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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/12088-0.txt b/12088-0.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..23401fe --- /dev/null +++ b/12088-0.txt @@ -0,0 +1,17882 @@ +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12088 *** + + COMPOSITION-RHETORIC + + BY + + STRATTON D. BROOKS + _Superintendent of Schools, Boston, Mass._ + + AND + + MARIETTA HUBBARD + _Formerly English Department, High School La Salle, Illinois_ + + * * * * * + + NEW YORK - CINCINNATI - CHICAGO + AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY + + 1905 + STRATTON D. BROOKS. + + Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. + + * * * * * + + Brooks's Rhet. + W.P. 10 + + + To MARCIA STUART BROOKS + Whose teaching first demonstrated + to the authors that composition + could become a delight and pleasure, + this book is dedicated...... + + + +PREFACE + +The aim of this book is not to produce critical readers of literature, nor +to prepare the pupil to answer questions about rhetorical theory, but to +enable every pupil to express in writing, freely, clearly, and forcibly, +whatever he may find within him worthy of expression. + +Three considerations of fundamental importance underlie the plan of the +book:-- + +First, improvement in the performance of an act comes from the repetition +of that act accompanied by a conscious effort to omit the imperfections of +the former attempt. Therefore, the writing of a new theme in which, the +pupil attempts to avoid the error which occurred in his former theme is of +much greater educational value than is the copying of the old theme for +the purpose of correcting the errors in it. To copy the old theme is to +correct a result, to write a new theme correctly is to improve a process; +and it is this improvement of process that is the real aim of composition +teaching. + +Second, the logical arrangement of material should be subordinated to the +needs of the pupils. A theoretical discussion of the four forms of +discourse would require that each be completely treated in one place. Such +a treatment would ignore the fact that a high school pupil has daily need +to use each of the four forms of discourse, and that some assistance in +each should be given him as early in his course as possible. The book, +therefore, gives in Part 1 the elements of description, narration, +exposition, and argument, and reserves for Part II a more complete +treatment of each. In each part the effort has been made to adapt the +material presented to the maturity and power of thought of the pupil. + +Third, expression cannot be compelled; it must be coaxed. Only under +favorable conditions can we hope to secure that reaction of intellect and +emotion which renders possible a full expression of self. One of the most +important of these favorable conditions is that the pupil shall write +something he wishes to write, for an audience which wishes to hear it. The +authors have, therefore, suggested subjects for themes in which high +school pupils are interested and about which they will wish to write. It +is hoped that the work will be so conducted by the teacher that every +theme will be read aloud before the class. It is essential that the +criticism of a theme so read shall, in the main, be complimentary, +pointing out and emphasizing those things which the pupil has done well; +and that destructive criticism be largely impersonal and be directed +toward a single definite point. Only thus may we avoid personal +embarrassment to the pupil, give him confidence in himself, and assure him +of a sympathetic audience--conditions essential to the effective teaching +of composition. + +The plan of the book is as follows:-- + +1. Part 1 provides a series of themes covering description, narration, +exposition, and argument. The purpose is to give the pupil that +inspiration and that confidence in himself which come from the frequent +repetition of an act. + +2. Each theme differs from the preceding usually by a single point, and +the teaching effort should be confined to that point. Only a false +standard of accuracy demands that every error be corrected every time it +appears. Such a course loses sight of the main point in a multiplicity of +details, renders instruction ineffective by scattering effort, produces +hopeless confusion in the mind of the pupil, and robs composition of that +inspiration without which it cannot succeed. In composition, as in other +things, it is better to do but one thing at a time. + +3. Accompanying the written themes is a series of exercises, each designed +to emphasize the point presented in the text, but more especially intended +to provide for frequent drills in oral composition. + +4. Throughout the first four chapters the paragraph is the unit of +composition, but for the sake of added interest some themes of greater +length have been included. Chapter V, on the Whole Composition, serves as +a review and summary of the methods of paragraph development, shows how to +make the transition from one paragraph to another, and discusses the more +important rhetorical principles underlying the union of paragraphs into a +coherent and unified whole. + +5. The training furnished by Part 1 should result in giving to the pupil +some fluency of expression, some confidence in his ability to make known +to others that which he thinks and feels, and some power to determine that +the theme he writes, however rough-hewn and unshapely it may be, yet in +its major outlines follows closely the thought that is within his mind. If +the training has failed to give the pupil this power, it will be of little +advantage to him to have mastered some of the minor matters of technique, +or to have learned how to improve his phrasing, polish his sentences, and +distribute his commas. + +6. Part II provides a series of themes covering the same ground as Part I, +but the treatment of these themes is more complete and the material is +adapted to the increased maturity and thought power of the pupils. By +means of references the pupils are directed to all former treatments of +the topics they are studying. + +7. Part II discusses some topics usually treated in college courses in +rhetoric. These have been included for three reasons: first, because +comparatively few high school pupils go to college; second, because the +increased amount of time now given to composition enables the high school +to cover a wider field than formerly; and third, because such topics can +be studied with profit by pupils in the upper years of the high school +course. + +8. It is not intended that the text shall be recited. Its purpose is to +furnish a basis for discussion between teacher and pupils before the +pupils attempt to write. The real test of the pupils' mastery of a +principle discussed in the text will be their ability to put it into +practice. + +Any judgment of the success or failure of the book should be based upon +the quality of the themes which the pupils write. Criticisms and +suggestions will be welcomed from those who use the book. + +The authors wish to express their obligation for advice and assistance to +Professor Edward Fulton, Department of Rhetoric, University of Illinois; +Messrs. Gilbert S. Blakely and H. E. Foster, Instructors in English, +Morris High School, New York; Miss Elizabeth Richardson, Girls' High +School, Boston; Miss Katherine H. Shute, Boston Normal School; Miss E. +Marguerite Strauchon, Kansas City High School. + +The selections from Hawthorne, Longfellow, Lowell, Holmes, Whittier, +Warner, Burroughs, Howells, and Trowbridge are used by permission of and +by special arrangement with Hoaghton, Mifflin, and Company, publishers of +their works. + +Grateful acknowledgment is made to Harper and Brothers; The Century +Company; Doubleday, Page, and Company; and Charles Scribner's Sons for +permission to use the selections to which their names are attached: to the +publishers of the _Forum, Century, Atlantic Monthly, McClure's, Harper's, +Scribner's_, and the _Outlook_ for permission to use extracts: and to +Scott, Foresman, and Company; D. Appleton and Company; Henry Holt and +Company; G. P. Putnam's Sons; Thomas Y. Crowell and Company; and Benjamin +H. Sanborn and Company for permission to use copyrighted material. + + + +CONTENTS + + +PART I + +1. Expression of Ideas arising from Experience + +II. Expression of Ideas furnished by Imagination + +III. Expression of Ideas acquired through Language + +IV. The Purpose of Expression + +V. The Whole Composition + +VI. Letter Writing + +VII. Poetry + + +PART II + +VIII. Description + +IX. Narration + +X. Exposition + +XI. Argument + +Appendix + +I. Elements of Form + +II. Review of Grammar + +III. Figures of Speech + +IV. The Rhetorical Features of the Sentence + +V. List of Synonyms + +VI. List of Words for Exercise in Word Usage + +Index + + + +PART 1 + + +1. EXPRESSION OF IDEAS ARISING FROM EXPERIENCE + ++1. Pleasure in Expressing Ideas.+--Though we all enjoy talking, we cannot +write so easily as we talk, nor with the same pleasure. We seldom talk +about topics in which we are not interested and concerning which we know +little or nothing, but we often have such topics assigned to us as +subjects for compositions. Under such conditions it is no wonder that +there is little pleasure in writing. The ideas that we express orally are +those with which we are familiar and in which we are interested, and we +tell them because we wish to tell them to some one who is likewise +interested and who desires to hear what we have to say. Such expression of +ideas is enjoyed by all. If we but choose to express the same kinds of +ideas and for the same reason, there is an equal or even greater pleasure +to be derived from the expression of ideas in writing. The purpose of this +book is to show you how to express ideas _clearly, effectively_, and _with +pleasure_. + + ++2. Sources of Ideas.+--We must have ideas before we can express them. +There are three sources from which ideas arise. We may gain them from +experience; we may recombine them into new forms by the imagination; and +we may receive them from others through the medium of language, either by +conversation or by reading. + +Every day we add to our knowledge through our senses. We see and hear and +do, and thus, through experience, acquire ideas about things. By far the +greater part of expression has to do with ideas that have originated in +this way. The first chapter in this book is concerned with the expression +of ideas gained through experience. + +We may, however, think about things that have not actually occurred. We +may allow our minds to picture a football game that we have not seen, or +to plan a story about a boy who never existed. Nearly every one takes +pleasure in such an exercise of the imagination. The second chapter has to +do with the expression of ideas of this kind. + +We also add to our knowledge through the medium of language. Through +conversation and reading we learn what others think, and it is often of +value to restate these ideas. The expression of ideas so acquired is +treated in the third chapter. + + ++3. Advantages of Expressing Ideas Gained from Experience.+--Young people +sometimes find difficulty in writing because they "have nothing to say." +Such a reason will not hold in regard to ideas gained from experience. +Every one has a multitude of experiences every day, and wishes to tell +about some of them. Many of the things which happen to you or to your +friends, especially some which occur outside of the regular routine of +school work, are interesting and worth telling about. Thus experience +furnishes an abundance of material suitable for composition purposes, and +this material is of the best because the ideas are _sure to be your own_. +The first requisite of successful composition is to have thoughts of your +own. The expressing of ideas that are not your own is mere copy work, and +seldom worth doing. + +Ideas acquired through experience are not only interesting and your own, +but they are likely to be _clear_ and _definite_. You know what you do and +what you see; or, if you do not, the effort to express your ideas so that +they will be clear to others will make you observe closely for yourself. + +Still another advantage comes from the fact that your experiences are not +presented to you through the medium of language. When experience furnishes +the ideas, you are left free to choose for yourself the words that best +set forth what you wish to tell. The things of your experience are the +things with which you are most familiar, and therefore the words that best +apply to them are those which you most often use and whose meanings are +best known to you. + +Because experience supplies an abundance of interesting, clear, and +definite ideas, which are your own and which may be expressed in familiar +language, it furnishes better material for training in expression than +does either imagination or reading. + + ++4. Essentials of Expression.+--The proper expression of ideas depends +upon the observance of two essentials: first, you should say what you +mean; and second, you should say it clearly. Without these, what you say +may be not only valueless, but positively misleading. If you wish your +hearer to understand what occurred at a certain time and place, you must +first of all know yourself exactly what did occur. Then you must express +it in language that shall make him understand it as clearly as you do. You +will learn much about clearness, later; but even now you can tell whether +you know what is meant by each sentence which you hear or read. It is not +so easy to tell whether what you say will convey clearly to another the +meaning you intend to convey, but you will be helped in this if you ask +yourself the questions: "Do I know exactly what happened?" "Have I said +what I intended to say?" "Have I said it so that it will be clear to the +listener?" + + ++Oral Composition 1.+--_Report orally on one of the following:_-- + +1. Were you so interested in anything yesterday that you told it to your +parents or friends? Tell the class about it. + +2. Tell about something that you have done this week, so that the class +may know exactly what you did. + +3. Name some things in which you have been interested within the last two +or three months. Tell the class about one of them. + +4. Tell the class about something that happened during vacation. Have you +told the event exactly as it occurred? + + ++5. Interest.+--In order to enjoy listening to a story we must take an +interest in it, and the story should be so told as to arouse and maintain +this interest. As you have listened to the reports of your classmates you +have been more pleased with some than with others. Even though the meaning +of each was clear, yet the interest aroused was in each case different. +Since the purpose of a story is to entertain, any story falls short of its +purpose when it ceases to be interesting. We must at all times say what we +mean and say it clearly; but in story telling especially we must also take +care that what we say shall arouse and maintain interest. + + ++6. The Introduction.+--The story of an event should be introduced in such +a manner as to enable the hearer to understand the circumstances that are +related. Such an introduction contributes to clearness and has an +important bearing upon the interest of the entire composition. In order to +render our account of an event clear and interesting it is usually +desirable to tell the hearers _when_ and _where_ the event occurred and +_who_ were present. Their understanding of it may be helped further by +telling such of the attendant circumstances as will answer the question, +_Why_? If I begin my story by saying, "Last summer John Anderson and I +were on a camping trip in the Adirondacks," I have told when, where, and +who; and the addition of the words "on a camping trip" tells why we were +in the Adirondacks, and may serve to explain some of the events that are +to follow. Even the statement of the place indicates in some degree the +trend of the story, for many things that might occur "in the Adirondacks" +could not occur in a country where there are no mountains. Certainly the +story that would follow such an introduction would be expected to differ +from one beginning with the words, "Last summer John Anderson and I went +to visit a friend in New York." + +It is not always necessary to tell when, where, who, and why in the +introduction, but it is desirable to do so in most cases of oral story +telling. These four elements may not always be stated in incidents taken +from books, for the reader may be already familiar with them from the +preceding portions of the book. The title of a printed or written story +may serve as an introduction and give us all needed information. In +relating personal incidents the time element is seldom omitted, though it +may be stated indirectly or indefinitely by such expressions as "once" or +'lately.' In many stories the interest depends upon the plot, and the time +is not definitely stated. + + +EXERCISE + +Notice what elements are included in each of the following +introductions:-- + +1. Saturday last at Mount Holly, about eight miles from this place, nearly +three hundred people were gathered together to see an experiment or two +tried on some persons accused of witchcraft. + +2. On the morning of the 10th instant at sunrise, they were discovered +from Put-in-Bay, where I lay at anchor with the squadron under my command. + +3. It was on Sunday when I awoke to the realization that I had quitted +civilization and was afloat on an unfamiliar body of water in an open +boat. + +4. Up and down the long corn rows Pap Overholt guided the old mule and the +small, rickety, inefficient plow, whose low handles bowed his tall, broad +shoulders beneath the mild heat of a mountain June sun. As he went--ever +with a furtive eye upon the cabin--he muttered to himself, shaking his +head. + +5. After breakfast, I went down to the Saponey Indian town, which is about +a musket shot from the fort. + +6. The lonely stretch of uphill road, upon whose yellow clay the midsummer +sun beat vertically down, would have represented a toilsome climb to a +grown and unencumbered man. To the boy staggering under the burden of a +brimful carpet bag, it seemed fairly unscalable; wherefore he stopped at +its base and looked up in dismay to its far-off, red-hot summit. + +7. One afternoon last summer, three or four people from New York, two from +Boston, and a young man from the Middle West were lunching at one of the +country clubs on the south shore of Long Island, and there came about a +mild discussion of the American universities. + +8. "But where is the station?" inquired the Judge. + +"Ain't none, boss. Dis heah is jes a crossing. Train's about due now, sah; +you-all won't hab long fer to wait. Thanky, sah; good-by; sorry you-all +didn't find no birds." + +The Judge picked up his gun case and grip and walked toward his two +companions waiting on the platform a few yards away. Silhouetted against +the moonlight they made him think of the figure 10, for Mr. Appleton was +tall and erect, and the little Doctor short and circular. + +9. I sprang to the stirrup, and Joris and he; + I galloped, Dirck galloped, we galloped all three; + "Good speed!" cried the watch, as the gate bolts undrew, + "Speed!" echoed the wall to us galloping through. + Behind shut the postern, the lights sank to rest, + And into the midnight we galloped abreast. +--Browning. + + ++Oral Composition II.+--_Relate orally to the class some incident in which +you were personally concerned._ + +The following may suggest a subject:-- + 1. How I made friends with the squirrels. + 2. A trick of a tame crow. + 3. Why I missed the train. + 4. How a horse was rescued. + 5. Lost and found. + 6. My visit to a menagerie. + +(When preparing to relate this incident ask yourself first whether you +know exactly what happened. Consider then how to begin the story so that +your hearer will know when and where it happened and who were there. +Include in the beginning any statement that will assist the reader in +understanding the events which follow.) + + ++7. The Point of a Story.+--It is not necessary that a story be concerned +with a thrilling event in order to be interesting. Even a most commonplace +occurrence may be so told that it is worth listening to. It is more +important that a story have a point and be so told that this point will be +readily appreciated than that it deal with important or thrilling events. +The story should lead easily and rapidly to its point, and when this is +reached the end of the story should not be far distant. The beginning of a +story will contain statements that will assist us in appreciating the +point when we come to it, but if the point is plainly stated near the +beginning, or even if it is too strongly suggested, our story will drag. + +At what point in the following selection is the interest greatest? + + +During the Civil War, I lived in that portion of Tennessee which was +alternately held by the conflicting armies. My father and brothers were +away, as were all the other men in the neighborhood, except a few very old +ones and some half-grown boys. Mother and I were in constant fear of +injury from stragglers from both armies. We had never been disturbed, +for our farm was a mile or more back from the road along which such +detachments usually moved. We had periods of comparative quiet in which we +felt at ease, and then would come reports of depredation near at hand, or +rumors of the presence of marauding bands in neighboring settlements. + +One evening such a rumor came to us, and we were consequently anxious. +Early next morning, before the fog had lifted, I caught sight of two men +crossing the road at the far end of the orchard. They jumped over the +fence into the orchard and disappeared among the trees. I had but a brief +glimpse of them, but it was sufficient to show me that one had a gun over +his shoulder, while the other carried a saber. + +"Quick, Mother, quick!" I cried. "Come to the window. There are soldiers +in the orchard." + +Keeping out of sight, we watched the progress of the men through the +orchard. Our brief glimpses of them through the trees showed that they +were not coming directly to the house, but were headed for the barn and +sheds, and in order to keep out of sight, were following a slight ravine +which ran across the orchard and led to the back of the barns. + +Mother and I were very much excited and hardly knew what to do. Finally it +was determined to hide upstairs in hopes that the men were bent on +stealing chickens or pigs, and might leave without disturbing the house. +We locked the doors and went upstairs, taking with us the old musket and +the butcher knife. We could hear the men about the barn, and after what +seemed an interminable time we heard them coming towards the house. + +Though shaking all over, I summoned courage enough to go to the window and +look out of a hole in the shade. As the men came into sight around the +corner, I screamed outright, but from relief rather than fear, for the men +were not soldiers, but Grandpa Smith and his fourteen-year-old grandson. +They stopped at the well to get a drink, and when we opened the window, +the old man said, "We're just on our way to mow the back lot and stopped +to grind the scythe on your stone. We broke ours yesterday." + +Then he picked up the scythe which in the fog I had taken for a saber, +while the grandson again shouldered his pitchfork musket. + + +What effect would it have on the interest aroused by the preceding story +to begin it as follows? + + +"One morning during the Civil War, I saw two of my neighbors, Grandpa +Smith and his grandson, crossing our orchard, one carrying a scythe and +the other a pitchfork." + + +Why is the expression, "before the fog had lifted," used near the +beginning of the story? Would a description of the appearance of the +house, the barn, or the persons add to the interest aroused by the story? +Is it necessary to add anything to the story? + + +EXERCISE + + +In each of the following selections decide where the interest reaches its +climax. Has anything been said in the beginning of any of them which +suggests what the point will be, or which helps you to appreciate it when +you come to it? + + +1. The next evening our travelers encamped on a sand bar, or rather a +great bank of sand, that ran for miles along one side of the river. They +kept watch as usual, Leon taking the first turn. He seated himself on a +pile of sand and did his best to keep awake; but in about an hour after +the rest were asleep, he felt very drowsy and fell into a nap that lasted +nearly half an hour, and might have continued longer had he not slid down +the sand hill and tumbled over on his side. This awoke him. Feeling vexed +with himself, he rubbed his eyes and looked about to see if any creature +had ventured near. He first looked towards the woods, for of course that +was the direction from which the tigers would come; but he had scarcely +turned himself when he perceived a pair of eyes glancing at him from the +other side of the fire. Close to them another pair, then another and +another, until, having looked on every side, he saw himself surrounded by +a complete circle of glancing eyes. It is true they were small ones, and +some of the heads which he could see by the blaze were small. They were +not jaguars, but they had an ugly look. They looked like the heads of +serpents. Was it possible that a hundred serpents could have surrounded +the camp? + +Brought suddenly to his feet, Leon stood for some moments uncertain what +to do. He believed that the eyes belonged to snakes which had just crept +out of the river; and he feared that any movement on his part would lead +them to attack him. Having risen to his feet, his eyes were above the +level of the blaze, and he was able in a little while to see more clearly. + +He now saw that the snakelike heads belonged to creatures with large oval +bodies, and that, besides the fifty or more which had come up to look at +the fire, there were whole droves of them upon the sandy beach beyond. As +far as he could see on all sides, the bank was covered with them. A +strange sight it was, and most fearful. For his life he could not make out +what it meant, or by what sort of wild animals he was surrounded. + +He could see that their bodies were not larger than those of small sheep; +and, from the way in which they glistened in the moonlight, he was sure +they had come out of the river. He called to the Indian guide, who awoke +and started to his feet in alarm. The movement frightened the creatures +round the fire; they rushed to the shore, and were heard plunging by +hundreds into the water. + +The Indian's ear caught the sounds, and his eye took in the whole thing at +a glance. + +"Turtles," he said. + +"Oh," said the lad; "turtles, are they?" + +"Yes, master," answered the guide. "I suppose this is one of their great +hatching places. They are going to lay their eggs in the sand." + +--Captain Mayne Reid. + +Would the preceding incident be interesting if we were told at the +beginning that the boy and the Indian had encamped near a hatching place +of turtles? + + +2. Not every story that reads like fiction is fact, but the _Brooklyn +Eagle_ assures its readers that the one here quoted is quite true. The man +who told it was for many years an officer of the Chicago, Burlington & +Quincy Railroad Company in Illinois, and had annual passes over all the +important railroads in the country. His duties took him to Springfield, +the state capital, and as he generally went by the Chicago, Alton & St. +Louis road, the conductors on that line knew him so well that they never +asked to see his pass. + +"One day I received a telegram summoning me to meet one of the officers of +my company at Aurora the next morning. I had only a short time to catch my +train to Chicago, and in my haste left my passbook behind. I did not find +this out until I reached Chicago, and was about to take the last train for +Aurora that night. Then I saw that the conductor, a man brought over from +the Iowa division, was a stranger, and the fact that I would need my pass +reminded me that I did not have it. + +"I told the conductor the situation, but he said he could not carry me on +my mere representation that I had a pass. + +"Why, man," said I, "I am an officer of the company, going to Aurora on +company business, and this is the last train that will get me there in +time. You must take me." + +"He was polite, but firm. He said he was a new man on this division, and +could not afford to make any mistakes. + +"When I saw that he was determined, I rushed off to the telegraph office; +but it was too late to catch anybody authorized to issue passes, so I +settled it in my mind that I must go by carriage, and the prospect of an +all-night ride over bad roads through the dark was anything but inviting. +Indeed, it was so forbidding that I resolved to make one more appeal to +the conductor. + +"You simply must take me to Aurora!" I said, with intense earnestness. + +"I can't do it," he answered. "But I believe you are what you represent +yourself to be, and I will lend you the money personally. It is only one +dollar and twelve cents." + +"Well, sir, you could have knocked me down with the flat side of a +palm-leaf fan. I had more than two thousand dollars in currency in my +pocket, but it had never for an instant occurred to me that I could pay my +fare and ride on that train. I showed the conductor a wad of money that +made his eyes stick out. + +"I thought it was funny," said he, "that a man in your position couldn't +raise one dollar and twelve cents. It was that that made me believe you +were playing a trick to see if I would violate the rule." + +"The simple truth was, I had ridden everywhere on passes so many years, +that it did not occur to me that I could ride in any other way." + ++Oral Composition III.+[Footnote: Oral compositions should be continued +throughout the course. A few minutes may be profitably used once or twice +each week in having each member of the class stand before the class and +relate briefly some incident which he has witnessed since the last meeting +of the class. Exercises like those on page 53 also will furnish +opportunities for oral work.]--_Relate to the class some personal +incident suggested by one of the following subjects_:-- + + 1. A day with my cousin. + 2. Caught in the act. + 3. A joke on me. + 4. My peculiar mistake. + 5. My experience on a farm. + 6. My experience in a strange Sunday school. + 7. What I saw when I was coming to school. + +(In preparation for this exercise, consider the point of your story. What +must you tell first in order to enable the hearers to understand the +point? Can you say anything that will make them want to know what the +point is without really telling them? Can you lead up to it without too +long a delay? Can you stop when the point has been made?) + ++8. Theme Writing and Correcting.+--Any written exercise, whether long or +short, is called a theme throughout this book. Just as one learns to skate +by skating, so one learns to write by writing; therefore many themes will +be required. Since the clear expression of thought is one of the essential +characteristics of every theme, theme correction should be primarily +directed to improvement in clearness. The teacher will need to assist in +this correction, but the really valuable part is that which you do for +yourself. After you leave school you will need to decide for yourself what +is right and what is best, and it is essential that you now learn how to +make such decisions. + +To aid you in acquiring a habit of self-correction, questions or +suggestions follow the directions for writing each theme. In Theme I you +are to express clearly to others something that is already clear to you. + + ++Theme I.+-_Write a short theme on one of the subjects that you have used +for an oral composition._ + +(After writing this theme, read it aloud to yourself. Does it read +smoothly? Have you told what actually happened? Have you told it so that +the hearers will understand you? Have you said what you meant to say? +Consider the introduction. Has the story a point?) + + ++9. The Conclusion.+--Since the point of a story marks the climax of +interest, it is evident that the conclusion must not be long delayed after +the point has been reached. If the story has been well told, the point +marks the natural conclusion, and a sentence or two will serve to bring +the story to a satisfactory end. If a suitable ending does not suggest +itself, it is better to omit the conclusion altogether than to construct a +forced or flowery one. Notice the conclusion of the incident of the Civil +War related on page 18. + + ++Theme II.+-_Write a short theme suggested by one of the following +subjects:_-- + + 1. A school picnic. + 2. A race. + 3. The largest fire I have seen. + 4. A skating accident. + 5. A queer mistake. + 6. An experience with a tramp. + +(Correct with reference to meaning and clearness. Consider the +introduction; the point; the conclusion.) + + ++10. Observation of Actions.+--Many of our most interesting experiences +arise from observing the actions of others. A written description of what +we have observed will gain in interest to the reader, if, in addition to +telling what was done, we give some indication of the way in which it was +done. A list of tools a carpenter uses and the operations he performs +during the half hour we watch him, may be dull and uninteresting; but our +description may have an added value if it shows his manner of working so +that the reader can determine whether the carpenter is an orderly, +methodical, and rapid worker or a mere putterer who is careless, +haphazard, and slow. Two persons will perform similar actions in very +different ways. Our description should be so worded as to show what the +differences are. + + ++Theme III.+--_Write a theme relating actions._ + + Suggested subjects:-- + 1. A mason, blacksmith, painter, or other mechanic at work. + 2. How my neighbor mows his lawn. + 3. What a man does when his automobile breaks down. + 4. Describe the actions of a cat, dog, rabbit, squirrel, or other + animal. + 5. Watch the push-cart man a half-hour and report what he did. + + +(Have you told exactly what was done? Can you by the choice of suitable +words show more plainly the way in which it was done? Does this theme need +to have an introduction? A point? A conclusion?) + + ++11. Selection of Details.+--You are at present concerned with telling +events that actually happen; but this does not mean that you need to +include everything that occurs. If you wish to tell a friend about some +interesting or exciting incident at a picnic, he will not care to hear +everything that took place during the day. He may listen politely to a +statement of what train you took and what you had in your lunch basket, +but he will be little interested in such details. In order to maintain +interest, the point of your story must not be too long delayed. Brevity is +desirable, and details that bear little relation to the main point, and +that do not prepare the listener to understand and appreciate this point, +are better omitted. + + ++Theme IV.+--_Write about something that you have done. Use any of the +following subjects, or one suggested by them:_-- + + 1. My first hunt. + 2. Why I was tardy. + 3. My first fishing trip. + 4. My narrow escape. + 5. A runaway. + 6. What I did last Saturday. + +(Read the theme aloud to yourself. Does it read smoothly? Have you said +what you meant to say? Have you expressed it clearly? Consider the +introduction; the point; the conclusion. Reject unnecessary details.) + + ++12. Order of Events.+--The order in which events occur will assist in +establishing the order in which to relate them. If you are telling about +only one person, you can follow the time order of the events as they +actually happened; but if you are telling about two or more persons who +were doing different things at the same time, you will need to tell first +what one did and then what another did. You must, however, make it clear +to the reader that, though you have told one event after the other, they +really happened at the same time. + +In the selection below notice how the italicized portions indicate the +relation in time that the different events bear to one another. + + +At the beach yesterday a fat woman and her three children caused a great +commotion. They had rigged themselves out in hired suits which might be +described as an average fit, for that of the mother was as much too small +as those of the children were too large. They trotted gingerly out into +the surf, wholly unconscious that the crowd of beach loungers had, for the +time, turned their attention from each other to the quartet in the water. +By degrees the four worked out farther and farther until a wave larger +than usual washed the smallest child entirely off his feet, and caused the +mother to scream lustily for help. The people on the beach started up, and +two or three men hastened to the rescue, but their progress was impeded by +the crowd of frightened girls and women _who were scrambling and splashing +towards the shore_. The mother's frantic efforts to reach the little boy +were rendered ineffectual by the two girls, _who at the moment of the +first alarm had been strangled_ by the salt water and _were now clinging_ +desperately to her arms and _attempting_ to climb up to her shoulders. +_Meanwhile_, the lifeboat man was rowing rapidly towards the scene, but it +seemed to the onlookers _who had rushed to the platform railing_ that he +would never arrive. _At the same time_ a young man, _who had started from +the diving raft some time before_, was swimming towards shore with +powerful strokes. He _now_ reached the spot, caught hold of the boy, and +lifted him into the lifeboat, which had _at last_ arrived. + +Such expressions as _meanwhile, in the meantime, during, at last, while_, +etc., are regularly used to denote the kind of time relations now under +discussion. They should be used when they avoid confusion, but often a +direct transition from one set of actions to another can be made without +their use. Notice also the use of the relative clause to indicate time +relations. + + ++Theme V.+-_Write a short theme, using some one of the subjects named +under the preceding themes or one suggested by them. Select one which you +have not already used._ + +(Have you told enough to enable the reader to follow easily the thread of +the story and to understand what you meant to tell? If your theme is +concerned with more than one set of activities, have you made the +transition from one to another in such a way as to be clear to the reader? +Have you expressed the transitions with the proper time relations? What +other questions should you ask yourself while correcting this theme?) + + +SUMMARY + + 1. There is a pleasure to be derived from the expression of ideas. + + 2. There are three sources of ideas: experience, imagination, language. + + 3. Ideas gained from experience may be advantageously used for + composition purposes because-- + _a._ They are interesting. + _b._ They are your own. + _c._ They are likely to be clear and definite. + _d._ They offer free choice of language. + + 4. The two essentials of expression are-- + _a._ To say what you mean. + _b._ To say it clearly. + 5. A story should be told so as to arouse and maintain interest. + Therefore,-- + _a._ The introduction usually tells when, where, who, and why. + _b._ Every story worth telling has a point. + _c._ Only such details are included as are essential to the + development + of the point. + _d._ The conclusion is brief. The story comes to an end shortly + after the point is told. + + 6. Care must be taken to indicate the time order, especially when two or + more events occur at the same time. + + 7. The correction of one's own theme is the most valuable form of + correction. + + + +II. EXPRESSION OF IDEAS FURNISHED BY IMAGINATION + + ++13. Relation of Imagination to Experience.+--All ideas are based upon and +spring from experience, and the imagination merely places them in new +combinations. For the purpose of this book, however, it is convenient to +distinguish those themes that relate real events as they actually occurred +from those themes that relate events that did not happen. That body of +writing which we call literature is largely composed of works of an +imaginative character, and for this reason it has sometimes been +carelessly assumed that in order to write one must be possessed of an +excellent imagination. Such an assumption loses sight of the fact that +imaginative writings cover but one small part of the whole field. The +production of literature is the business of a few, while every one has +occasion every day to express ideas. It is evident that by far the greater +part of the ideas we are called upon to express do not require the use of +the imagination, but exercises in writing themes of an imaginative +character are given here because there is pleasure in writing such themes +and because practice in writing them will aid us in stating clearly and +effectively the many ideas arising from our daily experiences. + + ++14. Advantages and Disadvantages of Imaginative Theme Writing.+--Ideas +furnished by the imagination are no less your own than are those furnished +by experience, and the same freedom in the choice of language prevails. +Such ideas are, however, not likely to be so clear and definite. At the +time of their occurrence they do not make so deep and vital an impression +upon you. If not recorded as they occur, they can seldom be recalled in +the original form. Even though you attempt to write these imaginary ideas +as you think them, you can and do change and modify them as you go along. +This lack of clearness and permanent form, while it seems to give greater +freedom, carries with it disadvantages. In the first place the ideas are +less likely to be worth recording, and in the second place it is more +difficult to give them a unity and directness of statement that will hold +the attention and interest of the reader until the chief point is reached. + + ++15. Probability.+--Not everything that the imagination may furnish is +equally worth expressing. If you choose to write about something for which +imagination supplies the ideas, you may create for yourself such ideas as +you wish. Their order of occurrence and their time and place are not +determined by outward events, but solely by the mind itself. The events +are no longer real and actual, but may be changed and rearranged without +limit. An imaginative series of events may conform closely to the real and +probable, or it may be manifestly improbable. Which will be of greater +interest will depend upon the reader, but it will be found that the story +which comes nearest to reality is most satisfactory. In relating fairy +tales we confessedly attempt to tell events not possible in the real +world, but in relating tales of real life, however imaginary, we should +tell the events so that everything seems both possible and probable. An +imaginative story, in which the persons seem to be real persons who do and +say the things that real persons do and say, will be found much more +satisfactory than a story that depends for its outcome on something +manifestly impossible. He who really does the best in imaginative writing +is the one who has most closely observed the real events of everyday life, +and states his imaginary events so that they seem real. + + ++Theme VI.+--_Write a short theme, using one of the subjects below. You +need not tell something that actually happened, but what you tell should +be so told that your readers will think it might have happened._ + + 1. A trip in a sailboat. + 2. The travels of a penny. + 3. How I was lost. + 4. A cat's account of a mouse hunt. + 5. The mouse's account of the same hunt. + 6. My experience with a burglar. + 7. The burglar's story. + + ++16. Euphony.+--Besides clearness in a composition there are other +desirable qualities. To one of these, various names have been applied, as +"euphony," "ease," "elegance," "beauty," etc. Of two selections equally +clear in meaning one may be more pleasing than the other. One may seem +harsh and rough, while the other flows along with a satisfying ease and +smoothness. If the thought that is in our mind fails to clothe itself in +suitable language and appropriate figures, we can do little by conscious +effort toward improving the beauty of the language; but by avoiding choppy +sentences and inharmonious combinations of words and phrases, we may +remove from our compositions much that is harsh and rough. That quality +which we call ease or euphony is better detected by the ear than by the +eye, and for this reason it has been suggested that you read each theme +aloud to yourself before presenting it to the class. Such a reading will +assist you to determine whether you have made your meaning clear and to +eliminate some of the more disagreeable combinations. + + ++17. Variety.+--Of the many elements which affect the euphony of a theme +none is more essential than variety. The constant repetition of the same +thing grows monotonous and distasteful, while a pleasing variety maintains +interest and improves the story. For the sake of this variety we avoid the +continual use of the same words and phrases, substituting synonyms and +equivalent expressions if we have need to repeat the same idea many times. + +Most children begin every sentence of a story with "and," or perhaps it is +better to say that they conclude many sentences with "and-uh," leaving the +thought in suspense while they are trying to think of what to say next. +High school pupils are not wholly free from this habit, and it is +sometimes retained in their written work. This excessive use of _and_ +needs to be corrected. An examination of our language habits will show +that nearly every one has one or more words which he uses to excess. A +professor of rhetoric, after years of correcting others, discovered by +underscoring the word _that_ each time it occurred in his own writing that +he was using it twice as often as necessary. _Got_ is one of the words +used too frequently, and often incorrectly. + + +EXERCISES + +1. In the following selection notice how each sentence begins. Compare it +with one of your own themes. + + +I was witness to events of a less peaceful character. One day when I went +out to my woodpile, or rather my pile of stumps, I observed two large +ants, the one red, and the other much larger, nearly half an inch long, +and black, fiercely contending with each other. Having once got hold, they +never let go, but struggled and wrestled and rolled on the chips +incessantly. Looking farther, I was surprised to find that the chips were +covered with such combatants; that it was not a _duellum_, but a +_bellum_,--a war between two races of ants, the red always pitted against +the black, and frequently two red ones to one black. The legions of these +Myrmidons covered all the hills and vales in my woodyard, and the ground +was already strewn with the dead and the dying, both red and black. + +It was the only battle which I have ever witnessed--the only battlefield I +ever trod while the battle was raging.... On every side they were engaged +in deadly combat, yet without any noise that I could hear, and human +soldiers never fought so resolutely.--Thoreau. + + +2. Examine one of your own themes. If some word occurs frequently, +underscore it each time, and then substitute words or expressions for it +in as many places as you can. If necessary, reconstruct the sentences so +as to avoid using the word in some cases. Notice how these substitutions +give a variety to your expression and improve the euphony of your +composition. + + +Theme VII.--_Write a short story suggested by one of the following +subjects:_-- + + 1. The trout's revenge. + 2. A sparrow's mistake. + 3. A fortunate shot. + 4. The freshman and the professor. + 5. What the bookcase thought about it. + +(Correct with reference to meaning and clearness. Cross out unnecessary +_ands_. Consider the beginnings of the sentences. Can you improve the +euphony by a different choice of words?) + + +18. Sentence Length.--Euphony is aided by securing a variety in the length +of sentences. In endeavoring to avoid the excessive use of _and_, some +pupils obtain results illustrated by the following example:-- + + +Jean passed through the door of the church. He saw a child sitting on one +of the stone steps. She was fast asleep in the midst of the snow. The +child was thinly clad. Her feet, cold as it was, were bare. + + +A theme composed wholly of such a succession of short sentences is +tedious. Especially when read aloud does its monotony become apparent. +Though the thought in each sentence is complete, the effect is not +satisfactory to the reader, because the thought of the whole does not come +to him as fast as his mind can act. Such an arrangement of sentences might +be satisfactory to young children, because it would agree with their +habits of thought; but as one grows in ability to think more rapidly, he +finds that longer and more complicated sentences best express his thoughts +and are best understood by those for whom he writes. We introduce +sentences of different length and different structure, because they more +clearly express the thought of the whole and state it in a form more in +accordance with the mental activity of the hearer. When we have done this, +we at the same time secure a variety that avoids monotony. + +In attempting to avoid a series of short sentences, care should be taken +not to go to the other extreme. Sentences should not be overloaded. Too +many adjectives or participles or subordinate clauses will render the +meaning obscure. The number of phrases and clauses that may safely be +introduced will be determined by the ability of the mind to grasp the +meaning readily and accurately. It is sometimes quite as important to +separate a long sentence into shorter ones as it is to combine short ones +into those of greater length. + +Notice in the following selection the different ways in which several +ideas have been brought into the same sentence without rendering the +meaning obscure:-- + + +Loki made his way across a vast desert moorland, and came, after three +days, into the barren hill country and among the rugged mountains of the +South. There an earthquake had split the rocks asunder, and opened dark +and bottomless gorges, and hollowed out many a low-walled cavern, where +the light of day was never seen. Along deep, winding ways, Loki went, +squeezing through narrow crevices, creeping under huge rocks, and gliding +through crooked clefts, until he came at last into a great underground +hall, where his eyes were dazzled by a light that was stronger and +brighter than the day; for on every side were glowing fires, roaring in +wonderful little gorges, and blown by wonderful little bellows. + + ++Theme VIII.+--_Write a story suggested by one of the following +subjects:_-- + + 1. School in the year 2000. + 2. The lost door key. + 3. Our big bonfire. + 4. Kidnapped. + 5. A bear hunt. + 6. A mistake in the telegram. + 7. How Fido rescued his master. + + +(Can you render the meaning more clear by uniting short sentences into +longer ones, or by separating long sentences into shorter ones? Can you +omit any _ands_? How many of the sentences begin with the same word? Can +you change any of those words? Pick out the words which show the +subordinate relation of some parts to others. Do all of the incidents in +your story seem probable?) + + ++19. Conversation.+--It must not be inferred from the preceding section +that short sentences are never to be used. They are quite as necessary as +long ones, and in some cases, such as the portraying of strong emotion, +are more effective. Even a succession of short sentences may be used with +good results to describe rapid action. In conversation, also, sentences +are generally short, and often grammatically incomplete, though they may +be understood by the hearer. Sometimes this incompleteness is justified by +the idiom of the language, but more often it is the result of carelessness +on the part of the speaker. The hearer understands what is said either +because he knows about what to expect, or because the expression is a +familiar one. Such carelessness not only causes the omission of words +grammatically necessary, but brings about the incorrect pronunciation of +words and their faulty combination into sentences. + +You speak much more often than you write. Your habits of speech are likely +to become permanent and your errors of speech will creep into your written +work. It is important therefore that you watch your spoken language. +Occasions will arise when the slang expressions that you so freely use +will seem inappropriate, and it will be unfortunate indeed if you find +that you have used the slang so long that you have no other words to take +their place. An abbreviated form of _gymnasium_ or of _mathematics_ may +not attract attention among your schoolmates, but there are circles where +such abbreviations are not used. By watching your own speech you will find +that some incorrect forms are very common. Improvement can be made by +giving your attention to one of them, such as the use of _guess_, or of +_got_, or of _don't_ and _doesn't_. + +In making a written report of conversation you should remember that short +sentences predominate. A conversation composed of long sentences would +seem stilted and made to order. What each person says, however short, is +put into a separate division and indented. Explanatory matter accompanying +the conversation is placed with the spoken part to which it most closely +relates. Notice the indentations and the use of quotation marks in several +printed reports of conversation. + + ++20. Ideas from Pictures.+--If you look at a picture and then attempt to +tell some one else what you see, you will express ideas gained by +experience. A picture may, however, cause a very different set of ideas to +arise. Look at the picture on page 38. Can you imagine the circumstances +that preceded the situation shown by the picture? Or again, can you not +begin with that situation and imagine what would be done next? If you +write out either of the series of events, the theme, though suggested by +the picture, will be composed of ideas furnished by the imagination. In +the writing of a story suggested by a picture, the situation given in the +picture should be made the point of greatest interest, and should be +accounted for by relating a series of events supposed to have preceded it. + + ++Theme IX.+--_Write a story that will account for the condition shown in +the picture on page 38._ + +(Correct with reference to clearness and meaning. Do you need to change +the sentence length either for the sake of clearness or for the sake of +variety? Cross out unnecessary _ands_. Underscore _got_ and _then_ each +time you have used them. Can the reader follow the thread of your story to +its chief point?) + + +[Illustration] + + ++21. Vocabulary.+--A word is the symbol of an idea, and the addition of a +word to one's vocabulary usually means that a new idea has been acquired. +The more we see and hear and read, the greater our stock of ideas becomes. +As our life experiences increase, so should our supply of words increase. +We may have ideas without having the words with which to express them, and +we may meet with words whose meanings we do not know. In either case there +is chance for improvement. When you have a new idea, find out how best to +express it, and when you meet with a new word, add it to your vocabulary. + +It is necessary to distinguish between our reading vocabulary and our +writing vocabulary. There are many words that belong only to the first. We +know what they mean when we meet them in our reading, but we do not use +them in our writing. Our speaking vocabulary also differs from that which +we employ in writing. We use words and phrases on paper that seldom appear +in our speech, and, on the other hand, many of the words that we speak do +not appear in our writing. There is, however, a constant shifting of words +from one to another of these three groups. When we meet an unknown word, +it usually becomes a part of our reading vocabulary. Later it may appear +in our written work, and finally we may use it in speaking. We add a word +to our reading vocabulary when we determine its meaning, but _we must use +it_ in order to add it to our writing and speaking vocabulary. A conscious +effort to aid in this acquisition of words is highly desirable. + +A limited vocabulary indicates limited ideas. If one is limited to +_awfully_ in order to express a superlative; if his use of adjectives is +restricted to _nice, jolly, lovely_, and _elegant;_ if he must always +_abominate_ and never _abhor_, _detest, dislike_, or _loathe;_ if he can +only _adore_ and not _admire, respect, revere_, or _venerate_,--then he +has failed, indeed, to know the possibilities and beauties of English. +Such a language habit shows a mind that has failed to distinguish between +ideas. The best way to study the shades of meaning and the choice of words +is in the actual production of a theme wherein there is need to bring out +these differences in meaning by the use of words; but some help may be +gained from a formal study of synonyms and antonyms and of the distinction +in use and meaning between words which are commonly confused with each +other. For this purpose such exercises are given in the Appendix. + + ++22. Choice of Words.+--Even though our words may express the proper +meaning, the effect may not be a desirable one unless we use words suited +to the occasion described and to the person writing. Pupils of high school +age know the meaning of many words which are too "bookish" for daily use +by them. Edward Everett Hale might use expressions which would not be +suitable for a freshman's composition. Taste and good judgment will help +you to avoid the unsuitable or grandiloquent. + +The proper selection of words not only implies that we shall avoid the +wrong word, but also that we shall choose the right one. A suitable +adjective may give a clearer image than is expressed by a whole sentence; +a single verb may tell better how some one acted than can be told by a +lengthy explanation. Since narration has to do with action, we need in +story telling to be especially careful in our choice of verbs. + +What can you say of the suitability of the words in the following +selection, taken from an old school reader? + + +_Mrs. Lismore._ You are quite breathless, Charles; where have you been +running so violently? + +_Charles._ From the poultry yard, mamma, where I have been diverting +myself with the bravado of the old gander. I did not observe him till he +came toward me very fiercely, when, to induce him to pursue me, I ran from +him. He followed, till, supposing he had beaten me, he returned to the +geese, who appeared to receive him with acclamations of joy, cackling very +loud, and seeming actually to laugh, and to enjoy the triumph of their +gallant chief. + +_Emma._ I wish I had been with you, Charles; I have often admired the +gambols of these beautiful birds, and wondered how they came by the +appellation of _silly_, which is generally bestowed on them. I remember +Martha, our nursery maid, used often to call me a _silly goose_. How came +they to deserve that term, mamma? they appear to me to have as much +intelligence as any of the feathered tribe. + +_Mrs. Lismore._ I have often thought with you, Emma, and supposed that +term, like many others, misapplied, for want of examining into the justice +of so degrading an epithet. + + ++23. Improbability.+--Up to this point we have been concerned with +relating events that _could_ exist, though we knew that they _did_ not. We +may, however, imagine a series of events that are manifestly impossible. +There is a pleasure in inventing improbable stories, and if we know from +the beginning that they are to be so, we enjoy listening to them. Such +tales are more satisfactory to young persons than to older ones, as is +shown by our declining interest in fairy stories as we grow older. + +By limiting the improbability to a part of the story, it is possible to +give an air of reality to the whole. Though the conditions described in a +story about a trip to the moon might be wholly impossible, yet the reader +for the time being might feel that the events were actually happening if +the characters in the story were acting as real men would act under +similar circumstances. In stories such as those of Thompson-Seton, where +the animals are personified, the impossibilities are forgotten, because +the actions and situations are so real. In fairy stories and similar tales +neither characters nor actions are in any way limited by probability. + + ++Theme X.+--_Write a short story suggested by one of the subjects below. +Make either the characters or their surroundings seem real._ + + 1. A week in Mars. + 2. Exploring the lake bottom. + 3. The cat's defense of her kittens. + (_a_) As told by the cat. + (_b_) As told by the dog. + 4. How the fox fooled the hound. + 5. Diary of a donkey. + 6. A biography of Jack Frost. + + +(Correct with reference to meaning and clearness and two other points to +be assigned by the teacher.) + + ++24. How to Increase One's Vocabulary.+--In your daily work do what you +can to add words to your reading vocabulary, and especially to increase +your writing vocabulary. In the conversation of others and in reading you +will meet with many new words, and you should attempt to make them your +own. To do this, four things must be attended to:-- + +1. _Spelling._ Definite attention should be given to each new word until +its form both as written and as printed is indelibly stamped upon the +mind. In your general reading and in each of the subjects that you will +study in the high school you will meet unfamiliar words. It is only by +mastering the spelling of each new word _when you first meet it_ that you +can insure yourself against future chagrin from bad spelling. A part of +the time in each high school subject may well be devoted to the mastering +of the words peculiar to that subject. + +2. _Pronunciation._ The complete acquisition of a word includes its +pronunciation. In reading aloud and in speaking, we have need to know it, +and faulty pronunciation is considered an indication of lack of culture. + +3. _Meaning._ This includes more than the ability to give the definition +as found in the dictionary. It is possible to recite such definitions +glibly without in reality knowing the meaning of the word defined. It is +necessary to connect the word definitely and permanently in our mind with +the idea for which it is the symbol and to be able to distinguish the idea +clearly from others closely related to it. + +4. _Use._ The actual use of a word is very important. If a word is to come +into our speaking and writing vocabulary, we must use it. It is important +that the spelling, pronunciation, and meaning be determined when you +_first_ meet the word, and it is equally important that the word be _used_ +soon and often. + + ++Theme XI.+--_Write a short story suggested by one of the following +subjects. It may be wholly improbable, if you choose._ + + 1. The good fairy. + 2. Mary's luck. + 3. The man in the moon. + 4. The golden apple. + 5. A wonderful fountain pen. + 6. The goobergoo and the kantan. + + +(Correct with reference to meaning and clearness and two other points to +be assigned by the teacher.) + + +SUMMARY + +1. The clear expression of the ideas connected with our daily experiences + is of greater importance to most of us than is the production of + literature. + +2. Ideas furnished by imagination may be advantageously used for + composition purposes, because-- + _a._ They are your own. + _b._ They offer free choice of language. + They are less desirable than those gained from experience, because-- + _a._ They generally lack clearness and permanency. + _b._ They are less likely to be worth recording. + _c._ It is more difficult to give them that unity and directness of + statement that will keep the interest of the reader. + +3. An imaginative series of events may seem probable or improbable. He who + most closely observes real life and states his imaginary events so + that they seem real will succeed best in imaginative writing. + +4. Euphony is a desirable quality in a composition. + +5. Variety aids euphony. It is gained by-- + _a._ Avoiding the repetition of the same words and phrases. + _b._ Beginning our sentences in various ways. + _c._ Using sentences of different lengths. + +6. Conversation is usually composed of short sentences. + +7. Pictures may suggest ideas suitable for use in compositions. + +8. Our reading, writing, and speaking vocabularies differ. + Each should be increased. With each new word + attention should be given to-- + _a._ Spelling. + _b._ Pronunciation. + _c._ Meaning. + _d._ Use. + + + +III. EXPRESSION OF IDEAS ACQUIRED THROUGH LANGUAGE + + ++25. Language as a Medium through Which Ideas are Acquired.+--We have +been considering language as a means of expression, an instrument by which +we can convey to others the ideas which come to us from experience and +imagination. We shall now consider it from a different point of view. +Language is not merely a means of expressing ideas, but it is also a +medium through which ideas are acquired. It has a double use: the writer +must put thought into language; the reader must get it out. A large part +of your schooling has been devoted to acquiring ideas from language, and +these ideas may be used for purposes of composition. _Since it is +absolutely necessary to have ideas before you can express them_, it will +be worth while to consider for a time how to get them from language. + + ++26. Image Making.+--Read the following selection from Hawthorne and form +a clear mental image of each scene:-- + + +At first, my fancy saw only the stern hills, lonely lakes, and venerable +woods. Not a tree, since their seeds were first scattered over the infant +soil, had felt the ax, but had grown up and flourished through its long +generation, had fallen beneath the weight of years, been buried in green +moss, and nourished the roots of others as gigantic. Hark! A light paddle +dips into the lake, a birch canoe glides around the point, and an Indian +chief has passed, painted and feather-crested, armed with a bow of +hickory, a stone tomahawk, and flint-headed arrows. But the ripple had +hardly vanished from the water, when a white flag caught the breeze, over +a castle in the wilderness, with frowning ramparts and a hundred +cannon.... A war party of French and Indians were issuing from the gate to +lay waste some village of New England. Near the fortress there was a group +of dancers. The merry soldiers footing it with the swart savage maids; +deeper in the wood, some red men were growing frantic around a keg of the +fire-water; and elsewhere a Jesuit preached the faith of high cathedrals +beneath a canopy of forest boughs. + + +Did you form clear mental images? Can you picture them all at the same +time, or must you turn your attention from one image to another? The +formation of the proper mental images will be aided by making a persistent +effort to create them. + +Many words do not cause us to form images; for example, _goodness, +innocence, position, insurance_; but when the purpose of a word is to set +forth an image, we should take care to get the correct one. In this the +dictionary will not always help us. We must distinguish between the +ability to repeat a definition and the power to form an accurate image of +the thing defined. The difficulty of forming correct images by the use of +dictionary definitions is so great that the definitions are frequently +accompanied by pictures. + + +EXERCISES + + +Notice the different mental images that come to you as you read each of +the following selections. Distinguish words that cause images to arise +from those that do not. + + +1. Before these fields were shorn and tilled, + Full to the brim our rivers flowed; + The melody of waters filled + The fresh and boundless wood; + And torrents dashed, and rivulets played, + And fountains spouted in the shade. + +--Bryant: _An Indian at the Burial Place of his Fathers_. + + +2. At that moment the woods were filled with another burst of cries, and +at the signal four savages sprang from the cover of the driftwood. Heyward +felt a burning desire to rush forward to meet them, so intense was the +delirious anxiety of the moment; but he was restrained by the deliberate +examples of the scout and Uncas. When their foes, who leaped over the +black rocks that divided them, with long bounds, uttering the wildest +yells, were within a few rods, the rifle of Hawkeye slowly rose among the +shrubs and poured out its fatal contents. The foremost Indian bounded like +a stricken deer and fell headlong among the clefts of the island. + +--Cooper: _Last of the Mohicans_. + + +3. The towering flames had now surmounted every obstruction, and rose to +the evening skies, one huge and burning beacon, seen far and wide through +the adjacent country. Tower after tower crashed down, with blazing roof +and rafter; and the combatants were driven from the courtyard. The +vanquished of whom very few remained, scattered and escaped into the +neighboring wood. The victors, assembling in large bands, gazed with +wonder, not unmixed with fear, upon the flames, in which their own ranks +and arms glanced dusky red. The maniac figure of the Saxon Ulrica was for +a long time visible on the lofty stand she had chosen, tossing her arms +abroad with wild exaltation as if she reigned empress of the conflagration +which she had raised. At length, with a terrific crash, the whole turret +gave way and she perished in the flames which had consumed her tyrant. + +--Scott: _Ivanhoe_. + + +4. Under a spreading chestnut tree + The village smithy stands; + The smith, a mighty man is he, + With large and sinewy hands; + And the muscles of his brawny arms + Are strong as iron bands. + +--Longfellow: _The Village Blacksmith_. + + +5. Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered weak and weary, + Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore-- + While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, + As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door; + "'Tis some visitor," I muttered, "tapping at my chamber door-- + Only this, and nothing more." + +--Edgar A. Poe: _The Raven_. + + +6. Where with black cliffs the torrents toil, + He watch'd the wheeling eddies boil, + Till, from their foam, his dazzled eyes + Beheld the River Demon rise; + The mountain mist took form and limb + Of noontide hag or goblin grim. + +--Scott: _Lady of the Lake_. + + +7. On nearer approach he was still more surprised at the singularity of +the stranger's appearance. He was a short, square-built old fellow, with +thick, bushy hair and a grizzled beard. His dress was of the antique Dutch +fashion--a cloth jerkin strapped around the waist--several pairs of +breeches, the outer ones of ample volume, decorated with rows of buttons +down the sides and bunches at the knees. He bore on his shoulder a stout +keg that seemed full of liquor, and made signs for Rip to approach and +assist him with his load. + +--Washington Irving: _Rip Van Winkle_. + + ++27. Complete and Incomplete Images.+--Some sentences have for their +purpose the presentation of an image, but in order to form that image +correctly and completely, we must be familiar with the words used. If an +unfamiliar word is introduced, the mind may omit entirely the image +represented, or may substitute some other for it. Notice the image +presented by this sentence from Henry James: "Her dress was dark and rich; +she had pearls around her neck and an old rococo fan in her hand." If the +meaning of _rococo_ is unknown to you, the image which you form will not +be exactly the one that Mr. James had in mind. The pearls and the dress +may stand out clearly in your image, but the fan will be lacking or +indistinct. The whole may be compared to a photograph of which a part is +blurred. If your attention is directed to the fan, you may recall the word +_rococo_, but not the image represented by it. If your attention is not +called to the fan, the mind is satisfied with the indistinct image, or +substitutes for it an image of some other fan. Such an image is therefore +either incomplete or inaccurate. + +An oath in court provides that we shall "tell the truth, the whole truth, +and nothing but the truth," but, in forming images, it is not always +possible to hold our minds to such exactness. We are prone to picture more +or less than the words convey. In fact, in some forms of prose, and often +in poetry, the author purposely takes advantage of this habit of the mind +and wishes us to enlarge with creations of our own imagination the bare +image that his words convey. Such writing, however, aims to give pleasure +or to arouse our emotions. It calls out something in the reader even more +strongly than it sets forth something in the writer. This suggestiveness +in writing will be considered later, but for the present it will be well +for you to bear in mind that most language has for its purpose the exact +expression of a definite idea. Much of the failure in school work arises +from the careless substitution of one image for another, and from the +formation of incomplete and inaccurate images. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Make a list of the words in the following selections whose meanings +you need to look up in order to make the images exact and complete. Do not +attempt to memorize the language of the definition, but to form a correct +image. + + +1. The sun stared brazenly down on a gray farmhouse, on ranges of +whitewashed outbuildings, and on a goodly array of dark-thatched ricks. + +2. In his shabby frieze jacket and mud-laden brogans, he was scarcely an +attractive object. + +3. In a sunlit corner of an old coquina fort they came suddenly face to +face with a familiar figure. + +4. Somewhat back from the village street + Stands the old-fashioned country seat. + Across its antique portico + Tall poplar trees their shadows throw, + And from its station in the hall + An ancient timepiece says to all: + "Forever--never! + Never--forever!" + +--Longfellow: _The Old Clock on the Stairs_. + +5. There was a room which bore the appearance of a vault. Four spandrels +from the corners ran up to join a sharp cup-shaped roof. The architecture +was rough, but very strong. It was evidently part of a great building. + +6. The officer proceeded, without affecting to hear the words which +escaped the sentinel in his surprise; nor did he again pause, until he had +reached the low strand, and in a somewhat dangerous vicinity to the +western water bastion of the fort. + +7. She stood on the top step under the _porte-cochère_, on the extreme +edge, so that the toes of her small slippers extended a little over it. +She bent forward, and then tipped back on the high, exiguous heels again. + +8. Before the caryatides of the fireplace, under the ancestral portraits, a +valet moves noiselessly about, arranging the glistening silver service on +the long table and putting in order the fruits, sweets, and ices. + +9. No sooner is the heavy gate of the portal passed than one sees from +afar among the leafage the court of honor, to which one comes along an +alley decorated uniformly with upright square shafts like classic termae +in stone and bronze. The impression of the antique lines is striking: it +springs at once to the eyes, at first in this portico with columns and a +heavy entablature, but lacking a pediment. + + +_B._ Read again the selections beginning on page 46. Do you form complete +images in every case? + + +_C._ Notice in each of your lessons for to-day what images are incomplete. +Bring to class a list of the words you would need to look up in order to +form complete images. Do not include all the words whose meanings are not +clear, but only those that assist in forming images. + + ++Theme XII.+--_Form a clear mental image of some incident, person, or +place. Write about it, using such words as will give your classmates +complete and accurate images. The following may suggest a subject:_-- + + 1. A party dress I should like. + 2. My room. + 3. A cozy glen. + 4. In the apple orchard. + 5. Going to the fire. + 6. The hand-organ man. + 7. A hornets' nest. + 8. The last inning. + 9. An exciting race. + + +(Consider what you have written with reference to the images which the +_reader_ will form. Do you think that when the members of the class hear +your theme, each will form the same images that you had in mind when +writing? Notice how many of your sentences begin in the same way. Can you +rewrite them so as to give variety?) + + ++28. Reproduction of Images.+--If we were asked to tell about an accident +which we had seen, we could recall the various incidents in the order of +their occurrence. If the accident had occurred recently, or had made a +vivid impression upon us, we could easily form mental images of each +scene. If we had only read a description of the accident, it would be more +difficult to recall the image; because that which we gain through language +is less vitally a part of ourselves than is that which comes to us through +experience. + +When called upon to reproduce the images suggested to us by language, our +memory is apt to concern itself with the words that suggested the image, +and our expression is hampered rather than aided by this remembrance. The +author has made, or should have made, the best possible selection of words +and phrases. If we repeat his language, we have but memory drill or copy +work; and if we do not, we are limited to such second-class language as we +may be able to find. + +Word memory has its uses, but it is less valuable than image memory. It is +necessary to distinguish carefully between the images that a writer +presents and the words that he uses. If a botany lesson should consist of +a description of fifteen different leaves, a pupil deficient in image +memory will attempt to memorize the language of the book. A better-trained +pupil, on meeting such a term as _serrated_, will ask himself: "Have I +ever seen such a leaf? Can I form an image of it?" If so, his only task +will be to give the new name, _serrated_, to the idea that he already has. +In a similar way he will form images for each of the fifteen leaves +described in the lesson. The language of the book may help him form these +images, but he will make no attempt to commit the language to memory. With +him, "getting the lesson" means forming images and naming them, and +reciting the lesson will be but talking about an image that he has clearly +in mind. Try this in your own lessons. + +If we are called upon to reproduce the incidents and scenes of some story +that has been read to us, our success will depend upon the clearness of +the images that we have formed. Our efforts should be directed to making +the images as definite and vivid as possible, and our memory will be +concerned with the recalling of these images in their proper order, and +not with the language that first caused them to appear. + + +EXERCISES + +1. Report orally some interesting incident taken from a book which you +have recently read. Do not reread the story. Use such language as will +cause the class to form clear mental images. + +2. Report orally upon some chapter selected from Cooper's _Last of the +Mohicans_ or Scott's _Ivanhoe_. + +3. Read a portion of Scott's _Lady of the Lake_, and report orally what +happened. + +4. Report orally some incident that you have read about in a magazine. +Select one that caused you to form images, and tell it so that the hearers +will form like images. + + ++Theme XIII.+--_Reproduce a story read to you by the teacher._ + +(Before writing, picture to yourself the scenes and recall the order of +their occurrence. If it is necessary to condense, omit events of the least +importance.) + + ++29. Comparison.+--Writing which contains unfamiliar words fails to call +up complete and definite images. It is often difficult to form the correct +mental picture, even though the words in themselves are familiar. +Definitions, explanations, and descriptions may cause us to understand +correctly, but our understanding usually can be improved by means of a +comparison. We can form an image of an object as soon as we know what it +is like. + +If I wished you to form an image of an okapi, a lengthy description would +give you a less vivid picture than the statement that it was a horselike +animal, having stripes similar to those of a zebra. If an okapi were as +well known to you as is a horse, the name alone would call up the proper +image, and no comparison would be necessary. By means of it we are enabled +to picture the unfamiliar. In this case the comparison is literal. + +If the comparison is imaginative rather than literal, our language becomes +figurative, and usually takes the form of a simile or metaphor. Similes +and metaphors are of great value in rendering thought clear. They make +language forceful and effective, and they may add much to the beauty of +expression. + +We may speak of an object as being like another, or as acting like +another. If the comparison is imaginative rather than literal, and is +directly stated, the expression is a simile. Similes are introduced by +_like, as_, etc. + + + He fought like a lion. + The river wound like a serpent around the mountains. + + +If two things are essentially different, but yet have a common quality, +their _implied comparison_ is a metaphor. A metaphor takes the form of a +statement that one is the other. + + + "He was a lion in the fight." + "The river wound its serpent course." + + +Sometimes inanimate objects, abstract ideas, or the lower animals +are given the attributes of human beings. Such a figure is called +personification, and is in fact a modified metaphor, since it is based +upon some resemblance of the lower to the higher. + + + This music crept by me upon the waters. + + Time is a very bankrupt, and owes more than he is worth to + season. + Nay, he's a thief, too; have you not heard men say, + That time comes stealing on by night and day? + +--Shakespeare. + + ++30. Use of Figures of Speech.+--The three figures of speech, simile, +metaphor, and personification, are more frequently used than are the +others. Figures of speech are treated in a later chapter, but some +suggestions as to their use will be of value to beginners. + +1. Never write for the purpose of using figures of speech. Nearly +everything that we need to say can be well expressed in plain, bare +English, and the ability to express our thoughts in this way is the +essential thing. If a figure that adds to the force and clearness of your +expression occurs to you, use it without hesitation. A figure may also add +to the beauty of our expression. The examples to be found in literature +are largely of this character. If well used, they are effective, but the +beginner should beware of a figure that is introduced for decorative +purposes only. An attempt to find figures of speech in ordinary prose +writing will show how rarely they are used. + +2. The figures should fit the subject in hand. Some comparisons are +appropriate and some are not. If the writer is familiar with his subject +and deeply in earnest, the appropriate figures will rise spontaneously in +his mind. If they do not, little is gained by seeking for them. + +3. The effectiveness of a comparison, whether literal or figurative, +depends upon the familiarity of the reader with one of the two things +compared. To say that a petrel resembled a kite would be of no value to +one who knew nothing of either bird. Similarly a figure is defective if +neither element of the comparison is familiar to the readers. + +4. Suitable figures give picturesqueness and vivacity to language, but +hackneyed figures are worse than none. + +5. Elaborate and long-drawn-out figures, or an overabundance of short +ones, should be avoided. + +6. A figure must be consistent throughout. A comparison once begun must be +carried through without change; mixing figures often produces results +which are ridiculous. The "mixed metaphor" is a common blunder of +beginners. This fault may arise either from confusing different metaphors +in the same sentence, or from blending literal language with metaphorical. +The following will serve to illustrate:-- + + +1. [Confused metaphor.] Let us pin our faith to the rock of perseverance +and honest toil, where it may sail on to success on the wings of hope. + +2. [Literal and figurative blended.] Washington was the father of his +country and a surveyor of ability. + +3. When the last awful moment came, the star of liberty went down with all +on board. + +4. The glorious work will never be accomplished until the good ship +"Temperance" shall sail from one end of the land to the other, and with a +cry of "Victory!" at each step she takes, shall plant her banner in every +city, town, and village in the United States. + +5. All along the untrodden paths of the future we see the hidden +footprints of an unseen hand. + +6. The British lion, whether it is roaming the deserts of India, or +climbing the forests of Canada, will never draw in its horns nor retire +into its shell. + +7. Young man, if you have the spark of genius in you, water it. + + +EXERCISES + + +Are the images which you form made more vivid by +the use of the figures in the following selections? + +1. She began to screech as wild as ocean birds. + +2. And when its force expended, + The harmless storm was ended; + And as the sunrise splendid + Came blushing o'er the sea-- + +3. As a demon is hurled by an angel's spear, + Heels over head, to his proper sphere-- + Heels over head and head over heels,-- + Dizzily down the abyss he wheels,-- + So fell Darius. + +--J.T. Trowbridge. + +4. In this republican country, amid the fluctuating waves of our social +life, somebody is always at the drowning point. + +--Hawthorne. + +5. Poverty, treading close at her heels for a lifetime, has come up with +her at last. + +--Hawthorne. + +6. Friendships begin with liking or gratitude--roots that can be pulled +up. + +--George Eliot. + +7. Nearing the end of the narrative, Ben paced up and down the narrow +limits of the tent in great excitement, running his fingers through his +hair, and barking out a question now and then. + +8. A sky above, + Where one white cloud like a stray lamb doth move. + +--Lowell. + +9. In days of public commotion every faction, like an Oriental army, is +attended by a crowd of camp followers, a useless and heartless rabble, who +prowl round its line of march in the hope of picking up something under +its protection, but desert it in the day of battle, and often join to +exterminate it after a defeat. + +--Macaulay. + +10. It is to be regretted that the prose writings of Milton should, in our +time, be so little read. As compositions, they deserve the attention of +every man who wishes to become acquainted with the full power of the +English language. They abound with passages compared with which the finest +declamations of Burke sink into insignificance. They are a perfect field +of cloth of gold. The style is stiff with gorgeous embroidery. + +--Macaulay. + +11. And close behind her stood + Eight daughters of the plow, stronger than men, + Huge women blowzed with health, and wind, and rain, + And labor. Each was like a Druid rock, + Or like a spire of land that stands apart + Cleft from the main and wall'd about with mews. + +--Tennyson. + +12. But bland the smile that, like a wrinkling wind + On glassy water, drove his cheek in lines. + +--Tennyson. + +13. The rush of affairs drifts words from their original meanings, as +ships drag their anchors in a gale, but terms sheltered from common use +hold to their moorings forever. + +--Mill. + + ++Theme XIV.+--_Write a story suggested by the picture on page 59 or by one +of the following subjects:_-- + + 1. A modern fable. + 2. The willow whistle. + 3. How I baked a cake. + 4. The delayed picnic. + 5. The missing slipper. + 6. A misdirected letter. + 7. A ride on a raft. + 8. The rescue of Ezekiel. + 9. A railway experience. + 10. A soldier's soldier. + +(Do you think the reader will form the images you wish him to form? +Consider what you have written with reference to climax. (See Section 7.) +Have you needed to use figures? If so, have you used them in accordance +with the suggestions on page 55? If you have used the word _only_, is it +placed so as to give the correct meaning?) + + ++31. Determination of Meaning Requires More than Image Making.+--The +emphasis laid upon image making should not lead to the belief that this is +all that is necessary in order to determine what is meant by the language +we hear or read. Image making is important, but much of our language is +concerned with presenting ideas of which no mental pictures can be formed. + + +[Illustration] + + +This very paragraph will serve as an illustration of such language. Our +understanding of language of this kind depends upon our knowledge of the +meanings of words, upon our understanding of the relations between word +groups, or parts of sentences, and especially upon our appreciation of the +relations in thought that sentences bear to one another. Each of these +will be discussed in the following pages. Later it will be necessary to +consider the relations in thought existing among paragraphs. + + ++32. Word Relations.+--In order to get the thought of a sentence, we must +understand the relations that exist between the words and word groups +(phrases and clauses) that compose it. If the thought is simple, and +expressed in straightforward terms, we grasp it readily and without any +conscious effort to determine these relations. If the thought is complex, +the relations become more complicated, and before we are sure that we know +what the writer intends to say it may be necessary to note with care which +is the main clause and which are the subordinate clauses. In either case +our acquiring the thought depends upon our understanding the relations +between words and word groups. We may understand them without any +knowledge of the names that have been applied to them in grammar, but a +knowledge of the names will assist somewhat. These relations are treated +in the grammar review in the Appendix and need not be repeated here. + + ++33. Incomplete Thoughts.+--We have learned (Section 27) that the +introduction of unfamiliar words may cause us to form incomplete images. +When the language is not designed to present images, we may, in a similar +way, fail to get its real meaning if we are unfamiliar with the words +used. If you do not know the meaning of _fluent_ and _viscous_, you will +fail to understand correctly the statement, "Fluids range from the +peculiarly fluent to the peculiarly viscous." If we wish to think +precisely what the writer intended us to think, we must know the meanings +of the words he uses. Many of us are inclined to substitute other ideas +than those properly conveyed by the words of the writer, and so get +confused or incomplete or inaccurate ideas. The ability to determine +exactly what images the writer suggests, and what ideas his language +expresses, is the first requisite of scholarship and an important element +of success in life. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ The first step in acquiring knowledge is to determine what it is that +we do not know. Just which word or words in each of the following +sentences keep you from understanding the full meaning of the sentence? +Notice that a dictionary definition will not always make the meaning +clear. + +1. It is really more scientific to repeat a quotation from a political +speech correctly, or to pass on a story undistorted, than it is to know of +the rings of Saturn or the striation of diatoms. + +2. The process of testing a hypothesis requires great caution in order to +prevent mistakes. + +3. The aërial foliage stem is the most favorable for studying stem +structure. + +4. Taken collectively, isotherms indicate the distribution of mean +temperature over the region embraced in the map. + +5. Vibrations of the membrane of the tympanum are "damped" by the ossicles +of the middle ear, which also receive and pass on the auditory tremors to +the membrane closing the oval window. + +6. In the battle which followed, the mobile Roman legion, arranged in open +order three ranks deep, proved its superiority over the massive Macedonian +phalanx. + +7. The narrow and dissected forms have been attributed to the scarcity of +carbon dioxide and oxygen in the water. + + +_B._ Make a list of words in your lessons in other subjects for to-day +that you need to look up in order to understand the lessons. This should +be done daily, whether assigned or not. + + +34. +Choice of Words Adapted to the Reader.+--Words familiar to the reader +should be used. Since the reader's ability to understand the thought of a +paragraph depends to some extent upon his understanding of the words +employed, it is necessary for the writer to choose words that will be +understood by those whom he addresses. Of course we cannot tell whether a +particular word will be understood by our readers, but, in case there is +doubt, it is well to substitute one that is more likely to be understood. +When you have written anything, it is well to ask yourself the question, +Have I used words with which _the reader_ is probably familiar? + ++Theme XV.+---_Write a theme about one of the following subjects, using +words that you think will be understood by your readers:_-- + + 1. How we breathe. + 2. How to make a kite. + 3. The causes of the seasons. + 4. Why wood floats on water. + 5. The use of baking powder. + 6. The difference between arithmetic and algebra. + +(Have you said what you meant to say? Have you used words that your reader +will understand? Find your longest sentence. Is its meaning clear? Notice +the short sentences. Should some of them be united into a longer one?) + + ++35. Word Selection.+--There are many shades of meaning which differ but +little, and a careful writer will select just the word that best conveys +his thought. The reader needs to be no less careful in determining the +exact meaning that the writer intends to convey. Exercises in synonyms are +thus of double importance (Section 21). + +Another source of error, both in acquiring and expressing thought, arises +from the confusion of similar words. Some similarity of spelling causes +one word to be substituted for another. There are many words and +expressions that are so often interchanged that some time may be spent +with profit upon exercises in determining their correct usage. These +usually consist of brief reports to the class that set forth the meanings +of the words, show their uses, and illustrate their differences. + +In preparing such reports, determine the meaning of the words from as many +sources as are available. The usual meaning can be determined from the +dictionary. A fuller treatment is given in some dictionaries in a chapter +on faulty diction. Additional material may be found in many of the +text-books on rhetoric, and in special books treating of word usage. After +you are sure that you know the correct use, prepare a report for the class +that shall make that use clear to others. In the simplest form this will +consist of definitions and sentences in which the words are correctly +used. The following examples, handed in by pupils, will serve to +illustrate such reports:-- + +1. A _council_ is an assembly of persons convened for consultation or +deliberation. _Counsel_ is used to indicate either (1) an opinion as the +result of consultation or (2) a lawyer engaged to give advice or to act as +advocate in court. Lewis furnishes the following example of the use of +these two words: "The plaintiff's _counsel_ held a _council_ with his +partners in law, and finally gave him as his best _counsel_ the advice +that he should drop the suit; but, as Swift says, 'No man will take +_counsel_, but every man will take money,' and the plaintiff refused to +accept the advice unless the _counsel_ could persuade the defendant to +settle the case out of court by paying a large sum." + +2. The correct meaning of _transpire_ may perhaps be best understood by +considering its derivations. It comes from _trans_, through, and _spiro_, +to breathe, from which it gets its meaning, to escape gradually from +secrecy. It is frequently used incorrectly in the sense of to happen, but +both Webster and the Standard dictionary condemn this use of the word. The +latter says that it is often so misused especially in carelessly edited +newspapers, as in "Comments on the heart-rending disaster which transpired +yesterday are unnecessary, but," etc. When _transpire_ is correctly used, +it is not a synonym of _happen_. A thing that happened a year ago may +transpire to-day, that is, it may "become known through unnoticed +channels, exhale, as it were, through invisible pores like a vapor or a +gas disengaging itself." Many things which happen in school, thus become +known by being passed along in a semi-secret manner until nearly all know +of them though few can tell just how the information was spread. +_Transpire_ may properly be applied to such a diffusion of knowledge. + + ++Theme XVI.+--_Report as suggested above on any one of the following +groups of words:_-- + + 1. Allude, mention. + 2. Beside, besides. + 3. Character, reputation. + 4. Degrade, demean, debase. + 5. Last, latest, preceding. + 6. Couple, pair. + 7. Balance, rest, remainder. + +(Have you made clear the correct use of the words under discussion? Can +you give examples which do not follow the dictionaries so closely as do +the illustrative reports above?) + +NOTE.--Lists of words suitable for exercises similar to the above are +given in the Appendix. The teacher will assign them to such an extent and +at such times as seems desirable. One such lesson a week will be found +profitable. + + ++36. Sentence Relations.+--What we read or hear usually consists of +several sentences written or spoken together. The meaning of any +particular sentence may depend upon the sentence or sentences preceding. +In order to determine accurately the meaning of the whole, we must +understand the relation in thought that each sentence bears to the others. +Notice the two sentences: "Guns are dangerous. Boys should not use them." +Though the last sentence is independent, it gets its meaning from the +first. + +In the following selection consider each sentence apart from the others. +Notice that the meaning of the whole becomes intelligible only when the +sentences are considered in their relations to each other. + + +Once upon a time, a notion was started, that if all the people in the +world would shout at once, it might be heard in the moon. So the +projectors agreed it should be done in just ten years. Some thousand +shiploads of chronometers were distributed to the selectmen and other +great folks of all the different nations. For a year beforehand, nothing +else was talked about but the awful noise that was to be made on the great +occasion. When the time came, everybody had his ears so wide open, to hear +the universal ejaculation of Boo,--the word agreed upon,--that nobody +spoke except a deaf man in one of the Fiji Islands, and a woman in Pekin, +so that the world was never so still since the creation.--Holmes. + + +Gutenberg did a great deal of his work in secret, for he thought it was +much better that his neighbors should know nothing of what he was doing. +So he looked for a workshop where no one would be likely to find him. He +was now living in Strasburg, and there was in that city a ruined old +building where, long before his time, a number of monks had lived. There +was one room in the building which needed only a little repairing to make +it fit to be used. So he got the right to repair the room and use it as +his workshop. + + +In all good writing we find a similar dependence in thought. Each sentence +takes a meaning because of its relation to some other. The personal +pronouns and pronominal adjectives, adverbial phrases indicating time or +place, conjunctions, and such expressions as _certainly, however, on the +other hand_, etc., are used to indicate more or less directly a relation +in thought between the phrase or sentence in which they occur and some +preceding one. If the reader cannot readily determine to what they refer, +the meaning becomes obscure or ambiguous. The pronominal adjectives and +the personal pronouns are especially likely to be used in such a way as to +cause ambiguity. Care must be taken to use them so as to keep the meaning +clear, and your own good sense will help you in this more than rules. +Notice in your reading how frequently expressions similar to those +mentioned above are used. + + ++Theme XVII.+--_Write a theme suggested by one of the following +subjects:_-- + + 1. The last quarter. + 2. An excursion with the physical geography class. + 3. What I saw while riding to town. + 4. The broken bicycle. + 5. An hour in the study hall. + 6. Seen from my study window. + +(Are your sentences so arranged that the relation in thought is clear? Are +the personal pronouns and pronominal adjectives used so as to avoid +ambiguity? Does your story relate real events or imaginary ones? If +imaginary events are related, have you made them seem probable?) + + ++37. Getting the Main Thought.+--In many cases the relation in thought is +not directly indicated, and we are left to determine it from the context, +just as we decide upon the meaning of a word because of what precedes or +follows it. In this case the meaning of a particular sentence may be made +clear if we have in mind the main topic under discussion. Many pupils fail +in recitations because they do not distinguish that which is more +important from that which is less so. If a dozen pages of history are +assigned, they cannot master the lesson because it is too long to be +memorized, and they are not able to select the three or four things of +importance with which it is really concerned. Thirty or forty minor +details are jumbled together without any clear knowledge of the relations +that they bear either to one another or to the main thoughts of the +lesson. + +In the following selection but three things are discussed. Determine what +they are, but not what is said about them. + + +In all the ages the extent and value of flood plains have been increased +by artificial means. Dikes or levees are built to regulate the spread and +flow of the water and to protect the land from destructive floods. Dams +and reservoirs are constructed for the storage of water, which is led by a +system of canals and ditches to irrigate large tracts of land which would +be otherwise worthless. By means of irrigation, the farmer has control of +his water supply and is able to get larger returns than are possible where +he depends upon the irregular and uncertain rainfall. It is estimated that +in the arid regions of western United States there are 150,000 square +miles of land which may be made available for agriculture by irrigation. +Perhaps in the future the valley of the lower Colorado may become as +productive as that of the Nile. + +Streams are the easiest routes of travel and commerce. A river usually +furnishes from its mouth well up toward its source a smooth, graded +highway, upon which a cargo may be transported with much less effort than +overland. If obstructions occur in the form of rapids or falls, boat and +cargo are carried around them. It is often easy to pass by a short portage +or "carry" from one stream system across the divide to another. In regions +which are not very level the easiest grades in every direction are found +along the streams, and the main routes of land travel follow the stream +valleys. In traversing a mountainous region, a railroad follows the +windings of some river up to the crest of the divide, which it crosses +through a pass, or often by a tunnel, and descends the valley of some +stream on the other side. + +Man is largely indebted to streams for the variety and beauty of scenery. +Running water itself is attractive to young and old. A landscape without +water lacks its chief charm. A child instinctively finds its way to the +brook, and the man seeks beside the river the pleasure and recreation +which no other place affords. Streams have carved the surface of the land +into an endless variety of beautiful forms, and a land where stream +valleys are few or shallow is monotonous and tiresome. The most common as +well as the most celebrated beauty of scenery in the world, from the tiny +meanders of a meadow brook to the unequaled grandeur of the Colorado +canyons, is largely due to the presence and action of streams. + +--Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_. + + +In the above selection we find that each group of sentences is related to +some main topic. A more extended observation of good writing will give the +same result. Men naturally think in sentence groups. A group of sentences +related to each other and to the central idea is called a +paragraph.+ + + ++38. Topic Statement.+--In the three paragraphs of the selection on page +67, notice that the first sentence in each tells what the paragraph is +about. In a well-written paragraph it is possible to select the phrase or +sentence that states the main thought. If such a sentence does not occur +in the paragraph itself, one can be framed that will express clearly and +concisely the chief idea of the paragraph. This brief, comprehensive +summary of the contents of a paragraph is called the topic statement. + +In order to master the thought of what we read we must be able to select +or to make the successive topic statements, and in order to express our +own thoughts clearly we must write our paragraphs so that our readers may +easily grasp the topic statement of each. + +When expressed in the paragraph, the topic statement may be a part of a +sentence, a whole sentence, or it may extend through two sentences. It is +usual to place the topic statement first, but it may be preceded by one or +more introductory sentences, or even withheld until the end of the +paragraph. For emphasis it may be repeated, though usually in a slightly +different form. + + +EXERCISES + + +Determine the topic statements of the following paragraphs. If one is not +expressed, make one. + + +1. No less valuable is the mental stimulus of play. The child is +trained by it to quick perception, rapid judgment, prompt decision. His +imagination cunningly suggests a thousand things to be done, and then +trains the will and every power of body and mind in the effort to do them. +The sports of childhood are admirably adapted to quicken the senses and +sharpen the wits. Nature has effective ways in her school of securing the +exercise which is needed to develop every mental and every bodily power. +She fills the activity brimful of enjoyment, and then gives her children +freedom, assured that they will be their own best teachers. + +--Bradley + + +2. Our Common Law comes from England, and originated there in custom. It +is often called the unwritten law, because unwritten in origin, though +there are now many books describing it. Its principles originated as +habits of the people, five hundred, eight hundred, years ago, perhaps some +of them back in the time when the half-savage Saxons landed on the shores +of England. When the time came that the government, through its courts, +punished the breach of a custom, from that time the custom was a law. And +so the English people acquired these laws, one after another, just as they +were acquiring at the same time the habits of making roads, using forks at +table, manufacturing, meeting in Parliament, using firearms, and all the +other habits of civilization. When the colonists came to America, they +brought the English Common Law with them, not in a book, but in their +minds, a part of their life, like their religion. + +--Clark: _The Government_. + + +3. Accuracy is always to be striven for but it can never be attained. This +fact is only fully realized by scientific workers. The banker can be +accurate because he only counts or weighs masses of metal which he assumes +to be exactly equal. The Master of the Mint knows that two coins are never +exactly equal in weight, although he strives by improving machinery and +processes to make the differences as small as possible. When the utmost +care is taken, the finest balances which have been constructed can weigh 1 +lb. of a metal with an uncertainty less than the hundredth part of a +grain. In other words, the weight is not accurate, but the inaccuracy is +very small. No person is so stupid as not to feel sure that the height of +a man he sees is between 3 ft. and 9 ft.; some are able by the eye to +estimate the height as between 5 ft. 6 in. and 5 ft. 8 in.; measurement +may show it to be between 5 ft. 6 in. and 5 ft. 7 in., but to go closer +than that requires many precautions. Training in observation and the use +of delicate instruments thus narrow the limits of approximation. Similarly +with regard to space and time, there are instruments with which one +millionth of an inch, or of a second, can be measured, but even this +approximation, although far closer than is ever practically necessary, is +not accuracy. In the statement of measurements there is no meaning in more +than six significant figures, and only the most careful observations can +be trusted so far. The height of Mount Everest is given as 29,002 feet; +but here the fifth figure is meaningless, the height of that mountain not +being known so accurately that two feet more or less would be detected. +Similarly, the radius of the earth is sometimes given as 3963.295833 +miles, whereas no observation can get nearer the truth than 3963.30 miles. + +--Mill: _The Realm of Nature_. (Copyright, 1892, by Charles Scribner's +Sons.) + + +4. The chief cause which made the fusion of the different elements of +society so imperfect was the extreme difficulty which our ancestors found +in passing from place to place. Of all the inventions, the alphabet and +the printing press alone excepted, those inventions which abridge distance +have done most for the civilization of our species. Every improvement of +the means of locomotion benefits mankind morally and intellectually as +well as materially, and not only facilitates the interchange of the +various productions of nature and art, but tends to remove national and +provincial prejudices, and to bind together all the branches of the great +human family. In the seventeenth century the inhabitants of London were +for almost every practical purpose farther from Reading than they are now +from Edinburgh, and farther from Edinburgh than they are now from Vienna. + +--Macaulay: _History of England_. + + +5. He touched New England at every point. He was born a frontiersman. He +was bred a farmer. He was a fisherman in the mountain brooks and off the +shore. He never forgot his origin, and he never was ashamed of it. Amid +all the care and honor of his great place here he was homesick for the +company of his old neighbors and friends. Whether he stood in Washington, +the unchallenged prince and chief in the Senate, or in foreign lands, the +kingliest man of his time in the presence of kings, his heart was in New +England. When the spring came, he heard far off the fife bird and the +bobolink calling him to his New Hampshire mountains, or of the +waves on the shore at Marshfield alluring him with a sweeter than siren's +voice to his home by the summer sea. + +--George F. Hoar: _Daniel Webster_. + + +6. Nor must I forget the suddenly changing seasons of the northern clime. +There is no long and lingering spring, unfolding leaf and blossom one by +one; no long and lingering autumn, pompous with many-colored leaves and +the glow of Indian summer. But winter and summer are wonderful, and pass +into each other. The quail has hardly ceased piping in the corn when +winter, from the folds of trailing clouds, sows broadcast over the land +snow, icicles, and rattling hail. The days wane apace. Erelong the sun +hardly rises above the horizon, or does not rise at all. The moon and the +stars shine through the day; only at noon they are pale and wan, and in +the southern sky a red, fiery glow, as of a sunset, burns along the +horizon and then goes out. And pleasantly under the silver moon, and under +the silent, solemn stars, ring the steel shoes of the skaters on the +frozen sea, and voices, and the sound of bells. + +--Longfellow: _Rural Life in Sweden_. + +7. Extreme _busyness_, whether at school or college, kirk or market, is a +symptom of deficient vitality; and a faculty for idleness implies a +catholic appetite and a strong sense of personal identity. There is a sort +of dead-alive, hackneyed people about, who are scarcely conscious of +living except in the exercise of some conventional occupation. Bring these +fellows into the country, or set them aboard ship, and you will see how +they pine for their desk or their study. They have no curiosity; they +cannot give themselves over to random provocations; they do not take +pleasure in the exercise of their faculties for its own sake; and unless +Necessity lays about them with a stick, they will even stand still. It is +no good speaking to such folk: they _cannot_ be idle, their nature is not +generous enough; and they pass those hours in a sort of coma, which are +not dedicated to furious moiling in the gold mill. When they do not +require to go to the office, when they are not hungry and have no mind to +drink, the whole breathing world is a blank to them. If they have to wait +an hour or so for a train, they fall into a stupid trance, with their eyes +open. To see them, you would suppose there was nothing to look at and no +one to speak with; you would imagine they were paralyzed or alienated; and +yet very possibly they are hard workers in their own way, and have good +eyesight for a flaw in a deed or a turn of the market. They have been to +school and college, but all the time they had their eye on the medal; they +have gone about in the world and mixed with clever people, but all the +time they were thinking of their own affairs. As if a man's soul were not +too small to begin with, they have dwarfed and narrowed theirs by a life +of all work and no play; until here they are at forty, with a listless +attention, a mind vacant of all material amusement, and not one thought to +rub against another while they wait for the train. Before he was breeched, +he might have clambered on the boxes; when he was twenty, he would have +stared at the girls; but now the pipe is smoked out, the snuffbox is +empty, and my gentleman sits bolt upright on a bench, with lamentable +eyes. This does not appeal to me as being Success in Life. + +--Robert Louis Stevenson. (Copyright, by Charles Scribner's Sons.) + + +_B._ Examine the themes which you have written. Does each paragraph have a +topic statement? Have you introduced sentences which do not bear upon this +topic statement? Are the paragraphs real ones treating of a single topic, +or are they merely groups of sentences written together without any close +connection in thought? + + ++Theme XVIII.+--_State two or three advantages of public high schools over +private boarding schools. Use each as a topic statement and develop it +into a short paragraph._ + +(Add to each topic statement such sentences as will prove to a pupil of +your own age that the topic statement states a real advantage. Include in +each paragraph only that which bears upon the topic statement. Consider +the definition of a paragraph on page 68. Does this definition apply to +your paragraphs?) + + ++39. Reproduction of the Thought of a Paragraph.+--Our ability to +reproduce the thought of what we read will depend largely upon our ability +to select the topic statements. In preparing a lesson for recitation it is +evident that we must first determine definitely the topic statement of +each paragraph. These may bear upon one general subject or upon different +subjects. The three paragraphs on page 67 are all concerned with one +subject, the uses of rivers. A pupil preparing to recite them would have +in mind, when he went to class, an outline about as follows:-- + + +General subject: The uses of rivers. + First topic statement: The fertility of flood plains is improved by + irrigation. + Second topic statement: Streams are the easiest routes of travel and + commerce. + Third topic statement: Man is indebted to streams for beauty of scenery. + + +While such a clear statement is the first step toward a proper +understanding of the lesson, it is not enough. In order to understand +thoroughly a topic statement, we need explanation or illustration. The +idea is not really our own until we have thought about it in its relations +to other knowledge already in our possession. In order to know whether you +understand the topic statements, the teacher will ask you to discuss them. +This may be done by telling what the writer said about them, or by giving +thoughts and illustrations of your own, but best of all, by doing both. It +is necessary, then, to know in what way the writer develops each topic +statement. + +Read the following paragraph:-- + + +The most productive lands in the world are flood plains. At every period +of high water, a stream brings down mantle rock from the higher grounds, +and deposits it as a layer of fine sediment over its flood plain. A soil +thus frequently enriched and renewed is literally inexhaustible. In a +rough, hilly, or mountainous country the finest farms and the densest +population are found on the "bottom lands" along the streams. The flood +plain most famous in history is that of the river Nile in Egypt. For a +distance of 1500 miles above its mouth this river flows through a rainless +desert, and has no tributary. The heavy spring rains which fall upon the +highlands about its sources produce in summer a rise of the water, which +overflows the valley on either side. Thus the lower Nile valley became one +of the earliest centers of civilization, and has supported a dense +population for 7000 years. The conditions in Mesopotamia, along the Tigris +and Euphrates rivers, are similar to those along the lower Nile, and in +ancient times this region was the seat of a civilization perhaps older +than that of Egypt. The flood plains of the Ganges in India, and the Hoang +in China, are the most extensive in the world, and in modern times the +most populous. The alluvial valley of the Mississippi is extremely +productive of corn, cotton, and sugar cane. + +--Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_. + + +Notice that the first sentence gives the topic statement, flood plains are +productive. The second and third sentences tell why this is so, and the +rest of the paragraph is given up to illustrations. + +In preparing this paragraph for recitation the pupil should have in mind +an outline about as follows:-- + +Topic statement: Flood plains are the most productive lands in the world. + +1. Reasons. +2. Examples: (_a_) Bottom lands. + (_b_) Nile. + (_c_) Tigris and Euphrates. + (_d_) Ganges. + (_e_) Hoang. + (_f_) Mississippi. + +In order to make such an outline, the relative importance of the ideas in +the paragraph must be mastered. A recitation that omitted the topic +statement or the reasons would be defective, while one that omitted one or +more of the examples might be perfect, especially if the pupil could +furnish other examples from his own knowledge. The illustration about +bottom lands is a general one, and should suggest specific cases that +could be included in the recitation. The details in regard to the Nile +might be included if they happened to be recalled at the time of the +recitation, but even the omission of all mention of the Nile might not +materially detract from the value of the recitation. The effort to +remember minor details hinders real thought-getting power. + +It is better not to write this outline. The use of notes or written +outlines at the time of the recitation soon establishes a habit of +dependence that renders real scholarship an impossibility. With such an +analysis of the thought clearly in mind, the pupil need not attempt to +remember the language of the writer. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Complete the partial outline given for the paragraph below. Which of +the illustrations might be omitted from a recitation? For which can you +furnish different illustrations? + + +Mountain ranges have great influence upon climate, political geography, +and commerce. Many of them form climatic boundaries. The Cordilleras of +western America and the Scandinavian mountains arrest the warm, moist, +western winds which rise along those great rock barriers to cooler +altitudes, where their water vapor is condensed and falls as rain, so that +the country on the windward side of the mountains is wet and that on the +leeward side is dry. Mountain chains stretching east and west across +central Asia protect the southern part of the continent from frigid arctic +winds. The large winter tourist traffic of the Riviera is due to the +mountains that shield this favored French-Italian coast from the north and +northeast continental winds, giving it a considerably warmer winter's +temperature than that of Rome, two and a half degrees farther south. As +North America has no mountain barriers across the pathway of polar winds, +they sweep southward even to the Gulf of Mexico and have twice destroyed +Florida's orange groves within a decade. Mountain ranges are conspicuous +in political geography because they are the natural boundary between many +nations and languages, as the Pyrenees between France and Spain, the Alps +between Austria and Italy, and the Himalayas between Tibet and India. +Mountains sometimes guard nations from attack by the isolation they give, +and therefore promote national unity. Thus the Swiss are among the few +peoples in Europe who have maintained the integrity of their state. +Commercially, mountains are of great importance as a source of water, +which they store in snow, glaciers, and lakes. Snow and ice, melting +slowly on the mountains, are an unfailing source of supply for perennial +rivers, and thus promote navigation. Mountains are the largest source of +water-power, which is more valuable than ever now that electricity is +employed to transmit it to convenient centers for use in the industries. A +large part of the mining machinery in the United States is run by water +power. Switzerland, which has no coal, turns the wheels of its mills with +water. Mountains supply most of the metals and minerals, and are therefore +the scene of the largest mining industry. They are also among the greatest +sources of forest wealth. Though the slopes are not favorable for +agriculture they afford good pasturage, and the débris of the rocks washed +into the valleys and plains by mountain torrents supplies good soil. Thus +the Appalachians have been worn down to a comparatively low level, and the +soil formed from their rock particles is the basis of large husbandry. +The scenic attractions of many mountain regions is a source of large +revenue. The Alps attract crowds of tourists, who spend about twenty +million dollars a year in Switzerland and Austria, and give to many +thousands of persons. + +--Adams: _Commercial Geography_. + + + +OUTLINE (to be completed) + +Mountain ranges have great influence upon-- + I. Climate. + Why? + Where? + _a, b,_ etc. + II. Political geography. + Why? + Where? + _a, b,_ etc. +III. Commerce. + Why? + Where? + _a, b,_ etc. + + +_B._ Make an outline of the following paragraph:-- + + +1. The armor of the different classes was also accurately ordered by the +law. The first class was ordered to wear for the defense of the body, +brazen helmets, shields, and coats of mail, and to bear spears and swords, +excepting the mechanics, who were to carry the necessary military engines +and to serve without arms. The members of the second class, excepting that +they had bucklers instead of shields and wore no coats of mail, were +permitted to bear the same armor and to carry the sword and spear. The +third class had the same armor as the second, excepting that they could +not wear greaves for the protection of their legs. The fourth had no arms +excepting a spear and a long javelin. The fifth merely carried slings and +stones for use in them. To this class belonged the trumpeters and horn +blowers. + +--Gilman: _Story of Rome_. + + +_C._ In preparing your other lessons for to-day, make outlines of the +paragraphs. + + ++Theme XIX.+--_Reproduce the thought of some paragraph read to you by the +teacher._ + +(Do not attempt to remember the language. Try to get the main thought of +what is read and then write a paragraph which sets forth that same idea. +Use different illustrations if you can.) + +NOTE.--This theme may be repeated as many times as seems desirable. + + ++40. Importance of the Paragraph.+--Emphasis needs to be laid upon the +importance of the paragraph. Our ability to express our thoughts clearly +depends, to a large extent, upon our skill in constructing paragraphs. The +writing of correct sentences is not sufficient. Though each of a series of +sentences may be correct, they may, as a whole, say but little, and that +very poorly; while another set of sentences, which cluster around some +central idea, may set it forth most effectively. It is only by giving our +sentence groups that unity of thought which combines them into paragraphs +that we make them most effective. A well-constructed paragraph will make +clear some idea, and a series of such paragraphs, related to each other +and properly arranged, will set forth the sum of our thoughts on any +subject. + + ++41. Paragraph Length.+--The proper length of a paragraph cannot be +determined by rule. Sometimes the thought to be presented will require +several sentences; sometimes two or three will be sufficient. A single +illustration may make a topic statement clear, or several illustrations +may be required. The writer must judge when he has included enough to make +his meaning understood, and must avoid including so much that the reader +will become weary. Usually a paragraph that exceeds three hundred words +will be found too long, or else it will contain more than one main idea, +each of which could have been presented more effectively in a separate +paragraph. + + ++42. Indentation.+--In written and printed matter the beginning of a +paragraph is indicated by an indentation. Indentation does not make a +paragraph, but we indent because we are beginning a new paragraph. +Indentation thus serves the same purpose as punctuation. It helps the +reader to determine when we have finished one main thought and are about +to begin another. Beginners are apt to use indentations too frequently. +There are some special uses of indentation in letter writing, printed +conversation, and other forms, but for ordinary paragraph division the +indentation is determined by the thought, and its correct use depends upon +clear thinking. Can the following selection be improved by reparagraphing? + +Outside in the darkness, gray with whirling snowflakes, he saw the wet +lamps of cabs shining, and he darted along the line of hansoms and coupés +in frantic search for his own. + +"Oh, there you are," he panted, flinging his suit case up to a +snow-covered driver. "Do your best now; we're late!" And he leaped into +the dark coupé, slammed the door, and sank back on the cushions, +turning up the collar of his heavy overcoat. + +There was a young lady in the farther corner of the cab, buried to her +nose in a fur coat. At intervals she shivered and pressed a fluffy muff +against her face. A glimmer from the sleet-smeared lamps fell across her +knees. + +Down town flew the cab, swaying around icy corners, bumping over car +tracks, lurching, rattling, jouncing, while its silent occupants, huddled +in separate corners, brooded moodily at their respective windows. + +Snow blotted the glass, melting and running down; and over the watery +panes yellow light from shop windows played fantastically, distorting +vision. + +Presently the young man pulled out his watch, fumbled for a match box, +struck a light, and groaned as he read the time. + +At the sound of the match striking, the young lady turned her head. Then, +as the bright flame illuminated the young man's face, she sat bolt +upright, dropping the muff to her lap with a cry of dismay. + +He looked up at her. The match burned his fingers; he dropped it and +hurriedly lighted another; and the flickering radiance brightened upon the +face of a girl whom he had never before laid eyes on. + +"Good heavens!" he said, "where's my sister?" + +The young lady was startled but resolute. "You have made a dreadful +mistake," she said; "you are in the wrong cab--" + + + ++Theme XX.+--_Write a theme using one of the subjects below:_-- + + 1. A personal incident. + 2. The advantages and disadvantages of recesses. + 3. Complete the story commenced in the selection just + preceding. + +(Make a note of the different ideas you may discuss. Which are important +enough to become topic statements? Which may be grouped together in one +paragraph? In what order shall they occur? After your theme is written, +consider the paragraphs. Does the definition apply to them? Are any of +them too short or too long?) + + ++43. Reasons for Studying Paragraph Structure.+--A knowledge of the way in +which a paragraph is constructed will aid us in determining the thought it +contains. There are several methods of developing paragraphs, and usually +one of these is better suited than another to the expression of our +thought. Attention given to the methods used by others will enable us both +to understand better what we read, and to employ more effectively in our +own writing that kind of paragraph which best expresses our thought. Hence +we shall give attention to the more common forms of paragraph development. + + ++44. Development by Giving Specific Instances.+--If you hear a general +statement, such as, "Dogs are useful animals," you naturally think at once +of some of the ways in which they are useful, or of some particular +occasion on which a dog was of use. If a friend should say, "My dog, Fido, +knows many amusing tricks," you would expect the friend to tell you some +of them. A large part of our thinking consists of furnishing specific +instances to illustrate general ideas which arise. Since the language we +use is but the expression of the thoughts we have, it happens that many of +our paragraphs are made up of general statements and the specific +instances used to illustrate these statements. When the topic sentence is +a general statement, we naturally seek to supply specific instances, and +the writer will most readily make his meaning clear by furnishing such +illustrations. Either one or many instances may be used. The object is to +explain the topic statement or to prove its truth, and a good writer will +use that number of instances which best accomplishes his purpose. + +In the following selection notice how the topic statement, set forth and +repeated in the first part of the paragraph, is illustrated in the last +part by means of several specific instances:-- + + +Nine tenths of all that goes wrong in this world is because some one does +not mind his business. When a terrible accident occurs, the first cry is +that the means of prevention were not sufficient. Everybody declares we +must have a new patent fire escape, an automatic engine switch, or a +high-proof non-combustible sort of lamp oil. But a little investigation +will usually show that all the contrivances were on hand and in good +working order; the real trouble was that somebody didn't mind his +business; he didn't obey orders; he thought he knew a better way than the +way he was told; he said, "Just this once I'll take the risk," and in so +doing, he made other people take the risk too; and the risk was too great. +At Toronto, Canada, not long ago, a conductor, against orders, ran his +train on a certain siding, which resulted in the death of thirty or forty +people. The engineer of a mill, at Rochester, N.Y., thought the engine +would stand a higher pressure than the safety valve indicated, so he tied +a few bricks to the valve to hold it down; result--four workmen killed, a +number wounded, and a mill blown to pieces. The _City of Columbus_, an iron +vessel fitted out with all the means of preservation and escape in use on +shipboard, was wrecked on the best-known portion of the Atlantic coast, on +a moonlight night, at the cost of one hundred lives, because the officer +in command took it into his head to save a few ship-lengths in distance by +hugging the shore, in direct disobedience to the captain's parting orders. +The best-ventilated mine in Colorado was turned into a death trap for half +a hundred miners because one of the number entered with a lighted lamp the +gallery he had been warned against. Nobody survived to explain the +explosion of the dynamite-cartridge factory in Pennsylvania, but as that +type of disaster almost always is due to heedlessness, it is probable that +this instance is not an exception to the rule. + +--Wolstan Dixey: _Mind Your Business_. