his wife's
+confinement, some of his clothes should be spread over the mother and
+infant, or the fairies may carry them off. It is good for a woman,
+but bad for a man, to dream of fairies. It betokens marriage for a
+girl, misfortune for a man, who should not undertake serious business
+for some time after such dreaming.
+
+Fairy changelings may be recognized by tricky habits, constant
+crying, and other unusual characteristics. It was customary to
+recover the true child in the following way: The changeling was
+placed upon an iron shovel over the fire, when it would go shrieking
+up the chimney, and the _bona fide_ human child would be restored. It
+was believed that fairy changelings often produced a set of small
+bagpipes from under the clothes and played dance music upon them,
+till the inmates of the cottage dropped with exhaustion from the
+effects of the step dancing they were compelled to engage in.
+
+On Samain eve, the night before the first of November, or, as it is
+now called, All Hallows' night or Hallowe'en, all the fairy hills or
+_shees_ are thrown wide open and the fairy host issues forth, as
+mortals who are bold enough to venture near may see. Naturally
+therefore people keep indoors so as not to encounter the spectral
+host. The superstition that the fairies are abroad on Samain night
+still exists in Ireland and Scotland, and there is a further belief,
+no doubt derived from it, that the graves are open on that night and
+that the spirits of the dead are abroad.
+
+Salt, as already suggested, is regarded to be so lucky that if a
+child falls, it should always be given three pinches of salt, and if
+a neighbor calls to borrow salt, it should not be refused, even
+though it be the last grain in the house.
+
+An infant born with teeth should have them drawn by the nearest
+smith, and the first teeth when shed should be thrown into the fire,
+lest the fairies should get hold of what had been part of you.
+
+Those who hear fairy music are supposed to be haunted by the melody,
+and many are believed to go mad or commit suicide in consequence.
+
+The fairies are thought to engage in warfare with one another, and in
+the year 1800 a specially sanguinary battle was believed to have been
+fought between two clans of the fairies in county Kilkenny. In the
+morning the hawthorns along the fences were found crushed to pieces
+and drenched with blood.
+
+In popular belief fairies often go hunting, and faint sounds of fairy
+horns, the baying of fairy hounds, and the cracking of fairy whips
+are supposed to be heard on these occasions, while the flight of the
+hunters is said to resemble in sound the humming of bees.
+
+Besides the life-sized fairies who are reputed to have these direct
+dealings with human beings, there are diminutive preternatural beings
+who are also supposed to come into close touch with men. Among these
+is the Luchryman (_Leithphrogan_), or brogue maker, otherwise known
+as Leprechaun. He is always found mending or making a shoe, and, if
+grasped firmly and kept constantly in view, will disclose hidden
+treasure to you, or render up his _sparan na sgillinge_, or purse of
+the (inexhaustible) shilling. He can only be bound by a plough chain
+or woolen thread. He is the symbol of industry which, if steadily
+faced, leads to fortune, but, if lost sight of, is followed by its
+forfeiture.
+
+Love in idleness is personified by another pigmy, the _Geancanach_
+(love-talker). He does not appear, like the Leprechaun, with a purse
+in one of his pockets, but with his hands in both of them, and a
+_dudeen_ (short pipe) in his mouth, as he lazily strolls through
+lonely valleys making love to the foolish country lasses and
+"gostering" with the idle "boys." To meet him meant bad luck, and
+whoever was ruined by ill-judged love was said to have been with the
+_Geancanach_.
+
+Another evil sprite was the _Clobher-ceann_, "a jolly, red-faced,
+drunken little fellow," always "found astride of a wine-butt" singing
+and drinking from a full tankard in a hard drinker's cellar, and
+bound by his appearance to bring its owner to speedy ruin.
+
+Then there were the _Leannan-sighes_, or native Muses, to be found in
+every place of note to inspire the local bard, and the _Beansighes_
+(Banshees, fairy women) attached to each of the old Irish families
+and giving warning of the death of one of its members with piteous
+lamentations.
+
+Black Joanna of the Boyne (_Siubhan Dubh na Boinne_) appeared on
+Hallowe'en in the shape of a great black fowl, bringing luck to the
+home whose _Banithee_ (woman of the house) kept the dwelling
+constantly clean and neat.
+
+The Pooka, who appeared in the shape of a horse, and whom Shakespeare
+is by many believed to have adapted as "Puck," was a goblin who
+combined "horse-play" with viciousness, but also at times helped with
+the housework.
+
+The _Dullaghan_ was a churchyard demon whose head was of a movable
+kind. Dr. Joyce writes: "You generally meet him with his head in his
+pocket, under his arm, or absent altogether; or if you have the
+fortune to light upon a number of _Dullaghans_, you may see them
+amusing themselves by flinging their heads at one another or kicking
+them for footballs."
+
+An even more terrible churchyard demon is the fascinating phantom
+that waylays the widower at his wife's very tomb, and poisons him by
+her kiss when he has yielded to her blandishments.
+
+Of monsters the Irish had, and still believe in, the _Piast_ (Latin
+_bestia_), a huge dragon or serpent confined to lakes by St. Patrick
+till the day of judgment, but still occasionally seen in their
+waters. In old Fenian times, namely, the days of Finn and his
+companion knights, the _Piasts_, however, roamed the country,
+devouring men and women and cattle in large numbers, and some of the
+early heroes are recorded to have been swallowed alive by them and
+then to have hewed their way out of their entrails.
+
+Merrows, or Mermaids, are also still believed in, and many folk tales
+exist describing their intermarriage with mortals.
+
+According to Nicholas O'Kearney, "It is the general opinion of many
+old persons versed in native traditional lore, that, before the
+introduction of Christianity, all animals possessed the faculties of
+human reason and speech; and old story-tellers will gravely inform
+you that every beast could speak before the arrival of St. Patrick,
+but that the saint having expelled the demons from the land by the
+sound of his bell, all the animals that, before that time, had
+possessed the power of foretelling future events, such as the Black
+Steed of _Binn-each-labhra_, the Royal Cat of _Cloughmagh-righ-cat_
+(Clough), and others, became mute, and many of them fled to Egypt and
+other foreign countries."
+
+Cats are said to have been appointed to guard hidden treasures; and
+there are few who have not heard old Irish people tell about strange
+meetings of cats and violent battles fought by them in the
+neighborhood. "It was believed," adds O'Kearney, "that an evil spirit
+in the shape of a cat assumed command over these animals in various
+districts, and that when those wicked beings pleased they could
+compel all the cats belonging to their division to attack those of
+some other district. The same was said of rats; and rat-expellers,
+when commanding a colony of those troublesome and destructive animals
+to emigrate to some other place, used to address their 'billet' to
+the infernal rat supposed to hold command over the rest. In a curious
+pamphlet on the power of bardic compositions to charm and expel rats,
+lately published, Mr. Eugene O'Curry states that a degraded priest,
+who was descended from an ancient family of hereditary bards, was
+enabled to expel a colony of rats by the force of satire!"
+
+Hence, of course, Shakespeare's reference to rhyming Irish rats to
+death.
+
+It will thus be seen that Irish Fairy Lore well deserves to have been
+called by Mr. Alfred Nutt, one of the leading authorities on the
+subject, "as fair and bounteous a harvest of myth and romance as ever
+flourished among any race."
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Alex. Carmichael: Carmina Gadelica; David Comyn: The Boyish Exploits
+of Finn; the Periodical, "Folklore"; Lady Gregory: Cuchulain of
+Muirthemne, Gods and Fighting Men; Miss Eleanor Hull: The Cuchulain
+Saga in Irish Literature; Douglas Hyde: Beside the Fire, (a
+collection of Irish Gaelic Folk Stories), _Leabhar Sgeulaicheachta_,
+(Folk Stories in Irish); "Irish Penny Journal"; Patrick Kennedy: The
+Fireside Stories of Ireland, Legendary Fictions of the Irish Celt;
+Standish Hayes O'Grady: Silva Gadelica; Wood-Martin: Traces of the
+Elder Faiths in Ireland, Pagan Ireland; W.Y. Wentz: The Fairy Faith
+in Celtic Countries; Lady Wilde: Charms, Incantations, etc.; Celtic
+articles in Hastings' Dictionary of Religion and Ethics.
+
+
+
+IRISH WIT AND HUMOR
+
+By Charles L. Graves.
+
+
+No record of the glories of Ireland would be complete without an
+effort, however inadequate, to analyze and illustrate her wit and
+humor. Often misunderstood, misrepresented, and misinterpreted, they
+are nevertheless universally admitted to be racial traits, and for an
+excellent reason. Other nations exhibit these qualities in their
+literature, and Ireland herself is rich in writers who have furnished
+food for mirth. But her special pre-eminence resides in the
+possession of what, to adapt a famous phrase, may be called an _anima
+naturaliter jocosa_. Irish wit and Irish humor are a national
+inheritance. They are inherent in the race as a whole, independent of
+education or culture or comfort. The best Irish sayings are the
+sayings of the people; the greatest Irish humorists are the nameless
+multitude who have never written books or found a place in national
+dictionaries of biography. None but an Irishman could have coined
+that supreme expression of contempt: "I wouldn't be seen dead with
+him at a pig-fair," or rebuked a young barrister because he did not
+"squandher his carcass" (_i.e._, gesticulate) enough. But we cannot
+trace the paternity of these sayings any more than we can that of the
+lightning retort of the man to whom one of the "quality" had given a
+glass of whisky. "That's made another man of you, Patsy," remarked
+the donor. "'Deed an' it has, sor," Patsy flashed back, "an' that
+other man would be glad of another glass." It is enough for our
+purpose to note that such sayings are typically Irish and that their
+peculiar felicity consists in their combining both wit and humor.
+
+To what element in the Irish nature are we to attribute this joyous
+and illuminating gift? No one who is not a Gaelic scholar can venture
+to dogmatize on this thorny subject. But, setting philology and
+politics aside, it is hard to avoid the conclusion that Ireland has
+gained rather than lost in this respect by the clash of races and
+languages. Gaiety, we are told, is not the predominating
+characteristic of the Celtic temperament, nor is it reflected in the
+prose and verse of the "old ancient days" that have come down to us.
+Glamour and magic and passion abound in the lays and legends of the
+ancient Gael, but there is more melancholy than mirth in these tales
+of long ago. Indeed, it is interesting to note in connection with
+this subject that the younger school of Irish writers associated with
+what is called the Celtic Renascence have, with very few exceptions,
+sedulously eschewed anything approaching to jocosity, preferring the
+paths of crepuscular mysticism or sombre realism, and openly avowing
+their distaste for what they consider to be the denationalized
+sentiment of Moore, Lever, and Lover. To say this is not to disparage
+the genius of Yeats and Synge; it is merely a statement of fact and
+an illustration of the eternal dualism of the Irish temperament,
+which Moore himself realized when he wrote of "Erin, the tear and the
+smile in thine eye."
+
+A reaction against the Donnybrook tradition was inevitable and to a
+great extent wholesome, since the stage Irishman of the transpontine
+drama or the music-halls was for the most part a gross and unlovely
+caricature, but, like all reactions, it has tended to obscure the
+real merits and services of those who showed the other side of the
+medal. Lever did not exaggerate more than Dickens, and his portraits
+of Galway fox-hunters and duellists, of soldiers of fortune, and of
+Dublin undergraduates were largely based on fact. At his best he was
+a most exhilarating companion, and his pictures of Irish life, if
+partial, were not misleading. He held no brief for the landlords, and
+in his later novels showed a keen sense of their shortcomings. The
+plain fact is that, in considering the literary glories of Ireland,
+we cannot possibly overlook the work of those Irishmen who were
+affected by English influences or wrote for an English audience.
+
+Anglo-Irish humorous literature was a comparatively late product, but
+its efflorescence was rapid and triumphant. The first great name is
+that of Goldsmith, and, though deeply influenced in technique and
+choice of subjects by his association with English men of letters and
+by his residence in England, in spirit he remained Irish to the
+end--generous, impulsive, and improvident in his life; genial, gay,
+and tender-hearted in his works. The Vicar of Wakefield was Dr.
+Primrose, but he might just as well have been called Dr. Shamrock. No
+surer proof of the pre-eminence of Irish wit and humor can be found
+than in the fact that, Shakespeare alone excepted, no writers of
+comedy have held the boards longer or more triumphantly than
+Goldsmith and his brother Irishman, Sheridan. _She Stoops to Conquer,
+The Rivals, The School for Scandal_, and _The Critic_ represent the
+sunny side of the Irish genius to perfection. They illustrate, in the
+most convincing way possible, how the debt of the world to Ireland
+has been increased by the fate which ordained that her choicest
+spirits should express themselves in a language of wider appeal than
+the ancient speech of Erin.
+
+On the other hand, English literature and the English tongue have
+gained greatly from the influence exerted by writers familiar from
+their childhood with turns of speech and modes of expression which,
+even when they are not translations from the Gaelic, are
+characteristic of the Hibernian temper. The late Dr. P.W. Joyce, in
+his admirable treatise on English as spoken in Ireland, has
+illustrated not only the essentially bilingual character of the
+Anglo-Irish dialect, but the modes of thought which it enshrines.
+There is no better known form of Irish humor than that commonly
+called the "Irish bull," which is too often set down to lax thinking
+and faulty logic. But it is the rarest thing to encounter a genuine
+Irish "bull" which is not picturesque and at the same time highly
+suggestive. Take, for example, the saying of an old Kerry doctor who,
+when conversing with a friend on the high rate of mortality,
+observed, "Bedad, there's people dyin' who never died before." Here a
+truly illuminating result was attained by the simple device of using
+the indicative for the conditional mood--as in Juvenal's famous
+comment on Cicero's second Philippic: _Antoni gladios potuit
+contemnere si sic omnia dixisset_. The Irish "bull" is a heroic and
+sometimes successful attempt to sit upon two stools at once, or, as
+an Irishman put it, "Englishmen often make 'bulls,' but the Irish
+'bull' is always pregnant."
+
+Though no names of such outstanding distinction as those of Goldsmith
+and Sheridan occur in the early decades of the nineteenth century,
+the spirit of Irish comedy was kept vigorously alive by Maria
+Edgeworth, William Maginn, Francis Mahony (Father Prout), and William
+Carleton. Sir Walter Scott's splendid tribute to the genius of Maria
+Edgeworth is regarded by some critics as extravagant, but it is
+largely confirmed in a most unexpected quarter. Turgenief, the great
+Russian novelist, proclaimed himself her disciple, and has left it on
+record that but for her example he might never have attempted to give
+literary form to his impressions of the classes in Russia
+corresponding to the poor Irish and the squireens and the squires of
+county Longford. Maginn and Mahony were both scholars--the latter
+happily called himself "an Irish potato seasoned with Attic
+salt"--wrote largely for English periodicals, and spent most of their
+lives out of Ireland. In the writings of all three an element of the
+grotesque is observable, tempered, however, in the case of Mahony,
+with a vein of tender pathos which emerges in his delightful "Bells
+of Shandon." Maginn was a wit, Mahony was the hedge-schoolmaster _in
+excelsis_, and Carleton was the first realist in Irish peasant
+fiction. But all alike drew their best inspiration from essentially
+Irish themes. The pendulum has swung back slowly but steadily since
+the days when Irish men of letters found it necessary to accommodate
+their genius to purely English literary standards. Even Lever, though
+he wrote for the English public, wrote mainly about Ireland. So, too,
+with his contemporary Le Fanu, whose reputation rests on a double
+basis. He made some wonderful excursions into the realm of the
+bizarre, the uncanny, and the gruesome. But in the collection known
+as _The Purcell Papers_ will be found three short stories which for
+exuberant drollery and "diversion" have never been excelled. That the
+same man could have written _Uncle Silas_ and _The Quare Gander_ is
+yet another proof of the strange dualism of the Irish character.