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Which sentences make the general statements, and which furnish +specific instances, in the following paragraphs? + +My contemplations were often interrupted by strangers who came down +from Forsyth's to take their first view of the falls. A short, ruddy, +middle-aged gentleman, fresh from Old England, peeped over the rock, and +evinced his approbation by a broad grin. His spouse, a very robust lady, +afforded a sweet example of maternal solicitude, being so intent on the +safety of her little boy that she did not even glance at Niagara. As for +the child, he gave himself wholly to the enjoyment of a stick of candy. +Another traveler, a native American, and no rare character among us, +produced a volume of Captain Hall's tour, and labored earnestly to adjust +Niagara to the captain's description, departing, at last, without one new +idea or sensation of his own. The next comer was provided, not with a +printed book, but with a blank sheet of foolscap, from top to bottom of +which, by means of an ever pointed pencil, the cataract was made +to thunder. In a little talk which we had together, he awarded his +approbation to the general view, but censured the position of Goat Island, +observing that it should have been thrown farther to the right, so as to +widen the American falls, and contract those of the Horseshoe. Next +appeared two traders of Michigan, who declared that, upon the whole, the +sight was worth looking at; there certainly was an immense water power +here; but that, after all, they would go twice as far to see the noble +stone works of Lockport, where the Grand Canal is locked down a descent of +sixty feet. They were succeeded by a young fellow, in a homespun cotton +dress, with a staff in his hand, and a pack over his shoulders. He +advanced close to the edge of the rock, where his attention, at first +wavering among the different components of the scene, finally became fixed +in the angle of the Horseshoe falls, which is, indeed, the central point +of interest. His whole soul seemed to go forth and be transported thither, +till the staff slipped from his relaxed grasp, and falling down--down-- +down--struck upon the fragment of the Table Rock. + +--Hawthorne: _My Visit to Niagara_. + + +No wonder he learned English quickly, for he was ever on the alert--no +strange word escaped him, no unusual term. He would say it over and over +till he met a friend, and then demand its meaning. One day he came to me +with a very troubled face. "Madame," he said, "please tell me why shall a +man, like me, like any man, be a 'bluenose'?" + +"A what?" I asked. + +"A 'bluenose.' So he was called in the restaurant, but he seemed not +offended about it. I have looked in my books; I can't find any disease of +that name." + +With ill-suppressed laughter I asked, "Do you know Nova Scotia and +Newfoundland?" + +"I hear the laugh in your voice," he said; then added, "Yes, I know both +these places." + +"They are very cold and foggy and wet," I explained. + +But with brightening eyes he caught up the sentence and continued: + +"And the people have blue noses, eh? Ha! ha! Excuse me, then, but is a +milksop a man from some state, or some country, too?" + +At tea some one used the word "claptrap." "What's that?" quickly demanded +the student in our midst. "'Claptrap'--'clap' is so (he struck his hands +together); 'trap' is for rats--what is, then, 'claptrap'?" + +"It is a vulgar or unworthy bid for applause," I explained. + +"Bah!" he contemptuously exclaimed. "I know him,--that cheap actor who +plays at the gallery. He is, then, in English a 'clap-trapper,' is he not?" + +It was hardly possible to meet him without having a word or a term offered +thus for explanation. + +--Clara Morris: _Alessandro Salvini_ ("McClure's"). + + +_B._ Write six sentences which might be developed into paragraphs by +giving specific instances. + + ++Theme XXI.+--_Write a paragraph by furnishing specific instances for one +of the following topic statements:_-- + + +1. Nine tenths of all that goes wrong in this world is because some one +does not mind his business. + +2. It requires a man of courage and perseverance to become a pioneer. + +3. Even the wisest teacher does not always punish the boy who is most at +fault. + +4. It is impossible to teach a dog many amusing tricks. + +5. Even so stupid a creature as a chicken may sometimes exhibit much +intelligence. + +6. Carelessness often leads into difficulty. + +7. Our school clock must see many interesting things. + +8. Our first impressions are not always our best ones. + +9. I am a very busy lead pencil, for my duties are numerous. + +10. Dickens's characters are taken from the lower classes of +people. + +11. Some portions of the book I am reading are very interesting. + +(Do your specific instances really illustrate the topic +statement? Have you said what you intended to say? +Can you omit any words or sentences? Have you used +_and_ or _got_ unnecessarily?). + + ++45. Development by Giving Details.+--Many general statements lead to a +desire to know the details, and the writer may make his idea clearer by +giving them. The statement, "The wedding ceremony was impressive," at once +arouses a desire to know the details. If a friend should say, "I enjoyed +my trip to the city," we wish him to relate that which pleased him. These +details assist us in understanding the topic statement, and increase our +interest in it. Notice in the paragraphs below how much is added to our +understanding of the topic statement by the sentences that give the +details:-- + + +1. I left my garden for a week, just at the close of a dry spell. A season +of rain immediately set in, and when I returned the transformation was +wonderful. In one week every vegetable had fairly jumped forward. The +tomatoes, which I left slender plants, eaten of bugs and debating whether +they would go backward or forward, had become stout and lusty, with thick +stems and dark leaves, and some of them had blossomed. The corn waved like +that which grows so rank out of the French-English mixture at Waterloo. +The squashes--I will not speak of the squashes. The most remarkable growth +was the asparagus. There was not a spear above ground when I went away; +and now it had sprung up, and gone to seed, and there were stalks higher +than my head. + +--Warner: _My Summer in a Garden_. + + +2. The wedding ceremony was solemn and beautiful, in the church on the +estate. At the door of the palace stood the mother of the bride, to greet +her return from the ceremony with the blessing, "May you always have bread +and salt," as she served her from a loaf of black bread, with a salt +cellar in the center, as is the Russian custom for prince and peasant. +Just at this dramatic moment a courier dashed up with a telegram from the +Czar and Czarina, and their gifts for the bride,--a magnificent tiara and +necklace of diamonds. The other presents were already displayed in a +magnificent room; but we saw their splendor through the glass of locked +cases,--a precaution surprising to an Englishwoman. The large swan of +forcemeat was the only reminder of boyar customs at the rather Parisian +feast. Wine was served between the courses, with a toast; while guests in +turn left their seats to express their sentiments to bride and groom, who +stood to receive them. + +--Mary Louise Dunbar: _The Household of a Russian Prince_ +("Atlantic Monthly "). + + ++Theme XXII.+--_Write a paragraph by giving details for one of the +following topic statements:_-- + + +1. There were many interesting things on the farm where I spent my summer +vacation. + +2. The sounds heard in the forest at night are somewhat alarming to one +who is not used to the language of the woods. + +3. I am always much amused when the Sewing Circle meets at my mother's +house. + +4. Good roads are of advantage to farmers in many ways. + +5. A baseball game furnishes abundant opportunity to exercise good +judgment. + +6. I remember well the first time that I visited a large city. + +7. I shall never forget my first attempt at milking a cow. + +8. The haunted house is a square, old-fashioned one of the colonial type. + +9. A mouse suddenly entering the class room caused much disturbance. + +10. A freshman's trials are numerous. + + +(Do the details bear upon the main idea? If the paragraph is long and +rambling, condense by omitting the least important parts. By changing the +order of the sentences, can you improve the paragraph?) + + ++46. Details Related in Time-Order.+--The experiences of daily life follow +each other in time, and when we read of a series of events we at once +think of them as having occurred in a certain time-order. To assist in +establishing the correct time-order, the writer should generally state the +details of his story in the order in which they occurred. The method of +showing time relations for simultaneous events has been discussed in +Section 11. + +If the narrative is of considerable length, it may be divided into +paragraphs, each dealing with some particular stage of its progress. The +time relations among the sentences within the paragraph and among the +paragraphs themselves should be such that the reader may readily follow +the thread of the story to its main point. Narrative paragraphs often do +not have topic sentences. + +In the following selection from _Black Beauty_ notice how the time +relations give unity of thought both to the paragraphs and to the whole +selection:-- + + +He hung my rein on one of the iron spikes, and was soon hidden among the +trees. Lizzie was standing quietly by the side of the road, a few paces +off, with her back to me. My young mistress was sitting easily, with a +loose rein, humming a little song. I listened to my rider's footsteps +until he reached the house, and heard him knock at the door. + +There was a meadow on the opposite side of the road, the gate of which +stood open. As I looked, some cart horses and several young colts came +trotting out in a very disorderly manner, while a boy behind was cracking +a great whip. The colts were wild and frolicsome. One of them bolted +across the road and blundered up against Lizzie. Whether it was the stupid +colt or the loud cracking of the whip, or both together, I cannot say, but +she gave a violent kick and dashed off into a headlong gallop. It was so +sudden that Lady Anne was nearly unseated, but she soon recovered herself. + +I gave a long, shrill neigh for help. Again and again I neighed, pawing +the ground impatiently, and tossing my head to get the rein loose. I had +not long to wait. Blantyre came running to the gate. He looked anxiously +about, and just caught sight of the flying figure now far away on the +road. In an instant he sprang to the saddle. I needed no whip, no spur, +for I was as eager as my rider. He saw it; and giving me a free rein, and +leaning a little forward, we dashed after them. + +For about a mile and a half the road ran straight, then bent to the right; +after this it divided into two roads. Long before we came to the bend my +mistress was out of sight. Which way had she turned? A woman was standing +at her garden gate, shading her eyes with her hand, and looking eagerly up +the road. Scarcely drawing rein, Lord Blantyre shouted, "Which way?" "To +the right!" cried the woman, pointing with her hand, and away we went up +the right-hand road. For a moment we caught sight of Lady Anne; another +bend, and she was hidden again. Several times we caught glimpses of the +flying rider, only to lose her again. We scarcely seemed to gain ground +upon her at all. + +An old road mender was standing near a heap of stones, his shovel dropped +and his hands raised. As we came near he made a sign to speak. Lord +Blantyre drew the rein a little. "To the common, to the common, sir! She +has turned off there." + +I knew this common very well. It was, for the most part, very uneven +ground, covered with heather and dark-green bushes, with here and there a +scrubby thorn tree. There were also open spaces of fine, short grass, with +ant-hills and mole turns everywhere--the worst place I ever knew for a +headlong gallop. + +We had just turned on to the common, when we caught sight again of the +green habit flying on before us. My mistress's hat was gone, and her long +brown hair was streaming behind her. Her head and body were thrown back, +as if she were pulling with all her remaining strength, and as if that +strength were nearly exhausted. It was clear that the roughness of the +ground had very much lessened Lizzie's speed, and there seemed a chance +that we might overtake her. + +While we were on the highroad, Lord Blantyre had given me my head; but +now, with a light hand and a practiced eye, he guided me over the ground +in such a masterly manner that my pace was scarcely slackened, and we +gained on them every moment. + +About halfway across the common a wide dike had recently been cut and the +earth from the cutting cast up roughly on the other side. Surely this +would stop them! But no; scarcely pausing, Lizzie took the leap, stumbled +among the rough clods, and fell. + +--Anne Sewell: _Black Beauty_. + + ++Theme XXIII.+--_Write a brief narrative giving unity to the paragraphs by +means of the time relations._ + + +Suggested subjects:-- + + 1. An adventure on horseback. + 2. A trip with the engineer. + 3. A day on the river. + 4. Fido's mishaps. + 5. An inquisitive crow. + 6. The unfortunate letter carrier. + 7. Teaching a calf to drink. + 8. The story of a silver dollar. + 9. A narrow escape. + 10.An afternoon at the circus. + 11.A story accounting for the situation shown in the + picture on page 90. + + +(Do you need more than one paragraph? If so, is each a group of sentences +treating of a single topic? Can the reader follow the thread of your +story? Leave out details not essential to the main point.) + + ++47. Order of Details Determined by Position in Space.+--The order of +presentation of details may be determined by the position that the details +themselves occupy in space. In description we wish both to give a correct +general impression of the thing described, and to make certain details +clear. The general impression should be given in the first sentence or two +and the details should follow. The effectiveness of the details will +depend upon their order of presentation. When one looks at a scene the eye +passes from one object to another near it; similarly when one is recalling +the scene the image of one thing naturally recalls that of an adjoining +one. A skillful writer takes advantage of this habit of thinking, and +states the details in his description in the order in which we would +naturally see them if we were actually looking at them. By so doing he +most easily presents to our minds the image he wishes to convey. + +[Illustration] + +In the following paragraphs notice that we get first an impression of the +general appearance, to which we are enabled to add new details as the +description proceeds. + + +The companion of the church dignitary was a man past forty, thin, strong, +tall, and muscular; an athletic figure, which long fatigue and constant +exercise seemed to have left none of the softer part of the human form, +having reduced the whole to brawn, bones, and sinews, which had sustained +a thousand toils, and were ready to dare a thousand more. His head was +covered with a scarlet cap, faced with fur, of that kind which the French +call _mortier_, from its resemblance to the shape of an inverted mortar. +His countenance was therefore fully displayed, and its expression was +calculated to impress a degree of awe, if not of fear, upon strangers. +High features, naturally strong and powerfully expressive, had been burnt +almost into negro blackness by constant exposure to the tropical sun, and +might, in their ordinary state, be said to slumber after the storm of +passion had passed away; but the projection of the veins of the forehead, +the readiness with which the upper lip and its thick black mustache +quivered upon the slightest emotion, plainly intimated that the tempest +might be again and easily awakened. His keen, piercing, dark eyes told in +every glance a history of difficulties subdued and dangers dared, and +seemed to challenge opposition to his wishes, for the pleasure of sweeping +it from his road by a determined exertion of courage and of will; a deep +scar on his brow gave additional sternness to his countenance and a +sinister expression to one of his eyes, which had been slightly injured on +the same occasion, and of which the vision, though perfect, was in a slight +and partial degree distorted. + +The upper dress of this personage resembled that of his companion in +shape, being a long monastic mantle; but the color, being scarlet, showed +that he did not belong to any of the four regular orders of monks. On the +right shoulder of the mantle there was cut, in white cloth, a cross of a +peculiar form. This upper robe concealed what at first view seemed rather +inconsistent with its form, a shirt, namely, of linked mail, with sleeves +and gloves of the same, curiously plaited and interwoven, as flexible to +the body as those which are now wrought in the stocking loom out of less +obdurate materials. The fore part of his thighs, where the folds of his +mantle permitted them to be seen, were also covered with linked mail; the +knees and feet were defended by splints, or thin plates of steel, +ingeniously jointed upon each other; and mail hose, reaching from the +ankle to the knee, effectually protected the legs, and completed the +rider's defensive armor. In his girdle he wore a long and double-edged +dagger, which was the only offensive weapon about his person. + +He rode, not a mule, like his companion, but a strong hackney for the +road, to save his gallant war horse, which a squire led behind, fully +accoutered for battle, with a chamfron or plaited headpiece upon his head, +having a short spike projecting from the front. On one side of the saddle +hung a short battle-ax, richly inlaid with Damascene carving; on the other +the rider's plumed headpiece and hood of mail, with a long two-handed +sword, used by the chivalry of the period. A second squire held aloft his +master's lance, from the extremity of which fluttered a small banderole, +or streamer, bearing a cross of the same form with that embroidered upon +his cloak. He also carried his small triangular shield, broad enough at +the top to protect the breast, and from thence diminishing to a point. It +was covered with a scarlet cloth, which prevented the device from being +seen. + +--Scott: _Ivanhoe_. + + +Notice also how the description proceeds in an orderly way from one thing +to another, placing together in the description those which occur together +in the person described. Just as we turn our eyes naturally from one thing +to another near it in space, so in a paragraph should our attention be +called from one thing to that which naturally accompanies it. If the first +sentence describes a man's eyes, the second his feet, and a third his +forehead, our mental image is likely to become confused. If a description +covers several paragraphs, each may be given a unity by placing in it +those things which are associated in space. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ If you were to write three paragraphs describing a man, which of the +following details should be included in each paragraph? + +(_a_) eyes, (_b_) shoes, (_c_) size, (_d_) complexion, (_e_) general +appearance, (_f_) hair, (_g_) carriage, (_h_) trousers,(_i_) mouth, (_j_) +coat, (_k_) nose. + + +_B._ Make a list of the details which might be mentioned in describing the +outside of a church. Arrange them in appropriate groups. + + +_C._ In the following paragraphs which sentences give the general outline +and which give details? Are the details arranged with reference to their +position in space? Can the paragraph be improved by rearranging them? + + +1. We came finally to a brook more wild and mysterious than the others. +There were a half dozen stepping-stones between the path we were on and +the place where it began again on the opposite side. After a few missteps +and much laughter we were landed at last, but several of the party had wet +feet to remember the experience by. We found ourselves in a space that had +once been a clearing. A tumbledown chimney overgrown with brambles and +vines told of an abandoned hearthstone. The blackened remnants of many a +picnic camp fire strewed the ground. A slight turn brought us to the spot +where the Indian Spring welled out of the hillside. The setting was all +that we could have hoped for,--great moss-grown rocks wet and slippery, +deep shade which almost made us doubt the existence of the hot August +sunshine at the edge of the forest, cool water dripping and tinkling. A +half-dozen great trees had been so undermined by the action of the water +long ago that they had tumbled headlong into the stream bed. There they +lay, heads down, crisscross--one completely spanning the brook just below +the spring--their tangled roots like great dragons twisting and thrusting +at the shadows. The water trickled slowly over the smooth rocky bottom as +if reluctant to leave a spot enchanted. A few yards below, the overflow +from Indian Spring joined the main stream, and their waters mingled in a +pretty little cataract. We went below and looked back at it. How it +wrinkled and paused over the level spaces, played with the bubbles in the +eddies, and ran laughing and turning somersaults wherever the ledges were +abrupt. + +--Mary Rodgers Miller: _The Brook Book_. (Copyright, 1902, by Doubleday, +Page & Co.) + + +2. Rowena was tall in stature, yet not so much so as to attract +observation on account of superior height. Her complexion was exquisitely +fair, but the noble cast of her head and features prevented the insipidity +which sometimes attaches to fair beauties. Her clear blue eyes, which sat +enshrined beneath a graceful eyebrow of brown, sufficiently marked to give +expression to the forehead, seemed capable to kindle as well as to melt, +to command as well as to beseech. Her profuse hair, of a color betwixt +brown and flaxen, was arranged in a fanciful and graceful manner in +numerous ringlets, to form which art had probably been aided by nature. +These locks were braided with gems, and being worn at full length, +intimated the noble birth and free-born condition of the maiden. A golden +chain, to which was attached a small reliquary of the same metal, hung +around her neck. She wore bracelets on her arms, which were bare. Her +dress was an under gown and kirtle of pale sea-green silk, over which hung +a long loose robe, which reached to the ground, having very wide sleeves, +which came down, however, very little below the elbow. This robe was +crimson, and manufactured out of the very finest wool. A veil of silk, +interwoven with gold, was attached to the upper part of it, which could +be, at the wearer's pleasure, either drawn over the face and bosom after +the Spanish fashion, or disposed as a sort of drapery round the shoulders. + +--Scott: _Ivanhoe_. + + ++Theme XXIV.+--_Write a paragraph and arrange the details with reference +to their association in space._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + + 1. Ichabod Crane. + 2. Rip Van Winkle. + 3. The man who lives near us. + 4. A minister I met yesterday. + 5. Our family doctor. + 6. The gymnasium. + 7. A fire engine. + 8. The old church. + 9. The shoe factory. + 10. Some character in the book you are reading. + + +(Which sentence gives the general impression and which sentences give the +details? Are the details arranged with reference to their real space +order? Should others be added? Can any be omitted? Will the reader form +the mental image you wish him to form?) + + ++48. Development by Comparison.+--In Section 29 we found that comparison, +whether literal or figurative, aided us in forming mental images of +objects. In a similar way events and general principles may be explained +by making suitable comparisons. We are continually comparing one thing +with another. Every idea tends to recall other ideas that are similar to +it or in contrast with it. When an unfamiliar idea is presented to us we +at once seek to associate it with similar ideas already known to us. A +writer, therefore, will make his meaning clear by furnishing, the desired +comparisons. If these are familiar to us, they enable us to understand +the new ideas presented. Even when both ideas in the comparison are +unfamiliar, each may gain in clearness by comparison with the other. + +In comparing two objects, events, or principles we may point out that they +are _not_ alike in certain respects. A comparison that thus emphasizes +differences, rather than likenesses, becomes a contrast. The contrast may +be given in a single sentence or in a single paragraph, but often a +paragraph or more may be required for each of the two ideas contrasted. + + +EXERCISE + + +Notice how comparisons and contrasts are used in the following +paragraphs:-- + + +1. Niagara is the largest cataract in the world, while Yosemite is the +highest; it is the volume that impresses you at Niagara, and it is the +height of Yosemite and the grand surroundings that make its beauty. +Niagara is as wide as Yosemite is high, and if it had no more water than +Yosemite has, it would not be of much consequence. The sound of the two +falls is quite different: Niagara makes a steady roar, deep and strong, +though not oppressive, while Yosemite is a crash and rattle, owing to the +force of the water as it strikes the solid rock after its immense leap. + +2. It is not only in appearance that London and New York differ widely. +They also speak with different accents, for cities have distinctive +accents as well as people. Tennyson wrote about "streaming London's +central roar"; the roar is a gentle hum compared with the din which +tingles the ears of visitors to New York. The accent of New York is harsh, +grating, jarring. The rattle of the elevated railroad, the whir of the +cable cars, the ringing of electric-car bells, the rumble of vehicles over +the hard stones, the roar of the traffic as it reëchoes through the narrow +canyons of down-town streets, produce an appalling combination of +discords. The streets of New York are not more crowded than those of +London, but the noise in London is subdued. It is more regular, less +jarring and piercing. The muffled sounds in London are due partly to the +wooden and asphalt pavements, which deaden the sounds. London must be +soothing to the New Yorker, as the noise of New York is at first +disconcerting to the Londoner.--_Outlook._ + +3. Now their separate characters are briefly these. The man's power is +active, progressive, defensive. He is eminently the doer, the creator, the +discoverer, the defender. His intellect is for speculation and invention; +his energy for adventure, for war, and for conquest wherever war is just, +wherever conquest necessary. But the woman's power is for rule, not for +battle, and her intellect is not for invention or creation, but for sweet +ordering, arrangement, and decision. She sees the qualities of things, +their claims, and their places. + +--Ruskin: _Sesame and Lilies_. + + ++Theme XXV.+--_Write a paragraph using comparison or contrast._ + + +Suggested topics:-- + + 1. The school, a beehive. + 2. The body, a steam engine. + 3. Two generals about whom you have read. + 4. Girls, boys. + 5. Two of your studies. + 6. Graded school work, high school work. + 7. Animal life, plant life. + 8. Two of your classmates. + + +(Have you used comparison or contrast? Have you introduced any of the +other methods of development? Have you developed the paragraph so that the +reader will understand fully your topic statement? Omit sentences not +really needed.) + + ++49. Development by Stating Cause and Effect.+--We are better satisfied +with our understanding of a thing if we know the causes which have +produced it or the effects which follow it. Likewise we feel that another +has mastered the topic statement of a paragraph if he can answer the +question, Why is this so? or, What will result from this? When either is +stated, we naturally begin to think about the other. The idea of a topic +statement may, therefore, be satisfactorily developed by stating its +causes or its effects. A cause may be stated and the effects given or the +effects may be made the topic statement for which we account by giving its +causes. + +The importance of the relation of cause and effect to scientific study is +discussed in the following paragraph from Mill:-- + + +The relation of cause and effect is the fundamental law of nature. There +is no recorded instance of an effect appearing without a previous cause, +or of a cause acting without producing its full effect. Every change in +nature is the effect of some previous change and the cause of some change +to follow; just as the movement of each carriage near the middle of a long +train is a result of the movement of the one in front and a precursor +of the movement of the one behind. Facts or effects are to be seen +everywhere, but causes have usually to be sought for. It is the function +of science or organized knowledge to observe all effects, or phenomena, +and to seek for their causes. This twofold purpose gives richness and +dignity to science. The observation and classifying of facts soon become +wearisome to all but the specialist actually engaged in the work. But when +reasons are assigned, and classification explained, when the number of +causes is reduced and the effects begin to crystallize into essential and +clearly related parts of one whole, every intelligent student finds +interest, and many, more fortunate, even fascination in the study. + +--Mill: _The Realm of Nature_. (Copyright, 1892, by Charles Scribner's +Sons.) + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ In your reading, notice how often the effects are indicated by the +use of some one of the following expressions: _as a result, accordingly, +consequently, for, hence, so, so that, thus._ + +_B._ Which sentences state causes and which state effects in the following +paragraphs? + + +1. The power of water to dissolve most minerals increases with its +temperature and the amount of gases it contains. Percolating water at +great depths, therefore, generally dissolves more mineral matter than it +can hold in solution when it reaches the surface, where it cools, and, +being relieved of pressure, much of its carbonic acid gas escapes to the +atmosphere or is absorbed by aquatic plants or mosses. Hence, deep-seated +springs are usually surrounded by a deposit of the minerals with which the +water is impregnated. Sometimes this deposit may even form large hills; +sometimes it forms a mound around the spring, over the sides of which the +water falls, while the spray, evaporating from surrounding objects, leaves +them also incrusted with a mineral deposit. Percolating water evaporating +on the sides and roof of limestone caverns, leaves the walls incrusted +with carbonate of lime in beautiful masses of crystals. Water slowly +evaporating as it drips from the roof of caverns to the floor beneath +leaves a deposit on both places, which gradually grows downward from the +roof as a _stalactite_, and upward from the floor as a _stalagmite_, until +these meet and form one continuous column of stone. + +--Hinman: _Eclectic Physical Geography_. + + +2. The frequent use of cigars or cigarettes by the young seriously affects +the quality of the blood. The red blood corpuscles are not fully developed +and charged with their normal supply of life-giving oxygen. This causes +paleness of the skin, often noticed in the face of the young smoker. +Palpitation of the heart is also a common result, followed by permanent +weakness, so that the whole system is enfeebled, and mental vigor is +impaired as well as physical strength. Observant teachers can usually tell +which of the boys under their care are addicted to smoking, simply by the +comparative inferiority of their appearance, and by their intellectual and +bodily indolence and feebleness. After full maturity is attained the evil +effects of commencing the use of tobacco are less apparent; but competent +physicians assert that it cannot be safely used by those under the age of +forty. + +--Macy-Norris: _Physiology for High Schools_. + + +3. In many other ways, too, the Norman Conquest affected England. For +example, before long all the best places in the Church were filled with +foreigners. But most of the new bishops and abbots were far superior in +morals and education to the Englishmen whom they succeeded. They were also +devoted to the Pope of Rome, and soon made the English National Church a +part of the Roman Catholic Church. But William, while willing to bow to +the Pope as his chief in religious matters, refused to give way to him in +things which concerned only this world. No former English king had done +that, he knew, and no more would he. This union with the Roman Catholic +Church was of the greatest benefit to England, as it brought her once more +into connection with the educated men of Europe. Indeed, Lanfranc, the +Conqueror's Archbishop of Canterbury, was one of the best and wisest men +of his day. + +--Higginson and Channing: _English History for American Readers_. + + ++Theme XXVI.+--_Develop one of the following topic statements into +paragraphs by stating causes or effects:_-- + +1. A government which had no soldiers to call upon in an emergency would +not last long. + +2. One of the first needs of a new country is roads. + +3. The number of people receiving public support is smaller in this +country than in Europe. + +4. An efficient postal system is a great aid to civilization. + +5. A straight stream is an impossibility in nature. + +6. Mountain ranges have great influence upon climate. + +7. The United States holds first place as a manufacturing nation. + +8. There are many swift rivers in New England. + +9. Towns or cities are located at the mouths of navigable rivers. + + +(Which sentences state causes and which state effects? Would the effects +which you have stated really follow the given causes?) + + ++50. Development by Repetition.+--The repetition of a thought in different +form will often make plain that which we do not at first understand. This +is especially true if the repetitions are accompanied by new comparisons. +In every school the teacher makes daily use of repetition in her efforts +to explain to the pupils that which they do not understand. In a similar +way a writer makes use of this tendency of ours, and develops the idea of +the topic sentence by repetition. Each sentence should, however, do more +than merely repeat. It should add something to the central idea, making +this idea clearer, more definite, or more emphatic. If repetition is +excessive and purposeless, it becomes a fault. + +Repetition may extend through the whole paragraph, or it may be used to +explain any sentence or any part of a sentence. It may tell what the thing +is or what it is not, and in effect becomes a definition setting limits to +the original idea. + + +EXERCISE + + +Notice how the idea in the topic statement of each of the following +paragraphs is repeated in those which follow:-- + + +1. No man ever made a complete new system of law and gave it to a people. +No monarch, however absolute or powerful, ever had the power to change the +habits of a people to that extent. Revolution generally means, not a +change of law, but merely a change of government officials; even when it +is a change from monarchy to democracy. Our Revolution made practically no +changes in the criminal and civil laws of the colonies. + +--Clark: _The Government_. + + +2. People talk of liberty as if it meant the liberty to do just what a man +likes. I call that man free who fears doing wrong, but fears nothing else. +I call that man free who has learned the most blessed of all truths,--that +liberty consists in obedience to the power, and to the will, and to the +law that his higher soul reverences and approves. He is not free because +he does what he likes; but he is free because he does what he ought, and +there is no protest in his soul against the doing. + +--Frederick William Robertson. + + +3. This dense forest was to the Indians a home in which they had lived +from childhood, and where they were as much at ease as a farmer on his own +acres. To their keen eyes, trained for generations to more than a wild +beast's watchfulness, the wilderness was an open book. Nothing at rest or +in motion escaped them. They had begun to track game as soon as they could +walk; a scrape on a tree trunk, a bruised leaf, a faint indentation of the +soil, which no white man could see, all told them a tale as plainly as if +it had been shouted in their ears. + +--Theodore Roosevelt: _The Winning of the West_. + + +4. Public enterprises, whether conducted by the municipality or committed +to the public service corporation, exist to render public services. +Streets are public highways. They exist for the people's use. Nothing +should be placed in them unless required to facilitate their use by or for +the people. Only the general need of water, gas, electricity, and +transportation justifies the placing of pipes and wires and tracks in the +streets. The public need is the sole test and measure of such occupation. +To look upon the streets as a source of private gain, or even municipal +revenue, except as incidents of their public use, is to disregard their +public character. Adequate service at the lowest practicable rates, not +gain or revenue, is the test. The question is, not how much the public +service corporation may gain, but what can be saved to the people by its +employment. + +--Edwin Burrett Smith: _The Next Step in Municipal Reform_ +("Atlantic Monthly"). + + ++Theme XXVII.+--_Develop one of the following topic statements into a +paragraph, using the method, of repetition as far as possible:_-- + +1. It is difficult to become angry with one who is always good-natured. + +2. It is gloomy in the woods on a rainy day. + +3. The government is always in need of honest men. + +4. Rural free delivery of mail will have a great effect on country life. + +5. Not every boy in school uses his time to the best advantage. + +6. Haste is waste. + +7. Regular exercise is one of the essentials of good health. + + +(Have the repetitions really made the idea of the topic sentence clearer +or more emphatic or more definite? What other methods of development have +you used?) + + ++51. Development by a Combination of Methods.+--A paragraph should have +unity of thought, and, so long as this unity of thought is kept, it does +not matter what methods of development are used. A dozen paragraphs taken +at random will show that combinations are very frequent. Often it will be +difficult to determine just how a paragraph has been developed. In +general, however, it may be said that an indiscriminate mixture of methods +is confusing and interferes with unity of thought. If more than one is +used, it requires skillful handling to maintain such a relation between +them that both contribute to the clear and emphatic statement of the main +thought. + +The paragraph from Dryer, page 74, shows a combination of cause and effect +with specific illustrations; that from Wolstan Dixey, page 81, shows a +combination of repetition with specific instances. + + +EXERCISES + + +What methods of paragraph development, or what combinations of methods, +are used in the following selections? + + +1. I believe the first test of a truly great man is his humility. I do not +mean, by humility, doubt of his power, or hesitation in speaking of his +opinions; but a right understanding of the relation between what he can do +and say and the rest of the world's sayings and doings. All great men not +only know their business, but usually know that they know it; and are not +only right in their main opinions, but they usually know that they are +right in them; only they do not think much of themselves on that account. +Arnolfo knows he can build a good dome at Florence; Albert Dürer writes +calmly to one who had found fault with his work, "It cannot be better +done"; Sir Isaac Newton knows that he has worked out a problem or two +that would have puzzled anybody else; only they do not expect their +fellow-men therefore to fall down and worship them; they have a curious +undersense of powerlessness, feeling that the greatness is not _in_ them, +but _through_ them; that they could not do or be anything else than God +made them. And they see something divine and God-made in every other man +they meet, and are endlessly, foolishly, and incredibly merciful. + +--Ruskin. + + +2. The first thing to be noted about the dress of the Romans is that its +prevalent material was always woolen. Sheep raising for wool was practiced +among them on an extensive scale, from the earliest historic times, and +the choice breeds of that animal, originally imported from Greece or Asia +Minor, took so kindly to the soil and climate of Italy that home-grown +wool came even to be preferred to the foreign for fineness and softness of +quality. Foreign wools were, however, always imported more or less, partly +because the supply of native wools seems never to have been quite +sufficient, partly because the natural colors of wools from different +parts varied so considerably as to render the art of the dyer to some +extent unnecessary. Thus, the wools of Canusium were brown or reddish, +those of Pollentia in Liguria were black, those from the Spanish Baetica, +which comprised Andalusia and a part of Granada, had either a golden brown +or a grayish hue; the wools of Asia were almost red; and there was a +Grecian fleece, called the crow colored, of which the natural tint was a +peculiarly deep and brilliant black. + +--Preston and Dodge: _'The Private Life of the Romans_. + + +3. Art has done everything for Munich. It lies on a large flat plain +sixteen hundred feet above the sea and continually exposed to the cold +winds from the Alps. At the beginning of the present century it was but a +third-rate city, and was rarely visited by foreigners; since that time its +population and limits have been doubled, and magnificent edifices in every +style of architecture erected, rendering it scarcely secondary in this +respect to any capital in Europe. Every art that wealth or taste could +devise seems to have been spent in its decoration. Broad, spacious streets +and squares have been laid out; churches, halls, and colleges erected, and +schools of painting and sculpture established which drew artists from all +parts of the world. + +--Taylor: _Views Afoot_. + + +4. In all excursions to the woods or to the shore the student of +ornithology has an advantage over his companions. He has one more, avenue +of delight. He, indeed, kills two birds with one stone and sometimes +three. If others wander, he can never get out of his way. His game is +everywhere. The cawing of a crow makes him feel at home, while a new note +or a new song drowns all care. Audubon, on the desolate coast of Labrador, +is happier than any king ever was; and on shipboard is nearly cured of his +seasickness when a new gull appears in sight. + +--Burroughs: _Wake Robin_. + + ++Theme XXVIII.+--_Write a paragraph, using any method or combination of +methods which best suits your thought. Use any of the subjects hitherto +suggested that you have not already used._ + + +(Is every sentence related to the topic statement so that your paragraph +possesses unity? What methods of development have you used?) + + ++52. The Topical Recitation.+--In conducting a recitation the teacher may +ask direct questions about each part of a paragraph or she may ask a pupil +to discuss some topic. Such a topical recitation should be an exercise in +clear thinking rather than in word memory, and in order to prepare for it, +the pupil should have made a careful analysis of the thought in each +paragraph similar to that discussed on page 74. When this analysis has +been made he will have clearly in mind the topic statement and the way it +has been developed, and will be able to distinguish the essential from the +non-essential elements. + +A topical recitation demands that the pupil know the main idea and be able +to develop it in one of the following methods, or by a combination of +them: (1) by giving specific instances, (2) by giving details, (3) by +giving comparisons or contrasts, (4) by giving causes or effects, and (5) +by repetition. + +Thoughts so mastered are our own. We understand them and believe them; and +consequently we can explain them, or describe them, or prove them to +others. We can furnish details or instances, originate comparisons, or +state causes and effects. _When ideas gained from language have thus +become our own, we do not need to remember the language in which they were +expressed, and not until then do they become proper material for +composition purposes._ + + ++53. Outlining Paragraphs.+--Making an outline of a paragraph that we have +read brings the thought clearly before our mind. In a similar way we may +make our own thoughts clear and definite by attempting to prepare in +advance an outline of a paragraph that we are about to write. Arranging +the material that we have in mind and deciding upon the order in which we +shall present it, will both help us to understand the thought ourselves, +and enable us to present it more effectively to others. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Prepare for recitation the following selection from Newcomer's +introduction to Macaulay's _Milton and Addison:_-- + + +There were two faculties of Macaulay's mind that set his work far apart +from other work in the same field,--the faculties of organization and +illustration. He saw things in their right relation and he knew how to +make others see them thus. If he was describing, he never thrust minor +details into the foreground. If he was narrating, he never "got ahead of +his story." The importance of this is not sufficiently recognized. Many +writers do not know what organization means. They do not know that in all +great and successful literary work it is nine tenths of the labor. Yet +consider a moment. History is a very complex thing: divers events may be +simultaneous in their occurrence; or one crisis may be slowly evolving +from many causes in many places. It is no light task to tell these things +one after another and yet leave a unified impression, to take up a dozen +new threads in succession without tangling them and without losing the old +ones, and to lay them all down at the right moment and without confusion. +Such is the narrator's task, and it was at this task that Macaulay proved +himself a past master. He could dispose of a number of trivial events in a +single sentence. Thus, for example, runs his account of the dramatist +Wycherley's naval career: "He embarked, was present at a battle, and +celebrated it, on his return, in a copy of verses too bad for the +bellman." On the other hand, when it is a question of a great crisis, like +the impeachment of Warren Hastings, he knew how to prepare for it with +elaborate ceremony and to portray it in a scene of the highest dramatic +power. + +This faculty of organization shows itself in what we technically name +structure; and logical and rhetorical structure may be studied at their +very best in his work. His essays are perfect units, made up of many +parts, systems within systems, that play together without clog or +friction. You can take them apart like a watch and put them together +again. But try to rearrange the parts and the mechanism is spoiled. Each +essay has its subdivisions, which in turn are groups of paragraphs. And +each paragraph is a unit. Take the first paragraph of the essay on Milton: +the word _manuscript_ appears in the first sentence, and it reappears in +the last; clearly the paragraph deals with a single very definite topic. +And so with all. Of course the unity manifests itself in a hundred ways, +but it is rarely wanting. Most frequently it takes the form of an +expansion of a topic given in the first sentence, or a preparation for a +topic to be announced only in the last. These initial and final sentences-- +often in themselves both aphoristic and memorable--serve to mark with the +utmost clearness the different stages in the progress of the essay. + +Illustration is of more incidental service, but as used by Macaulay +becomes highly organic. For his illustrations are not farfetched or +laboriously worked out. They seem to be of one piece with his story or his +argument. His mind was quick to detect resemblances and analogies. He was +ready with a comparison for everything, sometimes with half a dozen. For +example, Addison's essays, he has occasion to say, were different every +day of the week, and yet, to his mind, each day like something--like +Horace, like Lucian, like the "Tales of Scheherezade." He draws long +comparisons between Walpole and Townshend, between Congreve and Wycherley, +between Essex and Villiers, between the fall of the Carlovingians and the +fall of the Moguls. He follows up a general statement with swarms of +instances. Have historians been given to exaggerating the villainy of +Machiavelli? Macaulay can name you half a dozen who did so. Did the +writers of Charles's faction delight in making their opponents appear +contemptible? "They have told us that Pym broke down in a speech, that +Ireton had his nose pulled by Hollis, that the Earl of Northumberland +cudgeled Henry Marten, that St. John's manners were sullen, that Vane had +an ugly face, that Cromwell had a red nose." Do men fail when they quit +their own province for another? Newton failed thus; Bentley failed; Inigo +Jones failed; Wilkie failed. In the same way he was ready with quotations. +He writes in one of his letters: "It is a dangerous thing for a man with a +very strong memory to read very much. I could give you three or four +quotations this moment in support of that proposition; but I will bring +the vicious propensity under subjection, if I can." Thus we see his mind +doing instantly and involuntarily what other minds do with infinite pains, +bringing together all things that have a likeness or a common bearing. + +It is precisely these talents that set Macaulay among the simplest and +clearest of writers, and that accounts for much of his popularity. People +found that in taking up one of his articles they simply read on and on, +never puzzling over the meaning of a sentence, getting the exact force of +every statement, and following the trend of thought with scarcely a mental +effort. And his natural gift of making things plain he took pains to +support by various devices. He constructed his sentences after the +simplest normal fashion, subject and verb and object, sometimes inverting +for emphasis, but rarely complicating, and always reducing expression to +the barest terms. He could write, for example, "One advantage the chaplain +had," but it is impossible to conceive of his writing, "Now, amid all the +discomforts and disadvantages with which the unfortunate chaplain was +surrounded, there was one thing which served to offset them, and which, if +he chose to take the opportunity of enjoying it, might well be regarded as +a positive advantage." One will search his pages in vain for loose, +trailing clauses and involved constructions. His vocabulary was of the +same simple nature. He had a complete command of ordinary English and +contented himself with that. He rarely ventured beyond the most abridged +dictionary. An occasional technical term might be required, but he was shy +of the unfamiliar. He would coin no words and he would use no archaisms. +Foreign words, when fairly naturalized, he employed sparingly. "We shall +have no disputes about diction," he wrote to Napier, Jeffrey's successor; +"the English language is not so poor but that I may very well find in it +the means of contenting both you and myself." + + +_B._ Recite upon some topic taken from your other lessons for the day. Let +the class tell what method of development you have used. + + +_C._ Make a collection of well-written paragraphs illustrating each of the +methods of development. + + ++Theme XXIX.+--_Write two paragraphs using the same topic statement, but +developing each by a different method._ + +Suggested topic statements:-- + +1. The principal tools of government are buildings, guns, and money. + +2. The civilized world was never so orderly as now. + +3. Law suits take time, especially in cities; sometimes they take years. + +4. There is a difference between law and justice. + +5. We cry for a multitude of reasons of surprising variety. + +6. In the growth of a child nothing is more surprising than his ceaseless +activity. + +7. Education for the children of a nation is a benefit to the whole +nation. + + +(Have you said what you intended to say? What methods of development have +you used? Is the main thought of the two paragraphs the same even though +they begin with the same sentence?) + + +SUMMARY + + +1. Language is (1) a means of expressing ideas, and (2) a medium through + which ideas are acquired. + +2. The acquisition of ideas by means of language requires:-- + _a._ That we know the meanings of words, and so avoid forming + incomplete images (Section 27) and incomplete thoughts (Section + 33). + _b._ That we understand the relations in thought existing among words, + phrases, clauses, sentences, and paragraphs (Section 32). + +3. Ideas acquired through language may be used for composition purposes-- + _a._ Provided we form complete and accurate images and do not confuse + the image with the language that suggested it (Section 28). + _b._ Provided we make the main thoughts so thoroughly our own that we + can furnish details and instances, originate comparisons, or + state causes and effects, and thus become able to describe them + or explain them, or prove them to others (Section 52). + Until both _a_ and _b_ as stated above are done, ideas acquired + through language are undesirable for composition purposes. + +4. Comparisons aid in the forming of correct images. They may be literal + or imaginative. If imaginative, they become figures of speech. + +5. Figures of speech. (Complete list in the Appendix.) + _a._ A simile is a direct comparison. + _b._ A metaphor is an implied comparison. + _c._ Personification is a modified metaphor, assigning human + attributes to objects, abstract ideas, or the lower animals. + +6. Suggestions as to the use of figures of speech. + _a._ Never write for the purpose of using them. + _b._ They should be appropriate to the subject. + _c._ One of the two things compared must be familiar to the reader. + _d._ Avoid hackneyed figures. + _e._ Avoid long figures. + _f._ Avoid mixed metaphors. + +7. Choice of words. + _a._ Use words presumably familiar to the reader. + _b._ Use words that express your exact meaning. Do not confuse similar + words. + _e._ Avoid the frequent use of the same word (Section 17). + +8. Ambiguity of thought must be avoided. Care must be exercised in the + use of the forms which show relations in thought between sentences, + especially with pronouns and pronominal adjectives (Section 36). + +9. A paragraph is a group of sentences related to each other and to one + central idea. +10. The topic statement of a paragraph is a brief comprehensive summary of + the contents of the paragraph. + +11. Methods of paragraph development. A paragraph may be developed-- + _a._ By giving specific instances (Section 44). + _b._ By giving details (Section 45). The order in which the details + are told may be determined by-- + (1) The order of their occurrence in time (Section 46). + (2) Their position in space (Section 47). + _c._ By comparison or contrast (Section 48). + _d._ By stating cause and effect (Section 49). + _e._ By repetition (Section 50). + _f._ By any suitable combination of the methods stated above. + +12. The topical recitation demands-- + _a._ That the pupil get the central idea of the paragraph and be able + to make the topic statement. + _b._ That he be able to determine the relative importance of the + remaining ideas in the paragraph. + _c._ That he know by which of the five methods named above the + paragraph has been developed. + _d._ That he be able to furnish details, instances, and comparisons of + his own. (See Sections 37, 38, 39, 52, 53.) + + + +IV. THE PURPOSE OF EXPRESSION + + ++54. Kinds of Composition.+--When considered with reference to the +purpose in the mind of the writer, there are two general classes of +writing,--that which informs, and that which entertains. The language that +we use should make our meaning clear, arouse interest, and give vividness. +Writing that informs will lay greatest emphasis on clearness, though it +may at the same time be interesting and vivid. We do not add to the value +of an explanation by making it dull. On the other hand, writing that +entertains, though it must be clear, will lay greater emphasis on interest +and vividness. That language is best which combines all three of these +characteristics. The writer's purpose will determine to which the emphasis +shall be given. + +Composition is also divided into description, narration, exposition, and +argument (including persuasion). These are called forms of discourse. It +will be found that this division is also based upon the purpose for which +the composition is written. You have occasion to use each of these forms +of discourse daily; you describe, you narrate, you explain, you argue, you +persuade. You have used language for these purposes from your infancy, and +you are now studying composition in order to acquire facility and +effectiveness in that use. When this chapter is completed, you will have +considered each of the four forms of discourse in an elementary way. A +more extended treatment is given in later chapters. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ To which of the two general classes of composition would each of the +following belong? + + +1. A business letter. + +2. The story of a runaway. + +3. A description of a lake written by a geologist. + +4. A description of a lake written by a boy who was camping near it. + +5. A letter to a friend describing a trip. + +6. A text-book on algebra. + +7. An application for a position as stenographer. + +8. A recipe for making cake. + +9. How I made a cake. + +10. How to make a kite. + +11. A political speech. + +12. A debate. + + +_B._ Could a description be written for the purpose of entertaining? Could +the same object be described for the purpose of giving information? + +_C._ To which general class do narratives belong? Explanations? Arguments? + ++55. Discourse Presupposes an Audience.+--The object of composition is +communication, and communication is not concerned with one's self alone. +It always involves two,--the one who gives and the one who receives. If +its purpose is to inform, it must inform _somebody_; if to entertain, it +must entertain _somebody_. To be sure, discourse may be a pleasure to us, +because it is a means of self-expression, but it is _useful_ to us because +it conveys ideas to that other somebody who hears or reads it. We describe +in order that another may picture that which we have experienced; we +narrate, events for the entertainment of others; we explain to others that +which we understand; and we argue in order to prove to some one the truth +of a proposition or to persuade him to action. Thus all discourse, to be +useful, demands an audience. Its effective use requires that the writer +shall give quite as much attention to the way in which that reader will +receive his ideas as he gives to the ideas themselves. "Speaking or +writing is, therefore, a double-ended process. It springs from me, it +penetrates him; and both of these ends need watching. Is what I say +precisely what I mean? That is an important question. Is what I say so +shaped that it can readily be assimilated by him who hears? This is a +question of quite as great consequence and much more likely to be +forgotten.... As I write I must unceasingly study what is the line of +least intellectual resistance along which my thought may enter the +differently constituted mind; and to that line I must subtly adjust, +without enfeebling my meaning. Will this combination of words or that make +the meaning clear? Will this order of presentation facilitate swiftness of +apprehension or will it clog the movement?"[Footnote: Professor George +Herbert Palmer: _Self-cultivation in English_.] + +In the preceding chapters emphasis has been laid upon the care that a +writer must give to saying exactly what he means. This must never be +neglected, but we need to add to it a consideration of how best to adapt +what we say to the interest and intelligence of our readers. It will +become clear in writing the following theme that the discussion of +paragraph development in Chapter III was in reality a discussion of +methods of adapting our discourse to the mental habits of our readers. + + ++Theme XXX.+--_Write a theme showing which one of the five methods of +paragraph development proceeds most nearly in accordance with the way the +mind usually acts._ + +(This theme will furnish a review of the methods of paragraph development +treated in Chapter III. If possible, write your theme without consulting +the chapter. "Think it out" for yourself. After the theme has been +written, review paragraph development treated in Chapter III. Can you +improve your theme? What methods of development have you used?) + + ++56. Selecting a Subject.+--Sometimes our theme subjects are chosen for +us, but usually we shall need to choose our own subjects. What we should +choose depends both upon ourselves and upon those for whom we write. The +elements which make a subject suitable for the reader will be considered +later. In so far as the writer is concerned, two things determine the +suitableness of a subject:-- + +First, the writer's knowledge of the subject. We cannot make ideas clear +to others unless they are clear to us. Our information must be clearly and +definitely our own before we can hope to present it effectively. This is +one of the advantages possessed by subjects arising from experience. Any +subject about which we know little or nothing, should be rejected. We must +not, however, reject a subject too soon. When it is first thought of we +may find that we have but few ideas about it, but by thinking we may +discover that our information is greater than it at first seemed. We may +be able to assign reasons or to give instances or to originate comparisons +or to add details, and by these processes to amplify our knowledge. Even +if we find that we know but little about the subject from our own +experience, we may still be able to use it for a composition subject by +getting our information from others. We may from conversation or from +reading gain ideas that we can make our own and consequently be able to +write intelligently. Care must be taken that this "reading up" on a +subject does not fill our minds with smatterings of ideas that we think we +understand because we can remember the language in which they were +expressed; but reading, _supplemented by thinking_, may enable us to write +well about a subject concerning which on first thought we seem to know but +little. + +Second, the writer's interest in the subject. It will be found difficult +for the writer to present vividly a subject in which he himself has no +special interest. Enthusiasm is contagious, and if the writer has a real +interest in his subject, he is likely to present his material in such a +manner as to arouse interest in others. In our earlier years we are more +interested in the material presented by experience and imagination than in +that presented by reading, but as we grow older our interest in thoughts +conveyed to us by language increases. As we enlarge our knowledge of a +subject by reading and by conversation, so we are likely to increase our +interest in that subject. A boy may know but little about Napoleon, but +the effort to inform himself may cause him to become greatly interested. +This interest will lead him to a further search for information about +Napoleon, and will at the same time aid in making what he writes +entertaining to others. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ About which of the following subjects do you now possess a sufficient +knowledge to enable you to write a paragraph? In which of them are you +interested? Which would you need to "read up" about? + +1. Golf. +2. Examinations. +3. Warships. +4. Wireless telegraphy. +5. Radium. +6. Tennis. +7. Automobiles. +8. Picnics. +9. Printing. +10. Bees. +11. Birds. +12. Pyrography. +13. Photography. +14. Beavers. +15. Making calls. +16. Stamp collecting. +17. The manufacture of tacks. +18. The manufacture of cotton. +19. The smelting of zinc. +20. The silver-plating process. + + +_B._ Make a list of thirty things about which you know something. + + +_C._ Bring to class a list of five subjects in which you are interested. + + +_D._ Make a list of five subjects about which you now possess a sufficient +knowledge to enable you to write a paragraph. + + ++Theme XXXI.+--_Write a short theme: Select a suitable subject from the +lists in the preceding exercise._ + +(What method or methods of paragraph development have you used? Have your +paragraphs unity of thought?) + + ++57. Subject Adapted to Reader.+--We may be interested in a subject and +possess sufficient knowledge to enable us to treat it successfully, but it +may still be unsuitable because it is not adapted to the reader. Some +knowledge of a subject and some interest in it are quite as necessary on +the part of the reader as on that of the writer, though in the beginning +this knowledge and interest may be meager. The possibility of developing +both knowledge and interest must exist, however, or the writing will be a +failure. It would be difficult to make "Imperialism" interesting to third +grade pupils, or "Kant's Philosophy" to high school pupils. Even if you +know enough to write a valuable "Criticism" of _Silas Marner_, or a real +"Review" of the _Vicar of Wakefield_, the work is time wasted if your +readers do not have a breadth of knowledge sufficient to insure a vital +and appreciative interest in the subject. You must take care to select a +subject that is of present, vital interest to your readers. + + ++58. Sources of Subjects.+--Thought goes everywhere, and human interest +touches everything. The sources of subjects are therefore unlimited; for +anything about which we think and in which we are interested may become a +suitable subject for a paragraph, an essay, or a book. Such subjects are +everywhere--in what we see and do, in what we think and feel, in what we +hear and read. We relate to our parents what a neighbor said; we discuss +for the teacher an event in history, or a character in literature; we show +a companion how to make a kite or work a problem in algebra; we consider +the advantages of a commercial course or relate the pleasures of a day's +outing,--in each case we are interested, we think, we express our +thoughts, and so are practicing oral composition with _subjects that may +be used for written exercises_. + ++59. Subjects should be Definite.+--Both the writer and the reader are +more interested in definite and concrete subjects than in the general and +abstract ones, and we shall make our writing more interesting by +recognizing this fact. One might write about "Birds," or "The Intelligence +of Birds," or "How Birds Protect their Young," or "A Family of Robins." +The last is a specific subject, while the other three are general +subjects. Of these, the first includes more than the second; and the +second, more than the third. A person with sufficient knowledge might +write about any one of these general subjects, but it would be difficult +to give such a subject adequate treatment in a short theme. Though a +general subject may suggest more lines of thought, our knowledge about a +specific subject is less vague, and consequently more usable. We really +know more about the specific subject, and we have a greater interest in +it. The subject, "A Family of Robins," indicates that the writer knows +something interesting that he intends to tell. Such a subject compels +expectant attention from the reader and aids in arousing an appreciative +interest on his part. + +On first thought, it would seem easier to write about a general subject +than about a specific one, but this is not the case. A general subject +presents so many lines of thought that the writer is confused, rather than +aided, by the abundance of material. A skilled and experienced writer +possessing a large fund of information may treat general subjects +successfully, but for the beginner safety lies only in selecting definite +subjects and in keeping within the limits prescribed. The "Women of +Shakespeare" might be an interesting subject for a book by a Shakespearean +scholar, but it is scarcely suitable for a high school pupil's theme. + + ++60. Narrowing the Subject.+--It is often necessary to narrow a subject in +order to bring it within the range of the knowledge and interest of +ourselves and of our readers. A description of the transportation +of milk on the electric roads around Toledo would probably be more +interesting than an essay on "Freight Transportation by Electricity," or +on "Transportation." The purpose that the writer has in mind, and the +length of the article he intends to write, will affect the selection of a +subject. "Transportation" might be the subject of a book in which a +chapter was given to each important subdivision of it; but it would be +quite as difficult to treat such a subject in three hundred words as it +would be to make use of three hundred pages for "The Transportation of +Milk at Toledo." + +A general subject may suggest many lines of thought. It is the task of the +writer to select one about which he knows something or can learn +something, in which both he and his readers are interested, or can become +interested, and for which the time and space at his disposal are adequate. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Arrange the subjects in each of the following groups so that the most +general ones shall come first:-- + + 1. The intelligence of wild animals. + How a fox escaped from the hounds. + How animals escape destruction by their enemies. + Animals. + + 2. The benefits that arise from war. + The defeat of the Cimbri and Teutons by Marius. + War. + The value of military strength to the Romans. + + 3. Pleasure. + A summer outing in the Adirondacks. + Value of vacations. + Catching bass. + + +_B._ Narrow ten of the following subjects until the resulting subject may +be treated in a single paragraph:-- + +1. Fishing. +2. Engines. +3. Literature. +4. Heroes of fiction. +5. Cooking. +6. Houses. +7. Games. +8. Basketball. +9. Cats. +10. Canaries. +11. Sympathy. +12. Sailboats. +13. Baseball. +14. Rivers. +15. Trees. + + +C. A general subject may suggest several narrower subjects, each of which +would be of interest to a different class of persons; for example-- + + General subject,--Education. + Specific subjects,-- + 1. Methods of conducting recitations. (Teachers.) + 2. School taxes. (Farmers.) + 3. Ventilation of school buildings. (Architects.) + +In a similar way, narrow each of the following subjects +so that the resulting subjects will be of interest to two or +more classes of persons:-- + + Subjects Classes + 1. Vacations. 1. Farmers. + 2. Mathematics. 2. High School Pupils. + 3. Picnics. 3. Ministers. + 4. Civil service. 4. Merchants. + 5. Elections. 5. Sailors. + 6. Botany. 6. Girls. + 7. Fish. 7. Boys. + + ++Theme XXXII.+--_Write a paragraph about one of narrowed subjects._ + +(Does your paragraph have unity of thought? What methods of development +have you used? Have you selected a subject which will be of interest to +your readers?) + + ++61. Selecting a Title.+--The subject and the title may be the same, but +not necessarily so. The statement of the subject may require a sentence of +considerable length, while a title is best if short. In selecting this +brief title, it is well to get one which will attract the attention and +arouse the curiosity of a reader without appearing obviously to do so. A +peculiar or unusual title is not at all necessary, though if properly +selected such a title may be of value. Care must be taken not to have the +title make a promise that the theme cannot fulfill. If it does, the effect +is unsatisfactory. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Discuss the appropriateness of the titles for the subjects in the +following:-- + +1. Title: "My Kingdom for a Horse." + Subject: An account of a breakdown of an automobile at an inconvenient + time. + +2. Title: A Blaze of Brilliance. + Subject: Description of a coaching parade. + +3. Title: A Brave Defense. + Subject: An account of how a pair of birds drove a snake away from + their nest. + +4. Title: The Banquet Book. + Subject: Quotations designed for general reference, and also as an + aid in the preparation of the toast list, the after-dinner + speech, and the occasional address. + +5. Title: Dragons of the Air. + Subject: An account of extinct flying reptiles. + +6. Title: Rugs and Rags. + Subject: A comparison of the rich and the poor, from a socialistic + point of view. + +7. Title: Lives of the Hunted. + Subject: A true account of the doings of five quadrupeds and three + birds. + +8. Title: The Children of the Nations. + Subject: A discussion of colonies and the problems of colonization. + + +_B._ Supply an appropriate title for a story read by the teacher. + +_C._ Suggest a title, other than the one given it, for each magazine +article you have read this month. + + ++62. Language Adapted to the Reader.+--A writer may select a subject with +reference to the knowledge and interest of his readers; he may develop his +paragraphs in accordance with the methods studied in Chapter III, and yet +he may fail to make his meaning clear, because he has not used language +suited to the reader. Fortunately, the language that we understand and use +is that which is most easily understood by those of equal attainments with +ourselves. It therefore happens that when writing for those of our own age +and attainments, or for those of higher attainments, we usually best +express for them that which we make most clear and pleasing to ourselves. +But if we write for younger people, or for those of different interests in +life, we must give much attention to adapting what we write to our +readers. Before writing it is well to ask, For whom am I writing? Then, if +necessary, you should modify your language so that it will be adapted to +your readers. Can you tell for what kind of an audience each of the +following is intended? + + +In the field both teams played faultless ball, not the semblance of an +error being made. Besides backing up their pitchers in this fashion, both +local and visiting athletes turned sensational plays. + +The element of luck figured largely in the result. In the first inning +Dougherty walked and Collins singled. Dougherty had third base sure on the +drive, but stumbled and fell down between second and third, and he was an +easy out. + +Boston got its only run in the second. Parent sent the ball to extreme +left for two bases. He stole third nattily when catcher Sugden tried to +catch him napping at the middle station. Ferris scored him with a drive to +left. St. Louis promptly tied the score in its half. Wallace opened with a +screeching triple to the bulletin board. At that he would not have scored +if J. Stahl had not contributed a passed ball, Heidrick, Friel, and +Sugden, the next three batters, expiring on weak infield taps. The Browns +got the winning run in the sixth on Martin's triple and Hill's swift cut +back of first. Lachance knocked the ball down and got his man at the +initial sack, but could not prevent the tally. + +--_Boston Herald._ + + +His name was Riley, and although his parents had called him Thomas, to the +boys he had always been "Dennis," and by the time he had reached his +senior year in college he was quite ready to admit that his "name was +Dennis," with all that slang implied. He had tried for several things, +athletics particularly, and had been substitute on the ball nine, one of +the immortal second eleven backs of the football squad, and at one time +had been looked upon as promising material for a mile runner on the track +team. + +But it was always his luck not quite to make anything. He couldn't bat up +to 'varsity standard, he wasn't quite heavy enough for a Varsity back, and +in the mile run he always came in fresh enough but could not seem to get +his speed up so as to run himself out, and the result was that, although +he finished strong and with lots of running in him, the other fellows +always reached the tape first, even though just barely getting over and +thoroughly exhausted. + +Now "Dennis" had made up his mind at Christmas time that he actually would +have one more trial on the track, and that his family, consisting of his +mother and a younger brother, both of them great believers in and very +proud of Thomas, should yet see him possessed of a long-coveted "Y." + +So he went out with the first candidates in the spring, and the addition +of the two-mile event to the programme of track contests gave him a +distance better suited to his endurance. There were a half-dozen other men +running in his squad, and Dennis, from his former failures, was not looked +upon with much favor, or as a very likely man. But he kept at it. When the +first reduction of the squad was made, some one said, "Denny's kept on +just to pound the track." With the middle of March came some class games, +and Dennis was among the "also rans," getting no better than fourth place +in the two-mile. The worst of it was that he knew he could have run it +faster, for he felt strong at the finish, but had no burst of speed when +the others went up on the last lap. But in April he did better, and it +soon developed that he was improving. The week before the Yale-Harvard +games he was notified that he was to run in the two-mile as pace maker to +Lang and Early, the two best distance men on the squad. Nobody believed +that Yale would win this event, although it was understood that Lang stood +a fair chance if Dennis and Early could carry the Harvard crack, Richards, +along at a fast gait for the first mile. + +So it was all arranged that Early should set the pace for the first half +mile, and Dennis should then go up and carry the field along for a fast +second half. Then, after the first mile was over, Early and Dennis should +go out as fast as they could, and stay as long as they could in the +attempt to force the Harvard man and exhaust him so that Lang could come +up, and, having run the race more to his liking, be strong enough to +finish first. + +The day of the games came, and with it a drenching rain, making the track +heavy and everybody uncomfortable. But as the inter-collegiates were +the next week, it was almost impossible to postpone the games, and +consequently it was decided to run them off. As the contest progressed, it +developed that the issue would hang on the two-mile event, and interest +grew intense. When the call for starters came, Dennis felt the usual +trepidation of a man who is before the public for the first time in a +really important position. But the feeling did not last long, and by the +time he went to his mark he had made up his mind that that Harvard runner +should go the mile and a half fast at any rate, or else be a long way +behind. + +At the crack of the pistol the six men went off, and, according to orders, +during the first mile Early and Dennis set the pace well up. Richards, the +Harvard man, let them open up a gap on him in the first half-mile, and, +being more or less bothered by the conditions of the wet track, he seemed +uncertain whether the Yale runners were setting the pace too high or not, +and in the second half commenced to move up. In doing this his team mates +gradually fell back until they were out of it, and the order was Dennis, +Early, Richards, and Lang. At the beginning of the second mile, Early, +whose duty it was to have gone up and helped Dennis make the pace at the +third half-mile, had manifestly had enough of it, and, after two or three +desperate struggles to keep up, was passed by Richards. When, therefore, +they came to the mile and a half, Dennis was leading Richards by some +fifteen yards, and those who knew the game expected to see the Harvard man +try to overtake Dennis, and in so doing exhaust himself, so that Lang, who +was running easily in the rear, could come up and in the last quarter +finish out strong. Dennis, too, was expecting to hear the Harvard man come +up with him pretty soon, and knew that this would be the signal for him to +make his dying effort in behalf of his comrade, Lang. As they straightened +out into the back stretch Richards did quicken up somewhat, and Dennis let +himself out. In fact, he did this so well that as they entered upon the +last quarter Richards had not decreased the distance, and indeed it had +opened up a little wider. But where was Lang? Dennis was beginning to +expect one or the other of these two men to come up, and, as he turned +into the back stretch for the last time, it began to dawn upon him, as it +was dawning upon the crowd, that the pace had been too hot for Lang, and, +moreover, that Yale's chance depended on the despised Dennis, and that the +Harvard runner was finding it a big contract to overhaul the sturdy +pounder on the wet track. But Richards was game, and commenced to cut the +gap down. As they turned into the straight, he was within eight yards of +Dennis. But Dennis knew it, and he ran as he had never run before. He +could fairly feel the springing tread of Richards behind him, and knew it +was coming nearer every second. But into the straight they came, and the +crowd sprang to its feet with wild yells for Dennis. Twenty yards from +home Richards, who had picked up all but two yards of the lead, began to +stagger and waver, while Dennis hung to it true and steady, and breasted +the tape three yards in advance, winning his "Y" at last! + +--Walter Camp: _Winning a "Y"_ ("Outlook") + + +In which of the preceding accounts were you more interested? Which made +the more vivid impression? Which would be better suited for a school class +composed of boys and girls? Which for a newspaper report? + +In attempting to relate a contest it is essential that the writer know +what really happened, and in what order it happened, but his successful +presentation will depend to some extent upon the consideration given to +adapting the story to the audience. A person thoroughly conversant with +the game will understand the technical terms, and may prefer the first +account to the second, but those to whom the game is not familiar would +need to have so much explanation of the terms used that the narration +would become tedious to those already familiar with the terms. In order +to make an account of a game interesting to persons unfamiliar with that +game, we must introduce enough of explanation to make clear the meaning +of the terms we use. + + ++Theme XXXIII.+--_Write a theme telling some one who does not understand +the game about some contest which you have seen_. + +Suggested subjects:-- + +1. A basket ball game. +2. A football game. +3. A tennis match. +4. A baseball game. +5. A croquet match. +6. A golf tournament. +7. A yacht race. +8. A relay race. + +(Have you introduced technical terms without making the necessary +explanations? Have you explained so many terms that your narrative is +rendered tedious? Have you related what really happened, and in the proper +time order? Have your paragraphs unity? Can you shorten the theme without +affecting the clearness or interest? Does _then_ occur too frequently?) + + ++Theme XXXIV.+--_Write a theme, using the same subject that you used for +Theme XXXIII. Assume that the reader understands the game._ + + +(Will the reader get the whole contest clearly in mind? Can you shorten +the account? Compare this theme with Theme XXXIII.) + + ++63. Explanation of Terms.+--Any word that alone or with its modifiers +calls to mind a single idea, is a term. When applied to a particular +object, quality, or action, it is a specific term; but when applied to any +one of a class of objects, qualities, or actions, it is a general term. +For example: _The Lake_, referring to a lake near at hand, is a specific +term; but _a lake_, referring to any lake, is a general term. In Theme +XXXIII you had occasion to explain some of the terms used. If, in telling +about a baseball game, you mentioned a particular "fly," your statement +was description or narration; but if some one should ask what you meant by +"a fly," your answer would be general in character; that is, it would +apply to all "flies," and would belong to that division of composition +called exposition. Exposition is but another name for explanation. It is +always concerned with that which is general, while description and +narration deal with particular cases. We may describe a particular lake; +but if we answer the question, What is a lake? the answer would apply to +any lake, and would be exposition. Explanation of the meaning of general +terms is one form of exposition. + + ++64. Definition by Synonyms.+--If we are asked to explain the meaning of a +general term, our reply in many cases will be a brief definition. Often it +is sufficient to give a synonym. For example, in answer to the question, +What is exposition? we make its meaning clearer by saying, Exposition is +explanation. + +Definition by synonym is frequently used because of its brevity. In the +smaller dictionaries the definitions are largely of this kind. For +example: to desert, _to abandon_; despot, _tyrant_; contemptible, _mean or +vile_; to fuse, _to blend_; inviolable, _sacred_. Synonyms are, however, +seldom exact, but a fair understanding of a term may be gained by +comparing it with its synonyms and discussing the different shades of +meaning. Such a discussion, especially if supplemented by examples showing +the correct use of each term, is a profitable exercise in exposition. For +example:-- + + +Both _discovery_ and _invention_ denote generally something new that is +found out in the arts and sciences. But the term _discovery_ involves in +the thing discovered not merely novelty, but curiosity, utility, +difficulty, and consequently some degree of importance. All this is less +strongly involved in invention. But there are yet wider differences. One +can only discover what has in its integrity existed before the discovery, +while invention brings a thing into existence. America was discovered. +Printing was invented. Fresh discoveries in science often lead to new +inventions in the industrial arts. Indeed, discovery belongs more to +science; invention, to art. Invention increases the store of our practical +resources, and is the fruit of search. Discovery extends the sphere of our +knowledge, and has often been made by accident. + +--Smith: _Synonyms Discriminated_. + + +If exactness is desired, this is obtained by means of the logical +definition, which will be discussed in a later chapter. + + ++Theme XXXV.+--Explain the meaning of the words in one of the following +groups:_-- + + +1. Caustic, satirical, biting. +2. Imply, signify, involve. +3. Martial, warlike, military, soldierlike. +4. Wander, deviate, err, stray, swerve, diverge. +5. Abate, decrease, diminish, lessen, moderate. +6. Emancipation, freedom, independence, liberty. +7. Old, ancient, antique, antiquated, obsolete. +8. Adorn, beautify, bedeck, decorate, ornament, +9. Active, alert, brisk, lively, spry. + + ++65. Use of Simpler Words.+--In defining terms by giving a synonym we must +be careful to choose a synonym which will be most likely to be understood +by our listeners, or our explanation will be of no avail. For instance, in +explaining the term _abate_ to a child, if we say it means _to diminish_, +and he is unfamiliar with that word, he is made none the wiser by our +explanation. If we tell him that it means _to grow less_, he will, in all +probability, understand our explanation. Very many words in our language +have equivalents that may be substituted, the one for the other. Much of +our explanation to children and to those whose attainments are less than +our own consists in substituting common, everyday words for less familiar +ones. + + +EXERCISE + + +Give familiar equivalents for the following words:-- + + +1. emancipate. +2. procure. +3. opportunity. +4. peruse. +5. elapsed. +6. approximately. +7. abbreviate. +8. constitute. +9. simultaneous. +10. familiar. +11. deceased. +12. oral. +13. adhere. +14. edifice. +15. collide. +16. suburban. +17. repugnance. +18. grotesque. +19. equipage. +20. exaggerate. +21. ascend. +22. financial. +23. nocturnal. +24. maternal. +25. vision. +26. affinity. +27. cohere. +28. athwart. +29. clavicle. +30. omnipotent. +31. enumerate. +32. eradicate. +33. application. +34. constitute. +35. employer. +36. rendezvous. +37. obscure. +38. indicate. +39. prevaricate. + + ++66. Definitions Need to be Supplemented.+--The purpose of exposition is +to make clear to others that which we understand ourselves. If the mere +statement of a definition does not accomplish this result, we may often +make our meaning clear by supplementing the definition with suitable +comparisons and examples. In making use of comparisons and examples we +must choose those with which our readers are familiar, and we must be sure +that they fairly represent the term that we wish to illustrate. + + ++Theme XXXVI.+--_Explain any one of the following terms. Begin with as +exact a definition as you can frame._ + +1. A "fly" in baseball. +2. A "foul" in basket ball. +3. A "sneak." +4. A hero. +5. A "spitfire." +6. A laborer. +7. A capitalist. +8. A coward. +9. A freshman. +10. A "header." + + +(Is your definition exact, or only approximately so? How have you made its +meaning clear? Can you think of a better comparison or a better example? +Can your meaning be made clearer, or be more effectively presented, by +arranging your material in a different order?) + + ++67. General Description.+--We may often make clear the meaning of a term +by giving details. In describing a New England village we might enumerate +the streets, the houses, the town pump, the church, and other features. +This would be specific description if the purpose was to have the reader +picture some particular village; but if the purpose was to give the reader +a clear conception of the general characteristics of all New England +villages, the paragraph would become a general description. + +Such a general description would include all the characteristics common +to all the members of the class under discussion, but would omit +any characteristic peculiar to some of them. For example, a general +description of a windmill includes the things common to all windmills. If +an object is described more for the purpose of giving a clear conception +of the class of which it is a type than for the purpose of picturing the +object described, we have a general description. Such a description is in +effect an enlarged definition, and is exposition rather than description. +It is sometimes called scientific description because it is so commonly +employed by writers of scientific books. + +Notice the following examples of general description:-- + + +1. Around every house in Broeck are buckets, benches, rakes, hoes, and +stakes, all colored red, blue, white, or yellow. The brilliancy and +variety of colors and the cleanliness, brightness, and miniature pomp of +the place are wonderful. At the windows there are embroidered curtains +with rose-colored ribbons. The blades, bands, and nails of the gayly +painted windmills shine like silver. The houses are brightly varnished and +surrounded with red and white railings and fences. + +The panes of glass in the windows are bordered by many lines of different +hues. The trunks of all the trees are painted gray from root to branch. +Across the streams are many little wooden bridges, each painted as white +as snow. The gutters are ornamented with a sort of wooden festoon +perforated like lace. The pointed façades are surmounted with a small +weathercock, a little lance, or something resembling a bunch of flowers. +Nearly every house has two doors, one in front and one behind, the last +for everyday entrance and exit, the former opened only on great occasions, +such as births, deaths, and marriages. The gardens are as peculiar as the +houses. The paths are hardly wide enough to walk in. One could put his +arms around the flower beds. The dainty arbors would barely hold two +persons sitting close together. The little myrtle hedges would scarcely +reach to the knees of a four-year-old child. + + +2. Ginseng has a thick, soft, whitish, bulbous root, from one to three +inches long,--generally two or three roots to a stalk,--with wrinkles +running around it, and a few small fibers attached. It has a peculiar, +pleasant, sweetish, slightly bitter, and aromatic taste. The stem or stalk +grows about a foot high, is smooth, round, of a reddish green color, +divided at the top into three short branches, with three to five leaves to +each branch, and a flower stem in the center of the branches. The flower +is small and white, followed by a large, red berry. It is found growing in +most of the states in rich, shady soils. + + +3. As a general proposition, the Scottish hotel is kept by a +benevolent-looking old lady, who knows absolutely nothing about the +trains, nothing about the town, nothing about anything outside of +the hotel, and is non-committal regarding matters even within her +jurisdiction. Upon arrival you do not register, but stand up at the desk +and submit to a cross-examination, much as if you were being sentenced in +an American police court. + +Your hostess always wants twelve hours' notice of your departure, so that +she can make out your bill--a very arduous, formidable undertaking. The +bill is of prodigious dimensions, about the size of a sheet of foolscap +paper, lined and cross-lined for a multitude of entries. When the account +finally reaches you, it closely resembles a design for a cobweb factory. +Any attempt to decipher the various hieroglyphics is useless--it can't be +done. The only thing that can be done is to read the total at the foot of +the page and pay it. + +--_Hotels in Scotland_ ("Kansas City Star"). + + ++Theme XXXVII.+--_Write a general description of one of the following:_-- + +1. A bicycle. +2. A country hay barn. +3. A dog. +4. A summer cottage. +5. An Indian wigwam. +6. A Dutch windmill. +7. A muskrat's house. +8. A robin's nest. +9. A blacksmith's shop. +10. A chipmunk. +11. A threshing machine. +12. A sewing circle. + + +(The purpose is not to picture a particular object, but to give a general +notion of a class of objects. Cross out everything in your theme that +applies only to some particular object. Have you included enough to make +your meaning clear?) + + ++Theme XXXVIII.+--_Using the same title as for Theme XXXVII, write a +specific description of some particular object._ + + +(How does it differ from the general description? What elements have you +introduced which you did not have in the other? Which sentence gives the +general outline? Are your details arranged with regard to their proper +position in space? Will the reader form a vivid picture--just the one you +mean him to have?) + + ++68. General Narration.+--Explanations of a process of manufacture, +methods of playing a game, and the like, often take the form of +generalized narration. Just as we gain a notion of the appearance of a sod +house from a general description, so may we gain a notion of a series of +events from a general narration. Such a narration will not tell what some +one actually did, but will relate the things that are characteristic of +the process or action under discussion whenever it happens. Such general +narration is really exposition. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Notice that the selection below is a generalized narration, showing +what a hare does when hunted. In it no incident peculiar to some special +occasion is introduced. + + +She [the hare] generally returns to the beat from which she was put up, +running, as all the worlds knows, in a circle, or sometimes something +like it, we had better say, that we may keep on good terms with the +mathematical. At starting, she tears away at her utmost speed for a mile +or more, and distances the dogs halfway; she then turns, diverging a +little to the right or left, that she may not run into the mouths of her +enemies--a necessity which accounts for what we call the circularity of +her course. Her flight from home is direct and precipitate; but on her way +back, when she has gained a little time for consideration and stratagem, +she describes a curious labyrinth of short turnings and windings as if to +perplex the dogs by the intricacy of her track. + +--Richard Atton. + + +_B_. The selection below narrates an actual hunt. Notice in what respects +it differs from the preceding selection. + +Sir Roger is so keen at this sport that he has been out almost every day +since I came down; and upon the chaplain's offering to lend me his easy +pad, I was prevailed on yesterday morning to make one of the company. I +was extremely pleased, as we rid along, to observe the general benevolence +of all the neighborhood towards my friend. The farmers' sons thought +themselves happy if they could open a gate for the good old knight as he +passed by; which he generally requited with a nod or a smile, and a kind +inquiry after their fathers and uncles. + +After we had rid about a mile from home, we came upon a large heath, and +the sportsmen began to beat. They had done so for some time, when, as I +was at a little distance from the rest of the company, I saw a hare pop +out from a small furze brake almost under my horse's feet. I marked the +way she took, which I endeavored to make the company sensible of by +extending my arm; but to no purpose, till Sir Roger, who knows that none +of my extraordinary motions are insignificant, rode up to me and asked me +if puss was gone that way? Upon my answering "Yes," he immediately called +in the dogs, and put them upon the scent. As they were going off, I heard +one of the country fellows muttering to his companion, that 'twas a wonder +they had not lost all their sport, for want of the silent gentleman's +crying, "Stole away." + +This, with my aversion to leaping hedges, made me withdraw to a rising +ground, from whence I could have the pleasure of the whole chase, without +the fatigue of keeping in with the hounds. The hare immediately threw them +above a mile behind her; but I was pleased to find, that instead of +running straight forwards, or, in hunter's language, "flying the country," +as I was afraid she might have done, she wheeled about, and described a +sort of circle round the hill, where I had taken my station, in such +manner as gave me a very distinct view of the sport. I could see her first +pass by, and the dogs some time afterwards, unraveling the whole track she +had made, and following her through all her doubles. I was at the same +time delighted in observing that deference which the rest of the pack paid +to each particular hound, according to the character he had acquired among +them: if they were at a fault, and an old hound of reputation opened but +once, he was immediately followed by the whole cry; while a raw dog, or +one who was a noted liar, might have yelped his heart out without being +taken notice of. + +The hare now, after having squatted two or three times, and been put up +again as often, came still nearer to the place where she was at first +started. The dogs pursued her, and these were followed by the jolly +knight, who rode upon a white gelding, encompassed by his tenants and +servants, and cheering his hounds with all the gayety of five and twenty. +One of the sportsmen rode up to me, and told me that he was sure the chase +was almost at an end, because the old dogs, which had hitherto lain +behind, now headed the pack. The fellow was in the right. Our hare took a +large field just under us, followed by the full cry in view. I must +confess the brightness of the weather, the cheerfulness of everything +around me, the chiding of the hounds, which was returned upon us in a +double echo from two neighboring hills, with the hallooing of the +sportsmen, and the sounding of the horn, lifted my spirits into a most +lively pleasure, which I freely indulged because I was sure it was +innocent. If I was under any concern, it was on account of the poor hare, +that was now quite spent, and almost within the reach of her enemies; when +the huntsman getting forward, threw down his pole before the dogs. They +were now within eight yards of that game which they had been pursuing for +almost as many hours; yet on the signal before mentioned they all made a +sudden stand, and though they continued opening as much as before, durst +not once attempt to pass beyond the pole. At the same time Sir Roger rode +forward, and alighting, took up the hare in his arms; which he soon after +delivered up to one of his servants with an order, if she could be kept +alive, to let her go in his great orchard; where it seems he has several +of these prisoners of war, who live together in a very comfortable +captivity. I was highly pleased to see the discipline of the pack, and the +good nature of the knight, who could not find in his heart to murder a +creature that had given him so much diversion. + +--Budgell: _Sir Roger de Coverley Papers_. + + ++Theme XXXIX.+--_Explain one of the following by the use of general +narration:_-- + + 1. Baking bread. + 2. How paper is made. + 3. How to play tennis (or some other game). + 4. Catching trout. + 5. Life at school. + 6. How to pitch curves. + + +(Have you arranged your details with reference to their proper time-order? +Have you introduced unnecessary details? Have your paragraphs unity? +Underscore _then_ each time you have used it.) + + ++69. Argument.+--Especially in argument is it evident that language +presupposes an audience. The fact that we argue implies that some one does +not agree with us. The purpose of our argument is to convince some one +else of the truth of a proposition which we ourselves believe, and he who +wishes to succeed in this must give careful attention to his audience. The +question which must always be in the mind of the writer is, What facts +shall I select and in what order shall I present them in order to convince +my reader? The various ways of arguing are more fully treated in a later +chapter, but a few of them are given here. + + ++70. The Use of Explanation in Argument.+--In preparing an argument we +must consider first the amount of explanation that it will be necessary to +make. We cannot expect one to believe a proposition the meaning of which +he does not understand. Often the explanation alone is sufficient to +convince the hearer. Suppose you are trying to gain your parents' consent +to take some course of study. They ask for an explanation of the different +courses, and when they know what each contains they are already convinced +as to which is best for you. + +If you are trying to convince a member of your school board that it would +be well to introduce domestic science into the high school, and he already +understands what is meant by the term "domestic science," you not only +waste time in explaining it, but you make him appear ignorant of what he +already understands. With him you should proceed at once to give your +reasons for the advisability of the introduction of this branch into your +school. On the other hand, if you are talking with a member who does not +understand the term, an explanation will be the first thing necessary. It +is evident, therefore, that the amount of explanation that we shall make +depends upon the previous knowledge of the audience addressed. If we +explain too much, we prejudice our case; and if we explain too little, the +reader may fail to appreciate the arguments that follow. + +The point of the whole matter, then, is that explanation is the first step +in argument, and that in order to determine the amount necessary we must +consider carefully the audience for which our argument is intended. + + ++71. Statement of Advantages and Disadvantages.+ An argument is often +concerned with determining whether it is expedient to do one thing or +another. Such an argument frequently takes the form of a statement of the +advantages that will follow the adoption of the course we recommend, or of +the disadvantages that the following of the opposite course will cause. + +If a corporation should ask for a franchise for a street railway, the city +officials might hold the opinion that a double track should be laid. In +support of this opinion they would name the advantageous results that +would follow from the use of a double track, such as the avoidance of +delays on turnouts, the lessening of the liability of accidents, the +greater rapidity in transportation, etc. On the other hand, the persons +seeking the franchise might reply that a double track would occupy too +much of the street and become a hindrance to teams, or that the advantages +were not sufficient to warrant the extra expense. + +Concerning such a question there can be no absolute decision. We are not +discussing what is right, but what is expedient, and the determination of +what is expedient is based upon a consideration of advantages or +disadvantages. In deciding, we must balance the advantages against the +disadvantages and determine which has the greater weight. If called upon +to take one side or the other, we must consider carefully the value of the +facts counting both for and against the proposition before we can make up +our mind which side we favor. + +You must bear in mind that a thing may not be an advantage because you +believe it to be. That which seems to you to be the reason why you should +take some high school subject, may seem to your father or your teacher to +be the very reason why you should not. In writing arguments of this kind +you must take care to select facts that will appeal to your readers as +advantages. + +Notice the following editorial which appeared in the _Boston Latin School +Register_ shortly after a change was made whereby the pupils instead of +the teachers moved from room to room for their various recitations:-- + + +The new system of having the classes move about from room to room to their +recitations has been in use for nearly a month, and there has been +sufficient opportunity for testing its practicability and its advantages. +There is no doubt that the new system alters the old form of recesses, +shortening the two regular ones, but giving three minutes between +recitations as a compensation for this loss. Although theoretically we +have more recess time than formerly, in the practical working out of the +system we find that the three minutes between recitations is occupied in +gathering up one's books, and reaching the next recitation room; besides +this, that there is often some confusion in reaching the various +classrooms, and that there are many little inconveniences which would not +occur were we sitting at our own desks. On the other hand, as an offset to +these disadvantages, there is the advantage of a change of position, and a +respite from close attention, with a breathing spell in which to get the +mind as well as the books ready for another lesson. The masters have in +every recitation their own maps and reference books, with which they can +often make their instruction much more forceful and interesting. Besides +that, they have entire control of their own blackboards, and can leave +work there without fear of its being erased to make room for that of some +other master. The confusion will doubtless be lessened as time goes on and +we become more used to the system. Even the first disadvantage is more or +less offset by the fact that the short three-minute periods, although they +cannot be used like ordinary recesses, yet serve to give us breathing +space between recitations and to lessen the strain of continuous +application; so that, on the whole, the advantages seem to counterbalance +the disadvantages. + + +EXERCISES + + +What advantages and disadvantages can you think of for each of the +following propositions? State them orally. + + +1. All telephone and telegraph wires in cities should be put under ground. + +2. The speed of bicycles and automobiles should be limited to eight miles + per hour. + +3. High school football teams should not play match games on regular + school days. + +4. High school pupils should not attend evening parties excepting on + Fridays and Saturdays. + +5. Monday would be a better day than Saturday for a school holiday. + +6. The school session should be lengthened. + + ++Theme XL.+--_Write two paragraphs, one of which shall give the advantages +and the other the disadvantages that would arise from the adoption of any +one of the following:_ + +1. This school should have a longer recess. + +2. This school should have two hours for the noon recess. + +3. This school should be in session from eight o'clock until one o'clock. + +4. All the pupils in this school should be seated in one room. + +5. The public library should be in the high school building. + +6. The football team should be excused early in order to practice. + +7. This school should have a greater number of public entertainments. + + ++72. Explanation and Argument by Specific Instances.+--Often we may make +the meaning of a general proposition clear by citing specific instances. +If these instances are given for the purpose of explanation merely, the +paragraph is exposition. If, however, the aim is not merely to cause the +reader to understand the proposition, but also to believe that it is true, +we have argument. In either case we have a paragraph developed by specific +instances as discussed in Section 44. Notice how in the following +paragraph the author brings forward specific cases in order to prove the +proposition:-- + + +Nearly everything that an animal does is the result of an inborn instinct +acted upon by an outward stimulus. The margin wherein intelligent choice +plays a part is very small.... Instinct is undoubtedly often modified by +intelligence, and intelligence is as often guided or prompted by instinct, +but one need not hesitate long as to which side of the line any given act +of man or beast belongs. When the fox resorts to various tricks to outwit +and delay the hound (if he ever consciously does so), he exercises a kind +of intelligence--the lower form of which we call cunning--and he is +prompted to this by an instinct of self-preservation. When the birds set +up a hue and cry about a hawk, or an owl, or boldly attack him, they show +intelligence in its simpler form, the intelligence that recognizes its +enemies, prompted again by the instinct of self-preservation. When a hawk +does not know a man on horseback from a horse, it shows a want of +intelligence. When a crow is kept away from a corn-field by a string +stretched around it, the fact shows how masterful is its fear and how +shallow its wit. When a cat or a dog or a horse or a cow learns to open a +gate or a door, it shows a degree of intelligence--power to imitate, to +profit by experience. A machine could not learn to do it. If the animal +were to close the door or gate behind it, that would be another step in +intelligence. But its direct wants have no relation to the closing of +the door, only to the opening of it. To close the door involves an +afterthought that an animal is not capable of. A horse will hesitate to go +upon thin ice or frail bridges. This, no doubt, is an inherited instinct +which has arisen in its ancestors from their fund of general experience +with the world. How much with them has depended upon a secure footing! A +pair of house-wrens had a nest in my well-curb; when the young were partly +grown and heard any one enter the curb, they would set up a clamorous +calling for food. When I scratched against the sides of the curb beneath +them like some animal trying to climb up, their voices instantly hushed; +the instinct of fear promptly overcame the instinct of hunger! Instinct is +intelligence, but it is not the same as acquired individual intelligence; +it is untaught. + +John Burroughs: _Some Natural History Doubts_ ("Harper's"). + + +EXERCISES + + +What facts or instances do you know which would lead you to believe either +the following propositions or their opposites? + +1. Dogs are intelligent. + +2. Only excellent pupils can pass the seventh grade examination. + +3. Some teachers do not ask fair questions on examination. + +4. Oak trees grow to be larger than maples. + +5. Strikes increase the cost to the consumer. + +6. A college education pays. + +7. Department stores injure the trade of smaller stores. + +8. Advertising pays. + + ++Theme XLI.+--_Write a paragraph, proving by one or more examples one of +the propositions in the preceding exercise:_ + + +(Do your examples really illustrate what you are trying to prove? Do they +show that the proposition is always true or merely that it is true +for certain cases? Would your argument cause another to believe the +proposition?) + + ++73. The Value of Debate.+--Participation in oral debate furnishes +excellent practice in accurate and rapid thinking. We may choose one side +of a question and may write out an argument which, considered alone, and +from our point of view, seems convincing, but when this is submitted to +the criticism of some one of opposite views, or when the arguments in +favor of the other side of the question are brought forward, we are not so +sure that we have chosen the side which represents the truth. The ability +to think "on one's feet," to present arguments concisely and effectively, +and to reply to opposing arguments, giving due weight to those that are +true, and detecting and pointing out those that are false, is an +accomplishment of great practical value. Such ability comes only from +practice, and the best preparation for it is the careful writing out of +arguments. + + ++74. Statement of the Question.+--The subject of debate may be stated in +the form of a resolution, a declarative sentence, or a question; as, +"Resolved that the recess should be lengthened," or "The recess should be +lengthened," or, "Should the recess be lengthened?" In any case, the +affirmative must show why the recess should be lengthened, and the +negative why it should not be lengthened. + +In a formal debate the statement of the question and its meaning should be +definitely determined in advance. Care must be taken to state it so that +no mere quibbling over the meanings of terms can take the place of real +arguments. Even if the subject of debate is so stated that this is +possible, any self-respecting debater will meet the question at issue +fairly and squarely, preferring defeat to a victory won by juggling with +the meanings of terms. + + ++75. Is Belief Necessary in Debate?+--If we are really arguing for a +purpose, we should believe in the truth of the proposition which +we support. If the members of the school board were discussing the +desirability of building a new schoolhouse, each would speak in accordance +with his belief. But if a class in school should debate such a question, +having in mind not the determination of the question, but merely the +selection and arrangement of the arguments for and against the proposition +in the most effective way, each pupil might present the side in which he +did not really believe. + + +EXERCISES + + +Consider each of the following propositions. Do you believe the +affirmative or the negative? + +1. This city needs a new high school building. + +2. All the pupils in the high school should be members of the athletic + association. + +3. The school board should purchase an inclosed athletic field. + +4. The street railway should carry pupils to and from school for half + fare. + +5. There should be a lunch room in this school. + +6. Fairy stories should not be told to children. + + ++Theme XLII.+--_Write a paragraph telling why you believe one of the +propositions in the preceding exercise:_ + +(What questions should you ask yourself while correcting your theme?) + + ++76. Order of Presentation.+--If you were preparing to debate one of the +propositions in the preceding exercise, you would need to have in mind +both the reasons for and against it. Next you would consider the order in +which these reasons should be discussed. This will be determined by the +circumstances of each debate, but generally the emphatic positions, that +is, the first and the last, will be given to those arguments that seem to +you to have the greatest weight, while those of less importance will +occupy the central portion of your theme. + + ++77. The Brief.+--If, after making a note of the various advantages, +examples, and other arguments that you wish to use in support of one of +the propositions in Section 75, you arrange these in the order in which +you think they can be most effectively presented, the outline so formed is +called a brief. Its preparation requires clear thinking, but when it is +made, the task of writing out the argument is not difficult. When the +debate is to be spoken, not read, the brief, if kept in mind, will serve +to suggest the arguments we wish to make in the order in which we wish to +present them. The brief differs from the ordinary outline in that it is +composed of complete sentences. Notice the following brief:-- + +Manual Training should be substituted for school athletics. + + _Affirmative_ + +1. The exercise furnished by manual training is better adapted to the + developing of the whole being both physical and mental; for-- + _a._ It requires the mind to act in order to determine what to do + and how to do it. + _b._ It trains the muscles to carry out the ideal of the mind. + +2. The effect of manual training on health is better; for-- + _a._ Excessive exercise, harmful to growing children, is avoided. + _b._ Dangerous contests are avoided. + +3. The final results of manual training are more valuable; for-- + _a._ The objects made are valuable. + _b._ The skill of hand and eye may become of great practical value + in after life. + +4. The moral effect of manual training is better; for-- + _a._ Athletics develops the "anything to win" spirit, while manual + training creates a wholesome desire to excel in the creation + of something useful or beautiful. + _b._ Dishonesty in games may escape notice, but dishonesty in + workmanship cannot be concealed. + _c._ Athletics fosters slovenliness of dress and manners, while + manual training cultivates the love of the beautiful. + +5. The beneficial results of manual training have a wider effect upon the + school; for-- + _a._ But comparatively few pupils "make the team" and receive the + maximum athletic drill, while all pupils can take manual + training. + + ++78. Refutation or Indirect Argument.+--In debate we need to consider not +only the arguments in favor of our own side, but also those presented by +our opponents. That part of our theme which states our own arguments is +called direct argument, and that part in which we reply to our opponents +is called indirect argument or refutation. It is often very important to +show that the opposing argument is false or, if true, has been given an +exaggerated importance that it does not really possess. If, however, the +argument is true and of weight, the fact should be frankly acknowledged. +Our desire for victory should not cause us to disregard the truth. If the +argument of our opponent has been so strong that it seems to have taken +possession of the audience, we must reply to it in the beginning. If it is +of less weight, each separate point may be discussed as we take up related +points in our own argument. Often it will be found best to give the +refutation a place just preceding our own last and strongest argument. + +From the foregoing it will be seen that each case cannot be determined by +rule, but must be determined for itself, and it is because of the exercise +of judgment required, that practice in debating is so valuable. A dozen +boys or girls may, with much pleasure and profit, spend an evening a week +as a debating club. + + ++Theme XLIII.+--_Prepare a written argument for or against one of the +propositions in Section 75._ + + +(Make a brief. Re-arrange the arguments that you intend to use until they +have what seems to you the best order. Consider the probable arguments on +the other side and what reply can be made. Answer one or two of the +strongest ones. If you have any trivial arguments for your own side, +either omit them or make their discussion very brief.) + + ++79. Cautions in Debating.+--When we have made a further study of argument +we shall need to consider again the subject of debating. In the meantime a +few cautions will be helpful. + +1. Be fair. A debate is in the nature of a contest, and is quite as +interesting as any other contest. The desire to win should never lead you +to take any unfair advantage or to descend to mere quibbling over the +statement of the proposition or the meanings of the terms. Win fairly or +not at all. + +2. Be honest with yourself. Do not present arguments which you know to be +false, in the hope that your opponent cannot prove their falsity. This +does not mean that you cannot present arguments in favor of a proposition +unless you believe it to be true, but that those you do present should be +real arguments for the side that you uphold, even though you believe that +there are weightier ones on the other side. Do not use an example that +seems to apply if you know that it does not. You are to "tell the truth +and nothing but the truth," but in debate you may tell only that part of +the "whole truth" which favors your side of the proposition. + +3. Do not allow your desire for victory to overcome your desire for truth. +Do not argue for the sake of winning, nor develop the habit of arguing in +season and out. In the school and outside there are persons who, like Will +Carleton's Uncle Sammy, "were born for arguing." They use their own time +in an unprofitable way, and what is worse, they waste the time of others. +They are not seeking for truth, but for controversy. It is quite as bad to +doubt everything you hear as it is to believe everything. + +4. Remember that mere statement is not argument. The fact that you believe +a proposition does not make it true. In order to carry weight, a statement +must be based on principles and theories that _the audience_ believes. + +5. Remember that exhortation is not argument. Entreaty may persuade one to +action, but in debate you should aim to convince the intellect. Clear, +accurate thinking on your own part, so that you may present sound, logical +arguments, is the first essential. + + ++Theme XLIV.+--_Prepare a written argument for or against one of the +following propositions:_-- + +1. Boys who cannot go to college should take a commercial course in the + high school. + +2. Novel reading is a waste of time. + +3. Asphalt paving is more satisfactory than brick. + +4. Foreign skilled labor should be kept out of the United States. + +5. Our own town should be lighted by electricity. + +6. Athletic contests between high schools should be prohibited. + + +(Consider your argument with reference to the cautions given in Section +79.) + + +SUMMARY + + +1. The purpose of discourse may be to inform or to entertain. + +2. The forms of discourse are-- + _a._ Description. + _b._ Narration. + _c._ Exposition. + _d._ Argument (Persuasion). + +3. Discourse presupposes an audience, and we must select a subject and use + language adapted to that audience. + +4. The suitableness of a subject is determined-- + _a._ By the writer's knowledge of the subject. + (1) This may be based on experience, or + (2) It may be gained from others through conversation and + reading. + _b._ By the writer's interest in the subject. + (1) This may exist from the first, or + (2) It may be aroused by our search for information. + _c._ By adaptability of the subject to the reader. It should be of + present, vital interest to him. + +5. Subjects. + _a._ The sources of subjects are unlimited. + _b._ Subjects should be definite. They often need to be narrowed in + order to be made definite. + _c._ The title should be brief and should be worded so as to arouse + a desire to hear the theme. + +6. Exposition is explanation. + +7. We may make clear the meaning of a term-- + _a._ By using synonyms. + _b._ By using simpler words. + _c._ By supplementing our definitions with examples or comparisons. + +8. General description includes the characteristics common to all members + of a class of objects. + +9. General narration is one form of exposition. It relates the things that + characterize a process or action whenever it occurs. + +10. Argument. + _a._ Explanation is the first step in argument. + _b._ A statement of advantages and disadvantages may assist us to + determine which side of a question we believe. + _c._ Specific instances may be used either for explanation or + argument. + +11. Debate. + _a._ The subject of the debate may be stated in the form of a + resolution, a declarative sentence, or a question. + _b._ The most important arguments should be given the first and last + positions. + _c._ A brief will assist us in arranging our arguments in the most + effective order. + _d._ The refutation of opposing arguments should usually be placed + just before our own last and strongest argument. + _e._ Cautions in debating. + (1) Be fair. + (2) Be honest with yourself. + (3) Do not allow your desire for victory to overcome your + desire for truth. + (4) Remember that mere statement is not argument. + (5) Remember that exhortation is not argument. + + + + +V. THE WHOLE COMPOSITION + + ++80. General Principles of Composition.+--There are three important +principles to be considered in every composition: unity, coherence, and +emphasis. Though not always named, each of these has been considered and +used in our writing of paragraphs. The consideration of methods of +securing unity, coherence, and emphasis in the composition as a whole is +the purpose of this chapter. It will serve also as a review and especially +as an enlarged view of paragraph development as treated in Chapter III, +for the methods discussed with regard to the whole composition are the +same that are used in applying the three principles to single paragraphs. + + ++81. Unity.+--A composition possesses unity if all that it contains bears +directly upon the subject. It is evident that the title of the theme +determines in a large degree the matter that should be included. Much that +is appropriate to a theme on "Bass Fishing" will be found unnecessary in a +theme entitled "How I caught a Bass." It is easier to secure unity in a +theme treating of a narrow, limited subject than in one treating of a +broad, general subject. The first step toward unity is, therefore, the +selection of a limited subject and a suitable title (see Sections 58-61); +the second is the collection of all facts, illustrations, and other +material which may appropriately be used in a theme having the chosen +title. + + ++82. Coherence.+--A composition is given coherence by placing the ideas in +such an order that each naturally suggests the one which follows. If the +last paragraph is more closely related in thought to the first paragraph +than it is to the intervening ones, the composition lacks coherence. +Similarly, that paragraph is coherent in which the thought moves forward +in an orderly way with each sentence growing out of the preceding one. + +In describing the capture of a large trout a boy might state that he broke +his pole. Then he might tell what kind of pole he had, why he did not have +a better one, what poles are best adapted to trout fishing, etc. Though +each of these ideas is suggested by the preceding, the story still lacks +coherence because the boy will need later to go back and tell us what +happened to him or to the trout when the pole broke. If a description of +the kind of pole is necessary in order to make the point of the story +clear, it should have been introduced earlier. Stopping at the moment of +vital interest to discuss fishing poles, spoils the effect of the story. +Good writers are very skillful in the early introducing of details that +will enable the reader to appreciate the events as they happen, and they +are equally skillful in omitting unnecessary details. The proper selection +of these details gives unity, and their introduction at the proper place +gives coherence to a narrative. By saying, "I am getting ahead of my +story," the narrator confesses that coherence is lacking. Read again the +selection on page 106. + + ++83. Emphasis.+--If we desire to make one part of a theme more emphatic +than another, we may do so by giving a prominent position to that part. In +debating we give the first place and the last to the strongest arguments. +In simple narration the order in which incidents must be related is fixed +by the time-order of their occurrence, but even in a story the point gains +in force if it is near the close. Because these two positions are the ones +of greatest emphasis, a poor beginning or a bad ending will ruin an +otherwise good story. + +Emphasis may also be affected by the proportional amount of attention and +space given to the different parts of a theme. The extent to which any +division of a theme should be developed depends upon the purpose and the +total length of the theme. A biography of Grant might appropriately devote +two or three chapters to his boyhood, while a short sketch of his life +would treat his boyhood in a single paragraph. In determining the amount +of space to be given to the different parts of a composition, care must be +taken that the space assigned to each shall be proportional to its +importance, the largest amount of space being devoted to the part which is +of greatest worth. + +Emphasis is sometimes given by making a single sentence into a paragraph. +This method should be used with care, for such a paragraph may be too +short for unity because it does not include all that should be said about +the topic statement, and though it makes that statement emphatic, fails to +make its meaning clear. + +Clearness, unity, and coherence are of more importance +than emphasis, and usually, if a theme possesses the first +three qualities, it will possess the fourth in sufficient +measure. + + ++84. The Outline.+--An outline will assist us in securing unity, +coherence, and emphasis. + +1. The first step in making an outline has relation to unity. Unity +requires that a theme include only that which pertains to the subject. +There are always many more ideas that seem to bear upon a subject than can +be included in the theme. We may therefore jot down brief notes that will +suggest our ideas on the subject, and then we should reject from this list +all that seem irrelevant or trivial. We should also reject the less +important ideas which pertain directly to the subject if without them we +have all that are needed in order to fulfill the purpose of the theme. + +Which items in the following should be omitted as not necessary to the +complete treatment of the subject indicated by the title? Should anything +be added? + + +_My First Partridge_ + + +Where I lived ten years ago. +Kinds of game: partridge, quail, squirrels. +Partridge drumming. +My father went hunting often. +How he was injured. +Birch brush near hemlock; partridge often found in such localities. +Loading the gun. +Going to the woods. +Why partridge live near birch brush. +Fall season. +Hunting for partridge allowed from September to December. +Tramping through the woods. +Something moving. +Creeping up. +How I felt; excited; hand shook. +Partridge on log. +Gun failed to go off; cocking it properly. +The shot; the recoil. +The flurry of the bird. +How partridges fly. +How they taste when cooked. +Getting the bird. +Going home. +Partridges are found in the woods; quail in the fields. +What my sister said. +My brother's interest. +My father's story about shooting three partridges with one shot. +What mother did. + + +2. The second step in outline making has relation to coherence. After we +have rejected from our notes all items which would interfere with the +unity of our theme, we next arrange the remaining items in a coherent +order. One method of securing coherence is illustrated by a simple +narrative which follows the time-order. We naturally group together in our +memory those events which occurred at a given time, and in recalling a +series of events we pass in order from one such group to another. These +groups form natural paragraph units, and the placing of them in their +actual time-order gives coherence to the composition. + +After rejecting the unnecessary items in the preceding list, re-arrange +the remaining ones in a coherent order. How many paragraphs would you make +and what would you include in each? + +3. The third step in making an outline has relation to emphasis. In some +outlines emphasis is secured by placing the more important points first, +in others by placing them last. In this particular outline we have a +natural time-order to follow, and emphasis will be determined mainly by +the relative proportion to be given to different paragraphs. Do not give +unimportant paragraphs too much space. Be sure that the introduction and +the conclusion are short. + + ++Theme XLV.