+
+The record of the last fifty years shows an uninterrupted progress in
+the invasion of English _belles lettres_ by Irish writers. Outside
+literature, perhaps the most famous sayer of good things of our times
+was a simple Irish parish priest, the late Father Healy. Of his
+humorous sayings the number is legion; his wit may be illustrated by
+a less familiar example--his comment on a very tall young lady named
+Lynch: "Nature gave her an inch and she took an ell." In the House of
+Commons today there is no greater master of irony and sardonic humor
+than his namesake, Mr. Tim Healy. On one occasion he remarked that
+Lord Rosebery was not a man to go tiger-shooting with--except at the
+Zoo. On another, being anxious to bring an indictment against the
+"Castle" _regime_ in Dublin and finding the way blocked by a debate
+on Uganda, he successfully accomplished his purpose by a judicious
+geographical transference of names, and convulsed the House by a
+speech in which the nomenclature of Central Africa was applied to the
+government of Ireland.
+
+But wit and humor are the monopoly of no class or calling in Ireland.
+They flourish alike among car-drivers and K.C.'s, publicans and
+policemen, priests and parsons, beggars and peers. It is a
+commonplace of criticism to deny these qualities in their highest
+form to women. But this is emphatically untrue of Ireland, and was
+never more conclusively disproved than by the recent literary
+achievements of her daughters. The partnership of two Irish ladies,
+Miss Edith Somerville and Miss Violet Martin, has given us, in _Some
+Experiences of an Irish R.M._ (_i.e._, Resident Magistrate), the most
+delicious comedy, and in _The Real Charlotte_ the finest
+tragi-comedy, that have come out of Great Britain in the last thirty
+years. The _R.M._, as it is familiarly called, is already a classic,
+but the Irish _comedie humaine_--to use the phrase in the sense of
+Balzac--is even more vividly portrayed in the pages of _The Real
+Charlotte_. Humor, genuine though intermittent, irradiates the
+autumnal talent of Miss Jane Barlow, and the long roll of gifted
+Irishwomen who have contributed to the gaiety of nations may be
+closed with the names of Miss Hunt, author of _Folk Tales of
+Breffny_; of Miss Purdon and Miss Winifred Letts, who in prose and
+verse, respectively, have moved us to tears and laughter by their
+studies of Leinster peasant life; and of "Moira O'Neill" (Mrs.
+Skrine), the incomparable singer of the Glens of Antrim. To give a
+full list of the living Irish writers, male and female, who are
+engaged in the benevolent work of driving dull care away would be
+impossible within the space at our command. But we cannot end without
+recognition of the exhilarating extravaganzas of "George A.
+Birmingham" (Canon Hannay), the freakish and elfin muse of James
+Stephens, and the coruscating wit of F.P. Dunne, the famous
+Irish-American humorist, whose "Mr. Dooley" is a household word on
+both sides of the Atlantic.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Goldsmith: Vicar of Wakefield, She Stoops to Conquer; Sheridan: The
+Rivals, The School for Scandal, The Critic; R. Edgeworth: Essay on
+Irish Bulls; M. Edgeworth: Castle Rackrent, The Absentee; Maginn:
+Miscellanies in Prose and Verse; Carleton: Traits and Stories of the
+Irish Peasantry; Mahony (Father Prout): Reliques of Father Prout;
+John and Michael Banim: Tales of the O'Hara Family; Lover: Legends
+and Stories of Ireland, Handy Andy; Lever: Harry Lorrequer, Charles
+O'Malley, Lord Kilgobbin; Le Fanu: The Purcell Papers; Barlow:
+Bogland Studies, Irish Idylls, Irish Neighbours; Birmingham: The
+Seething Pot, Spanish Gold, The Major's Niece, The Red Hand of
+Ulster, General John Regan; Stephens: The Crock of Gold, Here are
+Ladies; Hunt: The Folk Tales of Breffny; Purdon: The Folk of Furry
+Farm; Somerville and Ross: The Real Charlotte, Some Experiences of an
+Irish R.M., All on the Irish Shore, Dan Russel the Fox.
+
+
+
+THE IRISH THEATRE
+
+By JOSEPH HOLLOWAY.
+
+
+The Irish theatre and secular drama may be said to begin with the
+production of James Shirley's historical play, _St. Patrick for
+Ireland_, in Werburgh Street Theatre, about 1636-7; and though Dublin
+was a great school for acting, and supplied many of the best players
+to the English stage, such as Quin, Macklin, Peg Woffington, Miss
+O'Neill, and hosts of others, it never really possessed a creative
+theatre (save at the Capel Street Theatre for a few years during the
+Grattan Parliament) until the modern movement in Ireland came into
+being and the Abbey Theatre became its headquarters.
+
+Of course, innumerable plays by Irish writers were written, but most
+of them were not distinctively Irish in character; and the names of
+Goldsmith, Sheridan, O'Keeffe, Farquhar, Sheridan Knowles, Oscar
+Wilde, and dozens of others will always be remembered as great Irish
+writers for the stage. And when fine impersonators of Irish character
+like Tyrone Power, John Drew, or Barney Williams arrived, there were
+always to be found several clever writers to fit them with parts, the
+demand always creating the supply.
+
+Even before Dion Boucicault took to writing Irish dramas of a more
+palatable and less "stage-Irish" character than those of his
+immediate predecessors, some excellent plays, Irish in character and
+tone, had from time to time found their way to the stage. However,
+Boucicault sweetened our stage by the production of _The Colleen
+Bawn, Arrah-na-Pogue_, and _The Shaughraun_, and showed by his
+rollicking impersonations of Myles, Shan, and Conn, how good-humored,
+hearty, and self-sacrificing Irish boys in humble life can be. He had
+great technical knowledge of stagecraft, and that has helped to make
+his Irish plays live in the popular goodwill right up to today.
+
+A revolt against Boucicault's Irish boys, all fun and frolic, and
+charming colleens, who could do no wrong, has made our modern
+playwrights go to the other extreme; so that now we find our stage
+peopled with peasants, cruel, hard, and forbidding for the most part,
+and with colleens who are the reverse of lovable in thought or act.
+Neither picture is quite true of our people. What is really wanted is
+the happy medium, which few, if any, of our new playwrights have yet
+given us.
+
+If our great popular Irish drama has yet to come, I think the Fays
+have made it possible to say that a distinct and really fine dramatic
+school has arisen in Ireland, evolved out of their wonderful skill in
+teaching, producing, and acting; and if we are not always really
+delighted with what our playwrights give us, the almost perfect way
+in which the plays are served up by the actors invariably wholly
+satisfies. It is the actors who have made the Abbey Theatre famous,
+and not the plays. Such acting as theirs cast a spell over all who
+see them. What pleasing memories do the names of W.G. Fay, Frank J.
+Fay, Dudley Digges, Sara Allgood, Arthur Sinclair, Maire O'Neill,
+Maire ni Shuiblaigh, J.M. Kerrigan, Fred O'Donovan, Eileen O'Doherty,
+Una O'Connor, Eithne Magee, Nora Desmond, and John Connolly recall!
+
+With the production of W.B. Yeats's poetic one-act play, _The Land of
+Heart's Desire_, at the Avenue Theatre, London, on March 29, 1894,
+began the modern Irish dramatic movement. When the poet had tasted
+the joys of the footlights, he longed to see an Irish Literary
+Theatre realized in Ireland. Five years later, in the Antient Concert
+Rooms, Dublin, on May 9, 1899, his play, _The Countess Cathleen_, was
+produced, and his desire gratified. The experiment was tried for
+three years and then dropped; plays by Yeats, Edward Martyn, George
+Moore, and Alice Milligan were staged with English-trained actors in
+the casts; and a Gaelic play--the first ever presented in a theatre
+in Ireland--was also given during the third season. It was _The
+Twisting of the Rope_, by Dr. Douglas Hyde, and was played at the
+Gaiety Theatre, Dublin, on October 21, 1901, by a Gaelic Amateur
+Dramatic Society coached by W.G. Fay. The author filled the principal
+part with distinction.
+
+It was while rehearsing this play that the thought came to Fay: "Why
+not have my little company of Irish-born actors--the Ormond Dramatic
+Society--appear in plays by Irish writers instead of in the ones they
+have been giving for years?" And the thought soon ripened into
+realization. His brother, Frank, had dreamed of such a company since
+he read of the small beginnings out of which the Norwegian Theatre
+had grown; and just then, seeing some of "AE's" (George Russell's)
+play, _Deirdre_, in the _All Ireland Review_, he asked the author if
+he would allow them to produce it, and, consent being given, the
+company put it into rehearsal at once. "AE" got for them from Yeats
+_Kathleen-Ni-Houlihan_, to make up the programme. Thus it was that
+this company of amateurs and poets, now known as the Abbey Players,
+came into existence, and at St. Teresa's Hall, Clarendon Street,
+Dublin, gave their first performance on April 2, 1902.
+
+Shortly afterwards they took a hall at the back of a shop in Camden
+Street, where they rehearsed and gave a few public performances. On
+"AE" declining to be their president, Frank Fay suggested the name of
+W.B. Yeats, and he was elected, and in that way came again into the
+movement in which he has figured so largely ever since.
+
+The company played occasionally in the Molesworth Hall, and produced
+there, among other pieces, Synge's _In the Shadow of the Glen_
+(October 8, 1903) and _Riders to the Sea_ (February 25, 1904);
+Yeats's _The Hour Glass_ (March 14, 1903) and _The King's Threshold_
+(October 8, 1903); Lady Gregory's _Twenty-five_ (March 14,1903); and
+Padraic Colum's _Broken Soil_ (December 3, 1903).
+
+On March 26, 1904, the company paid a flying one-day visit to the
+Royalty, London, and Miss A.E.F. Horniman, who had given Shaw, Yeats,
+and Dr. John Todhunter their first real start as playwrights at the
+Avenue, London, in March-April, 1894 (Shaw had had his first play,
+_Widowers' Houses_, played by the Independent Theatre in 1892), saw
+the performance, and was so impressed that she thought she would like
+to find a suitable home for such talent in Dublin, and fixed upon the
+old Mechanics' Institute and its surrounding buildings, and there the
+Abbey Theatre soon afterwards--on December 27, 1904--came into
+existence.
+
+In writing of this Irish dramatic movement, one must always bear in
+mind that it was Yeats who first conceived the idea of such a
+movement; the Fays who founded the school of Irish acting; and Miss
+Horniman who, like a fairy godmother, waved the wand, and gave it a
+habitation and a name--the Abbey Theatre--and endowed it for six
+years.
+
+Play followed play with great rapidity, and dramatic societies sprang
+up all over the country, playing home-made productions in Gaelic and
+English. All Ireland seemed to be play-acting and play-writing; so
+much so that Frank Fay was heard to say that "he thought everyone had
+a play in his pocket, and that anyone in the street could be picked
+up and shaped into an actor or actress with a little training,
+Ireland was so teeming with talent!"
+
+Dramatic Ireland had slumbered for a long while, and awoke with
+tremendous vigor for work. New dramatists sprang up in all parts of
+Ireland; The Ulster Literary Theatre started in Belfast; The Cork
+Dramatic Society, in Cork; The Theatre of Ireland, in Dublin; and
+others in Galway and Waterford soon followed. In Dublin at present
+more than half a dozen dramatic societies are continually producing
+new plays and discovering new acting talent. There are also two
+Gaelic dramatic societies. And nearly every town in Ireland now has
+its own dramatic class and its own dramatists. All this activity has
+come about within the last ten or twelve years, where, before, in
+many places, drama and acting were almost unknown.
+
+Many Gaelic societies throughout the country put on Gaelic plays by
+Dr. Douglas Hyde, Pierce Beasley, Thomas Haynes, Canon Peter O'Leary,
+and others; and the _Oireachtas_ (the Gaelic musical and literary
+festival) held each year in Dublin usually presents several Irish
+plays and offers prizes for new ones at each festival.
+
+Of all the Irish playwrights who have arisen in recent years, Lady
+Gregory has produced most and W.B. Yeats is the most poetic. He is
+more a lyric poet than a dramatist, and is never satisfied with his
+work for the stage, but keeps eternally chopping and changing it. His
+_Kathleen-Ni-Houlihan_, though a dream-play, always appeals to an
+audience of Irish people. Perhaps his one-act _Deirdre_ is the
+nearest approach to real drama he has done. Some of Lady Gregory's
+earlier one-act farces, such as _The Workhouse-Ward_, are very
+amusing; _The Rising of the Moon_ is a little dramatic gem, and _The
+Gaol Gate_ is touched with genuine tragedy. Synge wrote only one
+play--_Riders to the Sea_--that acts well. The others are admired by
+critics for the strangeness of their diction and the beauty of the
+nature-pictures scattered through them. His much-discussed _Playboy
+of the Western World_ has become famous for the rows it has created
+at home and abroad from its very first production on January 26,
+1907. William Boyle, who gets to the heart of those he writes about,
+has produced the most popular play of the movement in _The Eloquent
+Dempsey_, and a perfectly constructed one in _The Building Fund_.
+W.F. Casey's two plays--_The Man Who Missed the Tide_ and _The
+Suburban Groove_--are both popular and actable. Padraic Colum's
+plays--_The Land_ and _Broken Soil_ (the latter rewritten and renamed
+_The Fiddler's House_)--are almost idyllic scenes of country life.
+Lennox Robinson's plays are harsh in tone, but dramatically
+effective, and T.C. Murray's _Birthright_ and _Maurice Harte_ are
+fine dramas, well constructed and full of true knowledge of the
+people he writes about. Seumas O'Kelly has written two strong dramas
+in _The Shuiler's Child_ and _The Bribe_, and Seumas O'Brien one of
+the funniest Irish farces ever staged in _Duty_. R.J. Ray's play,
+_The Casting Out of Martin Whelan_, is the best this dramatist has as
+yet given us, and George Fitzmaurice's _The Country Dressmaker_ has
+the elements of good drama in it. St. John G. Ervine has written a
+very human drama in _Mixed Marriage_. He hails from the north of
+Ireland; but Rutherford Mayne is the best of the Northern
+playwrights, and his plays, _The Drone_ and _The Turn of the Road_,
+are splendid homely county Down comedies.
+
+Bernard Shaw's _John Bull's Other Island_, as Irish plays go, is a
+fine specimen; Canon Hannay has written two successful comedies,
+_Eleanor's Enterprise_ and _General John Regan_--the latter not
+wholly to the taste of the people of the west. James Stephens and
+Jane Barlow have also tried their hands at playwriting, with but
+moderate success. Perhaps the modern drama that made the most
+impression when first played was _The Heather Field_, by Edward
+Martyn. It gripped and remains a lasting memory with all who saw it
+in 1899. But I think I have written enough to show that the Irish
+Theatre of today is in a very alive condition, and that if the great
+National Dramatist has not yet arrived, he is sure to emerge. When
+that time comes, the actors are here ready to interpret such work to
+perfection.
+
+An article, however brief, on the Irish Theatre, would be incomplete
+without mention of the world-famous tragedians, John Edward
+MacCullough, Lawrence Patrick Barrett, and Barry Sullivan; of genial
+comedians like Charles Sullivan and Hubert O'Grady; of sterling
+actors like Shiel Barry, John Brougham, Leonard Boyne, J.D.
+Beveridge, and Thomas Nerney; or of operatic artists like Denis
+O'Sullivan and Joseph O'Mara--many of whom have passed away, but
+some, fortunately, are with us still.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+John Genest: Some Account of the English Stage from the Restoration
+to 1830 (1832; vol. 10 is devoted to the Irish Stage); Chetwood:
+General History of the Stage, more particularly of the Irish Theatre
+(Dublin, 1749); Molloy: Romance of the Irish Stage; Baker: Biographia
+Dramatica (Dublin, 1782); Hitchcock: An Historical View of the Irish
+Stage from its Earliest Period down to the Season of 1788; Doran:
+Their Majesties' Servants, or Annals of the English Stage (London,
+1865); Hughes: The Pre-Victorian Drama in Dublin; The History of the
+Theatre Royal, Dublin (Dublin, 1870); Levey and O'Rourke: Annals of
+the Theatre Royal (Dublin, 1880); O'Neill: Irish Theatrical History
+(Dublin, 1910); Brown: A Guide to Books on Ireland (Dublin, 1912);
+Lawrence: The Abbey Theatre (in the Weekly Freeman, Dublin, Dec.,
+1912), Origin of the Abbey Theatre (in Sinn Fein, Dublin, Feb. 14,
+1914); Weygandt: Irish Plays and Playwrights (London, 1913); Lady
+Gregory: Our Irish Theatre (London, 1914); Bourgeois: John M. Synge
+and the Irish Theatre (London, 1913); Moore: Hail and Farewell, 3
+vols. (London, 1911-1914); Esmore: The Ulster Literary Theatre (in
+the Lady of the House, Dublin, Nov. 15, 1913); the Reviews, Beltaine
+(1899-1900) and Samhain (1901-1903).
+
+
+
+IRISH JOURNALISTS
+
+By MICHAEL MACDONAGH.
+
+
+The most splendid testimony to the Irish genius in journalism is
+afforded by the London press of the opening decades of the twentieth
+century. One of the greatest newspaper organizers of modern times is
+Lord Northcliffe. As the principal proprietor and guiding mind of
+both the _Times_ and the _Daily Mail_, he directly influences public
+opinion, from the steps of the Throne and the door of the Cabinet, to
+the errand boy and the servant maid. T.P. O'Connor, M.P., is the most
+popular writer on current social and political topics, and so amazing
+is his versatility that every subject he touches is illumined by
+those fine qualities, vision and sincerity. The most renowned of
+political writers is J.L. Garvin of the _Pall Mall Gazette_ and the
+_Observer_. By his leading articles he has done as much as the late
+Joseph Chamberlain by his speeches to democratize and humanize the
+old Tory party of England. The authoritative special correspondent,
+studying at first hand all the problems which divide the nations of
+Europe, and knowing personally most of its rulers and statesmen, is
+E.J. Dillon of the _Daily Telegraph_. And when the quarrels of
+nations are transferred from the chancelleries to the stricken field
+there is no one among the war correspondents more enterprising and
+intrepid in his methods, or more picturesque and vivid with his pen,
+than M.H. Donohoe of the _Daily Chronicle_. All these men are Irish.
+Could there be more striking proof of the natural bent and aptitude
+of the Irish mind for journalism?
+
+Dean Swift was the mightiest journalist that ever stirred the
+sluggish soul of humanity. Were he alive today and had he at his
+command the enormous circulation of a great daily newspaper, he would
+keep millions in a perpetual mental ferment, such was the ferocious
+indignation into which he was aroused by wrong and injustice and his
+gift of savage ironical expression. Swift, as a young student in
+Trinity College, Dublin, saw the birth of the first offspring of the
+Irish mind in journalism. The _Dublin News Letter_ made its
+appearance in June, 1685, and was published every three or four days
+for the circulation of news and advertisements. Only one copy of the
+first issue of this, the earliest of Irish newspapers, is extant. It
+is included in the Thorpe collection of tracts in the Royal Dublin
+Society. Dated August 26, 1685, it consists of a single leaf of paper
+printed on both sides, and contains just one item of news, a letter
+brought by the English packet from London, and two local
+advertisements. As I reverently handled it, I was thrilled by the
+thought that from this insignificant little seed sprang the great
+national organ, the _Freeman's Journal_; the _Press_ of the United
+Irishmen; the _Nation_ of the Young Irelanders; the _United Ireland_
+of the Land League; the _Irish World_ and the _Boston Pilot_ of the
+American Irish; and the _Irish Independent_, the first half-penny
+Dublin morning paper, and the most widely circulated of Irish
+journals. If Swift did not write for the _Dublin News Letter_, he
+certainly wrote for the _Examiner_, a weekly miscellany published in
+the Irish capital from 1710 to 1713, and the first journal that
+endeavored to create public opinion in Ireland. It was at Swift's
+instigation that this paper was started, and he was doubtless
+encouraged to suggest it by the success that attended his articles in
+the contemporary London publication of the same name, the Tory
+_Examiner_, in which his journalistic genius was fully revealed. As
+it has been expressively put, he wrote his friends, Harley and St.
+John, into a firm grip of power, and thus, as in other ways,
+contributed his share to the inauguration and maintenance of that
+policy which in the last four years of Queen Anne so materially
+recast the whole European situation. About the same time there
+appeared in London the earliest forms of the periodical essay in the
+_Tatler_ and the _Spectator_, which exhibit the comprehensiveness of
+the Irish temperament in writing by affording a contrast between the
+Irish force and vehemence of Swift and the Irish play of kindly wit
+and tender pathos in the deft and dainty periods of Richard Steele.
+
+Dr. Charles Lucas was, even more than Swift perhaps, the precursor of
+that type of Irish publicist and journalist, of which there have been
+many splendid examples since then in Ireland, England, and America.
+Lucas first started the _Censor_, a weekly journal, in 1748. Within
+two years his paper was suppressed for exciting discontent with the
+government, and to avoid a prosecution he fled to England. In 1763
+the _Freeman's Journal_ was established by three Dublin merchants.
+Lucas, who had returned from a long exile and was a member of the
+Irish parliament, contributed to it, sometimes anonymously but
+generally over the signature of "A Citizen" or "Civis." The editor
+was Henry Brooks, novelist, poet, and playwright. His novel, _The
+Fool of Quality_, is still read. His tragedy, _The Earl of Essex_,
+was, wrongly, supposed to contain a precept, "Who rules o'er freemen
+should himself be free," which led to the more famous parody of Dr.
+Samuel Johnson, "Who drives fat oxen should himself be fat." The
+object of Lucas and Brooke, as journalists, was to awaken national
+sentiment, by teaching that Ireland had an individuality of her own
+independently of England. But they were more concerned with the
+assertion of the constitutional rights of the parliament of the
+Protestant colony as against the domination of England. Therefore,
+the first organ of Irish Nationality, representative of all creeds
+and classes, was the _Press_, the newspaper of the United Irishmen,
+which was started in Dublin in 1797, by Arthur O'Connor, the son of a
+rich merchant who had made his money in London. Its editor was Peter
+Finnerty, born of humble parentage at Loughrea, afterwards a famous
+parliamentary reporter for the London _Morning Chronicle_, and its
+most famous contributor was Dr. William Drennan, the poet, who first
+called Ireland "the Emerald Isle."
+
+Irishmen did not become prominently associated with American
+journalism until after the Famine and the collapse of the Young
+Ireland movement in 1848. The journalist whom I regard as having
+exercised the most fateful influence on the destinies of Ireland was
+Charles Gavan Duffy, the founder and first editor of the _Nation_, a
+newspaper of which it was truly and finely said that it brought a new
+soul into Erin. Among its contributors, who afterwards added lustre
+to the journalism of the United States, was John Mitchel. In the
+_Southern Citizen_ and the _Richmond Enquirer_ he supported the South
+against the North in the Civil War. The Rev. Abram Joseph Ryan, who
+was associated with journalism in New Orleans, not only acted as a
+Catholic chaplain with the Confederate army, but sang of its hopes
+and aspirations in tuneful verse. Serving in the army of the North
+was Charles G. Halpine, whose songs signed "Private Miles O'Reilly"
+were very popular in those days of national convulsion in the United
+States. Halpine's father had edited the Tory newspaper, the Dublin
+_Evening Mail_; and Halpine himself, after the war, edited the
+_Citizen_ of New York, famous for its advocacy of reforms in civic
+administration. Perhaps the two most renowned men in Irish-American
+journalism were John Boyle O'Reilly of the _Boston Pilot_ and Patrick
+Ford of the _Irish World_. O'Reilly was a troop-sergeant in the 10th
+Hussars (Prince of Wales's Own), and during the Fenian troubles of
+1866 had eighty of his men ready armed and mounted to take out of
+Island Bridge Barracks, Dublin, at a given signal, to aid the
+projected insurrection. Detected, he was brought to trial, summarily
+convicted, and sentenced to be shot. This sentence was commuted to
+twenty-five years' penal servitude; but O'Reilly survived it all to
+become a brilliant man of letters and make the _Boston Pilot_ one of
+the most influential Irish and Catholic newspapers in the United
+States. Ford, who had served his apprenticeship as a compositor in
+the office of William Lloyd Garrison at Boston, founded the _Irish
+World_ in 1870. This newspaper gave powerful aid to the Land League.
+A special issue of 1,650,000 copies of the _Irish World_ was printed
+on January 11, 1879, for circulation in Ireland; and money to the
+amount of $600,000 altogether was sent by Ford to the headquarters of
+the agitation in Dublin. A journalist of a totally different kind was
+Edwin Lawrence Godkin. Born in County Wicklow, the son of a
+Presbyterian clergyman, Godkin in 1865 established the _Nation_ in
+New York as an organ of independent thought; and for thirty-five
+years he filled a unique position, standing aside from all parties,
+sects, and bodies, and yet permeating them all with his sane and
+restraining philosophy.
+
+In Canada, Thomas D'Arcy Magee won fame as a journalist on the _New
+Era_ before he became even more distinguished as a parliamentarian.
+When the history of Australian journalism is written it will contain
+two outstanding Irish names: Daniel Henry Deniehy, who died in 1865,
+was called by Bulwer Lytton "the Australian Macaulay" on account of
+his brilliant writings as critic and reviewer in the press of
+Victoria. Gerald Henry Supple, another Dublin man, is also remembered
+for his contributions to the _Age_ and the _Argus_ of Melbourne. In
+India one of the first--if not the first--English newspapers was
+founded by a Limerick man, named Charles Johnstone, who had
+previously attained fame as the author of _Chrysal, or the Adventures
+of a Guinea_, and who died at Calcutta about 1800.
+
+Stirring memories of battle and adventure leap to the mind at the
+names of those renowned war correspondents, William Howard Russell,
+Edmond O'Donovan, and James J. O'Kelly. Russell, a Dublin man, was
+the first newspaper representative to accompany an army into the
+field. He saw all the mighty engagements of the Crimea--Alma,
+Balaclava, Inkerman, Sebastopol--not from a distance of 60 or 80
+miles, which is the nearest that correspondents are now allowed to
+approach the front, but at the closest quarters, riding through the
+lines on his mule, and seeing the engagements vividly, so that he was
+able to describe them in moving detail for readers of the _Times_.
+O'Donovan--son of Dr. John O'Donovan, the distinguished Irish scholar
+and archaeologist--was in the service of the London _Daily News_.
+That dashing campaigner--as his famous book, _The Merv Oasis_, shows
+him to have been--perished with Hicks Pasha's Army in the Sudan in
+November, 1883. At the same time James O'Kelly, also of the _Daily
+News_, was lost in the desert, trying to join the forces of the
+victorious Sudanese under the Madhi. Ten years before that he had
+accomplished, for the New York _Herald_, the equally daring and
+hazardous feat of joining the Cuban rebels in revolt against Spain.
+He escaped the perils of the Mambi Land and the Sudan, and survived
+to serve Ireland for many years as a Nationalist member in the
+British parliament. John Augustus O'Shea, better known, perhaps, as
+"The Irish Bohemian", also deserves remembrance for his quarter of a
+century's work as special correspondent in Europe--including Paris
+during the siege--for the London _Standard_.
+
+Indeed, no matter to what side of journalism we turn, we find
+Irishmen filling the foremost and the highest places. John Thaddeus
+Delane, under whose editorship the _Times_ became for a time the most
+influential newspaper in the world, was of Irish parentage. The first
+editor of the _Illustrated London News_ (1842)--one of the pioneers
+in the elucidation of news by means of pictures--was an Irishman,
+Frederick Bayley. Among the projectors of _Punch_, and one of its
+earliest contributors, was a King's county man, Joseph Sterling
+Coyne. The founder of the _Liverpool Daily Post_ (1855), the first
+penny daily paper in Great Britain, was Michael Joseph Whitty, a
+Wexford man. His son, Edward M. Whitty, was the originator of that
+interesting feature of English and Irish journalism, the sketch of
+personalities and proceedings in parliament. Of the editors of the
+_Athenaeum_--for many years the leading English organ of literary
+criticism--one of the most famous was Dr. John Doran, who was of
+Irish parentage. "Dod" is a familiar household word in the British
+Parliament. It is the name of the recognized guide to the careers and
+political opinions of Lords and Commons. Its founder was an Irishman,
+Charles Roger Dod, who for twenty-three years was a parliamentary
+reporter for the _Times_. And what name sheds a brighter light on the
+annals of British journalism for intellectual and imaginative force
+than that of Justin MacCarthy, novelist and historian, as well as
+newspaper writer?
+
+At home in Ireland the name of Gray is inseparably associated with
+the _Freeman's Journal_. Under the direction of Dr. John Gray this
+newspaper became in the sixties and seventies the most powerful organ
+of public opinion in Ireland; and in the eighties it was raised still
+higher in ability and influence by his son and successor, Edmund
+Dwyer Gray. In the south of Ireland the most influential daily
+newspaper is the _Cork Examiner_, which was founded in 1841 by John
+Francis Maguire, who wrote in 1868 _The Irish in America_. It is
+doubtful whether any country ever produced a more militant and able
+political journal than was _United Ireland_ in the stormy years
+during which it was edited by William O'Brien as the organ of the
+Land League.
+
+The Irish mood is gregarious, expansive, glowing, and eager to keep
+in intimate touch with the movements and affairs of humanity. That, I
+think, is the secret of its success in journalism.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Madden: Irish Periodical Literature (1867); Andrews: English
+Journalism (1855); North: Newspaper and Periodical Press of the
+United States (1884); MacDonagh: The Reporter's Gallery (1913).
+
+
+
+THE IRISH LITERARY REVIVAL
+
+By HORATIO S. KRANS, Ph.D.
+
+
+In the closing decade of the nineteenth century and in the opening
+years of the twentieth, no literary movement has awakened a livelier
+interest than the Irish Literary Revival, a movement which, by its
+singleness and solidarity of purpose, stood alone in a time of
+confused literary aims and tendencies. Movements, like individuals,
+have their ancestry, and that of the Irish Literary Revival is easily
+traced. It descends from Callanan and Walsh, and from the writers of
+'48. It is to this descent that the lines in William Butler Yeats's
+"To Ireland in Coming Times" allude:
+
+      Know that I would accounted be
+      True brother of that company,
+      Who sang to sweeten Ireland's wrong,
+      Ballad and story, rann and song.
+
+With the passing of the mid-nineteenth-century writers, the old
+movement waned, and in the field of Irish letters there was, in the
+phrase of a famous bull, nothing stirring but stagnation. A witty
+critic of the period, commenting upon this unhappy state of affairs,
+declared that, though the love of learning in Ireland might still be,
+as the saying went, indestructible, it was certainly imperceptible.
+But after the fall of Parnell a new spirit was stirring. Politics no
+longer absorbed the whole energy of the nation. Groups of men
+inspired with a love of the arts sprang up here and there. In 1890
+Yeats proved himself a real prophet when he wrote: "A true literary
+consciousness--national to the centre--seems gradually to be forming
+out of all this disguising and prettifying, this penumbra of
+half-culture. We are preparing likely enough for a new Irish literary
+movement--like that of '48--that will show itself in the first lull
+in politics."
+
+Responsive to the need of the young writers associated with Yeats,
+the National Literary Society was founded in Dublin in 1892, and a
+year later London Irishmen, among them men already distinguished in
+letters, founded in the English metropolis the Irish Literary
+Society. From the presses in Dublin, in London, and in New York as
+well, books began to appear in rapid succession--slender volumes of
+verse, novels, short stories, essays, plays, translations, and
+remakings of Irish myths and legends, all inspired by, and closely
+related to, the past or the present of Ireland, voicing an
+essentially national spirit and presenting the noblest traits of
+Irish life and character.