+--_Write a personal narrative at least three paragraphs in +length._ + + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. How I was saved from drowning. + 2. The largest string of fish I ever caught. + 3. An incident of the skating season. + 4. What I did on Christmas day. + 5. A Saturday with my grandmother. + 6. To the city and back. + + +(Make an outline. Keep in mind unity, coherence, and +emphasis. Consider each paragraph with reference to +unity, coherence, and emphasis.) + + ++85. Development of a Composition with Reference to the Time-Order.+-- +Of the several methods of developing a composition let us consider first +that of giving details in the natural time-order. (See Section 46.) If a +composition composed of a series of paragraphs possesses coherence, each +paragraph is so related to the preceding ones that the thought goes +steadily forward from one to another. Often the connection in thought is +so evident that no special indication needs to be made, but if the +paragraphs are arranged with reference to a time-order, this time-order +is usually indicated. + +Notice how the relation in time of each paragraph to the preceding is +shown by the following sentences of parts of sentences taken in order from +a magazine article entitled "Yachting at Kiel," by James B. Connolly:-- + + +1. It was slow waiting in Travemunde. The long-enduring twilight of a + summer's day at fifty-four north began to settle down... + +2. The dusk comes on, and on the ships of war they seem to be getting + nervous... + +3. The dusk deepens... + +4. It is getting chilly in the night air, with the rations running low, + and the charterers of some of the fishing boats decide to go home... + +5. It is eleven o'clock--dark night--and the breeze is freshening, when + the first of the fleet heaves in sight... + +6. After that they arrive rapidly... + +7. At midnight there is still no _Meteor_... + +8. Through the entire night they keep coming... + +9. Next morning... + + ++Theme XLVI.+--_Write a narrative, four or more paragraphs in length, +showing the time-order._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. The race up the river. + 2. The life of some well-known man. + 3. The cake that fell. + 4. Retell some incident that you have recently read. + 5. Relate some personal experience. + 6. A story suggested by the picture on page 160. + + +(Make an outline. Consider the unity, coherence, and emphasis of each +paragraph separately. Then consider the unity, coherence, and emphasis of +the whole composition. Notice what expressions you have used to indicate +the relations in time. Have you used the same expression too often?) + + ++86. Development of a Composition with Reference to Position in Space.+-- +A second method of development is to relate details with reference to +their position in space. + + +[Illustration] + + +Just as we may give either a paragraph or a whole theme coherence by +following a given time-order, so may we make a paragraph or a whole theme +coherent by arranging the parts in an order determined by their position +in space. In developing a theme by this method we simply apply to the +whole theme the principles discussed for the development of a paragraph +(Section 47). + +In a description composed of several paragraphs, each paragraph should +contain a group of details closely related to one another in space. The +paragraphs should be constructed so that each shall possess unity and +coherence within itself, and they should be so arranged that we may pass +most easily from the group of images presented by one paragraph to the +images presented by the next. In narration, the space arrangement may +supplement time-order in giving coherence. + +If the most attractive features of an art room are its +wall decorations, five paragraphs describing the room may +be as follows:-- + + 1. Point of view: general impression. + 2. The north wall: general impression; details. + 3. The east wall: general impression; details. + 4. The south wall: general impression; details. + 5. The west wall: general impression; details. + + +It is easy to imagine a room in the description of which the following +paragraphs would be appropriate:-- + + 1. Point of view. + 2. The fireplace. + 3. The easy-chair. + 4. The table. + 5. The bookcase. + 6. The cozy nook. + + +Such an arrangement of paragraphs would give coherence. Unity would be +secured by including in each only that which properly belonged to it. + +There are many words and expressions which indicate the relative position +of objects. The paragraph below is an illustration of the method of +development described in Section 47. Notice the words which indicate the +location of the different details in the scene. If each of these details +should be developed into a paragraph the italicized expressions would +serve to introduce these paragraphs and would show the relative positions +of the objects described. + +The beauty of the sea and shore was almost indescribable: _on one side_ +rose Point Loma, grim, gloomy as a fortress wall; _before_ me stretched +away to the horizon the ocean with its miles of breakers curling into +foam; _between_ the surf and the city, wrapped in its dark blue mantle, +lay the sleeping bay; _eastward_ the mingled yellow, red, and white of San +Diego's buildings glistened in the sunlight like a bed of coleus; _beyond_ +the city heaved the rolling plains rich in their garb of golden brown, +_from which_ rose the distant mountains, tier on tier, wearing the purple +veil which Nature here loves oftenest to weave for them; while _in the +foreground_, like a jewel in a brilliant setting, stood the Coronado. + +--Stoddard: _California_. + + ++Theme XLVII.+--_Write a description three or more paragraphs in length._ + + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. Some well-known building (exterior). + 2. A prominent person. + 3. An attractive room. + 4. The interior of a church. + +(Consider your outline with reference to unity, coherence, and proportion +of parts. When the theme is completed, consider the unity, coherence, and +emphasis of each paragraph and of the composition as a whole.) + + ++87. Paragraph Relations.+--Relations in thought other than those of time +and space may be indicated by the use of certain words and phrases. Such +expressions as, _however, nevertheless, consequently, indeed, moreover, at +all events_, etc., are often used to indicate a relation in thought +between paragraphs. Notice how _nevertheless_, at the beginning of the +selection below, serves to connect it in thought with a preceding +paragraph not printed here. Notice also the relations in thought shown by +the italicized words. These and similar words are used to make the +transition from one paragraph to the next. + +_Nevertheless_, Howe was at last in possession of Philadelphia, the object +of his campaign, and with his communications by water open. He had +consumed four months in this business since he left New York, three months +since he landed near the Elk River. His prize, now that he had got it, was +worth less than nothing in a military point of view, and he had been made +to pay a high price for it, not merely in men, but in precious time, for +while he was struggling sluggishly for Philadelphia, Burgoyne, who really +meant something very serious, had gone to wreck and sunk out of sight in +the northern forests. _Indeed_, Howe did not even hold his dearly bought +town in peace. After the fall of the forts, Greene, aided by Lafayette, +who had joined the army on its way to the Brandywine, made a sharp +dash and broke up an outlying party of Hessians. _Such things_ were +intolerable, they interfered with personal comfort, and they emanated from +the American army which Washington had now established in strong lines at +Whitemarsh. _So_ Howe announced that in order to have a quiet winter, he +would drive Washington beyond the mountains. Howe did not often display +military intelligence, but that he was profoundly right in this particular +intention must be admitted. In pursuit of his plan, _therefore_, he +marched out of Philadelphia on December 4th, drove off some Pennsylvania +militia on the 5th, considered the American position for four days, did +not dare to attack, could not draw his opponent out, returned to the city, +and left Washington to go into winter quarters at Valley Forge, whence he +could easily strike if any move was made by the British army. + +--Henry Cabot Lodge. + + ++88. The Transition Paragraph.+--Just as a word or phrase may serve to +denote the relation in thought between paragraphs, so may a whole +paragraph be used to carry over the thought from one group of paragraphs +to another in the same theme. Such a paragraph makes a transition from one +general topic or method of treating the subject of the theme to some other +general topic or to the consideration of the subject from a different +point of view. This transitional paragraph may summarize the thought of +the preceding paragraph in addition to announcing a change of topic; or it +may mark the transition to the new topic and set it forth in general +terms. + + ++89. The Summarizing Paragraph.+--Frequently we give emphasis to our +thought by a final paragraph summarizing the main points of the theme. +Such a summary is in effect a restatement of the topic sentences of our +paragraphs. If our theme has been coherent, these sentences stated in +order will need but little changing to make a coherent paragraph. In a +similar way, it is of advantage to close a long paragraph with a sentence +which repeats the topic statement or summarizes the thought of the +paragraph. See the last sentence in Section 57. + + ++90. Development of a Composition by Comparison or Contrast.+--The third +method of development is that of comparison or contrast. Nearly every idea +which we have suggests one that is similar to it or in contrast with it. +We are thus led to make comparisons or to state contrasts. When these are +few and brief, they may make a single paragraph (Section 48). If our +comparisons or contrasts are extended, they may make several paragraphs, +and thus a whole theme may be developed by this method. + +In such a theme no fixed order of presentation is determined by the actual +occurrence in time or space of that which we present. Consequently, in +outlining a theme of this kind, we must devote special attention to +arranging our paragraphs in an order that shall give coherence and +emphasis. + + ++Theme XLVIII.+--_Write a theme of three or more paragraphs developed by +comparison._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. Compare men with verbs (active, passive, transitive, intransitive, + defective, redundant, auxiliary, copulative, etc.). + 2. Show that the body resembles a machine. + 3. In what way is the school like a factory? + 4. How do two books that you have read differ? + 5. Compare Lincoln and McKinley. How alike? How different? + 6. How can you tell an oak tree from an elm tree? + 7. Without naming them, compare two of your friends with each other. + 8. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of public high schools + with those of private academies. + + ++91. Development of a Composition by Use of Generalization and Facts.+-- +Using the fourth method of development, we may give an entire composition +to the explanation of the meaning of a general proposition or to the +demonstration of the truth of such a proposition. To accomplish this +purpose we state facts or instances that illustrate the meaning of the +proposition or that show it to be true. In such a composition each +important fact or instance may be given a separate paragraph, while +several minor facts or illustrations may be properly combined in the same +paragraph. (See Section 44.) Greater emphasis may also be given the more +important facts by assigning them to the emphatic positions. + +Notice how by specific instances the following selection illustrates the +truth of the generalization set forth in the second sentence and restated +in the last sentence. + + +DEGENERATION THROUGH QUIESCENCE + + +While parasitism is the principal cause of degeneration among animals, yet +it is not the sole cause. It is evident that if for any other reason +animals should become fixed, and live inactive lives, they would +degenerate. There are not a few instances of degeneration due simply to a +quiescent life, unaccompanied by parasitism. + +The Tunicata, or sea squirts, are animals which have become simple through +degeneration, due to the adoption of a sedentary life, the withdrawal from +the crowd of animals and from the struggle which it necessitates. The +young tunicate is a free-swimming, active, tadpolelike, or fishlike +creature, which possesses organs very like those of the adult of the +simplest fishes or fishlike forms. That is, the sea squirt begins life as +a primitively simple vertebrate. It possesses in its larval stage a +notochord, the delicate structure which precedes the formation of a +backbone, extending along the upper part of the body below the spinal +cord. The other organs of the young tunicate are all of vertebral type. +But the young sea squirt passes a period of active and free life as a +little fish, after which it settles down and attaches itself to a shell or +wooden pier by means of suckers, and remains for the rest of its life +fixed. Instead of going on and developing into a fishlike creature, it +loses its notochord, its special sense organs, and other organs; it loses +its complexity and high organization, and becomes a "mere rooted bag with +a double neck," a thoroughly degenerate animal. + +A barnacle is another example of degeneration through quiescence. The +barnacles are crustaceans related most nearly to the crabs and shrimps. +The young barnacle just from the egg is a six-legged, free-swimming +nauplius, very like a young prawn or crab, with a single eye. In its next +larval stage it has six pairs of swimming feet, two compound eyes, and two +antennae or feelers, and still lives an independent free-swimming life. +When it makes its final change to the adult condition, it attaches itself +to some stone, or shell, or pile, or ship's bottom, loses its compound +eyes and feelers, develops a protecting shell, and gives up all power of +locomotion. Its swimming feet become changed into grasping organs, and it +loses most of its outward resemblance to the other members of its class. + +Certain insects live sedentary or fixed lives. All the members of the +family of scale insects (Coccidae), in one sex at least, show degeneration +that has been caused by quiescence. One of these coccids, called the red +orange scale, is very abundant in Florida and California and in other +fruit-growing regions. The male is a beautiful, tiny, two-winged midge, +but the female is a wingless, footless, little sack, without eyes or other +organs of special sense, which lies motionless under a flat, thin, +circular, reddish scale composed of wax and two or three cast skins of the +insect itself. The insect has a long, slender, flexible, sucking beak, +which is thrust into the leaf or stem or fruit of the orange on which the +"scale bug" lives, and through which the insect sucks the orange sap, +which is its only food. It lays eggs under its body, and thus also under +the protecting wax scale, and dies. From the eggs hatch active little +larval "scale bugs," with eyes and feelers, and six legs. They crawl from +under the wax scale and roam about over the orange tree. Finally, they +settle down, thrusting their sucking beak into the plant tissue, and cast +their skin. The females lose at this molt their legs and eyes and feelers. +Each becomes a mere motionless sack capable only of sucking up sap and +laying eggs. The young males, however, lose their sucking beak and can no +longer take food, but they gain a pair of wings and an additional pair of +eyes. They fly about and fertilize the sacklike females, which then molt +again and secrete the thin wax scale over them. + +Throughout the animal kingdom loss of the need of movement is followed by +the loss of the power to move and of all structures related +to it. + +--Jordon and Kellogg: _Animal Life_. + + +Has the principle of unity been observed in the above selection; that is, +of the many things that might be told about a sea squirt, a barnacle, or a +scale bug, have the authors selected only those which serve to illustrate +degeneration through quiescence? + +Instead of one generalization supported by a series of facts to +each of which a paragraph is given, we may have several subordinate +generalizations relating to the subject of the theme. Each of these +subordinate generalizations may become the topic statement of a paragraph +which is further developed by giving specific instances or by some other +method of paragraph development. Such an order, that is, generalization +followed by the facts which illustrate it, is coherent; but care must be +taken to give each fact under the generalization to which it is most +closely related. On the other hand, our theme may be made coherent by +giving the facts first, and then the generalization that they establish. + + ++Theme XLIX.+--_Write a theme of three or more paragraphs illustrating or +proving some general statement by means of facts or specific instances._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. Young persons should not drink coffee. + 2. Reasons for the curfew bell. + 3. Girls wear their hair in a variety of ways. + 4. There are several kinds of boys in this school. + 5. Civilization increases as the facilities for transportation + increase. + 6. Trolley roads are of great benefit to the country. + 7. Presence of mind often averts danger. + + ++92. Development of a Composition by Stating Cause and Effect.+--The +statement of the causes of an event or condition may be used as a fifth +method of development. The principle, however, is not different from that +applied to the development of a paragraph by stating cause and effect +(Section 49). If several causes contribute to the same effect, each may be +given a separate paragraph, or several minor ones may be combined in one +paragraph. For the sake of unity we must include each fact, principle, or +statement in the paragraph to which it really belongs. The coherent order +is usually that which proceeds from causes to effects rather than that +which traces events backward from effects to causes. + + ++Theme L.+--_Write a theme of three or more paragraphs, stating causes and +effects._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. Why hospitals are necessary. + 2. Why cigarette smoking is dangerous. + 3. Why girls should take music lessons. + 4. The effect of climate upon health. + 5. The effect of rainfall upon the productivity and industries of a + country. + 6. The effect of mountains, lakes, or rivers upon exploration and + travel. + 7. What connection is there between occupation and height above the + sea level, and why? + 8. Why our city is located where it is. + 9. Why I came late to school. + + ++93. Combination of Methods of Development.+--Frequently the presentation +of our thought is made most effective by using some combination of the +methods of development discussed in this chapter. Time and place are often +interwoven, comparisons and contrasts flash into mind, general statements +need specific illustration, or results demand immediate explanation--all +in the same theme. Sometimes the order of coherence will be in doubt, for +cause and effect demand a different order of statement from that which +would be given were we to follow either time-order or position in space. +In such cases we must choose whether it is most important to tell first +_why_ or _when_ or _where_. The only rule that can be suggested is to do +that which will make our meaning most clear, because it is for the sake of +the clear presentation of our thought that we seek unity, coherence, and +emphasis. + + ++Theme LI.+--_Write a theme of several paragraphs. Use any method of +development or any combination of methods._ + +(Choose your own subject. After the theme is written make a list of all +the questions you should ask yourself about it. Correct the theme with +reference to each point in your list of questions.) + + +SUMMARY + + +1. General principles of composition. + _a._ Unity. + _b._ Coherence. + _c._ Emphasis. + (1) By position. + (2) By proportion of parts. + +2. An outline assists in securing unity, coherence, and emphasis. + +3. Methods of composition development: A composition may be developed-- + _a._ With reference to time-order. + _b._ With reference to position in space. + _c._ By use of comparison and contrast. + _d._ By stating generalization and facts. + _e._ By stating cause and effect. + _f._ By any suitable combination of the above methods. + +4. Transition and summary paragraphs may occur in compositions. + + + +VI. LETTER WRITING + + ++94. Importance of Good Letter Writing.+--Letter writing is the form of +written language used by most of us more frequently than any other form. +The importance of good letter writing is therefore obvious. Business, +personal, and social relations necessitate the writing of letters. We +are judged by those letters; and in order that we may be considered +businesslike, educated, and cultured, it is necessary that we should be +able to write good letters, not only as regards the form but also as +regards the subject-matter. The writing of good letters is often the means +of securing desirable positions and of keeping up pleasant and helpful +friendships. Since this form of composition plays so important a part in +our lives and the lives of those about us, it is worthy of careful study. + +The subject-matter is the most important part of the letter, but adherence +to usages generally adopted is essential to successful letter writing. +Some of these usages may seem trivial in themselves, but a lack of +attention to them shows either ignorance or carelessness on the part of +the writer, and the consequences resulting from this inattention are often +anything but trivial. Applicants for good positions have been rejected +either because they did not know the correct usages of letter writing, or +because they did not heed them. In no other form of composition are +the rules concerning form so rigid; hence the need of knowledge and +carefulness concerning them. + + ++95. Paper.+--The nature of the letter determines to some extent our +choice of paper. Business letters are usually written on large paper, +about ten by eight inches in size, while letters of friendship and notes +of various kinds are written on paper of smaller size. White or delicately +tinted paper is always in good taste for all kinds of letters. The use of +highly tinted paper is occasionally in vogue with some people, but failure +to use it is never an offense against the laws of good taste. It is +customary now to use unruled paper for all kinds of letters as well as for +other forms of compositions. For letters of friendship four-page paper is +preferred to that in tablet form. The order in which the pages are used +may vary; but whatever the order is, it should not be confusing to the +reader. + +Black ink should always be used. The writing should be neat and legible. +Attention should be paid to margin, paragraphs, and indentation. In fact, +all the rules of theme writing apply to letter writing, and to these are +added several others. + ++96. The Beginning of a Letter.+--Certain forms for the +beginning of letters have been agreed upon, and these +forms should be followed. The beginning of a letter +usually includes the heading, the address of the person or +persons to whom the letter is sent, and the salutation. + +Notice the following examples:-- + + +(1) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | 171 Miles Ave., | + | Cleveland, Ohio. | + | Oct. 21, 1905. | + | Marshall Field & Co., | + | State St., Chicago, Ill. | + | | + | Gentlemen: | + | | + + +(2) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Ottawa, Ill. | + | Nov. 9, 1905. | + | Dear Harold, | + | | + + +(3) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | 1028 Jackson Boulevard, | + | Chicago Ill. | + | Nov. 10, 1905. | + | Messrs. Johnson & Foote, | + | 120 Main St., | + | Pittsfield, Mass. | + | | + | Dear Sirs, | + | | + + +(4) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | 120 P Street, | + | Lincoln, Neb. | + | Oct. 17, 1905. | + | My dear Mrs. Scott, | + | | + + +(5) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Boston, Mass., Nov. 23, 1905. | + | | + | Dear Mother, | + | | + + +(6) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | 33 Front St., | + | Adrian, Mich. | + | Nov. 30, 1905. | + | Miss Gertrude Brown, | + | 228 Warren Ave., Chicago, Ill. | + | | + | Dear Madam: | + | | + + +(7) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | New Hartford, Conn. | + | Nov. 3, 1905. | + | My dear Henry, | + | | + + +The heading of a letter includes the address of the writer and the date of +the writing. When numerous letters are sent from one place to another, the +street and number may after a time be omitted from the heading. Example +(5) illustrates this. A son living in Boston has written to his mother +frequently and no longer considers it necessary to write the street and +number in every letter. If there is any doubt in the writer's mind as to +whether his address will be remembered or not, he should include it in the +letter. If the writer lives in a small place where the street and number +will not be needed in a reply sent to him, it is unnecessary for him to +make use of it in his letter. When the street and number are omitted, the +heading may be written on one line, as in example (5), but the use of two +lines is preferable. + +Custom has decreed that the proper place for the heading is in the +right-hand upper corner of the first page. Sometimes, especially in +business letters, we find the writer's address at the close of the letter, +but for the sake of convenience it is preferably placed at the beginning. +The first line should be about one inch and a half from the top of the +page. The second line should begin a little to the right of the first +line, and the third line, a little to the right of the second line. +Attention should be paid to proper punctuation in each line. + +In a comparatively few cases we may find that the omission of the date of +the letter will make no difference to the recipient, but in most cases it +will cause annoyance at least, and in many cases result in serious trouble +both to ourselves and to those who receive our letters. We should not +allow ourselves to neglect the date even in letters of apparently no great +importance. If we allow the careless habit of omitting dates to develop, +we may some day omit a date when the omission will affect affairs of great +importance. This date should include the day, month, and year. It is +better to write out the entire year, as 1905, not '05. + +In business letters it is customary to write the address of the person or +persons addressed at the left side of the page. Either two or three lines +may be used. The first line of this address should be one line lower than +the last line of the heading. Notice examples (1), (3), and (6). When the +address is thus written, the salutation is commonly written one line below +it. Sometimes the salutation is commenced at the margin, and sometimes a +little to the right of the address. Where there is no address, the +salutation is written a line below the date and begins with the margin, as +in examples (2), (4), (5), and (7). + +The form of salutation naturally depends upon the relations existing +between the correspondents. The forms _Dear Sir, My dear Sir, Madam, My +dear Madam, Dear Sirs, Gentlemen_, are used in formal business letters. +The forms _Dear Miss Robinson, My dear Mrs. Hobart, Dear Mr. Fraser, My +dear Mr. Scott_, are used in business letters when the correspondents are +acquainted with each other. The same forms are also used in letters of +friendship when the correspondents are not well enough acquainted with +each other to warrant the use of the more familiar forms, _My dear Mary, +Dear Edmund, My dear Friend, Dear Cousin, My dear little Niece_. + +There is no set rule concerning the punctuation of the salutation. The +comma, the colon, or the semicolon may be used either alone or in +connection with the dash. The comma alone seems to be the least formal of +all, and the colon the most so. Hence the former is used more frequently +in letters of friendship, and the latter more frequently in business +letters. + + ++97. Body of the Letter.+--The body of the letter is the important part; +in fact, it is the letter itself, since it contains the subject-matter. It +will be discussed under another head later, and is only mentioned here in +order to show its place in connection with the beginning of a letter. As a +rule, it is best to begin the body of our letters one line below, and +either directly underneath or to the right of the salutation. It is not +improper, however, especially in business letters, to begin it on the same +line with the salutation. A few examples will be sufficient to show the +variations of the place for beginning the main part of the letter. + + +(1) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | 1694 Cedar Ave., | + | Cleveland, Ohio. | + | June 23, 1905. | + | Messrs. Hanna, Scott & Co., | + | Aurora, Ill. | + | | + | Gentlemen:--I inclose a money order for $10.00, | + | etc. | + | | + + +(2) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Everett, Washington. | + | Oct. 20, 1905. | + | My dear Robert, | + | We are very glad that you have decided to make | + | us a visit, etc. | + | | + + +(3) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Greenwich, N.Y. | + | Sept. 19, 1905. | + | My dear Miss Russ, | + | Since I have been Miss Clark's assistant, etc. | + | | + + +(4) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | 2 University Ave., | + | Nashville, Tenn. | + | April 19, 1905. | + | The American Book Company, | + | 300 Pike St., | + | Cinncinnati, O. | + | | + | Dear Sirs:--Please send me by express two copies | + | of Halleck's English Literature, etc. | + | | + + ++98. Conclusion of a Letter.+--The conclusion of a letter includes what is +termed the complimentary close and the signature. Certain forms have been +agreed upon, which should be closely followed. + +Our choice of a complimentary close, like that of a salutation, depends +upon the relations existing between us and those to whom we are writing. +Such forms as _Your loving daughter, With love, Ever your friend, Your +affectionate mother_, should be used only when intimate relations exist +between correspondents. In letters where existing relations are not so +intimate and in some kinds of business letters the forms _Sincerely yours, +Yours very sincerely,_ may be used appropriately. The most common forms in +business letters are _Yours truly_ and _Very truly yours_. The forms +_Respectfully yours,_ or _Yours very respectfully,_ should be used only +when there is occasion for some special respect, as in writing to a person +of high rank or position. + +The complimentary close should be written one line below the last line of +the main part of the letter, and toward the right-hand side of the page. +Its first word should commence with a capital, and a comma should be +placed at its close. + +The signature properly belongs below and a little to the right of the +complimentary close. Except in cases of familiar relationship, the name +should be signed in full. It is difficult to determine the spelling of +unfamiliar proper names if they are carelessly written. It is therefore +important in writing to strangers that the signature should be made +plainly legible in order that they may know how to address the writer in +their reply. A lady should make it plain whether she is to be addressed as +_Miss_ or _Mrs._ This can be done either by placing the title _Miss_ or +_Mrs._ in parentheses before the name, or by writing the whole address +below and to the left of the signature. Boys and men may often avoid +confusion by signing their first name instead of using only initials. + +Notice the following examples of the complimentary close and signature:-- + + +(1) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Appleton, Wisconsin. | + | Sept. 3, 1905. | + | | + | My dear Cousin, | + | | + | | + | (Body of letter.) | + | | + | | + | Yours with love, | + | Gertrude Edmonds. | + | | + + +(2) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | 192 Lincoln Ave., | + | Worcester, Mass. | + | Nov. 25, 1905. | + | | + | L.B. Bliss & Co., | + | 109 Summer St., | + | Boston, Mass. | + | | + | | + | Dear Sirs; | + | | + | (Body of letter.) | + | | + | | + | | + | Very truly yours, | + | Walter A. Cutler. | + | | + + +(3) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Paxton, Ill. | + | July 3, 1905. | + | | + | American Typewriter Co., | + | 263 Broadway, New York. | + | | + | | + | Gentlemen: | + | | + | | + | (Body of letter.) | + | | + | | + | | + | Very truly yours, | + | (Miss) Jennie R. McAllister. | + | | + + +(4) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | May 5, 1905. | + | | + | Daniel Low & Co., | + | 232 Essex St., Salem, Mass. | + | | + | | + | Dear Sirs; | + | | + | | + | (Body of letter.) | + | | + | | + | | + | Mary E. Ball | + | | + | Mrs. George W. Ball, | + | 415 Fourth St., | + | La Salle, Ill. | + | | + + +(5) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Marshalltown, Iowa. | + | Oct. 3, 1905. | + | | + | My dear Miss Meyer, | + | | + | | + | (Body of letter.) | + | | + | | + | Sincerely yours, | + | Dorothy Doddridge. | + | | + + +EXERCISE + +Write suitable headings, salutations, complimentary endings, and +signatures for the following letters:-- + +1. To Spaulding & Co., Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill., ordering their rules + for basket ball. + +2. To your older brother. + +3. To the school board, asking for a gymnasium. + +4. To some business house, making application for a position. + +5. To the governor of your state. + +6. From one stranger to another. + +7. From an older brother to his little sister. + +8. From a boy living in New Orleans to the father of his most intimate + friend. + + ++99. The Envelope.+--The direction on the envelope, commonly called the +superscription, consists of the name and address of the person or persons +to whom the letter is sent. This direction should be written in a careful +and _courteous manner_, and should include all that is necessary to insure +the prompt delivery of the letter to the proper destination. + +The superscription may be arranged in three or four lines, each line +beginning a little to the right of the preceding line. The name should be +written about midway between the upper and lower edges of the envelope, +and there should be nearly an equal amount of space left at each side. If +there is any difference, there should be less space at the right than at +the left. The street and number may be written below the name, and the +city or town and state below. The street and number may be properly +written in the lower left-hand corner. This is also the place for any +special direction that may be necessary for the speedy transmission of the +letter; for example, "In care of Mr. Charles R. Brown." + +Women should be addressed as _Miss_ or _Mrs._ In case the woman is +married, her husband's first name and middle initial are commonly used, +unless it is known that she prefers to have her own first name used. Men +should be addressed as _Mr._, and a firm may in many cases be addressed as +_Messrs._ It is considered proper to use the titles _Dr._, _Rev._, etc., +in directing an envelope to a man bearing such a title, but it would be +entirely out of place to address the wife of a physician or clergyman as +_Mrs. Dr._ or _Mrs. Rev._ + +The names of states may be abbreviated, but care should be taken that +these abbreviations be plainly written, especially when there are other +similar abbreviations. In compound names, as North Dakota and West +Virginia, do not abbreviate one part of the compound and write out the +other. Either abbreviate both or write out both. If any punctuation +besides the period after abbreviations is used, it consists of a comma +after each line. It is the custom now to omit such punctuation. Either +form is in good taste, but whichever form is adopted, it should be +employed throughout the entire superscription. The comma should not be +used in one line and omitted in another. + +Notice the following forms of correct superscriptions:-- + +(1) + ______________________________________________________ + | + | + | + | + | Mr. Milo R. Maltbie + | 85 West 118th St. + | New York. + |______________________________________________________ + + +(2) + ______________________________________________________ + | + | + | + | + | Mr. John D. Clark + | New York + | N.Y. + | + | Teachers College + | Columbia University. + |______________________________________________________ + + +(3) + ______________________________________________________ + | + | + | + | + | Mrs. Edgar N. Foster + | South Haven + | Mich. + | + | Avery Beach Hotel. + | ______________________________________________________ + + +(4) + ______________________________________________________ + | + | + | + | + | Miss Louise M. Baker + | Nottingham + | Ohio. + | + | Box 129. + |______________________________________________________ + + +(5) + ______________________________________________________ + | + | + | + | + | Dr. James M. Postle + | De Kalb + | Ill. + | + |______________________________________________________ + + +(6) + ______________________________________________________ + | + | + | + | + | Miss Ida Morrison + | Chicago + | Ill. + | + | + | 1048 Warren Ave. + |______________________________________________________ + + +EXERCISE + +Write proper superscriptions to letters written to the following:-- + +1. Thaddeus Bolton, living at 524 Q Street, Lincoln, Nebraska. + +2. The wife of a physician of your acquaintance. + +3. James B. Angell, President of the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, + Michigan. + +4. Your mother, visiting some relative or friend. + +5. The publishers Allyn and Bacon, 878 Wabash Avenue, Chicago, Ill. + +6. Edward Harrington, living at 1962 Seventh Avenue, New York. + +7. To a friend at a seaside resort. + +8. To a friend visiting your uncle in Oakland, California. + + ++100. The Great Rule of Letter Writing.+--The great rule of letter writing +is, Never write a letter which you would not be willing to see in print +over your own signature. That which you _say_ in anger may be discourteous +and of little credit to you, but it may in time be forgotten; that which +you _write_, however, may be in existence an untold number of years. +Thousands of letters are now on exhibition whose authors never had such a +use of them in mind. If you ever feel like writing at the end of a letter, +"Burn this as soon as you read it," do not send it, but burn the letter +yourself. Before you sign your name to any letter read it over and ask +yourself, "Is this letter in form and contents one which would do me +credit if it should be published?" + + ++101. Business Letters.+--Since the purpose of business letters is to +inform, they should, first of all, be characterized by clearness. In +asking for information, be sure that you state your questions so that +there shall be no doubt in the mind of the recipient concerning the +information that you desire. In giving information, be equally sure to +state facts so clearly that there can be no possibility of a mistake. + +Brevity is the soul of business letters as well as of wit. Business men +are busy men. They have no time to waste in reading long letters, but wish +to gain their information quickly. Hence we should aim to state the +desired facts in as concise a manner as possible, and we should give only +pertinent facts. Short explanations may sometimes be necessary, but +nothing foreign to the subject-matter should ever be introduced. While we +should aim to make our letters short, they should not be so brief as to +appear abrupt and discourteous. It shows lack of courtesy to omit +important words or to make too frequent use of abbreviations. + +We should answer a business letter as soon as possible. This answer, +besides giving the desired information, should include a reference to the +letter received and an acknowledgment of inclosures, if there were any. +All questions should receive courteous replies. The facts should be +arranged in a form that will be convenient for the recipient. As a rule it +is best to follow the order which the writer has used in his letter, but +in some cases we may be able to state our facts more definitely and +concisely if we follow some other order. + +What has been said in general about attention to forms in letter writing +might well be emphasized here, for business men are keen critics +concerning letters received. Be careful to use the correct forms already +suggested. Also pay attention to punctuation, spelling, and grammar. Write +only on one side of the paper and fold the letter correctly. In fact, be +businesslike in everything connected with the writing of business letters. + +A few examples are here given for your notice:-- + + +(1) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Ypsilanti, Mich. | + | April 4, 1905. | + | | + | Mr. William Wylie, | + | 807 Linn St., Peoria, Ill. | + | | + | Dear Mr. Wylie; | + | Inclosed is a letter from Superintendent Rogers | + | of Rockford, Ill. The position of teacher of | + | mathematics is vacant. The salary may not be so | + | much as you now receive, but in many respects the | + | position is a desirable one. I advise you to apply | + | for it. | + | Sincerely yours, | + | Charles M. Gates. | + | | + + +(2) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | 586 State St., | + | Chicago, Ill. | + | July 20,1905. | + | | + | Mrs. Charles H. McNett, | + | 2345 Franklin St., | + | Denver, Colorado. | + | | + | Dear Madam:--Your card of July 9th is at hand. We | + | beg to say that we sent you the books by express, | + | prepaid, July 9th, and they have probably reached | + | you by this time. If you have not received them, | + | please notify us, and we will send a tracer after | + | them. | + | Very truly yours, | + | Brown and Sherman. | + | | + | | + + +(3) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Elgin High School, | + | Elgin, Ill. | + | Sept. 4, 1905. | + | | + | | + | Miss Ella B. Walker, | + | Herkimer, New York. | + | | + | My dear Miss Walker: | + | I am very sorry to have to trouble you, | + | but I am desirous of obtaining some information | + | concerning the High School Library. Will you kindly | + | let me know whether the card catalogue was kept up | + | to date prior to your departure and also whether the | + | accession book was in use up to that time? | + | I shall be greatly indebted to you if you will | + | give me this information. | + | Very sincerely yours, | + | Edward J. Taylor. | + | | + + +EXERCISE + + +Write at least three of the following suggested letters, paying attention +to the rules for writing business letters:-- + +1. Write to a dry goods firm, asking them to send you one of their + catalogues. + +2. Write to the manager of a football team of some town near yours, + proposing a game. + +3. Write the reply. + +4. In reply to an advertisement, write an application for the position of + clerk or bookkeeper. + +5. Write to the publishers of some magazine, asking them to change your + address from 27 K Street, Toledo, Ohio, to 2011 Prospect Avenue, + Beatrice, Nebraska. + +6. Suppose yourself doing postgraduate work in your high school. Write to + the president of some college, asking him concerning advanced credit. + + ++102. Letters of Friendship.+--While a great deal of information may be +obtained from some letters of friendship, the real purpose of such letters +is, usually, not to give information, but to entertain. You will notice +that the information derived from letters of friendship differs from that +found in business letters. Its nature is such that of itself it gives +pleasure. Our letters to our relatives, friends, and acquaintances are but +visits on paper, and it should be our purpose to make these visits as +enjoyable as possible. + +So much depends upon the circumstances attendant upon the writing of +letters of friendship, that it is impossible to make any definite +statement as to what they should contain. We may say in general that they +should contain matter interesting to the recipient, and that they should +be characterized by vividness and naturalness. Interesting material is a +requisite, but that of itself is not sufficient to make an entertaining +letter. Interesting material may be presented in so unattractive and +lifeless a manner that much of its power to please is lost. Let your +letters be full of life and spirit. In your descriptions, narrations, and +explanations, express yourself so clearly and so vividly that those who +read your letters will be able to understand exactly what you mean. + + +EXERCISES + + +1. Write a letter to a classmate who has moved to another town, telling + him of the school of which he was once a member. + +2. Write to a friend, describing your visit to the World's Fair at St. + Louis. + +3. Suppose yourself away from home. Write a letter to your little brother + or sister at home. + +4. If you have ever been abroad, describe in a letter some place of + interest that you have visited. + +5. Write to a friend who is fond of camping, about your camping + experience. + +6. Suppose your mother is away from home on a visit. Write her about the + home life. + +7. Write to a friend, describing a party that you recently attended. + +8. Suppose you have moved from one town to another. In a letter compare + the two towns. + + ++103. Adaptation to the Reader.+--The golden rule of letter writing is, +Adapt the letter to the reader. Although the letter is an expression of +yourself, yet it should be that kind of expression which shall most +interest and please your correspondent. In business letters the necessity +of brevity and clearness forces attention to the selection and arrangement +of details. In letters to members of the family or to intimate friends +we must include many very minor things, because we know that our +correspondent will be interested in them, but a rambling, disjointed +jumble of poorly selected and ill-arranged details becomes tedious. What +we should mention is determined by the interests of the readers, and the +successful letter writer will endeavor to know what they wish to have +mentioned. In writing letters to our friends we ought to show that +sympathetic interest in them and their affairs which we should have if we +were visiting with them. On occasion, our congratulations should be prompt +and sincere. + +In reading letters we must not be hasty to take offense. Many good +friendships have been broken because some statement in a letter was +misconstrued. The written words convey a meaning very different from that +which would have been given by the spoken word, the tone of voice, the +smile, and the personal presence. So in our writing we must avoid +all that which even borders on complaint, or which may seem critical or +fault-finding to the most sensitive. + + ++104. Notes.+--Notes may be divided in a general way into two classes, +formal and informal. Formal notes include formal invitations, replies, +requests, and announcements. Informal notes include informal invitations +and replies, and also other short communications of a personal nature on +almost every possible subject. + + ++105. Formal Notes.+--A formal invitation is always written in the third +person. The lines may be of the same length, or they may be so arranged +that the lines shall be of different lengths, thus giving the page a +somewhat more pleasing appearance. The heading, salutation, complimentary +close, and signature are all omitted. The address of the sender may be +written below the body of the letter. Many prefer it a little to the left, +and the date is sometimes written below it. Others, however, prefer it +directly below or a little to the right. + +Replies to formal invitations should always be written in the third +person, and should in general follow the style of the invitation. The date +and the hour of the invitation should be repeated in the reply, and this +reply should be sent immediately after receiving the invitation. + +A few examples are here given to show the correct forms of both +invitations and replies:-- + + +(1) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Mr. and Mrs. Frederick William Thompson | + | request the pleasure of your company | + | on Monday evening, December thirtieth, | + | at half-past eight o'clock. | + | | + + +(2) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Miss Barrows accepts with pleasure Mr. and | + | Mrs. Thompson's invitation for Monday evening, | + | December thirtieth, at half-past eight o'clock. | + | | + + +(3) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Mr. Morris regrets that a previous engagement | + | prevents his accepting Mr. and Mrs. Thompson's | + | kind invitation for Monday evening, December | + | the thirtieth. | + | | + + +(4) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Mr. and Mrs. Albert W. Elliott request the | + | pleasure of Mr. John Barker's company at dinner | + | on Wednesday, December sixth, at seven o'clock. | + | | + | 1068 Euclid Ave. | + | | + + +(5) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Mr. Barker regrets his inability to accept | + | Mr. and Mrs. Albert W. Elliott's invitation to | + | dinner at seven o'clock, Wednesday, December | + | sixth. | + | | + + +EXERCISE + + +1. Write an invitation to a golden wedding. + +2. Mrs. Homer A. Payne invites Miss Eva Milton to dine with her next week + Thursday at eight o'clock. Write out a formal invitation. + +3. Write regrets to Mrs. Payne's invitation. + +4. Write an acceptance of the same invitation. + +5. Write a formal invitation to a party to be given in honor of your + guest, Miss Grace Mason. + + ++106. Informal Notes.+--Informal invitations and replies may contain the +same subject-matter as formal invitations and replies. The only difference +is in the form in which they are written. The informal invitation is in +form similar to a letter except that the same exactness about the heading +is not required. Sometimes the heading is written and sometimes it is +omitted entirely. The address of the one sending the invitation and the +date may be written below the body of the note to the left of the +signature. The reply to an informal invitation should always be informal, +but the date and hour should be repeated as in replies to formal +invitations. + +A great many informal notes not included in invitations and replies are +constantly written. These are simply brief letters of friendship, and the +purposes for which they are written are exceedingly varied. When we write +congratulations or words of condolence, when we introduce one friend to +another, when we thank some one for a gift, and when we give words of +advice, and in many other instances, we make use of informal notes. They +should be simple, personal, and as a rule confined to but one subject. + +Notice the following examples of informal notes:-- + + +(1) + _________________________________________________________________ + | | + | My dear Mrs. Lathrop, | + | | + | Will you not give us the pleasure of your company | + | at dinner, on next Friday evening at seven o'clock? Miss Todd | + | of Philadelphia is visiting us, and we wish our friends to meet | + | her. | + | | + | Very sincerely yours, | + | Ethel M. Trainor. | + | 840 Forest Avenue, | + | Dec. 5, 1905. | + | | + + +(2) + _________________________________________________________________ + | | + | Dec. 6, 1905. | + | | + | My dear Mrs. Trainor, | + | | + | I sincerely regret that I cannot accept your invitation | + | to dinner next Friday evening, for I have made a previous | + | engagement which it will be impossible for me to break. | + | | + | Yours most sincerely, | + | Emma Lathrop. | + | | + + +(3) + _________________________________________________________________ + | | + | My dear Blanche, | + | | + | Mr. Gilmore and I are planning for a little party | + | Thursday evening of this week. I hope you have no other | + | engagement for that evening, as we shall be pleased to have | + | you with us. | + | Very cordially yours, | + | Margaret Gilmore. | + | | + + +(4) + ______________________________________________________________ + | | + | My dear Margaret, | + | | + | Fortunately I have no other engagement for this | + | week Thursday evening, and I shall be delighted to spend an | + | evening with you and your friends. | + | | + | Very sincerely yours, | + | Blanche A. Church. | + | | + + +EXERCISE + +Write the following informal notes:-- + +1. Write to a friend, asking him or her to lend you a book. + +2. Write an invitation to an informal trolley, tennis, or golf party. + +3. Write the reply. + +4. Invite one of your friends to spend his or her vacation with you. + +5. Write a note to your sister, asking her to send you your theme that you + left at home this morning. + +6. Mrs. Edgar A. Snow invites Miss Mabel Minard to dine with her. Write + out the invitation. + +7. Write the acceptance. + + + + +VII. POETRY + +[Footnote: _To the Teacher._--Since the expression of ideas in metrical +form is seldom the one best suited to the conditions of modern life, it +has not seemed desirable to continue the themes throughout this chapter. +The study of this chapter, with suitable illustrations from the poems to +which the pupils have access, may serve to aid them in their appreciation +of poetry. This appreciation of poetry will be increased if the pupils +attempt some constructive work. It is recommended, therefore, that one or +more of the simpler kinds of metrical composition be tried. For example, +one or two good ballads may be read and the pupils asked to write similar +ones. Some pupils may be able to write blank verse.] + ++107. Purpose of Poetry.+--All writing aims to give information or to +furnish entertainment (Section 54). Often the same theme may both inform +and entertain, though one of these purposes may be more prominent than the +other. Prose may merely entertain, or it may so distinctly attempt to set +forth ideas clearly that the giving of pleasure is entirely neglected. In +poetry the entertainment side is never thus subordinated. Poetry always +aims to please by the presentation of that which is beautiful. All real +poetry produces an aesthetic effect by appealing to our aesthetic sense; +that is, to our love of the beautiful. + +In making this appeal to our love of the beautiful, poetry depends both +upon the ideas it contains and upon the forms it uses. Like prose, it +may increase its aesthetic effect by appropriate phrasing, effective +arrangement, and subtle suggestiveness, but it also makes use of certain +devices of language such as rhythm, rhyme, etc., which, though they may +occur in writings that would be classed as prose, are characteristic of +poetry. Much depends upon the ideas that poetry contains; for mere +nonsense, though in perfect rhyme and rhythm, is not poetry. But it is not +the idea alone which makes a poem beautiful; it is the form as well. The +merely trivial cannot be made beautiful by giving it poetical form, but +there are many poems containing ideas of small importance which please us +because of the perfection of form. We enjoy them as we do the singing of +the birds or the murmuring of the brooks. In fact, poetry is inseparable +from its characteristic forms. To sort out, re-arrange, and paraphrase +into second-class prose the ideas which a poem contains is a profitless +and harmful exercise, because it emphasizes the intellectual side of a +work which was created for the purpose of appealing to our aesthetic +sense. + ++108. Rhythm.+--There are several forms characteristic of poetry, by the +use of which its beauty and effectiveness are enhanced. Of these, rhythm +is the most prominent one, without which no poetry is possible. In its +widest sense, rhythm indicates a regular succession of motions, impulses, +sounds, accents, etc., producing an agreeable effect. Rhythm in poetry +consists of the recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables in regular +succession. In poetry, care must be taken to make the accented syllable of +a word come at the place where the rhythm demands an accent. The regular +recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables produces a harmony which +appeals to our aesthetic sense and thus enhances for us the beauty of +poetry. Read the following selections so as to show the rhythm:-- + + +1. + +We were crowded in the cabin; + Not a soul would dare to speak; +It was midnight on the waters + And a storm was on the deep. + +--James T. Fields. + + +2. + +Break, break, break, + At the foot of thy crags, O sea! +But the tender grace of a day that is dead + Will never come back to me. + +--Tennyson. + + +3. + +Ah, distinctly I remember, it was in the bleak December, + And each separate dying ember wrought its ghost upon the floor + +--Poe. + + +4. + +Sweet and low, sweet and low, + Wind of the western sea, +Low, low, breathe and blow, + Wind of the western sea! + +Over the rolling waters go, + Come from the dying moon and blow, +Blow him again to me; + While my little one, while my pretty one sleeps. + +--Tennyson. + + +5. + +Stone walls do not a prison make, + Nor iron bars a cage; +Minds innocent and quiet take + That for a hermitage. + +--Lovelace. + + +6. + +Merrily swinging on brier and weed, + Near to the nest of his little dame, +Over the mountain side or mead, + Robert of Lincoln is telling his name: +Bob-o'-link, bob-o'-link, + Spink, spank, spink, +Snug and safe is this nest of ours, + Hidden among the summer flowers. + Chee, chee, chee. + +--Bryant. + + +7. + +Grow old along with me! + The best is yet to be, +The last of life, for which the first was made: + Our times are in His hand +Who saith, "A whole I planned, + Youth shows but half; trust God: see all, nor be afraid!" + +--Browning. + + ++109. Feet.+--The metrical effect of the preceding selections is produced +by the regular recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables. A group of +accented and unaccented syllables is called a foot. There are four regular +feet in English verse, the iambus, the anapest, the trochee, and the +dactyl. Three irregular feet, the pyrrhic, the spondee, the amphibrach, +are occasionally found in lines, but not in entire poems, and are often +considered merely as substitutes for regular feet. For the sake of +convenience the accented syllables are indicated thus: _, and the +unaccented syllables thus: U. + +_An iambus_ is a foot consisting of two syllables with the accent on the +last. + + + U _| U _| U _| U _| U _| +Let not ambition mock their useful toil. + +--Gray. + + +U _|U _| U _|U _| +He prayeth best who loveth best + + U _| U _| U _| + All things both great and small; + + _ U | U _| U _|U _| +For the dear God who loveth us, + + U _| U _|U _| + He made and loveth all. + +--Coleridge. + + +_An anapest_ is a foot consisting of three syllables with the accent on +the last. + + +U U _| U U _|U U _| +I am monarch of all I survey. +U U _ | U U _ | U U _ | +I would hide with the beasts of the chase. + + +_A trochee_ is a foot consisting of two syllables with the accent on the +first. + + + _ U | _ U | _ U | _ U| +Double, double, toil and trouble. + +--Shakespeare. + + + _ U | _ U |_ U |_ U | +Let us then be up and doing, + _ U| _ U | _U | _ | +With a heart for any fate, + _ U |_ U | _ U|_ U | +Still achieving, still pursuing, + _ U | _ U |_ U | _ | +Learn to labor and to wait. + +--Longfellow. + + +_A dactyl_ is a foot consisting of three syllables with the accent on the +first. + + +_ U U | _ U U | +Cannon to right of them, +_ U U | _ U U | +Cannon to left of them, +_ U U | _ U U | +Cannon in front of them, +_ U U |_ U | +Volleyed and thundered. + +--Tennyson. + + +It will be convenient to remember that two of these, the iambus and the +anapest, have the accent on the last syllable, and that two, the trochee +and the dactyl, have the accent on the first syllable. + + +_A spondee_ is a foot consisting of two syllables, both of which are +accented about equally. It is an unusual foot in English poetry. + + + U _ | _ _ | U _| U _ | +Come now, blow, Wind, and waft us o'er. + + +_A pyrrhic_ is a foot consisting of two syllables both of which are +unaccented. It is frequently found at the end of a line. + + + U _ | U _ | U _|U U + Life is so full of misery. + + +_An amphibrach_ is a foot consisting of three syllables, with +the accent on the second. + + + U _ U U _ U| U _ U| U _ | + Creator, Preserver, Redeemer and friend. + + ++110. Names of Verse.+--A single line of poetry is called a verse. A +stanza is composed of several verses. When a verse consists of one foot, +it is called a monometer; of two feet, a dimeter; of three feet, a +trimeter; of four feet, a tetrameter; of five feet, a pentameter; and of +six feet, a hexameter. + + _ U +Monometer. Slowly. + + + _ U U| _ U U | +Dimeter. Emblem of happiness. + + + _ U| _U| _ U | +Trimeter. Like a poet hidden. + + + _ U| _ U| _ U | _ U | +Tetrameter. Tell me not in mournful numbers. + + + U _ |U _ |U _| U _ | U _ | +Pentameter. O, what a goodly outside falsehood hath. + + + _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U +Hexameter. This is the forest primeval; the murmuring pines and + U | _ U | + the hemlocks. + + +When we say that a verse is of any particular kind, we do not mean that +every foot in that line is necessarily of the same kind. Verse is named by +stating first the prevailing foot which composes it, and second the number +of feet in a line. A verse having four iambic feet is called iambic +tetrameter. So we have dactylic hexameter, trochaic pentameter, iambic +trimeter, anapestic dimeter, etc. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Mark the accented and unaccented syllables in the following +selections, and name the kind of verse:-- + +1. + +Build me straight, O worthy Master! + Stanch and strong, a goodly vessel +That shall laugh at all disaster + And with wave and whirlwind wrestle. + +--Longfellow. + + +2. + +I know not where His islands lift + Their fronded palms in air, +I only know I cannot drift + Beyond His love and care. + +--Whittier. + + +3. + +For tho' from out our bourne of Time and Place + The flood may bear me far, +I hope to see my Pilot face to face + When I have crossed the bar. + +--Tennyson. + + +4. + +Chanting of labor and craft, and of Wealth in the pot and the + garner; +Chanting of valor and fame, and the man who can, fall with the + foremost, +Fighting for children and wife, and the field which his father + bequeathed him, +Sweetly and solemnly sang she, and planned new lessons for + mortals. + +--Kingsley. + + +5. + +Have you read in the Talmud of old, +In the Legends the Rabbins have told, + Of the limitless realms of the air, +Have you read it,--the marvelous story +Of Sandalphon, the Angel of Glory, + Of Sandalphon, the Angel of Prayer? + +--Longfellow. + + +_B._ 1. Find three poems written in iambic verse, and three written in +trochaic verse. + +2. Write at least one stanza, using iambic verse. + +3. Write at least one stanza, using the same kind of verse that you find +in Tennyson's "Charge of the Light Brigade." + +4. Write two anapestic lines. + + ++111. Variation in Rhythm.+--The name given to a verse is determined by +the foot which prevails, but not every foot in the line needs to be of the +same kind. Just as in music we may substitute a quarter for two eighth +notes, so may we in poetry substitute one foot for another, provided it is +given the same amount of time. + +Notice in the following that the rhythm is perfect and the beat regular, +although a three-syllable anapest has been substituted in the second line +for a two-syllable iambus:-- + + + U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ | +Beneath those rugged elms, that yew tree's shade, + U _ | U _ | U _| U U _ | U _ | +Where heaves the turf in many a moldring heap, + _ U | U _ | U _ | U _ |U _ | +Each in his narrow cell for ever laid, + U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ | +The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. + + +The following from _Evangeline_ illustrates the substitution of trochees +for dactyls:-- + + + _ U U | _ U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U | +Waste are those pleasant farms, and the farmers forever departed. + + _ U U | _ U | _ U U | _ U | _ U U|_ U +Scattered like dust and leaves, when the mighty blasts of October + + _ U U | _ U U |_ U | _ U U | _ U U |_ U | +Seize them and whirl them aloft, and sprinkle them far o'er the ocean. + + _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U +Naught but tradition remains of the beautiful village of Grand-Pre. + + +It is evident that one foot can be substituted for another if the accent +is not changed. Since both the iambus and the anapest are accented on the +last syllable, they may be interchanged. The trochee and the dactyl are +both accented on the first syllable and may, therefore, be interchanged. + +There are some exceptions to the general rule that in substituting one +foot for another the accented syllable must be kept in the same part of +the foot. Occasionally a poem in which the prevailing foot is iambic has a +trochee for the first foot of a line in order that it may begin with an +accented syllable. At the beginning of a line the change of accent is +scarcely noticeable. + + +_ U | U _ | U _ |U _ | +Over the rail my hand I trail. + +_ U | U _ | U _ | U _ | +Silent the crumbling bridge we cross! + + +But if the reader has once fallen into the swing of iambic verse, the +substitution of a trochee will bring the accent at an unexpected place, +interrupt the smooth flow of the rhythm, and produce a harsh and jarring +effect. Such a change of accent is justified only when the sense of the +verse leads the reader to expect the changed accent, or when the emphasis +thus given to the sense of the poem more than compensates for the break in +the rhythm produced by the change of accent. + +Another form of metrical variation is that in which there are too few or +too many syllables in a foot. This generally occurs at the end of a line, +but may occur at the beginning. If a syllable is added or omitted +skillfully, the rhythm will be unbroken. + +When the feet are accented on the last syllable,--that is, when the verse +is iambic or anapestic,--an extra syllable may be added at the end of a +line. + + +U _ |U U _ |U _ | U +I stood on the bridge at midnight, + + U U _ | U _ |U U _ | + As the clocks were striking the hour; + + U U _ | U _ | U _|U +And the Moon rose o'er the city, + + U _ | U _ | U _ | + Behind the dark church tower. + +--Longfellow. + + + U _ | U _ |U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ | +Girt round with rugged moun[tains], the fair Lake Constance lies, + + U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ |U _ | +In her blue heart reflect[ed] shine back the starry skies; + + U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ |U _ | U _ | +And watching each white cloud[let] float silently and slow, + + U _ | U _ | U _ | U _| U _ | U _| +You think a piece of heav[en] lies on our earth below. + +--Adelaide A. Procter. + + +In the second illustration the extra syllables have the same relative +position in the metrical scheme as in the first, though they appear to be +in the middle of the line. The pauses fill in the time and preserve the +rhythm unbroken. + +When the feet are accented on the first syllable--as in trochaic or +dactylic verse--a syllable may be omitted from the end of a line as in the +second and fourth below. + + +_ U U | _ U U | _ U U| _ U | +Up with the lark in the first flush of morning, + + _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ | + Ere the world wakes to its work or its play; + + _ U U| _ U U | _ U U | _ U | +Off for a spin to the wide-stretching country, + + _ U U | _ U U | _ U U|_ | + Far from the close, stifling city away. + + +Sometimes we find it necessary to suppress a syllable in order to make the +rhythm more nearly perfect. Syllables may be suppressed in two ways: by +suppressing a vowel at the end of a word when the next word commences with +a vowel; by suppressing a vowel within a word. The former method is termed +elision, and the latter, slurring. + + + U _ | U _ |U _ | U _ | U _ | +Thou glorious mirror where the Almighty's form + U U + + _ U |U _| U _ | U +Glasses itself in tempests. + +--Byron. + + +An accented syllable often takes the place of an entire foot. This occurs +most frequently at the end of a line, but it is sometimes found at the +beginning. Occasionally whole lines are formed in this way. If a pause or +rest is made, the rhythm will be unbroken. + + +u _ | u _ | u _ | + Break, break, break, + + U U _ | U _ | U _ | + On thy cold gray stones, O sea! + + U U _ | U U _ | U _|U + And I would that my tongue could utter + + U _ | U U _ |U _| + The thoughts that arise in me. + +--Tennyson. + + +We frequently find verses in which a syllable is lacking at the close of +the line; we also find many verses in which an extra syllable is added. +Verse that contains the number of syllables required by its meter is said +to be acatalectic; if it contains more than the required number of +syllables, it is said to be hypercatalectic; and if it lacks a syllable, +it is termed catalectic. It is difficult to tell whether a line has the +required number of syllables or not when it is taken by itself; but by +comparing it with the line prevailing in the rest of the stanza we are +enabled to tell whether it is complete or not. Shakespeare's _Julius +Caesar_ is written in iambic pentameter verse. Knowing this, we can detect +the hypercatalectic and catalectic lines. + + + U _| U _ | U _| U _| U _ | +You all did see that on the Lupercal + +U _ | U _| U _ |U _| U _| +I thrice presented him a kingly crown + + U _| U _ |U _ | U _ | U _| U +Which he did thrice refuse. Was this ambition? + + U _| U _ | U _ | U _ | U +Yet Brutus says he was ambitious. + +--Shakespeare. + + ++112. Cesura.+--Besides the pauses caused by rests or silences there is +the cesural pause which needs to be considered in reading verse. A cesura +is a pause determined by the sense. It coincides with some break in the +sense. It is found in different parts of the verse and may be entirely +lacking. Its observance does not noticeably interfere with the rhythm. In +the following selection it is marked thus: ||. + + + U _ | U _ | U _| U _ | +The sun came up || upon the left, + + _ U| U _ | U _ | + Out of the sea || came he; + + U _| U _ | U _| U _| +And he shone bright, || and on the right + + U _ | U_ | U _ | + Went down || into the sea + +--Coleridge. + + +Lives of great men || all remind us + We can make our lives || sublime, +And, departing, || leave behind us, + Footprints || on the sands of time. + +--Longfellow. + + +Read the selections on page 197 so as to indicate the position of the +cesural pauses. + + ++113. Scansion.+--Scansion is the separation of a line into the feet which +compose it. In order to scan a line we must determine the rhythmic +movement of it. The rhythmic movement determines the accented syllables. +Sometimes in scanning, merely the accented syllables are marked. Usually +the whole metrical scheme is indicated, as in the examples on page 199. + + +EXERCISE + + +Scan the following selections. Note substitutions and +elusions. + + +1. + +The night has a thousand eyes, + And the day but one; +Yet the light of the bright world dies + With the dying sun. +The mind has a thousand eyes, + And the heart but one; +Yet the light of a whole life dies + When love is gone. + +--Francis W. Bourdillon. + + +2. + +Laugh, and the world laughs with you, +Weep, and you weep alone; +For the sad old earth must borrow its mirth, +But has trouble enough of its own. + +--Ella Wheeler Wilcox. + + +3. + +Hear the robin in the rain, +Not a note does he complain. +But he fills the storm refrain +With music of his own. + +--Charles Coke Woode. + + +4. + +The mistletoe hung in the castle hall, +The holly branch shone on the old back wall +And the baron's retainers are blithe and gay, +And keeping their Christmas holiday. + +--Thomas Haynes Bagley. + + ++114. Rhyme.+--Rhyme is a regular recurrence of similar sounds. In a broad +sense, it may include sounds either terminal or not, but as here used it +refers to terminal sounds. + +Just as we expect a recurrence of accent in a line, so may we expect a +recurrence of similar sounds at the end of certain lines of poetry. The +interval between the rhymes may be of different lengths in different +poems, but when the interval is once established, it should be followed +throughout the poem. A rhyme out of place jars upon the rhythmic +perfection of a stanza just as an accent out of place interferes with the +rhythm of the verse. + +Not only should the rhymes occur at expected places, but they should be +the expected rhymes; that is, real rhymes. If we are expecting a word +which will rhyme with _blossom_ and find _bosom_, or if we are expecting a +rhyme for _breath_ and find _beneath_, the effect is unpleasant. The +rhymes named above are based on spelling, while a real rhyme is based on +sound. A correct rhyme should have precisely the same vowel sounds and the +final consonants should be the same, but the initial consonant should be +different. For example: _death, breath; home, roam; tongue, young; +debating, relating_. + +Notice the arrangement of the rhymes in the following selections:-- + + +1. + +My soul to-day is far away, +Sailing the Vesuvian Bay; +My winged boat, a bird afloat, +Swims round the purple peaks remote. + +--T. Buchanan Read. + + +2. + +I come from haunts of coot and hern, + I make a sudden sally, +And sparkle out among the fern, + To bicker down the valley. + +By thirty hills I hurry down, + Or slip between the ridges, +By twenty thorps, a little town, + And half a hundred bridges. + +--Tennyson. + + +3. + +I know it is a sin +For me to sit and grin + At him here; +But the old three-cornered hat +And the breeches, and all that, + Are so queer! + +--Holmes. + + +4. + + The splendor falls on castle walls + And snowy summits old in story; + The long light shakes across the lakes + And the wild cataract leaps in glory. +Blow, bugle, blow, set the wild echoes flying; +Blow, bugle; answer, echoes, dying, dying, dying. + +--Tennyson. + + +5. + +Breathes there a man with soul so dead +Who never to himself hath said, + This is my own, my native land! +Whose heart hath ne'er within him burned +As home his footsteps he hath turned + From wandering in a foreign strand! +If such there be, go mark him well: +For him no minstrel raptures swell; +High though his titles, proud his name, +Boundless his wealth as wish can claim: +Despite those titles, power, and pelf, +The wretch concentered all in self, +Living, shall forfeit fair renown +And, doubly dying, shall go down +To the vile dust from whence he sprung, +Unwept, unhonored, and unsung. + +--Scott. + + ++115. Blank Verse.+--When rhyme is omitted, we have blank verse. This is +the most dignified of all kinds of verse, and is, therefore, appropriate +for epic and dramatic poetry, where it is chiefly found. Most blank verse +makes use of the iambic pentameter measure, but we find many exceptions. +Read the following examples of blank verse so as to show the rhythm:-- + + +1. + + So live, that when thy summons comes to join +The innumerable caravan that moves +To the pale realms of shade, where each shall take +His chamber in the silent halls of death, +Thou go not like the quarry slave at night +Scourged to his dungeon, but, sustained and soothed +By an unfaltering trust, approach the grave +Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch +About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams. + +--Bryant. + + +2. + + I stood upon the steps-- +The last who left the door--and there I found +The lady and her friend. The elder turned +And with a cordial greeting took my hand, +And rallied me on my forgetfulness. +Her eyes, her smile, her manner, and her voice. +Touched the quick springs of memory, and I spoke +Her name. She was my mother's early friend +Whose face I had not seen in all the years +That had flown over us, since, from her door, +I chased her lamb to where I found--myself. + +--Holland. + + ++116. The Stanza.+--Some of our verse is continuous like Milton's +_Paradise Lost_ or Shakespeare's plays, but much of it is divided into +groups called stanzas. The lines or verses composing a stanza are bound +together by definite principles of rhythm and rhyme. Usually stanzas of +the same poem have the same structure, but stanzas of different poems show +a variety of structure. + +Two of the most simple forms are the couplet and the triplet. They often +form a part of a continuous poem, but they are occasionally found in +divided poems. + + +1. + +The western waves of ebbing day +Roll'd o'er the glen their level way. + +--Scott. + + +2. + +A chieftain's daughter seemed the maid; +Her satin snood, her silken plaid, +Her golden brooch such birth betray'd. + +--Scott. + + +A stanza of four lines is called a quatrain. The lines of quatrains show a +variety in the arrangement of their rhymes. The first two lines may rhyme +with each other and the last two with each other; the first and fourth may +rhyme and the second and third; or the rhymes may alternate. Notice the +example on page 208, and also the following:-- + + +1. + +I ask not wealth, but power to take + And use the things I have aright. +Not years, but wisdom that shall make + My life a profit and delight. + +--Phoebe Cary. + + +2. + +I count this thing to be grandly true: + That a noble deed is a step toward God,-- + Lifting the soul from the common sod +To a purer air and a broader view. + +--Holland. + + +A quatrain consisting of iambic pentameter verse with alternate rhymes is +called an elegiac stanza. + + +Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight, + And all the air a solemn stillness holds, +Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight, + And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds. + +--Gray. + + +The Tennysonian stanza consists of four iambic tetrameter lines in which +the first line rhymes with the fourth, and the second with the third. + + +Let knowledge grow from more to more, + But more of reverence in us dwell; + That mind and soul, according well, +May make one music as before. + +--Tennyson. + + +Five and six line stanzas are found in a great variety. The following are +examples:-- + + +1. + +We look before and after, + And pine for what is not; +Our sincerest laughter + With some pain is fraught; +Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought. + +--Shelley. + + +2. + +And if I should live to be +The last leaf upon the tree + In the spring. +Let them smile as I do now, +At the old forsaken bough + Where I cling. + +--Holmes. + + +3. + +The upper air burst into life; +And a hundred fire flags sheen, +To and fro they were hurried about; +And to and fro, and in and out, +The wan stars danced between. + +--Coleridge. + + +The Spenserian stanza consists of nine lines: the first eight are iambic +pentameters, and the last line is an iambic hexameter or Alexandrine. +Burns makes use of this stanza in _The Cotter's Saturday Night._ The +following stanza from that poem shows the plan of the rhymes:-- + + +O Scotia! my dear, my native soil! + For whom my warmest wish to Heaven is sent! +Long may thy hardy sons of rustic toil + Be blest with health, and peace, and sweet content! + And oh! may Heaven their simple lives prevent +From luxury's contagion, weak and vile! + Then, howe'er crowns and coronets be rent, +A virtuous populace may rise the while, +And stand a wall of fire around their much beloved isle. + + +EXERCISES + +_A._ Scan the following:-- + + +Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting: +The soul that rises with us, our life's star, + Hath had elsewhere its setting, + And cometh from afar: + Not in entire forgetfulness, + And not in utter nakedness, +But trailing clouds of glory do we come + From God, who is our home. + +--Wordsworth. + + +Into the sunshine, + Full of light, +Leaping and flashing + From morn to night! + +--Lowell. + + +_B._ Name each verse in the following stanza:-- + + + Hear the sledges with the bells-- + Silver bells! +What a world of merriment their melody foretells! + How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle, + In the icy air of night! +While the stars that oversprinkle + All the heavens seem to twinkle + With a crystalline delight-- + Keeping time, time, time, + In a sort of Runic rhyme +To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells + From the bells, bells, bells, bells, + Bells, bells, bells-- +From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells. + +--Poe. + + ++117. Kinds of Poetry.+-There are three general classes of poetry: +narrative, lyric, and dramatic. + +_A. Narrative poetry_, as may be inferred from its name, relates events +which may be either real or imaginary. Its chief varieties are the epic, +the metrical romance or lesser epic, the tale, and the ballad. + +_An epic_ poem is an extended narrative of an elevated character that +deals with heroic exploits which are frequently under supernatural +control. This kind of poetry is characterized by the intricacy of plot, by +the delineation of noble types of character, by its descriptive effects, +by its elevated language, and by its seriousness of tone. The epic is +considered as the highest effort of man's poetic genius. It is so +difficult to produce an epic that but few literatures contain more than +one. Homer's _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, Virgil's _Aeneid_, the German +_Nibelungenlied_, the Spanish _Cid_, Dante's _Divine Comedy_, and Milton's +_Paradise Lost_ are important epics found in different literatures. + +A _metrical romance_ or lesser epic is a narrative poem, shorter and less +dignified than the epic. Longfellow's _Evangeline_ and Scott's _Marmion_ +and _Lady of the Lake_ are examples of this kind of poetry. + +_A metrical tale is_ a narrative poem somewhat simpler and shorter than +the metrical romance, but more complex than the ballad. Longfellow's +_Tales of a Wayside Inn_, Tennyson's _Enoch Arden_, and Lowell's _Vision +of Sir Launfal_ are examples of the tale. + +_A ballad_ is the shortest and most simple of all narrative poems. It +relates but a single incident and has a very simple structure. In this +kind of poetry the interest centers upon the incident rather than upon any +beauty or elegance of language. Many of the Robin Hood Ballads are well +known. Macaulay's _Lays of Ancient Rome_ and Longfellow's _Wreck of the +Hesperus_ are other examples of the ballad. It may be well to note here +that it is not always possible to draw definite lines between two +different kinds of narrative poetry. In fact, there will sometimes be a +difference of opinion as regards the classification. + +_B. Lyric poetry_ was the name originally applied to poetry that was to be +sung to the accompaniment of the lyre, but now the name is often applied +to poems that are not intended to be sung at all. Lyric poetry deals +primarily with the feelings and emotions. Love, hate, jealousy, grief, +hope, and praise are emotions that may be expressed in lyric poetry. Its +chief varieties are the song, the ode, the elegy, and the sonnet. + +A _song_ is a short poem intended to be sung. Songs may be divided into +sacred and secular. _Jerusalem, the Golden_, and _Lead, Kindly Light_, are +examples of sacred songs. Secular songs may be patriotic, convivial, or +sentimental. + +An _ode_ expresses exalted emotion and is more complex in structure than +the song. Some of the best odes in our language are Dryden's _Ode to St. +Cecilia_, Wordsworth's _Ode on Intimations of Immortality_, Keats's _Ode +on a Grecian Urn_, Shelley's _Ode to a Skylark_, and Lowell's +_Commemoration Ode_. + +An _elegy_ is a lyric pervaded by the feeling of grief or melancholy. +Milton's _Lycidas_, Tennyson's _In Memoriam_, and Gray's _Elegy in a +Country Churchyard_ are all noted elegies. + +A _sonnet_ is a lyric poem of fourteen lines which deals with a single +idea or sentiment. It is not a stanza taken from a poem, but is a complete +poem itself. In the Italian sonnet and those modeled after it, the +emotional feeling rises through the first two quatrains, reaching its +climax at or near the end of the eighth line, and then subsides through +the two tercets which make up the remaining six lines. If the sentiment +expressed does not adjust itself to this ebb and flow, it is not suitable +for a sonnet. Milton's sonnet on his blindness is one of the best. Notice +the emotional transition in the middle of the eighth line. This sonnet +will also illustrate the fixed rhyme scheme:-- + + +When I consider how my light is spent +Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide, +And that one talent, which is death to hide, +Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent +To serve therewith my Maker, and present +My true account, lest he, returning, chide; +Doth God exact day labor, light denied? +I fondly ask. But Patience, to prevent +That murmur, soon replies, God doth not need, +Either man's work or his own gifts. Who best +Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best. His state +Is kingly; thousands at his bidding speed, +And post o'er land and ocean without rest; +They also serve who only stand and wait. + + +There is a form of sonnet called the Shakespearean which differs in its +arrangement from the Italian sonnet. + +_C. Dramatic poetry_ relates the occurrence of human events, and is +designed to be spoken on the stage. If the drama has an unhappy ending, it +is _a tragedy_. As is becoming in such a theme, the language is dignified +and impressive, and the whole appeals to our deeper emotions. If the drama +has a happy conclusion, it is _a comedy_. Here the movement is quicker, +the language less dignified, and the effort is to make the whole light and +amusing. + + + +PART II + + +Description, Narration, Exposition, and Argument have been treated in an +elementary way in Part I. A more extensive treatment of each is given in +Part II. It has been deemed undesirable to repeat in Part II many things +which have been previously treated. The treatment of any one of the forms +of discourse as given in Part II is not complete. By reference to the +index all the sections treating of any phase of any one subject may be +found. + + +[Illustration: See page 224, _C._] + + + +VIII. DESCRIPTION + + ++118. Description Defined.+--By means of our senses we gain a knowledge of +the world. We see, hear, taste, smell, and feel; and the ideas so acquired +are the fundamental elements of our knowledge, without which thinking +would be impossible. It, therefore, happens that much of the language that +we use has for its purpose the transmission to others of such ideas. Such +writing is called description. We may, therefore, define description as +that form of discourse which has for its purpose the formation of an +image. + +As here used, the term _image_ applies to any idea presented by the +senses. In a more limited sense it means the mental picture which is +formed by aid of sight. It is for the purpose of presenting images of this +kind that description is most often employed. It is most frequently +concerned with images of objects seen, less frequently with sounds, and +seldom with ideas arising through touch, taste, and smell. In this +chapter, therefore, we shall consider chiefly the methods of using +language for the purpose of arousing images of objects seen. + + ++119. Order of Observation.+--In description we shall find it of advantage +to use such language that the reader will form the image in the same way +as he would form an image from actual observation. There is a customary +and natural order of observation, and if we present our material in that +same order, the mind more easily forms the desired image. Our first need +in the study of description is to determine what this natural order of +observation is. + +Look at the building across the street. Your _first_ impression is that of +size, shape, and color. Almost instantly, but nevertheless _secondly_, you +add certain details as to roof, door, windows, and surroundings. Further +observation adds to the number of details, such as the size of the window +panes or the pattern of the lattice work. Our first glance may assure us +that we see a train, our second will tell us how many cars, our third will +show us that each car is marked Michigan Central. The oftener we look or +the longer we look, the greater is the number of details of which we +become conscious. Any number of illustrations will show that we first see +the general outline, and after that the details. We do not observe the +details one by one and then combine them into an object, but we first see +the object as a whole, and our first impression becomes more vivid as we +add detail after detail. + +Following this natural order of observation a description should begin +with a sentence that will give the reader a general impression of the +whole. Notice the beginnings of the following selections. After reading +the italicized sentence in each, consider the image that it has caused you +to form. + + +The door opened upon the main or living room. _It was a long apartment +with low ceiling and walls of hewn logs chinked and plastered and all +beautifully whitewashed and clean._ The tables, chairs, and benches were +all homemade. On the floor were magnificent skins of wolf, bear, musk ox, +and mountain goat. The walls were decorated with heads and horns of deer +and mountain sheep, eagle's wings, and a beautiful breast of a loon, which +Gwen had shot and of which she was very proud. At one end of the room a +huge stone fireplace stood radiant in its summer decorations of ferns and +grasses and wildflowers. At the other end a door opened into another room, +smaller, and richly furnished with relics of former grandeur. + +--Connor: _The Sky Pilot_. + + +_The stranger was of middle height, loosely knit and thin, with a cunning, +brutal face._ He had a bullet-shaped head, with fine, soft, reddish brown +hair; a round, stubbly beard shot with gray; and small, beady eyes set +close together. He was clothed in an old, black, grotesquely fitting +cutaway coat, with coarse trousers tucked into his boot tops. A worn +visored cloth cap was on his head. In his right hand he carried an old +muzzle-loading shotgun. + +--George Kibbe Turner: _Across the State_ ("McClure's"). + + ++120. The Fundamental Image.+--The first impression of the object as a +whole is called the fundamental image. The beginning of a description +should cause the reader to form a correct general outline, which will +include the main characteristics of the object described. While the +fundamental image lacks definiteness and exactness, yet it must be such +that it shall not need to be revised as we add the details. If one should +begin a description by saying, "Opposite the church there is a large +two-story, brick house with a conservatory on the left," the reader would +form at once a mental picture including the essential features of the +house. Further statements about the roof, the windows, the doors, the +porch, the yard, and the fence, would each add something to the picture +until it was complete. The impression with which the reader started would +be added to, but not otherwise changed. But if we should conclude the +description with the statement, "This house was distinguished from its +neighbors by the fact that it was not of the usual rectangular form, but +was octagonal in shape," the reader would find that the image which he +had formed would need to be entirely changed. It is evident that if the +word _octagonal_ is to appear at all, it must be at the beginning. Care +must be taken to place all the words that affect the fundamental image in +the sentence that gives the general characteristics of that which we are +describing. + +Hawthorne begins _The House of the Seven Gables_ as follows:-- + + +Halfway down a by-street of one of our New England towns stands a rusty +wooden house, with seven acutely peaked gables, facing towards various +points of the compass, and a huge, clustered chimney in the midst. The +street is Pyncheon street; the house is the old Pyncheon house; and an elm +tree, of wide circumference, rooted before the door, is familiar to every +town-born child by the title of the Pyncheon elm. On my occasional visits +to the town aforesaid, I seldom failed to turn down Pyncheon street, for +the sake of passing through the shadow of these two antiquities,--the +great elm tree and the weather-beaten edifice. + + +Later he gives a detailed description of the house on the morning of its +completion as follows:-- + + +Maule's lane, or Pyncheon street, as it were now more decorous to call it, +was thronged, at the appointed hour, as with a congregation on its way to +church. All, as they approached, looked upward at the imposing edifice, +which was henceforth to assume its rank among the habitations of mankind. +There it rose, a little withdrawn from the line of the street, but in +pride, not modesty. Its whole visible exterior was ornamented with quaint +figures, conceived in the grotesqueness of a Gothic fancy, and drawn or +stamped in the glittering plaster, composed of lime, pebbles, and bits of +glass, with which the woodwork of the walls was overspread. On every side +the seven gables pointed sharply towards the sky, and presented the aspect +of a whole sisterhood of edifices, breathing through the spiracles of one +great chimney. The many lattices, with their small, diamond-shaped panes, +admitted the sunlight into hall and chamber, while, nevertheless, the +second story, projecting far over the base, and itself retiring beneath +the third, threw a shadowy and thoughtful gloom into the lower rooms. +Carved globes of wood were affixed under the jutting stories. Little +spiral rods of iron beautified each of the seven peaks. On the triangular +portion of the gable, that fronted next the street, was a dial, put up +that very morning, and on which the sun was still marking the passage of +the first bright hour in a history that was not destined to be all so +bright. All around were scattered shavings, chips, shingles, and broken +halves of bricks; these, together with the lately turned earth, on which +the grass had not begun to grow, contributed to the impression of +strangeness and novelty proper to a house that had yet its place to make +among men's daily interests. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Select the sentence or part of a sentence which gives the fundamental +image in each of the following selections:-- + +1. It was a big, smooth-stone-faced house, product of the 'Seventies, +frowning under an outrageously insistent Mansard, capped by a cupola, and +staring out of long windows overtopped with "ornamental" slabs. Two +cast-iron deer, painted death-gray, twins of the same mold, stood on +opposite sides of the front walk, their backs toward it and each other, +their bodies in profile to the street, their necks bent, however, so that +they gazed upon the passer-by--yet gazed without emotion. Two large, calm +dogs guarded the top of the steps leading to the front door; they also +were twins and of the same interesting metal, though honored beyond the +deer by coats of black paint and shellac. + +--Booth Tarkington: _The Conquest of Canaan_ ("Harper's"). + + +2. At the first glance, Phoebe saw an elderly personage, in an +old-fashioned dressing gown of faded damask, and wearing his gray or +almost white hair of an unusual length. It quite overshadowed his +forehead, except when he thrust it back, and stared vaguely about the +room. After a very brief inspection of his face, it was easy to conceive +that his footstep must necessarily be such an one as that which, slowly, +and with as indefinite an aim as a child's first journey across a floor, +had just brought him hitherward. Yet there were no tokens that his +physical strength might not have sufficed for a free and determined gait. +It was the spirit of a man that could not walk. The expression of his +countenance--while, notwithstanding, it had the light of reason in it-- +seemed to waver, and glimmer, and nearly to die away, and feebly to +recover itself again. It was like a flame which we see twinkling among +half-extinguished embers; we gaze at it more intently than if it were a +positive blaze, gushing vividly upward--more intently, but with a certain +impatience, as if it ought either to kindle itself into satisfactory +splendor, or be at once extinguished. + +--Hawthorne: _The House of the Seven Gables_. + + +3. One of the best known of the flycatchers all over the country is the +kingbird. He is a little smaller than a robin, and all in brownish black, +with white breast. He has also white tips to his tail feathers, which look +very fine when he spreads it out wide in flying. Among the head feathers +of the kingbird is a small spot of orange color. This is called in the +books a "concealed patch," because it is seldom seen, it is so hidden by +the dark feathers. + +--Mary Rogers Miller: _The Brook Book_. +(Copyright, 1902, by Doubleday, Page and Co.) + + +Notice the use of a comparison in establishing a correct fundamental image +in example 3. + +_B._ Select five buildings with which the members of the class are +familiar. Write a single sentence for each, giving the fundamental image. +Read these sentences to the class. Let them determine for which building +each is written. + +_C._ Notice the pictures on page 218. Write a single sentence for each, +giving the fundamental image. + + ++Theme LII.+--_Write a paragraph, describing something with which you are +familiar._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. The county court house. + 2. The new church. + 3. My neighbor's house. + 4. Where we go fishing. + 5. A neighboring lake. + 6. A cozy nook. + + +(Underscore the sentence that gives the fundamental image. Will the +reader get from it at once a correct general outline of the object to +be described? Will he need to change the fundamental image as your +description proceeds?) + + ++121. Point of View.+--What we shall see first depends upon the point of +view. Seen from one position, an object or a landscape will present a +different appearance from that which it will present when viewed from +another position. A careful writer will give that fundamental image that +would come from actual observation if the reader were looking at the scene +described from the point of view chosen by the writer. He will not include +details that cannot be seen from that position even though he knows that +they exist. + +Notice that the following descriptions include only that which can be seen +from the place indicated in the italicized phrases:-- + + +_Forward from the bridge_ he beheld a landscape of wide valleys and +irregular heights, with groves and lakes and fanciful houses linked +together by white paths and shining streams. The valleys were spread +below, that the river might be poured upon them for refreshment in day of +drought, and they were as green carpets figured with beds and fields of +flowers and flecked with flocks of sheep white as balls of snow; and the +voices of shepherds following the flocks were heard afar. As if to tell +him of the pious inscription of all he beheld, the altars out under the +open sky seemed countless, each with a white-gowned figure attending it, +while processions in white went slowly hither and thither between them; +and the smoke of the altars half risen hung collected in pale clouds over +the devoted places. + +Wallace: _Ben-Hur_. +(Copyright, 1880. Harper and Bros.) + + +The house stood unusually near the river, facing eastward, and standing +four-square, with an immense veranda about its sides, and a flight of +steps in front, spreading broadly downward, as we open our arms to a +child. _From the veranda_ nine miles of river were seen; and in their +compass near at hand, the shady garden full of rare and beautiful flowers; +farther away broad fields of cane and rice, and the distant quarters of +the slaves, and on the horizon everywhere a dark belt of cypress forest. + +--Cable: _Old Creole Days_. + + ++122. Selection of Details Affected by Point of View.+--A skillful writer +will not ask his reader to perform impossible feats. We cannot see the +leaves upon a tree a mile away, and so should not describe them. The finer +effects and more minute details should be included only when our chosen +point of view brings us near enough to appreciate them. In the selection +below, Stevenson tells only as much about Swanston cottage as can be seen +at a distance of six miles. + + +So saying she carried me around the battlements _towards the opposite or +southern side of the fortress and indeed to a bastion_ almost immediately +overlooking the place of our projected flight. Thence we had a view of +some foreshortened suburbs at our feet, and beyond of a green, open, and +irregular country rising towards the Pentland Hills. The face of one of +these summits (say two leagues from where we stood) is marked with a +procession of white scars. And to this she directed my attention. + +"You see those marks?" she said. "We call them the Seven Sisters. Follow a +little lower with your eye, and you will see a fold of the hill, the tops +of some trees, and a tail of smoke out of the midst of them. That is +Swanston cottage, where my brother and I are living." + +--Stevenson: _St. Ives_. +(Copyright, 1897. Charles Scribner's Sons.) + + +Notice in the selection below that for objects _near at hand_ details so +small as the lizard's eye are given, but that these details are not given, +when we are asked to observe things far away. + + +Slow though their march had been, by this time _they had come to the end +of the avenue, and were in the wide circular sweep before the castle._ +They stopped here and stood looking off over the garden, with its somber +cypresses and bright beds of geranium, down upon the valley, dim and +luminous in a mist of gold. Great, heavy, fantastic-shaped clouds, +pearl-white with pearl-gray shadows, piled themselves up against the +scintillant dark blue of the sky. In and out among the rose trees _near at +hand_, where the sun was hottest, heavily flew, with a loud bourdonnement, +the cockchafers promised by Annunziata,--big, blundering, clumsy, the +scorn of their light-winged and businesslike competitors, the bees. +Lizards lay immobile as lizards cast in bronze, only their little +glittering, watchful pin heads of eyes giving sign of life. And of course +the blackcaps never for a moment left off singing. + +--Henry Habland: _My Friend Prospero_ ("McClure's"). + + +_We round a corner of the valley, and beyond, far below us, looms the town +of Sorata. From this distance_ the red tile roofs, the soft blue, green, +and yellow of its stuccoed walls, look indescribably fresh and grateful. A +closer inspection will probably dissipate this impression; it will be +squalid and dirty, the river-stone paving of its street will be deep in +the accumulation of filth, dirty Indian children will swarm in them with +mangy dogs and bedraggled ducks, the gay frescoes of its walls will peel +in ragged patches, revealing the 'dobe of their base, and the tile roofs +will be cracked and broken. But from the heights at this distance and in +the warm glow of the afternoon sun it looks like a dainty fairy village +glistening in a magic splendor against the Titanic setting of the Andes. + +--Charles Johnson Post: _Across the Highlands of the World_ +("Harper's"). + + + Come on, sir; here's the place. Stand still. How fearful +And dizzy 'tis to cast one's eyes so low! +The crows and choughs that wing the midway air +Show scarce so gross as beetles. Halfway down +Hangs one that gathers sampire, dreadful trade! +Methinks he seems no bigger than his head. +The fishermen that walk upon the beach +Appear like mice; and yond tall anchoring bark +Diminish'd to her cock; her cock, a buoy +Almost too small for sight. The murmuring surge +That on the unnumber'd idle pebble chafes, +Cannot be heard so high. I'll look no more, +Lest my brain turn and the deficient sight +Topple down headlong. + +--Shakespear: _King Lear_ + + ++123. Implied Point of View.+--Often the point of view is not specifically +stated, but the language of the description shows where the observer is +located. Often such an implied point of view gives a delicate touch to a +description that could not be obtained by direct statements. + +In which of the following selections is the point of view merely implied? + + +1. Thus pondering and dreaming, he came by the road down a gentle hill +with close woods on either hand; and so into the valley with a swift river +flowing through it; and on the river a mill. So white it stood among the +trees, and so merrily whirred the wheel as the water turned it, and so +bright blossomed the flowers in the garden, that Martimor had joy of the +sight, for it reminded him of his own country. + +--Henry Van Dyke: _The Blue Flower_. (Copyright, 1902. Charles Scribner's +Sons.) + + +2. There is an island off a certain part of the coast of Maine,--a little +rocky island, heaped and tumbled together as if Dame Nature had shaken +down a heap of stones at random from her apron, when she had finished +making the larger islands, which lie between it and the mainland. At one +end, the shoreward end, there is a tiny cove, and a bit of silver sand +beach, with a green meadow beyond it, and a single great pine; but all the +rest is rocks, rocks. At the farther end the rocks are piled high, like a +castle wall, making a brave barrier against the Atlantic waves; and on top +of this cairn rises the lighthouse, rugged and sturdy as the rocks +themselves; but painted white, and with its windows shining like great, +smooth diamonds. This is Light Island. + +--Laura E. Richards: _Captain January_. + + ++124. Changing Point of View.+--We cannot see the four sides of a house +from the same place, though we may wish to have our reader know how each +side looks. It is, therefore, necessary to change our point of view. It is +immaterial whether the successive points of view are named or merely +implied, providing the reader has due notice that we have changed from one +to the other, and that for each we describe only what can be seen from +that position. A description of a cottage that by its wording leads us to +think ourselves inside of the building and then tells about the yard would +be defective. + +Notice the changing point of view in the following:-- + + +At long distance, looking over the blue waters of the Gulf of St. Lawrence +in clear weather, you might think that you saw a lonely sea gull, +snow-white, perching motionless on a cobble of gray rock. Then, as your +boat drifted in, following the languid tide and the soft southern breeze, +you would perceive that the cobble of rock was a rugged hill with a few +bushes and stunted trees growing in the crevices, and that the gleaming +speck near the summit must be some kind of a building,--if you were on the +coast of Italy or Spain you would say a villa or a farmhouse. Then as you +floated still farther north and drew nearer to the coast, the desolate +hill would detach itself from the mainland and become a little mountain +isle, with a flock of smaller islets clustering around it as a brood of +wild ducks keep close to their mother, and with deep water, nearly two +miles wide, flowing between it and the shore; while the shining speck on +the seaward side stood clearly as a low, whitewashed dwelling with a +sturdy, round tower at one end, crowned with a big eight-sided lantern--a +solitary lighthouse. + +--Henry Van Dyke: _The Keeper of the Light_. +(Copyright, 1905. Charles Scribner's Sons.) + + ++125. Place of Point of View in Paragraph.+--The point of view may be +expressed or only implied or wholly omitted, but in any case the reader +must assume one in order to form a clear and accurate image. Beginners +will find that they can best cause their readers to form the desired +images by stating a point of view. When the point of view is stated it +must of necessity come early in the paragraph. We have already learned +that the beginning of a description should present the fundamental image. +For this reason the first sentence of a description frequently includes +both the point of view and the fundamental image. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Consider the following selections with reference to-- + (_a_) The point of view. + (_b_) The fundamental image. + (_c_) The completeness of the images which you have formed (see + Sections 26, 27). + + +1. The Lunardi [balloon], mounting through a stagnant calm in a line +almost vertical, had pierced the morning mists, and now swam emancipated +in a heaven of exquisite blue. Below us by some trick of eyesight, the +country had grown concave, its horizon curving up like the rim of a +shallow bowl--a bowl heaped, in point of fact, with sea fog, but to our +eyes with a froth delicate and dazzling as a whipped syllabub of snow. +Upon it the traveling shadow of the balloon became no shadow, but a stain; +an amethyst (you might call it) purged of all grosser properties than +color and lucency. At times thrilled by no perceptible wind, rather by the +pulse of the sun's rays, the froth shook and parted; and then behold, deep +in the crevasses vignetted and shining, an acre or two of the earth of +man's business and fret--tilled slopes of the Lothians, ships dotted on +the Firth, the capital like a hive that some child had smoked--the ear of +fancy could almost hear it buzzing. + +--Stevenson: _St. Ives_. +(Copyright, 1897. Charles Scribner's Sons.) + + +2. When Aswald and Corinne had gained the top of the Capitol, she showed +him the Seven Hills and the city, bound first by Mount Palatinus, then by +the walls of Servius Tullius, which inclose the hills, and by those of +Aurelian, which still surround the greatest part of Rome. Mount Palatinus +once contained all Rome, but soon did the imperial palace fill the space +that had sufficed for a nation. The Seven Hills are far less lofty now +than when they deserted the title of steep mountains, modern Rome being +forty feet higher than its predecessor, and the valleys which separated +them almost filled up by ruins; but what is still more strange, two heaps +of shattered vases have formed new hills, Cestario and Testacio. Thus, in +time, the very refuse of civilization levels the rock with the plain, +effacing in the moral, as in the material world, all the pleasing +inequalities of nature. + +--Madame De Staël: _Corinne: Italy_. + + +_B._--Select five descriptions from the following books and note whether +each has a point of view expressed or implied:-- + + Cooper: Last of the Mohicans. + Scott: Ivanhoe. + Scott: Lady of the Lake. + Irving: Sketch Book. + Burroughs: Wake Robin. + Van Dyke: The Blue Flower. + Howells: The Rise of Silas Lapham. + Muir: Our National Parks. + Kate Douglas Wiggin: Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm. + + ++Theme LIII.+--_Write a descriptive paragraph beginning with a point of +view and a fundamental image._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. The crossroads inn. + 2. A historical building. + 3. The shoe factory. + 4. The gristmill. + 5. The largest store in town. + 6. The union station. + + +(In your description underscore the sentence giving the point of view. Can +you improve the description by using a different point of view? Will the +reader form at once a correct general outline? Will the entire description +enable the reader to form a clear and accurate image?) + + ++126. Clear Seeing.+-Clear statement depends upon clear seeing. Not only +must we choose an advantageous point of view, but we must be able to +reproduce what can be seen from that location. We may write a description +while we are looking at the object, but it is frequently convenient to do +the writing when the object is not visible. Oral descriptions are nearly +always made without having the object at hand. When we attempt to describe +we examine not the object itself, but our mental image of it. It is +evident that at least the essential features of this mental picture must +stand out clearly and definitely, or we shall be unable to make our +description accurate. + +The habit of accurate observation is a desirable acquisition, and our +ability in this direction can be improved by effort. It is not the +province of this book to provide a series of exercises which shall +strengthen habits of accurate observation. Many of your studies, +particularly the sciences, devote much attention to training the observing +powers, and will furnish many suitable exercises. A few have been +suggested below merely to emphasize the point that every successful effort +in description must be preceded by a definite exercise in clear seeing. + + +EXERCISE + + +1. Walk rapidly past a building. Form a mental picture of it. Write down +as many of the details as you can. Now look at the building again and +determine what you have left out. + +2. Call to mind some building with which you are familiar. Write a list of +the details that you recall. Now visit the building and see what important +ones you have omitted. + +3. While looking at some scene make a note of the important details. Lay +this list away for a day. Then recall the scene. After picturing the scene +as vividly as you can, read your notes. Do they add anything to your +picture? + +4. Make a list of the things on some desk that you cannot see but with +which you are familiar; for example, the teacher's desk. At the first +opportunity notice how accurate your list is. + +5. Look for some time at the stained glass windows of a church or at the +wall paper of the room. What patterns do you notice that you did not see +at first? What colors? + +6. Make a list of the objects visible from your bedroom window. When you +go home notice what you have omitted. + +7. Practice observation contests similar to the following: Let two or more +persons pass a store window. Each shall then make a list of what the +window contains. Compare lists with one another. + + ++Theme LIV.+--_Write a description of some dwelling._ + +(Select a house that you can see on the way home. Choose a point of view +and notice carefully what can be seen from it. When you are ready to +write, form as vivid a mental picture of the house as you can. Write the +sentence that gives the fundamental image. Add such of the details as will +enable the reader to form an accurate image.) + + ++127. Selection of Essential Details.+--After deciding upon a point of +view and such general characteristics as are essential to the forming of a +correct outline of the object to be described, we must next give our +attention to the selection of the details. If our description has been +properly begun, this general outline will not be changed, but each +succeeding phrase or sentence will add to the clearness and distinctness +of the picture. Our first impression of a house may include windows, but +the mention of them later will bring them out clearly on our mental +picture much as the details appear when one is developing a negative in +photography. + +If the peculiarities of an object are such as to effect its general form, +they need to be stated in the opening sentence; but when the peculiar or +distinguishing characteristic does not affect the form, it may be +introduced later. If we say, "On the corner across the street from the +post office there is a large, two-story, red brick store," the reader can +form at once a general picture of such a store. Only those things which +give a general outline have been included. As yet nothing has been +mentioned to distinguish the store from any other similar one. If some +following sentence should be, "Though not wider, it yet presents a more +imposing appearance than its neighbors, because the door is placed at one +side, thus making room for a single wide display window instead of two +stuffy, narrow ones," a detail has been added which, though not changing +the general outline, makes the picture clearer and at the same time +emphasizes the distinguishing feature of this particular store. + + +EXERCISES + + +1. Observe your neighbor's barn. What would you select as its +characteristic feature? + +2. Take a rapid glance at some stranger whom you meet. What did you notice +most vividly? + +3. In what respect does the Methodist church in your city differ from the +other church buildings? + +4. Does your pet dog differ from others of the same breed in appearance? +In actions? + + ++Theme LV.+--_Write a descriptive paragraph, using one of the following +subjects:_-- + + 1. A mountain view. + 2. An omnibus. + 3. A fort. + 4. A lighthouse. + 5. A Dutch windmill. + 6. A bend in the river. + 7. A peculiar structure. + 8. The picture on this page. + +(Underscore the sentence that pictures the details most essential to the +description. Consider the unity of your paragraph. Section 81.) + + +[Illustration] + + ++128. Selection and Subordination of Minor Details.+--In many descriptions +the minor details are wholly omitted, and in all descriptions many that +might have been included have been omitted. A proper number of such +details adds interest and clearness to the images; too many but serve to +render the whole obscure. If properly selected and effectively presented, +minor details add much to the beauty or usefulness of a description, but +if strung together in short sentences, the effect may be both tiresome and +confusing. A mere catalogue of facts is not a good description. They must +be arranged so that those which are the more important shall have the +greater prominence, while those of less importance shall be properly +subordinated. + +Often minor details may be stated in a word or phrase inserted in the +sentence which gives the general view. Notice the italicized portion of +the following: "Opposite the church, _and partly screened by the scraggly +evergreens of a broad, unkempt lawn_, there is a large, octagonal, brick +house, with a conservatory on the left." This arrangement adds to the +general view and gives a better result than would be obtained by +describing the lawn in a separate sentence. Often a single adjective adds +some element to a description more effectively than can be done with a +whole sentence. Notice how much is added by the use of _scraggly_ and +_unkempt_. + + +EXERCISES + + +Make a careful study of the following selections with reference to the way +in which the minor details are presented. Can any of them be improved by +re-arranging them? + + +1. At night, as I look from my windows over Kassim Pasha, I never tire of +that dull, soft coloring, green and brown, in which the brown of roofs and +walls is hardly more than a shading of the green of the trees. There is +the lonely curve of the hollow, with its small, square, flat houses of +wood; and above, a sharp line of blue-black cypresses on the spine of the +hill; then the long desert plain, with its sandy road, shutting in the +horizon. Mists thicken over the valley, and wipe out its colors before the +lights begin to glimmer out of it. Below, under my windows, are the +cypresses of the Little Field of the Dead, vast, motionless, different +every night. Last night each stood clear, tall, apart; to-night they +huddle together in the mist, and seem to shudder. The sunset was brief, +and the water has grown dull, like slate. Stamboul fades to a level mass +of smoky purple, out of which a few minarets rise black against a gray sky +with bands of orange fire. Last night, after a golden sunset, a fog of +rusty iron came down, and hung poised over the jagged level of the hill. +The whole mass of Stamboul was like black smoke; the water dim gray, a +little flushed, and then like pure light, lucid, transparent, every ship +and every boat sharply outlined in black on its surface; the boats seemed +to crawl like flies on a lighted pane. + +--Arthur Symons: _Constantinople: An Impression_ ("Harper's"). + + +2. The boy was advancing up the road, carrying a half-filled pail of milk. +He was a child of perhaps ten years, exceedingly frail and thin, with a +drawn, waxen face, and sick, colorless lips and ears. On his head he wore +a thick plush cap, and coarse, heavy shoes upon his feet. A faded coat, +too long in the arms, drooped from his shoulders, and long, loose overalls +of gray jeans broke and wrinkled about his slender ankles. + +--George Kibbe Turner: _Across the State_ ("McClure's"). + + +3. They met few people abroad, even on passing from the retired +neighborhood of the House of the Seven Gables into what was ordinarily the +more thronged and busier portion of the town. Glistening sidewalks, with +little pools of rain, here and there, along their unequal surface; +umbrellas displayed ostentatiously in the shop windows, as if the life of +trade had concentered itself in that one article; wet leaves of the +horse-chestnut or elm trees, torn off untimely by the blast, and scattered +along the public way; an unsightly accumulation of mud in the middle of +the street, which perversely grew the more unclean for its long and +laborious washing;--these were the more definable points of a very somber +picture. In the way of movement, and human life, there was the hasty +rattle of a cab or coach, its driver protected by a water-proof cap over +his head and shoulders; the forlorn figure of an old man, who seemed to +have crept out of some subterranean sewer, and was stooping along the +kennel, and poking the wet rubbish with a stick, in quest of rusty nails; +a merchant or two, at the door of the post office, together with an +editor, and a miscellaneous politician, awaiting a dilatory mail; a few +visages of retired sea captains at the window of an insurance office, +looking out vacantly at the vacant street, blaspheming at the weather, and +fretting at the dearth as well of public news as local gossip. What a +treasure trove to these venerable quidnuncs, could they have guessed the +secret which Hepzibah and Clifford were carrying along with them! + +--Hawthorne: _The House of the Seven Gables_. + + ++Theme LVI.+--_Write a description of one of the following:_-- + + 1. A steamboat. + 2. An orchard. + 3. A colonial mansion. + 4. A wharf. + 5. A stone quarry. + 6. A shop. + + +(Consider what you have written with reference to the point of view, +fundamental image, and essential details. After these have been arranged +to suit you, notice the way in which the minor details have been +introduced. Have you given undue prominence to any? Can a single adjective +or phrase be substituted for a whole sentence? Think of the image which +your words will produce in the mind of the reader. Consider your theme +with reference to unity. Section 81.) + + ++129. Arrangement of Details.+--The quality of a description depends as +much upon the arrangement of the material as upon the selection. Under +paragraph development we have discussed the necessity of arranging the +details with reference to their natural position in space (see Sections 47 +and 86). Such an arrangement is the most desirable one and should be +departed from only with good reason. Such departures may, however, be +made, as shown in the following selection:-- + + +A pretty picture the lad made as he lay there dreaming over his earthly +possessions--a pretty picture in the shade of the great elm, that sultry +morning of August, three quarters of a century ago. The presence of the +crutch showed there was something sad about it; and so there was; for if +you had glanced at the little bare brown foot, set toes upward on the +curbstone, you would have discovered that the fellow to it was missing-- +cut off about two inches above the ankle. And if this had caused you to +throw a look of sympathy at his face, something yet sadder must long +have held your attention. Set jauntily on the back of his head was a +weather-beaten dark blue cloth cap, the patent leather frontlet of which +was gone; and beneath the ragged edge of this there fell down over his +forehead and temples and ears a tangled mass of soft yellow hair, slightly +curling. His eyes were large and of a blue to match the depths of a calm +sky above the treetops: the long lashes which curtained them were brown; +his lips were red, his nose delicate and fine, and his cheek tanned to the +color of ripe peaches. It was a singularly winning face, intelligent, +frank, not describable. On it now rested a smile, half joyous, half sad, +as though his mind was full of bright hopes, the realization of which was +far away. From the neck fell the wide collar of a white cotton shirt, +clean but frayed at the elbows, and open and buttonless down to his bosom. +Over this he wore an old-fashioned satin waistcoat of a man, also frayed +and buttonless. His dress was completed by a pair of baggy tow breeches, +held up by a single tow suspender fastened to big brown horn buttons. + +--James Lane Allen: _Flute and Violin_. +(Copyright, 1892, Harper and Brothers.) + + +The details are not stated with reference to their natural position in +space, but they are given in the probable order of observation. If we were +to look upon such a boy, the crutch would attract our attention and would +lead us to look at once for the reason why a crutch was needed. The writer +skillfully uses the sympathy thus aroused as a means of transition to the +face. In the remainder of the description the natural position in space is +closely followed. + + ++Theme LVII.+-_Write a description of one of the following:_-- + + 1. The bayou. + 2. Looking down the mountain. + 3. Looking up the mountain. + 4. The floorwalker. + 5. An old-fashioned rig. + 6. A house said to be haunted. + 7. The deacon. + +(Consider the arrangement of details with reference to their position in +space. Consider your paragraphs with reference to coherence and emphasis. +Sections 82 and 83.) + + ++130. Effectiveness in Description.+--Every part of a description should +aid in rendering it effective, and this effectiveness is as much +the purpose of the principles previously discussed as it is of those +which follow. This paragraph is inserted here to separate more or less +definitely those things which can be done under direction from those which +cannot be determined by rule. Up to this point emphasis has been laid upon +the clear presentation of a mental image as the object of description. +But the clear presentation of mental images is not all there is to +description. A point of view, a fundamental image, a judicious selection +of essential and minor details and the relating of them with reference to +their natural position in space, may set forth an image clearly and yet +fail to be satisfactory as a description. + +For the practical affairs of life it may be sufficient to limit ourselves +to clear images set forth barely and sparely, but there is a pleasure +and a profit in using the subtler arts of language, in placing a word +here or a phrase there that shall give a touch of beauty or a flash of +suggestiveness and so save our descriptions from the commonplace. It is to +these less easily demonstrated methods of giving strength and beauty that +we wish now to turn our attention. + + ++131. Word Selection.+--The effectiveness of our description will depend +largely upon our right choice of words. If our range of vocabulary is +limited, the possibility of effective description is correspondingly +limited. Only when our working vocabulary contains many words may we hope +to choose with ease the one most suitable for the effective expression of +the idea we wish to convey. To prepare a list of words that may apply and +then attempt to write a theme that shall make use of them is a mechanical +process of little value. The idea we wish to express should call up the +word that exactly expresses it. If our ideas are not clear or our +vocabulary is limited, we may be satisfied with the trite and commonplace; +but if our experience has been broad or our reading extended, we may have +at command the word which, because it is just the right one, gives +individuality and force to our phrasing. Every one is familiar with dogs, +and has in his vocabulary many words which he applies to them, but a +reading of one or two good dog stories, such as _Bob, Son of Battle_, or +_The Call of the Wild_, will show how wide is the range of such words and +how much the description is enhanced by their careful use. + + +EXERCISE + + +Consider the following selections with reference to the choice of words +which add to the effectiveness of the descriptions:-- + +1. She was a little, brown, thin, almost skinny woman with big, rolling, +violet-blue eyes and the sweetest manners in the world. + +2. The sounds and the straits and the sea with its plump, sleepy islands +lay north and east and south. + +3. The mists of the Cuchullins are not fat, dull, and still, like lowland +and inland mists, but haggard, and streaming from the black peaks, and +full of gusty lines. We saw them first from the top of Beimna-Caillach, a +red, round-headed mountain hard by Bradford, in the isle of Skye. + +Shortly after noon the rain came up from the sea and drew long delicate +gray lines against the cliffs. It came up licking and lisping over the +surface of Cornisk, and drove us to the lee of rocks and the shelter of +our ponchos, to watch the mists drifting, to listen to the swell and lull +of the wind and the patter of the cold rain. There were glimpses now and +then of the inner Cuchullins, a fragment of ragged sky line, the sudden +jab of a black pinnacle through the mist, the open mouth of a gorge +steaming with mist. + +We climbed the great ridge, at length, of rock and wet heath that +separates Cornisk from Glen Sligachan, slowly through the fitful rain and +driving cloud, and saw Sgurr-nan-Gillian, sharp, black, and pitiless, the +northernmost peak and sentinel of the Cuchullins. The yellow trail could +be seen twisting along the flat, empty glen. Seven miles away was a white +spot, the Sligachan Hotel. + +I think it must be the dreariest glen in Scotland. The trail twists in a +futile manner, and, after all, is mainly bog holes and rolling rocks. The +Red Hills are on the right, rusty, reddish, of the color of dried blood, +and gashed with sliding bowlders. Their heads seem beaten down, a Helot +population, and the Cuchullins stand back like an army of iron conquerors. +The Red Hills will be a vanished race one day, and the Cuchullins remain. + +Arthur Colton: _The Mists o' Skye_ ("Harper's"). + + ++132. Additional Aids to Effectiveness.+--Comparison and figures of speech +not only aid in making our picture clear and vivid, but they may add +a spice and flavor to our language, which counts for much in the +effectiveness and beauty of our description. Notice the following +descriptions:-- + + +He was a mongoose, rather like a little cat in his fur and his tail, but +quite like a weasel in his head and his habits. His eyes and the end of +his restless nose were pink; he could scratch himself anywhere he pleased, +with any leg, front or back, that he chose to use; he could fluff up his +tail till it looked like a bottle brush, and his war cry as he scuttled +through the long grass was Rikk-tikk-tikki-tikki-tikk. + +--Kipling: _Jungle Book_. + + +Ichabod was a suitable figure for such a steed. He rode with short +stirrups, which brought his knees nearly up to the pommel of his saddle; +his sharp elbows stuck out like grasshoppers' legs; he carried his whip +perpendicularly in his hand, like a scepter, and, as his horse jogged on, +the motion of his arms was not unlike the flapping of a pair of wings. A +small wool hat rested on the top of his nose, for so his scanty strip of +forehead might be called; and the skirts of his black coat fluttered out +almost to the horse's tail. Such was the appearance of Ichabod and his +steed, as they shambled out of the gate of Hans Van Ripper, and it was +altogether such an apparition as is seldom to be met with in broad +daylight. + +--Irving: _Legend of Sleepy Hollow_. + + ++Theme LVIII.+--_Write a description of one of the following:_-- + + 1. My cat. + 2. The pony at the farm. + 3. The glen. + 4. The prairie. + 5. The milldam. + 6. The motorman. + 7. The picture on this page. + + +[Illustration] + + +(Consider the effectiveness of your description. Can you improve your +choice of words? Have you used comparisons or figures, and if so, do they +improve your description? Consider your theme with reference to euphony. +Section 16.) + + ++133. Classes of Objects Frequently Described.