+
+Not content with the organization of the two literary societies,
+Yeats, with courage and relentless tenacity, cast about to realize
+his long-cherished dream of a theatre that should embody the ideals
+of the Revival. In Lady Gregory, and in Edward Martyn, an Irishman of
+large means, who with both pen and purse lent a willing hand, he
+found two ardent laborers for his vineyard. George Moore, who in the
+event proved a fish out of water in Ireland, Yeats and Martyn
+contrived to lure from his London lodgings and his cosmopolitan ways,
+and to enlist in the theatrical enterprise. The practical knowledge
+of the stage which this gifted _enfant terrible_ of literature
+contributed was doubtless of great value in the early days of the
+dramatic adventure, though Moore's free thoughts, frank speech, and
+mordant irony brought an element of discord into Dublin literary
+circles, which may well have left Yeats and his associates with a
+feeling that they had paid too dear for a piper to whose tunes they
+refused to dance. Be that as it may, in 1899 Yeats's dream was
+measurably realized, and the Irish Literary Theatre established, to
+be succeeded a little later by the Irish National Theatre Society.
+Enough, however, of the dramatic aspect of the Revival, which
+receives separate treatment elsewhere in these pages, as does also
+the dramatic work of certain of the authors considered here.
+
+From what has already been said, it should be plain that in the last
+decade of the last century the ranks of the Irish Literary
+Revivalists filled rapidly, and that the movement was really under
+way. The renascent spirit took various forms. To one group of poets
+the humor, pathos, and tragedy of peasant life deeply appealed, and
+found expression in a poetry distinctively and unmistakably national,
+from which a kind of pleasure could be drawn unlike anything else in
+other literatures. In this group Alfred Perceval Graves and Moira
+O'Neill cannot pass unmentioned. Who would ask anything racier in its
+kind than the former's "Father O'Flynn"?
+
+      Of priests we can offer a charmin' variety,
+      Far renowned for larnin' and piety,
+      Still I'd advance you without impropriety,
+      Father O'Flynn as the flower of them all.
+         Here's a health to you, Father O'Flynn,
+         Slainte,[1] and slainte, and slainte agin.
+            Powerfullest preacher,
+            And tinderest teacher,
+      And kindliest creature in Old Donegal.
+
+[Footnote 1: "Your health."]
+
+Or was the homing instinct, the homesick longing for the old sod,
+ever more truly rendered than in Moira O'Neill's song of the Irish
+laborer in England?
+
+      Over here in England I'm helpin' wi' the hay,
+      An' I wish I was in Ireland the livelong day;
+      Weary on the English, an' sorra take the wheat!
+      Och! Corrymeela an' the blue sky over it.
+
+      D'ye mind me now, the song at night is mortial hard to raise,
+      The girls are heavy-goin' here, the boys are ill to plase;
+      When ones't I'm out this workin' hive, 'tis I'll be back again--
+      Aye, Corrymeela in the same soft rain.
+
+Here, too, should be named Jane Barlow, whose poems and stories are
+faithful imaginative transcripts of the face of nature and the hearts
+of men as she knew them in Connemara. Finally there is William Butler
+Yeats, who, on the whole, is the representative man of the Revival.
+Except in the translator's sphere, his writings have given him a
+place in almost all the activities of this movement. As a lyric poet,
+he has expressed the moods of peasant and patriot, of mystic,
+symbolist, and quietist, and it is safe to say that in lyric poetry
+no one of his generation writing in English is his superior. We
+cannot resist the pleasure of quoting here from his "Innisfree",
+which won the praise of Robert Louis Stevenson, and which, if not the
+high mark of Yeats's achievement, is still a flawless thing in its
+way:
+
+      I will arise and go now, and go to Innisfree,
+         And a small cabin build there, of clay and wattles made;
+      Nine bean rows will I have there, a hive for the honey bee,
+         And live alone in the bee-loud glade.
+
+      And I shall have some peace there, for peace comes dropping slow,
+         Dropping from the veils of the morning to where the cricket sings;
+      There midnight's all a glimmer, and noon a purple glow,
+         And evening full of the linnets' wings.
+
+In this place, and for convenience sake, it may be permitted to speak
+of aspects of Yeats's work other than that by virtue of which he is
+to be classed with the group we have just considered. In his
+narrative poem, "The Wanderings of Usheen", as well as in his plays
+and lyrics, he is of the best of those--among them we may mention by
+the way Dr. John Todhunter, Nora Hopper (Mrs. W.H. Chesson), and
+William Larminie--who have revealed to our day the strange beauty of
+the ancient creations of the Gaelic imagination. In prose he has
+written short stories, a novelette, _John Sherman and Dhoya_, and
+essays that reveal a subtle critical insight, and a style of
+beautiful finish and grace, suggestive of the style of Shelley's
+_Defence of Poetry_. Yeats's plays constitute a considerable and an
+important part of his work, but these must be reserved for treatment
+elsewhere in this book. In prefaces to anthologies of prose and verse
+of his editing, in the pages of reviews, and elsewhere, he appears as
+the chief apologist of the aims of the Literary Revival, and in
+particular of the methods of the dramatists of the Revival. Whatever
+he has touched he has lifted into the realm of poetry, and this is in
+large measure true of his prose, which proceeds from the poet's point
+of view and breathes the poetic spirit. A man of rare versatility, a
+finished artist with a scrupulous artistic conscience, he has done
+work of high and sustained quality, and is certain to exert a good
+and lasting influence upon the literature of his country.
+
+In a literary movement in the "Isle of Saints", we look naturally for
+religious poetry, and we do not look in vain. This poetry, chiefly
+Catholic, has a quality of its own as distinctive as that of the
+writers of the group we have just left. Now it voices a naive,
+devoted simplicity of Christian faith; now it attains to a high and
+keen spirituality; now it is mystic and pagan. Among the religious
+poets, Lionel Johnson easily stands first--perhaps the Irish poet of
+firmest fibre and most resonant voice of his generation. A note of
+high courage and of spiritual triumph rings through his verse, even
+from the shadow of the wings of the dark angel that gives a title to
+one of the saddest of his poems. Often he strikes a note of genuine
+religious ecstasy and exaltation rarely heard in English, as in "Te
+Martyrum Candidatus":
+
+      Ah, see the fair chivalry come, the companions of Christ!
+         White Horsemen, who ride on white horses, the Knights of God!
+      They, for their Lord and their Lover who sacrificed
+         All, save the pleasure of treading where He first trod.
+
+      These through the darkness of death, the dominion of night,
+         Swept, and they woke in white places at morning tide:
+      They saw with their eyes, and sang for joy of the sight,
+         They saw with their eyes the Eyes of the Crucified.
+
+Among the men of the Revival, no personality is stronger or more
+attractive than that of G.W. Russell--"AE", as he is always
+called--who may be regarded as the hero of George Moore's _Hail and
+Farewell_, and who alone in that gallery of wonderful pen-portraits
+looks forth with complete amiability. He is a pantheist, a mystic,
+and a visionary, with what would seem a literal and living faith in
+many gods, though strongly prepossessed in favor of the ancient
+divinities of the Gael, now long since in exile. Impressive and
+striking by a certain spiritual integrity, so to say, "AE" unites
+gifts and faculties seldom combined. He is a poet of rare subtlety, a
+painter in whose genius so good a judge as George Moore believed, and
+a most practical man of affairs, who, as assistant to Sir Horace
+Plunkett, held up the latter's hands in his labors on behalf of
+co-operative dairies and the like. His poems have their roots in a
+pantheism which half reveals the secrets of an indwelling spirit,
+speaking alike "from the dumb brown lips of earth" and from the
+passions of the heart of man.
+
+Of novelists, both men and women, the Irish Revival can, in the words
+of "Father O'Flynn", offer a charming variety, and among their novels
+and short stories are some books of high quality and not a few in a
+high degree interesting and entertaining. To Standish O'Grady we turn
+for tales, with a kind of bardic afflatus about them, of the hero age
+of legendary Ireland--tales which drew attention to the romantic
+Celtic past of myth and saga, and must have been an inspiration to
+more than one writer of the younger generation. In contrast to the
+broad epic sweep and remote romantic backgrounds of O'Grady, are the
+stories of Jane Barlow, whose _genre_ pictures of peasant life in the
+west of Ireland, like her poems mentioned above, show how
+sympathetically she understands the ways of thinking, feeling, and
+acting of her humble compatriots. A like minute and faithful
+knowledge is evident in the work of two story-tellers of the north,
+Seumas MacManus and Shan Bullock. The former's outlook is humorous
+and pathetic. He tells fairy and folk tales well, and is a past
+master of the dialect and idiom that combine to give his old-wives'
+yarns an honest smack of the soil. Let him who doubts it read
+_Through the Turf Smoke_ or _Donegal Fairy Stories_. If Shan Bullock
+walks the same fields as Seumas MacManus, he does so with a different
+air and with a more definite purpose. Sometimes he turns to the
+squireens, small farmers, or small country gentry, and lays bare the
+hardness and narrowness that are a part of their life. Or, again, in
+pictures whose sadness and gloom are lightened, to be sure, with
+humor or warmed with love, he studies the necessitous life of the
+poor. _The Squireen, The Barrys_, and _Irish Pastorals_ are some of
+his representative books.
+
+In the novel as in poetry the ladies have worked side by side with
+their literary brethren. Miss Hermione Templeton, in her _Darby
+O'Gill_, and elsewhere, has written pleasantly and gracefully of the
+fairies. In a very different vein are the novels of the
+collaborators, Miss Somerville and "Martin Ross" (Miss Violet
+Martin), over which English and American readers have laughed as
+heartily as their own fellow countrymen. _The Experiences of an Irish
+R.M._remains, perhaps, their best book. The work of these ladies, be
+it said by the way, is in the line of descent from that group of
+older Irish novelists who wrote in the spirit of the devil-may-care
+gentry, the novelists from Maxwell to Lover and Lever, who were ever
+questing "divilment and divarshion," and who in their moods of
+boisterous fun forgot the real Irishman, and presented in his place a
+caricature--him of the Celtic screech and the exhilarating whack of
+the shillelagh, the famous stage Irishman who has made occasional
+appearances in English literature from the time of Shakespeare's
+_Henry V._, on through the works of Fielding and the plays of
+Sheridan, to the present moment of writing.
+
+Of a very different stripe from the work of the collaborating ladies
+just mentioned are the novels of the recently deceased Canon
+Sheehan--notable among them _Luke Delmege_ and _My New
+Curate_--rambling, diffuse, and a trifle provincial from the artistic
+standpoint, but interesting as studies of manners, and for the
+pictures they afford of the priesthood of modern Ireland in the
+pleasantest light. If the stories of Miss Somerville and "Martin
+Ross" are related to the comic stories of the old novelists of the
+gentry, those of Canon Sheehan must be associated with the work of
+the older novelists who wrote more or less in the spirit of the
+peasantry, that is, with Gerald Griffin, the Banim brothers, and
+William Carleton, less famous than he deserves to be by his _Traits
+and Stories_ and a long line of novels and tales.
+
+No survey of Irish novelists, however brief, can afford to forget the
+Rev. James Owen Hannay ("George A. Birmingham"), canon of St.
+Patrick's Cathedral, Dublin, whose work is as distinctively
+Protestant in its point of view as Father Sheehan's is Catholic. His
+more substantial novels are a careful transcript of the actualities
+of Irish life today, and in them one meets, incognito but easily
+recognizable, many Irishmen now prominent in literature or politics
+in Ireland. Of his numerous books may be mentioned _The Seething Pot,
+Hyacinth_, and _Northern Iron_.
+
+Finally there is George Moore, whose enlistment in the Revival was
+responsible for the novel _The Lake_ and the short stories of _The
+Unfilled Field_, and for a largely autobiographic and entirely
+indiscreet trilogy entitled _Hail and Farewell_, the separate volumes
+appearing as _Ave, Salve, Vale_, and the last of them as late as
+1914. George Moore's anti-Catholic bias is strong, but his is the pen
+of an accomplished artist. He has the story-teller's beguiling gift,
+and he bristles with ideas which his books cleverly embody and to
+which the dramatic moments of his novels give point and relief.
+
+Not the least important work of the Irish Literary Revival has been
+done by translators, who have put into English the old Gaelic
+romances and the folklore still current among the little remnant of
+Irish-speaking country folk. Dr. Douglas Hyde is in the forefront of
+this group. He it was who organized the Gaelic League, a band of
+enthusiasts zealous for the revival of the Irish language both as a
+spoken tongue and as the medium for a national literature, and eager,
+also, to breed up a race of Celtic scholars. The lyrics in his _Love
+Songs of Connacht_ are full of grace, tenderness, and fire, and
+indicate the kind of gems which he and his fellow laborers have added
+to the treasury of poetry in English. But it is Lady Gregory,
+especially in her _Cuchulain of Muirthemne_ and _Gods and Fighting
+Men_, who more than any other has found a way to stir the blood of
+readers of to-day by the romantic hero tales of Ireland. From the
+racy idiom of the dwellers on or about her own estate in Galway, she
+happily framed a style that gave her narratives freshness, novelty,
+and a flavor of the soil. Upon the work of scholars she drew heavily
+in making her own renderings, but she has justified all borrowings by
+breathing into her books the breath and the warmth of life, and her
+adaptation to epic purposes of the dialect of those who still retain
+the expiring habit of thinking in Gaelic was a real literary
+achievement. She has, indeed, in sins of commission and of omission,
+taken liberties with the old legends, but this may render them not
+less, and perhaps more, delightful to the general reader, however
+just complaints may be from the standpoint of the scholar.
+
+Even so brief a sketch as this may suffice to bring home to those not
+already aware of it a realization of the delights to be drawn from
+the creations of a living literary movement, which is perhaps the
+most notable of its generation, and which has gathered together a
+remarkable group of poets, novelists, and dramatists, who, as men and
+women, are a most interesting company--a fact to which even George
+Moore's _Hail and Farewell_, with its quick eye for defects and
+foibles and its ironic wit, bears abundant testimony.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Brooke and Rolleston: Treasury of Irish Poetry (New York and London,
+1900); Krans: William Butler Yeats and the Irish Literary Revival
+(New York and London, 1904); Yeats: Ideas of Good and Evil (London,
+1903); Moore: Hail and Farewell, 3 vols. (London and New York,
+1912-1914); Lady Gregory: Our Irish Theatre (New York and London,
+1913); Weygandt: Irish Plays and Playwrights (New York, 1913); Yeats:
+Introduction to Fairy and Folk Tales of the Irish Peasantry (London,
+1889), Representative Irish Tales (London, 1890), Book of Irish Verse
+(London, 1895). There is much of interest, though chiefly as regards
+the drama, in the reviews, Beltaine (London and Dublin, 1899-1900)
+and Samhain (London and Dublin, 1901-1903).
+
+
+
+IRISH WRITERS OF ENGLISH
+
+By P.J. LENNOX, B.A., Litt.D.
+
+
+The Gaelic literature of Ireland is not only of wonderful volume and
+priceless worth, but is also of great antiquity, whereas the English
+literature of Ireland, while also of considerable extent and high
+value, is of comparatively modern origin. The explanation of this
+fact is that for more than six centuries after the Anglo-Norman
+invasion of 1169 the Irish language continued to be both the spoken
+and, with Latin, the written organ of the great mass of the Irish
+people, and that for nearly the whole of that period those English
+settlers who did not become, as the well-known phrase has it, more
+Irish than the Irish themselves by adopting the native language,
+customs, and sentiments, were kept too busy in holding, defending,
+and extending their territory to devote themselves to literary
+pursuits. Hence we need not wonder if, leaving out of account merely
+technical works like Lionel Power's treatise on music, written in
+1395, we find that the English literature of Ireland takes its
+comparatively humble origin late in the sixteenth century. For more
+than two centuries thereafter, owing to the fact that the native
+Irish, because they were Catholics, were debarred by law from an
+education, the writing of English remained almost exclusively in the
+hands of members or descendants of the Anglo-Irish colony, who, with
+scarcely an exception, were Protestants and had as their principal
+Irish seat of learning the then essentially Protestant institution,
+Trinity College, Dublin. Alien in race and creed though these writers
+mainly were, they have nevertheless spread a halo of glory around
+their adopted country, and have won the admiration, and often the
+affection, of Irishmen of every shade of religious and political
+belief. For example, there is no Irishman who is not proud of
+Molyneux and Swift, of Goldsmith and Burke, of Grattan and Sheridan.
+From the nineteenth century onward Irish Catholics have taken their
+full share in the production of English literature. Here, however, it
+will be necessary to consider the writers of none but the sixteenth,
+seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, as in other pages of this
+volume considerable attention has been given to those of later date.
+
+I. SIXTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+Richard Stanyhurst (1547-1618), born in Dublin but educated at
+Oxford, is the first representative of the sixteenth century with
+whom we are called upon to deal. He belonged to a family long settled
+in or near Dublin and of some note in municipal annals. Under the
+direction of the Jesuit martyr, Edmund Campion, Stanyhurst wrote a
+_Description_, as well as a portion of the _History_, of Ireland for
+Holinshed's _Chronicles_, published in 1577. He also translated
+(1582) the first four books of _Virgil his Aeneis_ into quantitative
+hexameters, on the unsound pedantic principles which Gabriel Harvey
+was at that time trying so hard to establish in English prosody; but
+the experiment, which turned out so badly in the master's hands,
+fared even worse in those of the disciple, and Stanyhurst's lines
+will always stand as a noted specimen of inept translation and
+ridiculous versification. Equally inartistic was his version of some
+of the Psalms in the same metre. In Latin he wrote a profound
+commentary on Porphyry, the Neo-Platonic mystic. Stanyhurst, who was
+uncle to James Ussher, the celebrated Protestant archbishop of
+Armagh, was himself a convert to Catholicity, and on the death of his
+second wife became a priest and wrote in Latin some edifying books of
+devotion. Two of his sons joined the Jesuit order. He died at
+Brussels in 1618. Stanyhurst viewed Ireland entirely from the English
+standpoint, and in his _Description_ and _History_ is, consciously or
+unconsciously, greatly biased against the native race.
+
+If we may take it as certain that modern investigation is correct in
+asserting that Thomas Campion was a native of Dublin, a notable
+addition will have been made to the ranks of Irish-born writers of
+English at this period. Thomas Campion (1567-1620), wherever born,
+spent most of his life in London. He was a versatile genius, for,
+after studying law, he took up medicine, and, although practising as
+a physician, he yet found time to write four masques and many lyrics
+and to compose a goodly quantity of music. Some of his songs appeared
+as early as 1591. Among his works is a treatise entitled
+_Observations in the Art of English Poesie_ (1602), in which, strange
+to say, he, a born lyrist, advocated unrhymed verse and quantitative
+measures, but fortunately his practice did not usually square with
+his theory. His masques were written for occasions, such as the
+marriage of Lord Hayes (1607), the nuptials of the Princess Elizabeth
+and the Elector Palatine (1613), and the ill-starred wedding of
+Somerset and the quondam Countess of Essex in the same year. In these
+masques are embedded some of his best songs; others of his lyrics
+appeared in several _Bookes of Ayres_ between 1601 and 1617. Many of
+them were written to music, sometimes music of his composing. Such
+dainty things as "Now hath Flora robb'd her bowers" and "Harke, all
+you ladies that do sleep" possess the charms of freshness and
+spontaneity, and his devotional poetry, especially "Awake, awake,
+thou heavy Spright" and "Never weather-beaten Saile more willing bent
+to shore", makes almost as wide an appeal.
+
+II. SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+Passing by with regret the illustrious seventeenth century names of
+Philip O'Sullivan Beare, Sir James Ware, Luke Wadding, Hugh Ward,
+John Colgan, and John Lynch, because their bearers wrote in Latin,
+and those of "The Four Masters" and Geoffrey Keating, because they
+wrote in Irish, we are first brought to a pause in the seventeenth
+century by the imposing figure of him, whom, in a later day, Johnson
+justly called the "great luminary of the Irish [Protestant] church",
+none other than the archbishop of Armagh and primate of Ireland,
+James Ussher himself. James Ussher (1581-1656), born in Dublin and
+among the earliest students of the newly-founded Trinity College, was
+in intellect and scholarship one of the greatest men that Ireland has
+ever produced. Selden describes him as "learned to a miracle" (_ad
+miraculum doctus_), and Canon D'Alton in his _History of Ireland_
+says of him that "he was not unworthy to rank even with Duns Scotus,
+and when he died he left in his own Church neither an equal nor a
+second." Declining the high office of provost of Trinity, Ussher was
+made bishop of Meath and was afterwards promoted to the primatial
+see. His fine intellect was unfortunately marred by narrow religious
+views, and in many ways he displayed his animus against those of his
+countrymen who did not see eye to eye with him in matters of faith
+and doctrine. For example, it was he who in 1626 drew up the Irish
+Protestant bishops' protest against toleration for Catholics, therein
+showing a bigotry which consorted badly with his reputation as a
+scholar. On account of his well-known attitude towards Catholicism,
+he was naturally unpopular with those who professed the ancient
+creed, and hence, when the rebellion of 1641 broke out, much of his
+property was destroyed by the enraged insurgents. His person escaped
+violence, for he happened to be in England at the time engaged in the
+vain task of trying to effect an accommodation between Charles I. and
+the English parliament. He never returned to his see and died in
+London.
+
+Ussher's collected works fill seventeen stately volumes. His _magnum
+opus_ is undoubtedly the _Annales Veteris et Novi Testamenti_. It is
+written in Latin, and is a chronological compendium of the history of
+the world from the Creation to the dispersion of the Jews under
+Vespasian. Published at Leyden, London, Paris, and Oxford, it gained
+for its author a European fame. His books written in English deal
+mostly with theological or controversial subjects, and while they
+display wide reading, great acumen, and keen powers of argumentation,
+they yet do not do full justice to his genius. Those which he
+published in Dublin are _A Discourse of the Religion anciently
+professed by the Irish and British_ (1622), in which he tried to show
+that the ritual and discipline of the Church as originally
+established in the British Isles were in agreement with the Church of
+England and opposed to the Catholic Church on the matters in dispute
+between them; _An Answer to a Challenge made by a Jesuite in Ireland_
+(1624), in which his aim was to disprove the contention set forth
+earlier in the same year by a Jesuit that uniformity of doctrine had
+always been maintained by the Catholic Church; and _Immanuel, or the
+Mysterie of the Incarnation_. He published in England _The Originall
+of Bishops, A Body of Divinitie, The Principles of Christian
+Religion_, and other works. So great was Ussher's reputation that
+when he died Cromwell relaxed in his favor one of the strictest laws
+of the Puritans and allowed him to be buried with the full service of
+the Church of England, and with great pomp, in Westminster Abbey.
+
+Among Ussher's other claims to distinction, it should be noted that
+it was he who in 1621 discovered the celebrated Book of Kells, which
+had long been lost. This marvel of the illuminator's art passed with
+the remainder of his collection of books and manuscripts to Trinity
+College, Dublin, in 1661, and to this day it remains one of the most
+treasured possessions of the noble library of that institution.
+
+Sir John Denham (1615-1669), a Dublin man by birth, took an active
+part on the side of Charles I. against the parliament during the
+Civil War, and subsequently was conspicuous in the intrigues that led
+to the restoration of Charles II. In his own day he had a great
+reputation as a poet. His tragedy, _The Sophy_, and his translation
+of the Psalms are now forgotten, but he is still remembered for one
+piece, _Cooper's Hill_, in which occur the well-known lines addressed
+to the River Thames:
+
+      O could I flow like thee, and make thy stream
+      My great example, as it is my theme!
+      Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull;
+      Strong, without rage; without o'erflowing, full.
+
+Another Dublin-born man was Wentworth Dillon, Earl of Roscommon
+(1633-1684). He had the good fortune to win encomiums both from
+Dryden and from Pope. One of his merits, as pointed out by the
+latter, is that
+
+                      In all Charles's days
+      Roscommon only boasts unspotted bays.
+
+He translated from Virgil, Lucan, Horace, and Guarini; wrote
+prologues, epilogues, and other occasional verses; but is now
+principally remembered for his poetical _Essay on Translated Verse_
+(1681), in which he develops principles previously laid down by
+Cowley and Denham. To his credit be it said, he condemns indecency,
+both as want of sense and bad taste. He was honored with a funeral in
+Westminster Abbey. Johnson records that, at the moment of his death,
+Roscommon uttered with great energy and devotion the following two
+lines from his own translation of the _Dies Irae_:
+
+      My God, my Father, and my Friend,
+      Do not forsake me in my end!
+
+Robert Boyle (1627-1691), one of the founders of the Royal Society
+(1662), was son of the "great" Earl of Cork and was born at Lismore,
+Co. Waterford. He takes rank among the principal experimental
+philosophers of his age, and he certainly rendered valuable services
+to the advancement of science. Most of his writings, which are very
+voluminous, are naturally of a technical character and therefore do
+not properly belong to literature; but his _Occasional Reflections on
+Several Subjects_ (1665), a strange mixture of triviality and
+seriousness, was germinal in this sense that it led to two celebrated
+_jeux d'esprit_, namely, Butler's _Occasional Reflection on Dr.
+Charlton's feeling a Dog's Pulse at Gresham College_ and Swift's
+_Pious Meditation upon a Broomstick, in the Style of the Honourable
+Mr. Boyle_. Indeed, one of Boyle's _Reflections_, that "Upon the
+Eating of Oysters", is reputed to have rendered a still more signal
+service to literature, for in its two concluding paragraphs is
+contained the idea which, under the transforming hand of the master
+satirist, eventually took the world by storm when it appeared, fully
+developed, as _Gulliver's Travels_.
+
+His brother, Roger Boyle (1621-1679), who figures largely as a
+soldier and a statesman in Irish and English history under his title
+of Lord Broghill, was an alumnus of Trinity College, Dublin. During
+the Civil War he was a royalist until the death of Charles I., when
+he changed sides and aided Cromwell materially in his Irish campaign.
+When the Lord Protector died, Broghill made another right-about-face,
+and crossing to his native country worked so energetically and
+successfully that he made Ireland solid for the restoration of
+Charles II. For this service he was rewarded by being created Earl of
+Orrery. He was the author of six tragedies and two comedies, some of
+which when produced proved gratifyingly popular. He is noted for
+having been the first to write tragedy in rhyme, thereby setting an
+example that was followed with avidity for a time by Dryden and
+others. He also wrote poems, a romance called _Parthenissa_ (1654),
+and a _Treatise on the Art of War_ (1677). From whatever point of
+view considered, Lord Orrery was a remarkable member of a remarkable
+family. His son, John Boyle, Earl of Cork and Orrery (1707-1762), in
+virtue of his translation of Pliny's _Letters_, his _Remarks on the
+Life and Writings of Swift_, and his _Letters from Italy_, has some
+claims to recognition in the field of literature.
+
+Charles Leslie (1650-1722), a Dubliner by birth, was son of that John
+Leslie, bishop of Raphoe and Clogher, who lived through a whole
+century, from 1571 to 1671, and who was 79 years of age when Charles,
+his sixth son, was born. Educated first at Enniskillen and afterwards
+at Trinity College, Dublin, Charles Leslie studied law in London, but
+eventually abandoned that profession and entered the ministry. He was
+of a disputatious character and in particular went to great lengths
+in opposing the pro-Catholic activities of James II. Nevertheless,
+when the Revolution of 1688 came, he took the side of the deposed
+monarch, and loyally adhered to his Jacobite principles for the
+remainder of his life. He even joined the Old Pretender on the
+continent, and endeavored to convert him to Protestantism, but,
+failing therein, he returned to Ireland, where he died at Glasslough
+in county Monaghan. Many years of Leslie's life were devoted to
+disputes with Catholics, Quakers, Socinians, and Deists, and the
+seven volumes which his writings fill prove that he was an extremely
+able controversialist. His best known work is the famous treatise, _A
+Short and Easy Method with the Deists_, published in 1698.
+
+The Irish note, tone, or temper is not conspicuous in any of the
+writings so far named unless when it is conspicuous by its absence;
+but it appears plainly, for the first time, in Molyneux's _Case of
+Ireland being bound by Laws [made] in England Stated_ (1698). William
+Molyneux (1656-1698) has always ranked as an Irish patriot. His was
+one of the spirits invoked by Grattan in his great speech (1782) on
+the occasion on which he carried his celebrated Declaration of
+Independence in the Irish parliament. When the English Act of 1698,
+which was meant to destroy, and did destroy, the Irish woolen
+industry, came before the Irish house of commons for ratification,
+Molyneux's was the only voice raised against its adoption. His
+protest was followed by the publication of his _Case Stated_, which
+is a classic on the general relations between Ireland and England,
+and contained arguments so irrefutable that it drove the English
+parliament to fury and was by that body ordered to be burned by the
+common hangman. It is a remarkable coincidence that Molyneux opens
+his argument by laying down in almost identical words the principles
+which stand at the beginning of the American Declaration of
+Independence.
+
+John Toland (1669-1722) was born near Redcastle, in Co. Derry, and
+was at first a Catholic but subsequently became a free-thinker. His
+_Christianity not Mysterious_ (1696) marks an epoch in religious
+disputes, for it started the deistical controversy which was so
+distinctive a feature of the first half of the eighteenth century. It
+shared a similar fate to that of the _Case Stated_, though on very
+different grounds, and was ordered by the Irish parliament to be
+burned by the hangman. Toland wrote many other books, among which are
+_Amyntor_ (1699); _Nazarenus_ (1702); _Pantheisticon; History of the
+Druids_; and _Hypatia_. All his books show versatility and wide
+reading and are characterized by a pointed, vigorous, and aggressive
+style.
+
+George Farquhar (1678-1707), a Derry man, and Thomas Southerne
+(1660-1746), born near Dublin, were distinguished playwrights, who
+began their respective careers in the seventeenth century. Farquhar
+left Trinity College, Dublin, as an undergraduate and became an
+actor, but owing to his accidental killing of another player he left
+the stage and secured a commission in the army. He soon turned his
+attention to the writing of plays, and was responsible in all for
+eight comedies. He has left us some characters that are very humorous
+and at the same time true to life, such as Scrub the servant in _The
+Beaux' Stratagem_ and Sergeant Kite in _The Recruiting Officer_. His
+Boniface, the landlord in the former of these two plays, has become
+the type, as well as the ordinary quasi-facetious nickname, of an
+innkeeper. He was advancing in his art, for his last comedy, _The
+Beaux' Stratagem_ (1707), is undoubtedly his best, and had he lived
+longer--he died before he was thirty--he might have bequeathed to
+posterity something even more noteworthy. As Leigh Hunt says of him:
+"He was becoming gayer and gayer, when death, in the shape of a sore
+anxiety, called him away as if from a pleasant party, and left the
+house ringing with his jest."
+
+Southerne was also a student of Trinity College, Dublin. At the age
+of eighteen, however, he left his _alma mater_, and went to London to
+study law. This profession he in turn abandoned for the drama. His
+first play, _The Persian Prince, or the Loyal Brother_, had
+remarkable success when performed, and secured him an ensign's
+commission in the army (1685). Here promotion came to him rapidly and
+by 1688 he had risen to captain's rank. The Revolution of that year,
+however, cut off all further hope of advancement, and he once more
+turned his attention to the writing of plays. His productions number
+ten. His tragedies _Isabella, or the Fatal Marriage_ (1694) and
+_Oroonoko_ (1696), both founded on tales by Mrs. Aphra Behn, are
+powerful presentations of human suffering. His comedies are amusing,
+but gross. Southerne had business ability enough to make play-writing
+pay, and the amounts he received for his productions fairly staggered
+his friend Dryden. It is to this faculty that Pope alludes when he
+says that Southerne was one whom
+
+                 heaven sent down to raise
+      The price of prologues and of plays.
+
+He was apparently of amiable and estimable character, for he secured
+and retained the friendship not only of Dryden--a comparatively easy
+matter--but also that of Pope, a much more difficult task. Known as
+"the poets' Nestor", Southerne spent his declining years in peaceful
+retirement and in the enjoyment of the fortune which he had amassed
+by his pen.