+--There is no limit to the +things that we may wish to describe, but there are certain general classes +of objects that are described more frequently than others. We have greater +occasion to describe men or places than we have to describe pictures or +trees. A person may be an accurate observer having a large vocabulary +applicable to one class of objects, and thus be able to describe objects +of that class clearly and effectively; though at the same time, on account +of limited experience and small vocabulary, he cannot well describe +objects belonging to some other class. The ability to observe accurately +the classes of objects named below, and to appreciate descriptions of such +objects when made by others, is a desirable acquisition. Every effort +should be made to master as many as possible of the words applicable to +each class of objects. A slight investigation will show how great is the +number of such words with which we are unfamiliar. + + +1. _Descriptions of buildings or portions of buildings._ + + +In most buildings the basement story is heaviest, and each succeeding +story increases in lightness; in the Ducal palace this is reversed, making +it unique amongst buildings. The outer walls rest upon the pillars of open +colonnades, which have a more stumpy appearance than was intended, owing +to the raising of the pavement in the piazza. They had, however, no base, +but were supported by a continuous stylobate. The chief decorations of the +palace were employed upon the capitals of these thirty-six pillars, and it +was felt that the peculiar prominence and importance given to its angles +rendered it necessary that they should be enriched and softened by +sculpture, which is interesting and often most beautiful. The throned +figure of Venice above bears a scroll inscribed: _Fortis, justa, trono +furias, mare sub pede, pono_. (Strong and just, I put the furies beneath +my throne, and the sea beneath my foot.) One of the corners of the palace +joined the irregular buildings connected with St. Mark's, and is not +generally seen. There remained, therefore, only three angles to be +decorated. The first main sculpture may be called the "Fig-tree angle," +and its subject is the "Fall of Man." The second is "the Vine angle," and +represents the "Drunkenness of Noah." The third sculpture is "the Judgment +angle," and portrays the "Judgment of Solomon." + +--Hare: _Venice_. + + ++Theme LIX.+--_Write a description of the exterior of some building._ + + ++Theme LX.+--_Write a description of some room._ + + ++Theme LXI.+--_Write a description of some portion of a building, such as +an entrance, spire, window, or stairway._ + +(Consider each description with reference to-- + _a._ Point of view. + _b._ Fundamental image. + _c._ Selection of essential details. + _d._ Selection and subordination of minor details. + _e._ Arrangement of details with reference to their natural positions in + space. + _f._ Effective choice of words and comparisons.) + + +2. _Natural features: valleys, rivers, mountains, etc._ + + +Beyond the great prairies and in the shadow of the Rockies lie +the Foothills. For nine hundred miles the prairies spread themselves +out in vast level reaches, and then begin to climb over softly +rounded mounds that ever grow higher and sharper, till here and +there, they break into jagged points and at last rest upon the great +bases of the mighty mountains. These rounded hills that join the +prairies to the mountains form the Foothill Country. They extend +for about a hundred miles only, but no other hundred miles of the +great West are so full of interest and romance. The natural features +of the country combine the beauties of prairie and of mountain +scenery. There are valleys so wide that the farther side melts into +the horizon, and uplands so vast as to suggest the unbroken prairie. +Nearer the mountains the valleys dip deep and ever deeper till they +narrow into canyons through which mountain torrents pour their +blue-gray waters from glaciers that lie glistening between the white +peaks far away. + +--Connor: _The Sky Pilot_. + + +Long lines of cliff breaking have left a chasm; +And in the chasm are foam and yellow sands; +Beyond, red roofs about a narrow wharf +In cluster; then a molder'd church; and higher +A long street climbs to one tall tower'd mill; +And high in heaven behind it a gray down +With Danish barrows, and a hazelwood, +By autumn nutters haunted, flourishes +Green in a cuplike hollow of the down. + +--Tennyson: _Enoch Arden_. + + ++Theme LXII.+--_Write a description of some valley, mountain, field, +woods, or prairie._ + + ++Theme LXIII.+--_Write a description of some stream, pond, lake, dam, or +waterfall._ + +(Consider especially your choice of words.) + + +3. _Sounds or the use of sounds._ + + +And the noise of Niagara? Alarming things have been said about it, but +they are not true. It is a great and mighty noise, but it is not, as +Hennepin thought, an "outrageous noise." It is not a roar. It does not +drown the voice or stun the ear. Even at the actual foot of the falls it +is not oppressive. It is much less rough than the sound of heavy surf-- +steadier, more homogeneous, less metallic, very deep and strong, yet +mellow and soft; soft, I mean, in its quality. As to the noise of the +rapids, there is none more musical. It is neither rumbling nor sharp. It +is clear, plangent, silvery. It is so like the voice of a steep brook-- +much magnified, but not made coarser or more harsh--that, after we have +known it, each liquid call from a forest hillside will seem, like the odor +of grapevines, a greeting from Niagara. It is an inspiriting, an +exhilarating sound, like freshness, coolness, vitality itself made +audible. And yet it is a lulling sound. When we have looked out upon the +American rapids for many days, it is hard to remember contented life amid +motionless surroundings; and so, when we have slept beside them for many +nights, it is hard to think of happy sleep in an empty silence. + +--Mrs. Van Rensselaer: _Niagara_ ("Century"). + + +Yell'd on the view the opening pack; +Rock, glen, and cavern, paid them back; +To many a mingled sound at once +The awaken'd mountain gave response. +A hundred dogs bay'd deep and strong, +Clatter'd a hundred steeds along, +Their peal the merry horns rung out, +A hundred voices join'd the shout; +With hark, and whoop, and wild halloo, +No rest Benvoirlich's echoes knew. +Far from the tumult fled the roe, +Close in her covert cower'd the doe; +The falcon, from her cairn on high, +Cast on the rout a wondering eye, +Till far beyond her piercing ken +The hurricane had swept the glen. +Faint, and more faint, its failing din +Return'd from cavern, cliff, and linn, +And silence settled, wide and still, +On the lone wood and mighty hill. + +--SCOTT: _Lady of the Lake_. + + ++Theme LXIV.+--_Describe some sound or combination of sounds, or write a +description introducing sounds._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. Alone in the house. + 2. In the woods at night. + 3. Beside the brook. + 4. In the factory. + 5. A day at the beach. + 6. Before the Fourth. + 7. On the seashore. + + +(Notice especially the words that indicate sound.) + + +4. _Color or the use of color._ + + +A gray day! soft gray sky, like the breast of a dove; sheeny gray sea with +gleams of steel running across; trailing skirts of mist shutting off the +mainland, leaving Light Island alone with the ocean; the white tower +gleaming spectral among the folding mists; the dark pine tree pointing a +somber finger to heaven; the wet, black rocks, from which the tide had +gone down, huddling together in fantastic groups as if to hide their +nakedness. + +--Laura E. Richards: _Captain January_. + + +The large branch of the Po we crossed came down from the mountains which +we were approaching. As we reached the post road again they were glowing +in the last rays of the sun, and the evening vapors that settled over the +plain concealed the distant Alps, although the snowy top of the Jungfrau +and her companions the Wetterhorn and Schreckhorn rose above it like the +hills of another world. A castle or church of brilliant white marble +glittered on the summit of one of the mountains near us, and, as the sun +went down without a cloud, the distant summits changed in hue to a glowing +purple, mounting almost to crimson, which afterwards darkened into a deep +violet. The western half of the sky was of a pale orange and the eastern a +dark red, which blended together in the blue of the zenith, that deepened +as twilight came on. + +--Taylor: _Views Afoot_. + + ++Theme LXV.+--_Write a description in which the color element enters +largely._ + +5. _Animals, birds, fishes, etc._ + + +The Tailless Tyke had now grown into an immense dog, heavy of muscle and +huge of bone. A great bull head; undershot jaw, square and lengthy and +terrible; vicious yellow gleaming eyes; cropped ears; and an expression +incomparably savage. His coat was a tawny lionlike yellow, short, harsh, +dense; and his back running up from shoulder to loins ended abruptly in a +knoblike tail. He looked like the devil of a dog's hell, and his +reputation was as bad as his looks. He never attacked unprovoked; but a +challenge was never ignored and he was greedy of insults. + +--Alfred Ollivant: _Bob, Son of Battle_. +(Copyright, Doubleday and McClure.) + + +Read the description of the kingbird (page 224), and of the mongoose (page +242). + + ++Theme LXVI.+--_Write a description of some animal, bird, or fish._ + +(What questions should you ask yourself about each description you write?) + +6. _Trees and plants._ + + +How shall kinnikinnick be told to them who know it not? To a New Englander +it might be said that a whortleberry bush changed its mind one day and +decided to be a vine, with leaves as glossy as laurel, bells pink-striped +and sweet like the arbutus, and berries in clusters and of scarlet instead +of black. The Indians call it kinnikinnick, and smoke it in their pipes. +White men call it bearberry, I believe; and there is a Latin name for it, +no doubt, in the books. But kinnikinnick is the best,--dainty, sturdy, +indefatigable kinnikinnick, green and glossy all the year round, lovely at +Christmas and lovely among flowers at midsummer, as content and thrifty on +bare, rocky hillsides as in grassy nooks, growing in long, trailing +wreaths, five feet long, or in tangled mats, five feet across, as the rock +or the valley may need, and living bravely many weeks without water, to +make a house beautiful. I doubt if there be in the world a vine I should +hold so precious, indoors and out. + +--Helen Hunt Jackson: _Bits of Travel at Home_. + + +A mango tree is beautiful and attractive. It grows as large as the oak, +and has a rich and glossy foliage. The fruit is shaped something like a +short, thick cucumber, and is as large as a large pear. It has a thick, +tough skin, and a delicious, juicy pulp. When ripe it is a golden color. A +tree often bears a hundred bushels of mangoes. + +--Marian M. George. + + ++Theme LXVII.+--_Write a description of some tree that you have seen._ + +(Consider your theme with reference to the general principles of +composition treated in Chapter V.) + + ++134. Description of Persons: Character Sketches.+--The general principles +of description are applicable to the description of a person, and should +be followed for the purpose of presenting a clear and vivid image. Our +interest, however, so naturally runs beyond the appearance and is +concerned with the character, that most descriptions of persons become +character sketches. Even the commonest terms of description, such as _keen +gray eyes, square chin, rugged countenance_, are interpreted as showing +character, and depart to some degree from pure description. Often the sole +purpose of description is to show character, and only those details are +introduced which accomplish this purpose. + +In life we judge a man's character by his actions, and so in the character +sketch we are led to infer his character from what he does. The character +indicated by his appearance is corroborated by a statement of his actions +and especially by showing how he acts. (See Section 10.) Sometimes no +descriptive matter is given, but we are left to make our own picture to +fit the character indicated by the actions. In many books the descriptive +elements which would enable us to form an image of some person are +distributed over several pages, each being introduced where it supplements +and emphasizes the character shown by the actions. + +Notice the following examples:-- + + +The Rev. Daniel True stood beside the holy table. For such a scene, +perhaps for any scene, he was a memorable figure. He had the dignity of +early middle life, but none of its signs of advancing age. His hair was +quite black, and curled on his temples boyishly; his mustache, not without +a worldly cut, was as dark as his hair, and concealed a mouth so clean and +fine that it was an ethical mistake to cover it. He had sturdy shoulders, +although not quite straight; they had the scholar's stoop; his hands were +thin, with long fingers; his gestures were sparing and significant; his +expression was so sincere that its evident devoutness commanded respect; +so did his voice, which was authoritative enough to be a little priestly +and lacking somewhat in elocutionary finish as the voices of ministers are +apt to be, but genuine, musical, persuasive, at moments vibrant with +oratorical power. He had a warm eye and a lovable smile. He was every inch +a minister, but he was every nerve a man. + +--Elizabeth Stuart Phelps: _A Sacrament_ ("Harper's"). + + +She was not more than fifteen. Her form, voice, and manner belonged to the +period of transition from girlhood. Her face was perfectly oval, her +complexion more pale than fair. The nose was faultless; the lips, slightly +parted, were full and ripe, giving to the lines of the mouth warmth, +tenderness, and trust; the eyes were blue and large, and shaded by +drooping lids and long lashes; and, in harmony with all, a flood of golden +hair, in the style permitted to Jewish brides, fell unconfined down her +back to the pillion on which she sat. The throat and neck had the downy +softness sometimes seen which leaves the artist in doubt whether it is an +effect of contour or color. To these charms of feature and person were +added others more--an indefinable air of purity which only the soul can +impart, and of abstraction natural to such as think much of things +impalpable. Often, with trembling lips, she raised her eyes to heaven, +itself not more deeply blue; often she crossed her hands upon her breast, +as in adoration and prayer; often she raised her head like one listening +eagerly for a calling voice. Now and then midst his slow utterance, Joseph +turned to look at her, and, catching the expression kindling her face as +with light, forgot his theme, and with bowed head, wondering, plodded on. + +--Lew Wallace: _Ben-Hur_. +(Copyright, 1880, Harper and Bros.) + + +When Washington was elected general of the army he was forty-three years +of age. In stature he a little exceeded six feet; his limbs were sinewy +and well proportioned; his chest broad, his figure stately, blending +dignity of presence with ease of manner. His robust constitution had been +tried and invigorated by his early life in the wilderness, his habit of +occupation out of doors, and his rigid temperance, so that few equalled +him in strength of arm or power of endurance. His complexion was florid, +his hair dark brown, his head in shape perfectly round. His broad nostrils +seemed formed to give expression and escape to scornful anger. His dark +blue eyes, which were deeply set, had an expression of resignation and an +earnestness that was almost sad. + +--Bancroft. + + +There were many Englishmen of great distinction there, and Tennyson was +the most conspicuous among the guests. Tennyson's appearance was very +striking and his figure might have been taken as a living illustration of +romantic poetry. He was tall and stately, wore a great mass of thick, long +hair--long hair was then still worn even by men who did not affect +originality; his frame was slightly stooping, his shoulders were bent as +if with the weight of thought; there was something entirely out of the +common and very commanding in his whole presence, and a stranger meeting +him in whatever crowd would probably have assumed at once that he must be +a literary king. + +--Justin McCarthy: _Literary Portraits from the Sixties_ ("Harper's"). + + +The door opened and there appeared to these two a visitor. He was a young +man, and tall,--so tall that, even with his hat off, his head barely +cleared the ceiling of the low-studded room. He was slim and fair-haired +and round-shouldered. He had the pink and white complexion of a girl; +soft, fair hair; dark, serious eyes; the high, white brow of a thinker; +the nose of an aristocrat; and he was in clerical garb. + +--Sewall Ford: _The Renunciation of Petruo_ ("Harper's"). + + +EXERCISE + + +Notice the pictures on page 253. Can you determine from the picture +anything about the character of the person? Just what feature in each +helps you in this? + + ++Theme LXVIII.+--_Describe some person known to most of the class._ + +(Do not name the person, but combine description and character sketching +so that the class may be able to tell whom you mean.) + + +[Illustrations] + + ++135. Impression of a Description.+--Often the effectiveness of a +description is determined more by the impression which it makes upon our +feelings than by the vividness of the picture which it presents. Read the +following description of the Battery in New York by Howells. Notice how +the details which have been selected emphasize the "impression of +forlornness." The sickly trees, the decrepit shade, the mangy grass plots, +hungry-eyed and hollow children, the jaded women, silent and hopeless, the +shameless houses, the hard-looking men, unite to give the one impression. +Even the fresh blue water of the bay, which laughs and dances beyond, by +its very contrast gives greater emphasis to the melancholy and forlorn +appearance of the Battery. + + +All places that fashion has once loved and abandoned are very melancholy; +but of all such places, I think the Battery is the most forlorn. Are there +some sickly locust trees there that cast a tremulous and decrepit shade +upon the mangy grass plots? I believe so, but I do not make sure; I am +certain only of the mangy grass plots, or rather the spaces between the +paths, thinly overgrown with some kind of refuse and opprobrious weed, a +stunted and pauper vegetation proper solely to the New York Battery. At +that hour of the summer morning when our friends, with the aimlessness of +strangers who are waiting to do something else, saw the ancient promenade, +a few scant and hungry-eyed little boys and girls were wandering over this +weedy growth, not playing, but moving listlessly to and fro, fantastic in +the wild inaptness of their costumes. One of these little creatures wore, +with an odd, involuntary jauntiness, the cast-off best dress of some +happier child, a gay little garment cut low in the neck and short in the +sleeves, which gave her the grotesque effect of having been at a party the +night before. Presently came two jaded women, a mother and a grandmother, +that appeared, when they crawled out of their beds, to have put on only so +much clothing as the law compelled. They abandoned themselves upon the +green stuff, whatever it was, and, with their lean hands clasped outside +their knees, sat and stared, silent and hopeless, at the eastern sky, at +the heart of the terrible furnace, into which in those days the world +seemed cast to be burnt up, while the child which the younger woman had +brought with her feebly wailed unheeded at her side. On one side of the +women were the shameless houses out of which they might have crept, and +which somehow suggested riotous maritime dissipation; on the other side +were those houses in which had once dwelt rich and famous folk, but which +were now dropping down to the boarding-house scale through various +unhomelike occupations to final dishonor and despair. Down nearer the +water, and not far from the castle that was once a playhouse and is now +the depot of emigration, stood certain express wagons, and about these +lounged a few hard-looking men. Beyond laughed and danced the fresh blue +water of the bay, dotted with sails and smokestacks. + +--Howells: _Their Wedding Journey_. + + +The successive images of the preceding selection are clear enough, but +they are bound together by a common purpose, which is the creation of a +single impression. Often, however, a description may present, not a single +impression, but a series of such impressions, to which a unity is given by +the fact that they are all connected with one event, or occur at the same +time, or in the same place. Such a series of impressions is illustrated in +the following:-- + + +It is a phenomenon whose commonness alone prevents it from being most +impressive, that departure of the night-express. The two hundred miles it +is to travel stretch before it, traced by those slender clews, to lose +which is ruin, and about which hang so many dangers. The drawbridges that +gape upon the way, the trains that stand smoking and steaming on the +track, the rail that has borne the wear so long that it must soon snap +under it, the deep cut where the overhanging mass of rocks trembles to its +fall, the obstruction that a pitiless malice may have placed in your path, +you think of these after the journey is done, but they seldom haunt +your fancy while it lasts. The knowledge of your helplessness in any +circumstances is so perfect that it begets a sense of irresponsibility, +almost of security; and as you drowse upon the pallet of the sleeping car +and feel yourself hurled forward through the obscurity, you are almost +thankful that you can do nothing, for it is upon this condition only that +you can endure it; and some such condition as this, I suppose, accounts +for many heroic acts in the world. To the fantastic mood which possesses +you equally, sleeping or waking, the stoppages of the train have a weird +character, and Worcester, Springfield, New Haven, and Stamford are rather +points in dreamland than well-known towns of New England. As the train +stops you drowse if you have been waking, and wake if you have been in a +doze; but in any case you are aware of the locomotive hissing and coughing +beyond the station, of flaring gas-jets, of clattering feet of passengers +getting on and off; then of some one, conductor or station master, walking +the whole length of the train; and then you are aware of an insane +satisfaction in renewed flight through the darkness. You think hazily of +the folk in their beds in the town left behind, who stir uneasily at the +sound of your train's departing whistle; and so all is blank vigil or a +blank slumber. + +--Howells: _Their Wedding Journey_. + + ++136. Impression as the Purpose of Description.+--The impression that it +gives may become the central purpose of a description. It is evident in +Howells's description of the Battery that the purpose was the creating of +an impression of forlornness, and that the author kept this purpose in +mind when choosing the details. If his aim had been to enable us to form a +clear picture of the Battery in its physical outlines, he would have +chosen different details and would have presented them in different +language. + +The same scene or object may present a different appearance to two +different observers because each may discover a different set of +likenesses or resemblances and so select different essential +characteristics. An artist will paint a picture that centers around some +one feature. Each added detail seems but to set forth and increase the +effect of this central element of the picture. Similarly the observer will +in his description lay emphasis on the central point and will select +details that bear a helpful relation to it. If he wishes to present the +picture of a valley, he will lay emphasis on its fundamental image and +essential details with reference to its appearance; but if his desire is +to present the impression of fertility or of rural simplicity and quiet, +the elements that are important for the producing of the desired +impression may not be at all the ones essential to his former picture. + +When the presentation of a picture is our central purpose, we attempt to +present it as it appears to us, and select details that will enable others +to form the desired image; but if we desire to set forth how a scene +affected us, we must choose details that will make our reader feel as we +felt. + + ++137. Necessity of Observing our Impressions.+--In order to write a +description which shall give our impression of an object or scene, we must +know definitely what that impression is. Just as clear seeing is necessary +for the reproduction of definite images, so is the clear perception of our +impressions necessary to their reproduction. Furthermore, we may know what +our impressions are without being able to select those elements in a scene +that have produced them; but in order to write a description that shall +affect others as the scene itself affected us, we must know what these +elements are and emphasize them in the description. Thus it becomes +necessary to pay attention both to our impression and to the selection of +those details which create that impression. One glance at a room may cause +us to believe that the housekeeper is untidy. If we wish to convey this +impression to our reader, our description must include the details that +give that impression of untidiness to us. + +Nor are we limited to sight alone, for our impressions may be made +stronger by the aid of the other senses. Sound and smell and taste may +supplement the sight, and though they add little to the clearness, yet +they add much to the impression which we get. + + +Within the cabin, through which Basil and Isabel now slowly moved, there +were numbers of people lounging about on the sofas, in various attitudes +of talk or vacancy; and at the tables there were others reading _Lothair_, +a new book in the remote epoch of which I write, and a very fashionable +book indeed. There was in the air that odor of paint and carpet which +prevails on steamboats; the glass drops of the chandeliers ticked softly +against each other, as the vessel shook with her respiration, like a +comfortable sleeper, and imparted a delicious feeling of coziness and +security to our travelers. + +--Howells: _Their Wedding Journey_. + + ++138. Impression Limited to Experience.+--If we attempt to write a +description for the sake of giving an impression, it must be an impression +that we have ourselves experienced. If the sight of the gorge of Niagara +has filled us with a feeling of sublimity and awe, we shall find it hard +to write a humorous account of it. If we see the humorous elements of a +situation, we cannot easily make our description give the impression of +grief. Neither can we successfully imitate the impressions of others. No +two persons are affected in the same way by the same thing. Our age, our +temperament, our emotional attitude, and all of our past experiences +affect our way of looking at things and modify the impressions which we +get. The successful presentation of our impression will depend largely +upon the definite perception of our feelings. + + ++139. Impression Affected by Mood.+--Not only is our impression affected +by details in the scene observed, but it is even more largely influenced +by our mood at the time of the observation. The same landscape may cheer +at one time and dishearten at another. To-day we see the ridiculous; +to-morrow, the sad and sorrowful. A thousand things may change our mood, +but under certain general conditions, certain impressions are likely to +arise. There is something in the air of spring, or the heat of summer, +which affects us all. The weather, too, has its effect. Sunshine and +shadow find answering attitudes in our feelings, and the skillful writer +takes advantage of these emotional tendencies. + + +Not far we fared-- +The river left behind--when, looking back, +I saw the mountain in the searching light +Of the low sun. Surcharged with youthful pride +In my adventure, I can ne'er forget +The disappointment and chagrin which fell +Upon me; for a change had passed. The steep +Which in the morning sprang to kiss the sun, +Had left the scene; and in its place I saw +A shrunken pile, whose paths my steps had climbed, +Whose proudest height my humble feet had trod. +Its grand impossibilities and all +Its store of marvels and of mysteries +Were flown away, and would not be recalled. + +--Holland: _Katrina_. + + ++140. Union of Image and Impression.+--Because we have discussed image +making and impression giving separately, it must not be judged that they +necessarily occur separately. They are in fact always united. No image, +however clear, can fail to make some impression, and no description, +however strong the impression it gives, fails to create some image. It is +rather the placing of the emphasis that counts. Some descriptions have for +their purpose the giving of an image, and the impression is of little +moment. Other descriptions aim at producing impressions, and the images +are of less importance. In the description of the Battery (page 254) the +images are clear enough, but they are subordinate to the impression. This +subordination may even go farther. Often the impression is made prominent +and we are led by suggestion to form images which fit it, while in reality +few definite images have been set. Notice in the following selection that +the impression of desolation is given without attempting to picture +exactly what was seen:-- + + +The country at the foot of Vesuvius is the most fertile and best +cultivated of the kingdom, most favored by Heaven in all Europe. The +celebrated _Lacrymæ Christi_ vine flourishes beside land totally +devastated by lava, as if nature here made a last effort, and resolved to +perish in her richest array. As you ascend, you turn to gaze on Naples, +and on the fair laud around it--the sea sparkles in the sun as if strewn +with jewels; but all the splendors of creation are extinguished by +degrees, as you enter the region of ashes and smoke, that announces your +approach to the volcano. The iron waves of other years have traced their +large black furrows in the soil. At a certain height birds are no longer +seen; further on, plants become very scarce; then even insects find no +nourishment. At last all life disappears. You enter the realm of death and +the slain earth's dust alone sleeps beneath your unassured feet. + +--Madame De Staël: _Corinne: Italy_. + + +EXERCISES + + +Discuss the following selections with reference to the impression given by +each:-- + + +The third of the flower vines is Wood-Magic. It bears neither flowers nor +fruit. Its leaves are hardly to be distinguished from the leaves of the +other vines. Perhaps they are a little rounder than the Snowberry's, a +little more pointed than the Partridge-berry's; sometimes you might +mistake them for the one, sometimes for the other. No marks of warning +have been written upon them. If you find them, it is your fortune; if you +taste them, it is your fate. For as you browse your way through the +forest, nipping here and there a rosy leaf of young wintergreen, a +fragrant emerald tip of balsam fir, a twig of spicy birch, if by chance +you pluck the leaves of Wood-Magic and eat them, you will not know what +you have done, but the enchantment of the treeland will enter your heart +and the charm of the wildwood will flow through your veins. You will never +get away from it. The sighing of the wind through the pine trees and the +laughter of the stream in its rapids will sound through all your dreams. +On beds of silken softness you will long for the sleep-song of whispering +leaves above your head, and the smell of a couch of balsam boughs. At +tables spread with dainty fare you will be hungry for the joy of the hunt, +and for the angler's sylvan feast. In proud cities you will weary for the +sight of a mountain trail; in great cathedrals you will think of the long, +arching aisles of the woodland: and in the noisy solitude of crowded +streets you will hone after the friendly forest. + +--Henry Van Dyke: _The Blue Flower_. +(Copyright, 1902, Charles Scribner's Sons.) + + +Running your eye across the map of the State, you see two slowly +converging lines of railroad writhing out between the hills to the +sea-coast. Three other lines come down from north to south by the river +valleys and the jagged shore. Along these, huddled in the corners of the +hills and the sea line, lie the cities and the larger towns. A great +majority of mankind, swarming in these little spots, or scuttling to and +fro along the valleys on those slender lines, fondly dream they are +acquainted with the land in which they live. But beyond and around all +this rises the wide, bare face of the country, which they will never know-- +the great patches of second-growth woods, the mountain pastures sown +thick with stones, the barren acres of the hillside farmer--a desolate +land, latticed with gray New England roads, dotted with commonplace or +neglected houses, and pitted with the staring cellars of the abandoned +homes of disheartened and defeated men. + +Out here in this semi-obscurity, where the regulating forces of society +grow tardy and weak, strange and dangerous beings move to and fro, +avoiding the apprehension of the law. Occasionally we hear of them--of +some shrewd and desperate city fugitives brought to bay in a corner of the +woods, or some brutal farmhouse murderer still lurking uncaptured among +the hills. Often they pass through the country and out beyond, where they +are never seen again. + +In the extreme southwestern corner of the State the railroads do not come; +the vacant spaces grow between the country roads, and the cities dwindle +down to half-deserted crossroads hamlets. Here the surface of the map is +covered up with the tortuous wrinkles of the hills. It is a beautiful but +useless place. As far as you can see, low, unformed lumps of mountains lie +jumbled aimlessly together between the ragged sky lines, or little silent +cups of valleys stare up between them at their solitary patch of sky. It +seems a sort of waste yard of creation, flung full of the remnants of the +making of the earth. + +--George Kibbe Turner: _Across the State_ ("McClure's"). + + +When once the shrinking dizzy spell was gone, +I saw below me, like a jeweled cup, +The valley hollowed to its heaven-kissed lip-- +The serrate green against the serrate blue-- +Brimming with beauty's essence; palpitant +With a divine elixir--lucent floods +Poured from the golden chalice of the sun, +At which my spirit drank with conscious growth, +And drank again with still expanding scope +Of comprehension and of faculty. + +I felt the bud of being in me burst +With full, unfolding petals to a rose, +And fragrant breath that flooded all the scene. +By sudden insight of myself I knew +That I was greater than the scene,--that deep +Within my nature was a wondrous world, +Broader than that I gazed on, and informed +With a diviner beauty,--that the things +I saw were but the types of those I held, +And that above them both, High Priest and King, +I stood supreme, to choose and to combine, +And build from that within me and without +New forms of life, with meaning of my own, +And then alone upon the mountain top, +Kneeling beside the lamb, I bowed my head +Beneath the chrismal light and felt my soul +Baptized and set apart for poetry. + +--Holland: _Katrina_. + + ++Theme LXIX.+--_Write a description the purpose of which is to give an +impression that you have experienced._ + + +SUMMARY + +1. Description is that form of discourse which has for its + purpose the creation of an image. + +2. The essential characteristics of a description are:-- + _a._ A point of view, + (1) It may be fixed or changing. + (2) It may be expressed or implied. + (3) Only those details should be included that can be seen + from the point of view chosen. + _b._ A correct fundamental image. + _c._ A few characteristic and essential details + (1) Close observation on the part of the writer is necessary + in order to select the essential details. + _d._ A proper selection and subordination of minor details. + _e._ A suitable arrangement of details with reference to their + natural position in space. + _f._ That additional effectiveness which comes from + (1) Proper choice of words. + (2) Suitable comparisons and figures. + (3) Variety of sentence structures. + +3. The foregoing principles of description apply in the describing of many + classes of objects. A description of a person usually gives some + indication of his character and so becomes to some extent a character + sketch. + +4. A description may also have for its purpose the giving of an + impression. + _a._ The writer must select details which will aid in conveying + the impression he desires his readers to receive. + _b._ The writer must observe his own impressions accurately, + because he cannot convey to others that which he has not + himself experienced. + _c._ The impression received is affected by the mood of the person. + _d._ Impression and image are never entirely separated. + + + +IX. NARRATION + + ++141. Kinds of Narration.+--Narration consists of an account of +happenings, and, for this reason, it is, without doubt, the most +interesting of all forms of discourse. It is natural for us all to be +interested in life, movement, action; hence we enjoy reading and talking +about them. To be convinced that there is everywhere a great interest in +narration we need only to listen to conversations, notice what constitutes +the subject-matter of letters of friendship, read newspapers and +magazines, and observe what classes of books are most frequently drawn +from our libraries. + +Narration assumes a variety of forms. Since it relates happenings, it must +include anecdotes, incidents, short stories, letters, novels, dramas, +histories, biographies, and stories of travel and exploration. It also +includes many newspaper articles such as those that give accounts of +accidents and games and reports of various kinds of meetings. Evidently +the field of narration is a broad one, for wherever life or action may be +found or imagined, a subject for a narrative exists. + + +EXERCISES + + +1. Name four different events that have actually taken place in your +school in which you think your classmates are interested. + +2. Name three events that have taken place in other schools that may be of +interest to members of your school. + +3. Name four events of general interest that have occurred in your city +during the last two or three years. + +4. From a daily paper, pick out a narrative that is interesting to you. + +5. Select one that you think ought to interest the most of your +classmates. + +6. Name three national events of recent occurrence. + +7. Name three or four strange or mysterious events of which you have +heard. + +8. Name an actual occurrence that interested you because you wanted to see +how it turned out. + +9. Would an ordinary account of a bicycle or automobile trip be +interesting? If not, why not? + + ++Theme LXX.+--._Write a letter to a pupil in a neighboring high school, +telling about something interesting that has happened in your own school_. + +(Review forms of letter writing. Consider your use of paragraphs.) + + ++142. Plot.+--By plot we mean the outline of the story told in a few +words. All narratives consist of accounts of connected happenings, in +which action on the part of the characters is naturally implied. The +principal action briefly told constitutes the plot. The simple plot of +Tennyson's _Princess_ is as follows:-- + + +A prince of the North, after being affianced as a child to a princess of +the South, has fallen in love with her portrait and a lock of her hair. +When, however, the embassy appears to fetch home the bride, she sends back +the message that she is not disposed to be married. Upon receipt of this +word the Prince and two friends, Florian and Cyril, steal away to seek +the Princess, and learn on reaching her father's court that she has +established a Woman's College on a distant estate. Having got letters +authorizing them to visit the Princess, they ride into her domain, where +they determine to go dressed like girls and apply for admission as +students in the College. They arrive in disguise, and are admitted. On the +first day the young men enroll themselves as students of Lady Psyche, who +recognizes Florian as her brother and agrees not to expose them, since--by +a law of the College inscribed above the gates, which darkness has kept +them from seeing--the penalty of their discovery would be death. Melissa, +a student, overhears them, and is bound over to keep the secret. Lady +Blanche, mother of Melissa and rival to Lady Psyche, also learns of the +alarming invasion, and remains silent for sinister reasons of her own. On +the second day the principal personages picnic in a wood. At dinner Cyril +sings a song that is better fit for the smoking room than for the ears of +ladies; the Prince, in his anger, betrays his sex by a too masculine +reproof; and dire confusion is the result. The Princess in her flight +falls into the river, from which she is rescued by the Prince. Cyril and +Lady Psyche escape together, but the Prince and Florian are brought before +the Princess. At this important moment despatches are brought from her +father saying that the Prince's father has surrounded her palace with +soldiers, taken him prisoner, and holds him as a hostage. The Prince, +after pleading to deaf ears, is sent away at dawn with Florian, and goes +with him to the camp. Meantime during the night, the Princess's three +brothers have come to her aid with an army. An agreement is reached to +decide the case and end the war by a tournament between the brothers, with +fifty men, on one side; the Prince and his two friends, with fifty men, on +the other. This happens on the third day. The Prince and his men are +vanquished, and he himself is badly wounded. + +But the Princess is now gradually to discover that she has "overthrown +more than her enemy,"--that she has defeated yet saved herself. She has +said of Lady Psyche's little child:-- + + +"I took it for an hour in mine own bed +This morning: there the tender orphan hands +Felt at my heart, and seem'd to charm from thence +The wrath I nursed against the world." + + +When Cyril pleads with her to give the child back to its mother, she +kisses it and feels that "her heart is barren." When she passes near the +wounded Prince, and is shown by his father--his beard wet with his son's +blood--her hair and picture on her lover's heart, + + +Her iron will was broken in her mind, +Her noble heart was broken in her breast. + + +From the Princess's cry then, "Grant me your son to nurse," it is but a +natural result that she should bring the Prince's wounded men with him +into the College, now a hospital. Through ministering to her lover, she +comes to love him; and theories yield to "the lord of all." + +--Copeland-Rideout: _Introduction to Tennyson's Princess_. + + ++Theme LXXI.+--_Write the plot of one of the following_:-- + + 1. _Lochinvar_, Scott. + 2. _Rip Van Winkle_, Irving. + 3. One story from _A Tale of Two Cities_, Dickens. + 4. _Silas Marner_, George Eliot. + 5. The last magazine story you have read. + 6. Some story assigned by the teacher. + + ++Theme LXXII.+--_Write three brief plots. Have the class choose the one +that will make the most interesting story._ + + ++Theme LXXIII.+--_Write a story, using the plot selected by the class in +the preceding theme._ + +(Are the events related in your story probable or improbable?) + + ++143. The Introduction.+--Our pleasure in a story depends upon our clear +understanding of the various situations, and this understanding may often +be best given by an introduction that states something of the time, place, +characters, and circumstances as shown in Section 6. The purpose of the +introduction is to make the story more effective, and what it shall +contain is determined by the needs of the story itself. The last half of a +well-written story will not be interesting to one who has not read the +first half, because the first half will contain much that is essential to +the complete understanding of the main point of the story. A story begun +with conversation at once arouses interest, but care must be taken to see +that the reader gets sufficient descriptive and explanatory matter to +enable him to understand the story as the plot develops, or the interest +will begin to lag. + + ++Theme LXXIV.+--_Write a narrative._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. The Christmas surprise. + 2. How the mortgage was paid. + 3. The race between the steam roller and the traction engine. + 4. The new girl in the boarding school. + 5. The Boss, and how he won his title. + +(Be sure that your introduction is such that the entire situation is +understood. Name different points in the story that led you to say what +you have in the introduction. Have you mentioned any unnecessary points?) + + ++144. The Incentive Moment.+--The chief business of a story-teller is to +arouse the interest of his readers, and the sooner he succeeds, the +better. Usually he tries to arouse interest from the very beginning of his +story. He therefore places in the introduction or near it a statement +designed to stimulate the curiosity of his readers. The point at which +interest begins has been termed the incentive moment. In the following +selection notice that the first sentence tells who, when, and where. +(Section 6.) The second sentence causes us to ask, what was it? and by the +time that is answered we are curious to know what happened and how the +adventure ended. + + +On a mellow moonlight evening a cyclist was riding along a lonely road in +the northern part of Mashonaland. As he rode, enjoying the somber beauty +of the African evening, he suddenly became conscious of a soft, stealthy, +heavy tread on the road behind him. It seemed like the jog trot of some +heavy, cushion-footed animal following him. Turning round, he was scared +very badly to find himself looking into the glaring eyes of a large lion. +The puzzled animal acted very strangely, now raising his head, now +lowering it, and all the time sniffling the air in a most perplexed +manner. Here was a surprise for the lion. He could not make out what kind +of animal it was that could roll, walk, and sit still all at the same +time; an animal with a red eye on each side, and a brighter one in front. +He hesitated to pounce upon such an outlandish being--a being whose blood +smelled so oily. + +I believe no cyclist ever "scorched" with more honesty and +single-mindedness of purpose. But although he pedaled and pedaled, +although he perspired and panted, his effort to get away did not seem to +place any more space between him and the lion; the animal kept up his +annoyingly calm jog trot, and never seemed to tire. + +The poor rider was finally so exhausted from terror and exertion that he +decided to have the matter settled right away. Suddenly slowing down, he +jumped from his wheel, and, facing abruptly about, thrust the brilliant +headlight full into the face of the lion. This was too much for the beast. +The sudden glare destroyed the lion's nerve, for at this fresh evidence of +mystery on the part of the strange rider-animal, who broke himself into +halves and then cast his big eye in any direction he pleased, the monarch +of the forest turned tail, and with a wild rush retreated in a very +hyena-like manner into the jungle, evidently thanking his stars for his +miraculous escape from that awful being. Thereupon the bicyclist, with new +strength returning and devoutly blessing his acetylene lamp, pedaled his +way back to civilization. + +--P.L. Wessels. + + ++Theme LXXV.+--_Write a short imaginative story._ + + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. A bicycle race with an unfriendly dog. + 2. An unpleasant experience. + 3. A story told by the school clock. + 4. Disturbing a hornet's nest. + 5. The fate of an Easter bonnet. + 6. Chased by a wolf. + +(Where is the incentive moment? Is it introduced naturally?) + + ++145. Climax.+--You have already noticed in your reading that usually +somewhere near the close of the story, there is a turning point. That +turning point is called the climax. At this point, the suspense of mind is +greatest, for the fate of the principal character is being decided. If the +story is well written as regards the plot, our interest will continually +increase from the incentive moment to the climax. + +In the novel and the drama, both of which may have a complicated plot, +several minor climaxes or crises may be found. There may be a crisis to +each single event or episode, yet they should all be a part of and lead up +to the principal or final climax. Instead of detracting from, they add to +the interest of a carefully woven plot. For example, in the _Merchant of +Venice_, we have a crisis in both the casket story and the Lorenzo and +Jessica episode; but so skillfully are the stories interwoven that the +minor climaxes do not lessen our interest in the principal one. + +In short stories, the turning point should come near the close. There +should be but little said after that point is reached. In novels, and +especially in dramas, we find that the climax is not right at the close, +and considerable action sometimes takes place after the climax has been +reached. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Point out the climax in each of five stories that you have read. + +_B._ Where is the climax in the following selection? + + +We spoke, and Sohrab kindled at his taunts, +And he too drew his sword; at once they rushed +Together, as two eagles on one prey +Come rushing down together from the clouds, +One from the east, one from the west; their shields +Dashed with a clang together, and a din +Rose, such as that the sinewy woodcutters +Make often in the forest's heart at morn, +Of hewing axes, crashing trees--such blows +Rustum and Sohrab on each other hailed. +And you would say that sun and stars took part +In that unnatural conflict; for a cloud +Grew suddenly in heaven, and darked the sun +Over the fighters' heads; and a wind rose +Under their feet, and moaning swept the plain, +And in a sandy whirlwind wrapped the pair. +In gloom they twain were wrapped, and they alone; +For both the onlooking hosts on either hand +Stood in broad daylight, and the sky was pure, +And the sun sparkled on the Oxus stream. +But in the gloom they fought, with bloodshot eyes +And laboring breath; first Rustum struck the shield +Which Sohrab held stiff out; the steel-spiked spear +Rent the tough plates, but failed to reach the skin, +And Rustum plucked it back with angry groan. +Then Sohrab with his sword smote Rustum's helm, +Nor clove its steel quite through; but all the crest +He shore away, and that proud horsehair plume, +Never till now denied, sank to the dust; +And Rustum bowed his head; but then the gloom +Grew blacker, thunder rumbled in the air, +And lightnings rent the cloud; and Ruksh, the horse, +Who stood at hand, uttered a dreadful cry;-- +No horse's cry was that, most like the roar +Of some pained desert lion, who all day +Hath trailed the hunter's javelin in his side, +And comes at night to die upon the sand. +The two hosts heard that cry, and quaked for fear, +And Oxus curdled as it crossed his stream. +But Sohrab heard, and quailed not, but rushed on, +And struck again; and again Rustum bowed +His head; but this time all the blade, like glass, +Sprang in a thousand shivers on the helm, +And in the hand the hilt remained alone. +Then Rustum raised his head; his dreadful eyes +Glared, and he shook on high his menacing spear, +And shouted: "Rustum!"--Sohrab heard that shout, +And shrank amazed: back he recoiled one step, +And scanned with blinking eyes the advancing form; +And then he stood bewildered; and he dropped +His covering shield, and the spear pierced his side. +He reeled, and, staggering back, sank to the ground, +And then the gloom dispersed, and the wind fell, +And the bright sun broke forth, and melted all +The cloud; and the two armies saw the pair-- +Saw Rustum standing, safe upon his feet, +And Sohrab wounded, on the bloody sand. + +--Matthew Arnold: _Sohrab and Rustum_. + + ++Theme LXXVI.+--_Write a story and give special attention to the climax._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. The immigrant's error. + 2. A critical moment. + 3. An intelligent dog. + 4. The lost key. + 5. Catching a burglar. + 6. A hard test. + 7. Won by the last hit. + 8. A story suggested by a picture you have seen. + + +(Name the incidents leading up to the climax. Is the mind held in suspense +until the climax is reached? Are any unnecessary details introduced?) + + ++146. Conversation in Narration.+--When introduced into narration, a +conversation is briefer than when actually spoken. It is necessary to have +the conversation move quickly, for we read with less patience than we +listen. The sentences must be for the most part short, and the changes +from one speaker to another frequent, or the dialogue will have a "made to +order" effect. Notice the conversation in as many different stories as +possible. Observe how variation is secured in indicating the speaker. How +many substitutes for "He said" can you name? In relating conversation +orally, we are less likely to secure such variety. Notice in your own +speech and that of others how often "I said" and "He said" occur. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A_. Notice the indentation and sentence length in the following +selection:-- + + +Louden looked up calmly at the big figure towering above him. + +"It won't do, Judge," he said; that was all, but there was a significance +in his manner and a certainty in his voice which caused the uplifted hand +to drop limply. + +"Have you any business to set foot upon my property?" he demanded. + +"Yes," answered Joe. "That's why I came. + +"What business have you got with me?" + +"Enough to satisfy you, I think. But there's one thing I don't want to +do"--Joe glanced at the open door--"and that is to talk about it here--for +your own sake and because I think Miss Tabor should be present. I called +to ask you to come to her house at eight o'clock to-night." + +"You did!" Martin Pike spoke angrily, but not in the bull bass of yore. +"My accounts with her estate are closed," he said harshly. "If she wants +anything let her come here." + +Joe shook his head. "No. You must be there at eight o'clock." + +--Booth Tarkington: _The Conquest of Canaan_ ("Harper's"). + + +_B_. Notice the conversation in the following narrative. Consider also the +incentive moment and the climax. Suggest improvements. + + +When Widow Perkins saw Widower Parsons coming down the road she looked as +mad as a hornet and stepped to the back door. + +"William Henry," she called to the lank youth chopping wood, "you've +worked hard enough for one day. Come in and rest." + +"Guess that's the first time you ever thought I needed a rest since I was +born. I'll keep right on chopping till you get through acceptin' old +Hull," he replied, whereupon the widow slammed the door and looked twice +as mad as before. + +"Mornin', widdy," remarked the widower, stalking into the room, taking a +chair without an invitation, and hanging his hat on his knee. "Cold day," +he added cheerfully. + +The widow nodded shortly, at the same time inwardly prophesying a still +colder day for him before he struck the weather again. + +"Been buyin' a new cow," resumed the caller, impressively. + +"Have, eh?" returned the widow, with a jerk, bringing out the ironing +board and slamming it down on the table. + +"An' two hogs," went on the widower, wishing the widow would glance at him +just once and see how affectionate he looked. "They'll make pork enough +for all next winter and spring." + +"Will, eh?" responded the widow, with a bang of the iron that nearly +wrecked the table. + +"An' a--a--lot o' odd things 'round the house; an' the fact is, widdy, you +see--that is, you know--was going to say if you'll agree"--the widower +lost his words, and in his desperation hung his hat on the other knee and +hitched a trifle nearer the ironing board. + +"No, Hull Parsons, I don't see a single mite, nor I don't know a particle, +an' I ain't agreein' the least bit," snapped the widow, pounding the +creases out of the tablecloth. + +"But say, widdy, don't get riled so soon," again ventured Parsons. "I was +jest goin' to tell you that I've been proposing to Carpenter Brown to +build a new--" + +By this time the widow was glancing at him in a way he wished she +wouldn't. + +"Is that all the proposin' you've done in the last five mouths, Hull +Parsons?" she demanded stormily. "You ain't asked every old maid for miles +around to marry you, have you, Hull Parsons? An' you didn't tell the last +one you proposed to that if she didn't take you there would be only one +more chance left--that old pepper-box of a Widow Perkins? You didn't say +that, now, did you, Hull Parsons?" and the widow's eyes and voice snapped +fire all at once. + +The caller turned several different shades of red and realized that he had +struck the biggest snag he'd ever struck in any courting career, past or +present. He laughed violently for a second or two, tried to hang his +hat on both knees at the same time, and finally sank his voice to a +confidential undertone:-- + +"Now, widdy, that's the woman's way o' puttin' it. They've been jealous o' +you all 'long, fur they knew where my mind was sot. I wouldn't married one +o' them women for nothing," added the widower, with another hitch toward +the ironing board. + +"Huh!" responded the widow, losing a trifle of her warlike cast of +countenance. "S'pose all them women hadn't refused you, Hull Parsons, what +then?" + +"They didn't refuse me, widdy," returned the widower, trying to look +sheepish, and dropping his voice an octave lower. "S'pose I hadn't oughter +tell on 'em, but--er--can you keep a secret, widdy?" + +"I ain't like the woman who can't," remarked the widow, shortly. + +"Well, then, I was the one who did the refusin'--the hull gang went fer me +right heavy, guess 'cause 'twas leap year, or they was tryin' on some o' +them new women's ways, or somethin' like that. But my mind was sot all +along, d'ye see, widdy?" + +And the Widow Perkins invited Widower Parsons to stay to dinner, because +she thought she saw. + + ++Theme LXXVII.+--_Complete the story on pages 79-80, +or one of the following:_-- + + +THE AUDACIOUS REPORTER + +Soon after Fenimore Dayton became a reporter his city editor sent him to +interview James Mountain. That famous financier was then approaching the +zenith of his power over Wall Street and Lombard Street. It had just been +announced that he had "absorbed" the Great Eastern and Western Railway +System--of course, by the methods which have made some men and some +newspapers habitually speak of him as "the Royal Bandit." The city editor +had two reasons for sending Dayton--first because he did not like him; +second, because any other man on the staff would walk about for an hour +and come back with the report that Mountain had refused to receive him, +while Dayton would make an honest effort. + +Seeing Dayton saunter down Nassau Street--tall, slender, calm, and +cheerful--you would never have thought that he was on his way to interview +one of the worst-tempered men in New York, for a newspaper which that man +peculiarly detested, and on a subject which he did not care to discuss +with the public. Dayton turned in at the Equitable Building and went up to +the floor occupied by Mountain, Ranger, & Blakehill. He nodded to the +attendant at the door of Mountain's own suite of offices, strolled +tranquilly down the aisle between the several rows of desks at which sat +Mountain's personal clerks, and knocked at the glass door on which was +printed "Mr. Mountain" in small gilt letters. + +"Come!" It was an angry voice--Mountain's at its worst. + +Dayton opened the door. Mountain glanced up from a mass of papers before +him. His red forehead became a network of wrinkles and his scant white +eyebrows bristled. "And who are you?" he snarled. + +"My name is Dayton--Fenimore Dayton," replied the reporter, with a +gracefully polite bow. "Mr. Mountain, I believe?" + +It was impossible for Mr. Mountain altogether to resist the impulse to bow +in return. Dayton's manner was compelling. + +"And what the dev--what can I do for you?" + +"I'm a reporter from the ----" + +"What!" roared Mountain, leaping to his feet in a purple, swollen veined +fury.... + +--David Graham Philips ("McClure's"). + + +CAUGHT MASQUERADING + + +When I took my aunt and sister to the Pequot hotel, the night before the +Yale-Harvard boat race, I found a gang of Harvard boys there. They +celebrated a good deal that night, in the usual Harvard way. + +Some of the Harvard men had a room next to mine. About three a.m. things +quieted down. When I woke up next morning, it was broad daylight, and I +was utterly alone. The race was to be at eleven o'clock. I jumped out of +bed and looked at my watch--it was nearly ten! I looked for my clothes. My +valise was gone! I rang the bell, but in the excitement downstairs, I +suppose, no one answered it. + +What was I to do? Those Harvard friends of mine thought it a good joke on +me to steal my clothes and take themselves off to the race without waking +me up. I don't know what I should have done in my anguish, when, thank +goodness, I heard a tap at my door, and went to it. + +"Well, do hurry!" (It was my sister's voice.) "Aunt won't go to the race; +we'll have to go without her." + +"They've stolen my clothes, Mollie--those Harvard fellows." + +"Haven't you anything?" she asked through the keyhole. + +"Not a thing, dear." + +"Oh, well! it's a just punishment to you after last night! That ---- noise +was dreadful!" + +"Perhaps it is," I said, "but don't preach now, sister dear--get me +something to put on. I want to see the race." + +"I haven't anything except some dresses and one of aunt's." + +"Get me Aunt Sarah's black silk," I cried. "I will wear anything rather +than not see the race, and it's half-past ten nearly now." + + +(Correct your theme with reference to the points mentioned in Section +146.) + + ++147. Number and Choice of Details--Unity.+--In relating experiences the +choice of details will be determined by the purpose of the narrative and +by the person or persons for whom we are writing. A brief account of an +accident for a newspaper will need to include only a clear and concise +statement of a few important facts. A traveling experience may be made +interesting and vivid if we select several facts and treat each quite +fully. This is especially true if the experience took place in a country +or part of a country not familiar to our readers. If we are writing for +those with whom we are acquainted, we can easily decide what will interest +them. If we write to different persons an account of the same event, we +find that these accounts differ from one another. We know what each person +will enjoy, and we try to adapt our writing to each individual taste. Our +narrative will be improved by adapting it to an imaginary audience in case +we do not know exactly who our readers will be. In your high school work +you know your readers and can select your facts accordingly. + +To summarize: a narration should possess unity, that is, it should say all +that should be said about the subject and not more than needs to be said. +The length of the theme, the character of the audience to which it is +addressed, and the purpose for which it is written, determine what facts +are necessary and how many to choose in order to give unity. (See Section +81.) + + ++148. Arrangement of Details--Coherence.+--We should use an arrangement of +our facts that will give coherence to our theme. In a coherent theme each +sentence or paragraph is naturally suggested by the preceding one. It has +been pointed out in Sections 82-85 that in narration we gain coherence by +relating our facts in the order of their occurrence. When a single series +of events is set forth, we can follow the real time-order, omitting such +details as are not essential to the unity of the story. + +If, however, more than one series of events are given, we cannot follow +the exact time-order, for, though two events occur at the same time, one +must be told before the other. Here, the actual time relations must be +carefully indicated by the use of expressions; as, _at the same time, +meanwhile, already_, etc. (See Section 12.) Two or more series of events +belong in the same story only if they finally come together at some time, +usually at the point of the story. They should be carried along together +so that the reader shall have in mind all that is necessary for the +understanding of the point when it is reached. In short stories the +changes from one series to another are close together. In a long book one +or more chapters may give one series of incidents, while the following +chapters may be concerned with a parallel series of incidents. Notice the +introductory paragraph of each chapter in Scott's _Ivanhoe_ or Cooper's +_The Last of the Mohicans_. Many of these indicate that a new series of +events is to be related. + +It will be of advantage in writing a narrative to construct an outline as +indicated in Section 84. Such an outline will assist us in making our +narrative clear by giving it unity, coherence, and emphasis. + + +EXERCISES + + +1. Name events that have occurred in your school or city which could be +related in their exact time-order. Relate one of them orally. + +2. Name two accidents that could not be related in their exact time-order. +Relate one of them orally. + +3. Name subjects for real narratives that would need to be written in the +first person; in the third person. + +4. In telling about a runaway accident, what points would you mention if +you were writing a short account for a newspaper? + +5. What points would you add if you were writing to some one who was +acquainted with the persons in the accident? + +6. Consider the choice and arrangement of details in the next magazine +story that you read. + + ++Theme LXXVIII.+--_Write a personal narrative in which the time-order can +be carefully followed._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + + 1. The irate conductor. + 2. A personal adventure with a window. + 3. An interrupted nap. + 4. Lost in the woods. + 5. In a runaway. + 6. An amusing adventure. + 7. A day at grandfather's. + +(Consider the unity and coherence of the theme.) + + ++Theme LXXIX.+--_Write in the third person a true narrative in which +different events are going on at the same time._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. A skating accident. + 2. The hunters hunted. + 3. Capsized on the river. + 4. How he won the race. + 5. An experience with a balky horse. + 6. The search for a lost child. + 7. How they missed each other. + 8. A strange adventure. + 9. A tip over in a bobsleigh. + + +(How many series of events have you in your narrative? Are they well +connected? What words have you used to show the time-order of the +different events?) + + ++149. Interrelation of Plot and Character.+--Though in narration the +interest centers primarily in the action, yet in the higher types of +narration interest in character is closely interwoven with interest in +plot. In reading, our attention is held by the plot; we follow its +development, noticing the addition of incidents, their relation to one +another and to the larger elements of action in the story, and their union +in the final disentanglement of the plot; but our complete appreciation of +the story runs far beyond the plot and depends to a large extent upon our +interpretation of the character of the individuals concerned. The mere +story may be exciting and interesting, but its effect will be of little +permanent value if it does not stir within us some appreciation of +character, which we shall find reflected in our own lives or in the lives +of those about us. We may read the _Merchant of Venice_ for its story, but +a deeper study of the play sets forth and reënforces the character of +Portia, Shylock, and the others. With many of the celebrated characters of +literature this interest has grown quite apart from interest in the plot, +and they stand to-day as the embodiment of phases of human nature. Thus by +means of action does the skillful author portray his conception of human +life and human character. + +On the other hand, when we write we shall need to distinguish action that +indicates character from that which is merely incidental to the plot. In +order to develop a story to its climax we may need to have the persons +concerned perform certain actions. If by skillful wording we can show not +only what was done but also to some extent the way in which it was done, +we may give our readers some notion of the character of the individuals in +our story. (See Section 10.) This portrayal of character may be aided by +the use of description. (See Section 134.) + +Notice that the purpose of the following selection is to indicate the +character of Pitkin rather than to relate the incident. If the author were +to relate other doings of Pitkin, he would need to make the actions of +Pitkin in each case consistent with the character indicated by this +sketch. + + +It was the day of our great football game with Harvard, and when I heard +my friend Pitkin returning to the room we shared in common, I knew that he +was mad. And when I say mad I mean it,--not angry, nor exasperated, nor +aggravated, nor provoked, but mad: not mad according to the dictionary, +that is, crazy, but mad as we common folk use the term. So I say my friend +Pitkin was mad. I thought so when I heard the angry click-clack of his +heels on the cement walk, and I carefully put all the chairs against the +wall; I was sure of it when the door slammed, and I set the coal scuttle +in the corner behind the stove. There was no doubt of it when he mounted +the stairs three steps at a time, and I hastily cleared his side of the +desk. You may wonder why I did all these things, but you have never seen +Pitkin mad. + +Why was Pitkin mad? I did not then know. I had not seen him yet, for I was +so busy--so very, very busy--that I did not look up when he slammed his +books on the desk with a resounding whack which caused the ink bottle to +tremble and the lampshade to clatter as though chattering its teeth with +fear, while the pens and pencils, tumbling from the holder, scurried away +to hide themselves under the desk. + +I was still busily engaged with my books while he threw his wet overcoat +and dripping hat on the white bedspread and kicked his rubbers under the +stove, the smell of which soon warned me to rescue them before they +melted. Pitkin must be very mad this time. He was taking off his collar +and even his shoes. Pitkin always took off his collar when very mad, and +if especially so, put on his slippers, even if he had to change them again +in fifteen minutes. + +"What are you doing? Why don't you say something? You are a pretty fellow +not to speak or even look up." Such was Pitkin's first remark. Sometimes +he was talkative and would insist on giving his opinion of things in +general. At other times he preferred to be left alone to bury himself and +his wrath in his books. Since he had failed to poke the fire, though the +room was very warm, I had decided that he would dive into his books and be +heard no more until a half hour past his suppertime, but I had made a +mistake. Today he was in a talkative mood, and knowing that work was +impossible, I devoted the next half hour to listening to a dissertation on +the general perverseness of human nature, and to an elaborate description +of my friend Pitkin's scheme for endowing a rival institution with a +hundred million, and making things so cheap and attractive that our +university would have to go out of business. When Pitkin reached this +point, I knew that I could safely ask the special reason of his anger and +that, having answered, he would settle down to his regular work. I gently +insinuated that I was still ignorant of the matter, and received the reply +quite in keeping with Pitkin's nature, "I bet on Harvard and won." + + +EXERCISES + + +1. Read one of Dickens's books and bring to class selections that will +show how Dickens portrays character by use of action. + +2. What kind of man is Silas Marner? What leads you to think as you do? + +3. Select three persons from _Ivanhoe_ and state your opinion of their +character. + +4. Notice the relative importance of plot and character in three magazine +stories. + +5. Select some person from a magazine story. Tell the class what makes you +form the estimate of his character that you do. To what extent does the +descriptive matter help you determine his character? + + ++Theme LXXX.+--_Write a character sketch or a story which shows character +by means of action._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. The girl from Texas. + 2. The Chinese cook. + 3. Taking care of the baby. + 4. Nathan's temptation. + 5. The small boy's triumph. + 6. A village character. + 7. The meanest man I ever knew. + + +(Consider the development of the plot. To what extent have you shown +character by action? Can you make the impression of character stronger by +adding some description?) + + ++150. History and Biography.+--Historical and biographical narratives may +be highly entertaining and at the same time furnish us with much valuable +information. Such writings often contain much that is not pure narration. +A historian may set forth merely the program of events, but most histories +contain besides a large amount of description and explanation. Frequently, +too, all of this is but the basis of either a direct or an implied +argument. Likewise a biographer may be chiefly concerned with the acts of +a man, but he usually finds that the introduction of description and +explanation aids him in making clear the life purpose of the man about +whom he writes. In shorter histories and biographies, the expository and +descriptive matter often displaces the narrative matter to such an extent +that the story ceases to be interesting. + +The actual time-order of events need not be followed. It will often make +our account clearer to discuss the literary works of a man at one time, +his education at another, and his practical achievements at a third. +Certain portions of his life may need to be emphasized while others are +neglected. What we include in a biography and what we emphasize will be +determined by the purpose for which it is written. For pure information, a +short account is desirable, but a long account is of greater interest. If +a man is really great, the most insignificant events in his life will be +read with interest, but a good biographer will select such events with +good taste and then will present them so that they will have a bearing +upon the more important phases of the man's life and character. Hundreds +of the stories told about Lincoln would be trivial but for the fact that +they help us better to understand the real character of the man. + + +EXERCISE + + +1. Select some topic briefly mentioned in the history text you study. Look +up a more extended account of it and come to the class prepared to recite +the topic orally. Make your report clear, concise, and interesting. Decide +beforehand just what facts you will relate and in what order. (See +Sections 39, 52, 53.) + + ++Theme LXXXI.+--_Come to class prepared to write upon some topic assigned +by the teacher, or upon one of the following_:-- + + 1. Pontiac's conspiracy. + 2. The battle of Marathon. + 3. The Boston tea party. + 4. The battle of Bannockburn. + 5. Sherman's march to the sea. + 6. Passage of the Alps by Napoleon. + +(Is your narrative told in an interesting way? Are any facts necessary to +the clear understanding of it omitted?) + + +EXERCISES + + +1. Name an English orator, an English statesman, and an English writer +about each of whom an interesting biography might be written. + +2. With the same purpose in view name two American orators, two American +writers, and two American statesmen. + + ++Theme LXXXII.+--_Write a short biography of some prominent person. +Include only well-known and important facts, but do not give his name. +Read the biography before the class and have them tell whose biography it +is._ + + ++151. Description in Narration.+--The descriptive elements, of narration +should always have for their purpose something more than the mere creating +of images. If a house is described, the description should enable us to +bring to mind more vividly the events that take place within or around it. +If the description aids us in understanding how or why the events occur, +it is helpful; but if it fails to do this, it has no place in the +narrative. Description when thus used serves as a background for the +actions told in the story, and has for its purpose the explanation of how +or why they occur. + +Sometimes the descriptions are given before the incident and sometimes the +two are intermixed. In the following incident from the _Legend of Sleepy +Hollow_, notice how the description prepares the mind for the action that +follows. We are told that the brook which Ichabod must cross runs into a +marshy and thickly wooded glen; that the oaks and chestnuts matted with +grapevines throw a gloom over the place, and already we feel that it is a +dreadful spot after dark. The fact that André was captured here adds to +the feeling. We are prepared to have some exciting action take place, and +had Ichabod ridden quietly across the bridge, we should have been +disappointed. + + +About two hundred yards from the tree a small brook crossed the road, and +ran into a marshy and thickly wooded glen, known by the name of Wiley's +swamp. A few rough logs, laid side by side, served for a bridge over this +stream. On that side of the road where the brook entered the woods, a +group of oaks and chestnuts, matted thick with wild grapevines, threw a +cavernous gloom over it. To pass this bridge was the severest trial. It +was at this identical spot that the unfortunate André was captured, and +under covert of those vines were the sturdy yeomen concealed who surprised +him. This has ever since been considered a haunted stream, and fearful are +the feelings of the schoolboy who has to pass it alone after dark. + +As he approached the stream his heart began to thump; he summoned up, +however, all his resolution, gave his horse half a score of kicks in the +ribs, and attempted to dash briskly across the bridge; but instead of +starting forward, the perverse old animal made a lateral movement, and ran +broadside against the fence. Ichabod, whose fears increased with the +delay, jerked the reins on the other side, and kicked lustily with the +contrary foot. It was all in vain; his steed started, it is true, but it +was only to plunge to the opposite side of the road into a thicket of +brambles and alder bushes. The schoolmaster now bestowed both whip and +heel upon the starveling ribs of old Gunpowder, who dashed forward, +snuffling and snorting, but came to a stand just by the bridge, with a +suddenness that had nearly sent his rider sprawling over his head. Just at +this moment a plashy tramp, by the side of the bridge caught the sensitive +ear of Ichabod. In the dark shadow of the grove, on the margin of the +brook, he beheld something huge, misshapen, black, and towering. It +stirred not, but seemed gathered up in the gloom like some gigantic +monster ready to spring upon the traveler. + +--Irving: _Legend of Sleepy Hollow_. + + +The most important use of description in connection with narration is that +of portraying character. Though it is by their actions that the character +of persons is most strongly brought out, yet the descriptive matter may do +much to strengthen the impression of character which we form. (Section +134.) Much of the description found in literature is of this nature. +Stripped of its context such a description may fail to satisfy our ideals +as judged by the principles of description discussed in Chapter VIII. +Nevertheless, in its place it may be perfectly adapted to its purpose and +give just the impression the author wished to give. Such descriptions must +be judged in their settings, and the sole standard of judgment is not +their beauty or completeness as descriptions, but how well they give the +desired impressions. + + ++Theme LXXXIII.+--_Write a short personal narrative containing some +description which explains how or why events occur._ + +(Is there anything in the descriptive part that does not bear on the +narration?) + + ++Theme LXXXIV.+--_Write a narrative containing description that aids in +giving an impression of character._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. Holding the fort. + 2. A steamer trip. + 3. How I played truant. + 4. Kidnapped. + 5. The misfortunes of our circus. + 6. Account for the situation shown in a picture that you have seen. + + +(Will the reader form the impression of character which you wish him to +form? Consider your theme with reference to its introduction, incentive +moment, selection and arrangement of details, and climax.) + + +SUMMARY + + +1. Narration assumes a variety of forms,--incidents, anecdotes, stories, + letters, novels, histories, biographies, etc.,--all concerned with the + relation of events. + +2. The essential characteristics of a narration are,-- + _a._ An introduction which tells the characters, the time, the place, + and enough of the attendant circumstances to make clear the + point of the narrative. + _b._ The early introduction of an incentive moment. + _c._ A climax presented in such a way as to maintain the interest of + the reader. + _d._ The selection of details essential to the climax in accordance + with the principle of unity. + _e._ The arrangement of these details in a coherent order. + _f._ The skillful introduction of minor details which will assist in + the appreciation of the point. + _g._ The introduction of all necessary description and explanation. + _h._ That additional effectiveness which comes from + (1) Proper choice of words. + (2) Suitable comparisons and figures. + (3) Variety of sentence structure. + _i._ A brief conclusion. + + + +X. EXPOSITION + + ++152. Purpose of Exposition.+--It is the purpose of exposition to make +clear to others that which we ourselves understand. Its primary object is +to give information. Herein lies one of the chief differences between the +two forms of discourse just studied and the one that we are about to +study. The primary object of most description and narration is to please, +while that of exposition is to inform. Exposition answers such questions +as how? why? what does it mean? what is it used for? and by these answers +attempts to satisfy demands for knowledge. + +In the following selections notice that the first tells us _how_ to +burnish a photograph; the second, _how_ to split a sheet of paper:-- + + +1. When the prints are almost dry they can be burnished. The burnishing +iron should be heated and kept hot during the burnishing, about the same +heat as a flatiron in ironing clothes. Care must be taken to keep the +polished surface of the burnisher bright and clean. When the iron is hot +enough the prints should be rubbed with a glacé polish, which is sold for +this purpose, and is applied with a small wad of flannel. Then the prints +should be passed through the burnisher two or three times, the burnisher +being so adjusted that the pressure on the prints is rather light; the +degree of pressure will be quickly learned by experience, more pressure +being required if the prints have been allowed to become dry before being +polished. White castile soap will do very well as a lubricator for the +prints before burnishing, and is applied in the same manner as above. + +--_The Amateur Photographer's Handbook_. + + +2. Paper can be split into two or even three parts, however thin the +sheet. It may be convenient to know how to do this sometimes; as, for +instance, when one wishes to paste in a scrapbook an article printed on +both sides of the paper. + +Get a piece of plate glass and place it on a sheet of paper. Then let the +paper be thoroughly soaked. With care and a little skill the sheet can be +split by the top surface being removed. + +The best plan, however, is to paste a piece of cloth or strong paper to +each side of the sheet to be split. When dry, quickly, and without +hesitation, pull the two pieces asunder, when one part of the sheet will +be found to have adhered to one, and part to the other. Soften the paste +in water, and the two pieces can easily be removed from the cloth. + + +EXERCISES + + +A. Explain orally any two of the following:-- + 1. How to fly a kite. + 2. How a robin builds her nest. + 3. How oats are harvested. + 4. How tacks are made. + 5. How to make a popgun. + 6. How fishes breathe. + 7. How to swim. + 8. How to hemstitch a handkerchief. + 9. How to play golf. + 10. How salt is obtained. + + +B. Name several subjects with the explanation of which you are unfamiliar. + + ++Theme LXXXV.+--_Select for a subject something that you know how to do. +Write a theme on the subject chosen._ + +(Have you made use of either general description or general narration? See +Sections 67 and 68.) + +Very frequently explanations of _how_ and _why_ anything is done are +combined, as in the following:-- + + +In cases of sunstroke, place the person attacked in a cool, airy place. Do +not allow a crowd to collect closely about him. Remove his clothing, and +lay him flat upon his back. Dash him all over with cold water--ice-water, +if it can be obtained--and rub the entire body with pieces of ice. This +treatment is used to reduce the heat of the body, for in all cases of +sunstroke the temperature of the body is greatly increased. When the body +has become cooler, wipe it dry and remove the person to a dry locality. If +respiration ceases, or becomes exceedingly slow, practice artificial +respiration. After the patient has apparently recovered, he should be kept +quiet in bed for some time. + +--Baldwin: _Essential Lessons in Human Physiology and Hygiene_. + + +Notice that the following selection answers neither the question _how_? +nor _why_? but explains what journalism is:-- + + +JOURNALISM + +What is a journal? What is a journalist? What is journalism? Is it a +trade, a commercial business, or a profession? Our word _journal_ comes +from the French. It has different forms in the several Romantic languages, +and all go back to the Latin _diurnalis_, daily, from _dies_, a day. +Diurnal and diary are derived from the same source. The first journals +were in fact diaries, daily records of happenings, compiled often for the +pleasure and use of the compiler alone, sometimes for monarchs or +statesmen or friends; later to be circulated for the information of a +circle of readers, or distributed in copies to subscribers among the +public at large. These were the first newspapers. While we still in a +specific sense speak of daily newspapers as journals, the term is often +enlarged to comprise nearly all publications that are issued periodically +and distributed to subscribers. + +A journalist is one whose business is publishing a journal (or more than +one), or editing a journal, or writing for journals, especially a person +who is regularly employed in some responsible directing or creative work +on a journal, as a publisher, editor, writer, reporter, critic, etc. This +use of the word is comparatively modern, and it is commonly restricted to +persons connected with daily or weekly newspapers. Many older newspaper +men scout it, preferring to be known as publishers, editors, writers, or +contributors. Journalism, however, is a word that is needed for its +comprehensiveness. It includes the theory, the business, and the art of +producing newspapers in all departments of the work. Hence, any school of +professional journalism must be presumed to comprise in its scope and +detail of instruction the knowledge that is essential to the making and +conduct of newspapers. It must have for its aim the ideal newspaper which +is ideally perfect in every department. + +Journalism, so far as it is more than mere reporting and mere money +making, so far as it undertakes to frame and guide opinion, to educate the +thought and instruct the conscience of the community, by editorial +comment, interpretation and homily, based on the news, is under obligation +to the community to be truthful, sincere, and uncorrupted; to enlighten +the understanding, not to darken counsel; to uphold justice and honor with +unfailing resolution, to champion morality and the public welfare with +intelligent zeal, to expose wrong and antagonize it with unflinching +courage. If journalism has any mission in the world besides and beyond the +dissemination of news, it is a mission of maintaining a high standard of +thought and life in the community it serves, strengthening all its forces +that make for righteousness and beauty and fair growth. + +This is not solely, nor peculiarly, the office of what is called the +editorial page. To be most influential, it must be a consistent expression +in all departments, giving the newspaper a totality of power in such aim. +This is the right ideal of journalism whenever it is considered as +more than a form of commercialism. No newspaper attains its ideal in +completeness. If it steadfastly works toward attainment, it gives proof of +its right to be. The advancing newspaper, going on from good to better in +the substance of its character and the ability of its endeavor, is the +type of journalism which affords hope for the future. And one strong +encouragement to fidelity in a high motive is public appreciation. + +--_The Boston Herald._ + + +EXERCISES + + +Give as complete an answer as possible to any two of the following +questions:-- + +1. Why do fish bite better on a cloudy day than on a bright one? + +2. Why should we study history? + +3. Why does a baseball curve? + +4. Why did the American colonies revolt against England? + +5. Why did the early settlers of New England persecute the Quakers? + +6. Why should trees be planted either in early spring or late autumn? + +7. Why do we lose a day in going from America to China? + +8. In laying a railroad track, why is there a space left between the ends +of the rails? + + ++Theme LXXXVI.+--_Choose one of the above or a similar question as a +subject for a theme. Write out as complete and exact an explanation as +possible._ + +EXERCISE + +Write out a list of subjects the explanation of which would not answer the +questions _why_? or _how_? How many of them can you explain? + + ++Theme LXXXVII.+--_Write out the explanation of one of the subjects in the +above list._ + +(Read what you have written and consider it with reference to clearness, +unity, and coherence.) + + ++153. Importance of Exposition.+--This form of discourse is important +because it deals so extensively with important subjects, such as questions +of government, facts in science, points in history, methods in education, +and processes of manufacture. It enters vitally into our lives, no matter +what our occupation may be. Business men make constant use of this kind of +discourse. In fact, it would be impossible for business to be transacted +with any degree of success without explanations. Loans of money would not +be made if men did not understand how they could have security for the +sums loaned. A manufacturer cannot expect to have good articles produced +if he is unable to give needful explanations concerning their manufacture. +In order that a merchant be successful he must be able to explain the +relative merits of his goods to his customers. + +Very much of the work done in our schools is of an expository nature. +The text-books used are expositions. When they of themselves are not +sufficient for the clear understanding of the subject, it is necessary +to consult reference books. Then, if the subject is still lacking in +clearness, the teacher is called upon for additional explanation. On the +other hand, the greater part of the pupil's recitations consists simply in +explaining the subjects under discussion. Much of the class-room work in +our schools consists of either receiving or giving explanations. + + +EXERCISES + + +1. Name anything outside of school work that you have been called upon to +explain during the last week or two. + +2. Name anything outside of school work that you have recently learned +through explanation. + +3. Name three topics in each of your studies for to-day that call for +explanation. + +4. Name some topic in which the text-book did not seem to make the +explanation clear. + + ++Theme LXXXVIII.+--_Write out one of the topics mentioned in number three +of the preceding exercise._ + +(Have you included everything that is necessary to make your explanation +clear? Can anything be omitted without affecting the clearness?) + + ++154. Clear Understanding.+--The first requisite of a good explanation +is a clear understanding on the part of the one who is giving the +explanation. It is evident that if we do not understand a subject +ourselves we cannot make our explanations clear to others. If the ideas in +our mind are in a confused state, our explanation will be equally +confused. If you do not understand a problem in algebra, your attempt to +explain it to others will prove a failure. If you attempt to explain how a +canal boat is taken through a lock without thoroughly understanding the +process yourself, you will give your listeners only a confused idea of how +it is done. + +The principal reason why pupils fail in their recitations and examinations +is that in preparing their lessons, they do not make themselves thoroughly +acquainted with the topics that they are studying. They often go over the +lessons hurriedly and carelessly and come to class with confused ideas. +Consequently when the pupils attempt to recite, there is, if anything, an +additional confusion of ideas, and the recitation proves a failure. +Carelessness in the preparation of daily recitations, negligence in asking +for additional explanations, and inattention to the explanations that are +given, inevitably cause failure when tests or examinations are called for. + + +EXERCISES + + +1. Name five subjects about which you know so little that it would be +useless to attempt an explanation. + +2. Name five about which you know something, but not enough to give clear +explanations of them. + +3. Name four about which you know but little, but concerning which you +feel sure that you can obtain information. + +4. Name six that you think you clearly understand. Report orally on one of +them. + + ++Theme LXXXIV.+--_Write out an explanation of one of the subjects named in +number four of the preceding exercise._ + +(Read your theme and criticise it as to clearness. In listening to the +themes read by other members of the class consider them as to clearness. +Call for further explanation of any part not perfectly clear to you.) + + ++155. Selection of Facts--Unity.+--After we have been given a subject for +explanation or have chosen one for ourselves, we must decide concerning +the facts to be presented. In some kinds of exposition this selection is +rather difficult. Since the purpose is to make our meaning clear to the +person addressed, we secure unity by including all that is necessary to +that purpose and by omitting all that is not necessary. It is evident that +selection of facts to secure unity depends to some extent upon the +audience. If a child asks us to explain what a trust is, our explanation +will differ very much from that which we would give if we were addressing +a body of men who were familiar with the term _trusts_, but do not +understand the advantages and disadvantages arising from their existence. + +Examine the following as to selection of facts. For what class of people +do you think it was written? What seems to be the purpose of it? + + +THE FEUDAL SYSTEM + +This connection of king as sovereign, with his princes and great men as +vassals, must be attended to and understood, in order that you may +comprehend the history which follows. A great king, or sovereign prince, +gave large provinces, or grants of land, to his dukes, earls, and +noblemen; and each of these possessed nearly as much power, within his own +district, as the king did in the rest of his dominions. But then the +vassal, whether duke, earl, or lord, or whatever he was, was obliged to +come with a certain number of men to assist the sovereign, when he was +engaged in war; and in time of peace, he was bound to attend on his court +when summoned, and do homage to him, that is, acknowledge that he was his +master and liege lord. In like manner, the vassals of the crown, as they +were called, divided the lands which the king had given them into estates, +which they bestowed on knights, and gentlemen, whom they thought fitted to +follow them in war, and to attend them in peace; for they, too, held +courts, and administered justice, each in his own province. Then the +knights and gentlemen, who had these estates from the great nobles, +distributed the property among an inferior class of proprietors, some of +whom cultivated the land themselves, and others by means of husbandmen and +peasants, who were treated as a sort of slaves, being bought and sold like +brute beasts, along with the farms which they labored. + +Thus, when a great king, like that of France or England, went to war, he +summoned all his crown vassals to attend him, with the number of armed men +corresponding to his fief, as it was called, that is, territory which had +been granted to each of them. The prince, duke, or earl, in order to obey +the summons, called upon all the gentlemen to whom he had given estates, +to attend his standard with their followers in arms. The gentlemen, in +their turn, called on the franklins, a lower order of gentry, and upon the +peasants; and thus the whole force of the kingdom was assembled in one +array. This system of holding lands for military service, that is, for +fighting for the sovereign when called upon, was called the _feudal +system_. It was general throughout all Europe for a great many ages. + +--Scott: _Tales of a Grandfather_. + + ++Theme LXXXV.+--_Write a theme on one of the following:_-- + +1. Tell your younger brother how to make a whistle. + +2. Explain some game to a friend of your own age. + +3. Give an explanation of the heating system of your school to a member of +the school board of an adjoining city. + +4. Explain to a city girl how butter is made. + +5. Explain to a city boy how hay is cured. + +6. Explain to a friend how to run an automobile. + + +(Consider the selection of facts as determined by the person addressed.) + + ++156. Arrangement--Coherence.+--Some expositions are of such a nature that +there is but little question concerning the proper arrangement of the +topics composing them. In order to be coherent, all we do is to follow the +natural order of occurrence in time and place. This is especially true of +general narrations and of some general descriptions. In explaining the +circulation of the blood, for instance, it is most natural for us to +follow the course which the blood takes in circulating through the body. +In explaining the manufacture of articles we naturally begin with the +material as it comes to the factory, and trace the process of manufacture +in order through its successive stages. + +In other kinds of exposition a coherent arrangement is somewhat difficult. +We should not, however, fail to pay attention to it. A clear understanding +of the subject, on the part of the listener, depends largely upon the +proper arrangement of topics. As you study examples of expositions of some +length, you will notice that there are topics which naturally belong +together. These topics form groups, and the groups are treated separately. +If the expositions are good ones, the related facts will not only be +united into groups, but the groups will also be so arranged and the +transition from one group to another be so naturally made that it will +cause no confusion. + +In brief explanations of but one paragraph there should be but one group +of facts. Even these facts need to be so arranged as to make the whole +idea clear. The writer may have a clear understanding of the whole idea, +but in order to give the reader the same clear understanding, certain +facts must be presented before others are. In order to make an explanation +clear, the facts must be so arranged that those which are necessary to the +understanding of others shall come first. + +Examine the following expositions as to the grouping of related facts and +the arrangement of those groups:-- + + +Fresh, pure air at all times is essential to bodily comfort and good +health. Air may become impure from many causes. Poisonous gases may be +mixed with it; sewer gas is especially to be guarded against; coal gas +which is used for illuminating purposes is very poisonous and dangerous if +inhaled; the air arising from decaying substances, foul cellars, or +stagnant pools, is impure and unhealthy, and breeds diseases; the foul and +poisonous air which has been expelled from the lungs, if breathed again, +will cause many distressing symptoms. Ventilation has for its object the +removal of impure air and the supplying of fresh, wholesome air in its +place. Proper ventilation should be secured in all rooms and buildings, +and its importance cannot be overestimated. + +In the summer time and in climates which permit of it with comfort, +ventilation may be secured by having the doors and windows open, thus +allowing the fresh air to circulate freely through the house. In stormy +and cold weather, however, some other means of ventilation must be +supplied. If open fires or grates are used for heating purposes, good +ventilation exists, for under such circumstances, the foul and impure air +is drawn out of the rooms through the chimneys, and the fresh air enters +through the cracks of the doors and windows. + +Where open fireplaces are not used, several plans of ventilation +may be used, as they all operate on the same principle. Two openings +should be in the room, one of them near the floor, through which +the fresh air may enter, the other higher up, and connected with a +shaft or chimney, which producing a draft, may serve to free the room +from impure air. The size of these openings may be regulated according +to the size of the room. + +--Baldwin: _Essential Lessons in Human Physiology_. + + +THE QUEEN BEE + +It is a singular fact, also, that the queen is made, not born. If the +entire population of Spain or Great Britain were the offspring of one +mother, it might be found necessary to hit upon some device by which a +royal baby could be manufactured out of an ordinary one, or else give up +the fashion of royalty. All the bees in the hive have a common parentage, +and the queen and the worker are the same in the egg and in the chick; the +patent of royalty is in the cell and in the food; the cell being much +larger, and the food a peculiar stimulating kind of jelly. In certain +contingencies, such as the loss of the queen with no eggs in the royal +cells, the workers take the larva of an ordinary bee, enlarge the cell by +taking in the two adjoining ones, and nurse it and stuff it and coddle it, +till at the end of sixteen days it comes out a queen. But ordinarily, in +the natural course of events, the young queen is kept a prisoner in her +cell till the old queen has left with the swarm. Not only kept, but +guarded against the mother queen, who only wants an opportunity to murder +every royal scion in the hive. Both the queens, the one a prisoner and the +other at large, pipe defiance at each other at this time, a shrill, fine, +trumpetlike note that any ear will at once recognize. This challenge, not +being allowed to be accepted by either party, is followed, in a day or +two, by the abdication of the old queen; she leads out the swarm, and her +successor is liberated by her keepers, who, in her turn, abdicates in +favor of the next younger. When the bees have decided that no more swarms +can issue, the reigning queen is allowed to use her stiletto upon her +unhatched sisters. Cases have been known where two queens issued at the +same time, when a mortal combat ensued, encouraged by the workers, who +formed a ring about them, but showed no preference, and recognized the +victor as the lawful sovereign. For these and many other curious facts we +are indebted to the blind Huber. + +It is worthy of note that the position of the queen cells is always +vertical, while that of the drones and workers is horizontal; majesty +stands on its head, which fact may be a part of the secret. + +The notion has always very generally prevailed that the queen of the bees +is an absolute ruler, and issues her royal orders to willing subjects. +Hence Napoleon the First sprinkled the symbolic bees over the imperial +mantle that bore the arms of his dynasty; and in the country of the +Pharaohs the bee was used as the emblem of a people sweetly submissive to +the orders of its king. But the fact is, a swarm of bees is an absolute +democracy, and kings and despots can find no warrant in their example. The +power and authority are entirely vested in the great mass, the workers. +They furnish all the brains and foresight of the colony, and administer +its affairs. Their word is law, and both king and queen must obey. They +regulate the swarming, and give the signal for the swarm to issue from the +hive; they select and make ready the tree in the woods and conduct the +queen to it. + +The peculiar office and sacredness of the queen consists in the fact that +she is the mother of the swarm, and the bees love and cherish her as a +mother and not as a sovereign. She is the sole female bee in the hive, and +the swarm clings to her because she is their life. Deprived of their +queen, and of all brood from which to rear one, the swarm loses all heart +and soon dies, though there be an abundance of honey. + +The common bees will never use their sting upon the queen,--if she is to +be disposed of they starve her to death; and the queen herself will sting +nothing but royalty--nothing but a rival queen. + +--John Burroughs: _Birds and Bees_. + + ++Theme LXXXVI.+--_Write an expository theme._ + + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. Duties of the sheriff. + 2. How a motor works. + 3. How wheat is harvested. + 4. Why the tide exists. + 5. How our schoolhouse is ventilated. + 6. What is meant by the theory of evolution. + 7. The manufacture of ----. + 8. How to make a ----. + + +(Consider the arrangement of your statements.) + + ++157. Use of an Outline.+--Before beginning to write an explanation we +need to consider what we know about the subject and what our purpose is; +we need to select facts that will make our explanations clear to our +readers; and we need to decide what arrangement of these facts will best +show their relation to each other. We shall find it of advantage, +especially in lengthy explanations, to express our thoughts in the form of +an outline. An outline helps us to see clearly whether our facts are well +chosen, and it also helps us to see whether the arrangement is orderly or +not. Clearness is above all the essential of exposition, and outlines aid +clearness by giving unity and coherence. + + +EXERCISES + + +Select three of the following subjects and make lists of facts that you +know about them. From these select those which would be necessary in +making a clear explanation of each. After making out these lists of facts, +arrange them in what seems to you the best possible order for making the +explanation clear to your classmates. + + 1. The value of a school library. + 2. Sponges. + 3. The manufacture of clocks. + 4. Drawing. + 5. Athletics in the high school. + 6. Examinations. + 7. Debating societies. + + ++Theme LXXXVII.+--_Following the outline, write an exposition on one of +the subjects chosen._ + + +(Notice the transition from one paragraph to another. See Section 87.) + + ++158. Exposition of Terms--Definition.+--Explanation of the meaning of +general terms is one form of exposition (Section 63). The first step in +the exposition of a term is the giving of a definition. This may be +accomplished by the use of a synonym (Section 64). We make a term +intelligible to the reader by the use of a synonym with which he is +familiar; and though such a definition is inexact, it gives a rough idea +of the meaning of the term in question, and so serves a useful purpose. +If, however, we wish exactness, we shall need to make use of the logical +definition. + + ++159. The Logical Definition.+--The logical definition sets exact limits +to the meaning of a term. An exact definition must include all the members +of a class indicated by the term defined, and it must exclude everything +that does not belong to that class. A logical definition is composed of +two parts. It first names the class to which the term to be defined +belongs, and then it names the characteristic that distinguishes that term +from all other members of the same class. The class is termed the _genus_, +and the distinguishing characteristics of the different members of the +class are termed the _differentia_. Notice the following division into +genus and differentia. + + + TERM TO BE | CLASS | DISTINGUISHING + DEFINED | _(Genus)_ | CHARACTERISTIC + | | _(Differentia)_ + | | +A parallelogram | is a quadrilateral | whose opposite sides + | | are parallel + | | +Exposition | is that form of | which seeks to explain + | discourse | the meaning of a term. + | | + + +Each definition includes three elements: the term to be defined, the +genus, and the differentia; but these are not necessarily arranged in the +order named. + + +EXERCISE + + +Select the three elements (the term to be defined, the genus, and the +differentia) in each of the following:-- + +1. A polygon of three sides is called a triangle. + +2. A square is an equilateral rectangle. + +3. A rectangle whose sides are equal is a square. + +4. Description is that form of discourse which aims to present a picture. + +5. The characters composing written words are called letters. + +6. The olfactory nerves are the first pair of cranial nerves. + +7. Person is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes the +speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or things spoken of. + +8. The diptera, or true flies, are readily distinguishable from other +insects by their having a single pair of wings instead of two pairs, the +hind wings being transformed into small knob-headed pedicles called +balancers or halters. + + ++160. Difficulty of Framing Exact Definitions.+--In order to frame a +logical definition, exactness of thought is essential. Even when the +thought is exact, it will be found difficult and often impossible to frame +a satisfactory definition. Usually there is little difficulty in selecting +the genus, still care should be taken to select one that includes the term +to be defined. We might begin the definition of iron by saying, "Iron is a +metal," since all iron is metal, but it would be incorrect to begin the +definition of rodent by saying, "A rodent is a beaver," because the term +beaver does not include all rodents. We must also take care to choose for +the genus some term familiar to the reader, because the object of the +definition is to make the meaning clear to him. + +The chief difficulty of framing logical definitions arises in the +selection of differentia. In many cases it is not easy to decide just what +characteristics distinguish one member of a class from all other members +of that class. We all know that iron is a metal, but most of us would +find it difficult to add to the definition just those things which +distinguish iron from other metals. We may say, "A flute is a musical +instrument"; so much of the definition is easily given. The difficulty +lies in distinguishing it from all other musical instruments. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Select proper differentia for the following:-- + + | +TERM TO BE DEFINED | CLASS (Genus) | DISTINGUISHING + | | CHARACTERISTIC + | | _(Differentia)_ + | | +1. Narration | is that form of discourse | ? + | | +2. A circle | is a portion of a plane | ? + | | +3. A dog | is an animal | ? + | | +4. A hawk | is a bird | ? + | | +5. Physiography | is the science | ? + | | +6. A sneak | is a person | ? + | | +7. A quadrilateral | is a plane figure | ? + | | +8. A barn | is a building | ? + | | +9. A bicycle | is a machine | ? + | | +10. A lady | is a woman | ? + + +_B._ Give logical definitions for at least four words in the list below. + +1. Telephone. + +2. Square. + +3. Hammer. + +4. Novel + +5. Curiosity. + +6. Door. + +7. Camera. + +8. Brick. + +9. Microscope. + + ++161. Inexact Definitions.+--If the distinguishing characteristics are not +properly selected, the definition though logical in form may be inexact, +because the differentia do not exclude all but the term to be defined. If +we say, "Exposition is that form of discourse which gives information," +the definition is inexact because there are other forms of discourse that +give information. Many definitions given in text-books are inexact. Care +should be taken to distinguish them from those which are logically exact. + + +EXERCISE + + +Which of the following are exact? + +1. A sheep is a gregarious animal that produces wool. + +2. A squash is a garden plant much liked by striped bugs. + +3. A pronoun is a word used for a noun. + +4. The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle and tendon, convex on its upper +side, and attached by bands of striped muscle to the lower ribs at the +side, to the sternum, and to the cartilage of the ribs which join it in +front, and at the back by very strong bands to the lumbar vertebrae. + +5. A man is a two-legged animal without feathers. + +6. Argument is that form of discourse which has for its object the proof +of the truth or falsity of a proposition. + +7. The base of an isosceles triangle is that side which is equal to no +other. + +8. Zinc is a metal used under stoves. + +9. The epidermis of a leaf is a delicate, transparent skin which covers +the whole leaf. + + ++Theme LXXXVIII.+--_Write an expository paragraph about one of the +following:_-- + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. Household science and arts. + 2. Architecture. + 3. Aesthetics. + 4. Poetry. + 5. Fiction. + 6. Half tones. + 7. Steam fitting. + 8. Swimming. + + +(Consider the definitions you have used.) + + ++162. Division.+--The second step in the exposition of a term is division. +Definition establishes the limits of the term. Division separates into its +parts that which is included by the term. By definition we distinguish +triangles from squares, circles, and other plane figures. By division we +may separate them into scalene, isosceles, and equilateral, or if we +divide them according to a different principle into right and oblique +triangles. In either case the division is complete and exact. By +completeness is meant that every object denoted by the term explained is +included in the division given, thus making the sum of these divisions +equal to the whole. By exactness is meant that but a single principle has +been used, and so no object denoted by the term explained will be included +in more than one of the divisions made. There are no triangles which are +neither right nor oblique, so the division is complete; and no triangle +can be both right and oblique, so the division is exact. Such a complete +and exact division is called _classification_. + +Nearly every term may be divided according to more than one principle. We +may divide the term _books_ into ancient and modern, or into religious and +secular, or in any one of a dozen other ways. Which principle of division +we shall choose will depend upon our purpose. If we wish to discuss +_sponges_ with reference to their shapes, our division will be different +from what it would be if we were to discuss them with reference to their +uses. When a principle of division has once been chosen it is essential +that it be followed throughout. The use of two principles causes an +overlapping of divisions, thus producing what is called cross division. +Using the principle of use, a tailor may sort his bolts of cloth into +cloth for overcoats, cloth for suits, and cloth for trousers; using the +principle of weight, into heavy weight and light weight; or he may sort +them with reference to color or price. In any case but a single principle +is used. It would not do to divide them into cloth for suits, light weight +goods, and brown cloth. Such a division would be neither complete nor +exact; for some of the cloth would belong to none of the classes while +other pieces might properly be placed in all three. + +In the exact sciences complete exposition is the aim, and classification +is necessary; but in other writing the purpose in hand is often better +accomplished by omitting minor divisions. A writer of history might +consider the political growth, the wars, and the religion of a nation and +omit its domestic life and educational progress, especially if these did +not greatly influence the result that he wishes to make plain. If we +wished to explain the plan of the organization of a high school, it would +be satisfactory to divide the pupils into freshmen, sophomores, juniors, +and seniors, even though, in any particular school, there might be a few +special and irregular pupils who belonged to none of these classes. +An exposition of the use of hammers would omit many occasional and +unimportant uses. Such a classification though exact is incomplete and is +called _partition_. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Can you tell which of the following are classifications? Which are +partitions? Which are defective? + + +1. The inhabitants of the United States are Americans, Indians, and +negroes. + +2. Lines are straight, curved, and crooked. + +3. Literature is composed of prose, poetry, and fiction. + +4. The political parties in the last campaign were Republican and +Democrat. + +5. The United States Government has control of states and territories + +6. Plants are divided into two groups: (1) the phanerogams, or flowering +plants, and (2) cryptogams, or flowerless plants. + +7. All phanerogamous plants consist of (1) root and (2) shoot; the shoot +consisting of (_a_) stem and (_b_) leaf. It is true that some exceptional +plants, in maturity, lack leaves, or lack root. These exceptions are few. + +8. We may divide the activities of the government into: keeping order, +making law, protecting individual rights, providing public schools, +providing and mending roads, caring for the destitute, carrying the mail, +managing foreign relations, making war, and collecting taxes. + + +_B_. Notice the following paragraphs, State briefly the divisions made. + + ++1. Plan of the Book.+--What is government? Who is the government? We +shall begin by considering the American answers to these questions. + +What does The Government do? That will be our next inquiry. And with +regard to the ordinary practical work of government, we shall see that +government in the United States is not very different from government in +the other civilized countries of the world. + +Then we shall inquire how government officials are chosen in the United +States, and how the work of government is parceled out among them. This +part of the book will show what is meant by self-government and local +self-government, and will show that our system differs from European +systems chiefly in these very matters of self-government and local +self-government. + +Coming then to the details of our subject, we shall consider the names and +duties of the principal officials in the United States; first, those of +the township, county, and city, then those of the state, and then those of +the federal government. + +Finally, we shall examine certain operations in the American system, such +as a trial in court, and nominations for office, and conclude with an +outline of international relations, and a summary of the commonest laws of +business and property. + +--Clark: _The Government_. + + +2. +Zoölogy and its Divisions.+--What things we do know about the dog, +however, and about its relatives, and what things others know can be +classified into several groups; namely, things or facts about what a dog +does or its behavior, things about the make-up of its body, things about +its growth and development, things about the kind of dog it is and the +kinds of relatives it has, and things about its relations to the outer +world and its special fitness for life. + +All that is known of these different kinds of facts about the dog +constitutes our knowledge of the dog and its life. All that is known by +scientific men and others of these different kinds of facts about all the +500,000 or more kinds of living animals, constitutes our knowledge of +animals and is the science _zoölogy_. Names have been given to these +different groups of facts about animals. The facts about the bodily +make-up or structure of animals constitute that part of zoölogy called +animal _anatomy_ or _morphology;_ the facts about the things animals do, +or the functions of animals, compose animal _physiology;_ the facts about +the development of animals from young to adult condition are the facts of +animal _development;_ the knowledge of the different kinds of animals and +their relationships to each other is called _systematic_ zoölogy or animal +_classification;_ and finally the knowledge of the relations of animals to +their external surroundings, including the inorganic world, plants and +other animals, is called animal _ecology_. + +Any study of animals and their life, that is, of zoölogy, may include all +or any of these parts of zoölogy. + +--Kellogg: _Elementary Zoölogy_. + + +3. Are not these outlines of American destiny in the near-by future +rational? In these papers an attempt has been made:-- + +First, to picture the physical situation and equipment of the American in +the modern world. + +Second, to outline the large and fundamental elements of American +character, which are:-- + + (_a_) Conservatism--moderation, thoughtfulness, and poise. + (_b_) Thoroughness--conscientious performance, to the minutest detail, + of any work which we as individuals or people may have in hand. + (_c_) Justice--that spirit which weighs with the scales of righteousness + our conduct toward each other and our conduct as a nation toward + the world. + (_d_) Religion--the sense of dependence upon and responsibility to the + Higher Power; the profound American belief that our destiny is in + His hands. + (_e_) The minor elements of American character--such as the tendency to + organize, the element of humor, impatience with frauds, and the + movement in American life toward the simple and sincere. + +--Beveridge: _Americans of To-day and To-morrow_. + + + _C._ Consult the table of contents or opening chapters of any text-book +and notice the main divisions. + + _D._ Find in text-books five examples of classification or division. + + _E._ Make one or more divisions of each of the following:-- + + 1. The pupils in your school. + 2. Your neighbors. + 3. The books in the school library. + 4. The buildings you see on the way to school. + 5. The games you know how to play. + 6. Dogs. + 7. Results of competition. + + ++Theme LXXXIX.+--_Write an introductory paragraph showing what divisions +you, would make if called upon, to write about one of the following +topics:_-- + +1. Mathematics. + +2. The school system of our city. + +3. The churches of our town. + +4. Methods of transportation. + +5. Our manufacturing interests. + +6. Games that girls like. + +7. The inhabitants of the United States. + + +(Have you mentioned all important divisions of your subject? Have you +included any minor and unimportant divisions? Consider other possible +principles of division of your subject. Have you chosen the one best +suited to your purpose?) + + ++163. Exposition of a Proposition.+--Two terms united into a sentence so +that one is affirmed of the other become a proposition. Propositions, like +terms, may be either specific or general. "Napoleon was ambitious" is a +specific proposition; "Politicians are ambitious" is a general one. + +When a proposition is presented to the mind, its meaning may not at once +be clear. The obscurity may arise from the fact that some of the terms in +the proposition are unfamiliar, or are obscure, or misleading. In this +case the first step, and often the only step necessary, is the explanation +of the terms in the proposition. The following selection taken from +Dewey's _Psychology_ illustrates the exposition of a proposition by +explaining its terms:-- + + +The habitual act thus occurs automatically and mechanically. When we say +that it occurs automatically, we mean that it takes place, as it were, of +itself, spontaneously, without the intervention of the will. By saying +that it is mechanical, we mean that there exists no consciousness of the +process involved, nor of the relation of the means, the various muscular +adjustments, to the end, locomotion. + + +It is possible for our listeners or readers to understand each term in a +proposition and yet not be able to understand the meaning of the +proposition as a whole. When this is the case, we shall find it necessary +to make use of methods of exposition discussed later. + + +EXERCISES + + +Explain orally the following propositions by explaining any of the terms +likely to be unfamiliar or misunderstood: + +1. The purpose of muscular contraction is the production of motion. + +2. Ping-pong is lawn tennis in miniature, with a few modifications. + +3. An inevitable dualism bisects nature. + +4. Never inflict corporal chastisement for intellectual faults. + +5. Children should be led to make their own investigations and to draw +their own inferences. + +6. The black willow is an excellent tonic as well as a powerful +antiseptic. + +7. Give the Anglo-Saxon equivalent for "nocturnal." + +8. A negative exponent signifies the reciprocal of what the expression +would be if the exponent were positive. + + ++Theme XC.+--_Write an explanation of one of the following:_ + +1. Birds of a feather flock together. + +2. Truths and roses have thorns about them. + +3. Where there's a will, there's a way. + +4. Who keeps company with a wolf will learn to howl. + +5. He gives nothing but worthless gold, who gives from a sense of duty. + +6. All things that are, +Are with more spirit chased than enjoyed. + +7. Be not simply good--be good for something. + +8. He that hath light within his own clear breast, May sit i' the center, +and enjoy bright day; But he that hides a dark soul and foul thoughts +Benighted walks under the midday sun; Himself is his own dungeon. + + +(Select the sentence that seems most difficult to you, determine what it +means, and then attempt to make an explanation that will show that you +thoroughly understand its meaning.) + + ++164. Exposition by Repetition.+--In discussing paragraph development +(Section 50) we have already learned that the meaning of a proposition may +be made clearer by the repetition of the topic statement. This repetition +may be used to supplement the definition of terms, or it may by itself +make clear both the meaning of the terms and of the proposition. Each +repetition of the proposition presents it to the reader in a new light or +in a stronger light. Each time the idea is presented it seems more +definite, more familiar, more clear. Such statements of a proposition take +advantage of the fact that the reader is thinking, and we merely attempt +to direct his thought in such a way that he will turn the proposition over +and over in his mind until it is understood. + +Notice how the following propositions are explained largely by means of +repetitions, each of which adds a little to the original statement. + + +How to live?--that is the essential question for us. Not how to live in +the mere material sense only, but in the widest sense. The general +problem, which comprehends every special problem, is the right ruling of +conduct in all directions under all circumstances. In what way to treat +the body; in what way to treat the mind; in what way to manage our +affairs; in what way to bring up a family; in what way to behave as a +citizen; in what way to utilize all those sources of happiness which +nature supplies--how to use all our faculties to the greatest advantage of +ourselves and others--how to live completely? And this being the great +thing needful for us to learn, is, by consequence, the great thing which +education has to teach. To prepare us for complete living is the function +which education has to discharge: and the only radical mode of judging of +any educational course, is, to judge in what degree it discharges such +functions. + +--Herbert Spencer: _Education_. + + +The gray squirrel is remarkably graceful in all his movements. It seems as +though some subtle curve was always produced by the line of the back and +tail at every light bound of the athletic little creature. He never moves +abruptly or jerks himself impatiently, as the red squirrel is continually +doing. On the contrary, all his movements are measured and deliberate, but +swift and sure. He never makes a bungling leap, and his course is marked +by a number of sinuous curves almost equal to those of a snake. He is here +one minute, and the next he has slipped away almost beyond the ability of +our eyes to follow. + +--F. Schuyler Matthews: _American Nut Gatherers_. + + ++Theme XCI.+--_Write a paragraph explaining one of the propositions below +by means of repetition._ + +1. Physical training should be made compulsory in the high school. + +2. Some people who seem to be selfish are not really so. + +3. The dangers of athletic contests are overestimated. + +4. The Monroe Doctrine is a warning to European powers to keep their hands +off territory in North and South America. + +5. By the "treadmill of life" we mean the daily routine of duties. + +6. The thirst for novelty is one of the most powerful incentives that take +a man to distant countries. + +7. There are unquestionably increasing opportunities for an honorable and +useful career in the civil service of the United States. + + +(Have you used any method besides that of repetition? Does your paragraph +really explain the proposition?) + + ++165. Exposition by Use of Examples.+--Exposition treats of general +subjects, and the topic statement of a paragraph is, therefore, a general +statement. In order to understand what such a general statement means, the +reader may need to think of a concrete case. The writer may develop his +paragraph by furnishing concrete cases. (See Section 44.) In many cases no +further explanation is necessary. + +The following paragraph illustrates this method of explanation:-- + + +The lower portions of stream valleys which have sunk below sea level are +called _drowned valleys_. The lower St. Lawrence is perhaps the greatest +example of a drowned valley in the world, but many other rivers are in the +same condition. The old channel of the Hudson River may be traced upon the +sea bottom about 125 miles beyond its present mouth, and its valley is +drowned as far up as Troy, 150 miles. The sea extends up the Delaware +River to Trenton, and Chesapeake Bay with its many arms is the drowned +valleys of the Susquehanna and its former tributaries. Many of the most +famous harbors in the world, as San Francisco Bay, Puget Sound, the +estuaries of the Thames and the Mersey, and the Scottish firths, are +drowned valleys. + +--Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_. + + ++Theme XCII.+--_Develop one of the following topic statements into an +expository paragraph by use of examples:_-- + +1. Weather depends to a great extent upon winds. + +2. Progress in civilization has been materially aided by the use of nails. + +3. Habit is formed by the repetition of the same act. + +4. Men become criminals by a gradual process. + +5. Men's lives are affected by small things. + +6. Defeat often proves to be real success. + + +(Have you made your meaning clear? Does your example really illustrate the +topic statement? Can you think of other illustrations?) + + ++166. Exposition by Comparison or Contrast.