+
+Nahum Tate (1652-1715), a Dubliner by birth, and Nicholas Brady
+(1659-1726), a Bandon man, have secured a certain sort of twin
+immortality by their authorized metrical version of the Psalms
+(1696), which gradually took the place of the older rendering by
+Sternhold and Hopkins. Tate became poet-laureate in 1690 in
+succession to Shadwell and was appointed historiographer-royal in
+1702. He wrote the bulk of the second part of _Absalom and
+Achitophel_ with a wonderfully close imitation of Dryden's manner,
+besides several dramatic pieces and poems. Between Tate, Shadwell,
+Eusden, and Pye lies the unenviable distinction of being the worst of
+the laureates of England. Brady was a clergyman who, after the
+pleasant fashion of that day, was a pluralist on a small scale, for
+he had the living of Richmond for thirty years from 1696, and while
+holding that held also in succession the livings of Stratford-on-Avon
+and Clapham. He added further to his income, and doubtless to his
+anxieties, by keeping a school at Richmond. He wrote a tragedy
+entitled _The Rape_, a _History of the Goths and Vandals_, a
+translation of the _Aeneid_ into blank verse, and an _Ode for St.
+Cecilia's Day_; but, unless for his share in the version of the
+Psalms, his literary reputation is well nigh as dead as the dodo.
+
+Ireland somewhat doubtfully claims to have given birth to Mrs.
+Susannah Centlivre (c. 1667-1723), who, after a rather wild youth,
+settled down to literary pursuits and domestic contentment when, in
+1706, she married Queen Anne's head-cook, Joseph Centlivre, with whom
+she lived happily ever after. Her first play, _The Provoked Husband_,
+a tragedy, was produced in 1700, and then she went on the stage as an
+actress. She wrote in all nineteen dramatic pieces, some of which had
+the honor of being translated into French and German. Her most
+original play was _A Bold Stroke for a Wife_ (1717).
+
+III. EIGHTEENTH CENTURY.
+
+We have now fairly crossed the border of the eighteenth century, and,
+as we met Ussher early in the seventeenth, so we are here confronted
+with the colossal intellect and impressive personality of Swift, one
+of the greatest, most peculiar, and most original geniuses to be
+found in the whole domain of English literature. Jonathan Swift
+(1667-1745), born in Dublin, was educated at Trinity College, where
+he succeeded in graduating only by special favor. After some years
+spent in the household of Sir William Temple in England, he entered
+the ministry of the Irish Church. During the early years of the
+century he spent much time in London, and took an active part in
+bringing about that political revolution which seated the Tories
+firmly in power during the last four years of the reign of Queen
+Anne. His services in that connection on the _Examiner_ newspaper
+were so great that it would be difficult to dispute the assertion,
+which has been made, that he was one of the mightiest journalists
+that ever wielded a pen. He also stood loyally by his party in his
+great pamphlets, _The Conduct of the Allies_ (1711), _The Barrier
+Treaty_ (1712), and _The Public Spirit of the Whigs_ (1714). When the
+time came for his reward, he received not, as he had hoped, an
+English bishopric, but the deanery of St. Patrick's in Dublin. On
+resuming his residence in Ireland he was at first very unpopular, but
+his patriotic spirit as shown in the _Drapier Letters_ (1723-1724),
+written in connection with a coinage scheme known as "Wood's
+halfpence", not only caused the withdrawal of the obnoxious project
+but also made Swift the idol of all classes of his countrymen. In
+many others of his writings he showed that pro-Irish leaning which
+caused Grattan to invoke his spirit along with that of Molyneux on
+the occasion already referred to. Nothing more mordant than the irony
+contained in his _Modest Proposal_ has ever been penned. In his plea
+for native manufactures he struck a keynote that has vibrated down
+the ages when he advised Irishmen to burn everything English except
+coal!
+
+Swift's greater works are _The Battle of the Books_, his contribution
+to the controversy concerning the relative merits of the ancients and
+the moderns; the _Tale of a Tub_, in which he attacked the three
+leading forms of Christianity; and, above all, _Gulliver's Travels_.
+In this last work he let loose the full flood of his merciless satire
+and lashed the folly and vices of mankind in the most unsparing way.
+He also wrote verses which are highly characteristic and some of them
+not without considerable merit. His life was unhappy and for the last
+five years of it he was to all intents and purposes insane. His
+relations with Stella (Hester Johnson) and Vanessa (Esther
+Vanhomrigh) have never been quite satisfactorily explained. The
+weight of evidence would seem to show that he was secretly married to
+Stella, but that they never lived together as husband and wife. Many
+novels and plays have been written round those entanglements. He lies
+buried in his own cathedral, St. Patrick's, Dublin, and beside him
+lies Stella. Over his tomb there is an epitaph in Latin, written by
+himself, in which, after speaking of the _saeva indignatio_ which
+tore his heart, he bids the wayfarer go and imitate, if he can, the
+energetic defender of his native land.
+
+Contemporary with the Dean there was another Anglo-Irishman, who
+fills a large space in the history of English literature, and of whom
+his countrymen are justly proud. Sir Richard Steele (1672-1729), who
+was born in Dublin and educated at the Charterhouse in London and
+afterwards at Oxford, started the _Tatler_ in 1709, and thereby
+popularized, though he did not exactly originate, the periodical
+essay. Aided by his friend, Addison, he carried the work to
+perfection in the _Spectator_ (1711-1712) and the _Guardian_ (1713).
+Since then these essays have enlightened and amused each succeeding
+generation. Of the two, Addison's is the greater name, but Steele was
+the more innovating spirit, for it is to him, and not to Addison,
+that the conception and initiation of the plan of the celebrated
+papers is due. Steele had had a predecessor in Defoe, whose _Review_
+had been in existence since 1704, but the more airy graces which
+characterized the _Tatler_ and the _Spectator_ gave the
+"lucubrations" of "Isaac Bickerstaffe" and of "Mr. Spectator" a
+greater hold on the public than Defoe's paper was ever able to
+establish. Steele was responsible for many more periodicals, such as
+the _Englishman_, the _Lover_, the _Reader_, _Town Talk_, the
+_Tea-Table, Chit-Chat_, the _Plebeian_, and the _Theatre_, most of
+which had a rather ephemeral existence. Among his other services to
+literature he helped to purify the stage of some of its grossness,
+and he became the founder of that sentimental comedy which in the
+days of the early Georges took the place of the immoral comedy of the
+Restoration period, when, in Johnson's famous phrase,
+
+      Intrigue was plot, obscenity was wit.
+
+Steele's four comedies are _The Funeral; or Grief a la mode_ (1701);
+_The Lying Lover_ (1703); _The Tender Husband_ (1705); and _The
+Conscious Lovers_ (1722). Although he held various lucrative offices,
+Steele was never really prosperous and was frequently in debt; like
+most of the contemporary Englishmen with whom his lot was thrown, he
+was rather addicted to the bottle; but, on the whole, it may fairly
+be advanced that unnecessary stress has been laid on these aspects of
+his life by Macaulay, Thackeray, and others. After a chequered
+career, he died near Carmarthen, in Wales, on September 1, 1729.
+
+Member of a family and bearer of a name destined to secure immense
+fame in later Irish history, Thomas Parnell (1679-1718) was born in
+Dublin and educated at Trinity College. Entering the ministry in
+1700, he was rapidly promoted to be archdeacon of Clogher and some
+years later was made rector of Finglas. An accomplished scholar and a
+delightful companion, he was one of the original members of the
+famous Scriblerus Club and wrote or helped to write several of its
+papers, he contributed to the _Spectator_ and the _Guardian_, and he
+rendered sterling assistance to Pope in the translation of Homer. As
+will be inferred, he spent much of his time in England, and on one of
+his journeys to Ireland he died in his thirty-ninth year at Chester,
+where he was buried. He wrote a great deal of verse--songs, hymns,
+epistles, eclogues, translations, tales, and occasional trifles; but
+three poems, _A Hymn to Contentment_, which is fanciful and
+melodious, _A Night-piece on Death_, in which inquisitorial research
+seems to have found the first faint dawn of Romanticism, and _The
+Hermit_, which has been not inaptly styled "the apex and _chef
+d'oeuvre_ of Augustan poetry in England", constitute his chief claim
+to present remembrance.
+
+Francis Hutcheson (1694-1746), the son of a Presbyterian minister,
+was born at Armagh, and studied at Glasgow University. He opened in
+Dublin a private academy, which succeeded beyond expectation. The
+publication of his _Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty
+and Virtue_ (1720) and his _Essay on the Nature and Conduct of the
+Passions_ (1728) brought him great fame, and in 1729 he was elected
+to the professorship of moral philosophy in the University of
+Glasgow. Others of his works are a treatise on _Logic_ and _A System
+of Moral Philosophy_, the latter not published till 1755, nine years
+after his death. Hutcheson fills a large space in the history of
+philosophy, both as a metaphysician and as a moralist. He is in some
+respects a pioneer of the "Scotch school" and of "common sense"
+philosophy. He greatly developed the doctrine of "moral sense", a
+term first used by the third Earl of Shaftesbury; indeed, much of his
+whole moral system may be traced to Shaftesbury. Hutcheson's
+influence was widely felt: it is plainly perceptible in Hume, Adam
+Smith, and Reid. He was greater as a speaker even than as a writer,
+and his lectures evoked much enthusiasm.
+
+George Berkeley (1685-1753), bishop of Cloyne, was born at Dysert
+Castle, near Thomastown, Co. Kilkenny, and was educated first at
+Kilkenny school and afterwards at Trinity College, Dublin. Having
+taken Anglican orders, he visited London, where he wrote nine papers
+for the _Guardian_ and was admitted to the companionship and
+friendship of the leading literary men of the age--Swift, Pope,
+Addison, Steele, and Arbuthnot. This connection proved of great
+assistance to him, for Pope not only celebrated him as possessing
+"every virtue under heaven", but also recommended him to the Duke of
+Grafton, Lord-Lieutenant of Ireland, who appointed him his chaplain
+and subsequently obtained for him the deanery of Derry. In
+furtherance of a great scheme for "converting the savage Americans to
+Christianity", Berkeley and some friends, armed with a royal charter,
+came to this country, landing at Newport in Rhode Island in January,
+1729. All went well for a while: Berkeley bought a farm and built a
+house; but when the hard-hearted prime minister refused to forward
+the L20,000 which had been promised, the project came to an end, and
+Berkeley returned to London in February, 1732. In 1734 he was
+appointed bishop of Cloyne, and later refused the see of Clogher,
+though its income was fully double that of his own diocese. In 1752
+he resigned his bishopric and settled at Oxford, where he died in
+1753.
+
+Berkeley's works are very numerous. His _Essay towards a New Theory
+of Vision_ (1709), which was long regarded in the light of a
+philosophical romance, in reality contains speculations which have
+been incorporated in modern scientific optics. In his _Three
+Dialogues between Hylas and Philonous_ (1713) he sets forth his
+famous demonstration of the immateriality of the external world, of
+the spiritual nature of the soul, and of the all-ruling and direct
+providence of God. His tenets on immateriality have always been
+rejected by "common-sense" philosophers; but it should be remembered
+that the whole work was written at a time when the English-speaking
+world was disturbed by the theories of sceptics and deists, whose
+doctrines the pious divine sought as best he could to confute. In
+1732 appeared his _Alciphron, or the Minute Philosopher_, in which,
+dialogue-wise, he presents nature from a religious point of view and
+in particular gives many pleasing pictures of American scenery and
+life. These dialogues have frequently been compared to the dialogues
+of Plato. To Berkeley's credit be it said that while he ruled in
+Cloyne he devoted much thought to the amelioration of conditions in
+his native land. Many acute suggestions in that direction are found
+in the _Querist_ (1735-1737). By some extraordinary ratiocinative
+process he convinced himself that tar-water was a panacea for human
+ills, and in 1744 he set forth his views on that subject in the tract
+called _Siris_, and returned to the charge in 1752 in his _Further
+Thoughts on Tar-Water_. Whatever may be thought of the value of
+Berkeley's philosophical or practical speculations, there is only one
+opinion of his style. It is distinguished by lucidity, ease, and
+charm; it has the saving grace of humor; and it is shot through with
+imagination. Taken all in all, this eighteenth century bishop is a
+notable figure in literary annals.
+
+Charles Macklin (c. 1697-1797), whose real name was MacLaughlin, was
+a Westmeath man, who took to the stage in early life and remained on
+the boards with considerable and undiminished reputation for some
+seventy years, not retiring until 1789 when he was at least 92 years
+old. To him we are indebted for what is now the accepted presentation
+of the character of Shylock in _The Merchant of Venice_. He wrote a
+tragedy and many comedies and farces: those by which he is now best
+remembered are the farce, _Love-a-la-Mode_ (1760), and his
+masterpiece, the farcical comedy, _The Man of the World_ (1764). In
+Sir Pertinax MacSycophant, Macklin has given us one of the
+traditional burlesque characters of the English stage.
+
+Thomas Amory (1691?-1788), if not born in Ireland, was at least of
+Irish descent and was educated in Dublin. He is known in literature
+for two books. The first, with the very mixed title of _Memoirs
+containing the Lives of several Ladies of Great Britain; A History of
+Antiquities; Observations on the Christian Religion_, was published
+in 1755, and the second, _The Life of John Buncle, Esq._, came out in
+two volumes in 1756-1766. It appears to have been the author's aim in
+both works to give us a hotch-potch in which he discourses _de
+omnibus rebus et quibusdam aliis_. We have dissertations on the cause
+of earthquakes and of muscular motion, on the Athanasian Creed, on
+fluxions, on phlogiston, on the physical cause of the Deluge, on
+Irish literature, on the origin of language, on the evidences for
+Christianity, and on all other sorts of unrelated topics. Hazlitt
+thought that the soul of Rabelais had passed into Amory, while a more
+recent critic can see in his long-winded discussions naught but the
+"light-headed ramblings of delirium." If we try to read _John Buncle_
+consecutively, the result is boredom; but if we open the book at
+random, we are pretty sure to be interested and even sometimes
+agreeably entertained.
+
+The bizarre figure of Laurence Sterne (1713-1768) next claims our
+attention. The son of a captain in the British army, he was born at
+Clonmel, Co. Tipperary. Of him almost more than of any of the writers
+so far dealt with, it may be said that he was Irish only by the
+accident of birth. His parents were English on both sides, and
+practically the whole life of their son was spent out of Ireland. He
+was sent to school at Halifax, in Yorkshire, and thence went to
+Cambridge University, where he graduated in due season. Taking
+Anglican orders in 1738, he was immediately appointed to the benefice
+of Sutton-in-the-Forest, near York, and on his marriage in 1741 with
+Elizabeth Lumley he received the additional living of Stillington. He
+was also given sundry prebendal and other appointments in connection
+with the chapter of the archdiocese of York. He spent nearly twenty
+years in the discharge of his not very onerous duties and in reading,
+painting, shooting, and fiddling, without showing the least sign of
+any literary leanings. Then suddenly, in 1760, he took the world by
+storm with the first two volumes of _Tristram Shandy_. He at once
+became the lion of the hour, was feted and dined to his heart's
+content, and had his nostrils tickled with the daily incense of
+praise from his numerous worshippers. He repeated the experiment with
+equal success the following year with two more volumes of _Tristram_,
+and so at intervals until 1767, when he published the ninth and last
+volume of this most peculiar story. In 1768 he brought out _A
+Sentimental Journey_, and within three weeks he died in his lodgings
+in London. His other publications include _Sermons_ and _Letters_.
+_Tristram Shandy_ is unique in English literature--it stands _sui
+generis_ for all time. There is scarcely any consecutive narrative,
+and what there is is used merely as a peg on which to hang endless
+digressions. But while there are many faults of taste and morals,
+there are also genuine humor and pathos, and without Walter Shandy,
+Dr. Slop, the Widow Wadman, Yorick, Uncle Toby, and Corporal Trim,
+English literature would certainly be very much the poorer.