+--We can frequently make our +explanations clear by comparing the subject under discussion with +something that is already familiar to the reader. In such a case we shall +need to show in what respect the subject we are explaining is similar to +or differs from that with which it is compared. (Section 48.) Though +customary it is not necessary to compare the term under discussion with +some well-known term. In the example below the term _socialism_ is +probably no more familiar than the term _anarchism_. Both are explained in +the selection, and the explanations are made clearer by contrasting the +one with the other. + + +Socialism, which is curiously confounded by the indiscriminating with +Anarchism, is its exact opposite. Anarchy is the doctrine that there +should be no government control; Socialism--that is, State Socialism--is +the doctrine that government should control everything. State Socialism +affirms that the state--that is, the government--should own all the tools +and implements of industry, should direct all occupations, and should give +to every man according to his need and require from every man according to +his ability. State Socialism points to the evils of overproduction in some +fields and insufficient production in others, under our competitive +system, and proposes to remedy these evils by assigning to government the +duty of determining what shall be produced and what each worker shall +produce. If there are too many preachers and too few shoemakers, the +preacher will be taken from the pulpit and assigned to the bench; if there +are too many shoemakers and too few preachers, the shoemaker will be taken +from the bench and assigned to the pulpit. Anarchy says, no government; +Socialism says, all government; Anarchy leaves the will of the individual +absolutely unfettered, Socialism leaves nothing to the individual will; +Anarchism would have no social organism which is not dependent on the +entirely voluntary assent of each individual member of the organism at +every instant of its history; Socialism would have every individual of the +social organism wholly subordinate in all his lifework to the authority of +the whole body expressed through its properly constituted officers. It is +true that there are some writers who endeavor to unite these two +antagonistic doctrines by teaching that society should be organized wholly +for industry, not at all for government. But how a coöperative industry +can be carried on without a government which controls as well as counsels, +no writer, so far as I have been able to discover, has ever even +suggested. + +--Lyman Abbott: _Anarchism: Its Cause and Cure_. + + ++Theme XCIII.+--_Write an exposition that makes use of comparison:_-- + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. A bad habit is a tyrant. + 2. Typewritten letters. + 3. The muskrat's house. + 4. Compare Shylock with Barabas in Marlowe's _Jew of Malta_. + 5. Methods of reading. + 6. All the world's a stage. + 7. Compare life to a flower. + +(Can you suggest any other comparisons which you might have used? Have you +been careful in your selection of facts and arrangement?) + + ++167. Exposition by Obverse Statements.+--In explaining an idea it is +necessary to distinguish it from any related or similar idea with which it +may be confused in the minds of our readers. Clearness is added by the +statement that one is _not_ the other. To say that socialism is not +anarchy is a good preparation for the explanation of what socialism really +is. In the following selection Burke excludes different kinds of peace and +by this exclusion emphasizes the kind of peace which he has in mind. + + +The proposition is peace. Not peace through the medium of war; not peace +to be hunted through the labyrinth of intricate and endless negotiations; +not peace to arise out of universal discord, fomented from principle, +in all parts of the empire; not peace to depend on the juridical +determination of perplexing questions, or the precise marking the shadowy +boundaries of a complex government. It is simple peace; sought in its +natural course, and in its ordinary haunts.--It is peace sought in the +spirit of peace; and laid in principles purely pacific. I propose, by +removing the ground of the difference, and by restoring the _former +unsuspecting confidence of the colonies in the Mother Country_, to give +permanent satisfaction to your people; and (far from a scheme of ruling by +discord) to reconcile them to each other in the same act, and by the bond +of the very same interest which reconciles them to British government. + + ++168. Exposition by Giving Particulars or Details.+--One of the most +natural methods of explaining is to give particulars or details. After a +general statement has been made, our minds naturally look for details to +make the meaning of that statement clearer. (See Sections 45-47.) This +method is used very largely in generalized descriptions and narrations. + +Notice the use of particulars or details in the following examples:-- + + +Happy the boy who knows the secret of making a willow whistle! He must +know the best kind of willow for the purpose, and the exact time of year +when the bark will slip. The country boy seems to know these things by +instinct. When the day for whistles arrives he puts away marbles and hunts +the whetstone. His jackknife must be in good shape, for the making of a +whistle is a delicate piece of handicraft. The knife has seen service in +mumblepeg and as nut pick since whistle-making time last year. Surrounded +by a crowd of spectators, some admiring, some skeptical, the boy selects +his branch. There is an air of mystery about the proceeding. With a +patient indulgent smile he rejects all offers of assistance. He does not +attempt to explain why this or that branch will not do. When finally he +raises his shining knife and cuts the branch on which his choice has +fallen, all crowd round and watch. From the large end between two twigs he +takes a section about six inches long. Its bark is light green and smooth. +He trims one end neatly and passes his thumb thoughtfully over it to be +sure it is finished to his taste. He then cuts the other end of the stick +at an angle of about 45°, making a clean single cut. The sharp edge of +this is now cut off to make a mouthpiece. This is a delicate operation, +for the bark is apt to crush or split if the knife is dull, or the hand is +unskillful. The boy holds it up, inspecting his own work critically. +Sometimes he is dissatisfied and cuts again. If he makes a third cut and +is still unsuccessful he tosses the spoiled piece away. It is too short +now. A half dozen eager hands reach for the discarded stick, and the one +who gets it fondles it lovingly. I once had such a treasure and cherished +it until I learned the secret of the whistle-maker's art. He next places +the knife edge about half an inch back from the end of the mouthpiece and +cuts straight towards the center of the branch about one-fourth the way +through. A three-cornered piece is now cut out, and the chip falls to the +ground unheeded. + +When this is finished the boy's eye runs along the stick with a +calculating squint. The knife edge is placed at the middle, then moved a +short distance towards the mouthpiece. With skillful hand he cuts through +the bark in a perfect circle round the stick. While we watch in fascinated +silence, he takes the knife by the blade and resting the unfinished +whistle on his knees he strikes firmly but gently the part of the stick +between the ring and the mouthpiece. Only the wooden part of the handle +touches the bark. He goes over and over it until every spot on its surface +has felt his light blow. Now he lays the knife aside, and grasping the +stick with a firm hand below the ring in the bark, with the right hand he +holds the pounded end. He tries it with a careful twist. It sticks. Back +to his knees it goes and the tap, tap, begins again. When he twists it +again it slips, and the bark comes off smoothly in one piece, while we +breathe a sigh of relief. How white the stick is under the bark! It shines +and looks slippery. Now the boy takes his knife again. He cuts towards the +straight jog where the chip was taken out, paring the wood away, sloping +up to within an inch of the end of the bark. Now he cuts a thin slice of +the wood between the edge of the vertical cut and the mouthpiece. + +The whistle is nearly finished. We have all seen him make them before and +know what comes next. Our tongues seek over moist lips sympathetically, +for we know the taste of peeled willow. He puts the end of the stick into +his mouth and draws it in and out until it is thoroughly wet. Then he +lifts the carefully guarded section of bark and slips it back into place, +fitting the parts nicely together. + +The willow whistle is finished. There remains but to try it. Will it go? +Does he dare blow into it and risk our jeers if it is dumb? + +With all the fine certainty of the Pied Piper the boy lifts the humble +instrument to his lips. His eyes have a far-off look, his face changes; +while we strain eyes and ears, he takes his own time. The silence is +broken by a note, so soft, so tender, yet so weird and unlike other +sounds! Our hands quiver, our hearts beat faster. It is as if the spirit +of the willow tree had joined with the spirit of childhood in the natural +song of earth. + +It goes! + +--Mary Rogers Miller: _The Brook Book_. +(Copyright, 1902, Doubleday, Page and Co.) + + ++Theme XCIV.+--_Write an exposition on one of the following +subjects, making use of particulars or details:_-- + + 1. How ice cream is made. + 2. The cultivation of rice. + 3. Greek architecture. + 4. How paper is made. + 5. A tornado. + 6. Description of a steam engine. + 7. The circulatory system of a frog. + 8. A western ranch. + 9. Street furniture. + 10. A street fair. + +(Have you used particulars sufficient to make your meaning clear? Have you +used any unnecessary particulars? Why is the arrangement of your topics +easy in this theme?) + + ++169. Exposition by Cause and Effect.+--When our general statement is in +the form of a cause or causes, the question naturally arises in our mind +as to the effects resulting from those causes. In like manner, when the +general statement takes the form of an effect, we want to know what the +causes are that produce such an effect. From the very nature of exposition +we may expect to find much of this kind of discourse relating to causes +and effects. (See Section 49.) + +Notice the following example:-- + + +The effect of the polar whirls may be seen in the rapid rotation of water +in a pan or bowl. The centrifugal force throws the water away from the +center, where the surface becomes depressed, and piles it up around the +sides, where the surface becomes elevated. The water being deeper at the +sides than at the center, its pressure upon the bottom is proportionately +greater. A similar effect is produced by the whirl of the air around the +polar regions. It is thrown away from the polar regions and piled up +around the circumference of the whirl. There is less air above the polar +regions than above latitude 30°-40°, and the atmospheric pressure is +correspondingly low at one place and high at the other. Thus the +centrifugal force of the polar whirl makes the pressure low in spite of +the low temperature. The position of the tropical belts of high pressure +is a resultant of the high temperature of the equatorial regions on one +side and the polar whirls on the other. + +--Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_. + + ++Theme XCV.+--_Write an expository theme using cause or effect._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + + 1. The causes of the French Revolution. + 2. How ravines are formed. + 3. Irrigation. + 4. Effects of smoking. + 5. Lack of exercise. + 6. Volcanic eruptions. + + +(Did you find it necessary to make use of any other method of explanation? +Did you make use of description in any place?) + + +SUMMARY + + +1. Exposition is that form of discourse the purpose of which is to + explain. + +2. The essential characteristics of an exposition are-- + _a._ That it possess unity because it contains only those facts + essential to its purpose. + _b._ That the facts used be arranged in a coherent order. + +3. Exposition is concerned with (_a_) general terms or (_b_) general + propositions. + +4. The steps in the exposition of a term are-- + _a._ Definition. This may be-- + (1) By synonym (inexact). + (2) By use of the logical definition (exact). + _b._ Division. This may be-- + (1) Complete (classification). + (2) Incomplete (partition). + The same principle of division should be followed throughout. + +5. Exposition of a proposition may use any one of the +following methods-- + _a._ By repetition. + _b._ By giving examples. + _c._ By stating comparisons and contrasts. + _d._ By making obverse statements. + _e._ By relating particulars or details. + _f._ By stating cause or effect. + _g._ By any suitable combination of these methods. + + + +XI. ARGUMENT + + ++170. Difference between Argument and Exposition.+--Argument differs from +exposition in its purpose. By exposition we endeavor to make clear the +meaning of a proposition; by argument we attempt to prove its truth. If a +person does not understand what we mean, we explain; if, after he does +understand, he does not believe, we argue. + +Often a simple explanation is sufficient to convince. As soon as the +reader understands the real meaning of a proposition, he accepts our view +of the case. A heated discussion may end with the statement, "Oh, if that +is what you mean, I agree with you." In Section 70, we have learned that +the first step in argument is explanation, by which we make clear the +meaning of the proposition the truth of which we wish to establish. +This explanation may include both the expounding of the terms in the +proposition and the explanation of the proposition as a whole. + +There is another difference between exposition and argument. We cannot +argue about single terms, though we may explain them. We may explain what +is meant by the term _elective studies_, or _civil service;_ but an +argument requires a proposition such as, Pupils should be allowed to +choose their own studies, or, Civil Service should be established. Even +with such a topic as Expansion or Restricted Immigration, which seems to +be a subject of argument, there is really an implied proposition under +discussion; as, The United States should acquire control of territory +outside of its present boundaries; or, It should be the policy of our +government to restrict immigration. We may explain the meaning of +single terms or of propositions, but in order to argue, we must have a +proposition either expressed or implied. + + ++171. Proposition of Fact and Proposition of Theory.+--Some propositions +state facts and some propositions state theories. Every argument therefore +aims either to prove the occurrence of a fact or the truth of a theory. +The first would attempt to show the actual or probable truth of a specific +proposition; for example:-- + + + Nero was guilty of burning Rome. + Joan of Arc was burned at the stake. + Barbara Frietchie actually existed. + Sheridan never made the ride from Winchester. + Homer was born at Chios. + + +The second would try to establish the probable truth of a general theory; +for example:-- + + + A college education is a profitable investment. + Light is caused by a wave motion of ether. + + ++172. Statement of the Proposition.+--The subject about which we argue may +be stated in any one of the three forms discussed in Section 74; that is, +as a declarative sentence, a resolution, or a question. The statement does +not necessarily appear first in the argument, but it must be clearly +formulated in the mind of the writer before he attempts to argue. Before +trying to convince others he must know exactly what he himself believes, +and the attempt to state his belief in the form of a proposition will +assist in making his own thought clear and definite. + +If we are going to argue concerning elective studies, we should first of +all be sure that we understand the meaning of the term ourselves. Then +we must consider carefully what we believe about it, and state our +proposition so that it shall express exactly this belief. On first thought +we may believe the proposition that pupils should be allowed to choose +their own studies. But is this proposition true of pupils in the grades as +well as in the high schools? Or is it true only of the upper classes +in the high school or only of college students? Can you state this +proposition so that it will express your own belief on the subject? + + +EXERCISES + + +_A_. Use the following terms in expressed propositions:-- + + 1. Immigration. + 2. Elevated railways. + 3. American history. + 4. Military training. + 5. Single session. + 6. Athletics. + +_B_. Explain the following propositions:-- + + 1. The United States should adopt a free-trade policy. + 2. Is vivisection justifiable? + 3. The author has greater influence than the orator. + 4. The civil service system should be abolished. + 5. The best is always cheapest. + +_C_. Can you restate the following propositions so that +the meaning of each will be made more definite? + +1. Athletics should be abolished. (Should _all_ athletic exercises be + abolished?) + +2. Latin is better than algebra. (_Better_ for what purpose? _Better_ for + whom?) + +3. Training in domestic arts and sciences should be provided for high + school pupils. (Define domestic arts and sciences. Should they be + taught to _all_ high school pupils?) + +4. Punctuality is more important than efficiency. + +5. The commercial course is better than the classical course. + +6. A city should control the transportation facilities within its limits. + + ++Theme XCVI.+--_Write out an argument favoring one of the propositions as +restated in Exercise C above._ + +(Before writing, make a brief as indicated in Section 77. Consider the +arrangement of your argument.) + + ++173. Clear Thinking Essential to Argument.+--Having clearly in mind the +proposition which we wish to prove, we next proceed to give arguments in +its support. The very fact that we argue at all assumes that there are two +sides to the question. If we hope to have another accept our view we must +present good reasons. We cannot convince another that a proposition is +true unless we can tell him why it is true; and certainly we cannot tell +him why until we know definitely our own reasons for believing the +statement. In order to present a good argument we must be clear logical +thinkers ourselves; that is, we must be able to state definite reasons for +our beliefs and to draw the correct conclusions. + + ++174. Inductive Reasoning.+--One of the best preparations for trying to +convince others is for us to consider carefully our own reasons for +believing as we do. Minds act in a similar manner, and what leads you and +me to believe certain truths will be likely to cause others to believe +them also. A brief consideration of how our belief in the truth of a +proposition has been established will indicate the way in which we should +present our material in order to cause others to believe the same +proposition. If you ask yourself the question, What leads me to believe as +I do? the answer will undoubtedly be effective in convincing others. + +Are the following propositions true or false? Why do +you believe or refuse to believe each? + + 1. Maple trees shed their leaves in winter. + 2. Dogs bark. + 3. Kettles are made of iron. + 4. Grasshoppers jump. + 5. Giraffes have long necks. + 6. Raccoons sleep in the daytime. + 7. The sun will rise to-morrow. + 8. Examinations are not fair tests of a pupil's knowledge. + 9. Honest people are respected. + 10. Water freezes at 32° Fahrenheit. + 11. Boys get higher standings in mathematics than girls do. + + +It is at once evident that we believe a proposition such as one of +these, because we have known of many examples. If we reject any of the +propositions it is because we know of exceptions (we have seen kettles not +made of iron), or because we do not know of instances (we may never have +seen a raccoon, and so not know what he does in the daytime). The greater +the number of cases which have occurred without presenting an exception, +the stronger our belief in the truth of the proposition (we expect the sun +to rise because it has never failed). + +The process by which, from many individual cases, we establish the truth +of a proposition is called +inductive reasoning+. + + ++175. Establishing a General Theory.+--A general theory is established by +showing that for all known particular cases it will offer an acceptable +explanation. By investigation or experiment we note that a certain fact is +true in one particular instance, and, after a large number of individual +cases have been noted, and the same fact found to be true in each, we +assume that such is true of all like cases, and a general law is +established. This is the natural scientific method and is constantly being +made use of in pursuing scientific studies. By experiment, it was found +that one particular kind of acid turned blue litmus red. This, of course, +was not sufficient proof to establish a general law, but when, upon +further investigation, it was found to be true of all known acids, +scientists felt justified in stating the general law that acids turn blue +litmus red. + +In establishing a new theory in science it is necessary to bring forward +many facts which seem to establish it, and the argument will consist in +pointing out these facts. Frequently the general principle is assumed to +be true, and the argument then consists in showing that it will apply to +and account for all the facts of a given kind. Theories which have been +for a time believed have, as the world progressed in learning, been found +unable to account for all of a given class of conditions. They have been +replaced, therefore, by other theories, just as the Copernican theory of +astronomy has displaced the Ptolemaic theory. + +Our belief may be based upon the absence of facts proving the contrary as +well as upon the presence of facts proving the proposition. If A has never +told an untruth, that fact is an argument in favor of his truthfulness on +the present occasion. A man who has never been dishonest may point to this +as an argument in favor of placing him in a position of trust. Often the +strongest evidence that we can offer in favor of a proposition is the +absence of any fact that would support the negative conclusion. + +The point of the whole matter is that from the observation of a large +number of cases, we may establish the _probable_ truth of a proposition, +but emphasis needs to be laid upon the probability. We cannot be sure. Not +all crows are black, though you may never have seen a white one. The sun +may not rise to-morrow, though it has never failed up to this time. Still +it is by this observation of many individual cases that the truth of the +propositions that men do believe has been established. We realize that our +inductions are often imperfect, but the general truths so established will +be found to underlie every process of reasoning, and will be either +directly or indirectly the basis upon which we build up all argument. + +We may then redefine inductive reasoning as the process by which from +many individual cases we establish the _probable_ truth of a general +proposition. + + +EXERCISES + + +Notice in the following selections that the truth of the conclusion is +shown by giving particular examples:-- + + +1. It is curious enough that _we always remember people by their worst +points_, and still more curious that _we always suppose that we ourselves +are remembered by our best_. I once knew a hunchback who had a well-shaped +hand, and was continually showing it. He never believed that anybody +noticed his hump, but lived and died in the conviction that the whole town +spoke of him no otherwise than as the man with the beautiful hand, +whereas, in fact, they only looked at his hump, and never so much as +noticed whether he had a hand at all. This young lady, so pretty and so +clever, is simply the girl who had that awkward history with So-and-so; +that man, who has some of the very greatest qualities, is nothing more +than the one who behaved so badly on such an occasion. It is a terrible +thing to think that we are all always at watch one upon the other, to +catch the false step in order that we may have the grateful satisfaction +of holding our neighbor for one who cannot walk straight. No regard is +paid to the better qualities and acts, however numerous; all the attention +is fixed upon the worst, however slight. If St. Peter were alive he would +be known as the man who denied his Master; St. Paul would be the man who +stoned Stephen; and St. Thomas would never be mentioned in any decent +society without allusions to that unfortunate request for further +evidence. Probably this may be the reason why we all have so much greater +a contempt for and distrust of each other than would be warranted by a +correct balance between the good and the evil that are in each. + +--Thomas Gibson Bowles: _Flotsam and Jetsam_. + + + +2. In the first place, 227 withered leaves of various kinds, mostly of +English plants, were pulled out of worm burrows in several places. Of +these, 181 had been drawn into the burrows by or near their tips, so that +the footstalk projected nearly upright from the mouth of the burrow; 20 +had been drawn in by their bases, and in this case the tips projected from +the burrows; and 26 had been seized near the middle, so that these had +been drawn in transversely and were much crumpled. Therefore 80 per cent +(always using the nearest whole number) had been drawn in by the tip, 9 +per cent by the base or footstalk, and 11 per cent transversely or by the +middle. This alone is almost sufficient to show that _chance does not +determine the manner in which leaves are dragged into the burrows_. + +--Darwin: _Vegetable Mold and Earthworms_. + + +3. _The catastrophe of every play is caused always by the folly or fault +of a man; the redemption, if there be any, is by the wisdom and virtue of +a woman, and, failing that, there is none_. The catastrophe of King +Lear is owing to his own want of judgment, his impatient vanity, his +misunderstanding of his children; the virtue of his one true daughter +would have saved him from all the injuries of the others, unless he had +cast her away from him; as it is, she all but saves him. Of Othello, I +need not trace the tale; nor the one weakness of his so mighty love; nor +the inferiority of his perceptive intellect to that even of the second +woman character in the play, the Emilia who dies in wild testimony against +his error:-- + +"Oh, murderous coxcomb! what should such a fool +Do with so good a wife?" + +In _Romeo and Juliet_, the wise and brave stratagem of the wife is brought +to ruinous issue by the reckless impatience of her husband. In _The +Winter's Tale_, and in _Cymbeline_, the happiness and existence of two +princely households, lost through long years, and imperiled to the death +by the folly and obstinacy of the husbands, are redeemed at last by the +queenly patience and wisdom of the wives. In _Measure for Measure_, the +foul injustice of the judge, and the foul cowardice of the brother, are +opposed to the victorious truth and adamantine purity of a woman. In +_Coriolanus_, the mother's counsel, acted upon in time, would have saved +her son from all evil; his momentary forgetfulness of it is his ruin; her +prayer, at last, granted, saves him--not, indeed, from death, but from the +curse of living as the destroyer of his country. + +--Ruskin: _Sesame and Lilies_. + + +4. + + _Bas. _So may the outward shows be least themselves; +_The world is still deceived with ornament_. +In law, what plea so tainted and corrupt +But, being season'd with a gracious voice, +Obscures the show of evil? In religion, +What damned error, but some sober brow +Will bless it and approve it with a text, +Hiding the grossness with fair ornament? +There is no vice so simple but assumes +Some mark of virtue on his outward parts: +How many cowards, whose hearts are all as false +As stairs of sand, wear yet upon their chins +The beards of Hercules and frowning Mars, +Who, inward search'd, have livers white as milk; +And these assume but valor's excrement +To render them redoubted! Look on beauty, +And you shall see 'tis purchased by the weight; +Which therein works a miracle in nature, +Making them lightest that wear most of it: +So are those crisped snaky golden locks +Which make such wanton gambols with the wind, +Upon supposed fairness, often known +To be the dowry of a second head, +The skull that bred them in the sepulcher. +Thus ornament is but the guiled shore +To a most dangerous sea; the beauteous scarf +Veiling an Indian beauty; in a word, +The seeming truth which cunning times put on +To entrap the wisest. Therefore, thou gaudy gold, +Hard food for Midas, I will none of thee; +Nor none of thee, thou pale and common drudge +'Tween man and man: but thou, though meager lead, +Which rather threatenest than dost promise aught, +Thy paleness moves me more than eloquence; +And here choose I: joy be the consequence! + +--Shakespeare: _The Merchant of Venice_. + + ++Theme XCVII.+--_Write a paragraph proving the truth of one of the +following statements:_-- + +1. It is a distinct advantage to a large town to be connected with the +smaller towns by electric car lines. + +2. Vertical penmanship should be taught in all elementary schools. + +3. Examinations develop dishonesty. + +4. Novel reading is a waste of time. + +5. Tramps ought not to be fed. + +(Make a brief. Consider the arrangement of your arguments. Read Section +72.) + + ++176. Errors of Induction.+--A common error is that of too hasty +generalization. We conclude that something is always so because it +happened to be so in the few cases that have come under our observation. A +broader experience frequently shows that the hastily made generalization +will not hold. + +Some people are led to lose faith in all humanity because one or two of +their acquaintances have shown themselves unworthy of their trust. Others +are ready to pronounce a merchant dishonest because some article purchased +at his store has not proved to be so good as it was expected to be. There +are those who are superstitious concerning the wearing of opals, claiming +that these jewels bring the wearer ill luck, because they have heard of +some instances where misfortune seemed to follow the wearing of that +particular stone. What may seem to be causes and effects at first may, +upon further investigation or inquiry, prove to be merely chance +coincidences. In your work in argument, whether for the class room or +outside, be careful about this point. Remember that your induction will be +weak or even worthless if you draw conclusions from too few examples. + +Often one example seems sufficient to cause belief. We might believe that +all giraffes have long necks, even though we had seen but one; but such a +belief would exist because, by many examples of other animals, we have +learned that a single specimen will fairly represent all other specimens +of the same class. On the other hand, if this one giraffe should possess +one brown eye and one white eye, we should not expect all other giraffes +to have such eyes, for our observation of many hundreds of animals teaches +us that the eyes of an animal are usually alike in color. In order to +establish a true generalization, the _essential_ characteristics must be +selected, and these cannot be determined by rule, but rather by common +sense. + + ++177. Deductive Reasoning.+--When once a general principle has been +established, we may demonstrate the truth of a specific proposition by +showing that the general principle applies to it. We see a gold ring and +say, "This ring is valuable," because we believe the general proposition, +"All articles made of gold are valuable." Expressed in full, the process +of reasoning would be-- + + _A._ All articles made of gold are valuable. + _B._ This ring is made of gold. + _C._ Therefore this ring is valuable. + +A series of statements such as the above is called a syllogism. It +consists of a major premise (_A_), a minor premise (_B_), and a conclusion +(_C_). + +Of course we shall not be called upon to prove so simple a proposition as +the one given, but with more difficult ones the method of reasoning is the +same. The process which applies a general proposition (_A_) to a specific +instance (_C_), is called deductive reasoning. + + ++178. Relation between Inductive and Deductive Reasoning.+--Deductive +reasoning is shorter and seems more convincing than inductive reasoning, +for if the premises are true and the statement is made in correct form, +the conclusions are irresistible. Each conclusion carries with it, +however, the weakness of the premises on which it is based, and as these +premises are general principles that have been themselves established by +inductive reasoning, the conclusions of deductive reasoning can be no more +_sure_ than those of inductive reasoning. Each may prove only that the +proposition is probably true rather than that it is surely true, though in +many cases this probability becomes almost a certainty. + + ++179. The Enthymeme.+--We seldom need to state our argument in the +syllogistic form. One of the premises is usually omitted, and we pass +directly from one premise to the conclusion. If we say, "Henry will not +succeed as an engineer," and when asked why he will not, we reply, +"Because he is not good in mathematics," we have omitted the premise, "A +knowledge of mathematics is necessary for success in engineering." A +shortened syllogism, that is, a syllogism with one premise omitted, is +called an enthymeme. + +Thus in ordinary matters our thought turns at once to the conclusion in +connection with but one premise. We make a thousand statements which a +moment's thought will show that we believe because we believe some +unexpressed general principle. If I should say of my dog, "Fido will die +sometime," no sensible person would doubt the truth of the statement. If +asked to prove it, I would say, "Because he is a dog, and all dogs die +sometime." Thus I apply to a specific proposition, Fido will die, the +general one, All dogs die, a proposition about which there is no doubt. + +Frequently the suppressed premise is not so well established as in this +case, and the belief or nonbelief of the proposition will be determined by +the individuals addressed, each in accordance with his experience. Suppose +that in reading we find the statement, "A boy of fourteen ought not to be +allowed to choose his own subjects of study, because he will choose all +the easy ones and avoid the more difficult though more valuable ones." The +omitted premise that all boys will choose easy studies, needs to be +established by induction. If a high school principal had noticed that out +of five hundred boys, four hundred elected the easy studies, he would +admit the truth of the omitted premise, and so of the conclusion. But if +only one hundred had chosen the easy subjects, he would reject the major +premise and likewise the conclusion. + +It is evident that in order to be sure of the truth of a proposition we +must determine the truth of the premises upon which it is based. An +argument therefore is frequently given over wholly to establishing the +premises. If their truth can be demonstrated, the conclusion inevitably +follows. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Supply the missing premise for the following:-- + + 1. John will succeed because he has a college education. + 2. Henry is happy because he has plenty of money. + 3. Candy is nutritious because it is made of sugar. + 4. These biscuits will make me ill because they are heavy. + 5. This dog must be angry because he is growling. + 6. This fish can swim. + 7. The plural of the German noun _der Garten_ is _die Gärten_. + 8. It will hurt to have this tooth filled. + +_B._ Supply the reasons and complete the syllogism for each of the +following:-- + + 1. This book should not be read. + 2. This hammer is useful. + 3. That dog will bite. + 4. This greyhound can run rapidly. + 5. The leaves have fallen from the trees. + 6. That boy ought to be punished. + 7. It is too early to go nutting. + 8. This boy should not study. + 9. You ought not to vote for this man for mayor. + + ++Theme XCVIII.+--_Write a paragraph proving the truth of one of the +following propositions:_-- + + +1. Labor-saving machinery is of permanent advantage to mankind. + +2. New Orleans will some day be a greater shipping port than New York. + +3. Poetry has a greater influence on the morals of a nation than prose +writing. + +4. Boycotting injures innocent persons and should never be employed. + +5. Ireland should have Home Rule. + +6. The President of the United States should be elected by the direct vote +of the people. + + +(Consider your argument with reference to the suppressed premises.) + + ++180. Errors of Deduction.+--The deductive method of reasoning, if +properly used, is effective, but much care needs to be taken to avoid +false conclusions. A complete exposition of the variations of the +syllogism is not necessary here, but it will be of value to consider +briefly three chief errors. + +If the terms are not used with the same meaning throughout, the conclusion +is valueless. A person might agree with you that domestic arts should be +taught to girls in school, but if you continued by saying that scrubbing +the floor is a form of domestic art, therefore the girls should be taught +to scrub the floor, he would reject your conclusion because the meaning of +the term _domestic art_ as he understood it in the first statement, is not +that used in the second. + +It will be noticed that each syllogism includes three terms. For example, +the syllogism,-- + + +All hawks eat flesh; +This bird is a hawk; +Therefore this bird eats flesh,-- + + +contains the three terms, _hawk, eats flesh, this bird_; of these but two +appear in the conclusion. The one which does not (in this case _hawk_) is +called the middle term. If the major premise does not make a statement +about every member of the class denoted by the middle term, the conclusion +may not be valid even though the premises are true. For example:-- + + +All hawks are birds; +This chicken is a bird; +Therefore this chicken is a hawk. + + +In this case the middle term is _birds_, and the major premise, _All hawks +are birds_, does not make a statement which applies to all birds. The +conclusion is therefore untrue. Such an argument is a fallacy. + +The validity of the conclusion is impaired if either premise is false. In +the enthymeme, "Henry is a coward; he dare not run away from school," the +suppressed premise, "All persons who will not run away from school, are +cowards," is not true, and so invalidates the conclusion. It is well to +test the validity of your own argument and that of your opponent by +seeking for the suppressed premise and stating it, for this may reveal a +fatal weakness in the thought. + + +EXERCISES + + +Which of the following are incorrect? + + +1. The government should pay for the education of its people; + Travel is a form of education; + Therefore the government should pay the traveling expenses of the + people. + +2. All horses are useful; + This animal is useful; + Therefore this animal is a horse. + +3. I ought not to study algebra because it is a very difficult subject. + +4. Pupils ought not to write notes because note writing interferes with + the rights of others. + +5. All fish can swim; + Charles can swim; + Therefore Charles is a fish. + +6. Henry is a fool because he wears a white necktie. + +7. All dogs bark; + This animal barks; + Therefore this animal is a dog. + + ++Theme XCIX.+--_Write a paragraph proving the truth of one of the +following propositions:_-- + +1. The government should establish a parcels post. + +2. The laws of mind determine the forms of composition. + +3. Training for citizenship should be given greater attention in the +public schools. + +4. The members of the school board should be appointed by the mayor of the +city. + +5. In the estimation of future ages ---- will be considered the greatest +President since Lincoln. + +(State your premises. Have you shown that they are true?) + + ++181. Evidence.+--We may reach belief in the truth of a specific statement +by means of deductive reasoning. Commonly, however, when dealing with an +actual state or occurrence, we present other facts or circumstances that +show its existence. The facts presented may be those of experience, the +testimony of witnesses, the opinion of those considered as experts in the +subject, or a combination of circumstances known to have existed. To be of +any value as arguments, they must be true, and they must be related to the +fact that we are trying to prove. These true and pertinent facts we term +_evidence_. + +Evidence may be direct or indirect. If a man sees a boy steal a bag of +apples from the orchard across the way, his evidence is direct. If +instead, he only sees him with an empty bag and later with a full one, the +evidence will be indirect. If you testify that early in the evening you +saw a tramp enter a barn which later in the evening caught fire, your +testimony as regards the cause of the fire would be indirect evidence +against the tramp. If you can testify that you saw sparks fall from his +lighted pipe and ignite a pile of hay in the barn, the evidence which you +give will be direct. + +Direct evidence has more weight than indirect, but often the latter is +nearly equal to the former and is sufficient to convince us. Even the +direct testimony of eye-witnesses must be carefully considered. Several +persons may see the same thing and yet make very different reports, even +though they may all desire to tell the truth. The weight that we shall +give to a person's testimony will depend upon his ability to observe and +to report accurately what he has experienced, and upon his desire to tell +the truth. + +Notice in the following selection what facts, specific instances, and +circumstances are advanced in support of the proposition. Assuming that +they are true, are they pertinent to the proposition? + + +Certain species of these army ants which inhabit tropical America, Mr. +Belt considered to be the most intelligent of all the insects of that part +of the world. On one occasion he noticed a wide column of them trying to +pass along a nearly perpendicular slope of crumbling earth, on which they +found great difficulty in obtaining a foothold. A number succeeded in +retaining their positions, and further strengthened them by laying hold of +their neighbors. They then remained in this position, and allowed the +column to march securely and easily over their bodies. On another occasion +a column was crossing a stream of water by a very narrow branch of a tree, +which only permitted them to go in single file. The ants widened the +bridge by a number clinging to the sides and to each other, and this +allowed the column to pass over three or four deep. These ants, having no +permanent nests, carry their larvae and pupae with them when marching. The +prey they capture is cut up and carried to the rear of the army to be +distributed as food. + +--Robert Brown: _Science for All_. + + ++Theme C.+--_Present all the evidence you can either to prove or disprove +one of the following propositions:_-- + +Select some question of local interest as:-- + 1. The last fire in our town was of incendiary origin. + 2. The football team from ---- indulged in "slugging" at the last game. + 3. Our heating system is inadequate. + 4. It rained last night. + +If you prefer, choose one of the following subjects:-- + 1. The Stuart kings were arbitrary rulers. + 2. The climate of our country is changing. + 3. Gutenberg did not invent the printing press. + 4. The American Indians have been unjustly treated by the whites. + 5. Nations have their periods of rise and decay. + +(Are the facts you use true? Are they pertinent? Do you know of facts +that would tend to show that your proposition is not true?) + + ++182. Number and Value of Reasons.+--Although a statement may be true and +pertinent it is seldom sufficient for proof. We need, as a rule, several +such statements. If you are trying to convince a friend that one kind of +automobile is superior to another, and can give only one reason for its +superiority, you no doubt will fail in your attempt. If, however, you can +give several reasons, you may succeed in convincing him. Suppose you go to +your principal and ask permission to take an extra study. You may give as +a reason the fact that your parents wish you to take it. He may not think +that is a sufficient reason for your doing so, but when he finds that with +your present studies you do not need to study evenings, that one of them +is a review, and that you have been standing well in all your studies, he +may be led to think that it will be wise for you to take the desired extra +study. + +While we must guard against insufficiency of reasons, we must not forget +that numbers alone do not convince. One good reason is more convincing +than several weak ones. Two or three good reasons, clearly and definitely +stated, will have much more weight than a large number of less important +ones. + + + EXERCISES + + +_A._ Give a reason or two in addition to the reasons already given in each +of the following:-- + +1. It is better to attend a large college than a small one, because the +teachers are as a rule greater experts in their lines of work. + +2. The school board ought to give us a field for athletics as the school +ground is not large enough for practice. + +3. Gymnasium work ought to be made compulsory. Otherwise many who need +physical training will neglect it. + +4. The game of basket ball is an injury to a school, since it detracts +from interest in studies. + +5. Rudolph Horton will make a good class president because he has had +experience. + +_B._ Be able to answer orally any two of the following: + +1. Prove to a timid person that there is no more danger in riding in an +automobile than there is in riding in a carriage drawn by horses. Use but +one argument, but make it as strong as possible. + +2. Give two good reasons why the superstition concerning Friday is absurd. + +3. What, in your mind, is the strongest reason why you wish to graduate +from a high school? For your wishing to go into business after leaving the +high school? For your wishing to attend college? + +4. What are two or three of the strong arguments in favor of woman +suffrage? Name two or three arguments in opposition to woman suffrage. + +_C._ Name all the points that you can in favor of the following. Select +the one that you consider the most important. + +1. Try to convince a friend that he ought to give up the practice of +cigarette smoking. + +2. Show that athletics in a high school ought to be under the management +of the faculty. + +3. Show that athletics should be under the management of the pupils +themselves. + +4. Macbeth's ambition and not his wife was the cause of his ruin. + +5. Macbeth's wife was the cause of his ruin. + + ++Theme CI.+--_Select one of the subjects in the exercise above, and write +out two or three of the strongest arguments in its favor._ + + (Consider the premises, especially those which are not expressed. Is +your argument deductive or inductive?) + + ++183. The Basis of Belief.+--If you ask yourself, Why do I believe this? +the answer will in many cases show that your belief in the particular case +under consideration arises because you believe some general principle or +theory which applies to it. + +One person may believe that political economy should be taught in high +schools because he believes that it is the function of the high school to +train its pupils for citizenship, and that the study of political economy +will furnish this training. Another person may oppose the teaching of +political economy because he believes that pupils of high school age are +not sufficiently mature in judgment to discuss intelligently the +principles of political economy, and that the study of these principles at +that age does not furnish desirable training for citizenship. It is +evident that an argument between these two concerning the teaching of +political economy in any particular school would consist in a discussion +of the conflicting general theories which each believed to be true. + +We have shown in Section 179 that one high school principal might believe +that boys should be allowed to choose their own studies because he +believed that they would not generally select the easy ones; while another +principal would oppose free electives because he believes that boys would +choose the less difficult studies. The proposition that "The United States +should retain its hold on the Philippines" involves conflicting theories +of the function of this government. So it will be found with many of our +beliefs that either consciously or unconsciously they are based on general +theories. It is important in argument to know what these theories are, and +especially to consider what may be the general theories of those whom we +wish to convince. + + ++184. Appeals to General Theory, Authority, and Maxims.+--A successful +argument in deductive form must be based upon principles and theories that +the audience believes. A minister in preaching to the members of his +church may with success proceed by deductive methods, because the members +believe the general principles upon which he bases his arguments. But in +addressing a mixed audience, many of whom are not church members, such an +argument might not be convincing, because his hearers might deny the +validity of the premises from which his conclusions were drawn. In such a +case he must either keep to general theories which his auditors do +believe, or by inductive methods seek to prove the truth of the general +principles themselves. + +If in support of our view we quote the opinion of some one whom we believe +competent to speak with weight and authority upon the question, we must +remember that it will have weight with our audience only if they too look +upon the person as an authority. It proves nothing to a body of teachers +to say that some educational expert believes as you do unless they have +confidence in him as a man of sound judgment. On the other hand, it may +count against a proposition to show that it has not been endorsed by any +one of importance or prominence. + +In a similar way a maxim or proverb may be quoted in support of a +proposition. If a boy associates with bad company, we may offer the maxim, +"Birds of a feather flock together," in proof that he is probably bad too. +Such maxims or proverbs are brief statements of principles generally +believed, and the use of them in an argument is in effect the presentation +of a general theory in a form which appeals to the mind of the hearer and +causes him to believe our proposition. + + ++185. Argument by Inference.+--The statement of a fact may be introduced +into an argument, not because the fact itself applies directly to the +proposition we wish to prove, but because it by inference suggests a +general theory which does so apply. Though the reader may not be conscious +of it, the presence of this general theory may influence his decision even +more than the explicit statement of the general theory would. + +An argument implies that there are two sides to a question. Which you +shall take depends on the way you look on it, that is, on what may be +called your mental point of view. Therefore any fact, allusion, maxim, +comparison, or other statement which may cause you to look at the question +in a different light or from a different point of view may be used as an +argument. In effect, it calls up a general theory whose presence affects +your decision. Notice how brief the argument is in the following selection +from Macaulay:-- + + +Many politicians of our time are in the habit of laying it down as a +self-evident proposition, that no people ought to be free till they are +fit to use their freedom. The maxim is worthy of the fool in the old +story, who resolved not to go into the water till he had learned to swim. +If men are to wait for liberty till they become wise and good in slavery, +they may indeed wait forever. + +--Macaulay: _Milton_. + + ++186. Summary.+--To summarize the preceding paragraphs, the authority we +quote, the maxims we state, the facts we adduce become valuable because +they appeal to general theories already believed by the reader. Success in +argument demands, therefore, that we consider carefully what theories may +probably be in the mind of our audience, and that we present our argument +in such a way as to appeal to those theories. + + ++Theme CII.+--_Write a short argument, using one of the following:_-- + +1. A young boy is urging his father to permit him to attend an +entertainment. Give his reasons as he would give them to his father. + +2. Suppose the father refuses the request. Write out his reasons. + +3. Try to convince a companion just entering high school to take the +college preparatory course instead of the commercial course. + + +(Are your reasons true and pertinent? To what general theories have you +appealed? Consider the coherence of each paragraph.) + + ++187. Arrangement of Arguments.+--We have learned that in arguing we need +to consider how those whom we address arrive at the belief they hold, and +that it will assist us to this knowledge of others if we consider our own +beliefs and the manner of their establishing. We must present our material +in the order that convinces. Each case may differ so from every other that +no general rule can be followed, but the consideration of some general +principles of arrangement will be of assistance. It is the purpose of the +following paragraphs to point out in so far as possible the most effective +order of arrangement. + ++188. Possibility, Probability, and Actuality.+--It has been stated, in +Section 175, that reasoning leads to probable truth, and that this +probability may become so strong as to be accepted as certainty. In common +speech this difference is borne in mind, and we distinguish a fact or +event that is only possible from one that is probable; and likewise one +that is only probable from one in which the probability approaches so near +to certainty as to convince us that it actually did exist or occur. Our +arguments may therefore be directed to proving possibility, probability, +or actuality. + +If we believe that an event actually occurred, the belief implies both +possibility and probability. Therefore, if we wish a person to believe in +the actual occurrence of an event, we must first be sure that he does not +question the possibility of its existence, and then we must show him that +it probably did take place. Only when we have shown that an event is +extremely probable have we the right to say that we have shown its actual +occurrence. + +A mother finding some damage done to one of the pictures on the wall could +not justly accuse her young son unless by the presence of a chair or +stepladder it had been possible for him to reach the picture. This +possibility, reënforced by a knowledge of his tendency to mischief, and by +the fact that he was in the house at the time the damage was done, would +lead to the belief that he probably was guilty. Proof that he was actually +responsible for the damage would still be lacking, and it might later be +discovered that the injury had been done accidentally by one of the +servants. + +Possibility, probability, and actuality merge into one another so +gradually that no sharply defined distinctions can be observed. It is +impossible to say that a certain argument establishes possibility, another +probability, and a third the actuality of an event. One statement may do +all three, but any proof of actuality must include arguments showing both +possibility and probability. A person accused of murder attempts to +demonstrate his innocence by proving an _alibi;_ that is, he attempts to +show that he was at some other place at the time the murder was committed +and so cannot possibly be guilty. Such an alibi, established by reliable +witnesses, is positive proof of innocence, no matter how strong the +evidence pointing to probable guilt may be. + + ++189. Argument from Cause.+--We have learned, in Section 49, that the +relation of cause and effect is one which is ingrained in our nature. We +accept a proposition as plausible if a cause which we consider adequate +has been assigned. Our belief in a proposition often depends upon our +belief in some other proposition which may be accepted as a cause. + +Thus, in the following statements, the truth of one proposition leads to +the belief that the other is also true:-- + +_a._ Henry has studied hard this year; therefore he will pass his college +entrance examinations. + +_b._ The man has severed an artery; therefore he will probably bleed to +death before the physician arrives. + +_c._ It will soon grow warmer, because the sun has risen. + +_An argument from cause_ may be of itself conclusive evidence of the fact. +But, for the most part, such arguments merely establish the possibility or +probability of the proposition and so render it ready for proof. In our +arrangement of material, we therefore place such arguments _first_. + + ++190. Argument from Sign.+--Cause and effect are so closely united that +when an effect is observed we assume that there has been a cause, and we +direct our argument to proving what it is. An effect is so associated with +its cause that the existence of an effect is a sign of the existence of a +cause, and such an argument is called an _argument from sign_. Reasoning +from sign is very common in our daily life. The wild geese flying south +indicate the approach of cold weather. The baby's toys show that the baby +has been in the room. A man's hat found beside a rifled safe will convict +the man of the crime. A dog's track in the garden is proof that a dog has +been there. + +If the effect observed is always associated with the same cause, the +argument is conclusive. If I observe as an effect that the river has +frozen over during the night, I have no doubt that it has been caused by a +lowering of the temperature. + +If two or three possible causes exist, our argument becomes conclusive +only by considering them all and by showing that all but one did not +produce the observed effect. If the principal of a school knows that one +of three boys broke a window light, he may be able to prove which one did +it by finding out the two who did not. If a man is found shot to death, +the coroner's jury may prove that he was murdered by showing that he did +not commit suicide. If there are many possible causes, the method of +elimination becomes too tedious and must be abandoned. If you find that +your horse is lame, it would be difficult to prove which of the many +possible causes actually operated to produce the lameness, though the +attendant circumstances might point to some one cause and so lead you to +assume that it was the one. + +Under _arguments from sign_ should be included also those cases when we +pass directly from one effect to another that arises from the same cause; +as, "I hear the windmill turning, it will be a good day to sail;" or, +"These beans are thrifty, therefore if I plant potatoes here I shall get a +good crop." In these sentences the wind and the fertile soil are not +mentioned, but we pass directly from one effect to another. + +As used by rhetoricians, arguments from sign include also arguments from +attendant circumstances. If we have observed that two events have happened +near together in time, we accept the occurrence of one as a sign that the +other will follow. When we hear the factory whistle blow, we conclude that +in a few minutes the workmen will pass our window on their way home. Such +a conclusion is based upon a belief established by an inductive process. +The degree of probability that it gives depends upon the number of times +that it has been observed to act without failure. If we have seen two boys +frequently together, the presence of one is a sign of the probable +presence of the other. A camp fire would point to the recent presence of +some one who kindled it. + +In using an argument from sign care must be taken not to confuse the +relation of cause and effect with that of contiguity in time or place. Do +not allege that which happened at the same time or near the same place as +a cause. If you do use an attendant circumstance, be sure that it adds +something to the probability. + + ++191. Argument from Example.+--It has been pointed out in the study of +inductive reasoning (Section 176) that a single example may suffice to +establish a general notion of a class. In dealing with objects of the +physical world, if essential and invariable qualities of the object are +considered, they may be asserted to be qualities of each member of the +class, and such an argument from an individual to all the members of the +class is convincing. They thus rank with arguments from sign as effective +in proving the certainty of a proposition. + +In dealing with human actions, on the other hand, examples are seldom +proofs of fact. We cannot say that all men will act in a certain way under +given circumstances because one man has so acted. Nevertheless, arguments +by examples are frequently used and are especially powerful when we wish +not only to convince a man, but also to persuade him to action. This +persuasion to action must be based on conviction, and in such a case the +argument from sign that convinces the man of the truth of a proposition +should precede the example that urges him to action. After convincing a +friend that there are advantages to be derived from joining a society, we +may persuade him to join by naming those who have joined. + + ++192. Argument from Analogy.+--Analogy is very much relied upon in +practical life. Reasoning from analogy depends upon the recognition of +similarity in regard to some particulars followed by the inference that +the similarity extends to other particulars. As soon as it was known that +the atmospheric conditions of the planet Mars are similar to those of the +earth, it was argued by analogy that Mars must also, be inhabited. + +An analogy is seldom conclusive and, though it is often effective in +argument, it must not be taken as proof of fact. The mind very readily +observes likenesses, and when directed toward the establishing of a +proposition easily overlooks the differences. In order to determine the +strength of an argument from analogy, attention should be given to the +differences existing between the two propositions considered. False +analogies are very common. We must guard against using them, and +especially against allowing ourselves to be convinced by them. Even when +the resemblance is so slight as to render analogy impossible, it may serve +to produce a metaphor that often has the effect of argument. + + +It is much easier to captivate the fancy with a pretty or striking figure +than to move the judgment with sound reason.... His (the speaker's) +picture appeals to the mind's visible sense, hence his power over us, +though his analogies are more apt to be false than true.... + +The use of metaphor, comparison, analogy, is twofold--to enliven and to +convince; to illustrate and enforce an accepted truth, and to press home +and clinch one in dispute. An apt figure may put a new face upon an old +and much worn truism, and a vital analogy may reach and move the reason. +Thus when Renan, referring to the decay of the old religious beliefs, says +that the people are no poorer for being robbed of false bank notes and +bogus shares, his comparison has a logical validity.... + +The accidental analogies or likenesses are limitless, and are the great +stock in trade of most writers and speakers. An ingenious mind finds types +everywhere, but real analogies are not so common. The likeness of one +thing to another may be valid and real, but the likeness of a thought with +a thing is often merely fanciful.... + +I recently have met with the same fallacy in a leading article in one of +the magazines. "The fact revealed by the spectroscope," says the writer, +"that the physical elements of the earth exist also in the stars, supports +the faith that a moral nature like our own inhabits the universe." A +tremendous leap--a leap from the physical to the moral. We know that +these earth elements are found in the stars by actual observation and +experience; but a moral nature like our own--this is assumed, and is not +supported by the analogy. + +John Burroughs: _Analogy, True and False_. + + +Notice the use of analogy in the argument below. + + +There is only one cure for the evils which newly acquired freedom +produces; and that cure is freedom. When a prisoner first leaves his cell +he cannot bear the light of day: he is unable to discriminate colors, or +recognize faces. But the remedy is, not to remand him into his dungeon, +but to accustom him to the rays of the sun. The blaze of truth and liberty +may at first dazzle and bewilder nations which have become blind in the +house of bondage. But, let them gaze on, and they will soon be able to +bear it. In a few years men learn to reason. The extreme violence of +opinions subsides. Hostile theories correct each other. The scattered +elements of truth cease to contend and begin to coalesce, and at length a +system of justice and order is educed out of the chaos. + +--Macaulay: _Milton_. + + ++193. Summary of Arrangement.+--The necessity of argument arises because +some one does not believe the truth of a proposition. To establish in his +mind a belief, we must present our arguments in an orderly and convincing +way. The order will usually be to show him first the possibility and then +the probability, and finally to lead him as near to certainty as we can. +We may say, therefore, that we should use arguments from cause, arguments +from sign, and arguments from example in the order named. + +Another principle of arrangement is that inductive argument will usually +precede deductive argument. We naturally proceed by induction to establish +general truths which, when established, we may apply. If our audience +already believe the general theories, the inductive part may be omitted. + +Both of these principles of arrangement should be considered with +reference to that of a third, namely, climax. Climax means nothing more +than the orderly progression of our argument to the point where it +convinces our hearer. We call that argument which finally convinces him +the strongest, and naturally this should be the end of the argument. Of +several proofs of equal grade, one that will attract the attention of the +hearer should come first, while the most convincing one should come last. + +In arranging arguments attention needs also to be given to coherence. One +proof may be so related to another that the presentation of one naturally +suggests the other. Sometimes, for the sake of climax, the coherent order +must be abandoned. More often the climax is made more effective by +following the order which gives the greatest coherence. + + ++Theme CII.+--_Prove one of the following propositions:_ + +1. The Presidential term should be extended. + +2. Bookkeeping is of greater practical value than any other high school +study. + +3. In cities all buildings should be restricted to three stories in +height. + +4. Sumptuary laws are never desirable. + +5. No pupil should carry more than four studies. + +6. This school should have a debating society. + + +(Have you proved possibility, probability, or actuality? Have you used +arguments from cause, sign, or example? Consider the arrangement of your +arguments. Consider the analogies you have used, if any. Can you shorten +your theme without weakening it?) + + ++194. The Brief.+--Arrangement is of very great importance in argument. In +fact, it is so important that much more care and attention needs to be +given to the outline in argument, and the outline itself may be more +definitely known to the hearer than in the other forms of discourse. In +description and narration especially, it detracts from the value of the +impressions if the reader becomes aware of the plan of composition. In +exposition a view of the framework may not hinder clear understanding, but +in argument it may be of distinct advantage to have the orderly +arrangements of our arguments definitely known to him whom we seek to +convince. + +The brief not only assists us in making our own thought orderly and exact, +but enables us to exclude that which is trivial or untrue. An explanation +may fail to make every point clear and yet retain some valuable elements, +but an argument fails of its purpose if it does not establish a belief. A +single false argument or even a trivial one may so appeal to a mind +prejudiced against the proposition that all the valid proofs fail to +convince. This single weakness is at once used by our opponent to show +that our other arguments are false because this one is. A committee once +endeavored to persuade the governor of a state not to sign a certain bill, +but they defeated themselves because their opponents pointed out to the +governor that two of the ten reasons which they presented were false and +that the committee presenting them knew they were false. This cast a doubt +upon the honesty of the committee and the validity of their whole +argument, and the governor signed the bill. + +The brief differs from the ordinary outline in that it is composed of +complete sentences rather than of topics. + +Notice the following example. + + ++Term examinations should be abolished.+ + + +AFFIRMATIVE + + +I. There is no necessity for such examinations. + +1. The teacher knows the pupil's standing from his daily recitations. + +2. Monthly reviews or tests may be substituted if desirable. + +II. The evils arising from examinations more than offset any advantages +that may be derived from them. + +1. The best pupils are likely to work hardest, and to overtax their +strength. + +2. Pupils often aim to pass rather than to know their subject. + +3. A temptation to cheat is placed before them. + +III. Examinations are not a fair test of a pupil's ability. + +1. A pupil may know his subject as a whole and yet not be able to answer +one or two of the questions given him. + +2. A pupil who has done poor work during the term may cram for an +examination and pass very creditably. + +3. Pupils are likely to be tired out at the end of the term and often are +not able to do themselves justice. + + + +NEGATIVE + + +If the writer should choose to defend the negative of the above +proposition, the brief might be as follows:-- + +I. Examinations are indispensable to school work. + +1. In no other way can teachers find out so well what their pupils know +about their subjects, especially in large classes. + +2. They are essential as an incentive to pupils who are inclined to let +their work lag. + +II. As a rule they are fair tests of a pupil's ability. + +1. Pupils who prepare the daily recitations well are almost sure to pass a +good examination. + +2. Pupils who cram are likely to write a hurried, faulty examination. + +3. It seldom happens that many in a class are too worn out to take a term +examination. + +III. They prepare the pupils for later examinations. + (1) For college entrance examinations. + (2) For examinations at college. + (3) For civil service examinations. + (4) For examinations for teachers' certificates. + + +EXERCISES + +_A._ Write out subordinate propositions proving the main subdivisions. +Also change the arrangement when you think it desirable to do so. + +1. Two sessions are preferable to one in a high school. + (1) One long session is too fatiguing to both teachers and pupils. + (2) Boys and girls as a rule study better at school than they do at + home. + (3) The time after school is long enough for recreation. + +2. The pupils of this high school should be granted a holiday during the + street (county or state) fair. + (1) They will all go at least one day. + (2) It will cause less interruption in the school work if they all go + the same day. + +3. Women should be allowed to vote. + (1) They are now taxed without representation. + (2) Whenever they have been allowed to take part in the affairs of the + government, it has been an advantage to that government. + (3) Many of them are much more intelligent than some men who vote. + +_B._ Write out briefs for the following propositions (affirmative or +negative):-- + +1. High school studies should be made elective in the last two years of +the course. + +2. The government should own and control the railroads of our country. + +3. The old building on the corner of ---- Street ought to be removed. + +4. Latin should not be made a compulsory study. + +5. Reading newspapers is unprofitable. + +6. Laws should be made to prohibit all adulteration of foods. + +7. We are all selfish. + +8. A system of self-government should be introduced into our school. + + ++Theme CIV.+--_Write out the argument for one of the +preceding propositions._ + +(Examine the brief carefully before beginning to write. +Can you improve it? ) + + ++Theme CV.+--_Write a theme proving one of the following propositions:_-- + +1. Immigration is detrimental to the United States. + +2. The descriptions in _Ivanhoe_ are better than those in the _House of +the Seven Gables_. + +3. Argument is of greater practical value than exposition. + +4. The Mexican Indians were a civilized race when America was discovered. + +5. The standing army of the United States should be increased. + +6. All police officers should be controlled by the state and not by the +city. + +(Have you used arguments from cause, sign, or example? Are they arranged +with reference to the principles of arrangement? (Section 192.) Consider +each paragraph and the whole theme with reference to unity.) + + ++Theme CVI.+--_Write a debate on some question assigned by the teacher._ + +(To what points should you give attention in correcting your theme? Read +Section 79.) + + ++195. Difference between Persuasion and Argument.+--Up to this point we +have considered argument as having for its aim the proof of the truth +of a proposition. If we consider the things about which we argue most +frequently, we shall find that in many cases we attempt to do more than +merely to convince the hearer. We wish to convince him in order to cause +him to act. We argue with him in order to persuade him to do something. +Such an argument tries to establish the wisdom of a course of action and +is termed _persuasion_. Persuasion differs from argument in its aim. In +argument by an appeal principally to the reason, we endeavor to convince; +in persuasion by an appeal mainly to the feelings, we endeavor to move to +action. + + ++196. Importance of Persuasion.+--Persuasion deals with the practical +affairs of life, and for that reason the part that it performs is a large +and important one. All questions of advantage, privilege, and duty are +included in the sphere of persuasion. Since such questions are so directly +related to our business interests, to our happiness, and to our mode of +conduct and action, we are constantly making use of persuasion and quite +as constantly are being influenced by it. Our own welfare and happiness +depends to so great an extent upon the actions of others that our success +in life is often measured by our ability to persuade others to act in +accordance with our desires. + + ++197. Necessity of Persuasion.+--It is frequently not enough to convince +our hearer of the truth of a proposition. Often a person believes a +proposition, yet does not act. If we wish action, persuasion must be added +to argument. If we always acted at the time we were convinced, and in +accordance with our convictions, there would be no need of persuasion. +Strange as it seems, we often believe one thing and do just the opposite, +or we are indifferent and do nothing at all. We all know that disobedience +to the laws of health brings its punishment--yet how many of us act as if +we did not believe it at all! The indifferent pupil is positive that he +will fail if he does not study. He knows that he ought to apply himself +diligently to his work. There is no excuse for doing otherwise, yet he +neglects to act and failure is the result. + + ++198. Motive in Persuasion.+--The motive of persuasion depends upon the +nature of the question. The motives that we have in mind may be selfish, +or, on the other hand, they may be supremely unselfish. We may urge others +to act in order to bring about our own pleasure or profit; we may urge +them to act for their own self-interest or for the interest of others. We +may appeal to private or public interest, to social or religious duty. +When a boy urges his father to buy him a bicycle, he has his own pleasure +in mind. When we urge people to take care of their health, we have their +interest in view; and when we urge city improvements or reforms in +politics, we are thinking of the welfare of people in general. + + ++199. The Material of Persuasion.+--Persuasion aims to produce action and +may make use of any of the forms of discourse that will fit that purpose. +We may describe the beauty of the Adirondacks or narrate our experiences +there in order to persuade a friend to accompany us on a camping trip. We +may explain the workings of a new invention in order to persuade a +capitalist to invest money in its manufacture. Or we may by argument +demonstrate that there is a great opportunity for young men in New +Orleans, hoping to persuade an acquaintance to move there. When thus used, +description, narration, exposition, and argument may become persuasion; +but their effectiveness depends upon their appeal to some fundamental +belief or feeling in the person addressed. Our description and narration +would not bring to the Adirondacks a man who cared nothing for scenery and +who disliked camp life. The explanation of our invention would not +interest a capitalist unless he was seeking a profitable investment. Our +argument would not induce a man to move to New Orleans if his prejudice +against the South was greater than his desire for profit and position. In +each case there has been an appeal to some belief or sentiment or desire +of the person whom we seek to persuade. + + ++200. Appeal to the Feelings.+--Persuasion, therefore, in order to produce +action must appeal largely to the feelings. But all persons are not +affected in the same way. In order to bring about the same result we may +need to make a different appeal to different individuals. One person may +be led to act by an appeal made to his sense of justice, another by an +appeal made to his patriotism, while still another, unmoved by either of +these appeals, may be led to act by an appeal made to his pride or to his +love of power. If we would be successful in persuading others, we ought to +be able to understand what to appeal to in individual cases. Children may +be enticed by candy, and older persons may be quite as readily influenced +if we but choose the proper incentive. It is our duty to see that we are +persuaded only by the presentation of worthy motives, and that in our own +efforts to persuade others we do not appeal to envy, jealousy, religious +prejudices, race hatred, or lower motives. + + +EXERCISES + + +Show how an appeal to the feelings could be made in the following. To what +particular feeling or feelings would you appeal in each case? + +1. Try to gain your parents' permission to attend college. + +2. Urge a friend to give up card playing. + +3. Try to persuade your teachers not to give so long lessons. + +4. Persuade others to aid an unfortunate family living in our community. + +5. Induce the school board to give you a good gymnasium. + +6. Persuade a tramp to give up his mode of life. + +7. Try to get some one to buy your old bicycle. + +8. Urge your country to act in behalf of some oppressed people. + +9. Urge a resident of your town to give something for a public park. + + ++Theme CVII.+--_Write out one of the preceding._ + +(Consider what you have written with reference to coherence and climax.) + + ++201. Argument with Persuasion.+--In some cases we are sure that our +hearers are already convinced as to the truth of a proposition. Then there +is no need of argument and persuasion is used alone, but more frequently +both are used. Argument naturally precedes persuasion, but with few +exceptions the two are intermixed and even so blended as to be scarcely +distinguishable, the one from the other. A good example of the use of both +forms is found in the speech of Antony over the dead body of Caesar in +Shakespeare's _Julius Caesar_. Read the speech and note the argument and +persuasion given in it. What three arguments does Antony advance to prove +that Caesar was not ambitious? Does he draw conclusions or leave that for +his listeners to do? Where is there an appeal to their pity? To their +curiosity? To their gratitude? What is the result in each case of the +various appeals? + +In the following examples note the argument and persuasion. Remember that +persuasion commences when we begin to urge to action. Notice what feelings +are appealed to in the persuasive parts of the speeches. + + +They tell us, Sir, that we are weak, unable to cope with so formidable an +adversary. But, when shall we be stronger? Will it be the next week, or +the next year? Will it be when we are totally disarmed and when a British +guard shall be stationed in every house? Shall we gather strength by +irresolution and inaction? Shall we acquire the means of effectual +resistance, by lying supinely on our backs and hugging the delusive +phantom of hope, until our enemies shall have bound us hand and foot? Sir, +we are not weak, if we make a proper use of the means which the God of +nature hath placed in our power. Three millions of people, armed in the +holy cause of liberty, and in such a country as that which we possess, are +invincible by any force which our enemy can send against us. Besides, Sir, +we shall not fight our battles alone. There is a just God who presides +over the destinies of nations; and who will raise up friends to fight our +battles for us. The battle, Sir, is not to the strong alone; it is to the +vigilant, the active, the brave. Besides, Sir, we have no election. If we +were base enough to desire it, it is now too late to retire from the +contest. There is no retreat, but in submission and slavery. Our chains +are forged! Their clanking may be heard on the plains of Boston! The war +is inevitable--and let it come! I repeat it, Sir, let it come!--It is +vain, sir, to extenuate the matter. Gentlemen may cry peace, peace--but +there is no peace. The war is actually begun! The next gale that sweeps +from the north will bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms! Our +brethren are already in the field. Why stand we here, idle? Is life so +dear, is peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and +slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course others may take; +but as for me, give me liberty, or give me death. + +--Patrick Henry. + + +The pictures in the American newspapers of the starving reconcentrados are +true. They can all be duplicated by the thousands. I never before saw, +and please God, I may never again see, so deplorable a sight as the +reconcentrados in the suburbs of Matanzas. I can never forget to my dying +day the hopeless anguish in their despairing eyes. Huddled about their +little bark huts, they raised no voice of appeal to us for alms as we went +among them.... Men, women, and children stand silent, famishing with +hunger. Their only appeal comes from their sad eyes, through which one +looks as through an open window into their agonizing souls. + +The Government of Spain has not appropriated and will not appropriate one +dollar to save these people. They are now being attended and nursed and +administered to by the charity of the United States. Think of the +spectacle! We are feeding the citizens of Spain; we are nursing their +sick; we are saving such as can be saved, and yet there are those who +still say it is right for us to send food, but we must keep hands off. I +say that the time has come when muskets ought to go with the food.... + +The time for action has, then, come. No greater reason for it can exist +to-morrow than exists to-day. Every hour's delay only adds another chapter +to the awful story of misery and death. Only one power can intervene--the +United States of America. Ours is the one great nation of the New World, +the mother of American republics. She holds a position of trust and +responsibility toward the peoples and the affairs of the whole Western +Hemisphere. + +Mr. President, there is only one action possible, if any is taken--that +is, intervention for the independence of the island. But we cannot +intervene and save Cuba without the exercise of force, and force means +war; war means blood. The lowly Nazarene on the shores of Galilee preached +the divine doctrine of love, "Peace on earth, good will toward men." Not +peace on earth at the expense of liberty and humanity. Not good will +toward men who despoil, enslave, degrade, and starve to death their +fellow-men. I believe in the doctrine of Christ, I believe in the doctrine +of peace; but, Mr. President, men must have liberty before there can come +abiding peace. + +Intervention means force. Force means war. War means blood. But it will be +God's force. When has a battle for humanity and liberty ever been won +except by force? What barricade of wrong, injustice, and oppression has +ever been carried except by force? Force compelled the signature of +unwilling royalty to the great Magna Charta; force put life into +the Declaration of Independence and made effective the Emancipation +Proclamation; force beat with naked hands upon the iron gateway of the +Bastile and made reprisal in one awful hour for centuries of kingly crime; +force waved the flag of revolution over Bunker Hill and marked the snows +of Valley Forge with blood-stained feet; force held the broken line at +Shiloh, climbed the flame-swept hill at Chattanooga, and stormed the +clouds on Lookout heights; force marched with Sherman to the sea, rode +with Sheridan in the valley of Shenandoah, and gave Grant victory at +Appomattox; force saved the Union, kept the stars in the flag, made +"niggers" men. + +Others may hesitate, others may procrastinate, others may plead for +further diplomatic negotiations, which means delay; but for me, I am ready +to act now, and for my action I am ready to answer to my conscience, my +country, and my God. + +--John Mellen Thurston: _Speech in United States Senate_, March, 1898. + + +EXERCISES + + +1. A young boy is trying to gain his father's permission to attend an +evening entertainment with some other boys. Make a list of his appeals to +his father's reason; to his father's feelings. Make a list of his father's +objections. Is there any appeal to his son's feelings? + +2. Suppose you are about to address the voters of your city on the +question of granting saloon licenses. Make a list of appeals to their +reason; to their intellect. Remember that appeals to the feelings are made +more forcible by descriptive and narrative examples than by direct general +appeals. + +3. Urge your classmates to vote for some member of your class for +president. What qualifications should a good class president have? + + ++Theme CVIII.+--_Select one of the subjects, concerning which you have +written an argument; either add persuasion to the argument or intermix +them._ + +(What part of your theme is argument and what part persuasion? Does the +introduction of persuasion affect the order of arrangement?) + + ++Theme CIX.+--_Select one of the subjects given on page 361 of which you +have not yet made use. Write a theme appealing to both feeling and +intellect._ + +(Are your facts true and pertinent? Consider the arrangement.) + + ++Theme CX.+--_Write a letter to a friend who went to work instead of +entering the high school. Urge him to come to the high school._ + +(What arguments have you made? To what feelings have you appealed?) + + ++Theme CXI.+--_Use one of the following as a subject for a persuasive +theme:_-- + +1. Induce your friends not to play ball on Memorial Day. + +2. Ask permission to be excused from writing your next essay. + +3. Persuade one of your friends to play golf. + +4. Induce your friends not to wear birds on their hats. + +5. Write an address to young children, trying to persuade them not to be +cruel to the lower animals. + + ++202. Questions of Right and Questions of Expediency.+--Arguments that aim +to convince us of the wisdom of an action are very common. In our home +life and in our social and religious life these questions are always +arising. They may be classified into two kinds: (1) those which answer the +question, Is it right? and (2) those which answer the question, Is it +expedient? + +The moral element enters into questions of right. It is always wise for us +to do that which is morally right, but sometimes we are in doubt as to +what course of action is morally right. Opinions differ concerning what is +right, and for that reason we spend much time in defending our opinions or +in trying to make others believe as we do. In answering such a question +honestly, we must lose sight of all advantage or disadvantage to +ourselves. When asked to do something we should at once ask ourselves, Is +it right? and when once that is determined one line of action should be +clear. + +An argument which aims to answer the question, Is it expedient? +presupposes that there are at least two lines of action each of which is +right. It aims to prove that one course of action will bring greater +advantages than any other. Taking all classes of people into consideration +we shall find that they are arguing more questions of expediency than of +any other kind. Every one is looking for advantages either to himself or +to those in whom he is interested. A question of expediency should never +be separated from the question of right. In determining either our own +course of action or that which we attempt to persuade another to follow, +we should never forget the presupposition of a question of expediency that +either course is right. + + +EXERCISES + + +1. Name five questions the right or wrong of which you have been called +upon to decide. + +2. Name five similar questions that are likely to arise in every one's +experience. + +3. Name five questions of right concerning which opinions very often +differ. + +4. Is an action that is right for one person ever wrong for another? + + ++Theme CXII.+--_Write out the reasons for or against one of the +following:_-- + +1. Should two pupils ever study together? + +2. Is a lie ever justifiable? + +3. Was Shylock's punishment too severe? + +4. Woman's suffrage should be established. + +5. The regular party nominee should not always be supported. + + +EXERCISES + + +Give reasons for or against the following:-- + +1. We should abolish class-day exercises. + +2. The study of science is more beneficial than the study of language. + +3. Foreign skilled laborers should be excluded from the United States. + +4. Hypnotic entertainments should not be allowed. + +5. The study of algebra should not be made compulsory in a high school. + +6. _Uncle Tom's Cabin_ should be excluded from school libraries. + +7. Physical training should be compulsory in public schools. + +8. High school secret societies should not be allowed. + + ++Theme CXIII.+--_Write an argument of expediency using +one of the subjects named in the preceding exercise._ + +(What advantages have you made most prominent? +To what feelings have you appealed?) + + ++Theme CXIV.+--_Write a narration in which the hero is called upon to +decide whether some course of action is right or wrong_. + +(Consider the theme as a narration. Does it fulfill the requirements of +Chapter IX? (See Summary.) Consider just the arguments used. Are the +arguments sufficient to bring conviction to the reader that the hero +decided rightly?) + ++203. Refutation.+--No question is worth argument unless there are two +sides to it--unless there is a chance for some doubt in the mind of the +hearer as to which side seems most reasonable. Many questions are of such +a nature that in trying to convince our hearers of some truth, we often +find it necessary to show them, not only the truth of a proposition or the +expediency of a course of action, but also the falsity of some opposing +proposition or the inexpediency of the opposite course of action. This +tearing to pieces another's argument, is called refutation, or destructive +argument. A successful debater shows nearly if not equal skill in tearing +down his opponent's arguments as in building up his own. + +Even in arguments in which no one takes the opposite side at the given +time, we must not forget that there are points on the opposite side which +are likely to arise in the minds of our hearers. Just as the skillful +teacher must know the difficulties that will arise in the minds of the +pupils even though they are not expressed, so must the skillful debater +consider the objections that his hearer will mentally set up against his +argument. It is well, however, for the debater to avoid overemphasizing +objections. Sometimes his discussion gives the objections a weight that +they would not otherwise have. It is not wise to set up "a man of straw" +for the purpose of knocking him down. + +Notice the refutation in the following argument:-- + + +In no respect is the difference of opinion as to the methods of fishing so +pronounced and disturbing among anglers as the diverse ones of fishing +"up" and "down" stream. + +"Fishing up stream" has many advocates who assert that as trout always lie +with their heads up current, they are less likely to see the fisherman or +the glint of his rod when the casts are made; that the discomfort and +fatigue accompanying wading against strong rapids is amply repaid by the +increased scores secured; that the flies deftly thrown a foot or two above +the head of a feeding trout float more life-like down the current than +those drawn against it by the line, when they are apt to exhibit a +muscular power which in the live insect would be exaggerated and +unnatural. + +On the other hand, the "down stream" fisherman is equally assertive as to +the value of his method. He feels the charm of gurgling waters around his +limbs, a down current that aids rather than retards or fatigues him in +each successive step of enjoyment in his pastime; as he casts his fifty or +more feet of line adown the stream, he is assured that he is beyond the +ken of the most keen-sighted and wary trout; that his artificial bugs, +under the tension of the current seaming it from right to left, reaches +every square inch of the "swim," as English rodsters term a likely water, +and coming naturally down stream, just the direction from whence a hungry +trout is awaiting it, are much more likely to be taken, than those thrown +against the current, with, doubtless, a foot or more of the leader +drooping and bagging before the nose of a trout, with a dead bug, soaked +and bedraggled, following slowly behind. + +By wading "down stream" its advocates do not mean splashing and lifting +the feet above the surface, sending the water hither and yon on to the +banks, into the pools, with the soil of silt or mud or fine gravel from +the bottom, polluting the stream many yards ahead, and causing every fish +to scurry to the shelter of a hole in the bank or under a shelving rock. +They intend that the rodster shall enter the water quietly, and, after a +few preliminary casts to get the water gear in good working order to +proceed down stream by sliding rather than lifting his feet from the +bottom, noiselessly and cautiously approaching the most likely pools or +eddies behind the roots in mid stream, or still stretches close to the +banks, where the quiet reaches broaden down stream, where nine chances in +ten, on a good trout water, one or more fish will be seen lazily rising +and feeding. + +Again, the down-stream angler contends that when a fish is fastened on a +hook, taking the lure in a current, that he is more likely to be well +hooked, hence more certain of capture when the line is tense, than when +rising to a floating bug at the end of a looping line and leader. +Certainly it is very difficult when casting against the current to keep +the line sufficiently taut to strike quickly and effectively a rising +trout, which as a rule ejects the artificial lure the instant he feels the +gritty impact of the steel. + +In fishing down stream, the advocate of the principle that the greater the +surface commotion made by the flies used, the surer the rise and catch, +has an advantage over his brother who always fishes "fine" and with flies +that do not make a ripple. Drawing the artificial bugs across and slightly +up stream over the mirrored bosom of a pool is apt to leave a wake behind +them which may not inaptly be compared with the one created by a small +stern-wheel steamer; an unnatural condition of things, but of such is a +trout's make-up. + +--W.C. HARRIS: _Fishing Up or Down Stream_. + + ++Theme CXV.+--_Persuade a friend, to choose some sport from one of the +following pairs:_-- + + 1. Canoeing or sailing. + 2. Bicycling or automobiling. + 3. Golf or polo. + 4. Basket ball or tennis. + 5. Football or baseball. + + ++Theme CXVI.+--_Choose one side of a proposition. Name the probable points +on the other side and write out a refutation of them_. + + ++Theme CXVII.+--_State a proposition and write the direct argument._ + + ++Theme CXVIII.+--_Exchange theme CXVII for one written by a classmate and +write the refutation of the arguments in the theme you receive._ + + +(Theme CXVII and the corresponding Theme CXVIII should be read before the +class.) + + +SUMMARY + +1. Argument is that form of discourse which attempts to prove the truth of +a proposition. + +2. Inductive reasoning is that process by which from many individual cases +we establish the probable truth of a general proposition. + +3. The establishing of a general truth by induction requires-- + _a._ That there be a large number of facts, circumstances, or specific + instances supporting it. + _b._ That these facts be true. + _c._ That they be pertinent. + _d._ That there be no facts proving the truth of the contrary + proposition. + +4. Deductive reasoning is that process which attempts to prove the truth +of a specific proposition by showing that a general theory applies to it. + +5. The establishing of the truth of a specific proposition by deductive +reasoning requires-- + _a._ A major premise that makes an affirmation about _all_ the members + of a class. + _b._ A minor premise that states that the individual under consideration + belongs to the class named. + _c._ A conclusion that states that the affirmation made about the class + applies to the individual. These three statements constitute a + syllogism. + +6. An enthymeme is a syllogism with but one premise expressed. + +7. Errors of deduction arise-- + _a._ If terms are not used throughout with the same meaning. + _b._ If the major premise does not make a statement about every member + of the class denoted by the middle term. + _c._ If either premise is false. + +8. Belief in a specific proposition may arise-- + _a._ Because of the presentation of evidence which is true and + pertinent. + _b._ Because of a belief in some general principle or theory which + applies to it. + +In arguing therefore we-- + _a._ Present true and pertinent facts, or evidence; or + _b._ Appeal directly to general theories, or by means of facts, maxims, + allusions, inferences, or the quoting of authorities, seek to call + up such theories. + +9. Classes of arguments:-- + _a._ Arguments from cause. + _b._ Arguments from sign and attendant circumstances. + _c._ Arguments from example and analogy. + +10. Arrangement. + _a._ Arguments from cause should precede arguments from sign, and + arguments from sign should precede arguments from example. + _b._ Inductive arguments usually precede deductive arguments. + _c._ Arguments should be arranged with reference to climax. + _d._ Arguments should be arranged, when possible, in a coherent order. + +11. In making a brief the above principles of arrangement should be +observed. Attention should be given to unity so that the trivial and false +may be excluded. + +12. Persuasion is argument that aims to establish the wisdom of a course +of action. + +13. Persuasion appeals largely to the feelings. + _a._ Those feelings of satisfaction resulting from approval, + commendation, or praise, or the desire to avoid blame, disaster, + or loss of self-esteem. + _b._ Those feelings resulting from the proper and legitimate use of + one's powers. + _c._ Those feelings which arise from possession, either actual or + anticipated. + +14. Persuasion is concerned with-- + _a._ Questions of right. + _b._ Questions of expediency. + + + + +APPENDIX + + +I. ELEMENTS OF FORM + ++1. Importance of Form.+--The suggestions which have been made for the +correction of the Themes have laid emphasis upon the thought. Though the +thought side is the more important, yet careful attention must also be +given to the form in which it is stated. If we wish to express our +thoughts so that they will be understood by others, we shall be surer to +succeed if we use the forms to which our hearers are accustomed. The great +purpose of composition is the clear expression of thought, and this is +aided by the use of the forms which are conventional and customary. + +Wrong habits of speech indicate looseness and carelessness of thought, and +if not corrected show a lack of training. In speaking, our language goes +directly to the listener without revision. It is, therefore, essential +that we pay much attention to the form of the expression so that it may be +correct when we use it. Our aim should be to avoid an error rather than to +correct it. + +Similarly in writing, your effort should be given to avoiding errors +rather than to correcting those already made. A misspelled word or an +incorrect grammatical form in the letter that you send to a business man +may show you to be so careless and inaccurate that he will not wish to +have you in his employ. In such a case it is only the avoidance of the +error that is of value. You must determine for yourself that the letter is +correct before you send it. This same condition should prevail with +reference to your school themes. The teacher may return these for +correction, but you must not forget that the purpose of this correction is +merely to emphasize the correct form so that you will use it in your next +theme. It will be helpful to have some one point out your individual +mistakes, but it is only by attention to them on your own part and by a +definite and long-continued effort to avoid them that you will really +accomplish much toward the establishing of correct language habits. In +this, as in other things, the most rapid progress will be made by doing +but one thing at a time. + +Many matters of form are already familiar to you. A brief statement of +these is made in order to serve as a review and to secure uniformity in +class work. + + +1. _Neatness._--All papers should be free from blots and finger marks. +Corrections should be neatly done. Care in correcting or interlining will +often render copying unnecessary. + +2. _Legibility._--Excellence of thought is not dependent upon penmanship, +and the best composition may be the most difficult to read. A poorly +written composition is, however, more likely to be considered bad than one +that is well written. A plain, legible, and rapid handwriting is so +valuable an accomplishment that it is well worth acquiring. + +3. _Paper._--White, unruled paper, about 8-1/2 by 11 inches, is best for +composition purposes. The ability to write straight across the page +without the aid of lines can be acquired by practice. It is customary to +write on only one side of the paper. + +4. _Margins._--Leave a margin of about one inch at the left of the sheet. +Except in formal notes and special forms there will be no margin at the +right. Care should be taken to begin the lines at the left exactly under +each other, but the varying length of words makes it impossible to end the +lines at the right at exactly the same place. A word should not be crowded +into a space too small for it, nor should part of it be put on the next +line, as is customary in printing, unless it is a compound one, such as +steam-boat. Spaces of too great length at the end of a line may be avoided +by slightly lengthening the preceding words or the spaces between them. + +5. _Spacing._--Each theme should have a title. It should be placed in the +center of the line above the composition, and should have all important +words capitalized. Titles too long for a single line may be written as +follows:-- + + + MY TRIP TO CHICAGO + ON A BICYCLE + + +With unruled paper some care must be taken to keep the lines the same +distance apart. The spaces between sentences should be somewhat greater +than those between words. Paragraphs are indicated by indentations. + +6. _Corrections._--These are best made by using a sharp knife or an ink +eraser. Sometimes, if neatly done, a line may be drawn through an +incorrect word and the correct one written above it. Omitted words may be +written between the lines and the place where they belong indicated by a +caret. If a page contains many corrections, it should be copied. + +7. _Inscription and Folding._--The teacher will give directions as to +inscription and folding. He will indicate what information he wishes, such +as name, class, date, etc., and where it is to be written. Each page +should be numbered. If the paper is folded, it should be done with +neatness and precision. + + ++2. Capitals.+--The use of capitals will serve to illustrate the value of +using conventional forms. We are so accustomed to seeing a proper name, +such as Mr. Brown, written with capitals that we should be puzzled if we +should find it written without capitals. The sentence, Ben-Hur was written +by Lew Wallace, would look unfamiliar if written without capitals. We are +so used to our present forms that beginning sentences with small letters +would hinder the ready comprehension of the thought. Everybody agrees that +capitals should be used to begin sentences, direct questions, names of +deity, days of the week, the months, each line of poetry, the pronoun I, +the interjection O, etc., and no good writer will fail to use them. Usage +varies somewhat in regard to capitals in some other places. Such +expressions as Ohio river, Lincoln school, Jackson county, state of +Illinois, once had both names capitalized. The present tendency is to +write them as above. Even titles of honor are not capitalized unless they +are used with a proper name; for example, He introduced General Grant The +general then spoke. + + ++3. Rules of Capitalization.+--1. Every sentence and every line of poetry +begin with capitals. + +2. Every direct quotation, except brief phrases and subordinate parts of +sentences, begins with a capital. + +3. Proper nouns and adjectives derived from proper nouns begin with +capitals. Some adjectives, though derived from proper nouns, are no longer +capitalized; _e.g._ voltaic. + +4. Titles of honor when used with the name of a person begin with +capitals. + +5. The first word and every important word in the titles of books, etc., +begin with capitals. + +6. The pronoun I and the interjection O are always capitalized. + +7. Names applied to the Deity are capitalized and pronouns referring +thereto, especially if personal, are usually capitalized. + +8. Important words are often capitalized for emphasis, especially words in +text-books indicating topics. + + ++4. Punctuation.+--The meaning of a sentence depends largely on the +grouping of words that are related in sense to each other. When we are +reading aloud we make the sense clear by bringing out to the hearer this +grouping. This is accomplished by the use of pauses and by emphasis and +inflection. In writing we must do for the eye what inflection and pauses +do for the ear. We therefore use punctuation marks to indicate inflection +and emphasis, and especially to show word grouping. Punctuation marks are +important because their purpose is to assist in making the sense clear. +There are many special rules more or less familiar to you, but they may +all be included under the one general statement: Use such marks and only +such marks as will assist the reader in getting the sense. + +What marks we shall use and how we shall use them will be determined by +custom. In order to benefit a reader, marks must be used in ways with +which he is familiar. Punctuation changes from time to time. The present +tendency is to omit all marks not absolutely necessary to the clear +understanding of the sentence. + +There are some very definite rules, but there are others that cannot be +made so definite, and the application of them requires care and +judgment on the part of the writer. Improvement will come only by +practice. Sentences should not be written for the purpose of illustrating +punctuation. The meaning of what you are writing ought to be clear to you, +and the punctuation marks should be put in _as you write_, not inserted +afterward. + + ++5. Rules for the Use of the Comma.+--1. The comma is used to separate +words or phrases having the same construction, used in a series. + + Judges, senators, and representatives were imprisoned. + + The country is a good place to be born in, a good place to die in, a + good place to live in at least part of the year. + + +If any conjunctions are used to connect the last two members, the comma +may or may not be used in connection with the conjunction. + + + The cabbage palmetto affords shade, kindling, bed, and food. + + +2. Words or expressions in apposition should be separated by a comma. + + + The native Indian dress is an evolution, a survival from long years of + wild life. + + +3. Commas are used to separate words in direct address from the rest of +the sentence. + + + Bow down, dear Land, for thou hast found release. + O, Sohrab, an unquiet heart is thine! + + +4. Introductory and parenthetical words or expressions are +set off by commas. + + + However, the current is narrow and very shallow here. + + This, in a general way, describes the scope of the small parks or + playgrounds. + + +If the parenthetical expression is long and not very closely related to +the rest of the sentence, dashes or marks of parenthesis are frequently +used. Some writers use them even when the connection is somewhat close. + + +5. The comma is frequently used to separate the parts of a long compound +predicate. + + + Pine torches have no glass to break, and are within the reach of any man + who can wield an ax. + + +6. A comma is often used to separate a subject with several modifiers, or +with a long modifier, from the predicate verb. + + + One of the mistakes often made in beginning the study of birds with +small children, is in placing stress upon learning by sight and name +as many species of birds as possible. + + +7. Participial and adjective phrases and adverb phrases out of their +natural order should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. + + + A knight, clad in armor, was the most conspicuous figure of all. + + To the mind of the writer, this explanation has much to commend it. + + +8. When negative expressions are used in order to show a contrast, they +are set off by commas. + + + They believed in men, not in mere workers in the great human workshop. + + +9. Commas are used in complex sentences to separate the dependent clause +from the rest of the sentence. + + + The great majority of people would be better off, if they had more money + and spent it. + + While the flour is being made, samples are sent every hour to the + testing department. + + +If the connection is close, the comma is usually omitted, especially when +the dependent clause comes last. + + + I will be there when the train arrives. + + +10. When a relative clause furnishes an additional thought, it should be +separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma. + + + Hiram Watts, who has been living in New York for six years, has just + returned to England. + + +If the relative clause is restrictive, that is, if it restricts or +limits the meaning of the antecedent, the comma is unnecessary. + + + This is the best article that he ever wrote. + + + +11. Commas are used to separate the members of a compound sentence when +they are short or closely connected. + + + Ireland is rich in minerals, yet there is but little mining done there. + + Breathe it, exult in it, + All the day long, + Glide in it, leap in it, + Thrill it with song. + + +12. Short quotations should be separated from the rest of the sentence by +a comma. + + + "There must be a beaver dam here," he called. + + +13. The omissions of important words in a sentence should be indicated by +commas. + + + If you can, come to-morrow; if not, come next week. + + ++6. Rules for the Use of the Semicolon.+--1. When the members of a +compound sentence are long or are not closely connected, semicolons should +be used to separate them. + + + Webster could address a bench of judges; Everett could charm a + college; Choate could delude a jury; Clay could magnetize a senate, + and Tom Corwin could hold the mob in his right hand; but no one + of these men could do more than this one thing. + +--Wendell Phillips. + + We might as well decide the question now; for we shall surely be + obliged to soon. + + +2. When the members of a compound sentence themselves contain commas, they +should be separated from one another by semicolons. + + + As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at + it; as he was valiant, I honor him; but, as he was ambitious, I slew + him. + +--Shakespeare. + + +3. The semicolon should be used to precede _as, namely, i.e., e.g., viz_. + + + Some adjectives are compared irregularly; as, good, bad, and little. + + +4. When a series of distinct statements all have a common dependence on +what precedes or follows them, they may be separated from each other by +semicolons. + + + When subject to the influence of cold we eat more; we choose more + heat-producing foods, as fatty foodstuffs; we take more vigorous + exercise; we put on more clothing, especially of the non-conducting + kinds--woolens. + + ++7. Rules for the Use of the Colon.+--1. The colon is used +before long or formal quotations, before enumerations, and before +the conclusion of a previous statement. + + + Old Sir Thomas Browne shrewdly observes: "Every man is not only + himself. There have been many Diogeneses and many Timons + though but few of the name. Men are lived over again. The world + is now as it was in ages past. There were none then, but there has + been one since, that parallels him, and is, as it were, revived self." + +--George Dana Boardman. + + Adjectives are divided into two general classes: descriptive and + definitive adjectives. + + The following members sent in their resignations: Mrs. William M. + Murphy, Mrs. Ralph B. Wiltsie, and Mrs. John C. Clark. + + +2. The colon is used to separate the different members of a compound +sentence, when they themselves are divided by semicolons. + + + It is too warm to-day; the sunshine is too bright; the shade, too + pleasant: we will wait until to-morrow or we will have some one else + do it when the busy time is over. + + ++8. Rules for the Use of the Period.+--1. The period is used at the close +of imperative and declarative sentences. + +2. All abbreviations should be followed by a period. + + ++9. Rule for the Use of the Interrogation Mark.+--The interrogation mark +should be used after all direct questions. + + ++10. Rule for the Use of the Exclamation Mark.+--Interjections and +exclamatory words and expressions should be followed by the exclamation +mark. Sometimes the exclamatory word is only a part of the whole +exclamation. In this case, the exclamatory word should be followed by a +comma, and the entire exclamation by an exclamation mark. + + +See, how the lightning flashes! + + ++11. Rules for the Use of the Dash.+--1. The dash is used to show sudden +changes in thought or breaks in speech. + + +I can speak of this better when temptation comes my way--if it ever does. + + +2. The dash is often used in the place of commas or marks of parenthesis +to set off parenthetical expressions. + + +In the mountains of New York State this most valuable tree--the spruce-- +abounds. + + +3. The dash, either alone or in connection with the comma, is used to +point out that part of a sentence on which special stress is to be placed. + + +I saw unpruned fruit trees, broken fences, and farm implements, rusting in +the rain--all evidences of wasted time. + + +4. The dash is sometimes used with the colon before long quotations, +before an enumeration of things, or before a formally introduced +statement. + + ++12. Rules for the Use of Quotation Marks.+--1. Quotation marks are used +to inclose direct quotations. + + +"In all the great affairs of life one must run some risk," she remarked. + + +2. A quotation within a quotation is usually indicated by single quotation +marks. + + +"Can you tell me where I can find 'Rienzi's Address'?" asked a young lady +of a clerk in Brooklyn. + + +3. When a quotation is interrupted by parenthetical expressions, the +different parts of the quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks. + + +"Bring forth," cried the monarch, "the vessels of gold." + +4. When the quotation consists of several paragraphs, the quotation marks +are placed at the beginning of each paragraph and at the close of the last +one. + + ++13. Rule for the Use of the Apostrophe.+--The apostrophe is used to +denote the possessive case, to indicate the omission of letters, and to +form the plural of signs, figures, and letters. + + +In the teacher's copy book you will find several fancy A's and 3's which +can't be distinguished from engravings. + + + +II. REVIEW OF GRAMMAR + + +THE SENTENCE + + ++14. English grammar+ is the study of the forms of English words and their +relationship to one another as they appear in sentences. A _sentence_ is a +group of words that expresses a complete thought. + + ++15. Elements of a Sentence.+--The elements of a sentence, as regards the +office that they perform, are the _subject_ and the _predicate_. The +_subject_ is that about which something is asserted, and the _predicate_ +is that which asserts something about the subject. + +Some predicates may consist of a single word or word-group, able in itself +to complete a sentence: [The thrush _sings_. The thrush _has been +singing_]. Some require a following word or words: [William struck +_John_ (object complement, or object). Edward became _king_ (attribute +complement). The people made Edward _king_ (objective complement)]. + +The necessary parts of a sentence are: some name for the object of thought +(to which the general term _substantive_ may be given); some word or group +of words to make assertion concerning the substantive (general term, +_assertive_); and, in case of an incomplete assertive, one of the above +given completions of its meaning (object complement, attribute complement, +objective complement). + +In addition to these necessary elements of the sentence, words or groups +of words may be added to make the meaning of any one of the elements more +exact. Such additions are known as _modifiers_. The word-groups which are +used as modifiers are the _phrase_ and the _clause_. + +[The thrush, sings _in the pine woods_ (phrase). The wayfarer _who hears +the thrush_ is indeed fortunate (clause).] + +Both the subject and the predicate may be unmodified: + +[Bees buzz]; both may be modified: [The honey bees buzz in the clover]; +one may be modified and the other unmodified: [Bees buzz in the clover]. + +The unmodified subject may be called the _simple subject_, or, merely, the +_subject_. If modified, it becomes the _complete subject_. + +The assertive element, together with the attribute complement, if one is +present, may be called the _simple predicate_. If modified, it becomes the +_complete predicate_. + +Some grammarians call the assertive element, alone, the _simple +predicate_; modified or completed, the _complete predicate_. + + ++16. Classification of Sentences as to Purpose.+--Sentences are classified +according to purpose into three classes: _declarative_, _interrogative_, +and _imperative_ sentences. + +A _declarative_ sentence is one that makes a statement or declares +something: [Columbus crossed the Atlantic]. + +An _interrogative_ sentence is one that asks a question: [Who wrote +_Mother Goose_?]. + +An _imperative_ sentence is one that expresses a command or entreaty: +["Fling away ambition"]. + +Each kind of sentence may be of an exclamatory nature, and then the +sentence is said to be an _exclamatory_ sentence: [How happy all the +children are! (exclamatory declarative). "Who so base as be a slave?" +(exclamatory interrogative). "Heap high the farmer's wintry hoard!" +(exclamatory imperative)]. + +Notice that the exclamation point follows the declarative and imperative +forms, but the interrogative form is followed by the question mark. + + +WORDS AND THEIR OFFICES + + ++17. The Individual Elements+ of which every sentence is composed are +_words_. Every word is the sign of some idea. Each of the words _horse, +he, blue, speaks, merrily, at_, and _because_, has a certain naming value, +more or less definite, for the mind of the reader. Of these, _horse, blue, +he, merrily_, have a fairly vivid descriptive power. In the case of _at_ +and _because_, the main office is, evidently, to express a relation +between other ideas: ["I am _at_ my post"], ["I go _because_ I must"]. The +word _speaks_ is less clearly a relational word; at first thought it would +seem to have only the office of picturing an activity. That it also fills +the office of a connective will be evident if we compare the following +sentences: He _speaks_ in public. He _is_ a public _speaker_. It is +evident that _speaks_ contains in itself the _naming_ value represented in +the word _speaker_, but also has the _connecting_ office fulfilled in the +second sentence by _is_. + +All words have, therefore, a naming office, and some have in addition a +connecting or relational office. + + +PARTS OF SPEECH + + ++18. Parts of Speech.+--When we examine the different words in sentences +we find that, in spite of these fundamentally similar qualities, the words +are serving different purposes. This difference in purpose or use serves +as the basis for dividing words into eight classes, called Parts of +Speech. Use alone determines to which class a word in any given sentence +shall belong. Not only are single words so classified, but any part of +speech may be represented by a group of words. Such a group is either a +_phrase_ or a _clause_. + +A _phrase_ is a group of words, containing neither subject nor predicate, +that is used as a single part of speech. + +A _clause_ is a group of words, containing both subject and predicate, +that is used as part of a sentence. If used as a single part of speech, it +is called a _subordinate_, or _dependent_, clause. Some grammarians use the +word _clause_ for a subordinate statement only. + + ++19. Classification.+--The eight parts of speech may be classified as +follows:-- + + I. Substantives: nouns, pronouns. + II. Assertives: verbs. +III. Modifiers: adjectives, adverbs. + IV. Connectives: prepositions, conjunctions. + V. Interjections. + + ++20. Definitions.+--The parts of speech may be defined as +follows:-- + +(1) A _noun_ is a word used as a name. + +(2) A _pronoun_ is a word used in place of a noun, designating a person, +place, or thing without naming it. + +(3) An _adjective_ is a word that modifies a substantive. + +(4) A _verb_ is a word that asserts something--action, state, or being--- +concerning a substantive. + +(5) An _adverb_ is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, or another +adverb. + +(6) A _preposition_ is a word that shows the relation of the substantive +that follows it to some other word or words in the sentence. + +(7) A _conjunction_ is a word that connects words or groups of words used +in the same way. + +(8) An _interjection_ is a cry expressing emotion, but not forming part of +the sentence. + + + NOUNS + + ++21. Classes of Nouns.+--Nouns are divided into two general classes: +_proper_ nouns [Esther] and _common_ nouns [girl]. + +Common nouns include _abstract_ nouns [happiness] and _collective_ nouns +[army]. + +Any word mentioned merely _as a word_ is a noun: [_And_ is a conjunction]. + + ++22. Inflection.+--A change in the form of a word to denote a change in +its meaning is termed _inflection_. + + ++23. Number.+--The most common inflection of the noun is that which shows +us whether the name denotes one or more than one. The power of the noun to +denote one or more than one is termed _number_. A noun that denotes but +one object is _singular_ in number. A noun that denotes more than one +object is _plural_ in number. + +The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by adding _s_ and _es_ to +the singular [bank, banks; box, boxes]. + +Other points to be noted concerning the plural of nouns are as follows:-- + +1. The irregular plural in _en_ [child, children]. + +2. Formation of the plural by internal change [goose, geese]. + +3. Fourteen nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_ change the _f_ or _fe_ into _yes_ +[leaf, leaves]. + +4. Nouns ending in _y_, preceded by a consonant, change the _y_ to _i_ and +add _es_ [enemy, enemies]. + +5. Letters, figures, signs, etc., form their plural by adding '_s_:[You +have used too many _i_'s]. + +6. Nouns taken from other languages usually form their plurals according +to the laws of those languages [phenomenon, phenomena]. + +7. A few nouns in our language do not change their form to denote number. + (_a_) Some nouns have the same form, for both the singular and the +plural [sheep, deer]. + (_b_) Some nouns are used only in the plural [scissors, thanks]. + (_c_) Some nouns have no plurals [pride, flesh]. + (_d_) Some nouns, plural in form, have a singular meaning [measles, +news, politics]. + +8. Compound nouns usually form their plural by pluralizing the noun part +of the compound [sister-in-law, sisters-in-law]. If the words of the +compound are both nouns, and are of equal importance, both are given a +plural ending [manservant, menservants]. When the compound is thought of +as a whole, the last part only is made plural [spoonful, spoonfuls]. + + 9. Proper names usually form their plurals regularly. If they are +preceded by titles, they form their plurals either by pluralizing the +title or by pluralizing the name [The Misses Hunter or the Miss Hunters. +The Messrs. Keene or the two Mr. Keenes. The Masters Burke. The Mrs. +Harrisons.] + + 10. A few nouns have two plurals differing in meaning or use [cloth, +cloths, clothes; penny, pennies, pence]. + + ++24. Case.+--Case is the relation that a noun or pronoun +bears to some other word in the sentence. + +Inflection of nouns or pronouns for the purpose of denoting +case is termed _declension_. There are three cases in the English +language: the _nominative_, the _possessive_, and the _objective_; but +nouns show only two forms for each number, as the nominative and +objective cases have the same form. + ++25. Formation of the Possessive.+--Nouns in the singular, and those in +the plural not already ending in _s_, form the possessive regularly by +adding '_s_ to the nominative [finger, finger's; geese, geese's]. + +In case the plural already ends in _s_, the possessive case adds only the +apostrophe [girls']. + +A few singular nouns add only the apostrophe, when the addition of the +'_s_ would make an unpleasant sound [Moses']. + +Compound nouns form the possessive case by adding '_s_ to the last word. +This is also the rule when two names denoting joint ownership are used: +[Bradbury and Emery's Algebra]. + +Notice that in the following expression the '_s_ is affixed to the second +noun only: [My sister Martha's book]. + +Names of inanimate objects usually substitute prepositional phrases to +denote possession: [The hardness _of the rock_, not The rock's hardness]. + + ++26. Gender.+--Gender is the power of nouns and pronouns to denote sex. +Nouns or pronouns denoting males are of the _masculine_ gender; those +denoting females are of the _feminine_ gender; and those denoting things +without animal life are of the _neuter_ gender. + + ++27. Person.+--Person is the power of one class of pronouns to show +whether the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken +of is designated. According to the person denoted, the pronoun is said to +be in the _first, second_, or _third_ person. Nouns and many pronouns are +not inflected for person, but most grammarians attribute person to them +because the context of the sentence in which they are used shows what +persons they represent. + + ++28. Constructions of Nouns.+--The following are the usual constructions +of nouns:-- + +(_a_) The _possessive_ case of the noun denotes possession. + +(_b_) Nouns in the _nominative_ case are used as follows:-- + +1. As the subject of a verb: [The western _sky_ is all aflame] + +2. As an attribute complement: [Autumn is the most gorgeous _season_ of +the year]. + +3. In an exclamation: [Alas, poor _soul_, it could not be!]. + +4. In direct address: [O hush thee, my _baby_!]. + +5. Absolutely: [The _rain_ being over, the grass twinkled in the +sunshine]. + +6. As a noun in apposition with a nominative: [Columbus; a _native_ of +Genoa, discovered America]. + +(_c_) Nouns in the _objective_ case are used as follows:-- + + 1. As the direct object of a verb, termed either the direct object or the +object complement: [I saw a _host_ of golden daffodils]. + + 2. As the objective complement: [They crowned him _king_]. + + 3. As the indirect object of a verb: [We gave _Ethel_ a ring]. + + 4. As the object of a preposition: [John Smith explored the coast of _New +England_]. + + 5. As the subject of an infinitive: [He commanded _the man_ (_him_)to go +without delay]. + + 6. As the attribute of an expressed subject of the infinitive _to be_: [I +thought it to be _John_ (_him_)]. + + 7. As an adverbial noun: [He came last _week_]. + + 8. As a noun in apposition with an object: [Stanley found Livingstone, +the great _explorer_]. + + ++29. Equivalents for Nouns.+ + +1. Pronoun: [John gave _his_ father a book for Christmas]. + +2. Adjective: [The _good_ alone are truly great]. + +3. Adverb: [I do not understand the _whys_ and _wherefores_ of the +process]. + +4. A gerund, or infinitive in _ing_: [_Seeing_ is _believing_]. + +5. An infinitive or infinitive phrase: [With him, _to think_ is _to +act_]. + +6. Clause: [It is hard for me to believe _that she took the money_]. Noun +clauses may be used as subject, object, attribute complement, and +appositive. + +7. A prepositional phrase: [_Over the fence_ is out]. + + + PRONOUNS + + ++30. Antecedent.+--The most common equivalent for a noun is the pronoun. +The substantive for which the pronoun is an equivalent is called the +_antecedent_, and with this antecedent the pronoun must agree in _person, +number_, and _gender_, but not necessarily in _case_. + + ++31. Classes of Pronouns.+--Pronouns are commonly divided into five +classes, and sometimes a sixth class is added: (1) personal pronouns, (2) +relative pronouns, (3) interrogative pronouns, (4) demonstrative pronouns, +(5) adjective pronouns,(6) indefinite pronouns (not always added). + + ++32. Personal Pronouns.+--Personal pronouns are so called because they +show by their form whether they refer to the first, the second, or the +third person. There are five personal pronouns in common use: _I, you, he, +she_, and _it_. + + ++33. Constructions of Personal Pronouns.+--The personal pronouns are used +in the same ways in which nouns are used. Besides the regular uses that the +personal pronoun has, there are some special uses that should be +understood. + +1. The word _it_ is often used in an indefinite way at the beginning of a +sentence: [It snows]. When so used, it has no antecedent, and we say it is +used _impersonally_. + +2. The pronoun _it_ is often used as the _grammatical_ subject of a +sentence in which the _logical_ subject is found after the predicate verb: +[_It_ is impossible for us to go]. When so used the pronoun _it_ is called +an _expletive. There_ is used in the same way. + + ++34. Cautions and Suggestions.+ + +1. Be careful not to use the apostrophe in the possessive forms _its, +yours, ours_, and _theirs_. + +2. Be careful to use the nominative form of a pronoun used as an attribute +complement: [It is _I_; it is _they_]. + +3. Be sure that the pronoun agrees in number with its antecedent. One of +the most common violations of this rule is in using _their_ in such +sentences as the following:--Every boy and girl must arrange _his_ desk. +Who has lost _his_ book? The use of _every_ and the form _has_ obliges us +to make the possessive pronouns singular. + +_His_ may be regarded as applying to females as well as males, where it is +convenient not to use the expression _his or her_. + +4. The so-called subject of an infinitive is always in the objective case: +[I asked _him_ to go]. + +5. The attribute complement will agree in case with the subject of the +verb. Hence the attribute complement of an infinitive is in the objective +case: [I knew it (obj.) to be _him_]; but the attribute complement of the +subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case: [I knew it (nom.) was +_he_]. + +6. Words should be so arranged in a sentence that there will be no doubt +in the mind concerning the antecedent of the pronoun. + +7. Do not use the personal pronoun form _them_ for the adjective _those_: +[_Those_ books are mine]. + + ++35. Compound Personal Pronouns.+--To the personal pronouns _my, our, +your, him, her, it_, and _them_, the syllables _self_ (singular) and +_selves_ (plural) may be added, thus forming what are termed _compound +personal_ pronouns. These pronouns have only two uses:-- + +1. They are used for emphasis: [He _himself_ is an authority on the +subject]. + +2. They are also used reflexively: [The boy injured _himself_]. + + ++36. The Relative or Conjunctive Pronouns.