+
+Hugh Kelly (1739-1777), born in Dublin, was the son of a publican and
+himself became a staymaker, a trade from which he developed through
+the successive stages of attorney's clerk, newspaper-writer,
+theatrical critic, and essayist, into a novelist and playwright. His
+novel, _Memoirs of a Magdalen_ (1767), was translated into French.
+His first comedy, a sentimental one entitled _False Delicacy_ (1768),
+achieved a remarkable success on the stage and was even a greater
+success in book form, 10,000 copies being sold in a year, so that its
+author was raised from poverty to comparative affluence. In addition,
+it gave him a European reputation, for it was translated into German,
+French, and Portuguese. Strange to say, his later comedies, _A Word
+to the Wise, A School for Wives_, and _The Man of Reason_, were
+practically failures, and the same is true of his tragedy,
+_Clementina_. Kelly ultimately withdrew from stage work, and for the
+last three years of his life practised as a barrister without,
+however, achieving much distinction in his new profession.
+
+Charles Coffey (d. 1745), an Irishman, was the author of several
+farces, operas, ballad operas, ballad farces, and farcical operas,
+the best known of which was _The Devil to Pay, or the Wives
+Metamorphosed_ (1731).
+
+Henry Brooke (1703?-1783), a county Cavan man and the son of a
+clergyman, was educated at Trinity College, Dublin, and afterwards
+studied law in London. Becoming guardian to his cousin, a girl of
+twelve, he put her to school for two years and then secretly married
+her. Of his large family of twenty-two children, three of whom were
+born before their mother was eighteen years old, but one survived
+him. Appointed by Lord Chesterfield barrack-master at Mullingar,
+Brooke afterwards settled in Co. Kildare. It was there that he wrote
+his celebrated work, _The Fool of Quality, or the History of the Earl
+of Moreland_ (5 vols., 1766-1770), which won the commendations of men
+so widely different as John Wesley and Charles Kingsley. It is,
+indeed, a remarkable book, combining, as it does, many of the
+characteristics of Sterne, Mackenzie, Borrow, and George Meredith. It
+is not very well known nowadays, but it will always bear, and will
+well repay, perusal. Brooke also wrote a poem on _Universal Beauty_
+(1735) and the tragedies _Gustavus Vasa_ (1739), the production of
+which was forbidden in London but which was afterwards staged in
+Dublin as _The Patriot_, and _The Earl of Essex_ (1749), which was
+played both in London and in Dublin, and has been made famous by the
+parody of one line in it by Samuel Johnson. Another novel, _Juliet
+Grenville, or the History of the Human Heart_, published in 1774, was
+not nearly up to the standard of _The Fool of Quality_. Brooke was a
+busy literary man. He made a translation of part of Tasso, drafted
+plans for a History of Ireland, projected a series of old Irish
+tales, wrote one fragment in a style very like that subsequently
+adopted by Macpherson in his _Ossian_, and for a while was editor of
+the _Freeman's Journal_. In the beginning, Brooke was violently
+anti-Catholic; but, as time progressed, he became more
+liberal-minded, and advocated the relaxation of the penal laws and a
+more humane treatment of his Catholic fellow-countrymen. Like Swift
+and Steele, he fell into a state of mental debility for some years
+before his death. His daughter, Charlotte Brooke (1740-1793),
+deserves mention as a pioneer of the Irish literary revival, for she
+devoted herself to the saving of the stores of Irish literature which
+in her time were rapidly disappearing. One of the fruits of her
+labors was _The Reliques of Irish Poetry_, published in 1789. She
+also wrote _Emma, or the Foundling of the Wood_, a novel, and
+_Belisarius_, a tragedy.
+
+Charles Johnstone (c. 1719-1800), a Co. Limerick man, was educated in
+Dublin and called to the English bar, but owing to deafness was more
+successful as a chamber counsel than as a pleader. Emigrating to
+India in 1782, he became joint proprietor of a newspaper in Calcutta,
+and there he died. He wrote several satirical romances, such as
+_Chrysal, or the Adventures of a Guinea; The Reverie, or a Flight to
+the Paradise of Fools_; and _The History of Arsaces, Prince of
+Betlis_. Of these the first was the best. Samuel Johnson, who read it
+in manuscript, advised its publication, and his opinion was
+vindicated, for it proved a huge success. Sir Walter Scott afterwards
+said that the author of _Chrysal_ deserved to rank as a prose
+Juvenal. Johnstone also wrote _The Pilgrim, or a Picture of Life_ and
+a picaresque novel, _The History of John Juniper, Esquire, alias
+Juniper Jack_.
+
+Arthur Murphy (1727-1805), born at Cloonquin, Co. Roscommon, was
+educated at St. Omer. At first an actor, he afterwards studied law
+and was called to the English bar in 1762. He made a translation of
+Tacitus, and wrote several farces and comedies, among which may be
+mentioned _The Apprentice; The Spouter; The Upholsterer; The Way to
+Keep Him_; and _All in the Wrong_. He also wrote three tragedies,
+namely, _The Orphan of China; The Grecian Daughter_; and _Arminius_.
+For the last-named, which was produced in 1798, and which had a
+strongly political cast, he received a pension of L200 a year. His
+plays long held the stage.
+
+Oliver Goldsmith (1728-1774), essayist, poet, novelist, playwright,
+historian, biographer, and editor, was a many-sided genius, who, as
+Johnson said in his epitaph, left scarcely any kind of writing
+untouched, and touched none that he did not adorn. Born, probably, in
+Co. Longford, the son of a poor clergyman, he was educated at various
+country schools until, in 1744, he secured a sizarship in Trinity
+College, Dublin. There he had a somewhat stormy career, but
+eventually took his degree in 1749. He then lounged at home for a
+while in his widowed mother's cottage at Ballymahon, until he was
+persuaded to take orders, but spoiled his already sufficiently poor
+chances of ordination by appearing before the bishop of Elphin in
+scarlet breeches. After other adventures in search of a profession,
+he went to Edinburgh in 1752 to study medicine, and two years later
+transferred himself to Leyden for the same purpose. It was from
+Leyden that, with one guinea in his pocket, one shirt on his person,
+and a flute in his hand, he started on his celebrated walking tour of
+Europe, during which he gained those impressions which he was
+afterwards to embody in some of his greater works. In 1756 he arrived
+in England, where for three years he had very varied experiences--as
+a strolling player, an apothecary's journeyman, a practising
+physician, a reader for the press, an usher in an academy, and a
+hack-writer. In 1759 he published anonymously his _Enquiry into the
+Present State of Polite Learning in Europe_, which was well received
+and helped him to other literary work. _The Bee_, a volume of essays
+and verses, appeared in the same year. He was made editor of the
+_Lady's Magazine_; he published _Memoirs of Voltaire_ (1761), a
+_History of Mecklenburgh_ (1762), and a _Life of Richard Nash_
+(1762). In 1762 also he brought out his _Citizen of the World_, a
+collection of essays, which takes an extremely high rank. In 1764 his
+poem, _The Traveller, or a Prospect of Society_, made its appearance;
+and in 1766 he gave to the world his famous novel, _The Vicar of
+Wakefield_. His reputation as a writer was now established; he was
+received into Johnson's circle and was a member of the Literary Club;
+Reynolds and Burke were proud to call him friend. In 1768 he had his
+comedy, _The Good Natured Man_, produced at Covent Garden Theatre,
+where it achieved a fair measure of success and brought him in L400.
+In 1770 he repeated his triumph as a poet with _The Deserted
+Village_. He wrote a _History of Animated Nature_, a _History of
+England_, and a _History of Rome_, all compilations couched in that
+easy style of which he was master. He also wrote a _Life of Parnell_
+and a _Life of Bolingbroke_. Finally, in 1773, his great comedy, _She
+Stoops to Conquer_, was staged at Covent Garden, and met with
+wonderful success. A little more than a year later Goldsmith died of
+a nervous fever, the result of overwork and anxiety, and was buried
+in the burial ground of the Temple Church. His unfinished poem,
+_Retaliation_, a series of epigrams in epitaph form on some of his
+distinguished literary and artistic friends, was issued a few days
+after his death, and added greatly to his reputation as a wit and
+humorist, a reputation which was still further enhanced when, in
+1776, _The Haunch of Venison_ made its appearance. In the latter year
+a monument, with a medallion and Johnson's celebrated Latin epitaph
+attached, was erected to his memory in Westminster Abbey.
+
+Goldsmith's renown, great in his own day, has never since diminished.
+His essays, his novel, and his poems are still read with avidity and
+pleasure; his comedy is still acted. It is his statue that stands
+along with Burke's at the entrance gate to Trinity College, Dublin,
+the _alma mater_ seeking to commemorate in a striking manner two of
+her most distinguished sons by placing their effigies thus in the
+forefront of her possessions and in full view of all the world.
+Personally, Goldsmith was a very amiable and good-hearted man, dear
+to his own circle and dear to that "Mr. Posterity" to whom he once
+addressed a humorous dedication. He had his faults, it is true, but
+they are hidden amid his many perfections. Everyone will be disposed
+to agree with what Johnson wrote of him: "Let not his frailties be
+remembered; he was a very great man."
+
+Edmund Burke (1729-1797), born in Dublin, the son of a Protestant
+father and a Catholic mother whose name was Nagle, was educated first
+at a Quaker school in Ballitore, Co. Kildare, and afterwards at
+Trinity College, Dublin. He became a law student in London, but he
+did not eventually adopt the law as a profession. He brought out in
+1756 a _Vindication of Natural Society_, in which he so skilfully
+imitated the style and the paradoxical reasoning of Bolingbroke that
+many were deceived into the belief that the _Vindication_ was a
+posthumously published production of the viscount's pen. In the
+following year Burke published in his own name _A Philosophical
+Inquiry into the Origin of our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful_,
+which attracted widespread attention, was translated into German and
+French, and brought its author into touch with all the leading
+literary men of London. He was instrumental with Dodsley the
+publisher in starting the _Annual Register_ in 1759, and for close on
+thirty years he continued to supply it with the "Survey of Events."
+He entered public life in 1760 by accompanying "Single-Speech"
+Hamilton to Dublin when the latter was appointed Chief Secretary for
+Ireland. In 1765 he was made private secretary to the prime minister,
+the Marquis of Rockingham, and, as member for Wendover, entered
+parliament, where he speedily made a name for himself. During Lord
+North's long tenure of office (1770-1782) Burke was one of the
+minority and opposed the splendid force of his genius to the
+corruption, extravagance, and mal-administration of the government.
+To this period belong, in addition to lesser works, his great
+speeches _On American Taxation_ (1774) and _On Conciliation with
+America_ (1775), as well as his spirited _Letter to the Sheriffs of
+Bristol_ (1777). He had been elected member of parliament for Bristol
+in 1774, but he lost his seat in 1780 because he had advocated the
+relaxation of the restrictions on the trade of Ireland with Great
+Britain and of the penal laws against Catholics. In the second
+administration of Rockingham (1782) and in that of Portland (1783) he
+was paymaster of the forces, a position which he lost on the downfall
+of the Whigs in the latter year, and he never again held public
+office. His speech on the impeachment of Warren Hastings in 1788 is
+universally and justly ranked as a masterpiece of eloquence. When the
+French Revolution broke out, he opposed it with might and main. His
+_Reflections on the French Revolution_ (1790) had an enormous
+circulation, reached an eleventh edition inside of a year, was read
+all over the continent as well as in the British Isles, and helped
+materially not only to keep England steady in the crisis, but also to
+incite the other powers to continue their resistance to French
+aggression. He continued his campaign in _Thoughts on French Affairs_
+and _Letters on a Regicide Peace_. He was given two pensions in 1794,
+and would have been raised to the peerage as Lord Beaconsfield, had
+not the succession to the title been cut off by the premature death
+of his only son. He himself died in 1797 and was buried at
+Beaconsfield, where, as far back as 1768, he had purchased a small
+estate.
+
+As an orator and a deep political thinker, Burke holds a foremost
+place among those of all time who distinguished themselves in the
+British parliament. His keen intellect, his powerful imagination, his
+sympathy with the fallen, the downtrodden, and the oppressed, and his
+matchless power of utterance of the thoughts that were in him have
+made an impression that can never be effaced. His wise and
+statesman-like views on questions affecting the colonies ought to
+endear him to all Americans, although, if his counsels had been
+hearkened to, it is probable that the separation from the mother
+country would not have occurred as soon as it did. For his native
+land he used his best endeavors when and how he could, and although,
+as her defender, he was faced by obloquy as well as by the loss of
+that parliamentary position which was as dear to him as the breath of
+his nostrils, he did not flinch or shrink from supporting her
+material and spiritual interests in his own generous, manly,
+whole-hearted way. Trinity College, Dublin, has done well in placing
+his statue at her outer gates as representing the greatest Irishman
+of his generation.
+
+A political associate of Burke's for many years was Richard Brinsley
+Sheridan (1751-1816). Of Co. Cavan descent, Sheridan was born in
+Dublin, and was educated partly in his native city and partly at
+Harrow, and the remainder of his life was spent in England. He was
+distinguished first as a playwright and afterwards as a parliamentary
+orator. In 1775 his comedy, _The Rivals_, was produced at Covent
+Garden Theatre; his farce, _St. Patrick's Day, or the Scheming
+Lieutenant_, and his comic opera, _The Duenna_, were staged in the
+same year. His greatest comedy, _The School for Scandal_, was acted
+at Drury Lane Theatre in 1777, and it was followed in 1779 by _The
+Critic_. His last dramatic composition was the tragedy, _Pizarro_,
+produced in 1799. Elected to parliament in 1780, Sheridan was made
+under-secretary for foreign affairs in the Rockingham administration
+of 1782, and in 1783 he was secretary to the treasury in the
+Coalition Ministry. He sprang into repute as a brilliant orator
+during the impeachment of Warren Hastings, 1787-1794. His speech on
+the Begums of Oude was one of the greatest ever delivered within the
+walls of the British parliament. In 1806, on the return of the Whigs
+to power, he was appointed treasurer in the navy. In 1812 his long
+parliamentary career came to a close when he was defeated for the
+borough of Westminster. He died in 1816, and was honored with a
+magnificent funeral in Westminster Abbey.
+
+To give an idea as to how Sheridan's oratorical powers impressed his
+contemporaries, it is perhaps enough to repeat what Burke said of his
+second speech against Warren Hastings, namely, that it was "the most
+astonishing effort of eloquence, argument, and wit united of which
+there is any record or tradition", and to add that when, after three
+hours of impassioned pleading, he brought his first speech against
+Hastings to an end, the effect produced was so great that it was
+agreed to adjourn the house immediately and defer the final decision
+until the members should be in a less excited mood. As a dramatist
+Sheridan is second in popularity to Shakespeare alone. _The School
+for Scandal_ and _The Rivals_ are as fresh and as eagerly welcomed
+today as they were a hundred and forty years ago. Like Burke, he was
+true to the land of his birth and his oppressed Catholic
+fellow-countrymen. Almost his last words in the house of commons were
+these: "Be just to Ireland. I will never give my vote to any
+administration that opposes the question of Catholic emancipation."
+
+Sheridan belonged to a family that was exceptionally distinguished in
+English literature. Among those who preceded him as litterateurs were
+his grandfather, the Rev. Thomas Sheridan, D.D.; his father, Thomas
+Sheridan; and his mother, Frances Sheridan. Rev. Dr. Sheridan
+(1684-1738), the friend and confidant of Dean Swift, kept a
+fashionable school in Dublin, edited the _Satires_ of Persius in
+1728, wrote a treatise on _The Art of Punning_, and figures largely
+in Swift's correspondence. Thomas Sheridan (1721-1788) was at first
+an actor of considerable reputation, both in Dublin and in London;
+was next a teacher of elocution; and finally came forward with an
+improved system of education, in which oratory was to have a
+conspicuous part. In this connection he published an elaborate _Plan
+of Education_ in 1769, but his ideas, some of which are in accord
+with modern practice, were not taken up, He also compiled a
+pronouncing _Dictionary of the English Language_, with a prosodic
+grammar, and in 1784 published an entertaining _Life of Swift_.
+Frances Sheridan (1724-1766), wife of Thomas and mother of Richard
+Brinsley, who as Frances Chamberlaine had been known as a poetess,
+wrote after her marriage two plays, _The Discovery_ and _The Dupe_,
+and two novels, _The Memoirs of Miss Sidney Biddulph_, which was a
+great success and was translated by the Abbe Prevost into French, and
+_The History of Nourjahad_, an Oriental tale. In 1775 the singular
+spectacle was presented of the son's play running at Covent Garden
+while the mother's was being acted at Drury Lane.
+
+Among Sheridan's descendants who earned a niche in the temple of
+literary fame were his grand-daughters, the Countess of Dufferin
+(1807-1867) and the Hon. Mrs. Norton, afterwards Lady Stirling
+Maxwell (1808-1877), and his great-grandson, the first Marquis of
+Dufferin and Ava (1826-1902). Lady Dufferin's _Lament of the Irish
+Emigrant_ ("I'm sittin' on the style, Mary") has moved the hearts and
+brought tears to the eyes of countless thousands since it was
+published more than fifty years ago.
+
+Sir Philip Francis (1740-1818), born in Dublin, was the son of a
+clergyman of like name who attained some literary eminence as the
+translator of Horace and as a political writer. After filling various
+important government positions, Philip Francis, the son, was in 1773
+made a member of the Council of Bengal, where his relations with the
+governor-general, Warren Hastings, were of an extremely strained
+character, amounting at times almost to a public scandal. He returned
+to England in 1781, entered parliament, made a name as a speaker,
+took part in the impeachment of Hastings, and composed numerous
+political pamphlets. He is generally supposed to have been the writer
+of the celebrated _Letters of Junius_, which appeared at intervals in
+the _Public Advertiser_ between January 21, 1769, and January 21,
+1772. These letters are distinguished for their polished style, their
+power of invective, their galling sarcasm, their knowledge of state
+secrets, and their unparalleled boldness. Every prominent man
+connected with the government was attacked: even the king himself was
+not spared. As revised by their pseudonymous writer in a reprint made
+in 1772, they number 70; a later edition, in 1812, contained 113
+more. Their authorship has been the subject of much controversy, nor
+is the question yet finally settled. In his _Essay on Warren
+Hastings_, written in 1841, Macaulay went to considerable trouble to
+prove, by the cumulative method, that Francis was the writer, and
+since then that opinion has been generally, but not universally,
+maintained.
+
+Isaac Bickerstaffe (c. 1735-c. 1812) was an Irishman, whose name,
+strange to say, had no connection with the _nom de guerre_ of the
+same style under which Swift had masqueraded in his outrageously
+satirical attacks on Partridge the almanac maker, or with the more
+celebrated imaginary Isaac Bickerstaffe under cover of whose
+personality Steele conducted the _Tatler_. The real Bickerstaffe was
+a prolific playwright. His best known pieces are _The Sultan_, _The
+Maid of the Mill_, _Lionel and Clarissa_, and _Love in a Village_. In
+the last-mentioned occurs the famous song, beginning "We all love a
+pretty girl--under the rose."
+
+William Drennan (1754-1820), who has been called the Tyrtaeus of the
+United Irishmen, was the son of a Presbyterian clergyman, was born in
+Belfast, and was educated at Glasgow and Edinburgh universities,
+taking a medical degree from the latter. He practised his profession
+in the north of Ireland. When the Irish Volunteers were established,
+Drennan entered heart and soul into the movement. Removing to Dublin
+in 1789, he associated with Tone and other revolutionary spirits, and
+became one of the founders of the Society of United Irishmen, the
+first statement of whose objects was the product of his pen. His
+_Letters of Orellana_ helped materially to enlist the men of Ulster
+in the ranks of the Society. He also wrote a series of stirring
+lyrics which, voicing as they did the general sentiment in Ireland at
+the time, became extremely popular and had a widespread effect. These
+were afterwards (1815) collected under the title of _Fugitive
+Pieces_. All his political hopes being blasted with the failure of
+the rebellion of 1798 and of Emmet's insurrection in 1803, Drennan
+returned in 1807 to Belfast and there founded the _Belfast Magazine_.
+"The Wake of William Orr", a series of noble and affecting stanzas
+commemorating the judicial murder of a young Presbyterian Irish
+patriot in 1798, is one of his best known pieces. He also celebrated
+the ill-fated brothers Sheares. His song "Erin" was considered by
+Moore to be one of the most perfect of modern songs. It was in this
+piece that he fixed upon Ireland the title of the Emerald Isle:
+
+      When Erin first rose from the dark swelling flood,
+      God bless'd the green island, and saw it was good;
+      The em'rald of Europe, it sparkled and shone--
+      In the ring of the world the most precious stone.
+
+Mary Tighe (1772-1810), whose maiden name was Blachford, was born,
+the daughter of a clergyman, in Co. Wicklow. She contracted an
+unhappy marriage with her cousin who represented Kilkenny in the
+Irish house of commons. By all accounts she was of great beauty and
+numerous accomplishments. She wrote many poems: her best, and best
+known, is _Psyche, or the Legend of Love_, an adaptation of the story
+of Cupid and Psyche from the _Golden Ass_ of Apuleius. The metre she
+employed in this piece was the Spenserian stanza, which she handled
+with great power, freedom, and melody. _Psyche_, which first appeared
+in 1795, had a wonderful vogue, running rapidly through edition after
+edition. Among others to whom it appealed and who were influenced by
+it was Keats. Mrs. Tighe's talent drew from Moore a delicate
+compliment in "Tell me the witching tale again"; and in "The Grave of
+a Poetess" and "I stood where the life of song lay low", Mrs. Hemans
+bewailed her untimely death.
+
+Edmund Malone (1741-1813), the son of an Irish judge, was born in
+Dublin and studied at Trinity College. He was called to the Irish bar
+in 1767, but coming into a fortune, he abandoned his profession and
+gave himself over to literary work. In 1790 he brought out an edition
+of Shakespeare which was deservedly praised for its learning and
+research. His critical acumen led him to doubt the genuineness of
+Chatterton's _Rowley Poems_, and he was one of the first to expose
+Ireland's Shakespearean forgeries in 1796. Among other services to
+literature he wrote a _Life of Sir Joshua Reynolds_ and edited
+Dryden. He also left a quantity of materials afterwards utilized for
+the "Variorum Shakespeare" by James Boswell the younger in 1821.
+
+John O'Keeffe (1747-1833), a Dublin man, was at first an art student,
+but soon became an actor, and then developed into a playwright. His
+pen was most prolific; he published a collection of over fifty pieces
+in 1798. His plays are mostly comic operas or farces, and some of
+them had great success. Lingo, the schoolmaster in _The Agreeable
+Surprise_, is a very amusing character. _The Positive Man, The
+Son-in-Law, Wild Oats, Love in a Camp_, and _The Poor Soldier_ are
+among his compositions. His songs are well known, such as "I am a
+friar of orders grey", and there are few schoolboys who have not
+sooner or later made the acquaintance of his "Amo, amas, I loved a
+lass". For the last fifty-two years of his life O'Keeffe was blind,
+an affliction which he bore with unfailing cheerfulness. In 1826 he
+was given a pension of one hundred guineas a year from the king's
+privy purse.
+
+George Canning (1770-1827), prime minister of England, properly
+belongs here, for, although born in London, he was a member of an
+Irish family long settled at Garvagh in Co. Derry. Entering
+parliament on the side of Pitt in 1796, he was made secretary of the
+navy in 1804 and in 1812 secretary of State for foreign affairs. He
+became prime minister in 1827, but died within six months, leaving a
+record for scarcely surpassed eloquence. In addition to his speeches,
+he is known in literature for his contributions to the _Anti-Jacobin,
+or Weekly Examiner_, which ran its satirical and energetic career for
+eight months (November, 1797-July, 1798.) Some of the best things
+that appeared in this ultra-conservative organ were from Canning's
+pen. Few there are who have not laughed at his _Loves of the
+Triangles_, in which he caricatured Erasmus Darwin's _Loves of the
+Plants_; at _The Needy Knife-Grinder_; or at the song of Rogero in
+_The Rovers_, with its comic refrain of the
+
+                          U--
+      niversity of Gottingen.
+
+Like most of the great Anglo-Irishmen of his time, Canning favored
+Catholic emancipation. It is interesting to note that it was a letter
+of Canning's that led to the formulation of the Monroe Doctrine.
+
+Henry Grattan (1746-1820), the hero of Grattan's parliament, was born
+in Dublin and studied at Trinity College. His history belongs to that
+of his country. Suffice it here to say that not only did he by great
+eloquence and real statesmanship secure a free parliament for Ireland
+In 1782, but also that he fought energetically, if unavailingly,
+against the abolition of that parliament in 1800, and that
+thenceforward he devoted his abilities to promoting the cause of
+Catholic emancipation. Dying in London, he was honored by being
+buried in Westminster Abbey. In an age of great orators he stands out
+among the very foremost. His speeches have become classics, and are
+constantly quoted.
+
+Another brilliant Irish orator, as well as an eminent wit, of this
+period, was John Philpot Curran (1750-1817), who, born at Newmarket,
+Co. Cork, and educated at Trinity College, Dublin, achieved a
+wonderful success at the Irish bar. He defended with rare insight,
+eloquence, and patriotism those who were accused of complicity in the
+rebellion of 1798. As a member of Grattan's parliament, he voiced the
+most liberal principles, and, though a Protestant himself, he worked
+hard in the Catholic cause. He held the great office of Master of the
+Rolls in Ireland from 1806 to 1814. The memory of few Irish orators,
+wits, or patriots is greener today than that of Curran. His daughter
+Sarah, whose fate is so inextricably blended with that of the
+ill-starred Robert Emmet, has been rendered immortal by Moore in his
+beautiful song, "She is far from the land where her young hero
+sleeps".
+
+Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin (1759-1797), the first advocate of the
+rights of women, though born in London, was of Irish extraction. Into
+the details of her extraordinary and chequered career it is not
+possible, or necessary, here to enter. Her published works include
+_Thoughts on the Education of Daughters_ (1787); _Answer to Burke's
+Reflections on the French Revolution_ (1791); _Vindication of the
+Rights of Women_ (1792); and an unfinished _Historical and Moral View
+of the French Revolution_ (Vol. I., 1794). Having in August, 1797,
+borne to her husband, William Godwin, a daughter who afterwards
+became Shelley's second wife, Mary Godwin died in the following
+month. Whatever her faults--and they were perhaps not greater than
+her misfortunes--she had something of the divine touch of genius,
+and, in a different environment, might easily have left some great
+literary memento which the world would not willingly let die.
+
+Maria Edgeworth (1767-1849), though born at Blackbourton in England,
+belonged to a family which had been settled in different parts of
+Ireland and finally at Edgeworthstown, Co. Longford, for nearly two
+hundred years. She was the daughter of Richard Lovell Edgeworth
+(1744-1817), who was distinguished for his inventions, for his
+eccentricity, and for his varied matrimonial experiences, and who
+himself figures in literature as the author of _Memoirs_,
+posthumously published in 1820, and as the partner with his daughter
+in _Practical Education_ (1798) and in an _Essay on Irish Bulls_
+(1802). Maria had a busy literary career and was before the public
+for fifty-two years from 1795 to 1847. She wrote _Moral Tales;
+Popular Tales; Tales from Fashionable Life_; and _Harrington_; but
+she is now best remembered for her three masterpieces dealing with
+Irish life and conditions, namely, _Castle Rackrent_ (1800); _The
+Absentee_ (1812); and _Ormond_ (1817). By these works she inspired
+Scott, as he himself tells us, to attempt for his own country
+something "of the same kind with that which she had so fortunately
+achieved for Ireland", and in a later day she inspired Turgenief to
+do similarly for Russia. She excels in wit and pathos and gives a
+true and vivid presentation of the times and conditions as she viewed
+them.
+
+Andrew Cherry (1763-1821), born in Limerick, became an actor, a
+theatrical manager, and a playwright. He wrote nine or ten plays,
+several of which were moderately successful. The one that is now
+remembered is _The Soldier's Daughter_. Some of his songs, such as
+"The Bay of Biscay", "Tom Moody, the Whipper-in", and, especially,
+"The Green Little Shamrock of Ireland", bid fair to be immortal.
+
+Other Irish song-writers were Thomas Duffet (fl. 1676), author of
+"Come all you pale lovers"; Arthur Dawson (1700?-1775), author of
+"Bumpers, Squire Jones"; George Ogle (1742-1814), author of "Molly
+Asthore"; Richard Alfred Millikin (1767-1815), author of the
+grotesque "Groves of Blarney"; Edward Lysaght (1763-1811), author of
+"Our Ireland", "The Gallant Man who led the van Of the Irish
+Volunteers", and "Kate of Garnavilla"; George Nugent Reynolds
+(1770?-1802), author of "Kathleen O'More"; Thomas Dermody
+(1775-1802), author of the collection of poems and songs known as
+_The Harp of Erin_; James Orr (1770-1816), author of "The Irishman";
+Henry Brereton Code (d. 1830), author of "The Sprig of Shillelah";
+Charles Wolfe (1791-1823), author of "If I had thought thou couldst
+have died", and of "The Burial of Sir John Moore"; and Charles Dawson
+Shanly (1811-1875), author of "Kitty of Coleraine".
+
+Theobald Wolfe Tone (1763-1798), born in Dublin, educated at Trinity
+College, and called to the Irish bar in 1789, fills a large space in
+the history of his country from 1790 to his death in 1798. Intrepid,
+daring, and resourceful, he was one of the most dangerous of the
+enemies to English domination in Ireland that arose at any time
+during the troubled relations between the two countries. Taken
+prisoner on board a French ship of the line bound for Ireland on a
+mission of freedom, he committed suicide in prison rather than submit
+to the ignominy of being hanged to which he had been condemned. He
+sleeps his last sleep in Bodenstown churchyard, in that county of
+Kildare to which he was connected by many ties. His grave is still
+the Mecca of many a pilgrimage, and the corner-stone of a statue to
+his memory has been laid for some years on a commanding site in the
+city of his birth. He is known in literature for his _Journals_ and
+his _Autobiography_, both containing sad, but inspiring, reading for
+the Irishman of today.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Here this rapid survey of Irish writers of English must close. To
+tell in any sort of appropriate detail the story of the English
+literature of Ireland in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries would
+require a separate volume--a volume which is now under way and will,
+it is hoped, be speedily forthcoming. There is all the less need to
+attempt the agreeable task here, because in other portions of this
+book much more than passing reference is made to the chief Irish
+authors who, in the last hundred and fifteen years, have
+distinguished themselves and shed lustre on their country. During
+that period Irish poets, playwrights, novelists, essayists,
+historians, biographers, humorists, critics, and scholars have fully
+held their own both in the quantity and the quality of the work
+produced, and have left an impression of power and personality, of
+graceful style and vivifying imagination, that in itself constitutes,
+and must for ever constitute, one of the distinctive Glories of
+Ireland.
+
+
+REFERENCES:
+
+Irish Literature (10 vols., New York, 1904); Chambers's Cyclopaedia
+of English Literature (3 vols., Philadelphia and London, 1902-1904);
+Dictionary of National Biography; Encyclopaedia Britannica; Cambridge
+History of English Literature; D'Alton: History of Ireland (London,
+1910); Lennox: Early Printing in Ireland (Washington, 1909), Addison
+and the Modern Essay (Washington, 1912), Lessons in English
+Literature (21st edition, Baltimore, 1913); Macaulay: Essays, History
+of England; Brown: A Reader's Guide to Irish Fiction (London, 1910),
+A Guide to Books on Ireland (Dublin, 1912).
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of The Glories of Ireland
+by Edited by Joseph Dunn and P.J. Lennox
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE GLORIES OF IRELAND ***
+
+***** This file should be named 12111.txt or 12111.zip *****
+This and all associated files of various formats will be found in:
+        https://www.gutenberg.org/1/2/1/1/12111/
+
+Produced by GF Untermeyer, Brendan Lane, and the Online Distributed
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