+--The pronouns _who, which, +what_ (= that which), _that_, and _as_ (after _such_) are more than +equivalents for nouns, inasmuch as they serve as connectives. They are +often named _relative pronouns_ because they relate to some antecedent +either expressed or implied; they are equally well named _conjunctive +pronouns_ because they are used as connectives. They introduce subordinate +clauses only; these clauses are called _relative clauses_, and since they +modify substantives, are also called _adjective clauses_. + + ++37. Uses of Relative Pronouns.+--_Who_ is used to represent persons, and +objects or ideas personified; _which_ is used to represent things; _that_ +and _as_ are used to represent both persons and things. + +When a clause is used _for the purpose_ of pointing out some particular +person, object, or idea, it is usually introduced by _that_; but when the +clause supplies an additional thought, _who_ or _which_ is more frequently +used. The former is called a _restrictive clause_, and the latter, a +_non-restrictive clause_. + +[The boy that broke his leg has fully recovered (restrictive).] Note the +omission of the comma before _that_. [My eldest brother, who is now in +England, will return by June (non-restrictive).] Note the inclosure of the +clause in commas. See Appendix 5, rule 10. + +In the first sentence it is evident that the intent of the writer is to +separate, in thought, _the boy that broke his leg_ from all other boys. +Although the clause does indeed describe the boy's condition, it does so +_for the purpose_ of _limiting_ or _restricting_ thought to one especial +boy among many. In the second sentence the especial person meant is +indicated by the word _eldest_. The clause, _who is now in England_, is +put in for the sake of giving an additional bit of information. + + ++38. Constructions of Relative Pronouns.+--Relative pronouns may be used +as subject, object, object of a preposition, subject of an infinitive, and +possessive modifier. + +The relative pronoun is regarded as agreeing in person with its +antecedent. Its verb, therefore, takes the person of the antecedent: [_I_, +who _am_ your friend, will assist you]. + +The case of the relative is determined by its construction in the clause +in which it is found: [He _whom_ the president appointed was fitted for +the position]. + + ++39. Compound Relative Pronouns.+--The compound relative pronouns are +formed by adding _ever_ and _soever_ to the relative pronouns _who, +which_, and _what_. These have the constructions of the simple relatives, +and the same rules hold about person and case: [Give it to _whoever_ +wishes it. Give it to _whomever_ you see]. + + ++40. Interrogative Pronouns.+--The pronouns _who, which_, and _what_ are +used to ask questions, and when so used, are called _interrogative_ +pronouns. _Who_ refers to persons; _what_, to things; and _which_, to +persons or things. Like the relatives _who_ has three case forms; _which_ +and _what_ are uninflected. + +The implied question in the sentence, I know whom you saw, is, Whom did +you see? The introductory _whom_ is an interrogative pronoun, and the +clause itself is called an _indirect question_. + +The words _which, what_, and _whose_ may also be used as modifiers of +substantives, and when so used they are called _interrogative adjectives_: +["_What_ manner of man is this?" _Whose_ child is this? _Which_ book +did you choose?]. + + ++41. Demonstrative Pronouns.+--_This_ and _that_, with their plurals +_these_ and _those_, are called _demonstrative pronouns_, because they +point out individual persons or things. + + ++42. Indefinite Pronouns.+--Some pronouns, as _each, either, some, any, +many, such_, etc., are indefinite in character. Many indefinites may be +used either as pronouns or adjectives. Of the indefinites only two, _one_ +and _other_, are inflected. + + + SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL + +NOM. AND OBJ. one ones other others + +POSS. one's ones' other's others' + + ++43. Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives.+--Many words, as has +been noted already, are either pronouns or adjectives according to the +office that they perform. If the noun is expressed, the word in question +is called a _pronominal adjective_; but if the noun is omitted so that the +word in question takes its place, it is called an _adjective pronoun_. +[_That_ house is white (adjective). _That_ is the same house (pronoun).] + + +ADJECTIVES + + ++44. Classes of Adjectives.+--There are two general classes of adjectives: +the _descriptive_ [blue, high, etc.], so called because they describe, and +the _limiting_ or _definitive_ adjectives [yonder, three, that, etc.], so +called because they limit or define. It is, of course, true that any +adjective which describes a noun limits its meaning; but the adjective is +named from its descriptive power, not from its limiting power. A very +large per cent of all adjectives belong to the first class,--_descriptive_ +adjectives. Proper adjectives and _participial_ adjectives form a small +part of this large class: [_European_ countries. A _running_ brook]. + + ++45. Limiting or Definitive Adjectives.+--The _limiting_ adjectives +include the various classes of _pronominal adjectives_ (all of which have +been mentioned under pronouns), the _articles_ (_a_, _an_, and _the_), +and adjectives denoting _place_ and _number_. + + ++46. Comparison of Adjectives.+--With the exception of the words _this_ +and _that_, adjectives are not inflected for number, and none are +inflected for case. Many of them, however, change their form to express a +difference in degree. This change of form is called _comparison_. There +are three degrees of comparison: the _positive_, the _comparative_, and +the _superlative_. Adjectives are regularly compared by adding the +syllables _er_ and _est_ to the positive to form the comparative and +superlative degrees. In some cases, especially in the case of adjectives +of more than one syllable, the adverbs _more_ and _most_ are placed before +the positive degree in order to form the other two degrees [long, longer, +longest; beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful]. + ++47. Irregular Comparison of Adjectives.+--A few adjectives are compared +irregularly. These adjectives are in common use and we should be familiar +with the correct forms. + + +POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE + +bad } +evil } worse worst +ill } + +far farther farthest + +good } better best +well } + +fore former { foremost + { first + +late { later { latest + { latter { last + +little less least + +many } more most +much } + +near nearer { nearest + { next + +old { older { oldest + { elder { eldest + + +The following words are used as adverbs or prepositions in the positive +degree, and as _adjectives_ in the other two degrees:-- + + +(forth) further furthest + +(in) inner { innermost + { inmost + +(out) { outer { outermost + { utter { utmost + { uttermost + +(up) upper { upmost + { uppermost + + ++48. Cautions concerning the Use of Adjectives.+ + +1. When two or more adjectives modify the same noun, the article is +placed only before the first, unless emphasis is desired: [He is an +industrious, faithful pupil]. + +2. If the adjectives refer to different things, the article should be +repeated before each adjective: [She has a white and a blue dress]. + +3. When two or more nouns are in apposition, the article is placed only +before the first: [I received a telegram from Mr. Richards, _the_ broker +and real estate agent]. + +4. _This, these, that_, and _those_ must agree in number with the noun +they modify: [_This kind_ of flowers; _those sorts_ of seeds]. + +5. When but two things are compared, the comparative degree is used: +[This is the more complete of the two]. + +6. When _than_ is used after a comparative, whatever is compared should +be excluded from the class with which it is compared: [I like this house +better than any other house; not, I like this house better than any +house]. + +7. Do not use _a_ after _kind of, sort of_, etc.: [What kind of man is +he? (not, What kind of _a_ man)]. _One_ man does not constitute a class +consisting of many kinds. + + ++49. Constructions of Adjectives.+--Adjectives that merely describe or +limit are said to be _attributive_ in construction. When the adjective +limits or describes, and, at the same time, adds to the predicate, it is +called a _predicate adjective_.Predicate adjectives may be used either as +attribute or objective complements: [The sea is _rough_ to-day (attribute +complement), He painted the boat _green_ (objective complement)]. + + ++50. Equivalents for Adjectives.+--The following are used as equivalents +for the typical adjective:-- + +1. A noun used in apposition: [Barrie's story of his mother, "_Margaret +Ogilvy_," is very beautiful]. + +2. A noun used as an adjective: [A _campaign_ song]. + +3. A prepositional phrase: [His little, nameless, unremember'd acts _of +kindness_ and _of love_]. + +4. Participles or participial phrases: [We saw a brook _running_ between +the alders. Soldiers _hired to serve a foreign country_ are called +mercenaries]. + +5. Relative clauses: [This is the house _that Jack built_]. + +6. An adverb (sometimes called the _locative_ adjective): [The book _here_ +is the one I want]. + + + + VERBS + + ++51. Uses of Verbs.+--A _verb_ is the word or word-group that makes an +assertion or statement, and it is therefore the most important part of the +whole sentence. It has been already shown that such a verb as _speaks_ +serves the double purpose of suggesting an activity and showing relation. +The most purely _relational_ verb is the verb _to be_, which is called the +_copula_ or _linking verb_, for the very reason that it joins predicate +words to the subject: [The lake _is_ beautiful]. _To be_, however, is not +always a pure _copula_. In such a sentence as, "He that cometh to God must +believe that He _is_," the word _is_ means _exists_.Verbs that are like +the copula, such as, _appear, become, seem_, etc., are called _copulative_ +verbs. Verbs that not only are relational but have descriptive power, such +as _sings, plays, runs_, etc., are called _attributive_ verbs. They +attribute some quality or characteristic to the subject. + + ++52. Classes of Verbs.+--According to their uses in a sentence verbs are +divided into two classes: _transitive_ and _intransitive_. + +A _transitive_ verb is one that takes a following substantive, expressed +or implied, called the _object_, to designate the receiver or the product +of the action: [They seized the _city_. They built a _city_]. The +transitive verb may sometimes be used _absolutely_:[The horse eats]. Here +the object is implied. + +An _intransitive_ verb is one that does not take an object to complete its +meaning; or, in other words, an intransitive verb is one that denotes an +action, state, or feeling that involves the subject only: [He ran away. +They were standing at the water's edge]. + +A few verbs in our language are always transitive, and a few others are +always intransitive. The verbs _lie_ and _lay, rise_ and _raise, sit_ and +_set_, are so frequently misused that attention is here called to them. +The verbs _lie, rise_, and _sit_ (usually) are intransitive in meaning, +while the verbs _lay, raise_, and _set_ are transitive. The word _sit_ may +sometimes take a reflexive object: [They sat _themselves_ down to rest]. + +The majority of verbs in our language are either transitive or +intransitive, according to the sense in which they are used. + + [The fire _burns_ merrily (intransitive). + The fire _burned_ the building (transitive). + The bird _flew_ swiftly (intransitive). + The boy _flew_ his kite (transitive).] + +Some intransitive verbs take what is known as a _cognate object_: [He died +a noble _death_.] Here the object repeats the meaning of the verb. + + ++53. Complete and Incomplete Verbs.+--Some intransitive verbs make a +complete assertion or statement without the aid of any other words. Such +verbs are said to be of _complete predication_: [The snow melts]. + +All transitive verbs and some intransitive verbs require one or more words +to complete the meaning of the predicate. Such verbs are said to be +incomplete. Whatever is added to complete the meaning of the predicate is +termed a _complement_. The complement of a transitive verb is called the +_object complement_, or simply the _object_: [She found the _book_]. +Some transitive verbs, from the nature of their meaning, take also an +_indirect_ object: [I gave _her_ the book]. When a word belonging to +the subject is added to an intransitive verb in order to complete the +predicate, it is termed an _attribute complement_. This complement may be +either a noun or an adjective: [He is our _treasurer_ (noun). This rose is +_fragrant_ (adjective)]. Among the incomplete intransitive verbs the most +conspicuous are the copula and the copulative verbs. + + ++54. Auxiliary Verbs.+--English verbs have so few changes of form to +express differences in meaning that it is often necessary to use the +so-called _auxiliary_ verbs. The most common are: _do, be, have, may, +must, might, can, shall, will, should, would, could_, and _ought_. Some of +these may be used as principal verbs. A few notes and cautions are added. + +_Can_ is used to denote the ability of the subject. + +_May_ is used to denote permission, possibility, purpose, or desire. Thus +the request for permission should be, "May I?" not "Can I?" + +_Must_ indicates necessity. + +_Ought_ expresses obligation. + +_Had_ should never be used with _ought_. To express a moral obligation in +past time, combine _ought_ with the perfect infinitive: [I ought _to have +done_ it]. + +_Should_ sometimes expresses duty: [You should not go]. + +_Would_ sometimes denotes a custom: [He would sit there for hours]. +Sometimes it expresses a wish: [Would he were here!]. For other uses of +_should_ and _would_, see Appendix 60. + + ++55. Principal Parts.+--The main forms of the verb--so important as to be +called the _principal parts_ because the other parts are formed from them-- +are the _root infinitive_, the _preterite_ (_past_) _indicative_, and the +_past participle_ [move, moved, moved; sing, sang, sung; be, was, been]. +The _present_ participle is sometimes given with the principal parts. + + ++56. Inflection.+--As is evident from the preceding paragraph, verbs have +certain changes of form to indicate change of meaning. Such a change or +_inflection_, in the case of the noun, is called _declension;_ in the +case of the verb it is called _conjugation_. Nouns are _declined_; verbs +are _conjugated_. + + ++57. Person and Number.+--In Latin, or any other highly inflected +language, there are many terminations to indicate differences in person +and number, but in English there is but one in common use, _s_ in the +third person singular: [_He runs_], _St_ or _est_ is used after _thou_ in +the second person singular: [_Thou lovest_]. + + ++58. Agreement.+--Verbs must agree with their subjects in +person and number. The following suggestions concerning +agreement may be helpful:-- + +1. A compound subject that expresses a single idea takes a singular verb: +[Bread and milk _is_ wholesome food]. + +2. When the members of a compound subject, connected by _neither ... nor_, +differ as regards person and number, the verb should agree with the nearer +of the two: [Neither they nor I _am_ to blame]. + +3. When the subject consists of singular nouns or pronouns connected by +_or, either ... or, neither ... nor_, the verb is singular: [Either this +book or that _is_ mine]. + +4. Words joined to the subject by _with, together with, as well as_, etc., +do not affect the number of the verb. The same is true of any modifier of +the subject: [John, as well as the girls, _is_ playing house. One of my +books _is_ lying on the table. Neither of us _is_ to blame]. + +5. When the article _the_ precedes the word _number_, used as a subject, +the verb should be in the singular; otherwise the verb is plural: [_The_ +number of pupils in our schools _is_ on the increase. _A_ number of +children _have_ been playing in the sand pile]. + +6. The pronoun _you_ always takes a plural verb, even if its meaning is +singular: [You _were_ here yesterday]. + +7. A collective noun takes a singular or plural verb, according as the +collection is thought of as a whole or as composed of individuals. + + ++59. Tense.+--The power of the verb to show differences of time is called +_tense_. Tense shows also the completeness or incompleteness of an act or +condition at the time of speaking. There are three _primary_ tenses: +_present, preterite_ (_past_), and _future_; and three _secondary_ tenses +for completed action:_present perfect, past perfect_ (_pluperfect_), and +_future perfect_. + +English has only two simple tenses, the present and the preterite: _I +love, I loved_. All other tenses are formed by the use of the auxiliary +verbs. By combining the present and past tenses of _will, shall, have, +be_, or _do_ with those parts of the verb known as infinitives and +participles, the various tenses of the complete conjugation of the verb +are built up. The formation of the _preterite_ tense, and the consequent +division of verbs into _strong_ and _weak_, will be discussed later. + ++60. The Future Tense.+--The future tense is formed by combining _shall_ +or _will_ with the root infinitive, without _to_. + +The correct form of the _future tense_ in assertions is here given:-- + + + SINGULAR PLURAL + +1. I shall fall 1. We shall fall +2. Thou wilt fall 2. You will fall +3. He will fall 3. They will fall + + +_Will_, in the _first_ person, denotes not simple futurity, but +determination: [I will (= am determined to) go]. + +_Shall_, in the _second_ and _third_ persons, is not simply the sign of +the future tense in declarative sentences. It is used to denote the +determination of the speaker with reference to others. + +Notice:-- + +1. In clauses introduced by _that_, expressed or understood, if the noun +clause and the principal clause have _different_ subjects, the same +auxiliary is used that would be used were the subordinate clause used +independently: [I fear we _shall_ be late. My friend is determined that +her son _shall_ not be left alone]. + +2. In all other subordinate clauses, _shall_, for all persons, denotes +simple futurity; _will_, an expression of willingness or determination: +[He thinks that he _shall_ be there. He promises that he _will_ be there]. + +3. In questions, _shall_ is always used in the first person; in the second +and third persons the same auxiliary is used which is expected in the +answer. + +(NOTE.--_Should_ and _would_ follow the rules for _shall_ and _will_.) + + ++61. Tenses for the Completed Action.+ + +1. To represent an action as completed at the _present_ time, the past +participle is used with _have_ (_hast, has_). This forms the _present +perfect_ tense: [I _have finished_]. + +2. To represent an action as completed in _past_ time, the past participle +is combined with _had_ (_hadst_). This forms the _past perfect_, or +_pluperfect_, tense: [I _had finished_]. + +3. To represent action that will be completed _in future_ time, _shall +have_ or _will have_ is combined with the past participle. This forms the +_future perfect_ tense: [I _shall have finished_]. + + ++62. Sequence of Tenses.+--It is, in general, true that the tense of a +subordinate clause changes when the tense of the main verb changes. This +is known as the Law of the Sequence (or _following_) of Tenses: [I know he +means well. I knew he meant well]. + +The verb in the main clause and the verb in the subordinate clause are not +necessarily in the same tense. + + + [I think he _is_ there. I thought he was there. + I think he _was_ there. I thought he had been there. + I think he _will be_ there. I thought he would be there.] + + +In general, the principle may be laid down that in a complex sentence the +tense for both principal and subordinate clauses is that which the sense +requires. + +General truths and present facts should be expressed in the +present tense, whatever the tense of the principal verb: [He +believed that truth _is_ unchangeable. Who did you say _is_ president +of your society?]. + +The _perfect infinitive_ is used to denote action completed at +the time of the main verb: [I am sorry _to have wounded_ you]. + ++63. Mode.+--A statement may be regarded as the expression of a fact, of a +doubt or supposition, or of a command. The power of the verb to show how +an action should be regarded is called _mode (mood_). In our language +there is but a slight change of form for this purpose. The distinction of +mode which we must make is a distinction that has regard to the thought or +attitude of mind of the speaker rather than to the form of the verb. + +The _indicative_ mode is used to state a fact or to ask questions of fact: +[I shall write a letter. Shall I write a letter?]. + +The _subjunctive_ mode indicates uncertainty, unreality, and some forms of +condition: [If she were here, I should be glad]. + +The _imperative_ mode expresses a command or entreaty: [Come here]. + + ++64. The Subjunctive Mode.+--The subjunctive is disappearing from +colloquial speech, and the indicative form is used almost entirely. + +The verb _to be_ has the following indicative and subjunctive forms in the +present and preterite:-- + + + IND. SUBJ. IND. SUBJ. + { I am I be { I was I were + { Thou art Thou be { Thou wast Thou were +PRESENT { He is He be PRETERITE { He was He were + { We are We be { We were We were + { You are You be { You were You were + { They are They be { They were They were + + +In other verbs the indicative and subjunctive forms are the same, except +that the second and third persons singular subjunctive have no personal +endings. + + +INDICATIVE Thou learnest He learns +SUBJUNCTIVE Thou learn He learn + + +The subjunctive idea is sometimes expressed by verb phrases, containing +the auxiliary verbs _may (might), would_, or _should_. _May, would_, and +_should_ are not, however, always subjunctive. In "I _may_ go" (may = am +allowed to), _may_ is indicative. In "you _should_ go" (= ought to), +_should_ is indicative. + +The subjunctive mode is used most frequently to express:-- + +1. A wish: [The Lord be with you]. + +2. A condition regarded as doubtful: [If it be true, what shall we +think?], or a condition regarded as untrue: [If I were you, I should go]. +When condition is expressed by the subjunctive without _if_, the verb +precedes the subject: [Were my brother here, he could go with me]. + +3. A purpose: [He studies that he may learn]. + +4. Exhortations: [Sing we the song of freedom]. + +5. A concession,--supposed, not given as a fact: [Though he be my enemy, I +shall pity him]. + +6. A possibility: [We fear lest he be too late]. + +The tenses of the subjunctive require especial notice. In conditional +clauses, the _present_ refers either to present or future time: [Though +the earth be removed, we shall not fear]. + +The _preterite_ refers to present time. It implies that the supposed case +is not a fact: [If he were here, I should be much pleased]. + +The _pluperfect_ subjunctive expresses a false supposition in past time: +[If you had been here, this would not have happened]. + +The phrases with _may, might, can, must, could, would_, and _should_ are +sometimes called the _potential mode_, but the constructions all fall +within either the indicative or the subjunctive uses, and a fourth mode is +only an incumbrance. + + ++65. The Imperative Mode.+--The imperative is the mode of command and +entreaty. It has but one form for both singular and plural, and but one +tense,--the present. It has but one person,--the second. The subject is +usually omitted. The case of direct address, frequently used with the +imperative, should not be confused with the subject. In, "John, hold my +books," the subject is _you_, understood. Were _John_ the subject, the +verb must be _holds_. _John_ is, here, a compellative, or vocative. + + ++66. Voice.+--Verbs are said to be in the _active_ voice when they +represent the subject as acting, and in the _passive_ voice when they +represent the subject as being acted upon. Intransitive verbs, from their +very nature, have no passive voice. Transitive verbs may have both voices, +for they may represent the subject either as acting or as being acted +upon. + +The direct object in the active voice generally becomes the subject in the +passive; if the subject of the active appears in the passive, it is the +object of the preposition _by_: [My dog loves me (active). I am loved by +my dog (passive)]. + +Verbs of calling, naming, making, and thinking may take two objects +referring to the same person or thing. The first of these is the direct +object and the second is called the objective complement: [John called him +_a coward_]. The objective complement becomes an attribute complement when +the verb is changed from the active to the passive voice: [He was called +_a coward_ by John]. + +Certain verbs take both a direct and an indirect object in the active: +[John paid him nine _dollars_]. If the indirect object becomes the subject +in the passive voice, the direct object is known as the _retained object:_ +[He was paid nine _dollars_ by John]. + + ++67. Infinitives.+--The infinitive form of the verb is often called a +verbal noun, because it partakes of the nature both of the verb and of the +noun. It is distinguished from the _finite_, or true, verb because it does +not make an assertion, and yet it assumes one. While it has the modifiers +and complements of a verb, it at the same time has the uses of a noun. + +There are two infinitives: the _root infinitive_ (commonly preceded by +_to_, the so-called _sign_ of the infinitive), and the _gerund_, or +_infinitive in -ing_. + +1. Root infinitive: [_To write_ a theme requires practice]. + +2. Gerund: [_Riding_ rapidly is dangerous]. In each of these sentences +the infinitive, in its capacity as noun, stands as the subject of the +sentence. In 1, _to write_ shows its verb nature by governing the object +_theme;_ in 2, _riding_ shows its verb nature by taking as a modifier the +adverb _rapidly_. + +Each form of the infinitive is found as the subject of a verb, as its +object, as an attribute complement, and as the object of a preposition. +The root infinitive, together with its subject in the objective case, is +used as the object of verbs of knowing, telling, etc.: [I know _him to be +a good boy_]. See also Appendix 85 for adjective and adverbial uses. + +The infinitive has two tenses: the _present_ and the _perfect_. The +_present_ tense denotes action which is not completed at the time of the +principal verb: [He tries _to write_. He tried _to write_. He will try _to +write_]. The _perfect_ infinitive denotes action complete with reference +to the time of the principal verb: [I am glad _to have known_ her]. + + ++68. Participles.+--Participles are verbal adjectives: [The girl _playing_ +the piano is my cousin]. _Playing_, as an _adjective_, modifies the noun +_girl_; it shows its _verbal_ nature by taking the object _piano_. + +The _present participle_ ends in _-ing_. When the _past participle_ has an +ending, it is either _-d, -ed, -t_, or _-en_. The _perfect participle_ is +formed by combining _having_ with a past participle; as, _having gone_. + +There is danger of confusing the present participle with the gerund, or +infinitive in _-ing_, unless the adjective character of the one and the +noun character of the other are clearly distinguished: [The boy, _driving_ +the cows to pasture, was performing his daily task (participle). _Driving_ +the cows to pasture was his daily task (gerund)]. + +Participles are used to form verb-phrases. The present participle is used +for the formation of the progressive conjugation; the past participle, for +the formation of the compound or perfect tenses. Participles are also used +in all the adjective constructions. + +One especial construction requires notice,--the _absolute_ construction, +or the _nominative absolute_, as it is called: [_The ceremony having been +finished_, the people dispersed]. The construction here is equivalent to a +clause denoting _time_ or _cause_ or some _circumstance_ attendant on the +main action of the sentence. The participle is sometimes omitted, but the +substantive must not be, lest the participle be left apparently belonging +to the nearest substantive; as, Walking home, the rain began to fall. As +the sentence stands, _walking_ modifies _rain_. + + ++69. Conjugation.+--The complete and orderly arrangement of the various +forms of a verb is termed its conjugation. Complete conjugations will be +found in any text-book on English grammar. + +The passive voice must not be confused with such a form as the progressive +conjugation of the verb. The passive consists of a form of _to be_ and a +_past participle_: [I am instructed]. The progressive tenses combine some +form of _to be_ with a _present_ participle: [I am instructing]. + +It may be well to distinguish here between the passive voice and a past +participle used as an attribute complement of the verb _be_. Both have the +same form, but there is a difference of meaning. The passive voice always +shows action received by the subject, while the participle is used only as +an adjective denoting condition: [James _was tired_ by his day's work +(passive voice). James was _tired_ (attribute complement)]. + + ++70. Weak and Strong Conjugations.+--Verbs are divided into two classes as +regards their conjugations. It has been the custom to call all verbs which +form the preterite and past participle by adding _-d_ or _-ed_ to the +present, _regular_ verbs [love, loved, loved], and to call all others +_irregular_. A better classification, based on more careful study of the +history of the English verb, divides verbs into those of the _weak_ and +those of the _strong_ conjugations. + +The _weak verbs_ are those which form the preterite by adding _-ed, -d_, +or _-t_ to the present: _love, loved_. There is also infrequently a change +of vowel: _sell, sold_; _teach, taught_. + +All verbs which form the preterite without the addition of an ending are +_strong verbs_. There is usually a change of vowel. The termination of the +past participle in _-n_ or _-en_ is a sure indication that a verb is +_strong_. Some verbs show forms of both conjugations. + +A complete list of _strong_ verbs cannot be given here, but a few of the +most common will be given, together with a few _weak_ verbs, in the use of +which mistakes occur. + + +PRESENT PRETERITE PAST PARTICIPLE +am was been +arise rose arisen +bear bore borne, born[1] +begin began begun +bid (command) bade bidden +bite bit bitten +blow blew blown +break broke broken +bring brought brought +burst burst burst +catch caught caught +choose chose chosen +climb climbed climbed +come came come +do did done +drink drank drunk[2] +drive drove driven +drown drowned drowned +eat ate eaten +fall fell fallen +fly flew flown +freeze froze frozen +get got got +give gave given +go went gone +grow grew grown +have had had +hide hid hidden +hurt hurt hurt +know knew known +lay laid laid +lie (recline) lay lain +lead led led +read read read +ride rode ridden +ring rang rung +run ran run +see saw seen +shake shook shaken +show showed shown +sing sang sung +sink sank sunk +sit sat sat +slay slew slain +speak spoke spoken +spring sprang sprung +steal stole stolen +swell swell { swelled + { swollen +swim swam swum +take took taken +tear tore torn +throw threw thrown +wear wore worn +wish wished wished +write wrote written + +[Footnote 1: Used only in the passive sense of "born into the world."] +[Footnote 2: _Drunken_ is an adjective.] + + +CAUTION.--Do not confuse the preterite with the past participle. Always +use the past participle form in the compound tenses. + + + +ADVERBS + + ++71. Classes of Adverbs.+--Adverbs vary much as to their use and meaning. +It is therefore impossible to make a very accurate classification, but we +may divide them, according to use, into _limiting, interrogative_, and +_conjunctive_ adverbs. + +_Limiting_ adverbs modify the meaning of verbs, etc.: [He rows _well_]. + +_Interrogative_ adverbs are used to ask questions: [_When_ shall you come? +He asked _where_ we were going (indirect question)]. + +_Conjunctive_ adverbs introduce clauses: [We went to the seashore, _where_ +we stayed a month]. Here _where_ is used as a connective and also as a +modifier of _stayed_. + +Conjunctive adverbs introduce the following kinds of clauses: + +1. Adverbial clauses: [Go _where_ duty calls]. + +2. Adjective clauses: [This is the very spot _where_ I put them]. + +3. Noun clause: [I do not know _how_ he will succeed]. + +Adverbs may also be classified, according to meaning, into adverbs of +_manner, time, place_, and _degree_. The classification is not, however, a +rigid one. + +Adverbs of _manner_ answer the question How? Most of these terminate in +_-ly_. A few, however, are identical in form with adjectives of like +meaning: [She sang very loud]. + +Adverbs of _time_ answer the question When? + +Adverbs of _place_ answer the question Where? This class, together with +the preceding two classes, usually modify verbs. + +_Adverbs of degree_ answer the question To what extent? These adverbs +modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. + + ++72. Phrasal Adverbs.+--Certain phrases, adverbial in character, cannot +easily be separated into parts. They have been called _phrased adverbs;_ +as, arm-in-arm, now-a-days, etc. + + ++73. Inflection.+--Some adverbs, like adjectives, are compared for the +purpose of showing different degrees of quality or quantity. + +The comparative and superlative degrees may be formed by adding the +syllables _er_ and _est_ to the positive degree. The great majority of +adverbs, however, make use of the words _more_ and _most_ or _less_ +and _least_ to show a difference in degree: [Fast, faster, fastest; +skillfully, more skillfully, most skillfully; carefully, less carefully, +least carefully]. + +Some adverbs are compared irregularly:-- + +badly } worse worst +ill (evil)} +far } { farther { farthest +forth } { further { furthest +late later { latest + { last +little less least +much more most +nigh nigher { nigher + { next +well better best + + ++74. Suggestions and Cautions concerning the Use of Adverbs.+ + +1. Some words, as _fast, little, much, more_, and others, have the same +form for both adjective and adverb, and use alone can determine what part +of speech each is. + +(Adjective) He is a fast driver. She looks well (in good health). + +(Adverb) How fast he walks! I learned my lesson well. + +2. Corresponding adjectives and adverbs usually have different forms which +should not be confused. + +(Adjective) She is a good student. + +(Adverb) He works well. + +3. The adjective, and not the adverbial, form should be used after a +copulative verb, since adverbs cannot modify substantives: [I feel bad; +not, I feel badly]. + +4. Two negatives imply an affirmative. Hence only one should be used to +denote negation: [I have nothing to say. I have no patience with him]. + + ++75. Equivalents for Adverbs.+ + +1. A phrase: [The child ran away _with great glee_]. + +2. A clause: [I will go canoeing _when the lake is calm_]. + +3. A noun: [Please come _home_. I will stay five _minutes_]. + + + +PREPOSITIONS + + ++76. Classes of Prepositions.+--The _simple_ prepositions are: _at, after, +against, but, by, down, for, from, in, of, off, over, on, since, through, +till, to, under, up_, and _with_. + +Other prepositions are either derived or compound: such as, _underneath, +across, between, concerning_, and _notwithstanding_. + + ++77. Suggestions concerning the Use of Prepositions.+--Mistakes are +frequently made in the use of the preposition. This use cannot be fully +discussed here, but a partial list of words with the required preposition +will be given. + + +afraid _of_. +agree _with_ a person. +agree _to_ a proposal. +bestow _upon_. +compare _to_ (to show similarity). +compare _with_ (to show similarity or difference). +comply _with_. +conform _to_. +convenient _for_ or _to_. +correspond _to_ or _with_ (a thing). +correspond _with_ (a person). +dependent _on_. +differ _from_ (a person or thing). +differ _from_ or _with_ (an opinion). +different _from_. +disappointed _in_. +frightened _at_ or _by_. +glad _of_. +need _of_. +profit _by_. +scared _by_. +taste _of_ (food). +taste _for_ (art). +thirst _for_ or _after_. + + +_Like_, originally an adjective or adverb, is often, in some of its uses, +called a preposition. It governs the objective case, and should not be +used as a conjunction: [She looks like _me;_ not, She looks like I do]. +The appropriate _conjunction_ here would be _as_: [She speaks _as_ I do]. + +The prepositions _in_ and _at_ denote rest or motion _in_ a place; _into_ +denotes motion _toward_ a place: [He is _in_ the garden. He went _into_ +the garden]. + + ++78. Prepositional Phrases.+--The preposition, with its object, forms what +is termed a prepositional phrase. This phrase is _adjective_ in force when +it modifies a substantive; and _adverbial_, when it modifies a verb, +adjective, or other adverb: [In the cottage _by the sea_ (adjective). He +sat _on the bench_ (adverb)]. + +Some prepositions were originally adverbs; such as, _in, on, off, up_, and +_to_. Many of them are still used adverbially or as adverbial suffixes: +[The ship lay to. A storm came on]. + + + +CONJUNCTIONS + + ++79. Classes of Conjunctions.+--Conjunctions are divided according to +their use into two general classes: the _coördinate_ and the _subordinate_ +conjunctions. + +_Coördinate_ conjunctions are used to connect words, phrases, and clauses +of equal rank; _subordinate_ conjunctions connect clauses of unequal rank. + +The principal coördinate conjunctions are _and, but, or, nor_, and _for_. +_And_ is said to be _copulative_ because it merely adds something to what +has just been said. Other conjunctions having a copulative use are _also, +besides, likewise, moreover_, and _too_; and the correlative conjunctions, +_both ... and, not only ... but also_, etc. These are termed _correlative_ +because they occur together. _But_ is termed the _adversative_ coördinate +conjunction because it usually introduces something adverse to what has +already been said. Other words of an adversative nature are _yet, however, +nevertheless, only, notwithstanding_, and _still_. _Or_ is alternative in +its force. This conjunction implies that there is a choice to be made. + +Other similar conjunctions are _either ... or, neither ... nor, or, else_. +_Either ... or_ and _neither ... nor_ are termed _correlative_ +conjunctions, and they introduce alternatives. _For, because, such_, and +as are _coördinate_ conjunctions only in such a case as the following: +[She has been running, for she is out of breath]. + +Some of the most common conjunctions of the _subordinate_ type are those +of place and time, cause, condition, purpose, comparison, concession, and +result. _That_ introducing a subordinate clause may be called a +_substantive_ conjunction: [I knew _that_ I ought to go]. + +There are a number of subordinate conjunctions used in pairs which are +called _correlatives_. The principal pairs are _as ... so, as ... as, so +... as, if ... then, though ... yet_. + + ++80. Simple and Compound Sentences.+--In the first section of this review +the parts of a sentence were named as the _subject_ and _predicate_. + +The _subject_ may itself consist of two parts joined by one of the +coördinating conjunctions: [Alice _and_ her cousin are here]. The +predicate may be formed in a similar fashion: [John played _and_ made +merry all day long]. Both subject and predicate may be so compounded: +[John _and_ Richard climbed the ladder _and_ jumped on the hay]. + +In all these cases the sentence, consisting as it does of but one subject +and one predicate, is said to be _simple_. + +When two clauses--that is, two groups of words containing each a subject +and predicate--are united by a coördinate conjunction, the sentence is +said to be _compound_: [John wished to play Indian, _but_ Richard +preferred to play railroad]. + +The coördinating conjunction need not actually appear in the sentence. Its +omission is then indicated by the punctuation: [John wished to play +Indian; Richard preferred another game]. + + ++81. Subordinate Conjunctions and Complex Sentences.+--A _subordinate_ +conjunction is used to join a subordinate clause to a principal clause, +thus forming a _complex_ sentence. The test to be applied to a clause in +order to ascertain whether it is a subordinate clause, is this: if any +group of words in a sentence, containing a subject and predicate, fulfills +the office of some single part of speech, it is a _subordinate_ clause. In +the sentence, "I went because I knew that I must," the clause, "because I +knew that I must" states the reason for the action named in the main +clause. It, therefore, stands in _adverbial_ relation to the verb "went." +"That I must" is the object of "knew." It, therefore, stands in a +_substantive_ relation to the verb. + +Subordinate clauses are often introduced by subordinate conjunctions +(sometimes by relative pronouns or adverbs); but, whenever such a +clause appears in a sentence, otherwise simple, the sentence is _complex_. +If it appears in a sentence otherwise compound, the sentence is +_compound-complex_. + +The different types of subordinate clauses will be discussed later. + + + +SENTENCE STRUCTURE + + ++82. Phrases.+--Phrases are classified both as to structure and use. + +From the standpoint of structure, a phrase is classified from its +introductory word or words, as:-- + +1. _Prepositional_: [They were _in the temple_]. + +2. _Infinitive_: [He tried _to make us hear_]. + +3. _Participial_: [_Having finished my letter_]. + +Classified as to use, a phrase may be-- + +1. A _noun_: [_To be good is to be truly great_]. + +2. An _adjective_: [The horse is an animal _of much intelligence_]. + +3. An _adverb_: [He lives _in the city_]. + + ++83. Clauses.+--It has been already shown that clauses may be either +principal or subordinate. A principal clause is sometimes defined as "one +that can stand alone," and is therefore independent of the rest of the +sentence. This statement is misleading, for, although true in most cases, +it does not hold in cases like the following:-- + +1. As the tree falls, so it must lie. + +2. That sunshine is cheering, cannot be denied. + +The genuine test for the subordinate clause is the one already given in +connection with the study of the subordinate conjunction. It must serve +the purpose of some single part of speech. All other clauses are principal +clauses. + + ++84. Classification of Subordinate Clauses.+--_A._ Subordinate clauses may +be classified into _substantive_ and _modifying_ clauses. + +_Substantive clauses_ show the various substantive constructions. Thus:-- + +1. Subject: ["_Thou shalt not covet_," is the tenth commandment]. + +2. Object: [I know _what you wish_]. + +3. Appositive: [The truth _that the earth is spherical_ is generally +believed]. + +4. Attribute complement: [The truth is _that she is not well_]. + +_Modifying clauses_ show adjective and adverbial constructions. + +Thus:-- + +1. Adjective: [The house _which you see_ is mine]. + +2. Adverb: [I will go _when_ it is possible]. + +_B._ Subordinate clauses may also be classified according to the +introductory word. + +(_a_) Clauses introduced by _relative_ or _interrogative pronouns_: _who, +which, what, that_ (= who or which), _as_ (after such), and the compound +relatives, _whoever, whichever, whatever_ (the first three are both +relative and interrogative): [The school _that stands on the hillside_ is +painted white. I know _whom you_ mean]. + +(_b_) Clauses introduced by a relative or interrogative adjective: [The +man _whose library is well furnished_ is rich. I see _which way I ought to +take_]. + +(_c_) Clauses introduced by a relative or interrogative adverb, such as +_when, whenever, since_ (referring to time), _until, before, after, where, +whence, whither, wherever, why, as, how_: [I know the house _where lie +lives_]. + +(_d_) Clauses introduced by a subordinate conjunction, such as _because, +since_ (= because), _though, although, if, unless, that_ (= in order +that), _as, as if, as though, then_: [I will go _since you wish it_]. + +_C._ Subordinate clauses may also be classified according to the nature of +the thought expressed. + +(_a_) General description: [The house, _which stands on the hill_, has a +fine view]. + +(_b_) Place: [The house _where he was born_ is torn down]. + +(_c_) Time: [He works _whenever he_ can]. + +(_d_) Cause: [_Since you wish it_, I will go]. + +(_e_) Concession: [_Although he is my friend_, I can see his faults]. + +(_f_) Purpose: [Run, _that you may obtain the prize_]. + +(_g_) Result: [She was so tired _that she stumbled_]. + +(_h_) Condition: [_If it rains_, we shall not go]. + +(_i_) Comparison: [You look as _if you were tired_]. + +Note that the subordinate clauses in the above examples are modifying +clauses. + +(_j_) Direct quotation: [She said, "_I will go_"]. + +(_k_) Indirect statement: [She said _that she would go_]. + +(_l_) Indirect question: [I knew _where his house_ was]. + +Note that the subordinate clauses in the above examples are substantive +clauses. + + ++85. The Framework of a Sentence+ has been already described as consisting +of the _subject_, the _verb_, and, if the verb be incomplete, of some +completing element, _object_ or _attribute complement_. Occasionally an +_objective complement_ must be added. Besides these elementary parts, both +subject and predicate may have modifiers. + +The usual modifiers of the subject are:-- + +1. Adjective: [The _golden_ bowl is broken]. + +2. Adjective phrase: [The house _on the hill_ is beautiful]. + +3. Adjective clause: [The house _which stands on the hill_ is beautiful]. + +4. Noun or pronoun in possessive case: [_Helen's_ paint box is lost]. + +5. Noun in apposition: [Mr. Merrill, the _president_ of the club, will +open the debate]. + +6. Adverb used as an adjective: [My _sometime_ friend]. + +7. Infinitive used adjectively: [Work _to do_ is a blessing]. + +8. Participle: [The child, _lagging_ behind, lost her way]. + +The modifiers of the predicate are:-- + +1. Adverb: [The snow melted very _quickly_]. + +2. Noun used adverbially: [I walked a _mile_]. + +3. Infinitive used adverbially: [We were called together _to decide_ an +important question]. + +4. Adverbial phrase: [She ran _along the road_]. + +5. Adverbial clause: [Go _when you can_]. + +6. Nominative absolute: [The _speeches being over_, the audience +dispersed]. + +Occasionally, adverbs and phrases of adverbial character modify the entire +thought in a sentence, rather than some single word: [_To speak plainly,_ +I cannot go. _Perhaps_ I may help you]. + + + +LIST OF SPECIAL WORDS + + ++86. Special Words.+--A list is here given of words which +appear as various parts of speech:--- + ++a+ (1) Adjective: _A_ book. (2) Preposition: I go a-fishing. + ++about+ (1) Preposition: Walk _about_ the house. (2) Adverb: We walked + _about_ for an hour. _By, over, up_, etc., are used in the + same way. + ++above+ (1) Preposition: The sun is _above_ the horizon. (2) Adverb: Go + _above_. (3) Noun: Every good gift is from _above_. (4) + Adjective: The _above_ remarks are discredited. _Below_ has + the same uses. + ++after+ (1) Preposition: _After_ our sail. (2) Conjunctive adverb: He + came _after_ she went away. + ++all+ (1) Pronoun: _All_ went merry as a marriage bell. (2) Noun: I + gave my _all_. (3) Adjective: _All_ hands to the rescue. + (4) Adverb: The work is _all_ right. + ++as+ (1) Conjunctive pronoun: I give such _as_ I have. (2) Conjunctive + adverb: I am not so old _as_ she. (3) Adverb: What other + grief is _as_ hard to bear? (4) Conjunction: _As_ it was hot, + we did not go. (5) Preposition: I warned her _as_ a friend. + (6) Compound Conjunction: He looks _as_ if he were not well. + ++before+ (1) Preposition: He stood _before_ the door. (2) Conjunctive + Adverb: I will do it _before_ I go. (3) Adverb: She has never + been here _before_. + ++both+ (1) Adjective: _Both_ white and red pines are beautiful. (2) + Pronoun: _Both_ are yours. (3) Conjunction: She is _both_ + good and beautiful. + ++but+ (1) Conjunction: John reads _but_ Richard plays. (2) Preposition: + All _but_ him are at home. (3) Adverb: We can _but_ fail. + ++either+ (1) Adjective: _Either_ dress is becoming. (2) Conjunction: + _Either_ this dress or the other is becoming. (3) Pronoun: + _Either_ is right. + ++fast+ (1) Noun: A long _fast_. (2) Verb: They _fast_ often. (3) Adverb: + The rain fell _fast_. (4) Adjective: He is a _fast_ walker. + ++for+ (1) Subordinate Conjunction: I must go, _for_ I promised. (2) + Coördinate Conjunction: She stayed at home, _for_ I saw her. + (3) Preposition: I have nothing _for_ you. + ++hard+ (1) Adjective: _Hard_ labor. (2) Adverb: He works _hard_. + ++like+ (1) Noun: We may never see her _like_ again. (2) Adjective: This + process gives _like_ results. (3) Adverb: _Like_ as a father + pitieth his children. (4) Preposition: She looks _like_ me. + (By some grammarians _like_ in this case is considered a + _adjective_ with the preposition _to_ omitted.) (5) Verb: + You _like_ your work. + ++little+ (1) Adjective: A _little_ bread. (2) Noun: I wish a _little_. + (3) Adverb: He laughs _little_. _Much_ has the same uses. + ++many a+ (1) Adjective: _Many a_ tree. + ++notwithstanding+ (1) Preposition: _Notwithstanding_ the rain, we were + content. (2) Conjunction or Preposition: She is happy, + _notwithstanding_ (the fact that) she is an invalid. + ++only+ (1) Adjective: This is the _only_ way. (2) Adverb: _Only_ + experienced persons need apply. (3) Conjunction: I should + go, _only_ it is stormy. + ++since+ (1) Preposition: _Since_ that day I have not seen her. (2) + Conjunction: _Since_ you lost it, you must replace it. + (3) Adverb: I have not seen her _since_. (4) Conjunctive + Adverb: You have been here _since_ I have. + ++still+ (1) Adjective: The lake is _still_. (2) Adverb: The tree is + _still_ lying where it fell. (3) Conjunction: He is + entertaining; _still_ he talks too much. (4) Verb: Oil + is said to _still_ the waves. (5) Noun: In the _still_ of + noonday the song of the locust was loud. + ++than+ (1) Conjunction: I am older _than_ she. (2) Preposition: _Than_ + whom there is none wiser. + ++that+ (1) Demonstrative Pronoun: _That_ is right. (2) Conjunctive + Pronoun: He _that_ lives nobly is happy. (3) Adjective: + _That_ book is mine. (4) Conjunction: I say this _that_ you + may understand my position. (5) Substantive Conjunction: + _That_ this is true is evident. + ++the+ (1) Adjective (article): _The_ lake. (2) Adverb: _The_ more ... + _the_ merrier. + ++then+ (1) Adverb: I shall know _then_. (2) Conjunction: If you so + decide, _then_ we may go. + ++there+ (1) Adverb: The stream runs _there_. (2) Expletive: _There_ are + many points to be considered. (3) Interjection: _There! + there!_ it makes no difference! + ++what+ (1) Conjunctive Interrogative Pronoun: I heard _what_ you said. + Pronoun: _What_ shall I do? (3) Interrogative Adjective: + _What_ game do you prefer? (4) Conjunctive Adjective: I + know _what_ books he enjoys. (5) Adverb: _What_ with this + and _what_ with that, he finally got his wish. (6) + Interjection: _What! what!_ + ++while+ (1) Noun: A long _while_. (2) Verb: To _while_ away the time. + (3) Conjunctive Adverb: I stay in _while_ it snows. + + + +III. FIGURES OF SPEECH + + ++87. Figures of Speech.+--A figure of speech is a change from the usual +form of expression for the purpose of producing a greater effect. These +changes may be effective either because they are more pleasing to us or +because they are more forcible, or for both reasons. + +While figurative language is a change from the usual mode of expression, +we are not to think of it as being unnatural. It is, in fact, as natural +as plain language, and nearly every one, from the illiterate to the most +learned, makes use of it, more or less, in his ordinary conversation. This +arises from, the fact that we all enjoy comparisons and substitutions. +When we say that we have been pegging away all day at our work, or that +the wind howls, or that the man has a heart of steel, we are making use of +figures of speech. Figurative language ranges from these very simple +expressions to the beautiful figures of speech found in so much of our +poetry. Written prose contains many beautiful and forcible examples, but +it is in poetry that we find most of them. + + ++88. Simile.+--A simile is an expressed comparison between objects +belonging to different classes. We must remember, however, that all +resemblances do not constitute similes. If we compare two trees, or two +beehives, or two rivers, our comparison is not a simile. If we compare a +tree to a person, a beehive to a schoolroom, or time to a river, we may +form a good simile, since the things compared do not belong to the same +class. The best similes are those in which the ideas compared have one +strong point of resemblance, and are unlike in all other respects. + + +1. How far that little candle throws its beams! + So shines a good deed in a naughty world. + +--Shakespeare. + + +2. For very young he seemed, tenderly reared; + Like some young cypress, tall, and dark, and straight. + +--Matthew Arnold. + + +3. In the primrose-tinted sky + The wan little moon + Hangs like a jewel dainty and rare. + +--Francis C. Rankin. + + ++89. Metaphor.+--A metaphor differs from a simile in that the comparison +is implied rather than expressed. They are essentially the same as far as +the comparison is concerned, and usually the one kind may be easily +changed to the other. In a simile we say that one object _is like_ +another, in a metaphor we say that one object _is_ another. + + +EXERCISES + + +Select the metaphors in the following and change them to +similes:-- + + +1. In arms the Austrian phalanx stood, + A living wall, a human wood. + +--James Montgomery. + + +2. The familiar lines + Are footpaths for the thoughts of Italy. + +--Longfellow. + + +3. Life is a leaf of paper white, + Whereon each one of us may write + His word or two, and then comes night. + +--Lowell. + + ++90. Personification.+--Personification is a special form of the metaphor +in which life is attributed to inanimate objects or the characteristics of +persons are attributed to objects, animals, or even to abstract ideas. + + +EXERCISES + + +Explain why the following quotations are examples of personifications:-- + + +1. The day is done; and slowly from the scene + The stooping sun upgathers his spent shafts + And puts them back into his golden quiver. + +--Longfellow. + + +2. Time is a cunning workman and no man can detect his joints. + +--Charles Pierce Burton. + + +3. The sun is couched, the seafowl gone to rest, + And the wild storm hath somewhere found a nest. + +--Wordsworth. + + +4. See the mountains kiss high heaven, + And the waves clasp one another; + No sister flower would be forgiven + If it disdained its brother. + +--Shelley. + + ++91. Apostrophe.+--Apostrophe is like personification, but has an +additional characteristic. When we directly address inanimate objects or +the absent as if they were present, we call the figure of speech thus +formed apostrophe. + +The following are examples of apostrophe:-- + + +1. Break, break, break, + At the foot of thy crags, O Sea! + +--Tennyson. + + +2. Backward, turn backward, O Time, in your flight, + Make me a child again just for to-night! + Mother, come back from the echoless shore, + Take me again to your heart as of yore. + +--Elizabeth Akers Allen. + + ++92. Metonymy.+--Metonymy consists in substituting one object for another, +the two being so closely associated that the mention of one suggests the +other. + + 1. The pupils are reading George Eliot. + 2. Each hamlet heard the call. + 3. Strike for your altars and your fires. + 4. Gray hairs should be respected. + + ++93. Synecdoche.+--Synecdoche consists in substituting a part of anything +for the whole or a whole for the part. + + 1. A babe, two summers old. + 2. Give us this day our daily bread. + 3. Ring out the thousand years of woe, + Ring in the thousand years of peace. + 4. Fifty mast are on the ocean. + + ++94. Other Figures of Speech.+--Sometimes, especially in older rhetorics, +the following so-called figures of speech are added to the list already +given: irony, hyperbole, antithesis, climax, and interrogation. The two +former pertain rather to style, in fact, are qualities of style, while the +last two might properly be placed along with kinds of sentences or +paragraph development. Since these so-called figures are not all mentioned +elsewhere in this text, a brief explanation and example of each will be +given here. + +1. _Irony_ consists in saying just the opposite of the intended meaning, +but in such a way that it emphasizes that meaning. + + What has the gray-haired prisoner done? + Has murder stained his hands with gore? + Not so; his crime is a fouler one-- + God made the old man poor. + +--Whittier. + + +2. _Hyperbole_ is an exaggerated expression used to increase +the effectiveness of a statement. + + +He was a man of boundless knowledge. + + +3. _Antithesis_ consists merely of contrasted statements. This contrast +may be found in a single sentence or it may be extended through an entire +paragraph. + + + Look like the innocent flower, + But be the serpent under it. + +--Shakespeare. + + +4. _Climax_ consists of an ascendant arrangement of words or ideas. + + +I came, I saw, I conquered. + + +5. When a question is asked, not for the purpose of obtaining information +but in order to make speech more effective, it is called the figure of +_interrogation_. An affirmative question denies and a negative question +affirms. + + 1. Am I my brother's keeper? + 2. Am I not free? + + + +IV. THE RHETORICAL FEATURES OF THE SENTENCE + + ++95. Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis in Sentences.+--On pages 153-155 we +have considered the principles of unity, coherence, and emphasis as +applied to the whole composition. In much the same way these principles +are applicable to the sentence. A sentence possesses unity if all that it +contains makes one complete statement, and no more; and if all minor ideas +are made subordinate to one main idea. The effect must be single. A +sentence exhibits coherence when the relation of all of its parts is +perfectly clear. We secure emphasis in the sentence by placing ideas that +deserve distinction in conspicuous positions; by arranging the members of +a series in the order of climax; by using specific rather than general +terms; by expressing thoughts with directness and simplicity; and by +employing the devices of balance and contrast. + +We must remember that, in the sentence as well as in the whole composition +and the paragraph, if coherence and unity are secured, emphasis is quite +likely to follow naturally. On the other hand, a violation of coherence or +unity often results in a lack of emphasis. + + ++96. Unity in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+-- + +1. _The presence of more than one main thought_. (Stonewall Jackson was a +general in the Confederate Army, and he is said to have been a very +religious man.) In this sentence two distinct thoughts are embodied, and +in such a way that their relation to each other is altogether illogical. +The effect is not that of a single thought. To possess unity the two or +more thoughts of a compound sentence should sustain some particular +relation, like cause and effect, contrast, series, details of a picture. +We can unite the two thoughts in a perfectly logical sentence, thus: +(Stonewall Jackson, the Confederate general, is said to have been a very +religious man.) + +2. _The addition of too many dependent clauses_. (The boy was startled +when he awoke, for he heard the plan of his captors, who were preparing to +seize the boat, which had been left by his friends who had so mysteriously +deserted him at a time when he needed them most.) Here, the numerous +dependent clauses tacked on obscure the main thought. The sentence should +be broken up and, where possible, clauses should be reduced to phrases and +words. (The boy was startled when he awoke, for he heard the plan of his +captors. They were preparing to seize the boat left by his friends, who +had deserted him in the hour of greatest need.) + +3. _The presence of incongruous ideas_. (With his hair combed and his +shoes blacked, he gave the impression of being a very strong man.) The +ideas of this sentence have no logical relation to each other. There is +little likelihood, too, of making them more congruous by any change in the +sentence. Blacking one's shoes and combing one's hair do not make one look +strong. The remedy for such a sentence is to separate the incongruous +ideas. + +4. _A needless change of construction_. (Silas was kindly received by the +men in the tavern; and when they had listened to his story and his answers +to their questions had been noted, they began to think of catching the +thief.) Confusion arises from such sudden and needless changes of the +subject. By keeping the same subject throughout, we secure unity of +impression. (The men in the tavern received Silas kindly; and when they +had listened to his story and had noted his answers to their questions, +they began to think of catching the thief.) + +5. _Making the sentence too short and fragmentary to serve as a logical +unit of the paragraph_. (I went to the park yesterday. It was a pleasant +day. I saw many animals. I had a good time, etc.) Each of these sentences, +when considered in its relation to the others, and to the development of +the thought, is altogether too incomplete and unimportant in ideas +expressed to stand alone. Unity of impression and dignity of thought are +gained by combining the sentences. (Yesterday was a pleasant day; so I +went to the park, where I saw many animals, and had a good time.) + + ++97. Coherence in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+-- + +1. _The wrong placing of modifiers_. (The victorious general was +returning to his native city after many hard-fought campaigns with his +staff officers.) It is not likely that the campaigns here referred +to were waged against the staff officers. By changing the position of +phrases we express the thought that the writer had in mind. (After many +hard-fought campaigns, the victorious general, with his staff officers, +was approaching his native city.) Especial care should be taken in placing +the correlatives _either, or; neither, nor; not only, but also;_ and the +word _only_. Incoherence frequently arises through the wrong placing of +these words. + +2. _The careless use of pronouns_. (Argument plays a very little part in +that work, and those that do occur are not interesting.) (He repeated to +his father what he had told him the night before when he was in his room.) +In both sentences, the relation between pronouns and antecedents is not +clear, and incoherence results. With the ambiguity in the use of the +pronouns remedied, the sentences are entirely coherent. (Argument plays a +very little part in that work, and whatever argumentative material is +found is not interesting.) (He repeated to his father what he had told +this parent the night before in his room.) + +3. _Careless participial and infinitive relations_. (After carefully +preparing my lessons, a friend came in.) (Standing on Brooklyn Bridge, a +great many ferryboats can be seen.) The relation of the parts is +manifestly illogical and absurd. The sentences should read: (After I had +carefully prepared my lessons, a friend came in.) (While standing on +Brooklyn Bridge, one can see a great many ferryboats.) + +4. _The use of wrong connectives_. (It rained yesterday, and I went to +school.) We assume that the pupil wishes to convey the thought that he +went to school yesterday in spite of the rain. But by his use of the +coordinating conjunction, "and," he has failed to establish a logical +relation between the two clauses. In this case unity is violated as well +as coherence. Use different connectives and note the result, (Although it +rained yesterday, I went to school) or, (It rained yesterday, but I went +to school). + +5. _Failure to observe parallelism in form_. (The stranger seemed +courteous in his conduct and to have a solicitude for my welfare.) +Although this sentence is grammatically correct, the shift in structure +from the adjective and its phrase to the infinitive phrase leads to +confusion in thought. How much clearer and smoother this rendering: (The +stranger seemed courteous in his conduct and solicitous for my welfare.) + + ++98. Emphasis in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+-- + +1. _Weak beginnings and endings_. (A fire in the city is an exciting event +to the average boy.) (It seemed that the unprincipled fellow had forged +his father's name.) In the first sentence, the important words are +"exciting event," and they should occupy the most conspicuous position,-- +at the end of the sentence. The effectiveness is much improved by this +order: (To the average boy, a fire in the city is an exciting event.) In +the second sentence the weak place is the beginning. The subject and its +modifiers are striking enough to demand their rightful position,--as the +introductory words; in "forged his father's name" we have ideas startling +enough for a place at the end of the sentence. "It seemed that" can be +reduced to one word, "apparently," and this can be made parenthetical. +(The unprincipled fellow, apparently, had forged his father's name.) This +sentence, it will be observed, illustrates the periodic or suspended +structure, a type particularly effective to employ for sustaining interest +as well as for securing emphasis. + +2. _Failure to observe the order of climax_. (Dazed, broken-hearted, +hungry, the poor mother resumed her daily tasks.) Clearly, the strongest +idea is suggested by "broken-hearted." A better order would be: (Hungry, +dazed, broken-hearted, the poor mother resumed her daily tasks.) + +3. _The use of superfluous words_. (I rushed hurriedly into the burning +house and hastily snatched my few possessions.) In this sentence, "rushed" +and "snatched" lose rather than gain force by adding "hurriedly" and +"hastily." Look up definitions of "rush" and "snatch." When we wish to +express strong emotion or to describe action resulting from excitement, we +only weaken the impression by using unnecessary words. Simple, direct +sentences are most forceful. In aiming to secure sentence emphasis, then, +we should avoid circumlocution, redundancy, tautology, and verbosity. +(Look up these terms in the Century Dictionary.) + +4. _The use of general rather than specific terms_. (He approached the +brook cautiously, and concealing himself in the bushes, began fishing.) A +consideration of the choice of words in the sentence belongs strictly to +the study of diction; however, force in the sentence is dependent in a +large measure on the words employed. Observe how forceful the following +sentence is as contrasted with the first example: (He crept noiselessly to +the fishing hole, and hiding in the willows, threw his hook into the +stream.) + +5. _Failure to employ balance and contrast_. (Worth makes the man; but the +fellow is made by the want of it.) (His life was spent in repenting of +past misdeeds; in doing what was wrong, while he inculcated principles of +righteousness.) Compare these with: (Worth makes the man; the want of it, +the fellow.) (His life was spent in sinning and repenting; in inculcating +what was right, and doing what was wrong.) Here the regularity of form +gives pleasure to the taste, while the position of balanced and parallel +parts adds clearness, coherence, and emphasis to the thoughts expressed. +This method of sentence structure, if employed too frequently, however, +will lead to a mannerism difficult to overcome. The caution to be heeded +in the case of this type of sentence as well as in the case of every other +is, "Nothing too much." Observe the law of variety. + + +EXERCISES + +Point out the specific faults and correct:-- + +1. He neither gave satisfaction as butler nor as coachman. + +2. Elaine deserves our sympathy from the beginning to the end of the +novel. + +3. John only played once and won; and then, after watching the other +players for a time, he got up and left the room. + +4. The boy had an unconquerable fear of reptiles which no reasoning could +overcome. + +5 The Vicar's son Moses was a good student of the classics, but he made a +bad bargain in his purchase of the green spectacles. + +6. In all of his behavior toward Lynette, Gareth was patient and +courteous, which reflected much credit on his knightly character. + +7. Johnson was a man with a heroic soul, a wonderful intellect, and a kind +heart. + +8. After they had all assembled and come together, Odysseus addressed +them. + +9. He had reached the age of seventy, and his death was due to a nervous +disorder. + +10. The boys were only injured a little. + +11. George Eliot's writings are filled with the philosophy of life, if we +are wise enough to discover it. + +12. Addison was sincere and kindly in his attitude toward men, and Pope +was hypocritical and spiteful. + +13. With reputation, character, and wealth gone, the poor man had little +to live for. + +14. Lancelot loved Queen Guinevere dearly, and he was Arthur's most +valorous knight. + +15. We are at peace with all the world and the rest of mankind. + +16. Cedric lived with two great ends in view,--the union of Athelstane and +Rowena and to see a restored Saxon monarchy. + +17. James was walking backward and forward on the mountain side, which at +this place was very precipitous and from which a little silvery stream +issued to begin its rapid descent to the quiet hamlet that lay far below. + +18. In our efforts to succeed in life we work hard that we may make names +for ourselves and to acquire property. + +19. He is a good hunter, but his wife is a Methodist. + +20. Going up the street I saw the strangest-looking man. + +21. James speaks German fluently, and he did not begin to study it until +last year. + +22. On returning to the deck, the sea assumed a very different aspect. + + + +V. LIST OF SYNONYMS + + +Abandon, cast off, desert, forswear, quit, renounce, withdraw from. + +Abate, decrease, diminish, mitigate, moderate. + +Abhor, abominate, detest, dislike, loathe. + +Abiding, enduring, lasting, permanent, perpetual. + +Ability, capability, capacity, competency, efficacy, power. + +Abolish, annul, eradicate, exterminate, obliterate, root out, wipe out. + +Abomination, curse, evil, iniquity, nuisance, shame. + +Absent, absent-minded, absorbed, abstracted, oblivious, preoccupied. + +Absolve, acquit, clear. + +Abstemiousness, abstinence, frugality, moderation, sobriety, temperance. + +Absurd, ill-advised, ill-considered, ludicrous, monstrous, paradoxical, +preposterous, unreasonable, wild. + +Abundant, adequate, ample, enough, generous, lavish, plentiful. + +Accomplice, ally, colleague, helper, partner. + +Active, agile, alert, brisk, bustling, energetic, lively, supple. + +Actual, authentic, genuine, real. + +Address, adroitness, courtesy, readiness, tact. + +Adept, adroit, deft, dexterous, handy, skillful. + +Adequate, adjoining, bordering, near, neighboring. + +Admire, adore, respect, revere, venerate. + +Admit, allow, concede, grant, suffer, tolerate. + +Admixture, alloy. + +Adverse, disinclined, indisposed, loath, reluctant, slow, unwilling. + +Aerial, airy, animated, ethereal, frolicsome. + +Affectation, cant, hypocrisy, pretense, sham. + +Affirm, assert, avow, declare, maintain, state. + +Aged, ancient, antiquated, antique, immemorial, old, venerable. + +Air, bearing, carriage, demeanor. + +Akin, alike, identical. + +Alert, on the alert, sleepless, wary, watchful. + +Allay, appease, calm, pacify. + +Alliance, coalition, compact, federation, union, fusion. + +Allude, hint, imply, insinuate, intimate, suggest. + +Allure, attract, cajole, coax, inveigle, lure. + +Amateur, connoisseur, novice, tyro. + +Amend, better, mend, reform, repair. + +Amplify, develop, expand, extend, unfold, widen. + +Amusement, diversion, entertainment, pastime. + +Anger, exasperation, petulance, rage, resentment. + +Animal, beast, brute, living creature, living organism. + +Answer, rejoinder, repartee, reply, response, retort. + +Anticipate, forestall, preclude, prevent. + +Apiece, individually, severally, separately. + +Apparent, clear, evident, obvious, tangible, unmistakable. + +Apprehend, comprehend, conceive, perceive, understand. + +Arraign, charge, cite, impeach, indict, prosecute, summon. + +Arrogance, haughtiness, presumption, pride, self-complacency, +superciliousness, vanity. + +Artist, artificer, artisan, mechanic, operative, workman. + +Artless, boorish, clownish, hoidenish, rude, uncouth, unsophisticated. + +Assent, agree, comply. + +Assurance, effrontery, hardihood, impertinence, impudence, incivility, +insolence, officiousness, rudeness. + +Atom, grain, scrap, particle, shred, whit. + +Atrociousness, barbaric, barbarous, brutal, merciless. + +Attack, assault, infringement, intrusion, onslaught. + +Attain, accomplish, achieve, arrive at, compass, reach, secure. + +Attempt, endeavor, essay, strive, try, undertake. + +Attitude, pose, position, posture. + +Attribute, ascribe, assign, charge, impute. + +Axiom, truism. + + +Baffle, balk, bar, check, embarrass, foil, frustrate, hamper, hinder, +impede, retard, thwart. + +Banter, burlesque, drollery, humor, jest, raillery, wit, witticism. + +Beg, plead, press, urge. + +Beguile, divert, enliven, entertain, occupy. + +Bewilderment, confusion, distraction, embarrassment, perplexity. + +Bind, fetter, oblige, restrain, restrict. + +Blaze, flame, flare, flash, flicker, glare, gleam, gleaming, glimmer, +glitter, light, luster, shimmer, sparkle. + +Blessed, hallowed, holy, sacred, saintly. + +Boasting, display, ostentation, pomp, pompousness, show. + +Brave, adventurous, bold, courageous, daring, dauntless, fearless, +gallant, heroic, undismayed. + +Bravery, coolness, courage, gallantry, heroism. + +Brief, concise, pithy, sententious, terse. + +Bring over, convince, induce, influence, persuade, prevail upon, win over. + + +Calamity, disaster, misadventure, mischance, misfortune, mishap. + +Candid, impartial, open, straightforward, transparent, unbiased, +unprejudiced, unreserved. + +Candor, frankness, truth, veracity. + +Caprice, humor, vagary, whim. + +Caricature, burlesque, parody, travesty. + +Catch, capture, clasp, clutch, grip, secure. + +Cause, consideration, design, end, ground, motive, object, reason, +purpose. + +Caution, discretion, prudence. + +Censure, criticism, rebuke, reproof, reprimand, reproach. + +Character, constitution, disposition, reputation, temper, temperament. + +Characteristic, peculiarity, property, singularity, trait. + +Chattering, garrulous, loquacious, talkative. + +Cheer, comfort, delight, ecstasy, gayety, gladness, gratification, +happiness, jollity, satisfaction. + +Churlish, crusty, gloomy, gruff, ill-natured, morose, sour, sullen, surly. + +Class, circle, clique, coterie. + +Cloak, cover, gloss over, mitigate, palliate, screen. + +Cloy, sate, satiate, satisfy, surfeit. + +Commit, confide, consign, intrust, relegate. + +Compassion, forbearance, lenience, mercy. + +Compassionate, gracious, humane. + +Complete, consummate, faultless, flawless, perfect. + +Confirm, corroborate. + +Conflicting, discordant, discrepant, incongruous, mismated. + +Confused, discordant, miscellaneous, various. + +Conjecture, guess, suppose, surmise. + +Conscious, aware, certain. + +Consequence, issue, outcome, outgrowth, result, sequel, upshot. + +Continual, continuous, incessant, unbroken, uninterrupted. + +Credible, conceivable, likely, presumable, probable, reasonable. + +Customary, habitual, normal, prevailing, usual, wonted. + + +Damage, detriment, disadvantage, harm, hurt, injury, prejudice. + +Dangerous, formidable, terrible. + +Defame, deprecate, disparage, slander, vilify. + +Defile, infect, soil, stain, sully, taint, tarnish. + +Deleterious, detrimental, hurtful, harmful, mischievous, pernicious, +ruinous. + +Delicate, fine, minute, refined, slender. + +Delightful, grateful, gratifying, refreshing, satisfying. + +Difficult, hard, laborious, toilsome, trying. + +Digress, diverge, stray, swerve, wander. + +Disown, disclaim, disavow, recall, renounce, repudiate, retract. + +Dispose, draw, incline, induce, influence, move, prompt, stir. + + +Earlier, foregoing, previous, preliminary. + +Effeminate, feminine, womanish, womanly. + +Emergency, extremity, necessity. + +Empty, fruitless, futile, idle, trifling, unavailing, useless, vain, +visionary. + +Erudition, knowledge, profundity, sagacity, sense, wisdom. + +Eternal, imperishable, interminable, perennial, perpetual, unfailing. + +Excuse, pretense, pretext, subterfuge. + +Exemption, immunity, liberty, license, privilege. + +Explicit, express. + + +Faint, faint-hearted, faltering, half-hearted, irresolute, languid, +listless, purposeless. + +Faithful, loyal, stanch, trustworthy, trusty. + +Fanciful, fantastic, grotesque, imaginative, visionary. + +Fling, gibe, jeer, mock, scoff, sneer, taunt. + +Flock, bevy, brood, covey, drove, herd, litter, pack. + +Fluctuate, hesitate, oscillate, vacillate, waver. + +Folly, imbecility, senselessness, stupidity. + + +Grief, melancholy, regret, sadness, sorrow. + + +Hale, healthful, healthy, salutary, sound, vigorous. + + +Ignorant, illiterate, uninformed, uninstructed, unlettered, untaught. + +Impulsive, involuntary, spontaneous, unbidden, voluntary, willing. + +Indispensable, inevitable, necessary, requisite, unavoidable. + +Inquisitive, inquiring, intrusive, meddlesome, peeping, prying. + +Intractable, perverse, petulant, ungovernable, wayward, willful. + +Irritation, offense, pique, resentment. + + +Probably, presumably. + + +Reliable, trustworthy, trusty. + +Remnant, trace, token, vestige. + +Requite, repay, retaliate, satisfy. + + +VI. LIST OF WORDS FOR EXERCISES IN WORD USAGE + +Ability, capacity. + +Accept, except. + +Acceptance, acceptation. + +Access, accession. + +Accredit, credit. + +Act, action. + +Admire, like. + +Admittance, admission. + +Advance, advancement, progress, progression. + +Affect, effect. + +After, afterward. + +Aggravating, irritating, provoking, exasperating. + +Allege, maintain + +Allow, guess, think. + +Allusion, illusion, delusion. + +Almost, most, mostly. + +Alone, only. + +Alternate, choice. + +Among, between. + +Amount, number, quantity. + +Angry, mad. + +Apparently, evidently. + +Apt, likely, liable. + +Arise, rise. + +At, in. + +Avocation, vocation. + +Awfully, very. + + +Balance, rest, remainder. + +Begin, commence. + +Beside, besides. + +Both, each, every. + +Bring, fetch. + +By, with. + + +Calculate, intend. + +Carry, bring, fetch. + +Casuality, casualty. + +Character, reputation. + +Claim, assert. + +Clever, pleasant. + +College, university, school. + +Completeness, completion. + +Compliment, complement. + +Confess, admit. + +Construe, construct. + +Contemptible, contemptuous. + +Continual, continuous. + +Convince, convict. + +Council, counsel. + +Couple, pair. + +Credible, creditable, credulous. + +Custom, habit. + + +Deadly, deathly. + +Decided, decisive. + +Decimate, destroy. + +Declare, assert. + +Degrade, demean. + +Depot, station, R.R. + +Discover, invent. + +Drive, ride. + + +Each other, any other, one another. + +Emigration, immigration, migration. + +Enormity, enormousness. + +Estimate, esteem. + +Exceptional, exceptionable. + +Expect, suppose. + + +Falseness, falsity. + +Fly, flee. + +Funny, odd. + +Grant, give. + +Habit, practice. + +Haply, happily. + +Healthy, healthful, wholesome. + +Human, humane. + + +Lady, woman. + +Last, latest, preceding. + +Learn, teach. + +Lease, hire. + +Less, fewer. + +Lie, lay. + +Loan, lend. + +Love, like. + + +Mad, angry. + +Majority, plurality. + +Manly, mannish. + +May, can. + +Mutual, common. + + +Necessities, necessaries. + +Nice, pleasant, attractive. + +Noted, notorious. + + +Observation, observance. + +Official, officious. + +Oral, verbal. + + +Part, portion. + +Partly, partially. + +Persecute, prosecute. + +Person, party. + +Practicable, practical. + +Prescribe, proscribe. + +Prominent, predominant. + +Purpose, propose. + + +Quite, very, rather. + + +Relation, relative. + +Repair, mend. + +Requirement, requisite. + +Rise, raise. + + +Scholar, pupil, student. + +Sensible of, sensitive to. + +Series, succession. + +Settle, locate. + +Sewage, sewerage. + +Shall, will. + +Should, would. + +Sit, set. + +Splendid, elegant. + +Statement, assertion. + +Statue, statute, stature. + +Stay, stop. + + +Team, carriages. + +Transpire, happen. + + +Verdict, testimony. + +Without, unless. + +Womanly, womanish. + + +INDEX + +Abbott. +Action: observation of. +Actuality: in argument. +Adams. +Adjectives. +Advantages: + of expressing ideas gained from experience; + of imaginative theme writing. +Adverbs. +Agreement. +Allen, Elizabeth A. +Allen, James Lane. +Ambiguity. +Analogy: argument from. +Antithesis. +Apostrophe: + rule for; + as figure of speech. +Argument: + purpose of; + use of explanation in; + by stating advantages and disadvantages; + by use of specific instances; + refutation or indirect; + differs from exposition; + clear thinking essential; + by inference; + from cause; + from sign; + from example; + from analogy; + differs from persuasion; + with persuasion. +Argumentative themes. +Arnold. +Arrangement: + _see_ coherence; + in argument; + summary of. +Attendant circumstances: argument from. +Authority: appeals to in argument. +Auxiliary verbs. +Ayton. + + +Bagley. +Baldwin. +Ballad. +Bancroft. +Belief: + necessity in debate; + establishing a general theory; + basis of. +Beveridge. +Biography. +Blank verse. +Boardman. +Bourdillon. +Bowles. +Bradley. +Brief. +Brown. +Browning. +Bryant. +Budgell. +Burke. +Burns. +Burroughs. +Byron. + + +Cable. +Camp. +Capitals. +Cary. +Case. +Cause and effect: + development of paragraph by use of; + development of composition by use of; + use in exposition; + use in argument. +Cautions and suggestions: + use of figures of speech; + in debating; + use of pronouns; + use of adjectives; + use of verbs; + use of adverbs; + prepositions. +Character sketch. +Choice of words: + adapted to reader; + as to meaning; + simple. +Clark. +Classification. +Clauses: restrictive and non-restrictive. +Clearness. +Climax: + in narration; + in argument; + as figure of speech. +Coherence: + definition; + in outline; + in composition; + arrangement of details; + arrangement of facts in exposition; + aided by outline; + in argument; + in sentences. +Coleridge. +Colon: rules for. +Colton. +Comma: rules for. +Comparison: + as an aid to formation of images; + development of a paragraph by; + definitions supplemented by; + as a method of developing a composition; + as an aid in establishing fundamental image; + as an aid to effectiveness in description; + use in exposition; + analogy; + of adjectives; + of adverbs. +Complete and incomplete verbs. +Composition: + kinds of; + general principles of. +Conclusion. +Conjugation. +Conjunctions. +Connolly. +Connor. +Constructions: + of nouns; + of personal pronouns; + of relative pronouns; + of adjectives. +Contrast: + development of a paragraph by; + development of a composition by; + use in exposition. +Conversation. +Cooper. +Copeland-Rideout. +Correction of themes. + + +Darwin. +Dash: rules for. +Debate: + value of; + statement of question; + necessity of belief; + order of presentation; + cautions. +Deductive reasoning: errors of. +Definition: + by synonym; + by use of simpler words; + definitions to be supplemented; + first step in exposition; + logical; + difficulty in framing; + inexact. +Description: + Chapter VIII (_see also_ descriptive themes); + defined; + effectiveness in; + classes of objects frequently described: + buildings; + natural features; + sounds; + color; + animals; + plants; + persons; + impression of; + impression as purpose of; + in narration; + general description. +Descriptive themes. +Details: + selection of; + paragraph developed by; + related in time-order; + related with reference to position in space; + used in general description; + in general narration; + composition developed by giving details in time-order; + by giving details with reference to position in space; + selection of, affected by point of view; + selection of essential; + selection and subordination of minor; + arrangement of; + in narration; + arrangement; + selection of facts in exposition; + exposition by use of. +Dewey. +Diction. +Discourse: forms of + presupposes an audience. +Division. +Dixey. +Dramatic poetry. +Dryer. +Dunbar, Mary Louise. + + +Ease. +Effectiveness in description + comparison and figures of speech, as aids to. +Elegance. +Elegy. +Eliot, George. +Emphasis + in sentences. +Enthymeme. +Epic. +Equivalents: for nouns + for adjectives. + for adverbs +Essentials of expression. +Euphony. +Evidence. +Examples: use in exposition + argument from _(see also_ specific instances). +Exclamation mark: rule for. +Expediency: questions of. +Experience: ideas gained from, Chapter I; relation to imagination + impressions limited to. +Exposition: Chapter X (see _also_ expository themes); purpose of + importance of + clear understanding necessary + of terms + of propositions + by repetition + by examples + by comparison and contrast + by obverse statements + by details + by cause and effect + by general description + by general narration + by use of specific instances. +Expository themes. +Expression: essentials of. + + +Fallacy. +Feelings: appeal to, in persuasion. +Feet. +Fields. +Figures of speech + use of + as an aid to effectiveness in description. +Ford. +Form: importance of + directions as to. +Forms of discourse. +Fundamental image. + + +Gender. +General theory: how established, + basis of + appeals to. +George, Marian M. +Gilman. +Grammar review. +Gray. + + +Hare. +Harland. +Harris. +Hawthorne. +Henry. +Higginson and Channing. +Hinman. +History: writing of. +Hoar. +Holland. +Holmes. +Howells. +Hyperbole. + + +Ideas: from experience, Chapter I; +from imagination, Chapter II; from +language, Chapter III. + pleasure in expressing + sources of + advantages of expressing ideas gained from experience + from imagination + ideas from pictures + acquired through language. +Images: making of + complete and incomplete + reproduction of + other requirements to determine meaning + fundamental + union with impression. +Imagination, Chapter II. +Impression: + of description, + as purpose of description, + necessity of observing impressions, + limited to experience, + affected by mood, + union with image. +Improbability. +Incentive moment. +Indentation. +Inductive reasoning: + errors of. +Inference: use in argument. +Infinitives. +Interrogation. +Interrogation mark: rule for. +Introduction. +Invitations. +Irony. +Irving. + + +Jackson, Helen Hunt. +Jordan and Kellogg. + + +Kellogg. +Kingsley. +Kipling. + + +Language: + as a medium through which ideas are acquired, + adapted to reader, +Letter writing: Chapter VI; + importance of, + paper, + beginning, + body, + conclusion, + envelope, + rule of, + business letters, + letters of friendship, + adaptation to reader, + notes. +Lodge. +Longfellow. +Lovelace. +Lowell. +Lyric poetry. + + +Macaulay. +Macy-Norris. +Madame de Stael. +Matthews. +Maxims: appeals to in argument. +McCarthy, Justin. +Meaning of words. +Memory. +Metaphor: + mixed. +Methods of developing a composition: + with reference to time-order, + with reference to position in space, + by use of comparison or contrast, + by use of generalization and facts, + by stating cause and effect, + by a combination of methods. +Metonymy. +Metrical romance. +Metrical tale. +Mill. +Mill, J. S. +Miller, Mary Rogers. +Milton. +Mode. +Montgomery. +Morris, Clara. +Motive, in persuasion. + + +Narration: Chapter IX _(see also_ narrative themes below); + kinds of, + use of description in, + general narration, + narrative poetry. +Narrative themes. +Newcomer. +Notes: + formal, + informal. +Nouns. +Number. + + +Observation: + of actions, + order of, + accuracy in, + observation of impression. +Obverse statements. +Ode. +Ollivaut. +Oral compositions. +Order of events. +Outline: + of a paragraph. + the brief. + making of. + use of in exposition. + + +Palmer. +Paragraph: + defined, + topic statement, + importance of, + length, + indentation, + reasons for studying, + methods of development-- + by specific instances, + by giving details, + in time-order, + as determined by position in space, + by comparison, + by cause and effect, + by repetition, + by a combination of methods. +Paraphrasing. +Participles. +Partition. +Parts of speech. +Period: rules for. +Person. +Personification. +Persuasion: + differs from argument, + importance and necessity of, + motive in, + material of, + appeal to feelings, + with argument. +Phelps, Elizabeth Stuart. +Philips, David Graham. +Phillips, Wendell. +Phrases. +Plot: + interrelation with character. +Poe. +Poetry: Chapter VII; + aim of, + kinds of. +Point: of a story, + _see also_ climax. +Point of view: + selection of details effected by, + implied, + changing, + place in paragraph. +Possibility: in argument. +Post. +Prepositions. +Preston and Dodge. +Principal parts of verbs. +Probability: + in narration, + in argument. +Procter, Adelaide. +Pronouns. +Pronunciation. +Proportion of parts: for emphasis. +Propositions: + specific, + general, + exposition of, + necessary to argument, + of fact and of theory, + statement of. +Proverbs: use in argument. +Punctuation. + + +Quotation marks: rules for. + + +Rankin. +Read. +Reasoning: + inductive, + errors of induction, + deductive, + relation between inductive and deductive, + errors of deduction. +Reasons: number and value of. +Recitations: + preparation for, + topical. +Refutation. +Reid, Captain Mayne. +Repetition: + developing a paragraph by, + exposition by use of. +Reproduction: + of a story, + of the thought of a paragraph. +Restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses. +Rhyme. +Rhythm: variation in. +Richards, Laura E. +Right: questions of. +Robertson. +Roosevelt. +Ruskin. + + +Scansion. +Scott. +Semicolon: rules for. +Sentences: + length, + in conversation, + relations, + rhetorical features. +Sewell, Anna. +Shakespeare. +Shelley. +Sign: argument from. +Simile. +Slang. +Smith. +Song. +Sonnet. +Sources of ideas. +Specific instances: + development of a paragraph by use of, + use in argument and exposition, + development of a composition by use of, + use in exposition. +Spelling. +Spencer. +Stanza. +Stevenson. +Stoddard. +Strong verbs. +Subject: + selection of, + adapted to reader, + sources, + should be definite, + narrowing. +Suggestions, _see_ cautions. +Summaries, at the end of the chapters. +Summarizing paragraph. +Syllogism. +Symons. +Synecdoche. +Synonyms. + + +Tarkington. +Taylor. +Tennyson. +Tense. +Terms: + specific, general, + explanation of, + exposition of, + use in argument and exposition. +Themes: _see_ descriptive, narrative, expository, argumentative, and + reproduction themes. +Thoreau. +Thurston. +Time-order. +Title: selecting of. +Topic statement. +Transition from one paragraph to another. +Transition paragraph. +Trowbridge. +Turner. + + +Unity: + aided by time relations, + aided by position in space, + definition, + in life; + in outline, + in composition, + in sentences, + selection of details giving, + selection of facts in exposition, + aided by outline. + + +Van Dyke. +Van Rensselaer (Mrs.). +Variety. +Verbs. +Verse: names of. +Vocabulary: + how to increase, + words applicable to classes of objects. +Voice. + + +Wallace. +Warner. +Wessels. +Whittier. +Wilcox, Ella Wheeler. +Woode. +Words: + choice of, + spelling, pronunciation, meaning, use, + relations of, + adapted to reader, + selection, + use of simpler words, + selection, + applicable to classes of objects, + offices of, + special list of. +Wordsworth. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Composition-Rhetoric, by Stratton D. Brooks + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK 12088 *** diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..1a9f196 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #12088 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/12088) diff --git a/old/12088-8.txt b/old/12088-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..12dec8c --- /dev/null +++ b/old/12088-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18304 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Composition-Rhetoric, by Stratton D. Brooks + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Composition-Rhetoric + +Author: Stratton D. Brooks + +Release Date: April 20, 2004 [EBook #12088] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COMPOSITION-RHETORIC *** + + + + +Produced by Kevin Handy, Dave Maddock, John R. Bilderback and PG +Distributed Proofreaders + + + + + + COMPOSITION-RHETORIC + + BY + + STRATTON D. BROOKS + _Superintendent of Schools, Boston, Mass._ + + AND + + MARIETTA HUBBARD + _Formerly English Department, High School La Salle, Illinois_ + + * * * * * + + NEW YORK - CINCINNATI - CHICAGO + AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY + + 1905 + STRATTON D. BROOKS. + + Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. + + * * * * * + + Brooks's Rhet. + W.P. 10 + + + To MARCIA STUART BROOKS + Whose teaching first demonstrated + to the authors that composition + could become a delight and pleasure, + this book is dedicated...... + + + +PREFACE + +The aim of this book is not to produce critical readers of literature, nor +to prepare the pupil to answer questions about rhetorical theory, but to +enable every pupil to express in writing, freely, clearly, and forcibly, +whatever he may find within him worthy of expression. + +Three considerations of fundamental importance underlie the plan of the +book:-- + +First, improvement in the performance of an act comes from the repetition +of that act accompanied by a conscious effort to omit the imperfections of +the former attempt. Therefore, the writing of a new theme in which, the +pupil attempts to avoid the error which occurred in his former theme is of +much greater educational value than is the copying of the old theme for +the purpose of correcting the errors in it. To copy the old theme is to +correct a result, to write a new theme correctly is to improve a process; +and it is this improvement of process that is the real aim of composition +teaching. + +Second, the logical arrangement of material should be subordinated to the +needs of the pupils. A theoretical discussion of the four forms of +discourse would require that each be completely treated in one place. Such +a treatment would ignore the fact that a high school pupil has daily need +to use each of the four forms of discourse, and that some assistance in +each should be given him as early in his course as possible. The book, +therefore, gives in Part 1 the elements of description, narration, +exposition, and argument, and reserves for Part II a more complete +treatment of each. In each part the effort has been made to adapt the +material presented to the maturity and power of thought of the pupil. + +Third, expression cannot be compelled; it must be coaxed. Only under +favorable conditions can we hope to secure that reaction of intellect and +emotion which renders possible a full expression of self. One of the most +important of these favorable conditions is that the pupil shall write +something he wishes to write, for an audience which wishes to hear it. The +authors have, therefore, suggested subjects for themes in which high +school pupils are interested and about which they will wish to write. It +is hoped that the work will be so conducted by the teacher that every +theme will be read aloud before the class. It is essential that the +criticism of a theme so read shall, in the main, be complimentary, +pointing out and emphasizing those things which the pupil has done well; +and that destructive criticism be largely impersonal and be directed +toward a single definite point. Only thus may we avoid personal +embarrassment to the pupil, give him confidence in himself, and assure him +of a sympathetic audience--conditions essential to the effective teaching +of composition. + +The plan of the book is as follows:-- + +1. Part 1 provides a series of themes covering description, narration, +exposition, and argument. The purpose is to give the pupil that +inspiration and that confidence in himself which come from the frequent +repetition of an act. + +2. Each theme differs from the preceding usually by a single point, and +the teaching effort should be confined to that point. Only a false +standard of accuracy demands that every error be corrected every time it +appears. Such a course loses sight of the main point in a multiplicity of +details, renders instruction ineffective by scattering effort, produces +hopeless confusion in the mind of the pupil, and robs composition of that +inspiration without which it cannot succeed. In composition, as in other +things, it is better to do but one thing at a time. + +3. Accompanying the written themes is a series of exercises, each designed +to emphasize the point presented in the text, but more especially intended +to provide for frequent drills in oral composition. + +4. Throughout the first four chapters the paragraph is the unit of +composition, but for the sake of added interest some themes of greater +length have been included. Chapter V, on the Whole Composition, serves as +a review and summary of the methods of paragraph development, shows how to +make the transition from one paragraph to another, and discusses the more +important rhetorical principles underlying the union of paragraphs into a +coherent and unified whole. + +5. The training furnished by Part 1 should result in giving to the pupil +some fluency of expression, some confidence in his ability to make known +to others that which he thinks and feels, and some power to determine that +the theme he writes, however rough-hewn and unshapely it may be, yet in +its major outlines follows closely the thought that is within his mind. If +the training has failed to give the pupil this power, it will be of little +advantage to him to have mastered some of the minor matters of technique, +or to have learned how to improve his phrasing, polish his sentences, and +distribute his commas. + +6. Part II provides a series of themes covering the same ground as Part I, +but the treatment of these themes is more complete and the material is +adapted to the increased maturity and thought power of the pupils. By +means of references the pupils are directed to all former treatments of +the topics they are studying. + +7. Part II discusses some topics usually treated in college courses in +rhetoric. These have been included for three reasons: first, because +comparatively few high school pupils go to college; second, because the +increased amount of time now given to composition enables the high school +to cover a wider field than formerly; and third, because such topics can +be studied with profit by pupils in the upper years of the high school +course. + +8. It is not intended that the text shall be recited. Its purpose is to +furnish a basis for discussion between teacher and pupils before the +pupils attempt to write. The real test of the pupils' mastery of a +principle discussed in the text will be their ability to put it into +practice. + +Any judgment of the success or failure of the book should be based upon +the quality of the themes which the pupils write. Criticisms and +suggestions will be welcomed from those who use the book. + +The authors wish to express their obligation for advice and assistance to +Professor Edward Fulton, Department of Rhetoric, University of Illinois; +Messrs. Gilbert S. Blakely and H. E. Foster, Instructors in English, +Morris High School, New York; Miss Elizabeth Richardson, Girls' High +School, Boston; Miss Katherine H. Shute, Boston Normal School; Miss E. +Marguerite Strauchon, Kansas City High School. + +The selections from Hawthorne, Longfellow, Lowell, Holmes, Whittier, +Warner, Burroughs, Howells, and Trowbridge are used by permission of and +by special arrangement with Hoaghton, Mifflin, and Company, publishers of +their works. + +Grateful acknowledgment is made to Harper and Brothers; The Century +Company; Doubleday, Page, and Company; and Charles Scribner's Sons for +permission to use the selections to which their names are attached: to the +publishers of the _Forum, Century, Atlantic Monthly, McClure's, Harper's, +Scribner's_, and the _Outlook_ for permission to use extracts: and to +Scott, Foresman, and Company; D. Appleton and Company; Henry Holt and +Company; G. P. Putnam's Sons; Thomas Y. Crowell and Company; and Benjamin +H. Sanborn and Company for permission to use copyrighted material. + + + +CONTENTS + + +PART I + +1. Expression of Ideas arising from Experience + +II. Expression of Ideas furnished by Imagination + +III. Expression of Ideas acquired through Language + +IV. The Purpose of Expression + +V. The Whole Composition + +VI. Letter Writing + +VII. Poetry + + +PART II + +VIII. Description + +IX. Narration + +X. Exposition + +XI. Argument + +Appendix + +I. Elements of Form + +II. Review of Grammar + +III. Figures of Speech + +IV. The Rhetorical Features of the Sentence + +V. List of Synonyms + +VI. List of Words for Exercise in Word Usage + +Index + + + +PART 1 + + +1. EXPRESSION OF IDEAS ARISING FROM EXPERIENCE + ++1. Pleasure in Expressing Ideas.+--Though we all enjoy talking, we cannot +write so easily as we talk, nor with the same pleasure. We seldom talk +about topics in which we are not interested and concerning which we know +little or nothing, but we often have such topics assigned to us as +subjects for compositions. Under such conditions it is no wonder that +there is little pleasure in writing. The ideas that we express orally are +those with which we are familiar and in which we are interested, and we +tell them because we wish to tell them to some one who is likewise +interested and who desires to hear what we have to say. Such expression of +ideas is enjoyed by all. If we but choose to express the same kinds of +ideas and for the same reason, there is an equal or even greater pleasure +to be derived from the expression of ideas in writing. The purpose of this +book is to show you how to express ideas _clearly, effectively_, and _with +pleasure_. + + ++2. Sources of Ideas.+--We must have ideas before we can express them. +There are three sources from which ideas arise. We may gain them from +experience; we may recombine them into new forms by the imagination; and +we may receive them from others through the medium of language, either by +conversation or by reading. + +Every day we add to our knowledge through our senses. We see and hear and +do, and thus, through experience, acquire ideas about things. By far the +greater part of expression has to do with ideas that have originated in +this way. The first chapter in this book is concerned with the expression +of ideas gained through experience. + +We may, however, think about things that have not actually occurred. We +may allow our minds to picture a football game that we have not seen, or +to plan a story about a boy who never existed. Nearly every one takes +pleasure in such an exercise of the imagination. The second chapter has to +do with the expression of ideas of this kind. + +We also add to our knowledge through the medium of language. Through +conversation and reading we learn what others think, and it is often of +value to restate these ideas. The expression of ideas so acquired is +treated in the third chapter. + + ++3. Advantages of Expressing Ideas Gained from Experience.+--Young people +sometimes find difficulty in writing because they "have nothing to say." +Such a reason will not hold in regard to ideas gained from experience. +Every one has a multitude of experiences every day, and wishes to tell +about some of them. Many of the things which happen to you or to your +friends, especially some which occur outside of the regular routine of +school work, are interesting and worth telling about. Thus experience +furnishes an abundance of material suitable for composition purposes, and +this material is of the best because the ideas are _sure to be your own_. +The first requisite of successful composition is to have thoughts of your +own. The expressing of ideas that are not your own is mere copy work, and +seldom worth doing. + +Ideas acquired through experience are not only interesting and your own, +but they are likely to be _clear_ and _definite_. You know what you do and +what you see; or, if you do not, the effort to express your ideas so that +they will be clear to others will make you observe closely for yourself. + +Still another advantage comes from the fact that your experiences are not +presented to you through the medium of language. When experience furnishes +the ideas, you are left free to choose for yourself the words that best +set forth what you wish to tell. The things of your experience are the +things with which you are most familiar, and therefore the words that best +apply to them are those which you most often use and whose meanings are +best known to you. + +Because experience supplies an abundance of interesting, clear, and +definite ideas, which are your own and which may be expressed in familiar +language, it furnishes better material for training in expression than +does either imagination or reading. + + ++4. Essentials of Expression.+--The proper expression of ideas depends +upon the observance of two essentials: first, you should say what you +mean; and second, you should say it clearly. Without these, what you say +may be not only valueless, but positively misleading. If you wish your +hearer to understand what occurred at a certain time and place, you must +first of all know yourself exactly what did occur. Then you must express +it in language that shall make him understand it as clearly as you do. You +will learn much about clearness, later; but even now you can tell whether +you know what is meant by each sentence which you hear or read. It is not +so easy to tell whether what you say will convey clearly to another the +meaning you intend to convey, but you will be helped in this if you ask +yourself the questions: "Do I know exactly what happened?" "Have I said +what I intended to say?" "Have I said it so that it will be clear to the +listener?" + + ++Oral Composition 1.+--_Report orally on one of the following:_-- + +1. Were you so interested in anything yesterday that you told it to your +parents or friends? Tell the class about it. + +2. Tell about something that you have done this week, so that the class +may know exactly what you did. + +3. Name some things in which you have been interested within the last two +or three months. Tell the class about one of them. + +4. Tell the class about something that happened during vacation. Have you +told the event exactly as it occurred? + + ++5. Interest.+--In order to enjoy listening to a story we must take an +interest in it, and the story should be so told as to arouse and maintain +this interest. As you have listened to the reports of your classmates you +have been more pleased with some than with others. Even though the meaning +of each was clear, yet the interest aroused was in each case different. +Since the purpose of a story is to entertain, any story falls short of its +purpose when it ceases to be interesting. We must at all times say what we +mean and say it clearly; but in story telling especially we must also take +care that what we say shall arouse and maintain interest. + + ++6. The Introduction.+--The story of an event should be introduced in such +a manner as to enable the hearer to understand the circumstances that are +related. Such an introduction contributes to clearness and has an +important bearing upon the interest of the entire composition. In order to +render our account of an event clear and interesting it is usually +desirable to tell the hearers _when_ and _where_ the event occurred and +_who_ were present. Their understanding of it may be helped further by +telling such of the attendant circumstances as will answer the question, +_Why_? If I begin my story by saying, "Last summer John Anderson and I +were on a camping trip in the Adirondacks," I have told when, where, and +who; and the addition of the words "on a camping trip" tells why we were +in the Adirondacks, and may serve to explain some of the events that are +to follow. Even the statement of the place indicates in some degree the +trend of the story, for many things that might occur "in the Adirondacks" +could not occur in a country where there are no mountains. Certainly the +story that would follow such an introduction would be expected to differ +from one beginning with the words, "Last summer John Anderson and I went +to visit a friend in New York." + +It is not always necessary to tell when, where, who, and why in the +introduction, but it is desirable to do so in most cases of oral story +telling. These four elements may not always be stated in incidents taken +from books, for the reader may be already familiar with them from the +preceding portions of the book. The title of a printed or written story +may serve as an introduction and give us all needed information. In +relating personal incidents the time element is seldom omitted, though it +may be stated indirectly or indefinitely by such expressions as "once" or +'lately.' In many stories the interest depends upon the plot, and the time +is not definitely stated. + + +EXERCISE + +Notice what elements are included in each of the following +introductions:-- + +1. Saturday last at Mount Holly, about eight miles from this place, nearly +three hundred people were gathered together to see an experiment or two +tried on some persons accused of witchcraft. + +2. On the morning of the 10th instant at sunrise, they were discovered +from Put-in-Bay, where I lay at anchor with the squadron under my command. + +3. It was on Sunday when I awoke to the realization that I had quitted +civilization and was afloat on an unfamiliar body of water in an open +boat. + +4. Up and down the long corn rows Pap Overholt guided the old mule and the +small, rickety, inefficient plow, whose low handles bowed his tall, broad +shoulders beneath the mild heat of a mountain June sun. As he went--ever +with a furtive eye upon the cabin--he muttered to himself, shaking his +head. + +5. After breakfast, I went down to the Saponey Indian town, which is about +a musket shot from the fort. + +6. The lonely stretch of uphill road, upon whose yellow clay the midsummer +sun beat vertically down, would have represented a toilsome climb to a +grown and unencumbered man. To the boy staggering under the burden of a +brimful carpet bag, it seemed fairly unscalable; wherefore he stopped at +its base and looked up in dismay to its far-off, red-hot summit. + +7. One afternoon last summer, three or four people from New York, two from +Boston, and a young man from the Middle West were lunching at one of the +country clubs on the south shore of Long Island, and there came about a +mild discussion of the American universities. + +8. "But where is the station?" inquired the Judge. + +"Ain't none, boss. Dis heah is jes a crossing. Train's about due now, sah; +you-all won't hab long fer to wait. Thanky, sah; good-by; sorry you-all +didn't find no birds." + +The Judge picked up his gun case and grip and walked toward his two +companions waiting on the platform a few yards away. Silhouetted against +the moonlight they made him think of the figure 10, for Mr. Appleton was +tall and erect, and the little Doctor short and circular. + +9. I sprang to the stirrup, and Joris and he; + I galloped, Dirck galloped, we galloped all three; + "Good speed!" cried the watch, as the gate bolts undrew, + "Speed!" echoed the wall to us galloping through. + Behind shut the postern, the lights sank to rest, + And into the midnight we galloped abreast. +--Browning. + + ++Oral Composition II.+--_Relate orally to the class some incident in which +you were personally concerned._ + +The following may suggest a subject:-- + 1. How I made friends with the squirrels. + 2. A trick of a tame crow. + 3. Why I missed the train. + 4. How a horse was rescued. + 5. Lost and found. + 6. My visit to a menagerie. + +(When preparing to relate this incident ask yourself first whether you +know exactly what happened. Consider then how to begin the story so that +your hearer will know when and where it happened and who were there. +Include in the beginning any statement that will assist the reader in +understanding the events which follow.) + + ++7. The Point of a Story.+--It is not necessary that a story be concerned +with a thrilling event in order to be interesting. Even a most commonplace +occurrence may be so told that it is worth listening to. It is more +important that a story have a point and be so told that this point will be +readily appreciated than that it deal with important or thrilling events. +The story should lead easily and rapidly to its point, and when this is +reached the end of the story should not be far distant. The beginning of a +story will contain statements that will assist us in appreciating the +point when we come to it, but if the point is plainly stated near the +beginning, or even if it is too strongly suggested, our story will drag. + +At what point in the following selection is the interest greatest? + + +During the Civil War, I lived in that portion of Tennessee which was +alternately held by the conflicting armies. My father and brothers were +away, as were all the other men in the neighborhood, except a few very old +ones and some half-grown boys. Mother and I were in constant fear of +injury from stragglers from both armies. We had never been disturbed, +for our farm was a mile or more back from the road along which such +detachments usually moved. We had periods of comparative quiet in which we +felt at ease, and then would come reports of depredation near at hand, or +rumors of the presence of marauding bands in neighboring settlements. + +One evening such a rumor came to us, and we were consequently anxious. +Early next morning, before the fog had lifted, I caught sight of two men +crossing the road at the far end of the orchard. They jumped over the +fence into the orchard and disappeared among the trees. I had but a brief +glimpse of them, but it was sufficient to show me that one had a gun over +his shoulder, while the other carried a saber. + +"Quick, Mother, quick!" I cried. "Come to the window. There are soldiers +in the orchard." + +Keeping out of sight, we watched the progress of the men through the +orchard. Our brief glimpses of them through the trees showed that they +were not coming directly to the house, but were headed for the barn and +sheds, and in order to keep out of sight, were following a slight ravine +which ran across the orchard and led to the back of the barns. + +Mother and I were very much excited and hardly knew what to do. Finally it +was determined to hide upstairs in hopes that the men were bent on +stealing chickens or pigs, and might leave without disturbing the house. +We locked the doors and went upstairs, taking with us the old musket and +the butcher knife. We could hear the men about the barn, and after what +seemed an interminable time we heard them coming towards the house. + +Though shaking all over, I summoned courage enough to go to the window and +look out of a hole in the shade. As the men came into sight around the +corner, I screamed outright, but from relief rather than fear, for the men +were not soldiers, but Grandpa Smith and his fourteen-year-old grandson. +They stopped at the well to get a drink, and when we opened the window, +the old man said, "We're just on our way to mow the back lot and stopped +to grind the scythe on your stone. We broke ours yesterday." + +Then he picked up the scythe which in the fog I had taken for a saber, +while the grandson again shouldered his pitchfork musket. + + +What effect would it have on the interest aroused by the preceding story +to begin it as follows? + + +"One morning during the Civil War, I saw two of my neighbors, Grandpa +Smith and his grandson, crossing our orchard, one carrying a scythe and +the other a pitchfork." + + +Why is the expression, "before the fog had lifted," used near the +beginning of the story? Would a description of the appearance of the +house, the barn, or the persons add to the interest aroused by the story? +Is it necessary to add anything to the story? + + +EXERCISE + + +In each of the following selections decide where the interest reaches its +climax. Has anything been said in the beginning of any of them which +suggests what the point will be, or which helps you to appreciate it when +you come to it? + + +1. The next evening our travelers encamped on a sand bar, or rather a +great bank of sand, that ran for miles along one side of the river. They +kept watch as usual, Leon taking the first turn. He seated himself on a +pile of sand and did his best to keep awake; but in about an hour after +the rest were asleep, he felt very drowsy and fell into a nap that lasted +nearly half an hour, and might have continued longer had he not slid down +the sand hill and tumbled over on his side. This awoke him. Feeling vexed +with himself, he rubbed his eyes and looked about to see if any creature +had ventured near. He first looked towards the woods, for of course that +was the direction from which the tigers would come; but he had scarcely +turned himself when he perceived a pair of eyes glancing at him from the +other side of the fire. Close to them another pair, then another and +another, until, having looked on every side, he saw himself surrounded by +a complete circle of glancing eyes. It is true they were small ones, and +some of the heads which he could see by the blaze were small. They were +not jaguars, but they had an ugly look. They looked like the heads of +serpents. Was it possible that a hundred serpents could have surrounded +the camp? + +Brought suddenly to his feet, Leon stood for some moments uncertain what +to do. He believed that the eyes belonged to snakes which had just crept +out of the river; and he feared that any movement on his part would lead +them to attack him. Having risen to his feet, his eyes were above the +level of the blaze, and he was able in a little while to see more clearly. + +He now saw that the snakelike heads belonged to creatures with large oval +bodies, and that, besides the fifty or more which had come up to look at +the fire, there were whole droves of them upon the sandy beach beyond. As +far as he could see on all sides, the bank was covered with them. A +strange sight it was, and most fearful. For his life he could not make out +what it meant, or by what sort of wild animals he was surrounded. + +He could see that their bodies were not larger than those of small sheep; +and, from the way in which they glistened in the moonlight, he was sure +they had come out of the river. He called to the Indian guide, who awoke +and started to his feet in alarm. The movement frightened the creatures +round the fire; they rushed to the shore, and were heard plunging by +hundreds into the water. + +The Indian's ear caught the sounds, and his eye took in the whole thing at +a glance. + +"Turtles," he said. + +"Oh," said the lad; "turtles, are they?" + +"Yes, master," answered the guide. "I suppose this is one of their great +hatching places. They are going to lay their eggs in the sand." + +--Captain Mayne Reid. + +Would the preceding incident be interesting if we were told at the +beginning that the boy and the Indian had encamped near a hatching place +of turtles? + + +2. Not every story that reads like fiction is fact, but the _Brooklyn +Eagle_ assures its readers that the one here quoted is quite true. The man +who told it was for many years an officer of the Chicago, Burlington & +Quincy Railroad Company in Illinois, and had annual passes over all the +important railroads in the country. His duties took him to Springfield, +the state capital, and as he generally went by the Chicago, Alton & St. +Louis road, the conductors on that line knew him so well that they never +asked to see his pass. + +"One day I received a telegram summoning me to meet one of the officers of +my company at Aurora the next morning. I had only a short time to catch my +train to Chicago, and in my haste left my passbook behind. I did not find +this out until I reached Chicago, and was about to take the last train for +Aurora that night. Then I saw that the conductor, a man brought over from +the Iowa division, was a stranger, and the fact that I would need my pass +reminded me that I did not have it. + +"I told the conductor the situation, but he said he could not carry me on +my mere representation that I had a pass. + +"Why, man," said I, "I am an officer of the company, going to Aurora on +company business, and this is the last train that will get me there in +time. You must take me." + +"He was polite, but firm. He said he was a new man on this division, and +could not afford to make any mistakes. + +"When I saw that he was determined, I rushed off to the telegraph office; +but it was too late to catch anybody authorized to issue passes, so I +settled it in my mind that I must go by carriage, and the prospect of an +all-night ride over bad roads through the dark was anything but inviting. +Indeed, it was so forbidding that I resolved to make one more appeal to +the conductor. + +"You simply must take me to Aurora!" I said, with intense earnestness. + +"I can't do it," he answered. "But I believe you are what you represent +yourself to be, and I will lend you the money personally. It is only one +dollar and twelve cents." + +"Well, sir, you could have knocked me down with the flat side of a +palm-leaf fan. I had more than two thousand dollars in currency in my +pocket, but it had never for an instant occurred to me that I could pay my +fare and ride on that train. I showed the conductor a wad of money that +made his eyes stick out. + +"I thought it was funny," said he, "that a man in your position couldn't +raise one dollar and twelve cents. It was that that made me believe you +were playing a trick to see if I would violate the rule." + +"The simple truth was, I had ridden everywhere on passes so many years, +that it did not occur to me that I could ride in any other way." + ++Oral Composition III.+[Footnote: Oral compositions should be continued +throughout the course. A few minutes may be profitably used once or twice +each week in having each member of the class stand before the class and +relate briefly some incident which he has witnessed since the last meeting +of the class. Exercises like those on page 53 also will furnish +opportunities for oral work.]--_Relate to the class some personal +incident suggested by one of the following subjects_:-- + + 1. A day with my cousin. + 2. Caught in the act. + 3. A joke on me. + 4. My peculiar mistake. + 5. My experience on a farm. + 6. My experience in a strange Sunday school. + 7. What I saw when I was coming to school. + +(In preparation for this exercise, consider the point of your story. What +must you tell first in order to enable the hearers to understand the +point? Can you say anything that will make them want to know what the +point is without really telling them? Can you lead up to it without too +long a delay? Can you stop when the point has been made?) + ++8. Theme Writing and Correcting.+--Any written exercise, whether long or +short, is called a theme throughout this book. Just as one learns to skate +by skating, so one learns to write by writing; therefore many themes will +be required. Since the clear expression of thought is one of the essential +characteristics of every theme, theme correction should be primarily +directed to improvement in clearness. The teacher will need to assist in +this correction, but the really valuable part is that which you do for +yourself. After you leave school you will need to decide for yourself what +is right and what is best, and it is essential that you now learn how to +make such decisions. + +To aid you in acquiring a habit of self-correction, questions or +suggestions follow the directions for writing each theme. In Theme I you +are to express clearly to others something that is already clear to you. + + ++Theme I.+-_Write a short theme on one of the subjects that you have used +for an oral composition._ + +(After writing this theme, read it aloud to yourself. Does it read +smoothly? Have you told what actually happened? Have you told it so that +the hearers will understand you? Have you said what you meant to say? +Consider the introduction. Has the story a point?) + + ++9. The Conclusion.+--Since the point of a story marks the climax of +interest, it is evident that the conclusion must not be long delayed after +the point has been reached. If the story has been well told, the point +marks the natural conclusion, and a sentence or two will serve to bring +the story to a satisfactory end. If a suitable ending does not suggest +itself, it is better to omit the conclusion altogether than to construct a +forced or flowery one. Notice the conclusion of the incident of the Civil +War related on page 18. + + ++Theme II.+-_Write a short theme suggested by one of the following +subjects:_-- + + 1. A school picnic. + 2. A race. + 3. The largest fire I have seen. + 4. A skating accident. + 5. A queer mistake. + 6. An experience with a tramp. + +(Correct with reference to meaning and clearness. Consider the +introduction; the point; the conclusion.) + + ++10. Observation of Actions.+--Many of our most interesting experiences +arise from observing the actions of others. A written description of what +we have observed will gain in interest to the reader, if, in addition to +telling what was done, we give some indication of the way in which it was +done. A list of tools a carpenter uses and the operations he performs +during the half hour we watch him, may be dull and uninteresting; but our +description may have an added value if it shows his manner of working so +that the reader can determine whether the carpenter is an orderly, +methodical, and rapid worker or a mere putterer who is careless, +haphazard, and slow. Two persons will perform similar actions in very +different ways. Our description should be so worded as to show what the +differences are. + + ++Theme III.+--_Write a theme relating actions._ + + Suggested subjects:-- + 1. A mason, blacksmith, painter, or other mechanic at work. + 2. How my neighbor mows his lawn. + 3. What a man does when his automobile breaks down. + 4. Describe the actions of a cat, dog, rabbit, squirrel, or other + animal. + 5. Watch the push-cart man a half-hour and report what he did. + + +(Have you told exactly what was done? Can you by the choice of suitable +words show more plainly the way in which it was done? Does this theme need +to have an introduction? A point? A conclusion?) + + ++11. Selection of Details.+--You are at present concerned with telling +events that actually happen; but this does not mean that you need to +include everything that occurs. If you wish to tell a friend about some +interesting or exciting incident at a picnic, he will not care to hear +everything that took place during the day. He may listen politely to a +statement of what train you took and what you had in your lunch basket, +but he will be little interested in such details. In order to maintain +interest, the point of your story must not be too long delayed. Brevity is +desirable, and details that bear little relation to the main point, and +that do not prepare the listener to understand and appreciate this point, +are better omitted. + + ++Theme IV.+--_Write about something that you have done. Use any of the +following subjects, or one suggested by them:_-- + + 1. My first hunt. + 2. Why I was tardy. + 3. My first fishing trip. + 4. My narrow escape. + 5. A runaway. + 6. What I did last Saturday. + +(Read the theme aloud to yourself. Does it read smoothly? Have you said +what you meant to say? Have you expressed it clearly? Consider the +introduction; the point; the conclusion. Reject unnecessary details.) + + ++12. Order of Events.+--The order in which events occur will assist in +establishing the order in which to relate them. If you are telling about +only one person, you can follow the time order of the events as they +actually happened; but if you are telling about two or more persons who +were doing different things at the same time, you will need to tell first +what one did and then what another did. You must, however, make it clear +to the reader that, though you have told one event after the other, they +really happened at the same time. + +In the selection below notice how the italicized portions indicate the +relation in time that the different events bear to one another. + + +At the beach yesterday a fat woman and her three children caused a great +commotion. They had rigged themselves out in hired suits which might be +described as an average fit, for that of the mother was as much too small +as those of the children were too large. They trotted gingerly out into +the surf, wholly unconscious that the crowd of beach loungers had, for the +time, turned their attention from each other to the quartet in the water. +By degrees the four worked out farther and farther until a wave larger +than usual washed the smallest child entirely off his feet, and caused the +mother to scream lustily for help. The people on the beach started up, and +two or three men hastened to the rescue, but their progress was impeded by +the crowd of frightened girls and women _who were scrambling and splashing +towards the shore_. The mother's frantic efforts to reach the little boy +were rendered ineffectual by the two girls, _who at the moment of the +first alarm had been strangled_ by the salt water and _were now clinging_ +desperately to her arms and _attempting_ to climb up to her shoulders. +_Meanwhile_, the lifeboat man was rowing rapidly towards the scene, but it +seemed to the onlookers _who had rushed to the platform railing_ that he +would never arrive. _At the same time_ a young man, _who had started from +the diving raft some time before_, was swimming towards shore with +powerful strokes. He _now_ reached the spot, caught hold of the boy, and +lifted him into the lifeboat, which had _at last_ arrived. + +Such expressions as _meanwhile, in the meantime, during, at last, while_, +etc., are regularly used to denote the kind of time relations now under +discussion. They should be used when they avoid confusion, but often a +direct transition from one set of actions to another can be made without +their use. Notice also the use of the relative clause to indicate time +relations. + + ++Theme V.+-_Write a short theme, using some one of the subjects named +under the preceding themes or one suggested by them. Select one which you +have not already used._ + +(Have you told enough to enable the reader to follow easily the thread of +the story and to understand what you meant to tell? If your theme is +concerned with more than one set of activities, have you made the +transition from one to another in such a way as to be clear to the reader? +Have you expressed the transitions with the proper time relations? What +other questions should you ask yourself while correcting this theme?) + + +SUMMARY + + 1. There is a pleasure to be derived from the expression of ideas. + + 2. There are three sources of ideas: experience, imagination, language. + + 3. Ideas gained from experience may be advantageously used for + composition purposes because-- + _a._ They are interesting. + _b._ They are your own. + _c._ They are likely to be clear and definite. + _d._ They offer free choice of language. + + 4. The two essentials of expression are-- + _a._ To say what you mean. + _b._ To say it clearly. + 5. A story should be told so as to arouse and maintain interest. + Therefore,-- + _a._ The introduction usually tells when, where, who, and why. + _b._ Every story worth telling has a point. + _c._ Only such details are included as are essential to the + development + of the point. + _d._ The conclusion is brief. The story comes to an end shortly + after the point is told. + + 6. Care must be taken to indicate the time order, especially when two or + more events occur at the same time. + + 7. The correction of one's own theme is the most valuable form of + correction. + + + +II. EXPRESSION OF IDEAS FURNISHED BY IMAGINATION + + ++13. Relation of Imagination to Experience.+--All ideas are based upon and +spring from experience, and the imagination merely places them in new +combinations. For the purpose of this book, however, it is convenient to +distinguish those themes that relate real events as they actually occurred +from those themes that relate events that did not happen. That body of +writing which we call literature is largely composed of works of an +imaginative character, and for this reason it has sometimes been +carelessly assumed that in order to write one must be possessed of an +excellent imagination. Such an assumption loses sight of the fact that +imaginative writings cover but one small part of the whole field. The +production of literature is the business of a few, while every one has +occasion every day to express ideas. It is evident that by far the greater +part of the ideas we are called upon to express do not require the use of +the imagination, but exercises in writing themes of an imaginative +character are given here because there is pleasure in writing such themes +and because practice in writing them will aid us in stating clearly and +effectively the many ideas arising from our daily experiences. + + ++14. Advantages and Disadvantages of Imaginative Theme Writing.+--Ideas +furnished by the imagination are no less your own than are those furnished +by experience, and the same freedom in the choice of language prevails. +Such ideas are, however, not likely to be so clear and definite. At the +time of their occurrence they do not make so deep and vital an impression +upon you. If not recorded as they occur, they can seldom be recalled in +the original form. Even though you attempt to write these imaginary ideas +as you think them, you can and do change and modify them as you go along. +This lack of clearness and permanent form, while it seems to give greater +freedom, carries with it disadvantages. In the first place the ideas are +less likely to be worth recording, and in the second place it is more +difficult to give them a unity and directness of statement that will hold +the attention and interest of the reader until the chief point is reached. + + ++15. Probability.+--Not everything that the imagination may furnish is +equally worth expressing. If you choose to write about something for which +imagination supplies the ideas, you may create for yourself such ideas as +you wish. Their order of occurrence and their time and place are not +determined by outward events, but solely by the mind itself. The events +are no longer real and actual, but may be changed and rearranged without +limit. An imaginative series of events may conform closely to the real and +probable, or it may be manifestly improbable. Which will be of greater +interest will depend upon the reader, but it will be found that the story +which comes nearest to reality is most satisfactory. In relating fairy +tales we confessedly attempt to tell events not possible in the real +world, but in relating tales of real life, however imaginary, we should +tell the events so that everything seems both possible and probable. An +imaginative story, in which the persons seem to be real persons who do and +say the things that real persons do and say, will be found much more +satisfactory than a story that depends for its outcome on something +manifestly impossible. He who really does the best in imaginative writing +is the one who has most closely observed the real events of everyday life, +and states his imaginary events so that they seem real. + + ++Theme VI.+--_Write a short theme, using one of the subjects below. You +need not tell something that actually happened, but what you tell should +be so told that your readers will think it might have happened._ + + 1. A trip in a sailboat. + 2. The travels of a penny. + 3. How I was lost. + 4. A cat's account of a mouse hunt. + 5. The mouse's account of the same hunt. + 6. My experience with a burglar. + 7. The burglar's story. + + ++16. Euphony.+--Besides clearness in a composition there are other +desirable qualities. To one of these, various names have been applied, as +"euphony," "ease," "elegance," "beauty," etc. Of two selections equally +clear in meaning one may be more pleasing than the other. One may seem +harsh and rough, while the other flows along with a satisfying ease and +smoothness. If the thought that is in our mind fails to clothe itself in +suitable language and appropriate figures, we can do little by conscious +effort toward improving the beauty of the language; but by avoiding choppy +sentences and inharmonious combinations of words and phrases, we may +remove from our compositions much that is harsh and rough. That quality +which we call ease or euphony is better detected by the ear than by the +eye, and for this reason it has been suggested that you read each theme +aloud to yourself before presenting it to the class. Such a reading will +assist you to determine whether you have made your meaning clear and to +eliminate some of the more disagreeable combinations. + + ++17. Variety.+--Of the many elements which affect the euphony of a theme +none is more essential than variety. The constant repetition of the same +thing grows monotonous and distasteful, while a pleasing variety maintains +interest and improves the story. For the sake of this variety we avoid the +continual use of the same words and phrases, substituting synonyms and +equivalent expressions if we have need to repeat the same idea many times. + +Most children begin every sentence of a story with "and," or perhaps it is +better to say that they conclude many sentences with "and-uh," leaving the +thought in suspense while they are trying to think of what to say next. +High school pupils are not wholly free from this habit, and it is +sometimes retained in their written work. This excessive use of _and_ +needs to be corrected. An examination of our language habits will show +that nearly every one has one or more words which he uses to excess. A +professor of rhetoric, after years of correcting others, discovered by +underscoring the word _that_ each time it occurred in his own writing that +he was using it twice as often as necessary. _Got_ is one of the words +used too frequently, and often incorrectly. + + +EXERCISES + +1. In the following selection notice how each sentence begins. Compare it +with one of your own themes. + + +I was witness to events of a less peaceful character. One day when I went +out to my woodpile, or rather my pile of stumps, I observed two large +ants, the one red, and the other much larger, nearly half an inch long, +and black, fiercely contending with each other. Having once got hold, they +never let go, but struggled and wrestled and rolled on the chips +incessantly. Looking farther, I was surprised to find that the chips were +covered with such combatants; that it was not a _duellum_, but a +_bellum_,--a war between two races of ants, the red always pitted against +the black, and frequently two red ones to one black. The legions of these +Myrmidons covered all the hills and vales in my woodyard, and the ground +was already strewn with the dead and the dying, both red and black. + +It was the only battle which I have ever witnessed--the only battlefield I +ever trod while the battle was raging.... On every side they were engaged +in deadly combat, yet without any noise that I could hear, and human +soldiers never fought so resolutely.--Thoreau. + + +2. Examine one of your own themes. If some word occurs frequently, +underscore it each time, and then substitute words or expressions for it +in as many places as you can. If necessary, reconstruct the sentences so +as to avoid using the word in some cases. Notice how these substitutions +give a variety to your expression and improve the euphony of your +composition. + + +Theme VII.--_Write a short story suggested by one of the following +subjects:_-- + + 1. The trout's revenge. + 2. A sparrow's mistake. + 3. A fortunate shot. + 4. The freshman and the professor. + 5. What the bookcase thought about it. + +(Correct with reference to meaning and clearness. Cross out unnecessary +_ands_. Consider the beginnings of the sentences. Can you improve the +euphony by a different choice of words?) + + +18. Sentence Length.--Euphony is aided by securing a variety in the length +of sentences. In endeavoring to avoid the excessive use of _and_, some +pupils obtain results illustrated by the following example:-- + + +Jean passed through the door of the church. He saw a child sitting on one +of the stone steps. She was fast asleep in the midst of the snow. The +child was thinly clad. Her feet, cold as it was, were bare. + + +A theme composed wholly of such a succession of short sentences is +tedious. Especially when read aloud does its monotony become apparent. +Though the thought in each sentence is complete, the effect is not +satisfactory to the reader, because the thought of the whole does not come +to him as fast as his mind can act. Such an arrangement of sentences might +be satisfactory to young children, because it would agree with their +habits of thought; but as one grows in ability to think more rapidly, he +finds that longer and more complicated sentences best express his thoughts +and are best understood by those for whom he writes. We introduce +sentences of different length and different structure, because they more +clearly express the thought of the whole and state it in a form more in +accordance with the mental activity of the hearer. When we have done this, +we at the same time secure a variety that avoids monotony. + +In attempting to avoid a series of short sentences, care should be taken +not to go to the other extreme. Sentences should not be overloaded. Too +many adjectives or participles or subordinate clauses will render the +meaning obscure. The number of phrases and clauses that may safely be +introduced will be determined by the ability of the mind to grasp the +meaning readily and accurately. It is sometimes quite as important to +separate a long sentence into shorter ones as it is to combine short ones +into those of greater length. + +Notice in the following selection the different ways in which several +ideas have been brought into the same sentence without rendering the +meaning obscure:-- + + +Loki made his way across a vast desert moorland, and came, after three +days, into the barren hill country and among the rugged mountains of the +South. There an earthquake had split the rocks asunder, and opened dark +and bottomless gorges, and hollowed out many a low-walled cavern, where +the light of day was never seen. Along deep, winding ways, Loki went, +squeezing through narrow crevices, creeping under huge rocks, and gliding +through crooked clefts, until he came at last into a great underground +hall, where his eyes were dazzled by a light that was stronger and +brighter than the day; for on every side were glowing fires, roaring in +wonderful little gorges, and blown by wonderful little bellows. + + ++Theme VIII.+--_Write a story suggested by one of the following +subjects:_-- + + 1. School in the year 2000. + 2. The lost door key. + 3. Our big bonfire. + 4. Kidnapped. + 5. A bear hunt. + 6. A mistake in the telegram. + 7. How Fido rescued his master. + + +(Can you render the meaning more clear by uniting short sentences into +longer ones, or by separating long sentences into shorter ones? Can you +omit any _ands_? How many of the sentences begin with the same word? Can +you change any of those words? Pick out the words which show the +subordinate relation of some parts to others. Do all of the incidents in +your story seem probable?) + + ++19. Conversation.+--It must not be inferred from the preceding section +that short sentences are never to be used. They are quite as necessary as +long ones, and in some cases, such as the portraying of strong emotion, +are more effective. Even a succession of short sentences may be used with +good results to describe rapid action. In conversation, also, sentences +are generally short, and often grammatically incomplete, though they may +be understood by the hearer. Sometimes this incompleteness is justified by +the idiom of the language, but more often it is the result of carelessness +on the part of the speaker. The hearer understands what is said either +because he knows about what to expect, or because the expression is a +familiar one. Such carelessness not only causes the omission of words +grammatically necessary, but brings about the incorrect pronunciation of +words and their faulty combination into sentences. + +You speak much more often than you write. Your habits of speech are likely +to become permanent and your errors of speech will creep into your written +work. It is important therefore that you watch your spoken language. +Occasions will arise when the slang expressions that you so freely use +will seem inappropriate, and it will be unfortunate indeed if you find +that you have used the slang so long that you have no other words to take +their place. An abbreviated form of _gymnasium_ or of _mathematics_ may +not attract attention among your schoolmates, but there are circles where +such abbreviations are not used. By watching your own speech you will find +that some incorrect forms are very common. Improvement can be made by +giving your attention to one of them, such as the use of _guess_, or of +_got_, or of _don't_ and _doesn't_. + +In making a written report of conversation you should remember that short +sentences predominate. A conversation composed of long sentences would +seem stilted and made to order. What each person says, however short, is +put into a separate division and indented. Explanatory matter accompanying +the conversation is placed with the spoken part to which it most closely +relates. Notice the indentations and the use of quotation marks in several +printed reports of conversation. + + ++20. Ideas from Pictures.+--If you look at a picture and then attempt to +tell some one else what you see, you will express ideas gained by +experience. A picture may, however, cause a very different set of ideas to +arise. Look at the picture on page 38. Can you imagine the circumstances +that preceded the situation shown by the picture? Or again, can you not +begin with that situation and imagine what would be done next? If you +write out either of the series of events, the theme, though suggested by +the picture, will be composed of ideas furnished by the imagination. In +the writing of a story suggested by a picture, the situation given in the +picture should be made the point of greatest interest, and should be +accounted for by relating a series of events supposed to have preceded it. + + ++Theme IX.+--_Write a story that will account for the condition shown in +the picture on page 38._ + +(Correct with reference to clearness and meaning. Do you need to change +the sentence length either for the sake of clearness or for the sake of +variety? Cross out unnecessary _ands_. Underscore _got_ and _then_ each +time you have used them. Can the reader follow the thread of your story to +its chief point?) + + +[Illustration] + + ++21. Vocabulary.+--A word is the symbol of an idea, and the addition of a +word to one's vocabulary usually means that a new idea has been acquired. +The more we see and hear and read, the greater our stock of ideas becomes. +As our life experiences increase, so should our supply of words increase. +We may have ideas without having the words with which to express them, and +we may meet with words whose meanings we do not know. In either case there +is chance for improvement. When you have a new idea, find out how best to +express it, and when you meet with a new word, add it to your vocabulary. + +It is necessary to distinguish between our reading vocabulary and our +writing vocabulary. There are many words that belong only to the first. We +know what they mean when we meet them in our reading, but we do not use +them in our writing. Our speaking vocabulary also differs from that which +we employ in writing. We use words and phrases on paper that seldom appear +in our speech, and, on the other hand, many of the words that we speak do +not appear in our writing. There is, however, a constant shifting of words +from one to another of these three groups. When we meet an unknown word, +it usually becomes a part of our reading vocabulary. Later it may appear +in our written work, and finally we may use it in speaking. We add a word +to our reading vocabulary when we determine its meaning, but _we must use +it_ in order to add it to our writing and speaking vocabulary. A conscious +effort to aid in this acquisition of words is highly desirable. + +A limited vocabulary indicates limited ideas. If one is limited to +_awfully_ in order to express a superlative; if his use of adjectives is +restricted to _nice, jolly, lovely_, and _elegant;_ if he must always +_abominate_ and never _abhor_, _detest, dislike_, or _loathe;_ if he can +only _adore_ and not _admire, respect, revere_, or _venerate_,--then he +has failed, indeed, to know the possibilities and beauties of English. +Such a language habit shows a mind that has failed to distinguish between +ideas. The best way to study the shades of meaning and the choice of words +is in the actual production of a theme wherein there is need to bring out +these differences in meaning by the use of words; but some help may be +gained from a formal study of synonyms and antonyms and of the distinction +in use and meaning between words which are commonly confused with each +other. For this purpose such exercises are given in the Appendix. + + ++22. Choice of Words.+--Even though our words may express the proper +meaning, the effect may not be a desirable one unless we use words suited +to the occasion described and to the person writing. Pupils of high school +age know the meaning of many words which are too "bookish" for daily use +by them. Edward Everett Hale might use expressions which would not be +suitable for a freshman's composition. Taste and good judgment will help +you to avoid the unsuitable or grandiloquent. + +The proper selection of words not only implies that we shall avoid the +wrong word, but also that we shall choose the right one. A suitable +adjective may give a clearer image than is expressed by a whole sentence; +a single verb may tell better how some one acted than can be told by a +lengthy explanation. Since narration has to do with action, we need in +story telling to be especially careful in our choice of verbs. + +What can you say of the suitability of the words in the following +selection, taken from an old school reader? + + +_Mrs. Lismore._ You are quite breathless, Charles; where have you been +running so violently? + +_Charles._ From the poultry yard, mamma, where I have been diverting +myself with the bravado of the old gander. I did not observe him till he +came toward me very fiercely, when, to induce him to pursue me, I ran from +him. He followed, till, supposing he had beaten me, he returned to the +geese, who appeared to receive him with acclamations of joy, cackling very +loud, and seeming actually to laugh, and to enjoy the triumph of their +gallant chief. + +_Emma._ I wish I had been with you, Charles; I have often admired the +gambols of these beautiful birds, and wondered how they came by the +appellation of _silly_, which is generally bestowed on them. I remember +Martha, our nursery maid, used often to call me a _silly goose_. How came +they to deserve that term, mamma? they appear to me to have as much +intelligence as any of the feathered tribe. + +_Mrs. Lismore._ I have often thought with you, Emma, and supposed that +term, like many others, misapplied, for want of examining into the justice +of so degrading an epithet. + + ++23. Improbability.+--Up to this point we have been concerned with +relating events that _could_ exist, though we knew that they _did_ not. We +may, however, imagine a series of events that are manifestly impossible. +There is a pleasure in inventing improbable stories, and if we know from +the beginning that they are to be so, we enjoy listening to them. Such +tales are more satisfactory to young persons than to older ones, as is +shown by our declining interest in fairy stories as we grow older. + +By limiting the improbability to a part of the story, it is possible to +give an air of reality to the whole. Though the conditions described in a +story about a trip to the moon might be wholly impossible, yet the reader +for the time being might feel that the events were actually happening if +the characters in the story were acting as real men would act under +similar circumstances. In stories such as those of Thompson-Seton, where +the animals are personified, the impossibilities are forgotten, because +the actions and situations are so real. In fairy stories and similar tales +neither characters nor actions are in any way limited by probability. + + ++Theme X.+--_Write a short story suggested by one of the subjects below. +Make either the characters or their surroundings seem real._ + + 1. A week in Mars. + 2. Exploring the lake bottom. + 3. The cat's defense of her kittens. + (_a_) As told by the cat. + (_b_) As told by the dog. + 4. How the fox fooled the hound. + 5. Diary of a donkey. + 6. A biography of Jack Frost. + + +(Correct with reference to meaning and clearness and two other points to +be assigned by the teacher.) + + ++24. How to Increase One's Vocabulary.+--In your daily work do what you +can to add words to your reading vocabulary, and especially to increase +your writing vocabulary. In the conversation of others and in reading you +will meet with many new words, and you should attempt to make them your +own. To do this, four things must be attended to:-- + +1. _Spelling._ Definite attention should be given to each new word until +its form both as written and as printed is indelibly stamped upon the +mind. In your general reading and in each of the subjects that you will +study in the high school you will meet unfamiliar words. It is only by +mastering the spelling of each new word _when you first meet it_ that you +can insure yourself against future chagrin from bad spelling. A part of +the time in each high school subject may well be devoted to the mastering +of the words peculiar to that subject. + +2. _Pronunciation._ The complete acquisition of a word includes its +pronunciation. In reading aloud and in speaking, we have need to know it, +and faulty pronunciation is considered an indication of lack of culture. + +3. _Meaning._ This includes more than the ability to give the definition +as found in the dictionary. It is possible to recite such definitions +glibly without in reality knowing the meaning of the word defined. It is +necessary to connect the word definitely and permanently in our mind with +the idea for which it is the symbol and to be able to distinguish the idea +clearly from others closely related to it. + +4. _Use._ The actual use of a word is very important. If a word is to come +into our speaking and writing vocabulary, we must use it. It is important +that the spelling, pronunciation, and meaning be determined when you +_first_ meet the word, and it is equally important that the word be _used_ +soon and often. + + ++Theme XI.+--_Write a short story suggested by one of the following +subjects. It may be wholly improbable, if you choose._ + + 1. The good fairy. + 2. Mary's luck. + 3. The man in the moon. + 4. The golden apple. + 5. A wonderful fountain pen. + 6. The goobergoo and the kantan. + + +(Correct with reference to meaning and clearness and two other points to +be assigned by the teacher.) + + +SUMMARY + +1. The clear expression of the ideas connected with our daily experiences + is of greater importance to most of us than is the production of + literature. + +2. Ideas furnished by imagination may be advantageously used for + composition purposes, because-- + _a._ They are your own. + _b._ They offer free choice of language. + They are less desirable than those gained from experience, because-- + _a._ They generally lack clearness and permanency. + _b._ They are less likely to be worth recording. + _c._ It is more difficult to give them that unity and directness of + statement that will keep the interest of the reader. + +3. An imaginative series of events may seem probable or improbable. He who + most closely observes real life and states his imaginary events so + that they seem real will succeed best in imaginative writing. + +4. Euphony is a desirable quality in a composition. + +5. Variety aids euphony. It is gained by-- + _a._ Avoiding the repetition of the same words and phrases. + _b._ Beginning our sentences in various ways. + _c._ Using sentences of different lengths. + +6. Conversation is usually composed of short sentences. + +7. Pictures may suggest ideas suitable for use in compositions. + +8. Our reading, writing, and speaking vocabularies differ. + Each should be increased. With each new word + attention should be given to-- + _a._ Spelling. + _b._ Pronunciation. + _c._ Meaning. + _d._ Use. + + + +III. EXPRESSION OF IDEAS ACQUIRED THROUGH LANGUAGE + + ++25. Language as a Medium through Which Ideas are Acquired.+--We have +been considering language as a means of expression, an instrument by which +we can convey to others the ideas which come to us from experience and +imagination. We shall now consider it from a different point of view. +Language is not merely a means of expressing ideas, but it is also a +medium through which ideas are acquired. It has a double use: the writer +must put thought into language; the reader must get it out. A large part +of your schooling has been devoted to acquiring ideas from language, and +these ideas may be used for purposes of composition. _Since it is +absolutely necessary to have ideas before you can express them_, it will +be worth while to consider for a time how to get them from language. + + ++26. Image Making.+--Read the following selection from Hawthorne and form +a clear mental image of each scene:-- + + +At first, my fancy saw only the stern hills, lonely lakes, and venerable +woods. Not a tree, since their seeds were first scattered over the infant +soil, had felt the ax, but had grown up and flourished through its long +generation, had fallen beneath the weight of years, been buried in green +moss, and nourished the roots of others as gigantic. Hark! A light paddle +dips into the lake, a birch canoe glides around the point, and an Indian +chief has passed, painted and feather-crested, armed with a bow of +hickory, a stone tomahawk, and flint-headed arrows. But the ripple had +hardly vanished from the water, when a white flag caught the breeze, over +a castle in the wilderness, with frowning ramparts and a hundred +cannon.... A war party of French and Indians were issuing from the gate to +lay waste some village of New England. Near the fortress there was a group +of dancers. The merry soldiers footing it with the swart savage maids; +deeper in the wood, some red men were growing frantic around a keg of the +fire-water; and elsewhere a Jesuit preached the faith of high cathedrals +beneath a canopy of forest boughs. + + +Did you form clear mental images? Can you picture them all at the same +time, or must you turn your attention from one image to another? The +formation of the proper mental images will be aided by making a persistent +effort to create them. + +Many words do not cause us to form images; for example, _goodness, +innocence, position, insurance_; but when the purpose of a word is to set +forth an image, we should take care to get the correct one. In this the +dictionary will not always help us. We must distinguish between the +ability to repeat a definition and the power to form an accurate image of +the thing defined. The difficulty of forming correct images by the use of +dictionary definitions is so great that the definitions are frequently +accompanied by pictures. + + +EXERCISES + + +Notice the different mental images that come to you as you read each of +the following selections. Distinguish words that cause images to arise +from those that do not. + + +1. Before these fields were shorn and tilled, + Full to the brim our rivers flowed; + The melody of waters filled + The fresh and boundless wood; + And torrents dashed, and rivulets played, + And fountains spouted in the shade. + +--Bryant: _An Indian at the Burial Place of his Fathers_. + + +2. At that moment the woods were filled with another burst of cries, and +at the signal four savages sprang from the cover of the driftwood. Heyward +felt a burning desire to rush forward to meet them, so intense was the +delirious anxiety of the moment; but he was restrained by the deliberate +examples of the scout and Uncas. When their foes, who leaped over the +black rocks that divided them, with long bounds, uttering the wildest +yells, were within a few rods, the rifle of Hawkeye slowly rose among the +shrubs and poured out its fatal contents. The foremost Indian bounded like +a stricken deer and fell headlong among the clefts of the island. + +--Cooper: _Last of the Mohicans_. + + +3. The towering flames had now surmounted every obstruction, and rose to +the evening skies, one huge and burning beacon, seen far and wide through +the adjacent country. Tower after tower crashed down, with blazing roof +and rafter; and the combatants were driven from the courtyard. The +vanquished of whom very few remained, scattered and escaped into the +neighboring wood. The victors, assembling in large bands, gazed with +wonder, not unmixed with fear, upon the flames, in which their own ranks +and arms glanced dusky red. The maniac figure of the Saxon Ulrica was for +a long time visible on the lofty stand she had chosen, tossing her arms +abroad with wild exaltation as if she reigned empress of the conflagration +which she had raised. At length, with a terrific crash, the whole turret +gave way and she perished in the flames which had consumed her tyrant. + +--Scott: _Ivanhoe_. + + +4. Under a spreading chestnut tree + The village smithy stands; + The smith, a mighty man is he, + With large and sinewy hands; + And the muscles of his brawny arms + Are strong as iron bands. + +--Longfellow: _The Village Blacksmith_. + + +5. Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered weak and weary, + Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore-- + While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, + As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door; + "'Tis some visitor," I muttered, "tapping at my chamber door-- + Only this, and nothing more." + +--Edgar A. Poe: _The Raven_. + + +6. Where with black cliffs the torrents toil, + He watch'd the wheeling eddies boil, + Till, from their foam, his dazzled eyes + Beheld the River Demon rise; + The mountain mist took form and limb + Of noontide hag or goblin grim. + +--Scott: _Lady of the Lake_. + + +7. On nearer approach he was still more surprised at the singularity of +the stranger's appearance. He was a short, square-built old fellow, with +thick, bushy hair and a grizzled beard. His dress was of the antique Dutch +fashion--a cloth jerkin strapped around the waist--several pairs of +breeches, the outer ones of ample volume, decorated with rows of buttons +down the sides and bunches at the knees. He bore on his shoulder a stout +keg that seemed full of liquor, and made signs for Rip to approach and +assist him with his load. + +--Washington Irving: _Rip Van Winkle_. + + ++27. Complete and Incomplete Images.+--Some sentences have for their +purpose the presentation of an image, but in order to form that image +correctly and completely, we must be familiar with the words used. If an +unfamiliar word is introduced, the mind may omit entirely the image +represented, or may substitute some other for it. Notice the image +presented by this sentence from Henry James: "Her dress was dark and rich; +she had pearls around her neck and an old rococo fan in her hand." If the +meaning of _rococo_ is unknown to you, the image which you form will not +be exactly the one that Mr. James had in mind. The pearls and the dress +may stand out clearly in your image, but the fan will be lacking or +indistinct. The whole may be compared to a photograph of which a part is +blurred. If your attention is directed to the fan, you may recall the word +_rococo_, but not the image represented by it. If your attention is not +called to the fan, the mind is satisfied with the indistinct image, or +substitutes for it an image of some other fan. Such an image is therefore +either incomplete or inaccurate. + +An oath in court provides that we shall "tell the truth, the whole truth, +and nothing but the truth," but, in forming images, it is not always +possible to hold our minds to such exactness. We are prone to picture more +or less than the words convey. In fact, in some forms of prose, and often +in poetry, the author purposely takes advantage of this habit of the mind +and wishes us to enlarge with creations of our own imagination the bare +image that his words convey. Such writing, however, aims to give pleasure +or to arouse our emotions. It calls out something in the reader even more +strongly than it sets forth something in the writer. This suggestiveness +in writing will be considered later, but for the present it will be well +for you to bear in mind that most language has for its purpose the exact +expression of a definite idea. Much of the failure in school work arises +from the careless substitution of one image for another, and from the +formation of incomplete and inaccurate images. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Make a list of the words in the following selections whose meanings +you need to look up in order to make the images exact and complete. Do not +attempt to memorize the language of the definition, but to form a correct +image. + + +1. The sun stared brazenly down on a gray farmhouse, on ranges of +whitewashed outbuildings, and on a goodly array of dark-thatched ricks. + +2. In his shabby frieze jacket and mud-laden brogans, he was scarcely an +attractive object. + +3. In a sunlit corner of an old coquina fort they came suddenly face to +face with a familiar figure. + +4. Somewhat back from the village street + Stands the old-fashioned country seat. + Across its antique portico + Tall poplar trees their shadows throw, + And from its station in the hall + An ancient timepiece says to all: + "Forever--never! + Never--forever!" + +--Longfellow: _The Old Clock on the Stairs_. + +5. There was a room which bore the appearance of a vault. Four spandrels +from the corners ran up to join a sharp cup-shaped roof. The architecture +was rough, but very strong. It was evidently part of a great building. + +6. The officer proceeded, without affecting to hear the words which +escaped the sentinel in his surprise; nor did he again pause, until he had +reached the low strand, and in a somewhat dangerous vicinity to the +western water bastion of the fort. + +7. She stood on the top step under the _porte-cochère_, on the extreme +edge, so that the toes of her small slippers extended a little over it. +She bent forward, and then tipped back on the high, exiguous heels again. + +8. Before the caryatides of the fireplace, under the ancestral portraits, a +valet moves noiselessly about, arranging the glistening silver service on +the long table and putting in order the fruits, sweets, and ices. + +9. No sooner is the heavy gate of the portal passed than one sees from +afar among the leafage the court of honor, to which one comes along an +alley decorated uniformly with upright square shafts like classic termae +in stone and bronze. The impression of the antique lines is striking: it +springs at once to the eyes, at first in this portico with columns and a +heavy entablature, but lacking a pediment. + + +_B._ Read again the selections beginning on page 46. Do you form complete +images in every case? + + +_C._ Notice in each of your lessons for to-day what images are incomplete. +Bring to class a list of the words you would need to look up in order to +form complete images. Do not include all the words whose meanings are not +clear, but only those that assist in forming images. + + ++Theme XII.+--_Form a clear mental image of some incident, person, or +place. Write about it, using such words as will give your classmates +complete and accurate images. The following may suggest a subject:_-- + + 1. A party dress I should like. + 2. My room. + 3. A cozy glen. + 4. In the apple orchard. + 5. Going to the fire. + 6. The hand-organ man. + 7. A hornets' nest. + 8. The last inning. + 9. An exciting race. + + +(Consider what you have written with reference to the images which the +_reader_ will form. Do you think that when the members of the class hear +your theme, each will form the same images that you had in mind when +writing? Notice how many of your sentences begin in the same way. Can you +rewrite them so as to give variety?) + + ++28. Reproduction of Images.+--If we were asked to tell about an accident +which we had seen, we could recall the various incidents in the order of +their occurrence. If the accident had occurred recently, or had made a +vivid impression upon us, we could easily form mental images of each +scene. If we had only read a description of the accident, it would be more +difficult to recall the image; because that which we gain through language +is less vitally a part of ourselves than is that which comes to us through +experience. + +When called upon to reproduce the images suggested to us by language, our +memory is apt to concern itself with the words that suggested the image, +and our expression is hampered rather than aided by this remembrance. The +author has made, or should have made, the best possible selection of words +and phrases. If we repeat his language, we have but memory drill or copy +work; and if we do not, we are limited to such second-class language as we +may be able to find. + +Word memory has its uses, but it is less valuable than image memory. It is +necessary to distinguish carefully between the images that a writer +presents and the words that he uses. If a botany lesson should consist of +a description of fifteen different leaves, a pupil deficient in image +memory will attempt to memorize the language of the book. A better-trained +pupil, on meeting such a term as _serrated_, will ask himself: "Have I +ever seen such a leaf? Can I form an image of it?" If so, his only task +will be to give the new name, _serrated_, to the idea that he already has. +In a similar way he will form images for each of the fifteen leaves +described in the lesson. The language of the book may help him form these +images, but he will make no attempt to commit the language to memory. With +him, "getting the lesson" means forming images and naming them, and +reciting the lesson will be but talking about an image that he has clearly +in mind. Try this in your own lessons. + +If we are called upon to reproduce the incidents and scenes of some story +that has been read to us, our success will depend upon the clearness of +the images that we have formed. Our efforts should be directed to making +the images as definite and vivid as possible, and our memory will be +concerned with the recalling of these images in their proper order, and +not with the language that first caused them to appear. + + +EXERCISES + +1. Report orally some interesting incident taken from a book which you +have recently read. Do not reread the story. Use such language as will +cause the class to form clear mental images. + +2. Report orally upon some chapter selected from Cooper's _Last of the +Mohicans_ or Scott's _Ivanhoe_. + +3. Read a portion of Scott's _Lady of the Lake_, and report orally what +happened. + +4. Report orally some incident that you have read about in a magazine. +Select one that caused you to form images, and tell it so that the hearers +will form like images. + + ++Theme XIII.+--_Reproduce a story read to you by the teacher._ + +(Before writing, picture to yourself the scenes and recall the order of +their occurrence. If it is necessary to condense, omit events of the least +importance.) + + ++29. Comparison.+--Writing which contains unfamiliar words fails to call +up complete and definite images. It is often difficult to form the correct +mental picture, even though the words in themselves are familiar. +Definitions, explanations, and descriptions may cause us to understand +correctly, but our understanding usually can be improved by means of a +comparison. We can form an image of an object as soon as we know what it +is like. + +If I wished you to form an image of an okapi, a lengthy description would +give you a less vivid picture than the statement that it was a horselike +animal, having stripes similar to those of a zebra. If an okapi were as +well known to you as is a horse, the name alone would call up the proper +image, and no comparison would be necessary. By means of it we are enabled +to picture the unfamiliar. In this case the comparison is literal. + +If the comparison is imaginative rather than literal, our language becomes +figurative, and usually takes the form of a simile or metaphor. Similes +and metaphors are of great value in rendering thought clear. They make +language forceful and effective, and they may add much to the beauty of +expression. + +We may speak of an object as being like another, or as acting like +another. If the comparison is imaginative rather than literal, and is +directly stated, the expression is a simile. Similes are introduced by +_like, as_, etc. + + + He fought like a lion. + The river wound like a serpent around the mountains. + + +If two things are essentially different, but yet have a common quality, +their _implied comparison_ is a metaphor. A metaphor takes the form of a +statement that one is the other. + + + "He was a lion in the fight." + "The river wound its serpent course." + + +Sometimes inanimate objects, abstract ideas, or the lower animals +are given the attributes of human beings. Such a figure is called +personification, and is in fact a modified metaphor, since it is based +upon some resemblance of the lower to the higher. + + + This music crept by me upon the waters. + + Time is a very bankrupt, and owes more than he is worth to + season. + Nay, he's a thief, too; have you not heard men say, + That time comes stealing on by night and day? + +--Shakespeare. + + ++30. Use of Figures of Speech.+--The three figures of speech, simile, +metaphor, and personification, are more frequently used than are the +others. Figures of speech are treated in a later chapter, but some +suggestions as to their use will be of value to beginners. + +1. Never write for the purpose of using figures of speech. Nearly +everything that we need to say can be well expressed in plain, bare +English, and the ability to express our thoughts in this way is the +essential thing. If a figure that adds to the force and clearness of your +expression occurs to you, use it without hesitation. A figure may also add +to the beauty of our expression. The examples to be found in literature +are largely of this character. If well used, they are effective, but the +beginner should beware of a figure that is introduced for decorative +purposes only. An attempt to find figures of speech in ordinary prose +writing will show how rarely they are used. + +2. The figures should fit the subject in hand. Some comparisons are +appropriate and some are not. If the writer is familiar with his subject +and deeply in earnest, the appropriate figures will rise spontaneously in +his mind. If they do not, little is gained by seeking for them. + +3. The effectiveness of a comparison, whether literal or figurative, +depends upon the familiarity of the reader with one of the two things +compared. To say that a petrel resembled a kite would be of no value to +one who knew nothing of either bird. Similarly a figure is defective if +neither element of the comparison is familiar to the readers. + +4. Suitable figures give picturesqueness and vivacity to language, but +hackneyed figures are worse than none. + +5. Elaborate and long-drawn-out figures, or an overabundance of short +ones, should be avoided. + +6. A figure must be consistent throughout. A comparison once begun must be +carried through without change; mixing figures often produces results +which are ridiculous. The "mixed metaphor" is a common blunder of +beginners. This fault may arise either from confusing different metaphors +in the same sentence, or from blending literal language with metaphorical. +The following will serve to illustrate:-- + + +1. [Confused metaphor.] Let us pin our faith to the rock of perseverance +and honest toil, where it may sail on to success on the wings of hope. + +2. [Literal and figurative blended.] Washington was the father of his +country and a surveyor of ability. + +3. When the last awful moment came, the star of liberty went down with all +on board. + +4. The glorious work will never be accomplished until the good ship +"Temperance" shall sail from one end of the land to the other, and with a +cry of "Victory!" at each step she takes, shall plant her banner in every +city, town, and village in the United States. + +5. All along the untrodden paths of the future we see the hidden +footprints of an unseen hand. + +6. The British lion, whether it is roaming the deserts of India, or +climbing the forests of Canada, will never draw in its horns nor retire +into its shell. + +7. Young man, if you have the spark of genius in you, water it. + + +EXERCISES + + +Are the images which you form made more vivid by +the use of the figures in the following selections? + +1. She began to screech as wild as ocean birds. + +2. And when its force expended, + The harmless storm was ended; + And as the sunrise splendid + Came blushing o'er the sea-- + +3. As a demon is hurled by an angel's spear, + Heels over head, to his proper sphere-- + Heels over head and head over heels,-- + Dizzily down the abyss he wheels,-- + So fell Darius. + +--J.T. Trowbridge. + +4. In this republican country, amid the fluctuating waves of our social +life, somebody is always at the drowning point. + +--Hawthorne. + +5. Poverty, treading close at her heels for a lifetime, has come up with +her at last. + +--Hawthorne. + +6. Friendships begin with liking or gratitude--roots that can be pulled +up. + +--George Eliot. + +7. Nearing the end of the narrative, Ben paced up and down the narrow +limits of the tent in great excitement, running his fingers through his +hair, and barking out a question now and then. + +8. A sky above, + Where one white cloud like a stray lamb doth move. + +--Lowell. + +9. In days of public commotion every faction, like an Oriental army, is +attended by a crowd of camp followers, a useless and heartless rabble, who +prowl round its line of march in the hope of picking up something under +its protection, but desert it in the day of battle, and often join to +exterminate it after a defeat. + +--Macaulay. + +10. It is to be regretted that the prose writings of Milton should, in our +time, be so little read. As compositions, they deserve the attention of +every man who wishes to become acquainted with the full power of the +English language. They abound with passages compared with which the finest +declamations of Burke sink into insignificance. They are a perfect field +of cloth of gold. The style is stiff with gorgeous embroidery. + +--Macaulay. + +11. And close behind her stood + Eight daughters of the plow, stronger than men, + Huge women blowzed with health, and wind, and rain, + And labor. Each was like a Druid rock, + Or like a spire of land that stands apart + Cleft from the main and wall'd about with mews. + +--Tennyson. + +12. But bland the smile that, like a wrinkling wind + On glassy water, drove his cheek in lines. + +--Tennyson. + +13. The rush of affairs drifts words from their original meanings, as +ships drag their anchors in a gale, but terms sheltered from common use +hold to their moorings forever. + +--Mill. + + ++Theme XIV.+--_Write a story suggested by the picture on page 59 or by one +of the following subjects:_-- + + 1. A modern fable. + 2. The willow whistle. + 3. How I baked a cake. + 4. The delayed picnic. + 5. The missing slipper. + 6. A misdirected letter. + 7. A ride on a raft. + 8. The rescue of Ezekiel. + 9. A railway experience. + 10. A soldier's soldier. + +(Do you think the reader will form the images you wish him to form? +Consider what you have written with reference to climax. (See Section 7.) +Have you needed to use figures? If so, have you used them in accordance +with the suggestions on page 55? If you have used the word _only_, is it +placed so as to give the correct meaning?) + + ++31. Determination of Meaning Requires More than Image Making.+--The +emphasis laid upon image making should not lead to the belief that this is +all that is necessary in order to determine what is meant by the language +we hear or read. Image making is important, but much of our language is +concerned with presenting ideas of which no mental pictures can be formed. + + +[Illustration] + + +This very paragraph will serve as an illustration of such language. Our +understanding of language of this kind depends upon our knowledge of the +meanings of words, upon our understanding of the relations between word +groups, or parts of sentences, and especially upon our appreciation of the +relations in thought that sentences bear to one another. Each of these +will be discussed in the following pages. Later it will be necessary to +consider the relations in thought existing among paragraphs. + + ++32. Word Relations.+--In order to get the thought of a sentence, we must +understand the relations that exist between the words and word groups +(phrases and clauses) that compose it. If the thought is simple, and +expressed in straightforward terms, we grasp it readily and without any +conscious effort to determine these relations. If the thought is complex, +the relations become more complicated, and before we are sure that we know +what the writer intends to say it may be necessary to note with care which +is the main clause and which are the subordinate clauses. In either case +our acquiring the thought depends upon our understanding the relations +between words and word groups. We may understand them without any +knowledge of the names that have been applied to them in grammar, but a +knowledge of the names will assist somewhat. These relations are treated +in the grammar review in the Appendix and need not be repeated here. + + ++33. Incomplete Thoughts.+--We have learned (Section 27) that the +introduction of unfamiliar words may cause us to form incomplete images. +When the language is not designed to present images, we may, in a similar +way, fail to get its real meaning if we are unfamiliar with the words +used. If you do not know the meaning of _fluent_ and _viscous_, you will +fail to understand correctly the statement, "Fluids range from the +peculiarly fluent to the peculiarly viscous." If we wish to think +precisely what the writer intended us to think, we must know the meanings +of the words he uses. Many of us are inclined to substitute other ideas +than those properly conveyed by the words of the writer, and so get +confused or incomplete or inaccurate ideas. The ability to determine +exactly what images the writer suggests, and what ideas his language +expresses, is the first requisite of scholarship and an important element +of success in life. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ The first step in acquiring knowledge is to determine what it is that +we do not know. Just which word or words in each of the following +sentences keep you from understanding the full meaning of the sentence? +Notice that a dictionary definition will not always make the meaning +clear. + +1. It is really more scientific to repeat a quotation from a political +speech correctly, or to pass on a story undistorted, than it is to know of +the rings of Saturn or the striation of diatoms. + +2. The process of testing a hypothesis requires great caution in order to +prevent mistakes. + +3. The aërial foliage stem is the most favorable for studying stem +structure. + +4. Taken collectively, isotherms indicate the distribution of mean +temperature over the region embraced in the map. + +5. Vibrations of the membrane of the tympanum are "damped" by the ossicles +of the middle ear, which also receive and pass on the auditory tremors to +the membrane closing the oval window. + +6. In the battle which followed, the mobile Roman legion, arranged in open +order three ranks deep, proved its superiority over the massive Macedonian +phalanx. + +7. The narrow and dissected forms have been attributed to the scarcity of +carbon dioxide and oxygen in the water. + + +_B._ Make a list of words in your lessons in other subjects for to-day +that you need to look up in order to understand the lessons. This should +be done daily, whether assigned or not. + + +34. +Choice of Words Adapted to the Reader.+--Words familiar to the reader +should be used. Since the reader's ability to understand the thought of a +paragraph depends to some extent upon his understanding of the words +employed, it is necessary for the writer to choose words that will be +understood by those whom he addresses. Of course we cannot tell whether a +particular word will be understood by our readers, but, in case there is +doubt, it is well to substitute one that is more likely to be understood. +When you have written anything, it is well to ask yourself the question, +Have I used words with which _the reader_ is probably familiar? + ++Theme XV.+---_Write a theme about one of the following subjects, using +words that you think will be understood by your readers:_-- + + 1. How we breathe. + 2. How to make a kite. + 3. The causes of the seasons. + 4. Why wood floats on water. + 5. The use of baking powder. + 6. The difference between arithmetic and algebra. + +(Have you said what you meant to say? Have you used words that your reader +will understand? Find your longest sentence. Is its meaning clear? Notice +the short sentences. Should some of them be united into a longer one?) + + ++35. Word Selection.+--There are many shades of meaning which differ but +little, and a careful writer will select just the word that best conveys +his thought. The reader needs to be no less careful in determining the +exact meaning that the writer intends to convey. Exercises in synonyms are +thus of double importance (Section 21). + +Another source of error, both in acquiring and expressing thought, arises +from the confusion of similar words. Some similarity of spelling causes +one word to be substituted for another. There are many words and +expressions that are so often interchanged that some time may be spent +with profit upon exercises in determining their correct usage. These +usually consist of brief reports to the class that set forth the meanings +of the words, show their uses, and illustrate their differences. + +In preparing such reports, determine the meaning of the words from as many +sources as are available. The usual meaning can be determined from the +dictionary. A fuller treatment is given in some dictionaries in a chapter +on faulty diction. Additional material may be found in many of the +text-books on rhetoric, and in special books treating of word usage. After +you are sure that you know the correct use, prepare a report for the class +that shall make that use clear to others. In the simplest form this will +consist of definitions and sentences in which the words are correctly +used. The following examples, handed in by pupils, will serve to +illustrate such reports:-- + +1. A _council_ is an assembly of persons convened for consultation or +deliberation. _Counsel_ is used to indicate either (1) an opinion as the +result of consultation or (2) a lawyer engaged to give advice or to act as +advocate in court. Lewis furnishes the following example of the use of +these two words: "The plaintiff's _counsel_ held a _council_ with his +partners in law, and finally gave him as his best _counsel_ the advice +that he should drop the suit; but, as Swift says, 'No man will take +_counsel_, but every man will take money,' and the plaintiff refused to +accept the advice unless the _counsel_ could persuade the defendant to +settle the case out of court by paying a large sum." + +2. The correct meaning of _transpire_ may perhaps be best understood by +considering its derivations. It comes from _trans_, through, and _spiro_, +to breathe, from which it gets its meaning, to escape gradually from +secrecy. It is frequently used incorrectly in the sense of to happen, but +both Webster and the Standard dictionary condemn this use of the word. The +latter says that it is often so misused especially in carelessly edited +newspapers, as in "Comments on the heart-rending disaster which transpired +yesterday are unnecessary, but," etc. When _transpire_ is correctly used, +it is not a synonym of _happen_. A thing that happened a year ago may +transpire to-day, that is, it may "become known through unnoticed +channels, exhale, as it were, through invisible pores like a vapor or a +gas disengaging itself." Many things which happen in school, thus become +known by being passed along in a semi-secret manner until nearly all know +of them though few can tell just how the information was spread. +_Transpire_ may properly be applied to such a diffusion of knowledge. + + ++Theme XVI.+--_Report as suggested above on any one of the following +groups of words:_-- + + 1. Allude, mention. + 2. Beside, besides. + 3. Character, reputation. + 4. Degrade, demean, debase. + 5. Last, latest, preceding. + 6. Couple, pair. + 7. Balance, rest, remainder. + +(Have you made clear the correct use of the words under discussion? Can +you give examples which do not follow the dictionaries so closely as do +the illustrative reports above?) + +NOTE.--Lists of words suitable for exercises similar to the above are +given in the Appendix. The teacher will assign them to such an extent and +at such times as seems desirable. One such lesson a week will be found +profitable. + + ++36. Sentence Relations.+--What we read or hear usually consists of +several sentences written or spoken together. The meaning of any +particular sentence may depend upon the sentence or sentences preceding. +In order to determine accurately the meaning of the whole, we must +understand the relation in thought that each sentence bears to the others. +Notice the two sentences: "Guns are dangerous. Boys should not use them." +Though the last sentence is independent, it gets its meaning from the +first. + +In the following selection consider each sentence apart from the others. +Notice that the meaning of the whole becomes intelligible only when the +sentences are considered in their relations to each other. + + +Once upon a time, a notion was started, that if all the people in the +world would shout at once, it might be heard in the moon. So the +projectors agreed it should be done in just ten years. Some thousand +shiploads of chronometers were distributed to the selectmen and other +great folks of all the different nations. For a year beforehand, nothing +else was talked about but the awful noise that was to be made on the great +occasion. When the time came, everybody had his ears so wide open, to hear +the universal ejaculation of Boo,--the word agreed upon,--that nobody +spoke except a deaf man in one of the Fiji Islands, and a woman in Pekin, +so that the world was never so still since the creation.--Holmes. + + +Gutenberg did a great deal of his work in secret, for he thought it was +much better that his neighbors should know nothing of what he was doing. +So he looked for a workshop where no one would be likely to find him. He +was now living in Strasburg, and there was in that city a ruined old +building where, long before his time, a number of monks had lived. There +was one room in the building which needed only a little repairing to make +it fit to be used. So he got the right to repair the room and use it as +his workshop. + + +In all good writing we find a similar dependence in thought. Each sentence +takes a meaning because of its relation to some other. The personal +pronouns and pronominal adjectives, adverbial phrases indicating time or +place, conjunctions, and such expressions as _certainly, however, on the +other hand_, etc., are used to indicate more or less directly a relation +in thought between the phrase or sentence in which they occur and some +preceding one. If the reader cannot readily determine to what they refer, +the meaning becomes obscure or ambiguous. The pronominal adjectives and +the personal pronouns are especially likely to be used in such a way as to +cause ambiguity. Care must be taken to use them so as to keep the meaning +clear, and your own good sense will help you in this more than rules. +Notice in your reading how frequently expressions similar to those +mentioned above are used. + + ++Theme XVII.+--_Write a theme suggested by one of the following +subjects:_-- + + 1. The last quarter. + 2. An excursion with the physical geography class. + 3. What I saw while riding to town. + 4. The broken bicycle. + 5. An hour in the study hall. + 6. Seen from my study window. + +(Are your sentences so arranged that the relation in thought is clear? Are +the personal pronouns and pronominal adjectives used so as to avoid +ambiguity? Does your story relate real events or imaginary ones? If +imaginary events are related, have you made them seem probable?) + + ++37. Getting the Main Thought.+--In many cases the relation in thought is +not directly indicated, and we are left to determine it from the context, +just as we decide upon the meaning of a word because of what precedes or +follows it. In this case the meaning of a particular sentence may be made +clear if we have in mind the main topic under discussion. Many pupils fail +in recitations because they do not distinguish that which is more +important from that which is less so. If a dozen pages of history are +assigned, they cannot master the lesson because it is too long to be +memorized, and they are not able to select the three or four things of +importance with which it is really concerned. Thirty or forty minor +details are jumbled together without any clear knowledge of the relations +that they bear either to one another or to the main thoughts of the +lesson. + +In the following selection but three things are discussed. Determine what +they are, but not what is said about them. + + +In all the ages the extent and value of flood plains have been increased +by artificial means. Dikes or levees are built to regulate the spread and +flow of the water and to protect the land from destructive floods. Dams +and reservoirs are constructed for the storage of water, which is led by a +system of canals and ditches to irrigate large tracts of land which would +be otherwise worthless. By means of irrigation, the farmer has control of +his water supply and is able to get larger returns than are possible where +he depends upon the irregular and uncertain rainfall. It is estimated that +in the arid regions of western United States there are 150,000 square +miles of land which may be made available for agriculture by irrigation. +Perhaps in the future the valley of the lower Colorado may become as +productive as that of the Nile. + +Streams are the easiest routes of travel and commerce. A river usually +furnishes from its mouth well up toward its source a smooth, graded +highway, upon which a cargo may be transported with much less effort than +overland. If obstructions occur in the form of rapids or falls, boat and +cargo are carried around them. It is often easy to pass by a short portage +or "carry" from one stream system across the divide to another. In regions +which are not very level the easiest grades in every direction are found +along the streams, and the main routes of land travel follow the stream +valleys. In traversing a mountainous region, a railroad follows the +windings of some river up to the crest of the divide, which it crosses +through a pass, or often by a tunnel, and descends the valley of some +stream on the other side. + +Man is largely indebted to streams for the variety and beauty of scenery. +Running water itself is attractive to young and old. A landscape without +water lacks its chief charm. A child instinctively finds its way to the +brook, and the man seeks beside the river the pleasure and recreation +which no other place affords. Streams have carved the surface of the land +into an endless variety of beautiful forms, and a land where stream +valleys are few or shallow is monotonous and tiresome. The most common as +well as the most celebrated beauty of scenery in the world, from the tiny +meanders of a meadow brook to the unequaled grandeur of the Colorado +canyons, is largely due to the presence and action of streams. + +--Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_. + + +In the above selection we find that each group of sentences is related to +some main topic. A more extended observation of good writing will give the +same result. Men naturally think in sentence groups. A group of sentences +related to each other and to the central idea is called a +paragraph.+ + + ++38. Topic Statement.+--In the three paragraphs of the selection on page +67, notice that the first sentence in each tells what the paragraph is +about. In a well-written paragraph it is possible to select the phrase or +sentence that states the main thought. If such a sentence does not occur +in the paragraph itself, one can be framed that will express clearly and +concisely the chief idea of the paragraph. This brief, comprehensive +summary of the contents of a paragraph is called the topic statement. + +In order to master the thought of what we read we must be able to select +or to make the successive topic statements, and in order to express our +own thoughts clearly we must write our paragraphs so that our readers may +easily grasp the topic statement of each. + +When expressed in the paragraph, the topic statement may be a part of a +sentence, a whole sentence, or it may extend through two sentences. It is +usual to place the topic statement first, but it may be preceded by one or +more introductory sentences, or even withheld until the end of the +paragraph. For emphasis it may be repeated, though usually in a slightly +different form. + + +EXERCISES + + +Determine the topic statements of the following paragraphs. If one is not +expressed, make one. + + +1. No less valuable is the mental stimulus of play. The child is +trained by it to quick perception, rapid judgment, prompt decision. His +imagination cunningly suggests a thousand things to be done, and then +trains the will and every power of body and mind in the effort to do them. +The sports of childhood are admirably adapted to quicken the senses and +sharpen the wits. Nature has effective ways in her school of securing the +exercise which is needed to develop every mental and every bodily power. +She fills the activity brimful of enjoyment, and then gives her children +freedom, assured that they will be their own best teachers. + +--Bradley + + +2. Our Common Law comes from England, and originated there in custom. It +is often called the unwritten law, because unwritten in origin, though +there are now many books describing it. Its principles originated as +habits of the people, five hundred, eight hundred, years ago, perhaps some +of them back in the time when the half-savage Saxons landed on the shores +of England. When the time came that the government, through its courts, +punished the breach of a custom, from that time the custom was a law. And +so the English people acquired these laws, one after another, just as they +were acquiring at the same time the habits of making roads, using forks at +table, manufacturing, meeting in Parliament, using firearms, and all the +other habits of civilization. When the colonists came to America, they +brought the English Common Law with them, not in a book, but in their +minds, a part of their life, like their religion. + +--Clark: _The Government_. + + +3. Accuracy is always to be striven for but it can never be attained. This +fact is only fully realized by scientific workers. The banker can be +accurate because he only counts or weighs masses of metal which he assumes +to be exactly equal. The Master of the Mint knows that two coins are never +exactly equal in weight, although he strives by improving machinery and +processes to make the differences as small as possible. When the utmost +care is taken, the finest balances which have been constructed can weigh 1 +lb. of a metal with an uncertainty less than the hundredth part of a +grain. In other words, the weight is not accurate, but the inaccuracy is +very small. No person is so stupid as not to feel sure that the height of +a man he sees is between 3 ft. and 9 ft.; some are able by the eye to +estimate the height as between 5 ft. 6 in. and 5 ft. 8 in.; measurement +may show it to be between 5 ft. 6 in. and 5 ft. 7 in., but to go closer +than that requires many precautions. Training in observation and the use +of delicate instruments thus narrow the limits of approximation. Similarly +with regard to space and time, there are instruments with which one +millionth of an inch, or of a second, can be measured, but even this +approximation, although far closer than is ever practically necessary, is +not accuracy. In the statement of measurements there is no meaning in more +than six significant figures, and only the most careful observations can +be trusted so far. The height of Mount Everest is given as 29,002 feet; +but here the fifth figure is meaningless, the height of that mountain not +being known so accurately that two feet more or less would be detected. +Similarly, the radius of the earth is sometimes given as 3963.295833 +miles, whereas no observation can get nearer the truth than 3963.30 miles. + +--Mill: _The Realm of Nature_. (Copyright, 1892, by Charles Scribner's +Sons.) + + +4. The chief cause which made the fusion of the different elements of +society so imperfect was the extreme difficulty which our ancestors found +in passing from place to place. Of all the inventions, the alphabet and +the printing press alone excepted, those inventions which abridge distance +have done most for the civilization of our species. Every improvement of +the means of locomotion benefits mankind morally and intellectually as +well as materially, and not only facilitates the interchange of the +various productions of nature and art, but tends to remove national and +provincial prejudices, and to bind together all the branches of the great +human family. In the seventeenth century the inhabitants of London were +for almost every practical purpose farther from Reading than they are now +from Edinburgh, and farther from Edinburgh than they are now from Vienna. + +--Macaulay: _History of England_. + + +5. He touched New England at every point. He was born a frontiersman. He +was bred a farmer. He was a fisherman in the mountain brooks and off the +shore. He never forgot his origin, and he never was ashamed of it. Amid +all the care and honor of his great place here he was homesick for the +company of his old neighbors and friends. Whether he stood in Washington, +the unchallenged prince and chief in the Senate, or in foreign lands, the +kingliest man of his time in the presence of kings, his heart was in New +England. When the spring came, he heard far off the fife bird and the +bobolink calling him to his New Hampshire mountains, or of the +waves on the shore at Marshfield alluring him with a sweeter than siren's +voice to his home by the summer sea. + +--George F. Hoar: _Daniel Webster_. + + +6. Nor must I forget the suddenly changing seasons of the northern clime. +There is no long and lingering spring, unfolding leaf and blossom one by +one; no long and lingering autumn, pompous with many-colored leaves and +the glow of Indian summer. But winter and summer are wonderful, and pass +into each other. The quail has hardly ceased piping in the corn when +winter, from the folds of trailing clouds, sows broadcast over the land +snow, icicles, and rattling hail. The days wane apace. Erelong the sun +hardly rises above the horizon, or does not rise at all. The moon and the +stars shine through the day; only at noon they are pale and wan, and in +the southern sky a red, fiery glow, as of a sunset, burns along the +horizon and then goes out. And pleasantly under the silver moon, and under +the silent, solemn stars, ring the steel shoes of the skaters on the +frozen sea, and voices, and the sound of bells. + +--Longfellow: _Rural Life in Sweden_. + +7. Extreme _busyness_, whether at school or college, kirk or market, is a +symptom of deficient vitality; and a faculty for idleness implies a +catholic appetite and a strong sense of personal identity. There is a sort +of dead-alive, hackneyed people about, who are scarcely conscious of +living except in the exercise of some conventional occupation. Bring these +fellows into the country, or set them aboard ship, and you will see how +they pine for their desk or their study. They have no curiosity; they +cannot give themselves over to random provocations; they do not take +pleasure in the exercise of their faculties for its own sake; and unless +Necessity lays about them with a stick, they will even stand still. It is +no good speaking to such folk: they _cannot_ be idle, their nature is not +generous enough; and they pass those hours in a sort of coma, which are +not dedicated to furious moiling in the gold mill. When they do not +require to go to the office, when they are not hungry and have no mind to +drink, the whole breathing world is a blank to them. If they have to wait +an hour or so for a train, they fall into a stupid trance, with their eyes +open. To see them, you would suppose there was nothing to look at and no +one to speak with; you would imagine they were paralyzed or alienated; and +yet very possibly they are hard workers in their own way, and have good +eyesight for a flaw in a deed or a turn of the market. They have been to +school and college, but all the time they had their eye on the medal; they +have gone about in the world and mixed with clever people, but all the +time they were thinking of their own affairs. As if a man's soul were not +too small to begin with, they have dwarfed and narrowed theirs by a life +of all work and no play; until here they are at forty, with a listless +attention, a mind vacant of all material amusement, and not one thought to +rub against another while they wait for the train. Before he was breeched, +he might have clambered on the boxes; when he was twenty, he would have +stared at the girls; but now the pipe is smoked out, the snuffbox is +empty, and my gentleman sits bolt upright on a bench, with lamentable +eyes. This does not appeal to me as being Success in Life. + +--Robert Louis Stevenson. (Copyright, by Charles Scribner's Sons.) + + +_B._ Examine the themes which you have written. Does each paragraph have a +topic statement? Have you introduced sentences which do not bear upon this +topic statement? Are the paragraphs real ones treating of a single topic, +or are they merely groups of sentences written together without any close +connection in thought? + + ++Theme XVIII.+--_State two or three advantages of public high schools over +private boarding schools. Use each as a topic statement and develop it +into a short paragraph._ + +(Add to each topic statement such sentences as will prove to a pupil of +your own age that the topic statement states a real advantage. Include in +each paragraph only that which bears upon the topic statement. Consider +the definition of a paragraph on page 68. Does this definition apply to +your paragraphs?) + + ++39. Reproduction of the Thought of a Paragraph.+--Our ability to +reproduce the thought of what we read will depend largely upon our ability +to select the topic statements. In preparing a lesson for recitation it is +evident that we must first determine definitely the topic statement of +each paragraph. These may bear upon one general subject or upon different +subjects. The three paragraphs on page 67 are all concerned with one +subject, the uses of rivers. A pupil preparing to recite them would have +in mind, when he went to class, an outline about as follows:-- + + +General subject: The uses of rivers. + First topic statement: The fertility of flood plains is improved by + irrigation. + Second topic statement: Streams are the easiest routes of travel and + commerce. + Third topic statement: Man is indebted to streams for beauty of scenery. + + +While such a clear statement is the first step toward a proper +understanding of the lesson, it is not enough. In order to understand +thoroughly a topic statement, we need explanation or illustration. The +idea is not really our own until we have thought about it in its relations +to other knowledge already in our possession. In order to know whether you +understand the topic statements, the teacher will ask you to discuss them. +This may be done by telling what the writer said about them, or by giving +thoughts and illustrations of your own, but best of all, by doing both. It +is necessary, then, to know in what way the writer develops each topic +statement. + +Read the following paragraph:-- + + +The most productive lands in the world are flood plains. At every period +of high water, a stream brings down mantle rock from the higher grounds, +and deposits it as a layer of fine sediment over its flood plain. A soil +thus frequently enriched and renewed is literally inexhaustible. In a +rough, hilly, or mountainous country the finest farms and the densest +population are found on the "bottom lands" along the streams. The flood +plain most famous in history is that of the river Nile in Egypt. For a +distance of 1500 miles above its mouth this river flows through a rainless +desert, and has no tributary. The heavy spring rains which fall upon the +highlands about its sources produce in summer a rise of the water, which +overflows the valley on either side. Thus the lower Nile valley became one +of the earliest centers of civilization, and has supported a dense +population for 7000 years. The conditions in Mesopotamia, along the Tigris +and Euphrates rivers, are similar to those along the lower Nile, and in +ancient times this region was the seat of a civilization perhaps older +than that of Egypt. The flood plains of the Ganges in India, and the Hoang +in China, are the most extensive in the world, and in modern times the +most populous. The alluvial valley of the Mississippi is extremely +productive of corn, cotton, and sugar cane. + +--Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_. + + +Notice that the first sentence gives the topic statement, flood plains are +productive. The second and third sentences tell why this is so, and the +rest of the paragraph is given up to illustrations. + +In preparing this paragraph for recitation the pupil should have in mind +an outline about as follows:-- + +Topic statement: Flood plains are the most productive lands in the world. + +1. Reasons. +2. Examples: (_a_) Bottom lands. + (_b_) Nile. + (_c_) Tigris and Euphrates. + (_d_) Ganges. + (_e_) Hoang. + (_f_) Mississippi. + +In order to make such an outline, the relative importance of the ideas in +the paragraph must be mastered. A recitation that omitted the topic +statement or the reasons would be defective, while one that omitted one or +more of the examples might be perfect, especially if the pupil could +furnish other examples from his own knowledge. The illustration about +bottom lands is a general one, and should suggest specific cases that +could be included in the recitation. The details in regard to the Nile +might be included if they happened to be recalled at the time of the +recitation, but even the omission of all mention of the Nile might not +materially detract from the value of the recitation. The effort to +remember minor details hinders real thought-getting power. + +It is better not to write this outline. The use of notes or written +outlines at the time of the recitation soon establishes a habit of +dependence that renders real scholarship an impossibility. With such an +analysis of the thought clearly in mind, the pupil need not attempt to +remember the language of the writer. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Complete the partial outline given for the paragraph below. Which of +the illustrations might be omitted from a recitation? For which can you +furnish different illustrations? + + +Mountain ranges have great influence upon climate, political geography, +and commerce. Many of them form climatic boundaries. The Cordilleras of +western America and the Scandinavian mountains arrest the warm, moist, +western winds which rise along those great rock barriers to cooler +altitudes, where their water vapor is condensed and falls as rain, so that +the country on the windward side of the mountains is wet and that on the +leeward side is dry. Mountain chains stretching east and west across +central Asia protect the southern part of the continent from frigid arctic +winds. The large winter tourist traffic of the Riviera is due to the +mountains that shield this favored French-Italian coast from the north and +northeast continental winds, giving it a considerably warmer winter's +temperature than that of Rome, two and a half degrees farther south. As +North America has no mountain barriers across the pathway of polar winds, +they sweep southward even to the Gulf of Mexico and have twice destroyed +Florida's orange groves within a decade. Mountain ranges are conspicuous +in political geography because they are the natural boundary between many +nations and languages, as the Pyrenees between France and Spain, the Alps +between Austria and Italy, and the Himalayas between Tibet and India. +Mountains sometimes guard nations from attack by the isolation they give, +and therefore promote national unity. Thus the Swiss are among the few +peoples in Europe who have maintained the integrity of their state. +Commercially, mountains are of great importance as a source of water, +which they store in snow, glaciers, and lakes. Snow and ice, melting +slowly on the mountains, are an unfailing source of supply for perennial +rivers, and thus promote navigation. Mountains are the largest source of +water-power, which is more valuable than ever now that electricity is +employed to transmit it to convenient centers for use in the industries. A +large part of the mining machinery in the United States is run by water +power. Switzerland, which has no coal, turns the wheels of its mills with +water. Mountains supply most of the metals and minerals, and are therefore +the scene of the largest mining industry. They are also among the greatest +sources of forest wealth. Though the slopes are not favorable for +agriculture they afford good pasturage, and the débris of the rocks washed +into the valleys and plains by mountain torrents supplies good soil. Thus +the Appalachians have been worn down to a comparatively low level, and the +soil formed from their rock particles is the basis of large husbandry. +The scenic attractions of many mountain regions is a source of large +revenue. The Alps attract crowds of tourists, who spend about twenty +million dollars a year in Switzerland and Austria, and give to many +thousands of persons. + +--Adams: _Commercial Geography_. + + + +OUTLINE (to be completed) + +Mountain ranges have great influence upon-- + I. Climate. + Why? + Where? + _a, b,_ etc. + II. Political geography. + Why? + Where? + _a, b,_ etc. +III. Commerce. + Why? + Where? + _a, b,_ etc. + + +_B._ Make an outline of the following paragraph:-- + + +1. The armor of the different classes was also accurately ordered by the +law. The first class was ordered to wear for the defense of the body, +brazen helmets, shields, and coats of mail, and to bear spears and swords, +excepting the mechanics, who were to carry the necessary military engines +and to serve without arms. The members of the second class, excepting that +they had bucklers instead of shields and wore no coats of mail, were +permitted to bear the same armor and to carry the sword and spear. The +third class had the same armor as the second, excepting that they could +not wear greaves for the protection of their legs. The fourth had no arms +excepting a spear and a long javelin. The fifth merely carried slings and +stones for use in them. To this class belonged the trumpeters and horn +blowers. + +--Gilman: _Story of Rome_. + + +_C._ In preparing your other lessons for to-day, make outlines of the +paragraphs. + + ++Theme XIX.+--_Reproduce the thought of some paragraph read to you by the +teacher._ + +(Do not attempt to remember the language. Try to get the main thought of +what is read and then write a paragraph which sets forth that same idea. +Use different illustrations if you can.) + +NOTE.--This theme may be repeated as many times as seems desirable. + + ++40. Importance of the Paragraph.+--Emphasis needs to be laid upon the +importance of the paragraph. Our ability to express our thoughts clearly +depends, to a large extent, upon our skill in constructing paragraphs. The +writing of correct sentences is not sufficient. Though each of a series of +sentences may be correct, they may, as a whole, say but little, and that +very poorly; while another set of sentences, which cluster around some +central idea, may set it forth most effectively. It is only by giving our +sentence groups that unity of thought which combines them into paragraphs +that we make them most effective. A well-constructed paragraph will make +clear some idea, and a series of such paragraphs, related to each other +and properly arranged, will set forth the sum of our thoughts on any +subject. + + ++41. Paragraph Length.+--The proper length of a paragraph cannot be +determined by rule. Sometimes the thought to be presented will require +several sentences; sometimes two or three will be sufficient. A single +illustration may make a topic statement clear, or several illustrations +may be required. The writer must judge when he has included enough to make +his meaning understood, and must avoid including so much that the reader +will become weary. Usually a paragraph that exceeds three hundred words +will be found too long, or else it will contain more than one main idea, +each of which could have been presented more effectively in a separate +paragraph. + + ++42. Indentation.+--In written and printed matter the beginning of a +paragraph is indicated by an indentation. Indentation does not make a +paragraph, but we indent because we are beginning a new paragraph. +Indentation thus serves the same purpose as punctuation. It helps the +reader to determine when we have finished one main thought and are about +to begin another. Beginners are apt to use indentations too frequently. +There are some special uses of indentation in letter writing, printed +conversation, and other forms, but for ordinary paragraph division the +indentation is determined by the thought, and its correct use depends upon +clear thinking. Can the following selection be improved by reparagraphing? + +Outside in the darkness, gray with whirling snowflakes, he saw the wet +lamps of cabs shining, and he darted along the line of hansoms and coupés +in frantic search for his own. + +"Oh, there you are," he panted, flinging his suit case up to a +snow-covered driver. "Do your best now; we're late!" And he leaped into +the dark coupé, slammed the door, and sank back on the cushions, +turning up the collar of his heavy overcoat. + +There was a young lady in the farther corner of the cab, buried to her +nose in a fur coat. At intervals she shivered and pressed a fluffy muff +against her face. A glimmer from the sleet-smeared lamps fell across her +knees. + +Down town flew the cab, swaying around icy corners, bumping over car +tracks, lurching, rattling, jouncing, while its silent occupants, huddled +in separate corners, brooded moodily at their respective windows. + +Snow blotted the glass, melting and running down; and over the watery +panes yellow light from shop windows played fantastically, distorting +vision. + +Presently the young man pulled out his watch, fumbled for a match box, +struck a light, and groaned as he read the time. + +At the sound of the match striking, the young lady turned her head. Then, +as the bright flame illuminated the young man's face, she sat bolt +upright, dropping the muff to her lap with a cry of dismay. + +He looked up at her. The match burned his fingers; he dropped it and +hurriedly lighted another; and the flickering radiance brightened upon the +face of a girl whom he had never before laid eyes on. + +"Good heavens!" he said, "where's my sister?" + +The young lady was startled but resolute. "You have made a dreadful +mistake," she said; "you are in the wrong cab--" + + + ++Theme XX.+--_Write a theme using one of the subjects below:_-- + + 1. A personal incident. + 2. The advantages and disadvantages of recesses. + 3. Complete the story commenced in the selection just + preceding. + +(Make a note of the different ideas you may discuss. Which are important +enough to become topic statements? Which may be grouped together in one +paragraph? In what order shall they occur? After your theme is written, +consider the paragraphs. Does the definition apply to them? Are any of +them too short or too long?) + + ++43. Reasons for Studying Paragraph Structure.+--A knowledge of the way in +which a paragraph is constructed will aid us in determining the thought it +contains. There are several methods of developing paragraphs, and usually +one of these is better suited than another to the expression of our +thought. Attention given to the methods used by others will enable us both +to understand better what we read, and to employ more effectively in our +own writing that kind of paragraph which best expresses our thought. Hence +we shall give attention to the more common forms of paragraph development. + + ++44. Development by Giving Specific Instances.+--If you hear a general +statement, such as, "Dogs are useful animals," you naturally think at once +of some of the ways in which they are useful, or of some particular +occasion on which a dog was of use. If a friend should say, "My dog, Fido, +knows many amusing tricks," you would expect the friend to tell you some +of them. A large part of our thinking consists of furnishing specific +instances to illustrate general ideas which arise. Since the language we +use is but the expression of the thoughts we have, it happens that many of +our paragraphs are made up of general statements and the specific +instances used to illustrate these statements. When the topic sentence is +a general statement, we naturally seek to supply specific instances, and +the writer will most readily make his meaning clear by furnishing such +illustrations. Either one or many instances may be used. The object is to +explain the topic statement or to prove its truth, and a good writer will +use that number of instances which best accomplishes his purpose. + +In the following selection notice how the topic statement, set forth and +repeated in the first part of the paragraph, is illustrated in the last +part by means of several specific instances:-- + + +Nine tenths of all that goes wrong in this world is because some one does +not mind his business. When a terrible accident occurs, the first cry is +that the means of prevention were not sufficient. Everybody declares we +must have a new patent fire escape, an automatic engine switch, or a +high-proof non-combustible sort of lamp oil. But a little investigation +will usually show that all the contrivances were on hand and in good +working order; the real trouble was that somebody didn't mind his +business; he didn't obey orders; he thought he knew a better way than the +way he was told; he said, "Just this once I'll take the risk," and in so +doing, he made other people take the risk too; and the risk was too great. +At Toronto, Canada, not long ago, a conductor, against orders, ran his +train on a certain siding, which resulted in the death of thirty or forty +people. The engineer of a mill, at Rochester, N.Y., thought the engine +would stand a higher pressure than the safety valve indicated, so he tied +a few bricks to the valve to hold it down; result--four workmen killed, a +number wounded, and a mill blown to pieces. The _City of Columbus_, an iron +vessel fitted out with all the means of preservation and escape in use on +shipboard, was wrecked on the best-known portion of the Atlantic coast, on +a moonlight night, at the cost of one hundred lives, because the officer +in command took it into his head to save a few ship-lengths in distance by +hugging the shore, in direct disobedience to the captain's parting orders. +The best-ventilated mine in Colorado was turned into a death trap for half +a hundred miners because one of the number entered with a lighted lamp the +gallery he had been warned against. Nobody survived to explain the +explosion of the dynamite-cartridge factory in Pennsylvania, but as that +type of disaster almost always is due to heedlessness, it is probable that +this instance is not an exception to the rule. + +--Wolstan Dixey: _Mind Your Business_. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Which sentences make the general statements, and which furnish +specific instances, in the following paragraphs? + +My contemplations were often interrupted by strangers who came down +from Forsyth's to take their first view of the falls. A short, ruddy, +middle-aged gentleman, fresh from Old England, peeped over the rock, and +evinced his approbation by a broad grin. His spouse, a very robust lady, +afforded a sweet example of maternal solicitude, being so intent on the +safety of her little boy that she did not even glance at Niagara. As for +the child, he gave himself wholly to the enjoyment of a stick of candy. +Another traveler, a native American, and no rare character among us, +produced a volume of Captain Hall's tour, and labored earnestly to adjust +Niagara to the captain's description, departing, at last, without one new +idea or sensation of his own. The next comer was provided, not with a +printed book, but with a blank sheet of foolscap, from top to bottom of +which, by means of an ever pointed pencil, the cataract was made +to thunder. In a little talk which we had together, he awarded his +approbation to the general view, but censured the position of Goat Island, +observing that it should have been thrown farther to the right, so as to +widen the American falls, and contract those of the Horseshoe. Next +appeared two traders of Michigan, who declared that, upon the whole, the +sight was worth looking at; there certainly was an immense water power +here; but that, after all, they would go twice as far to see the noble +stone works of Lockport, where the Grand Canal is locked down a descent of +sixty feet. They were succeeded by a young fellow, in a homespun cotton +dress, with a staff in his hand, and a pack over his shoulders. He +advanced close to the edge of the rock, where his attention, at first +wavering among the different components of the scene, finally became fixed +in the angle of the Horseshoe falls, which is, indeed, the central point +of interest. His whole soul seemed to go forth and be transported thither, +till the staff slipped from his relaxed grasp, and falling down--down-- +down--struck upon the fragment of the Table Rock. + +--Hawthorne: _My Visit to Niagara_. + + +No wonder he learned English quickly, for he was ever on the alert--no +strange word escaped him, no unusual term. He would say it over and over +till he met a friend, and then demand its meaning. One day he came to me +with a very troubled face. "Madame," he said, "please tell me why shall a +man, like me, like any man, be a 'bluenose'?" + +"A what?" I asked. + +"A 'bluenose.' So he was called in the restaurant, but he seemed not +offended about it. I have looked in my books; I can't find any disease of +that name." + +With ill-suppressed laughter I asked, "Do you know Nova Scotia and +Newfoundland?" + +"I hear the laugh in your voice," he said; then added, "Yes, I know both +these places." + +"They are very cold and foggy and wet," I explained. + +But with brightening eyes he caught up the sentence and continued: + +"And the people have blue noses, eh? Ha! ha! Excuse me, then, but is a +milksop a man from some state, or some country, too?" + +At tea some one used the word "claptrap." "What's that?" quickly demanded +the student in our midst. "'Claptrap'--'clap' is so (he struck his hands +together); 'trap' is for rats--what is, then, 'claptrap'?" + +"It is a vulgar or unworthy bid for applause," I explained. + +"Bah!" he contemptuously exclaimed. "I know him,--that cheap actor who +plays at the gallery. He is, then, in English a 'clap-trapper,' is he not?" + +It was hardly possible to meet him without having a word or a term offered +thus for explanation. + +--Clara Morris: _Alessandro Salvini_ ("McClure's"). + + +_B._ Write six sentences which might be developed into paragraphs by +giving specific instances. + + ++Theme XXI.+--_Write a paragraph by furnishing specific instances for one +of the following topic statements:_-- + + +1. Nine tenths of all that goes wrong in this world is because some one +does not mind his business. + +2. It requires a man of courage and perseverance to become a pioneer. + +3. Even the wisest teacher does not always punish the boy who is most at +fault. + +4. It is impossible to teach a dog many amusing tricks. + +5. Even so stupid a creature as a chicken may sometimes exhibit much +intelligence. + +6. Carelessness often leads into difficulty. + +7. Our school clock must see many interesting things. + +8. Our first impressions are not always our best ones. + +9. I am a very busy lead pencil, for my duties are numerous. + +10. Dickens's characters are taken from the lower classes of +people. + +11. Some portions of the book I am reading are very interesting. + +(Do your specific instances really illustrate the topic +statement? Have you said what you intended to say? +Can you omit any words or sentences? Have you used +_and_ or _got_ unnecessarily?). + + ++45. Development by Giving Details.+--Many general statements lead to a +desire to know the details, and the writer may make his idea clearer by +giving them. The statement, "The wedding ceremony was impressive," at once +arouses a desire to know the details. If a friend should say, "I enjoyed +my trip to the city," we wish him to relate that which pleased him. These +details assist us in understanding the topic statement, and increase our +interest in it. Notice in the paragraphs below how much is added to our +understanding of the topic statement by the sentences that give the +details:-- + + +1. I left my garden for a week, just at the close of a dry spell. A season +of rain immediately set in, and when I returned the transformation was +wonderful. In one week every vegetable had fairly jumped forward. The +tomatoes, which I left slender plants, eaten of bugs and debating whether +they would go backward or forward, had become stout and lusty, with thick +stems and dark leaves, and some of them had blossomed. The corn waved like +that which grows so rank out of the French-English mixture at Waterloo. +The squashes--I will not speak of the squashes. The most remarkable growth +was the asparagus. There was not a spear above ground when I went away; +and now it had sprung up, and gone to seed, and there were stalks higher +than my head. + +--Warner: _My Summer in a Garden_. + + +2. The wedding ceremony was solemn and beautiful, in the church on the +estate. At the door of the palace stood the mother of the bride, to greet +her return from the ceremony with the blessing, "May you always have bread +and salt," as she served her from a loaf of black bread, with a salt +cellar in the center, as is the Russian custom for prince and peasant. +Just at this dramatic moment a courier dashed up with a telegram from the +Czar and Czarina, and their gifts for the bride,--a magnificent tiara and +necklace of diamonds. The other presents were already displayed in a +magnificent room; but we saw their splendor through the glass of locked +cases,--a precaution surprising to an Englishwoman. The large swan of +forcemeat was the only reminder of boyar customs at the rather Parisian +feast. Wine was served between the courses, with a toast; while guests in +turn left their seats to express their sentiments to bride and groom, who +stood to receive them. + +--Mary Louise Dunbar: _The Household of a Russian Prince_ +("Atlantic Monthly "). + + ++Theme XXII.+--_Write a paragraph by giving details for one of the +following topic statements:_-- + + +1. There were many interesting things on the farm where I spent my summer +vacation. + +2. The sounds heard in the forest at night are somewhat alarming to one +who is not used to the language of the woods. + +3. I am always much amused when the Sewing Circle meets at my mother's +house. + +4. Good roads are of advantage to farmers in many ways. + +5. A baseball game furnishes abundant opportunity to exercise good +judgment. + +6. I remember well the first time that I visited a large city. + +7. I shall never forget my first attempt at milking a cow. + +8. The haunted house is a square, old-fashioned one of the colonial type. + +9. A mouse suddenly entering the class room caused much disturbance. + +10. A freshman's trials are numerous. + + +(Do the details bear upon the main idea? If the paragraph is long and +rambling, condense by omitting the least important parts. By changing the +order of the sentences, can you improve the paragraph?) + + ++46. Details Related in Time-Order.+--The experiences of daily life follow +each other in time, and when we read of a series of events we at once +think of them as having occurred in a certain time-order. To assist in +establishing the correct time-order, the writer should generally state the +details of his story in the order in which they occurred. The method of +showing time relations for simultaneous events has been discussed in +Section 11. + +If the narrative is of considerable length, it may be divided into +paragraphs, each dealing with some particular stage of its progress. The +time relations among the sentences within the paragraph and among the +paragraphs themselves should be such that the reader may readily follow +the thread of the story to its main point. Narrative paragraphs often do +not have topic sentences. + +In the following selection from _Black Beauty_ notice how the time +relations give unity of thought both to the paragraphs and to the whole +selection:-- + + +He hung my rein on one of the iron spikes, and was soon hidden among the +trees. Lizzie was standing quietly by the side of the road, a few paces +off, with her back to me. My young mistress was sitting easily, with a +loose rein, humming a little song. I listened to my rider's footsteps +until he reached the house, and heard him knock at the door. + +There was a meadow on the opposite side of the road, the gate of which +stood open. As I looked, some cart horses and several young colts came +trotting out in a very disorderly manner, while a boy behind was cracking +a great whip. The colts were wild and frolicsome. One of them bolted +across the road and blundered up against Lizzie. Whether it was the stupid +colt or the loud cracking of the whip, or both together, I cannot say, but +she gave a violent kick and dashed off into a headlong gallop. It was so +sudden that Lady Anne was nearly unseated, but she soon recovered herself. + +I gave a long, shrill neigh for help. Again and again I neighed, pawing +the ground impatiently, and tossing my head to get the rein loose. I had +not long to wait. Blantyre came running to the gate. He looked anxiously +about, and just caught sight of the flying figure now far away on the +road. In an instant he sprang to the saddle. I needed no whip, no spur, +for I was as eager as my rider. He saw it; and giving me a free rein, and +leaning a little forward, we dashed after them. + +For about a mile and a half the road ran straight, then bent to the right; +after this it divided into two roads. Long before we came to the bend my +mistress was out of sight. Which way had she turned? A woman was standing +at her garden gate, shading her eyes with her hand, and looking eagerly up +the road. Scarcely drawing rein, Lord Blantyre shouted, "Which way?" "To +the right!" cried the woman, pointing with her hand, and away we went up +the right-hand road. For a moment we caught sight of Lady Anne; another +bend, and she was hidden again. Several times we caught glimpses of the +flying rider, only to lose her again. We scarcely seemed to gain ground +upon her at all. + +An old road mender was standing near a heap of stones, his shovel dropped +and his hands raised. As we came near he made a sign to speak. Lord +Blantyre drew the rein a little. "To the common, to the common, sir! She +has turned off there." + +I knew this common very well. It was, for the most part, very uneven +ground, covered with heather and dark-green bushes, with here and there a +scrubby thorn tree. There were also open spaces of fine, short grass, with +ant-hills and mole turns everywhere--the worst place I ever knew for a +headlong gallop. + +We had just turned on to the common, when we caught sight again of the +green habit flying on before us. My mistress's hat was gone, and her long +brown hair was streaming behind her. Her head and body were thrown back, +as if she were pulling with all her remaining strength, and as if that +strength were nearly exhausted. It was clear that the roughness of the +ground had very much lessened Lizzie's speed, and there seemed a chance +that we might overtake her. + +While we were on the highroad, Lord Blantyre had given me my head; but +now, with a light hand and a practiced eye, he guided me over the ground +in such a masterly manner that my pace was scarcely slackened, and we +gained on them every moment. + +About halfway across the common a wide dike had recently been cut and the +earth from the cutting cast up roughly on the other side. Surely this +would stop them! But no; scarcely pausing, Lizzie took the leap, stumbled +among the rough clods, and fell. + +--Anne Sewell: _Black Beauty_. + + ++Theme XXIII.+--_Write a brief narrative giving unity to the paragraphs by +means of the time relations._ + + +Suggested subjects:-- + + 1. An adventure on horseback. + 2. A trip with the engineer. + 3. A day on the river. + 4. Fido's mishaps. + 5. An inquisitive crow. + 6. The unfortunate letter carrier. + 7. Teaching a calf to drink. + 8. The story of a silver dollar. + 9. A narrow escape. + 10.An afternoon at the circus. + 11.A story accounting for the situation shown in the + picture on page 90. + + +(Do you need more than one paragraph? If so, is each a group of sentences +treating of a single topic? Can the reader follow the thread of your +story? Leave out details not essential to the main point.) + + ++47. Order of Details Determined by Position in Space.+--The order of +presentation of details may be determined by the position that the details +themselves occupy in space. In description we wish both to give a correct +general impression of the thing described, and to make certain details +clear. The general impression should be given in the first sentence or two +and the details should follow. The effectiveness of the details will +depend upon their order of presentation. When one looks at a scene the eye +passes from one object to another near it; similarly when one is recalling +the scene the image of one thing naturally recalls that of an adjoining +one. A skillful writer takes advantage of this habit of thinking, and +states the details in his description in the order in which we would +naturally see them if we were actually looking at them. By so doing he +most easily presents to our minds the image he wishes to convey. + +[Illustration] + +In the following paragraphs notice that we get first an impression of the +general appearance, to which we are enabled to add new details as the +description proceeds. + + +The companion of the church dignitary was a man past forty, thin, strong, +tall, and muscular; an athletic figure, which long fatigue and constant +exercise seemed to have left none of the softer part of the human form, +having reduced the whole to brawn, bones, and sinews, which had sustained +a thousand toils, and were ready to dare a thousand more. His head was +covered with a scarlet cap, faced with fur, of that kind which the French +call _mortier_, from its resemblance to the shape of an inverted mortar. +His countenance was therefore fully displayed, and its expression was +calculated to impress a degree of awe, if not of fear, upon strangers. +High features, naturally strong and powerfully expressive, had been burnt +almost into negro blackness by constant exposure to the tropical sun, and +might, in their ordinary state, be said to slumber after the storm of +passion had passed away; but the projection of the veins of the forehead, +the readiness with which the upper lip and its thick black mustache +quivered upon the slightest emotion, plainly intimated that the tempest +might be again and easily awakened. His keen, piercing, dark eyes told in +every glance a history of difficulties subdued and dangers dared, and +seemed to challenge opposition to his wishes, for the pleasure of sweeping +it from his road by a determined exertion of courage and of will; a deep +scar on his brow gave additional sternness to his countenance and a +sinister expression to one of his eyes, which had been slightly injured on +the same occasion, and of which the vision, though perfect, was in a slight +and partial degree distorted. + +The upper dress of this personage resembled that of his companion in +shape, being a long monastic mantle; but the color, being scarlet, showed +that he did not belong to any of the four regular orders of monks. On the +right shoulder of the mantle there was cut, in white cloth, a cross of a +peculiar form. This upper robe concealed what at first view seemed rather +inconsistent with its form, a shirt, namely, of linked mail, with sleeves +and gloves of the same, curiously plaited and interwoven, as flexible to +the body as those which are now wrought in the stocking loom out of less +obdurate materials. The fore part of his thighs, where the folds of his +mantle permitted them to be seen, were also covered with linked mail; the +knees and feet were defended by splints, or thin plates of steel, +ingeniously jointed upon each other; and mail hose, reaching from the +ankle to the knee, effectually protected the legs, and completed the +rider's defensive armor. In his girdle he wore a long and double-edged +dagger, which was the only offensive weapon about his person. + +He rode, not a mule, like his companion, but a strong hackney for the +road, to save his gallant war horse, which a squire led behind, fully +accoutered for battle, with a chamfron or plaited headpiece upon his head, +having a short spike projecting from the front. On one side of the saddle +hung a short battle-ax, richly inlaid with Damascene carving; on the other +the rider's plumed headpiece and hood of mail, with a long two-handed +sword, used by the chivalry of the period. A second squire held aloft his +master's lance, from the extremity of which fluttered a small banderole, +or streamer, bearing a cross of the same form with that embroidered upon +his cloak. He also carried his small triangular shield, broad enough at +the top to protect the breast, and from thence diminishing to a point. It +was covered with a scarlet cloth, which prevented the device from being +seen. + +--Scott: _Ivanhoe_. + + +Notice also how the description proceeds in an orderly way from one thing +to another, placing together in the description those which occur together +in the person described. Just as we turn our eyes naturally from one thing +to another near it in space, so in a paragraph should our attention be +called from one thing to that which naturally accompanies it. If the first +sentence describes a man's eyes, the second his feet, and a third his +forehead, our mental image is likely to become confused. If a description +covers several paragraphs, each may be given a unity by placing in it +those things which are associated in space. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ If you were to write three paragraphs describing a man, which of the +following details should be included in each paragraph? + +(_a_) eyes, (_b_) shoes, (_c_) size, (_d_) complexion, (_e_) general +appearance, (_f_) hair, (_g_) carriage, (_h_) trousers,(_i_) mouth, (_j_) +coat, (_k_) nose. + + +_B._ Make a list of the details which might be mentioned in describing the +outside of a church. Arrange them in appropriate groups. + + +_C._ In the following paragraphs which sentences give the general outline +and which give details? Are the details arranged with reference to their +position in space? Can the paragraph be improved by rearranging them? + + +1. We came finally to a brook more wild and mysterious than the others. +There were a half dozen stepping-stones between the path we were on and +the place where it began again on the opposite side. After a few missteps +and much laughter we were landed at last, but several of the party had wet +feet to remember the experience by. We found ourselves in a space that had +once been a clearing. A tumbledown chimney overgrown with brambles and +vines told of an abandoned hearthstone. The blackened remnants of many a +picnic camp fire strewed the ground. A slight turn brought us to the spot +where the Indian Spring welled out of the hillside. The setting was all +that we could have hoped for,--great moss-grown rocks wet and slippery, +deep shade which almost made us doubt the existence of the hot August +sunshine at the edge of the forest, cool water dripping and tinkling. A +half-dozen great trees had been so undermined by the action of the water +long ago that they had tumbled headlong into the stream bed. There they +lay, heads down, crisscross--one completely spanning the brook just below +the spring--their tangled roots like great dragons twisting and thrusting +at the shadows. The water trickled slowly over the smooth rocky bottom as +if reluctant to leave a spot enchanted. A few yards below, the overflow +from Indian Spring joined the main stream, and their waters mingled in a +pretty little cataract. We went below and looked back at it. How it +wrinkled and paused over the level spaces, played with the bubbles in the +eddies, and ran laughing and turning somersaults wherever the ledges were +abrupt. + +--Mary Rodgers Miller: _The Brook Book_. (Copyright, 1902, by Doubleday, +Page & Co.) + + +2. Rowena was tall in stature, yet not so much so as to attract +observation on account of superior height. Her complexion was exquisitely +fair, but the noble cast of her head and features prevented the insipidity +which sometimes attaches to fair beauties. Her clear blue eyes, which sat +enshrined beneath a graceful eyebrow of brown, sufficiently marked to give +expression to the forehead, seemed capable to kindle as well as to melt, +to command as well as to beseech. Her profuse hair, of a color betwixt +brown and flaxen, was arranged in a fanciful and graceful manner in +numerous ringlets, to form which art had probably been aided by nature. +These locks were braided with gems, and being worn at full length, +intimated the noble birth and free-born condition of the maiden. A golden +chain, to which was attached a small reliquary of the same metal, hung +around her neck. She wore bracelets on her arms, which were bare. Her +dress was an under gown and kirtle of pale sea-green silk, over which hung +a long loose robe, which reached to the ground, having very wide sleeves, +which came down, however, very little below the elbow. This robe was +crimson, and manufactured out of the very finest wool. A veil of silk, +interwoven with gold, was attached to the upper part of it, which could +be, at the wearer's pleasure, either drawn over the face and bosom after +the Spanish fashion, or disposed as a sort of drapery round the shoulders. + +--Scott: _Ivanhoe_. + + ++Theme XXIV.+--_Write a paragraph and arrange the details with reference +to their association in space._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + + 1. Ichabod Crane. + 2. Rip Van Winkle. + 3. The man who lives near us. + 4. A minister I met yesterday. + 5. Our family doctor. + 6. The gymnasium. + 7. A fire engine. + 8. The old church. + 9. The shoe factory. + 10. Some character in the book you are reading. + + +(Which sentence gives the general impression and which sentences give the +details? Are the details arranged with reference to their real space +order? Should others be added? Can any be omitted? Will the reader form +the mental image you wish him to form?) + + ++48. Development by Comparison.+--In Section 29 we found that comparison, +whether literal or figurative, aided us in forming mental images of +objects. In a similar way events and general principles may be explained +by making suitable comparisons. We are continually comparing one thing +with another. Every idea tends to recall other ideas that are similar to +it or in contrast with it. When an unfamiliar idea is presented to us we +at once seek to associate it with similar ideas already known to us. A +writer, therefore, will make his meaning clear by furnishing, the desired +comparisons. If these are familiar to us, they enable us to understand +the new ideas presented. Even when both ideas in the comparison are +unfamiliar, each may gain in clearness by comparison with the other. + +In comparing two objects, events, or principles we may point out that they +are _not_ alike in certain respects. A comparison that thus emphasizes +differences, rather than likenesses, becomes a contrast. The contrast may +be given in a single sentence or in a single paragraph, but often a +paragraph or more may be required for each of the two ideas contrasted. + + +EXERCISE + + +Notice how comparisons and contrasts are used in the following +paragraphs:-- + + +1. Niagara is the largest cataract in the world, while Yosemite is the +highest; it is the volume that impresses you at Niagara, and it is the +height of Yosemite and the grand surroundings that make its beauty. +Niagara is as wide as Yosemite is high, and if it had no more water than +Yosemite has, it would not be of much consequence. The sound of the two +falls is quite different: Niagara makes a steady roar, deep and strong, +though not oppressive, while Yosemite is a crash and rattle, owing to the +force of the water as it strikes the solid rock after its immense leap. + +2. It is not only in appearance that London and New York differ widely. +They also speak with different accents, for cities have distinctive +accents as well as people. Tennyson wrote about "streaming London's +central roar"; the roar is a gentle hum compared with the din which +tingles the ears of visitors to New York. The accent of New York is harsh, +grating, jarring. The rattle of the elevated railroad, the whir of the +cable cars, the ringing of electric-car bells, the rumble of vehicles over +the hard stones, the roar of the traffic as it reëchoes through the narrow +canyons of down-town streets, produce an appalling combination of +discords. The streets of New York are not more crowded than those of +London, but the noise in London is subdued. It is more regular, less +jarring and piercing. The muffled sounds in London are due partly to the +wooden and asphalt pavements, which deaden the sounds. London must be +soothing to the New Yorker, as the noise of New York is at first +disconcerting to the Londoner.--_Outlook._ + +3. Now their separate characters are briefly these. The man's power is +active, progressive, defensive. He is eminently the doer, the creator, the +discoverer, the defender. His intellect is for speculation and invention; +his energy for adventure, for war, and for conquest wherever war is just, +wherever conquest necessary. But the woman's power is for rule, not for +battle, and her intellect is not for invention or creation, but for sweet +ordering, arrangement, and decision. She sees the qualities of things, +their claims, and their places. + +--Ruskin: _Sesame and Lilies_. + + ++Theme XXV.+--_Write a paragraph using comparison or contrast._ + + +Suggested topics:-- + + 1. The school, a beehive. + 2. The body, a steam engine. + 3. Two generals about whom you have read. + 4. Girls, boys. + 5. Two of your studies. + 6. Graded school work, high school work. + 7. Animal life, plant life. + 8. Two of your classmates. + + +(Have you used comparison or contrast? Have you introduced any of the +other methods of development? Have you developed the paragraph so that the +reader will understand fully your topic statement? Omit sentences not +really needed.) + + ++49. Development by Stating Cause and Effect.+--We are better satisfied +with our understanding of a thing if we know the causes which have +produced it or the effects which follow it. Likewise we feel that another +has mastered the topic statement of a paragraph if he can answer the +question, Why is this so? or, What will result from this? When either is +stated, we naturally begin to think about the other. The idea of a topic +statement may, therefore, be satisfactorily developed by stating its +causes or its effects. A cause may be stated and the effects given or the +effects may be made the topic statement for which we account by giving its +causes. + +The importance of the relation of cause and effect to scientific study is +discussed in the following paragraph from Mill:-- + + +The relation of cause and effect is the fundamental law of nature. There +is no recorded instance of an effect appearing without a previous cause, +or of a cause acting without producing its full effect. Every change in +nature is the effect of some previous change and the cause of some change +to follow; just as the movement of each carriage near the middle of a long +train is a result of the movement of the one in front and a precursor +of the movement of the one behind. Facts or effects are to be seen +everywhere, but causes have usually to be sought for. It is the function +of science or organized knowledge to observe all effects, or phenomena, +and to seek for their causes. This twofold purpose gives richness and +dignity to science. The observation and classifying of facts soon become +wearisome to all but the specialist actually engaged in the work. But when +reasons are assigned, and classification explained, when the number of +causes is reduced and the effects begin to crystallize into essential and +clearly related parts of one whole, every intelligent student finds +interest, and many, more fortunate, even fascination in the study. + +--Mill: _The Realm of Nature_. (Copyright, 1892, by Charles Scribner's +Sons.) + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ In your reading, notice how often the effects are indicated by the +use of some one of the following expressions: _as a result, accordingly, +consequently, for, hence, so, so that, thus._ + +_B._ Which sentences state causes and which state effects in the following +paragraphs? + + +1. The power of water to dissolve most minerals increases with its +temperature and the amount of gases it contains. Percolating water at +great depths, therefore, generally dissolves more mineral matter than it +can hold in solution when it reaches the surface, where it cools, and, +being relieved of pressure, much of its carbonic acid gas escapes to the +atmosphere or is absorbed by aquatic plants or mosses. Hence, deep-seated +springs are usually surrounded by a deposit of the minerals with which the +water is impregnated. Sometimes this deposit may even form large hills; +sometimes it forms a mound around the spring, over the sides of which the +water falls, while the spray, evaporating from surrounding objects, leaves +them also incrusted with a mineral deposit. Percolating water evaporating +on the sides and roof of limestone caverns, leaves the walls incrusted +with carbonate of lime in beautiful masses of crystals. Water slowly +evaporating as it drips from the roof of caverns to the floor beneath +leaves a deposit on both places, which gradually grows downward from the +roof as a _stalactite_, and upward from the floor as a _stalagmite_, until +these meet and form one continuous column of stone. + +--Hinman: _Eclectic Physical Geography_. + + +2. The frequent use of cigars or cigarettes by the young seriously affects +the quality of the blood. The red blood corpuscles are not fully developed +and charged with their normal supply of life-giving oxygen. This causes +paleness of the skin, often noticed in the face of the young smoker. +Palpitation of the heart is also a common result, followed by permanent +weakness, so that the whole system is enfeebled, and mental vigor is +impaired as well as physical strength. Observant teachers can usually tell +which of the boys under their care are addicted to smoking, simply by the +comparative inferiority of their appearance, and by their intellectual and +bodily indolence and feebleness. After full maturity is attained the evil +effects of commencing the use of tobacco are less apparent; but competent +physicians assert that it cannot be safely used by those under the age of +forty. + +--Macy-Norris: _Physiology for High Schools_. + + +3. In many other ways, too, the Norman Conquest affected England. For +example, before long all the best places in the Church were filled with +foreigners. But most of the new bishops and abbots were far superior in +morals and education to the Englishmen whom they succeeded. They were also +devoted to the Pope of Rome, and soon made the English National Church a +part of the Roman Catholic Church. But William, while willing to bow to +the Pope as his chief in religious matters, refused to give way to him in +things which concerned only this world. No former English king had done +that, he knew, and no more would he. This union with the Roman Catholic +Church was of the greatest benefit to England, as it brought her once more +into connection with the educated men of Europe. Indeed, Lanfranc, the +Conqueror's Archbishop of Canterbury, was one of the best and wisest men +of his day. + +--Higginson and Channing: _English History for American Readers_. + + ++Theme XXVI.+--_Develop one of the following topic statements into +paragraphs by stating causes or effects:_-- + +1. A government which had no soldiers to call upon in an emergency would +not last long. + +2. One of the first needs of a new country is roads. + +3. The number of people receiving public support is smaller in this +country than in Europe. + +4. An efficient postal system is a great aid to civilization. + +5. A straight stream is an impossibility in nature. + +6. Mountain ranges have great influence upon climate. + +7. The United States holds first place as a manufacturing nation. + +8. There are many swift rivers in New England. + +9. Towns or cities are located at the mouths of navigable rivers. + + +(Which sentences state causes and which state effects? Would the effects +which you have stated really follow the given causes?) + + ++50. Development by Repetition.+--The repetition of a thought in different +form will often make plain that which we do not at first understand. This +is especially true if the repetitions are accompanied by new comparisons. +In every school the teacher makes daily use of repetition in her efforts +to explain to the pupils that which they do not understand. In a similar +way a writer makes use of this tendency of ours, and develops the idea of +the topic sentence by repetition. Each sentence should, however, do more +than merely repeat. It should add something to the central idea, making +this idea clearer, more definite, or more emphatic. If repetition is +excessive and purposeless, it becomes a fault. + +Repetition may extend through the whole paragraph, or it may be used to +explain any sentence or any part of a sentence. It may tell what the thing +is or what it is not, and in effect becomes a definition setting limits to +the original idea. + + +EXERCISE + + +Notice how the idea in the topic statement of each of the following +paragraphs is repeated in those which follow:-- + + +1. No man ever made a complete new system of law and gave it to a people. +No monarch, however absolute or powerful, ever had the power to change the +habits of a people to that extent. Revolution generally means, not a +change of law, but merely a change of government officials; even when it +is a change from monarchy to democracy. Our Revolution made practically no +changes in the criminal and civil laws of the colonies. + +--Clark: _The Government_. + + +2. People talk of liberty as if it meant the liberty to do just what a man +likes. I call that man free who fears doing wrong, but fears nothing else. +I call that man free who has learned the most blessed of all truths,--that +liberty consists in obedience to the power, and to the will, and to the +law that his higher soul reverences and approves. He is not free because +he does what he likes; but he is free because he does what he ought, and +there is no protest in his soul against the doing. + +--Frederick William Robertson. + + +3. This dense forest was to the Indians a home in which they had lived +from childhood, and where they were as much at ease as a farmer on his own +acres. To their keen eyes, trained for generations to more than a wild +beast's watchfulness, the wilderness was an open book. Nothing at rest or +in motion escaped them. They had begun to track game as soon as they could +walk; a scrape on a tree trunk, a bruised leaf, a faint indentation of the +soil, which no white man could see, all told them a tale as plainly as if +it had been shouted in their ears. + +--Theodore Roosevelt: _The Winning of the West_. + + +4. Public enterprises, whether conducted by the municipality or committed +to the public service corporation, exist to render public services. +Streets are public highways. They exist for the people's use. Nothing +should be placed in them unless required to facilitate their use by or for +the people. Only the general need of water, gas, electricity, and +transportation justifies the placing of pipes and wires and tracks in the +streets. The public need is the sole test and measure of such occupation. +To look upon the streets as a source of private gain, or even municipal +revenue, except as incidents of their public use, is to disregard their +public character. Adequate service at the lowest practicable rates, not +gain or revenue, is the test. The question is, not how much the public +service corporation may gain, but what can be saved to the people by its +employment. + +--Edwin Burrett Smith: _The Next Step in Municipal Reform_ +("Atlantic Monthly"). + + ++Theme XXVII.+--_Develop one of the following topic statements into a +paragraph, using the method, of repetition as far as possible:_-- + +1. It is difficult to become angry with one who is always good-natured. + +2. It is gloomy in the woods on a rainy day. + +3. The government is always in need of honest men. + +4. Rural free delivery of mail will have a great effect on country life. + +5. Not every boy in school uses his time to the best advantage. + +6. Haste is waste. + +7. Regular exercise is one of the essentials of good health. + + +(Have the repetitions really made the idea of the topic sentence clearer +or more emphatic or more definite? What other methods of development have +you used?) + + ++51. Development by a Combination of Methods.+--A paragraph should have +unity of thought, and, so long as this unity of thought is kept, it does +not matter what methods of development are used. A dozen paragraphs taken +at random will show that combinations are very frequent. Often it will be +difficult to determine just how a paragraph has been developed. In +general, however, it may be said that an indiscriminate mixture of methods +is confusing and interferes with unity of thought. If more than one is +used, it requires skillful handling to maintain such a relation between +them that both contribute to the clear and emphatic statement of the main +thought. + +The paragraph from Dryer, page 74, shows a combination of cause and effect +with specific illustrations; that from Wolstan Dixey, page 81, shows a +combination of repetition with specific instances. + + +EXERCISES + + +What methods of paragraph development, or what combinations of methods, +are used in the following selections? + + +1. I believe the first test of a truly great man is his humility. I do not +mean, by humility, doubt of his power, or hesitation in speaking of his +opinions; but a right understanding of the relation between what he can do +and say and the rest of the world's sayings and doings. All great men not +only know their business, but usually know that they know it; and are not +only right in their main opinions, but they usually know that they are +right in them; only they do not think much of themselves on that account. +Arnolfo knows he can build a good dome at Florence; Albert Dürer writes +calmly to one who had found fault with his work, "It cannot be better +done"; Sir Isaac Newton knows that he has worked out a problem or two +that would have puzzled anybody else; only they do not expect their +fellow-men therefore to fall down and worship them; they have a curious +undersense of powerlessness, feeling that the greatness is not _in_ them, +but _through_ them; that they could not do or be anything else than God +made them. And they see something divine and God-made in every other man +they meet, and are endlessly, foolishly, and incredibly merciful. + +--Ruskin. + + +2. The first thing to be noted about the dress of the Romans is that its +prevalent material was always woolen. Sheep raising for wool was practiced +among them on an extensive scale, from the earliest historic times, and +the choice breeds of that animal, originally imported from Greece or Asia +Minor, took so kindly to the soil and climate of Italy that home-grown +wool came even to be preferred to the foreign for fineness and softness of +quality. Foreign wools were, however, always imported more or less, partly +because the supply of native wools seems never to have been quite +sufficient, partly because the natural colors of wools from different +parts varied so considerably as to render the art of the dyer to some +extent unnecessary. Thus, the wools of Canusium were brown or reddish, +those of Pollentia in Liguria were black, those from the Spanish Baetica, +which comprised Andalusia and a part of Granada, had either a golden brown +or a grayish hue; the wools of Asia were almost red; and there was a +Grecian fleece, called the crow colored, of which the natural tint was a +peculiarly deep and brilliant black. + +--Preston and Dodge: _'The Private Life of the Romans_. + + +3. Art has done everything for Munich. It lies on a large flat plain +sixteen hundred feet above the sea and continually exposed to the cold +winds from the Alps. At the beginning of the present century it was but a +third-rate city, and was rarely visited by foreigners; since that time its +population and limits have been doubled, and magnificent edifices in every +style of architecture erected, rendering it scarcely secondary in this +respect to any capital in Europe. Every art that wealth or taste could +devise seems to have been spent in its decoration. Broad, spacious streets +and squares have been laid out; churches, halls, and colleges erected, and +schools of painting and sculpture established which drew artists from all +parts of the world. + +--Taylor: _Views Afoot_. + + +4. In all excursions to the woods or to the shore the student of +ornithology has an advantage over his companions. He has one more, avenue +of delight. He, indeed, kills two birds with one stone and sometimes +three. If others wander, he can never get out of his way. His game is +everywhere. The cawing of a crow makes him feel at home, while a new note +or a new song drowns all care. Audubon, on the desolate coast of Labrador, +is happier than any king ever was; and on shipboard is nearly cured of his +seasickness when a new gull appears in sight. + +--Burroughs: _Wake Robin_. + + ++Theme XXVIII.+--_Write a paragraph, using any method or combination of +methods which best suits your thought. Use any of the subjects hitherto +suggested that you have not already used._ + + +(Is every sentence related to the topic statement so that your paragraph +possesses unity? What methods of development have you used?) + + ++52. The Topical Recitation.+--In conducting a recitation the teacher may +ask direct questions about each part of a paragraph or she may ask a pupil +to discuss some topic. Such a topical recitation should be an exercise in +clear thinking rather than in word memory, and in order to prepare for it, +the pupil should have made a careful analysis of the thought in each +paragraph similar to that discussed on page 74. When this analysis has +been made he will have clearly in mind the topic statement and the way it +has been developed, and will be able to distinguish the essential from the +non-essential elements. + +A topical recitation demands that the pupil know the main idea and be able +to develop it in one of the following methods, or by a combination of +them: (1) by giving specific instances, (2) by giving details, (3) by +giving comparisons or contrasts, (4) by giving causes or effects, and (5) +by repetition. + +Thoughts so mastered are our own. We understand them and believe them; and +consequently we can explain them, or describe them, or prove them to +others. We can furnish details or instances, originate comparisons, or +state causes and effects. _When ideas gained from language have thus +become our own, we do not need to remember the language in which they were +expressed, and not until then do they become proper material for +composition purposes._ + + ++53. Outlining Paragraphs.+--Making an outline of a paragraph that we have +read brings the thought clearly before our mind. In a similar way we may +make our own thoughts clear and definite by attempting to prepare in +advance an outline of a paragraph that we are about to write. Arranging +the material that we have in mind and deciding upon the order in which we +shall present it, will both help us to understand the thought ourselves, +and enable us to present it more effectively to others. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Prepare for recitation the following selection from Newcomer's +introduction to Macaulay's _Milton and Addison:_-- + + +There were two faculties of Macaulay's mind that set his work far apart +from other work in the same field,--the faculties of organization and +illustration. He saw things in their right relation and he knew how to +make others see them thus. If he was describing, he never thrust minor +details into the foreground. If he was narrating, he never "got ahead of +his story." The importance of this is not sufficiently recognized. Many +writers do not know what organization means. They do not know that in all +great and successful literary work it is nine tenths of the labor. Yet +consider a moment. History is a very complex thing: divers events may be +simultaneous in their occurrence; or one crisis may be slowly evolving +from many causes in many places. It is no light task to tell these things +one after another and yet leave a unified impression, to take up a dozen +new threads in succession without tangling them and without losing the old +ones, and to lay them all down at the right moment and without confusion. +Such is the narrator's task, and it was at this task that Macaulay proved +himself a past master. He could dispose of a number of trivial events in a +single sentence. Thus, for example, runs his account of the dramatist +Wycherley's naval career: "He embarked, was present at a battle, and +celebrated it, on his return, in a copy of verses too bad for the +bellman." On the other hand, when it is a question of a great crisis, like +the impeachment of Warren Hastings, he knew how to prepare for it with +elaborate ceremony and to portray it in a scene of the highest dramatic +power. + +This faculty of organization shows itself in what we technically name +structure; and logical and rhetorical structure may be studied at their +very best in his work. His essays are perfect units, made up of many +parts, systems within systems, that play together without clog or +friction. You can take them apart like a watch and put them together +again. But try to rearrange the parts and the mechanism is spoiled. Each +essay has its subdivisions, which in turn are groups of paragraphs. And +each paragraph is a unit. Take the first paragraph of the essay on Milton: +the word _manuscript_ appears in the first sentence, and it reappears in +the last; clearly the paragraph deals with a single very definite topic. +And so with all. Of course the unity manifests itself in a hundred ways, +but it is rarely wanting. Most frequently it takes the form of an +expansion of a topic given in the first sentence, or a preparation for a +topic to be announced only in the last. These initial and final sentences-- +often in themselves both aphoristic and memorable--serve to mark with the +utmost clearness the different stages in the progress of the essay. + +Illustration is of more incidental service, but as used by Macaulay +becomes highly organic. For his illustrations are not farfetched or +laboriously worked out. They seem to be of one piece with his story or his +argument. His mind was quick to detect resemblances and analogies. He was +ready with a comparison for everything, sometimes with half a dozen. For +example, Addison's essays, he has occasion to say, were different every +day of the week, and yet, to his mind, each day like something--like +Horace, like Lucian, like the "Tales of Scheherezade." He draws long +comparisons between Walpole and Townshend, between Congreve and Wycherley, +between Essex and Villiers, between the fall of the Carlovingians and the +fall of the Moguls. He follows up a general statement with swarms of +instances. Have historians been given to exaggerating the villainy of +Machiavelli? Macaulay can name you half a dozen who did so. Did the +writers of Charles's faction delight in making their opponents appear +contemptible? "They have told us that Pym broke down in a speech, that +Ireton had his nose pulled by Hollis, that the Earl of Northumberland +cudgeled Henry Marten, that St. John's manners were sullen, that Vane had +an ugly face, that Cromwell had a red nose." Do men fail when they quit +their own province for another? Newton failed thus; Bentley failed; Inigo +Jones failed; Wilkie failed. In the same way he was ready with quotations. +He writes in one of his letters: "It is a dangerous thing for a man with a +very strong memory to read very much. I could give you three or four +quotations this moment in support of that proposition; but I will bring +the vicious propensity under subjection, if I can." Thus we see his mind +doing instantly and involuntarily what other minds do with infinite pains, +bringing together all things that have a likeness or a common bearing. + +It is precisely these talents that set Macaulay among the simplest and +clearest of writers, and that accounts for much of his popularity. People +found that in taking up one of his articles they simply read on and on, +never puzzling over the meaning of a sentence, getting the exact force of +every statement, and following the trend of thought with scarcely a mental +effort. And his natural gift of making things plain he took pains to +support by various devices. He constructed his sentences after the +simplest normal fashion, subject and verb and object, sometimes inverting +for emphasis, but rarely complicating, and always reducing expression to +the barest terms. He could write, for example, "One advantage the chaplain +had," but it is impossible to conceive of his writing, "Now, amid all the +discomforts and disadvantages with which the unfortunate chaplain was +surrounded, there was one thing which served to offset them, and which, if +he chose to take the opportunity of enjoying it, might well be regarded as +a positive advantage." One will search his pages in vain for loose, +trailing clauses and involved constructions. His vocabulary was of the +same simple nature. He had a complete command of ordinary English and +contented himself with that. He rarely ventured beyond the most abridged +dictionary. An occasional technical term might be required, but he was shy +of the unfamiliar. He would coin no words and he would use no archaisms. +Foreign words, when fairly naturalized, he employed sparingly. "We shall +have no disputes about diction," he wrote to Napier, Jeffrey's successor; +"the English language is not so poor but that I may very well find in it +the means of contenting both you and myself." + + +_B._ Recite upon some topic taken from your other lessons for the day. Let +the class tell what method of development you have used. + + +_C._ Make a collection of well-written paragraphs illustrating each of the +methods of development. + + ++Theme XXIX.+--_Write two paragraphs using the same topic statement, but +developing each by a different method._ + +Suggested topic statements:-- + +1. The principal tools of government are buildings, guns, and money. + +2. The civilized world was never so orderly as now. + +3. Law suits take time, especially in cities; sometimes they take years. + +4. There is a difference between law and justice. + +5. We cry for a multitude of reasons of surprising variety. + +6. In the growth of a child nothing is more surprising than his ceaseless +activity. + +7. Education for the children of a nation is a benefit to the whole +nation. + + +(Have you said what you intended to say? What methods of development have +you used? Is the main thought of the two paragraphs the same even though +they begin with the same sentence?) + + +SUMMARY + + +1. Language is (1) a means of expressing ideas, and (2) a medium through + which ideas are acquired. + +2. The acquisition of ideas by means of language requires:-- + _a._ That we know the meanings of words, and so avoid forming + incomplete images (Section 27) and incomplete thoughts (Section + 33). + _b._ That we understand the relations in thought existing among words, + phrases, clauses, sentences, and paragraphs (Section 32). + +3. Ideas acquired through language may be used for composition purposes-- + _a._ Provided we form complete and accurate images and do not confuse + the image with the language that suggested it (Section 28). + _b._ Provided we make the main thoughts so thoroughly our own that we + can furnish details and instances, originate comparisons, or + state causes and effects, and thus become able to describe them + or explain them, or prove them to others (Section 52). + Until both _a_ and _b_ as stated above are done, ideas acquired + through language are undesirable for composition purposes. + +4. Comparisons aid in the forming of correct images. They may be literal + or imaginative. If imaginative, they become figures of speech. + +5. Figures of speech. (Complete list in the Appendix.) + _a._ A simile is a direct comparison. + _b._ A metaphor is an implied comparison. + _c._ Personification is a modified metaphor, assigning human + attributes to objects, abstract ideas, or the lower animals. + +6. Suggestions as to the use of figures of speech. + _a._ Never write for the purpose of using them. + _b._ They should be appropriate to the subject. + _c._ One of the two things compared must be familiar to the reader. + _d._ Avoid hackneyed figures. + _e._ Avoid long figures. + _f._ Avoid mixed metaphors. + +7. Choice of words. + _a._ Use words presumably familiar to the reader. + _b._ Use words that express your exact meaning. Do not confuse similar + words. + _e._ Avoid the frequent use of the same word (Section 17). + +8. Ambiguity of thought must be avoided. Care must be exercised in the + use of the forms which show relations in thought between sentences, + especially with pronouns and pronominal adjectives (Section 36). + +9. A paragraph is a group of sentences related to each other and to one + central idea. +10. The topic statement of a paragraph is a brief comprehensive summary of + the contents of the paragraph. + +11. Methods of paragraph development. A paragraph may be developed-- + _a._ By giving specific instances (Section 44). + _b._ By giving details (Section 45). The order in which the details + are told may be determined by-- + (1) The order of their occurrence in time (Section 46). + (2) Their position in space (Section 47). + _c._ By comparison or contrast (Section 48). + _d._ By stating cause and effect (Section 49). + _e._ By repetition (Section 50). + _f._ By any suitable combination of the methods stated above. + +12. The topical recitation demands-- + _a._ That the pupil get the central idea of the paragraph and be able + to make the topic statement. + _b._ That he be able to determine the relative importance of the + remaining ideas in the paragraph. + _c._ That he know by which of the five methods named above the + paragraph has been developed. + _d._ That he be able to furnish details, instances, and comparisons of + his own. (See Sections 37, 38, 39, 52, 53.) + + + +IV. THE PURPOSE OF EXPRESSION + + ++54. Kinds of Composition.+--When considered with reference to the +purpose in the mind of the writer, there are two general classes of +writing,--that which informs, and that which entertains. The language that +we use should make our meaning clear, arouse interest, and give vividness. +Writing that informs will lay greatest emphasis on clearness, though it +may at the same time be interesting and vivid. We do not add to the value +of an explanation by making it dull. On the other hand, writing that +entertains, though it must be clear, will lay greater emphasis on interest +and vividness. That language is best which combines all three of these +characteristics. The writer's purpose will determine to which the emphasis +shall be given. + +Composition is also divided into description, narration, exposition, and +argument (including persuasion). These are called forms of discourse. It +will be found that this division is also based upon the purpose for which +the composition is written. You have occasion to use each of these forms +of discourse daily; you describe, you narrate, you explain, you argue, you +persuade. You have used language for these purposes from your infancy, and +you are now studying composition in order to acquire facility and +effectiveness in that use. When this chapter is completed, you will have +considered each of the four forms of discourse in an elementary way. A +more extended treatment is given in later chapters. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ To which of the two general classes of composition would each of the +following belong? + + +1. A business letter. + +2. The story of a runaway. + +3. A description of a lake written by a geologist. + +4. A description of a lake written by a boy who was camping near it. + +5. A letter to a friend describing a trip. + +6. A text-book on algebra. + +7. An application for a position as stenographer. + +8. A recipe for making cake. + +9. How I made a cake. + +10. How to make a kite. + +11. A political speech. + +12. A debate. + + +_B._ Could a description be written for the purpose of entertaining? Could +the same object be described for the purpose of giving information? + +_C._ To which general class do narratives belong? Explanations? Arguments? + ++55. Discourse Presupposes an Audience.+--The object of composition is +communication, and communication is not concerned with one's self alone. +It always involves two,--the one who gives and the one who receives. If +its purpose is to inform, it must inform _somebody_; if to entertain, it +must entertain _somebody_. To be sure, discourse may be a pleasure to us, +because it is a means of self-expression, but it is _useful_ to us because +it conveys ideas to that other somebody who hears or reads it. We describe +in order that another may picture that which we have experienced; we +narrate, events for the entertainment of others; we explain to others that +which we understand; and we argue in order to prove to some one the truth +of a proposition or to persuade him to action. Thus all discourse, to be +useful, demands an audience. Its effective use requires that the writer +shall give quite as much attention to the way in which that reader will +receive his ideas as he gives to the ideas themselves. "Speaking or +writing is, therefore, a double-ended process. It springs from me, it +penetrates him; and both of these ends need watching. Is what I say +precisely what I mean? That is an important question. Is what I say so +shaped that it can readily be assimilated by him who hears? This is a +question of quite as great consequence and much more likely to be +forgotten.... As I write I must unceasingly study what is the line of +least intellectual resistance along which my thought may enter the +differently constituted mind; and to that line I must subtly adjust, +without enfeebling my meaning. Will this combination of words or that make +the meaning clear? Will this order of presentation facilitate swiftness of +apprehension or will it clog the movement?"[Footnote: Professor George +Herbert Palmer: _Self-cultivation in English_.] + +In the preceding chapters emphasis has been laid upon the care that a +writer must give to saying exactly what he means. This must never be +neglected, but we need to add to it a consideration of how best to adapt +what we say to the interest and intelligence of our readers. It will +become clear in writing the following theme that the discussion of +paragraph development in Chapter III was in reality a discussion of +methods of adapting our discourse to the mental habits of our readers. + + ++Theme XXX.+--_Write a theme showing which one of the five methods of +paragraph development proceeds most nearly in accordance with the way the +mind usually acts._ + +(This theme will furnish a review of the methods of paragraph development +treated in Chapter III. If possible, write your theme without consulting +the chapter. "Think it out" for yourself. After the theme has been +written, review paragraph development treated in Chapter III. Can you +improve your theme? What methods of development have you used?) + + ++56. Selecting a Subject.+--Sometimes our theme subjects are chosen for +us, but usually we shall need to choose our own subjects. What we should +choose depends both upon ourselves and upon those for whom we write. The +elements which make a subject suitable for the reader will be considered +later. In so far as the writer is concerned, two things determine the +suitableness of a subject:-- + +First, the writer's knowledge of the subject. We cannot make ideas clear +to others unless they are clear to us. Our information must be clearly and +definitely our own before we can hope to present it effectively. This is +one of the advantages possessed by subjects arising from experience. Any +subject about which we know little or nothing, should be rejected. We must +not, however, reject a subject too soon. When it is first thought of we +may find that we have but few ideas about it, but by thinking we may +discover that our information is greater than it at first seemed. We may +be able to assign reasons or to give instances or to originate comparisons +or to add details, and by these processes to amplify our knowledge. Even +if we find that we know but little about the subject from our own +experience, we may still be able to use it for a composition subject by +getting our information from others. We may from conversation or from +reading gain ideas that we can make our own and consequently be able to +write intelligently. Care must be taken that this "reading up" on a +subject does not fill our minds with smatterings of ideas that we think we +understand because we can remember the language in which they were +expressed; but reading, _supplemented by thinking_, may enable us to write +well about a subject concerning which on first thought we seem to know but +little. + +Second, the writer's interest in the subject. It will be found difficult +for the writer to present vividly a subject in which he himself has no +special interest. Enthusiasm is contagious, and if the writer has a real +interest in his subject, he is likely to present his material in such a +manner as to arouse interest in others. In our earlier years we are more +interested in the material presented by experience and imagination than in +that presented by reading, but as we grow older our interest in thoughts +conveyed to us by language increases. As we enlarge our knowledge of a +subject by reading and by conversation, so we are likely to increase our +interest in that subject. A boy may know but little about Napoleon, but +the effort to inform himself may cause him to become greatly interested. +This interest will lead him to a further search for information about +Napoleon, and will at the same time aid in making what he writes +entertaining to others. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ About which of the following subjects do you now possess a sufficient +knowledge to enable you to write a paragraph? In which of them are you +interested? Which would you need to "read up" about? + +1. Golf. +2. Examinations. +3. Warships. +4. Wireless telegraphy. +5. Radium. +6. Tennis. +7. Automobiles. +8. Picnics. +9. Printing. +10. Bees. +11. Birds. +12. Pyrography. +13. Photography. +14. Beavers. +15. Making calls. +16. Stamp collecting. +17. The manufacture of tacks. +18. The manufacture of cotton. +19. The smelting of zinc. +20. The silver-plating process. + + +_B._ Make a list of thirty things about which you know something. + + +_C._ Bring to class a list of five subjects in which you are interested. + + +_D._ Make a list of five subjects about which you now possess a sufficient +knowledge to enable you to write a paragraph. + + ++Theme XXXI.+--_Write a short theme: Select a suitable subject from the +lists in the preceding exercise._ + +(What method or methods of paragraph development have you used? Have your +paragraphs unity of thought?) + + ++57. Subject Adapted to Reader.+--We may be interested in a subject and +possess sufficient knowledge to enable us to treat it successfully, but it +may still be unsuitable because it is not adapted to the reader. Some +knowledge of a subject and some interest in it are quite as necessary on +the part of the reader as on that of the writer, though in the beginning +this knowledge and interest may be meager. The possibility of developing +both knowledge and interest must exist, however, or the writing will be a +failure. It would be difficult to make "Imperialism" interesting to third +grade pupils, or "Kant's Philosophy" to high school pupils. Even if you +know enough to write a valuable "Criticism" of _Silas Marner_, or a real +"Review" of the _Vicar of Wakefield_, the work is time wasted if your +readers do not have a breadth of knowledge sufficient to insure a vital +and appreciative interest in the subject. You must take care to select a +subject that is of present, vital interest to your readers. + + ++58. Sources of Subjects.+--Thought goes everywhere, and human interest +touches everything. The sources of subjects are therefore unlimited; for +anything about which we think and in which we are interested may become a +suitable subject for a paragraph, an essay, or a book. Such subjects are +everywhere--in what we see and do, in what we think and feel, in what we +hear and read. We relate to our parents what a neighbor said; we discuss +for the teacher an event in history, or a character in literature; we show +a companion how to make a kite or work a problem in algebra; we consider +the advantages of a commercial course or relate the pleasures of a day's +outing,--in each case we are interested, we think, we express our +thoughts, and so are practicing oral composition with _subjects that may +be used for written exercises_. + ++59. Subjects should be Definite.+--Both the writer and the reader are +more interested in definite and concrete subjects than in the general and +abstract ones, and we shall make our writing more interesting by +recognizing this fact. One might write about "Birds," or "The Intelligence +of Birds," or "How Birds Protect their Young," or "A Family of Robins." +The last is a specific subject, while the other three are general +subjects. Of these, the first includes more than the second; and the +second, more than the third. A person with sufficient knowledge might +write about any one of these general subjects, but it would be difficult +to give such a subject adequate treatment in a short theme. Though a +general subject may suggest more lines of thought, our knowledge about a +specific subject is less vague, and consequently more usable. We really +know more about the specific subject, and we have a greater interest in +it. The subject, "A Family of Robins," indicates that the writer knows +something interesting that he intends to tell. Such a subject compels +expectant attention from the reader and aids in arousing an appreciative +interest on his part. + +On first thought, it would seem easier to write about a general subject +than about a specific one, but this is not the case. A general subject +presents so many lines of thought that the writer is confused, rather than +aided, by the abundance of material. A skilled and experienced writer +possessing a large fund of information may treat general subjects +successfully, but for the beginner safety lies only in selecting definite +subjects and in keeping within the limits prescribed. The "Women of +Shakespeare" might be an interesting subject for a book by a Shakespearean +scholar, but it is scarcely suitable for a high school pupil's theme. + + ++60. Narrowing the Subject.+--It is often necessary to narrow a subject in +order to bring it within the range of the knowledge and interest of +ourselves and of our readers. A description of the transportation +of milk on the electric roads around Toledo would probably be more +interesting than an essay on "Freight Transportation by Electricity," or +on "Transportation." The purpose that the writer has in mind, and the +length of the article he intends to write, will affect the selection of a +subject. "Transportation" might be the subject of a book in which a +chapter was given to each important subdivision of it; but it would be +quite as difficult to treat such a subject in three hundred words as it +would be to make use of three hundred pages for "The Transportation of +Milk at Toledo." + +A general subject may suggest many lines of thought. It is the task of the +writer to select one about which he knows something or can learn +something, in which both he and his readers are interested, or can become +interested, and for which the time and space at his disposal are adequate. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Arrange the subjects in each of the following groups so that the most +general ones shall come first:-- + + 1. The intelligence of wild animals. + How a fox escaped from the hounds. + How animals escape destruction by their enemies. + Animals. + + 2. The benefits that arise from war. + The defeat of the Cimbri and Teutons by Marius. + War. + The value of military strength to the Romans. + + 3. Pleasure. + A summer outing in the Adirondacks. + Value of vacations. + Catching bass. + + +_B._ Narrow ten of the following subjects until the resulting subject may +be treated in a single paragraph:-- + +1. Fishing. +2. Engines. +3. Literature. +4. Heroes of fiction. +5. Cooking. +6. Houses. +7. Games. +8. Basketball. +9. Cats. +10. Canaries. +11. Sympathy. +12. Sailboats. +13. Baseball. +14. Rivers. +15. Trees. + + +C. A general subject may suggest several narrower subjects, each of which +would be of interest to a different class of persons; for example-- + + General subject,--Education. + Specific subjects,-- + 1. Methods of conducting recitations. (Teachers.) + 2. School taxes. (Farmers.) + 3. Ventilation of school buildings. (Architects.) + +In a similar way, narrow each of the following subjects +so that the resulting subjects will be of interest to two or +more classes of persons:-- + + Subjects Classes + 1. Vacations. 1. Farmers. + 2. Mathematics. 2. High School Pupils. + 3. Picnics. 3. Ministers. + 4. Civil service. 4. Merchants. + 5. Elections. 5. Sailors. + 6. Botany. 6. Girls. + 7. Fish. 7. Boys. + + ++Theme XXXII.+--_Write a paragraph about one of narrowed subjects._ + +(Does your paragraph have unity of thought? What methods of development +have you used? Have you selected a subject which will be of interest to +your readers?) + + ++61. Selecting a Title.+--The subject and the title may be the same, but +not necessarily so. The statement of the subject may require a sentence of +considerable length, while a title is best if short. In selecting this +brief title, it is well to get one which will attract the attention and +arouse the curiosity of a reader without appearing obviously to do so. A +peculiar or unusual title is not at all necessary, though if properly +selected such a title may be of value. Care must be taken not to have the +title make a promise that the theme cannot fulfill. If it does, the effect +is unsatisfactory. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Discuss the appropriateness of the titles for the subjects in the +following:-- + +1. Title: "My Kingdom for a Horse." + Subject: An account of a breakdown of an automobile at an inconvenient + time. + +2. Title: A Blaze of Brilliance. + Subject: Description of a coaching parade. + +3. Title: A Brave Defense. + Subject: An account of how a pair of birds drove a snake away from + their nest. + +4. Title: The Banquet Book. + Subject: Quotations designed for general reference, and also as an + aid in the preparation of the toast list, the after-dinner + speech, and the occasional address. + +5. Title: Dragons of the Air. + Subject: An account of extinct flying reptiles. + +6. Title: Rugs and Rags. + Subject: A comparison of the rich and the poor, from a socialistic + point of view. + +7. Title: Lives of the Hunted. + Subject: A true account of the doings of five quadrupeds and three + birds. + +8. Title: The Children of the Nations. + Subject: A discussion of colonies and the problems of colonization. + + +_B._ Supply an appropriate title for a story read by the teacher. + +_C._ Suggest a title, other than the one given it, for each magazine +article you have read this month. + + ++62. Language Adapted to the Reader.+--A writer may select a subject with +reference to the knowledge and interest of his readers; he may develop his +paragraphs in accordance with the methods studied in Chapter III, and yet +he may fail to make his meaning clear, because he has not used language +suited to the reader. Fortunately, the language that we understand and use +is that which is most easily understood by those of equal attainments with +ourselves. It therefore happens that when writing for those of our own age +and attainments, or for those of higher attainments, we usually best +express for them that which we make most clear and pleasing to ourselves. +But if we write for younger people, or for those of different interests in +life, we must give much attention to adapting what we write to our +readers. Before writing it is well to ask, For whom am I writing? Then, if +necessary, you should modify your language so that it will be adapted to +your readers. Can you tell for what kind of an audience each of the +following is intended? + + +In the field both teams played faultless ball, not the semblance of an +error being made. Besides backing up their pitchers in this fashion, both +local and visiting athletes turned sensational plays. + +The element of luck figured largely in the result. In the first inning +Dougherty walked and Collins singled. Dougherty had third base sure on the +drive, but stumbled and fell down between second and third, and he was an +easy out. + +Boston got its only run in the second. Parent sent the ball to extreme +left for two bases. He stole third nattily when catcher Sugden tried to +catch him napping at the middle station. Ferris scored him with a drive to +left. St. Louis promptly tied the score in its half. Wallace opened with a +screeching triple to the bulletin board. At that he would not have scored +if J. Stahl had not contributed a passed ball, Heidrick, Friel, and +Sugden, the next three batters, expiring on weak infield taps. The Browns +got the winning run in the sixth on Martin's triple and Hill's swift cut +back of first. Lachance knocked the ball down and got his man at the +initial sack, but could not prevent the tally. + +--_Boston Herald._ + + +His name was Riley, and although his parents had called him Thomas, to the +boys he had always been "Dennis," and by the time he had reached his +senior year in college he was quite ready to admit that his "name was +Dennis," with all that slang implied. He had tried for several things, +athletics particularly, and had been substitute on the ball nine, one of +the immortal second eleven backs of the football squad, and at one time +had been looked upon as promising material for a mile runner on the track +team. + +But it was always his luck not quite to make anything. He couldn't bat up +to 'varsity standard, he wasn't quite heavy enough for a Varsity back, and +in the mile run he always came in fresh enough but could not seem to get +his speed up so as to run himself out, and the result was that, although +he finished strong and with lots of running in him, the other fellows +always reached the tape first, even though just barely getting over and +thoroughly exhausted. + +Now "Dennis" had made up his mind at Christmas time that he actually would +have one more trial on the track, and that his family, consisting of his +mother and a younger brother, both of them great believers in and very +proud of Thomas, should yet see him possessed of a long-coveted "Y." + +So he went out with the first candidates in the spring, and the addition +of the two-mile event to the programme of track contests gave him a +distance better suited to his endurance. There were a half-dozen other men +running in his squad, and Dennis, from his former failures, was not looked +upon with much favor, or as a very likely man. But he kept at it. When the +first reduction of the squad was made, some one said, "Denny's kept on +just to pound the track." With the middle of March came some class games, +and Dennis was among the "also rans," getting no better than fourth place +in the two-mile. The worst of it was that he knew he could have run it +faster, for he felt strong at the finish, but had no burst of speed when +the others went up on the last lap. But in April he did better, and it +soon developed that he was improving. The week before the Yale-Harvard +games he was notified that he was to run in the two-mile as pace maker to +Lang and Early, the two best distance men on the squad. Nobody believed +that Yale would win this event, although it was understood that Lang stood +a fair chance if Dennis and Early could carry the Harvard crack, Richards, +along at a fast gait for the first mile. + +So it was all arranged that Early should set the pace for the first half +mile, and Dennis should then go up and carry the field along for a fast +second half. Then, after the first mile was over, Early and Dennis should +go out as fast as they could, and stay as long as they could in the +attempt to force the Harvard man and exhaust him so that Lang could come +up, and, having run the race more to his liking, be strong enough to +finish first. + +The day of the games came, and with it a drenching rain, making the track +heavy and everybody uncomfortable. But as the inter-collegiates were +the next week, it was almost impossible to postpone the games, and +consequently it was decided to run them off. As the contest progressed, it +developed that the issue would hang on the two-mile event, and interest +grew intense. When the call for starters came, Dennis felt the usual +trepidation of a man who is before the public for the first time in a +really important position. But the feeling did not last long, and by the +time he went to his mark he had made up his mind that that Harvard runner +should go the mile and a half fast at any rate, or else be a long way +behind. + +At the crack of the pistol the six men went off, and, according to orders, +during the first mile Early and Dennis set the pace well up. Richards, the +Harvard man, let them open up a gap on him in the first half-mile, and, +being more or less bothered by the conditions of the wet track, he seemed +uncertain whether the Yale runners were setting the pace too high or not, +and in the second half commenced to move up. In doing this his team mates +gradually fell back until they were out of it, and the order was Dennis, +Early, Richards, and Lang. At the beginning of the second mile, Early, +whose duty it was to have gone up and helped Dennis make the pace at the +third half-mile, had manifestly had enough of it, and, after two or three +desperate struggles to keep up, was passed by Richards. When, therefore, +they came to the mile and a half, Dennis was leading Richards by some +fifteen yards, and those who knew the game expected to see the Harvard man +try to overtake Dennis, and in so doing exhaust himself, so that Lang, who +was running easily in the rear, could come up and in the last quarter +finish out strong. Dennis, too, was expecting to hear the Harvard man come +up with him pretty soon, and knew that this would be the signal for him to +make his dying effort in behalf of his comrade, Lang. As they straightened +out into the back stretch Richards did quicken up somewhat, and Dennis let +himself out. In fact, he did this so well that as they entered upon the +last quarter Richards had not decreased the distance, and indeed it had +opened up a little wider. But where was Lang? Dennis was beginning to +expect one or the other of these two men to come up, and, as he turned +into the back stretch for the last time, it began to dawn upon him, as it +was dawning upon the crowd, that the pace had been too hot for Lang, and, +moreover, that Yale's chance depended on the despised Dennis, and that the +Harvard runner was finding it a big contract to overhaul the sturdy +pounder on the wet track. But Richards was game, and commenced to cut the +gap down. As they turned into the straight, he was within eight yards of +Dennis. But Dennis knew it, and he ran as he had never run before. He +could fairly feel the springing tread of Richards behind him, and knew it +was coming nearer every second. But into the straight they came, and the +crowd sprang to its feet with wild yells for Dennis. Twenty yards from +home Richards, who had picked up all but two yards of the lead, began to +stagger and waver, while Dennis hung to it true and steady, and breasted +the tape three yards in advance, winning his "Y" at last! + +--Walter Camp: _Winning a "Y"_ ("Outlook") + + +In which of the preceding accounts were you more interested? Which made +the more vivid impression? Which would be better suited for a school class +composed of boys and girls? Which for a newspaper report? + +In attempting to relate a contest it is essential that the writer know +what really happened, and in what order it happened, but his successful +presentation will depend to some extent upon the consideration given to +adapting the story to the audience. A person thoroughly conversant with +the game will understand the technical terms, and may prefer the first +account to the second, but those to whom the game is not familiar would +need to have so much explanation of the terms used that the narration +would become tedious to those already familiar with the terms. In order +to make an account of a game interesting to persons unfamiliar with that +game, we must introduce enough of explanation to make clear the meaning +of the terms we use. + + ++Theme XXXIII.+--_Write a theme telling some one who does not understand +the game about some contest which you have seen_. + +Suggested subjects:-- + +1. A basket ball game. +2. A football game. +3. A tennis match. +4. A baseball game. +5. A croquet match. +6. A golf tournament. +7. A yacht race. +8. A relay race. + +(Have you introduced technical terms without making the necessary +explanations? Have you explained so many terms that your narrative is +rendered tedious? Have you related what really happened, and in the proper +time order? Have your paragraphs unity? Can you shorten the theme without +affecting the clearness or interest? Does _then_ occur too frequently?) + + ++Theme XXXIV.+--_Write a theme, using the same subject that you used for +Theme XXXIII. Assume that the reader understands the game._ + + +(Will the reader get the whole contest clearly in mind? Can you shorten +the account? Compare this theme with Theme XXXIII.) + + ++63. Explanation of Terms.+--Any word that alone or with its modifiers +calls to mind a single idea, is a term. When applied to a particular +object, quality, or action, it is a specific term; but when applied to any +one of a class of objects, qualities, or actions, it is a general term. +For example: _The Lake_, referring to a lake near at hand, is a specific +term; but _a lake_, referring to any lake, is a general term. In Theme +XXXIII you had occasion to explain some of the terms used. If, in telling +about a baseball game, you mentioned a particular "fly," your statement +was description or narration; but if some one should ask what you meant by +"a fly," your answer would be general in character; that is, it would +apply to all "flies," and would belong to that division of composition +called exposition. Exposition is but another name for explanation. It is +always concerned with that which is general, while description and +narration deal with particular cases. We may describe a particular lake; +but if we answer the question, What is a lake? the answer would apply to +any lake, and would be exposition. Explanation of the meaning of general +terms is one form of exposition. + + ++64. Definition by Synonyms.+--If we are asked to explain the meaning of a +general term, our reply in many cases will be a brief definition. Often it +is sufficient to give a synonym. For example, in answer to the question, +What is exposition? we make its meaning clearer by saying, Exposition is +explanation. + +Definition by synonym is frequently used because of its brevity. In the +smaller dictionaries the definitions are largely of this kind. For +example: to desert, _to abandon_; despot, _tyrant_; contemptible, _mean or +vile_; to fuse, _to blend_; inviolable, _sacred_. Synonyms are, however, +seldom exact, but a fair understanding of a term may be gained by +comparing it with its synonyms and discussing the different shades of +meaning. Such a discussion, especially if supplemented by examples showing +the correct use of each term, is a profitable exercise in exposition. For +example:-- + + +Both _discovery_ and _invention_ denote generally something new that is +found out in the arts and sciences. But the term _discovery_ involves in +the thing discovered not merely novelty, but curiosity, utility, +difficulty, and consequently some degree of importance. All this is less +strongly involved in invention. But there are yet wider differences. One +can only discover what has in its integrity existed before the discovery, +while invention brings a thing into existence. America was discovered. +Printing was invented. Fresh discoveries in science often lead to new +inventions in the industrial arts. Indeed, discovery belongs more to +science; invention, to art. Invention increases the store of our practical +resources, and is the fruit of search. Discovery extends the sphere of our +knowledge, and has often been made by accident. + +--Smith: _Synonyms Discriminated_. + + +If exactness is desired, this is obtained by means of the logical +definition, which will be discussed in a later chapter. + + ++Theme XXXV.+--Explain the meaning of the words in one of the following +groups:_-- + + +1. Caustic, satirical, biting. +2. Imply, signify, involve. +3. Martial, warlike, military, soldierlike. +4. Wander, deviate, err, stray, swerve, diverge. +5. Abate, decrease, diminish, lessen, moderate. +6. Emancipation, freedom, independence, liberty. +7. Old, ancient, antique, antiquated, obsolete. +8. Adorn, beautify, bedeck, decorate, ornament, +9. Active, alert, brisk, lively, spry. + + ++65. Use of Simpler Words.+--In defining terms by giving a synonym we must +be careful to choose a synonym which will be most likely to be understood +by our listeners, or our explanation will be of no avail. For instance, in +explaining the term _abate_ to a child, if we say it means _to diminish_, +and he is unfamiliar with that word, he is made none the wiser by our +explanation. If we tell him that it means _to grow less_, he will, in all +probability, understand our explanation. Very many words in our language +have equivalents that may be substituted, the one for the other. Much of +our explanation to children and to those whose attainments are less than +our own consists in substituting common, everyday words for less familiar +ones. + + +EXERCISE + + +Give familiar equivalents for the following words:-- + + +1. emancipate. +2. procure. +3. opportunity. +4. peruse. +5. elapsed. +6. approximately. +7. abbreviate. +8. constitute. +9. simultaneous. +10. familiar. +11. deceased. +12. oral. +13. adhere. +14. edifice. +15. collide. +16. suburban. +17. repugnance. +18. grotesque. +19. equipage. +20. exaggerate. +21. ascend. +22. financial. +23. nocturnal. +24. maternal. +25. vision. +26. affinity. +27. cohere. +28. athwart. +29. clavicle. +30. omnipotent. +31. enumerate. +32. eradicate. +33. application. +34. constitute. +35. employer. +36. rendezvous. +37. obscure. +38. indicate. +39. prevaricate. + + ++66. Definitions Need to be Supplemented.+--The purpose of exposition is +to make clear to others that which we understand ourselves. If the mere +statement of a definition does not accomplish this result, we may often +make our meaning clear by supplementing the definition with suitable +comparisons and examples. In making use of comparisons and examples we +must choose those with which our readers are familiar, and we must be sure +that they fairly represent the term that we wish to illustrate. + + ++Theme XXXVI.+--_Explain any one of the following terms. Begin with as +exact a definition as you can frame._ + +1. A "fly" in baseball. +2. A "foul" in basket ball. +3. A "sneak." +4. A hero. +5. A "spitfire." +6. A laborer. +7. A capitalist. +8. A coward. +9. A freshman. +10. A "header." + + +(Is your definition exact, or only approximately so? How have you made its +meaning clear? Can you think of a better comparison or a better example? +Can your meaning be made clearer, or be more effectively presented, by +arranging your material in a different order?) + + ++67. General Description.+--We may often make clear the meaning of a term +by giving details. In describing a New England village we might enumerate +the streets, the houses, the town pump, the church, and other features. +This would be specific description if the purpose was to have the reader +picture some particular village; but if the purpose was to give the reader +a clear conception of the general characteristics of all New England +villages, the paragraph would become a general description. + +Such a general description would include all the characteristics common +to all the members of the class under discussion, but would omit +any characteristic peculiar to some of them. For example, a general +description of a windmill includes the things common to all windmills. If +an object is described more for the purpose of giving a clear conception +of the class of which it is a type than for the purpose of picturing the +object described, we have a general description. Such a description is in +effect an enlarged definition, and is exposition rather than description. +It is sometimes called scientific description because it is so commonly +employed by writers of scientific books. + +Notice the following examples of general description:-- + + +1. Around every house in Broeck are buckets, benches, rakes, hoes, and +stakes, all colored red, blue, white, or yellow. The brilliancy and +variety of colors and the cleanliness, brightness, and miniature pomp of +the place are wonderful. At the windows there are embroidered curtains +with rose-colored ribbons. The blades, bands, and nails of the gayly +painted windmills shine like silver. The houses are brightly varnished and +surrounded with red and white railings and fences. + +The panes of glass in the windows are bordered by many lines of different +hues. The trunks of all the trees are painted gray from root to branch. +Across the streams are many little wooden bridges, each painted as white +as snow. The gutters are ornamented with a sort of wooden festoon +perforated like lace. The pointed façades are surmounted with a small +weathercock, a little lance, or something resembling a bunch of flowers. +Nearly every house has two doors, one in front and one behind, the last +for everyday entrance and exit, the former opened only on great occasions, +such as births, deaths, and marriages. The gardens are as peculiar as the +houses. The paths are hardly wide enough to walk in. One could put his +arms around the flower beds. The dainty arbors would barely hold two +persons sitting close together. The little myrtle hedges would scarcely +reach to the knees of a four-year-old child. + + +2. Ginseng has a thick, soft, whitish, bulbous root, from one to three +inches long,--generally two or three roots to a stalk,--with wrinkles +running around it, and a few small fibers attached. It has a peculiar, +pleasant, sweetish, slightly bitter, and aromatic taste. The stem or stalk +grows about a foot high, is smooth, round, of a reddish green color, +divided at the top into three short branches, with three to five leaves to +each branch, and a flower stem in the center of the branches. The flower +is small and white, followed by a large, red berry. It is found growing in +most of the states in rich, shady soils. + + +3. As a general proposition, the Scottish hotel is kept by a +benevolent-looking old lady, who knows absolutely nothing about the +trains, nothing about the town, nothing about anything outside of +the hotel, and is non-committal regarding matters even within her +jurisdiction. Upon arrival you do not register, but stand up at the desk +and submit to a cross-examination, much as if you were being sentenced in +an American police court. + +Your hostess always wants twelve hours' notice of your departure, so that +she can make out your bill--a very arduous, formidable undertaking. The +bill is of prodigious dimensions, about the size of a sheet of foolscap +paper, lined and cross-lined for a multitude of entries. When the account +finally reaches you, it closely resembles a design for a cobweb factory. +Any attempt to decipher the various hieroglyphics is useless--it can't be +done. The only thing that can be done is to read the total at the foot of +the page and pay it. + +--_Hotels in Scotland_ ("Kansas City Star"). + + ++Theme XXXVII.+--_Write a general description of one of the following:_-- + +1. A bicycle. +2. A country hay barn. +3. A dog. +4. A summer cottage. +5. An Indian wigwam. +6. A Dutch windmill. +7. A muskrat's house. +8. A robin's nest. +9. A blacksmith's shop. +10. A chipmunk. +11. A threshing machine. +12. A sewing circle. + + +(The purpose is not to picture a particular object, but to give a general +notion of a class of objects. Cross out everything in your theme that +applies only to some particular object. Have you included enough to make +your meaning clear?) + + ++Theme XXXVIII.+--_Using the same title as for Theme XXXVII, write a +specific description of some particular object._ + + +(How does it differ from the general description? What elements have you +introduced which you did not have in the other? Which sentence gives the +general outline? Are your details arranged with regard to their proper +position in space? Will the reader form a vivid picture--just the one you +mean him to have?) + + ++68. General Narration.+--Explanations of a process of manufacture, +methods of playing a game, and the like, often take the form of +generalized narration. Just as we gain a notion of the appearance of a sod +house from a general description, so may we gain a notion of a series of +events from a general narration. Such a narration will not tell what some +one actually did, but will relate the things that are characteristic of +the process or action under discussion whenever it happens. Such general +narration is really exposition. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Notice that the selection below is a generalized narration, showing +what a hare does when hunted. In it no incident peculiar to some special +occasion is introduced. + + +She [the hare] generally returns to the beat from which she was put up, +running, as all the worlds knows, in a circle, or sometimes something +like it, we had better say, that we may keep on good terms with the +mathematical. At starting, she tears away at her utmost speed for a mile +or more, and distances the dogs halfway; she then turns, diverging a +little to the right or left, that she may not run into the mouths of her +enemies--a necessity which accounts for what we call the circularity of +her course. Her flight from home is direct and precipitate; but on her way +back, when she has gained a little time for consideration and stratagem, +she describes a curious labyrinth of short turnings and windings as if to +perplex the dogs by the intricacy of her track. + +--Richard Atton. + + +_B_. The selection below narrates an actual hunt. Notice in what respects +it differs from the preceding selection. + +Sir Roger is so keen at this sport that he has been out almost every day +since I came down; and upon the chaplain's offering to lend me his easy +pad, I was prevailed on yesterday morning to make one of the company. I +was extremely pleased, as we rid along, to observe the general benevolence +of all the neighborhood towards my friend. The farmers' sons thought +themselves happy if they could open a gate for the good old knight as he +passed by; which he generally requited with a nod or a smile, and a kind +inquiry after their fathers and uncles. + +After we had rid about a mile from home, we came upon a large heath, and +the sportsmen began to beat. They had done so for some time, when, as I +was at a little distance from the rest of the company, I saw a hare pop +out from a small furze brake almost under my horse's feet. I marked the +way she took, which I endeavored to make the company sensible of by +extending my arm; but to no purpose, till Sir Roger, who knows that none +of my extraordinary motions are insignificant, rode up to me and asked me +if puss was gone that way? Upon my answering "Yes," he immediately called +in the dogs, and put them upon the scent. As they were going off, I heard +one of the country fellows muttering to his companion, that 'twas a wonder +they had not lost all their sport, for want of the silent gentleman's +crying, "Stole away." + +This, with my aversion to leaping hedges, made me withdraw to a rising +ground, from whence I could have the pleasure of the whole chase, without +the fatigue of keeping in with the hounds. The hare immediately threw them +above a mile behind her; but I was pleased to find, that instead of +running straight forwards, or, in hunter's language, "flying the country," +as I was afraid she might have done, she wheeled about, and described a +sort of circle round the hill, where I had taken my station, in such +manner as gave me a very distinct view of the sport. I could see her first +pass by, and the dogs some time afterwards, unraveling the whole track she +had made, and following her through all her doubles. I was at the same +time delighted in observing that deference which the rest of the pack paid +to each particular hound, according to the character he had acquired among +them: if they were at a fault, and an old hound of reputation opened but +once, he was immediately followed by the whole cry; while a raw dog, or +one who was a noted liar, might have yelped his heart out without being +taken notice of. + +The hare now, after having squatted two or three times, and been put up +again as often, came still nearer to the place where she was at first +started. The dogs pursued her, and these were followed by the jolly +knight, who rode upon a white gelding, encompassed by his tenants and +servants, and cheering his hounds with all the gayety of five and twenty. +One of the sportsmen rode up to me, and told me that he was sure the chase +was almost at an end, because the old dogs, which had hitherto lain +behind, now headed the pack. The fellow was in the right. Our hare took a +large field just under us, followed by the full cry in view. I must +confess the brightness of the weather, the cheerfulness of everything +around me, the chiding of the hounds, which was returned upon us in a +double echo from two neighboring hills, with the hallooing of the +sportsmen, and the sounding of the horn, lifted my spirits into a most +lively pleasure, which I freely indulged because I was sure it was +innocent. If I was under any concern, it was on account of the poor hare, +that was now quite spent, and almost within the reach of her enemies; when +the huntsman getting forward, threw down his pole before the dogs. They +were now within eight yards of that game which they had been pursuing for +almost as many hours; yet on the signal before mentioned they all made a +sudden stand, and though they continued opening as much as before, durst +not once attempt to pass beyond the pole. At the same time Sir Roger rode +forward, and alighting, took up the hare in his arms; which he soon after +delivered up to one of his servants with an order, if she could be kept +alive, to let her go in his great orchard; where it seems he has several +of these prisoners of war, who live together in a very comfortable +captivity. I was highly pleased to see the discipline of the pack, and the +good nature of the knight, who could not find in his heart to murder a +creature that had given him so much diversion. + +--Budgell: _Sir Roger de Coverley Papers_. + + ++Theme XXXIX.+--_Explain one of the following by the use of general +narration:_-- + + 1. Baking bread. + 2. How paper is made. + 3. How to play tennis (or some other game). + 4. Catching trout. + 5. Life at school. + 6. How to pitch curves. + + +(Have you arranged your details with reference to their proper time-order? +Have you introduced unnecessary details? Have your paragraphs unity? +Underscore _then_ each time you have used it.) + + ++69. Argument.+--Especially in argument is it evident that language +presupposes an audience. The fact that we argue implies that some one does +not agree with us. The purpose of our argument is to convince some one +else of the truth of a proposition which we ourselves believe, and he who +wishes to succeed in this must give careful attention to his audience. The +question which must always be in the mind of the writer is, What facts +shall I select and in what order shall I present them in order to convince +my reader? The various ways of arguing are more fully treated in a later +chapter, but a few of them are given here. + + ++70. The Use of Explanation in Argument.+--In preparing an argument we +must consider first the amount of explanation that it will be necessary to +make. We cannot expect one to believe a proposition the meaning of which +he does not understand. Often the explanation alone is sufficient to +convince the hearer. Suppose you are trying to gain your parents' consent +to take some course of study. They ask for an explanation of the different +courses, and when they know what each contains they are already convinced +as to which is best for you. + +If you are trying to convince a member of your school board that it would +be well to introduce domestic science into the high school, and he already +understands what is meant by the term "domestic science," you not only +waste time in explaining it, but you make him appear ignorant of what he +already understands. With him you should proceed at once to give your +reasons for the advisability of the introduction of this branch into your +school. On the other hand, if you are talking with a member who does not +understand the term, an explanation will be the first thing necessary. It +is evident, therefore, that the amount of explanation that we shall make +depends upon the previous knowledge of the audience addressed. If we +explain too much, we prejudice our case; and if we explain too little, the +reader may fail to appreciate the arguments that follow. + +The point of the whole matter, then, is that explanation is the first step +in argument, and that in order to determine the amount necessary we must +consider carefully the audience for which our argument is intended. + + ++71. Statement of Advantages and Disadvantages.+ An argument is often +concerned with determining whether it is expedient to do one thing or +another. Such an argument frequently takes the form of a statement of the +advantages that will follow the adoption of the course we recommend, or of +the disadvantages that the following of the opposite course will cause. + +If a corporation should ask for a franchise for a street railway, the city +officials might hold the opinion that a double track should be laid. In +support of this opinion they would name the advantageous results that +would follow from the use of a double track, such as the avoidance of +delays on turnouts, the lessening of the liability of accidents, the +greater rapidity in transportation, etc. On the other hand, the persons +seeking the franchise might reply that a double track would occupy too +much of the street and become a hindrance to teams, or that the advantages +were not sufficient to warrant the extra expense. + +Concerning such a question there can be no absolute decision. We are not +discussing what is right, but what is expedient, and the determination of +what is expedient is based upon a consideration of advantages or +disadvantages. In deciding, we must balance the advantages against the +disadvantages and determine which has the greater weight. If called upon +to take one side or the other, we must consider carefully the value of the +facts counting both for and against the proposition before we can make up +our mind which side we favor. + +You must bear in mind that a thing may not be an advantage because you +believe it to be. That which seems to you to be the reason why you should +take some high school subject, may seem to your father or your teacher to +be the very reason why you should not. In writing arguments of this kind +you must take care to select facts that will appeal to your readers as +advantages. + +Notice the following editorial which appeared in the _Boston Latin School +Register_ shortly after a change was made whereby the pupils instead of +the teachers moved from room to room for their various recitations:-- + + +The new system of having the classes move about from room to room to their +recitations has been in use for nearly a month, and there has been +sufficient opportunity for testing its practicability and its advantages. +There is no doubt that the new system alters the old form of recesses, +shortening the two regular ones, but giving three minutes between +recitations as a compensation for this loss. Although theoretically we +have more recess time than formerly, in the practical working out of the +system we find that the three minutes between recitations is occupied in +gathering up one's books, and reaching the next recitation room; besides +this, that there is often some confusion in reaching the various +classrooms, and that there are many little inconveniences which would not +occur were we sitting at our own desks. On the other hand, as an offset to +these disadvantages, there is the advantage of a change of position, and a +respite from close attention, with a breathing spell in which to get the +mind as well as the books ready for another lesson. The masters have in +every recitation their own maps and reference books, with which they can +often make their instruction much more forceful and interesting. Besides +that, they have entire control of their own blackboards, and can leave +work there without fear of its being erased to make room for that of some +other master. The confusion will doubtless be lessened as time goes on and +we become more used to the system. Even the first disadvantage is more or +less offset by the fact that the short three-minute periods, although they +cannot be used like ordinary recesses, yet serve to give us breathing +space between recitations and to lessen the strain of continuous +application; so that, on the whole, the advantages seem to counterbalance +the disadvantages. + + +EXERCISES + + +What advantages and disadvantages can you think of for each of the +following propositions? State them orally. + + +1. All telephone and telegraph wires in cities should be put under ground. + +2. The speed of bicycles and automobiles should be limited to eight miles + per hour. + +3. High school football teams should not play match games on regular + school days. + +4. High school pupils should not attend evening parties excepting on + Fridays and Saturdays. + +5. Monday would be a better day than Saturday for a school holiday. + +6. The school session should be lengthened. + + ++Theme XL.+--_Write two paragraphs, one of which shall give the advantages +and the other the disadvantages that would arise from the adoption of any +one of the following:_ + +1. This school should have a longer recess. + +2. This school should have two hours for the noon recess. + +3. This school should be in session from eight o'clock until one o'clock. + +4. All the pupils in this school should be seated in one room. + +5. The public library should be in the high school building. + +6. The football team should be excused early in order to practice. + +7. This school should have a greater number of public entertainments. + + ++72. Explanation and Argument by Specific Instances.+--Often we may make +the meaning of a general proposition clear by citing specific instances. +If these instances are given for the purpose of explanation merely, the +paragraph is exposition. If, however, the aim is not merely to cause the +reader to understand the proposition, but also to believe that it is true, +we have argument. In either case we have a paragraph developed by specific +instances as discussed in Section 44. Notice how in the following +paragraph the author brings forward specific cases in order to prove the +proposition:-- + + +Nearly everything that an animal does is the result of an inborn instinct +acted upon by an outward stimulus. The margin wherein intelligent choice +plays a part is very small.... Instinct is undoubtedly often modified by +intelligence, and intelligence is as often guided or prompted by instinct, +but one need not hesitate long as to which side of the line any given act +of man or beast belongs. When the fox resorts to various tricks to outwit +and delay the hound (if he ever consciously does so), he exercises a kind +of intelligence--the lower form of which we call cunning--and he is +prompted to this by an instinct of self-preservation. When the birds set +up a hue and cry about a hawk, or an owl, or boldly attack him, they show +intelligence in its simpler form, the intelligence that recognizes its +enemies, prompted again by the instinct of self-preservation. When a hawk +does not know a man on horseback from a horse, it shows a want of +intelligence. When a crow is kept away from a corn-field by a string +stretched around it, the fact shows how masterful is its fear and how +shallow its wit. When a cat or a dog or a horse or a cow learns to open a +gate or a door, it shows a degree of intelligence--power to imitate, to +profit by experience. A machine could not learn to do it. If the animal +were to close the door or gate behind it, that would be another step in +intelligence. But its direct wants have no relation to the closing of +the door, only to the opening of it. To close the door involves an +afterthought that an animal is not capable of. A horse will hesitate to go +upon thin ice or frail bridges. This, no doubt, is an inherited instinct +which has arisen in its ancestors from their fund of general experience +with the world. How much with them has depended upon a secure footing! A +pair of house-wrens had a nest in my well-curb; when the young were partly +grown and heard any one enter the curb, they would set up a clamorous +calling for food. When I scratched against the sides of the curb beneath +them like some animal trying to climb up, their voices instantly hushed; +the instinct of fear promptly overcame the instinct of hunger! Instinct is +intelligence, but it is not the same as acquired individual intelligence; +it is untaught. + +John Burroughs: _Some Natural History Doubts_ ("Harper's"). + + +EXERCISES + + +What facts or instances do you know which would lead you to believe either +the following propositions or their opposites? + +1. Dogs are intelligent. + +2. Only excellent pupils can pass the seventh grade examination. + +3. Some teachers do not ask fair questions on examination. + +4. Oak trees grow to be larger than maples. + +5. Strikes increase the cost to the consumer. + +6. A college education pays. + +7. Department stores injure the trade of smaller stores. + +8. Advertising pays. + + ++Theme XLI.+--_Write a paragraph, proving by one or more examples one of +the propositions in the preceding exercise:_ + + +(Do your examples really illustrate what you are trying to prove? Do they +show that the proposition is always true or merely that it is true +for certain cases? Would your argument cause another to believe the +proposition?) + + ++73. The Value of Debate.+--Participation in oral debate furnishes +excellent practice in accurate and rapid thinking. We may choose one side +of a question and may write out an argument which, considered alone, and +from our point of view, seems convincing, but when this is submitted to +the criticism of some one of opposite views, or when the arguments in +favor of the other side of the question are brought forward, we are not so +sure that we have chosen the side which represents the truth. The ability +to think "on one's feet," to present arguments concisely and effectively, +and to reply to opposing arguments, giving due weight to those that are +true, and detecting and pointing out those that are false, is an +accomplishment of great practical value. Such ability comes only from +practice, and the best preparation for it is the careful writing out of +arguments. + + ++74. Statement of the Question.+--The subject of debate may be stated in +the form of a resolution, a declarative sentence, or a question; as, +"Resolved that the recess should be lengthened," or "The recess should be +lengthened," or, "Should the recess be lengthened?" In any case, the +affirmative must show why the recess should be lengthened, and the +negative why it should not be lengthened. + +In a formal debate the statement of the question and its meaning should be +definitely determined in advance. Care must be taken to state it so that +no mere quibbling over the meanings of terms can take the place of real +arguments. Even if the subject of debate is so stated that this is +possible, any self-respecting debater will meet the question at issue +fairly and squarely, preferring defeat to a victory won by juggling with +the meanings of terms. + + ++75. Is Belief Necessary in Debate?+--If we are really arguing for a +purpose, we should believe in the truth of the proposition which +we support. If the members of the school board were discussing the +desirability of building a new schoolhouse, each would speak in accordance +with his belief. But if a class in school should debate such a question, +having in mind not the determination of the question, but merely the +selection and arrangement of the arguments for and against the proposition +in the most effective way, each pupil might present the side in which he +did not really believe. + + +EXERCISES + + +Consider each of the following propositions. Do you believe the +affirmative or the negative? + +1. This city needs a new high school building. + +2. All the pupils in the high school should be members of the athletic + association. + +3. The school board should purchase an inclosed athletic field. + +4. The street railway should carry pupils to and from school for half + fare. + +5. There should be a lunch room in this school. + +6. Fairy stories should not be told to children. + + ++Theme XLII.+--_Write a paragraph telling why you believe one of the +propositions in the preceding exercise:_ + +(What questions should you ask yourself while correcting your theme?) + + ++76. Order of Presentation.+--If you were preparing to debate one of the +propositions in the preceding exercise, you would need to have in mind +both the reasons for and against it. Next you would consider the order in +which these reasons should be discussed. This will be determined by the +circumstances of each debate, but generally the emphatic positions, that +is, the first and the last, will be given to those arguments that seem to +you to have the greatest weight, while those of less importance will +occupy the central portion of your theme. + + ++77. The Brief.+--If, after making a note of the various advantages, +examples, and other arguments that you wish to use in support of one of +the propositions in Section 75, you arrange these in the order in which +you think they can be most effectively presented, the outline so formed is +called a brief. Its preparation requires clear thinking, but when it is +made, the task of writing out the argument is not difficult. When the +debate is to be spoken, not read, the brief, if kept in mind, will serve +to suggest the arguments we wish to make in the order in which we wish to +present them. The brief differs from the ordinary outline in that it is +composed of complete sentences. Notice the following brief:-- + +Manual Training should be substituted for school athletics. + + _Affirmative_ + +1. The exercise furnished by manual training is better adapted to the + developing of the whole being both physical and mental; for-- + _a._ It requires the mind to act in order to determine what to do + and how to do it. + _b._ It trains the muscles to carry out the ideal of the mind. + +2. The effect of manual training on health is better; for-- + _a._ Excessive exercise, harmful to growing children, is avoided. + _b._ Dangerous contests are avoided. + +3. The final results of manual training are more valuable; for-- + _a._ The objects made are valuable. + _b._ The skill of hand and eye may become of great practical value + in after life. + +4. The moral effect of manual training is better; for-- + _a._ Athletics develops the "anything to win" spirit, while manual + training creates a wholesome desire to excel in the creation + of something useful or beautiful. + _b._ Dishonesty in games may escape notice, but dishonesty in + workmanship cannot be concealed. + _c._ Athletics fosters slovenliness of dress and manners, while + manual training cultivates the love of the beautiful. + +5. The beneficial results of manual training have a wider effect upon the + school; for-- + _a._ But comparatively few pupils "make the team" and receive the + maximum athletic drill, while all pupils can take manual + training. + + ++78. Refutation or Indirect Argument.+--In debate we need to consider not +only the arguments in favor of our own side, but also those presented by +our opponents. That part of our theme which states our own arguments is +called direct argument, and that part in which we reply to our opponents +is called indirect argument or refutation. It is often very important to +show that the opposing argument is false or, if true, has been given an +exaggerated importance that it does not really possess. If, however, the +argument is true and of weight, the fact should be frankly acknowledged. +Our desire for victory should not cause us to disregard the truth. If the +argument of our opponent has been so strong that it seems to have taken +possession of the audience, we must reply to it in the beginning. If it is +of less weight, each separate point may be discussed as we take up related +points in our own argument. Often it will be found best to give the +refutation a place just preceding our own last and strongest argument. + +From the foregoing it will be seen that each case cannot be determined by +rule, but must be determined for itself, and it is because of the exercise +of judgment required, that practice in debating is so valuable. A dozen +boys or girls may, with much pleasure and profit, spend an evening a week +as a debating club. + + ++Theme XLIII.+--_Prepare a written argument for or against one of the +propositions in Section 75._ + + +(Make a brief. Re-arrange the arguments that you intend to use until they +have what seems to you the best order. Consider the probable arguments on +the other side and what reply can be made. Answer one or two of the +strongest ones. If you have any trivial arguments for your own side, +either omit them or make their discussion very brief.) + + ++79. Cautions in Debating.+--When we have made a further study of argument +we shall need to consider again the subject of debating. In the meantime a +few cautions will be helpful. + +1. Be fair. A debate is in the nature of a contest, and is quite as +interesting as any other contest. The desire to win should never lead you +to take any unfair advantage or to descend to mere quibbling over the +statement of the proposition or the meanings of the terms. Win fairly or +not at all. + +2. Be honest with yourself. Do not present arguments which you know to be +false, in the hope that your opponent cannot prove their falsity. This +does not mean that you cannot present arguments in favor of a proposition +unless you believe it to be true, but that those you do present should be +real arguments for the side that you uphold, even though you believe that +there are weightier ones on the other side. Do not use an example that +seems to apply if you know that it does not. You are to "tell the truth +and nothing but the truth," but in debate you may tell only that part of +the "whole truth" which favors your side of the proposition. + +3. Do not allow your desire for victory to overcome your desire for truth. +Do not argue for the sake of winning, nor develop the habit of arguing in +season and out. In the school and outside there are persons who, like Will +Carleton's Uncle Sammy, "were born for arguing." They use their own time +in an unprofitable way, and what is worse, they waste the time of others. +They are not seeking for truth, but for controversy. It is quite as bad to +doubt everything you hear as it is to believe everything. + +4. Remember that mere statement is not argument. The fact that you believe +a proposition does not make it true. In order to carry weight, a statement +must be based on principles and theories that _the audience_ believes. + +5. Remember that exhortation is not argument. Entreaty may persuade one to +action, but in debate you should aim to convince the intellect. Clear, +accurate thinking on your own part, so that you may present sound, logical +arguments, is the first essential. + + ++Theme XLIV.+--_Prepare a written argument for or against one of the +following propositions:_-- + +1. Boys who cannot go to college should take a commercial course in the + high school. + +2. Novel reading is a waste of time. + +3. Asphalt paving is more satisfactory than brick. + +4. Foreign skilled labor should be kept out of the United States. + +5. Our own town should be lighted by electricity. + +6. Athletic contests between high schools should be prohibited. + + +(Consider your argument with reference to the cautions given in Section +79.) + + +SUMMARY + + +1. The purpose of discourse may be to inform or to entertain. + +2. The forms of discourse are-- + _a._ Description. + _b._ Narration. + _c._ Exposition. + _d._ Argument (Persuasion). + +3. Discourse presupposes an audience, and we must select a subject and use + language adapted to that audience. + +4. The suitableness of a subject is determined-- + _a._ By the writer's knowledge of the subject. + (1) This may be based on experience, or + (2) It may be gained from others through conversation and + reading. + _b._ By the writer's interest in the subject. + (1) This may exist from the first, or + (2) It may be aroused by our search for information. + _c._ By adaptability of the subject to the reader. It should be of + present, vital interest to him. + +5. Subjects. + _a._ The sources of subjects are unlimited. + _b._ Subjects should be definite. They often need to be narrowed in + order to be made definite. + _c._ The title should be brief and should be worded so as to arouse + a desire to hear the theme. + +6. Exposition is explanation. + +7. We may make clear the meaning of a term-- + _a._ By using synonyms. + _b._ By using simpler words. + _c._ By supplementing our definitions with examples or comparisons. + +8. General description includes the characteristics common to all members + of a class of objects. + +9. General narration is one form of exposition. It relates the things that + characterize a process or action whenever it occurs. + +10. Argument. + _a._ Explanation is the first step in argument. + _b._ A statement of advantages and disadvantages may assist us to + determine which side of a question we believe. + _c._ Specific instances may be used either for explanation or + argument. + +11. Debate. + _a._ The subject of the debate may be stated in the form of a + resolution, a declarative sentence, or a question. + _b._ The most important arguments should be given the first and last + positions. + _c._ A brief will assist us in arranging our arguments in the most + effective order. + _d._ The refutation of opposing arguments should usually be placed + just before our own last and strongest argument. + _e._ Cautions in debating. + (1) Be fair. + (2) Be honest with yourself. + (3) Do not allow your desire for victory to overcome your + desire for truth. + (4) Remember that mere statement is not argument. + (5) Remember that exhortation is not argument. + + + + +V. THE WHOLE COMPOSITION + + ++80. General Principles of Composition.+--There are three important +principles to be considered in every composition: unity, coherence, and +emphasis. Though not always named, each of these has been considered and +used in our writing of paragraphs. The consideration of methods of +securing unity, coherence, and emphasis in the composition as a whole is +the purpose of this chapter. It will serve also as a review and especially +as an enlarged view of paragraph development as treated in Chapter III, +for the methods discussed with regard to the whole composition are the +same that are used in applying the three principles to single paragraphs. + + ++81. Unity.+--A composition possesses unity if all that it contains bears +directly upon the subject. It is evident that the title of the theme +determines in a large degree the matter that should be included. Much that +is appropriate to a theme on "Bass Fishing" will be found unnecessary in a +theme entitled "How I caught a Bass." It is easier to secure unity in a +theme treating of a narrow, limited subject than in one treating of a +broad, general subject. The first step toward unity is, therefore, the +selection of a limited subject and a suitable title (see Sections 58-61); +the second is the collection of all facts, illustrations, and other +material which may appropriately be used in a theme having the chosen +title. + + ++82. Coherence.+--A composition is given coherence by placing the ideas in +such an order that each naturally suggests the one which follows. If the +last paragraph is more closely related in thought to the first paragraph +than it is to the intervening ones, the composition lacks coherence. +Similarly, that paragraph is coherent in which the thought moves forward +in an orderly way with each sentence growing out of the preceding one. + +In describing the capture of a large trout a boy might state that he broke +his pole. Then he might tell what kind of pole he had, why he did not have +a better one, what poles are best adapted to trout fishing, etc. Though +each of these ideas is suggested by the preceding, the story still lacks +coherence because the boy will need later to go back and tell us what +happened to him or to the trout when the pole broke. If a description of +the kind of pole is necessary in order to make the point of the story +clear, it should have been introduced earlier. Stopping at the moment of +vital interest to discuss fishing poles, spoils the effect of the story. +Good writers are very skillful in the early introducing of details that +will enable the reader to appreciate the events as they happen, and they +are equally skillful in omitting unnecessary details. The proper selection +of these details gives unity, and their introduction at the proper place +gives coherence to a narrative. By saying, "I am getting ahead of my +story," the narrator confesses that coherence is lacking. Read again the +selection on page 106. + + ++83. Emphasis.+--If we desire to make one part of a theme more emphatic +than another, we may do so by giving a prominent position to that part. In +debating we give the first place and the last to the strongest arguments. +In simple narration the order in which incidents must be related is fixed +by the time-order of their occurrence, but even in a story the point gains +in force if it is near the close. Because these two positions are the ones +of greatest emphasis, a poor beginning or a bad ending will ruin an +otherwise good story. + +Emphasis may also be affected by the proportional amount of attention and +space given to the different parts of a theme. The extent to which any +division of a theme should be developed depends upon the purpose and the +total length of the theme. A biography of Grant might appropriately devote +two or three chapters to his boyhood, while a short sketch of his life +would treat his boyhood in a single paragraph. In determining the amount +of space to be given to the different parts of a composition, care must be +taken that the space assigned to each shall be proportional to its +importance, the largest amount of space being devoted to the part which is +of greatest worth. + +Emphasis is sometimes given by making a single sentence into a paragraph. +This method should be used with care, for such a paragraph may be too +short for unity because it does not include all that should be said about +the topic statement, and though it makes that statement emphatic, fails to +make its meaning clear. + +Clearness, unity, and coherence are of more importance +than emphasis, and usually, if a theme possesses the first +three qualities, it will possess the fourth in sufficient +measure. + + ++84. The Outline.+--An outline will assist us in securing unity, +coherence, and emphasis. + +1. The first step in making an outline has relation to unity. Unity +requires that a theme include only that which pertains to the subject. +There are always many more ideas that seem to bear upon a subject than can +be included in the theme. We may therefore jot down brief notes that will +suggest our ideas on the subject, and then we should reject from this list +all that seem irrelevant or trivial. We should also reject the less +important ideas which pertain directly to the subject if without them we +have all that are needed in order to fulfill the purpose of the theme. + +Which items in the following should be omitted as not necessary to the +complete treatment of the subject indicated by the title? Should anything +be added? + + +_My First Partridge_ + + +Where I lived ten years ago. +Kinds of game: partridge, quail, squirrels. +Partridge drumming. +My father went hunting often. +How he was injured. +Birch brush near hemlock; partridge often found in such localities. +Loading the gun. +Going to the woods. +Why partridge live near birch brush. +Fall season. +Hunting for partridge allowed from September to December. +Tramping through the woods. +Something moving. +Creeping up. +How I felt; excited; hand shook. +Partridge on log. +Gun failed to go off; cocking it properly. +The shot; the recoil. +The flurry of the bird. +How partridges fly. +How they taste when cooked. +Getting the bird. +Going home. +Partridges are found in the woods; quail in the fields. +What my sister said. +My brother's interest. +My father's story about shooting three partridges with one shot. +What mother did. + + +2. The second step in outline making has relation to coherence. After we +have rejected from our notes all items which would interfere with the +unity of our theme, we next arrange the remaining items in a coherent +order. One method of securing coherence is illustrated by a simple +narrative which follows the time-order. We naturally group together in our +memory those events which occurred at a given time, and in recalling a +series of events we pass in order from one such group to another. These +groups form natural paragraph units, and the placing of them in their +actual time-order gives coherence to the composition. + +After rejecting the unnecessary items in the preceding list, re-arrange +the remaining ones in a coherent order. How many paragraphs would you make +and what would you include in each? + +3. The third step in making an outline has relation to emphasis. In some +outlines emphasis is secured by placing the more important points first, +in others by placing them last. In this particular outline we have a +natural time-order to follow, and emphasis will be determined mainly by +the relative proportion to be given to different paragraphs. Do not give +unimportant paragraphs too much space. Be sure that the introduction and +the conclusion are short. + + ++Theme XLV.+--_Write a personal narrative at least three paragraphs in +length._ + + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. How I was saved from drowning. + 2. The largest string of fish I ever caught. + 3. An incident of the skating season. + 4. What I did on Christmas day. + 5. A Saturday with my grandmother. + 6. To the city and back. + + +(Make an outline. Keep in mind unity, coherence, and +emphasis. Consider each paragraph with reference to +unity, coherence, and emphasis.) + + ++85. Development of a Composition with Reference to the Time-Order.+-- +Of the several methods of developing a composition let us consider first +that of giving details in the natural time-order. (See Section 46.) If a +composition composed of a series of paragraphs possesses coherence, each +paragraph is so related to the preceding ones that the thought goes +steadily forward from one to another. Often the connection in thought is +so evident that no special indication needs to be made, but if the +paragraphs are arranged with reference to a time-order, this time-order +is usually indicated. + +Notice how the relation in time of each paragraph to the preceding is +shown by the following sentences of parts of sentences taken in order from +a magazine article entitled "Yachting at Kiel," by James B. Connolly:-- + + +1. It was slow waiting in Travemunde. The long-enduring twilight of a + summer's day at fifty-four north began to settle down... + +2. The dusk comes on, and on the ships of war they seem to be getting + nervous... + +3. The dusk deepens... + +4. It is getting chilly in the night air, with the rations running low, + and the charterers of some of the fishing boats decide to go home... + +5. It is eleven o'clock--dark night--and the breeze is freshening, when + the first of the fleet heaves in sight... + +6. After that they arrive rapidly... + +7. At midnight there is still no _Meteor_... + +8. Through the entire night they keep coming... + +9. Next morning... + + ++Theme XLVI.+--_Write a narrative, four or more paragraphs in length, +showing the time-order._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. The race up the river. + 2. The life of some well-known man. + 3. The cake that fell. + 4. Retell some incident that you have recently read. + 5. Relate some personal experience. + 6. A story suggested by the picture on page 160. + + +(Make an outline. Consider the unity, coherence, and emphasis of each +paragraph separately. Then consider the unity, coherence, and emphasis of +the whole composition. Notice what expressions you have used to indicate +the relations in time. Have you used the same expression too often?) + + ++86. Development of a Composition with Reference to Position in Space.+-- +A second method of development is to relate details with reference to +their position in space. + + +[Illustration] + + +Just as we may give either a paragraph or a whole theme coherence by +following a given time-order, so may we make a paragraph or a whole theme +coherent by arranging the parts in an order determined by their position +in space. In developing a theme by this method we simply apply to the +whole theme the principles discussed for the development of a paragraph +(Section 47). + +In a description composed of several paragraphs, each paragraph should +contain a group of details closely related to one another in space. The +paragraphs should be constructed so that each shall possess unity and +coherence within itself, and they should be so arranged that we may pass +most easily from the group of images presented by one paragraph to the +images presented by the next. In narration, the space arrangement may +supplement time-order in giving coherence. + +If the most attractive features of an art room are its +wall decorations, five paragraphs describing the room may +be as follows:-- + + 1. Point of view: general impression. + 2. The north wall: general impression; details. + 3. The east wall: general impression; details. + 4. The south wall: general impression; details. + 5. The west wall: general impression; details. + + +It is easy to imagine a room in the description of which the following +paragraphs would be appropriate:-- + + 1. Point of view. + 2. The fireplace. + 3. The easy-chair. + 4. The table. + 5. The bookcase. + 6. The cozy nook. + + +Such an arrangement of paragraphs would give coherence. Unity would be +secured by including in each only that which properly belonged to it. + +There are many words and expressions which indicate the relative position +of objects. The paragraph below is an illustration of the method of +development described in Section 47. Notice the words which indicate the +location of the different details in the scene. If each of these details +should be developed into a paragraph the italicized expressions would +serve to introduce these paragraphs and would show the relative positions +of the objects described. + +The beauty of the sea and shore was almost indescribable: _on one side_ +rose Point Loma, grim, gloomy as a fortress wall; _before_ me stretched +away to the horizon the ocean with its miles of breakers curling into +foam; _between_ the surf and the city, wrapped in its dark blue mantle, +lay the sleeping bay; _eastward_ the mingled yellow, red, and white of San +Diego's buildings glistened in the sunlight like a bed of coleus; _beyond_ +the city heaved the rolling plains rich in their garb of golden brown, +_from which_ rose the distant mountains, tier on tier, wearing the purple +veil which Nature here loves oftenest to weave for them; while _in the +foreground_, like a jewel in a brilliant setting, stood the Coronado. + +--Stoddard: _California_. + + ++Theme XLVII.+--_Write a description three or more paragraphs in length._ + + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. Some well-known building (exterior). + 2. A prominent person. + 3. An attractive room. + 4. The interior of a church. + +(Consider your outline with reference to unity, coherence, and proportion +of parts. When the theme is completed, consider the unity, coherence, and +emphasis of each paragraph and of the composition as a whole.) + + ++87. Paragraph Relations.+--Relations in thought other than those of time +and space may be indicated by the use of certain words and phrases. Such +expressions as, _however, nevertheless, consequently, indeed, moreover, at +all events_, etc., are often used to indicate a relation in thought +between paragraphs. Notice how _nevertheless_, at the beginning of the +selection below, serves to connect it in thought with a preceding +paragraph not printed here. Notice also the relations in thought shown by +the italicized words. These and similar words are used to make the +transition from one paragraph to the next. + +_Nevertheless_, Howe was at last in possession of Philadelphia, the object +of his campaign, and with his communications by water open. He had +consumed four months in this business since he left New York, three months +since he landed near the Elk River. His prize, now that he had got it, was +worth less than nothing in a military point of view, and he had been made +to pay a high price for it, not merely in men, but in precious time, for +while he was struggling sluggishly for Philadelphia, Burgoyne, who really +meant something very serious, had gone to wreck and sunk out of sight in +the northern forests. _Indeed_, Howe did not even hold his dearly bought +town in peace. After the fall of the forts, Greene, aided by Lafayette, +who had joined the army on its way to the Brandywine, made a sharp +dash and broke up an outlying party of Hessians. _Such things_ were +intolerable, they interfered with personal comfort, and they emanated from +the American army which Washington had now established in strong lines at +Whitemarsh. _So_ Howe announced that in order to have a quiet winter, he +would drive Washington beyond the mountains. Howe did not often display +military intelligence, but that he was profoundly right in this particular +intention must be admitted. In pursuit of his plan, _therefore_, he +marched out of Philadelphia on December 4th, drove off some Pennsylvania +militia on the 5th, considered the American position for four days, did +not dare to attack, could not draw his opponent out, returned to the city, +and left Washington to go into winter quarters at Valley Forge, whence he +could easily strike if any move was made by the British army. + +--Henry Cabot Lodge. + + ++88. The Transition Paragraph.+--Just as a word or phrase may serve to +denote the relation in thought between paragraphs, so may a whole +paragraph be used to carry over the thought from one group of paragraphs +to another in the same theme. Such a paragraph makes a transition from one +general topic or method of treating the subject of the theme to some other +general topic or to the consideration of the subject from a different +point of view. This transitional paragraph may summarize the thought of +the preceding paragraph in addition to announcing a change of topic; or it +may mark the transition to the new topic and set it forth in general +terms. + + ++89. The Summarizing Paragraph.+--Frequently we give emphasis to our +thought by a final paragraph summarizing the main points of the theme. +Such a summary is in effect a restatement of the topic sentences of our +paragraphs. If our theme has been coherent, these sentences stated in +order will need but little changing to make a coherent paragraph. In a +similar way, it is of advantage to close a long paragraph with a sentence +which repeats the topic statement or summarizes the thought of the +paragraph. See the last sentence in Section 57. + + ++90. Development of a Composition by Comparison or Contrast.+--The third +method of development is that of comparison or contrast. Nearly every idea +which we have suggests one that is similar to it or in contrast with it. +We are thus led to make comparisons or to state contrasts. When these are +few and brief, they may make a single paragraph (Section 48). If our +comparisons or contrasts are extended, they may make several paragraphs, +and thus a whole theme may be developed by this method. + +In such a theme no fixed order of presentation is determined by the actual +occurrence in time or space of that which we present. Consequently, in +outlining a theme of this kind, we must devote special attention to +arranging our paragraphs in an order that shall give coherence and +emphasis. + + ++Theme XLVIII.+--_Write a theme of three or more paragraphs developed by +comparison._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. Compare men with verbs (active, passive, transitive, intransitive, + defective, redundant, auxiliary, copulative, etc.). + 2. Show that the body resembles a machine. + 3. In what way is the school like a factory? + 4. How do two books that you have read differ? + 5. Compare Lincoln and McKinley. How alike? How different? + 6. How can you tell an oak tree from an elm tree? + 7. Without naming them, compare two of your friends with each other. + 8. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of public high schools + with those of private academies. + + ++91. Development of a Composition by Use of Generalization and Facts.+-- +Using the fourth method of development, we may give an entire composition +to the explanation of the meaning of a general proposition or to the +demonstration of the truth of such a proposition. To accomplish this +purpose we state facts or instances that illustrate the meaning of the +proposition or that show it to be true. In such a composition each +important fact or instance may be given a separate paragraph, while +several minor facts or illustrations may be properly combined in the same +paragraph. (See Section 44.) Greater emphasis may also be given the more +important facts by assigning them to the emphatic positions. + +Notice how by specific instances the following selection illustrates the +truth of the generalization set forth in the second sentence and restated +in the last sentence. + + +DEGENERATION THROUGH QUIESCENCE + + +While parasitism is the principal cause of degeneration among animals, yet +it is not the sole cause. It is evident that if for any other reason +animals should become fixed, and live inactive lives, they would +degenerate. There are not a few instances of degeneration due simply to a +quiescent life, unaccompanied by parasitism. + +The Tunicata, or sea squirts, are animals which have become simple through +degeneration, due to the adoption of a sedentary life, the withdrawal from +the crowd of animals and from the struggle which it necessitates. The +young tunicate is a free-swimming, active, tadpolelike, or fishlike +creature, which possesses organs very like those of the adult of the +simplest fishes or fishlike forms. That is, the sea squirt begins life as +a primitively simple vertebrate. It possesses in its larval stage a +notochord, the delicate structure which precedes the formation of a +backbone, extending along the upper part of the body below the spinal +cord. The other organs of the young tunicate are all of vertebral type. +But the young sea squirt passes a period of active and free life as a +little fish, after which it settles down and attaches itself to a shell or +wooden pier by means of suckers, and remains for the rest of its life +fixed. Instead of going on and developing into a fishlike creature, it +loses its notochord, its special sense organs, and other organs; it loses +its complexity and high organization, and becomes a "mere rooted bag with +a double neck," a thoroughly degenerate animal. + +A barnacle is another example of degeneration through quiescence. The +barnacles are crustaceans related most nearly to the crabs and shrimps. +The young barnacle just from the egg is a six-legged, free-swimming +nauplius, very like a young prawn or crab, with a single eye. In its next +larval stage it has six pairs of swimming feet, two compound eyes, and two +antennae or feelers, and still lives an independent free-swimming life. +When it makes its final change to the adult condition, it attaches itself +to some stone, or shell, or pile, or ship's bottom, loses its compound +eyes and feelers, develops a protecting shell, and gives up all power of +locomotion. Its swimming feet become changed into grasping organs, and it +loses most of its outward resemblance to the other members of its class. + +Certain insects live sedentary or fixed lives. All the members of the +family of scale insects (Coccidae), in one sex at least, show degeneration +that has been caused by quiescence. One of these coccids, called the red +orange scale, is very abundant in Florida and California and in other +fruit-growing regions. The male is a beautiful, tiny, two-winged midge, +but the female is a wingless, footless, little sack, without eyes or other +organs of special sense, which lies motionless under a flat, thin, +circular, reddish scale composed of wax and two or three cast skins of the +insect itself. The insect has a long, slender, flexible, sucking beak, +which is thrust into the leaf or stem or fruit of the orange on which the +"scale bug" lives, and through which the insect sucks the orange sap, +which is its only food. It lays eggs under its body, and thus also under +the protecting wax scale, and dies. From the eggs hatch active little +larval "scale bugs," with eyes and feelers, and six legs. They crawl from +under the wax scale and roam about over the orange tree. Finally, they +settle down, thrusting their sucking beak into the plant tissue, and cast +their skin. The females lose at this molt their legs and eyes and feelers. +Each becomes a mere motionless sack capable only of sucking up sap and +laying eggs. The young males, however, lose their sucking beak and can no +longer take food, but they gain a pair of wings and an additional pair of +eyes. They fly about and fertilize the sacklike females, which then molt +again and secrete the thin wax scale over them. + +Throughout the animal kingdom loss of the need of movement is followed by +the loss of the power to move and of all structures related +to it. + +--Jordon and Kellogg: _Animal Life_. + + +Has the principle of unity been observed in the above selection; that is, +of the many things that might be told about a sea squirt, a barnacle, or a +scale bug, have the authors selected only those which serve to illustrate +degeneration through quiescence? + +Instead of one generalization supported by a series of facts to +each of which a paragraph is given, we may have several subordinate +generalizations relating to the subject of the theme. Each of these +subordinate generalizations may become the topic statement of a paragraph +which is further developed by giving specific instances or by some other +method of paragraph development. Such an order, that is, generalization +followed by the facts which illustrate it, is coherent; but care must be +taken to give each fact under the generalization to which it is most +closely related. On the other hand, our theme may be made coherent by +giving the facts first, and then the generalization that they establish. + + ++Theme XLIX.+--_Write a theme of three or more paragraphs illustrating or +proving some general statement by means of facts or specific instances._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. Young persons should not drink coffee. + 2. Reasons for the curfew bell. + 3. Girls wear their hair in a variety of ways. + 4. There are several kinds of boys in this school. + 5. Civilization increases as the facilities for transportation + increase. + 6. Trolley roads are of great benefit to the country. + 7. Presence of mind often averts danger. + + ++92. Development of a Composition by Stating Cause and Effect.+--The +statement of the causes of an event or condition may be used as a fifth +method of development. The principle, however, is not different from that +applied to the development of a paragraph by stating cause and effect +(Section 49). If several causes contribute to the same effect, each may be +given a separate paragraph, or several minor ones may be combined in one +paragraph. For the sake of unity we must include each fact, principle, or +statement in the paragraph to which it really belongs. The coherent order +is usually that which proceeds from causes to effects rather than that +which traces events backward from effects to causes. + + ++Theme L.+--_Write a theme of three or more paragraphs, stating causes and +effects._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. Why hospitals are necessary. + 2. Why cigarette smoking is dangerous. + 3. Why girls should take music lessons. + 4. The effect of climate upon health. + 5. The effect of rainfall upon the productivity and industries of a + country. + 6. The effect of mountains, lakes, or rivers upon exploration and + travel. + 7. What connection is there between occupation and height above the + sea level, and why? + 8. Why our city is located where it is. + 9. Why I came late to school. + + ++93. Combination of Methods of Development.+--Frequently the presentation +of our thought is made most effective by using some combination of the +methods of development discussed in this chapter. Time and place are often +interwoven, comparisons and contrasts flash into mind, general statements +need specific illustration, or results demand immediate explanation--all +in the same theme. Sometimes the order of coherence will be in doubt, for +cause and effect demand a different order of statement from that which +would be given were we to follow either time-order or position in space. +In such cases we must choose whether it is most important to tell first +_why_ or _when_ or _where_. The only rule that can be suggested is to do +that which will make our meaning most clear, because it is for the sake of +the clear presentation of our thought that we seek unity, coherence, and +emphasis. + + ++Theme LI.+--_Write a theme of several paragraphs. Use any method of +development or any combination of methods._ + +(Choose your own subject. After the theme is written make a list of all +the questions you should ask yourself about it. Correct the theme with +reference to each point in your list of questions.) + + +SUMMARY + + +1. General principles of composition. + _a._ Unity. + _b._ Coherence. + _c._ Emphasis. + (1) By position. + (2) By proportion of parts. + +2. An outline assists in securing unity, coherence, and emphasis. + +3. Methods of composition development: A composition may be developed-- + _a._ With reference to time-order. + _b._ With reference to position in space. + _c._ By use of comparison and contrast. + _d._ By stating generalization and facts. + _e._ By stating cause and effect. + _f._ By any suitable combination of the above methods. + +4. Transition and summary paragraphs may occur in compositions. + + + +VI. LETTER WRITING + + ++94. Importance of Good Letter Writing.+--Letter writing is the form of +written language used by most of us more frequently than any other form. +The importance of good letter writing is therefore obvious. Business, +personal, and social relations necessitate the writing of letters. We +are judged by those letters; and in order that we may be considered +businesslike, educated, and cultured, it is necessary that we should be +able to write good letters, not only as regards the form but also as +regards the subject-matter. The writing of good letters is often the means +of securing desirable positions and of keeping up pleasant and helpful +friendships. Since this form of composition plays so important a part in +our lives and the lives of those about us, it is worthy of careful study. + +The subject-matter is the most important part of the letter, but adherence +to usages generally adopted is essential to successful letter writing. +Some of these usages may seem trivial in themselves, but a lack of +attention to them shows either ignorance or carelessness on the part of +the writer, and the consequences resulting from this inattention are often +anything but trivial. Applicants for good positions have been rejected +either because they did not know the correct usages of letter writing, or +because they did not heed them. In no other form of composition are +the rules concerning form so rigid; hence the need of knowledge and +carefulness concerning them. + + ++95. Paper.+--The nature of the letter determines to some extent our +choice of paper. Business letters are usually written on large paper, +about ten by eight inches in size, while letters of friendship and notes +of various kinds are written on paper of smaller size. White or delicately +tinted paper is always in good taste for all kinds of letters. The use of +highly tinted paper is occasionally in vogue with some people, but failure +to use it is never an offense against the laws of good taste. It is +customary now to use unruled paper for all kinds of letters as well as for +other forms of compositions. For letters of friendship four-page paper is +preferred to that in tablet form. The order in which the pages are used +may vary; but whatever the order is, it should not be confusing to the +reader. + +Black ink should always be used. The writing should be neat and legible. +Attention should be paid to margin, paragraphs, and indentation. In fact, +all the rules of theme writing apply to letter writing, and to these are +added several others. + ++96. The Beginning of a Letter.+--Certain forms for the +beginning of letters have been agreed upon, and these +forms should be followed. The beginning of a letter +usually includes the heading, the address of the person or +persons to whom the letter is sent, and the salutation. + +Notice the following examples:-- + + +(1) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | 171 Miles Ave., | + | Cleveland, Ohio. | + | Oct. 21, 1905. | + | Marshall Field & Co., | + | State St., Chicago, Ill. | + | | + | Gentlemen: | + | | + + +(2) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Ottawa, Ill. | + | Nov. 9, 1905. | + | Dear Harold, | + | | + + +(3) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | 1028 Jackson Boulevard, | + | Chicago Ill. | + | Nov. 10, 1905. | + | Messrs. Johnson & Foote, | + | 120 Main St., | + | Pittsfield, Mass. | + | | + | Dear Sirs, | + | | + + +(4) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | 120 P Street, | + | Lincoln, Neb. | + | Oct. 17, 1905. | + | My dear Mrs. Scott, | + | | + + +(5) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Boston, Mass., Nov. 23, 1905. | + | | + | Dear Mother, | + | | + + +(6) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | 33 Front St., | + | Adrian, Mich. | + | Nov. 30, 1905. | + | Miss Gertrude Brown, | + | 228 Warren Ave., Chicago, Ill. | + | | + | Dear Madam: | + | | + + +(7) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | New Hartford, Conn. | + | Nov. 3, 1905. | + | My dear Henry, | + | | + + +The heading of a letter includes the address of the writer and the date of +the writing. When numerous letters are sent from one place to another, the +street and number may after a time be omitted from the heading. Example +(5) illustrates this. A son living in Boston has written to his mother +frequently and no longer considers it necessary to write the street and +number in every letter. If there is any doubt in the writer's mind as to +whether his address will be remembered or not, he should include it in the +letter. If the writer lives in a small place where the street and number +will not be needed in a reply sent to him, it is unnecessary for him to +make use of it in his letter. When the street and number are omitted, the +heading may be written on one line, as in example (5), but the use of two +lines is preferable. + +Custom has decreed that the proper place for the heading is in the +right-hand upper corner of the first page. Sometimes, especially in +business letters, we find the writer's address at the close of the letter, +but for the sake of convenience it is preferably placed at the beginning. +The first line should be about one inch and a half from the top of the +page. The second line should begin a little to the right of the first +line, and the third line, a little to the right of the second line. +Attention should be paid to proper punctuation in each line. + +In a comparatively few cases we may find that the omission of the date of +the letter will make no difference to the recipient, but in most cases it +will cause annoyance at least, and in many cases result in serious trouble +both to ourselves and to those who receive our letters. We should not +allow ourselves to neglect the date even in letters of apparently no great +importance. If we allow the careless habit of omitting dates to develop, +we may some day omit a date when the omission will affect affairs of great +importance. This date should include the day, month, and year. It is +better to write out the entire year, as 1905, not '05. + +In business letters it is customary to write the address of the person or +persons addressed at the left side of the page. Either two or three lines +may be used. The first line of this address should be one line lower than +the last line of the heading. Notice examples (1), (3), and (6). When the +address is thus written, the salutation is commonly written one line below +it. Sometimes the salutation is commenced at the margin, and sometimes a +little to the right of the address. Where there is no address, the +salutation is written a line below the date and begins with the margin, as +in examples (2), (4), (5), and (7). + +The form of salutation naturally depends upon the relations existing +between the correspondents. The forms _Dear Sir, My dear Sir, Madam, My +dear Madam, Dear Sirs, Gentlemen_, are used in formal business letters. +The forms _Dear Miss Robinson, My dear Mrs. Hobart, Dear Mr. Fraser, My +dear Mr. Scott_, are used in business letters when the correspondents are +acquainted with each other. The same forms are also used in letters of +friendship when the correspondents are not well enough acquainted with +each other to warrant the use of the more familiar forms, _My dear Mary, +Dear Edmund, My dear Friend, Dear Cousin, My dear little Niece_. + +There is no set rule concerning the punctuation of the salutation. The +comma, the colon, or the semicolon may be used either alone or in +connection with the dash. The comma alone seems to be the least formal of +all, and the colon the most so. Hence the former is used more frequently +in letters of friendship, and the latter more frequently in business +letters. + + ++97. Body of the Letter.+--The body of the letter is the important part; +in fact, it is the letter itself, since it contains the subject-matter. It +will be discussed under another head later, and is only mentioned here in +order to show its place in connection with the beginning of a letter. As a +rule, it is best to begin the body of our letters one line below, and +either directly underneath or to the right of the salutation. It is not +improper, however, especially in business letters, to begin it on the same +line with the salutation. A few examples will be sufficient to show the +variations of the place for beginning the main part of the letter. + + +(1) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | 1694 Cedar Ave., | + | Cleveland, Ohio. | + | June 23, 1905. | + | Messrs. Hanna, Scott & Co., | + | Aurora, Ill. | + | | + | Gentlemen:--I inclose a money order for $10.00, | + | etc. | + | | + + +(2) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Everett, Washington. | + | Oct. 20, 1905. | + | My dear Robert, | + | We are very glad that you have decided to make | + | us a visit, etc. | + | | + + +(3) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Greenwich, N.Y. | + | Sept. 19, 1905. | + | My dear Miss Russ, | + | Since I have been Miss Clark's assistant, etc. | + | | + + +(4) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | 2 University Ave., | + | Nashville, Tenn. | + | April 19, 1905. | + | The American Book Company, | + | 300 Pike St., | + | Cinncinnati, O. | + | | + | Dear Sirs:--Please send me by express two copies | + | of Halleck's English Literature, etc. | + | | + + ++98. Conclusion of a Letter.+--The conclusion of a letter includes what is +termed the complimentary close and the signature. Certain forms have been +agreed upon, which should be closely followed. + +Our choice of a complimentary close, like that of a salutation, depends +upon the relations existing between us and those to whom we are writing. +Such forms as _Your loving daughter, With love, Ever your friend, Your +affectionate mother_, should be used only when intimate relations exist +between correspondents. In letters where existing relations are not so +intimate and in some kinds of business letters the forms _Sincerely yours, +Yours very sincerely,_ may be used appropriately. The most common forms in +business letters are _Yours truly_ and _Very truly yours_. The forms +_Respectfully yours,_ or _Yours very respectfully,_ should be used only +when there is occasion for some special respect, as in writing to a person +of high rank or position. + +The complimentary close should be written one line below the last line of +the main part of the letter, and toward the right-hand side of the page. +Its first word should commence with a capital, and a comma should be +placed at its close. + +The signature properly belongs below and a little to the right of the +complimentary close. Except in cases of familiar relationship, the name +should be signed in full. It is difficult to determine the spelling of +unfamiliar proper names if they are carelessly written. It is therefore +important in writing to strangers that the signature should be made +plainly legible in order that they may know how to address the writer in +their reply. A lady should make it plain whether she is to be addressed as +_Miss_ or _Mrs._ This can be done either by placing the title _Miss_ or +_Mrs._ in parentheses before the name, or by writing the whole address +below and to the left of the signature. Boys and men may often avoid +confusion by signing their first name instead of using only initials. + +Notice the following examples of the complimentary close and signature:-- + + +(1) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Appleton, Wisconsin. | + | Sept. 3, 1905. | + | | + | My dear Cousin, | + | | + | | + | (Body of letter.) | + | | + | | + | Yours with love, | + | Gertrude Edmonds. | + | | + + +(2) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | 192 Lincoln Ave., | + | Worcester, Mass. | + | Nov. 25, 1905. | + | | + | L.B. Bliss & Co., | + | 109 Summer St., | + | Boston, Mass. | + | | + | | + | Dear Sirs; | + | | + | (Body of letter.) | + | | + | | + | | + | Very truly yours, | + | Walter A. Cutler. | + | | + + +(3) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Paxton, Ill. | + | July 3, 1905. | + | | + | American Typewriter Co., | + | 263 Broadway, New York. | + | | + | | + | Gentlemen: | + | | + | | + | (Body of letter.) | + | | + | | + | | + | Very truly yours, | + | (Miss) Jennie R. McAllister. | + | | + + +(4) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | May 5, 1905. | + | | + | Daniel Low & Co., | + | 232 Essex St., Salem, Mass. | + | | + | | + | Dear Sirs; | + | | + | | + | (Body of letter.) | + | | + | | + | | + | Mary E. Ball | + | | + | Mrs. George W. Ball, | + | 415 Fourth St., | + | La Salle, Ill. | + | | + + +(5) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Marshalltown, Iowa. | + | Oct. 3, 1905. | + | | + | My dear Miss Meyer, | + | | + | | + | (Body of letter.) | + | | + | | + | Sincerely yours, | + | Dorothy Doddridge. | + | | + + +EXERCISE + +Write suitable headings, salutations, complimentary endings, and +signatures for the following letters:-- + +1. To Spaulding & Co., Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill., ordering their rules + for basket ball. + +2. To your older brother. + +3. To the school board, asking for a gymnasium. + +4. To some business house, making application for a position. + +5. To the governor of your state. + +6. From one stranger to another. + +7. From an older brother to his little sister. + +8. From a boy living in New Orleans to the father of his most intimate + friend. + + ++99. The Envelope.+--The direction on the envelope, commonly called the +superscription, consists of the name and address of the person or persons +to whom the letter is sent. This direction should be written in a careful +and _courteous manner_, and should include all that is necessary to insure +the prompt delivery of the letter to the proper destination. + +The superscription may be arranged in three or four lines, each line +beginning a little to the right of the preceding line. The name should be +written about midway between the upper and lower edges of the envelope, +and there should be nearly an equal amount of space left at each side. If +there is any difference, there should be less space at the right than at +the left. The street and number may be written below the name, and the +city or town and state below. The street and number may be properly +written in the lower left-hand corner. This is also the place for any +special direction that may be necessary for the speedy transmission of the +letter; for example, "In care of Mr. Charles R. Brown." + +Women should be addressed as _Miss_ or _Mrs._ In case the woman is +married, her husband's first name and middle initial are commonly used, +unless it is known that she prefers to have her own first name used. Men +should be addressed as _Mr._, and a firm may in many cases be addressed as +_Messrs._ It is considered proper to use the titles _Dr._, _Rev._, etc., +in directing an envelope to a man bearing such a title, but it would be +entirely out of place to address the wife of a physician or clergyman as +_Mrs. Dr._ or _Mrs. Rev._ + +The names of states may be abbreviated, but care should be taken that +these abbreviations be plainly written, especially when there are other +similar abbreviations. In compound names, as North Dakota and West +Virginia, do not abbreviate one part of the compound and write out the +other. Either abbreviate both or write out both. If any punctuation +besides the period after abbreviations is used, it consists of a comma +after each line. It is the custom now to omit such punctuation. Either +form is in good taste, but whichever form is adopted, it should be +employed throughout the entire superscription. The comma should not be +used in one line and omitted in another. + +Notice the following forms of correct superscriptions:-- + +(1) + ______________________________________________________ + | + | + | + | + | Mr. Milo R. Maltbie + | 85 West 118th St. + | New York. + |______________________________________________________ + + +(2) + ______________________________________________________ + | + | + | + | + | Mr. John D. Clark + | New York + | N.Y. + | + | Teachers College + | Columbia University. + |______________________________________________________ + + +(3) + ______________________________________________________ + | + | + | + | + | Mrs. Edgar N. Foster + | South Haven + | Mich. + | + | Avery Beach Hotel. + | ______________________________________________________ + + +(4) + ______________________________________________________ + | + | + | + | + | Miss Louise M. Baker + | Nottingham + | Ohio. + | + | Box 129. + |______________________________________________________ + + +(5) + ______________________________________________________ + | + | + | + | + | Dr. James M. Postle + | De Kalb + | Ill. + | + |______________________________________________________ + + +(6) + ______________________________________________________ + | + | + | + | + | Miss Ida Morrison + | Chicago + | Ill. + | + | + | 1048 Warren Ave. + |______________________________________________________ + + +EXERCISE + +Write proper superscriptions to letters written to the following:-- + +1. Thaddeus Bolton, living at 524 Q Street, Lincoln, Nebraska. + +2. The wife of a physician of your acquaintance. + +3. James B. Angell, President of the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, + Michigan. + +4. Your mother, visiting some relative or friend. + +5. The publishers Allyn and Bacon, 878 Wabash Avenue, Chicago, Ill. + +6. Edward Harrington, living at 1962 Seventh Avenue, New York. + +7. To a friend at a seaside resort. + +8. To a friend visiting your uncle in Oakland, California. + + ++100. The Great Rule of Letter Writing.+--The great rule of letter writing +is, Never write a letter which you would not be willing to see in print +over your own signature. That which you _say_ in anger may be discourteous +and of little credit to you, but it may in time be forgotten; that which +you _write_, however, may be in existence an untold number of years. +Thousands of letters are now on exhibition whose authors never had such a +use of them in mind. If you ever feel like writing at the end of a letter, +"Burn this as soon as you read it," do not send it, but burn the letter +yourself. Before you sign your name to any letter read it over and ask +yourself, "Is this letter in form and contents one which would do me +credit if it should be published?" + + ++101. Business Letters.+--Since the purpose of business letters is to +inform, they should, first of all, be characterized by clearness. In +asking for information, be sure that you state your questions so that +there shall be no doubt in the mind of the recipient concerning the +information that you desire. In giving information, be equally sure to +state facts so clearly that there can be no possibility of a mistake. + +Brevity is the soul of business letters as well as of wit. Business men +are busy men. They have no time to waste in reading long letters, but wish +to gain their information quickly. Hence we should aim to state the +desired facts in as concise a manner as possible, and we should give only +pertinent facts. Short explanations may sometimes be necessary, but +nothing foreign to the subject-matter should ever be introduced. While we +should aim to make our letters short, they should not be so brief as to +appear abrupt and discourteous. It shows lack of courtesy to omit +important words or to make too frequent use of abbreviations. + +We should answer a business letter as soon as possible. This answer, +besides giving the desired information, should include a reference to the +letter received and an acknowledgment of inclosures, if there were any. +All questions should receive courteous replies. The facts should be +arranged in a form that will be convenient for the recipient. As a rule it +is best to follow the order which the writer has used in his letter, but +in some cases we may be able to state our facts more definitely and +concisely if we follow some other order. + +What has been said in general about attention to forms in letter writing +might well be emphasized here, for business men are keen critics +concerning letters received. Be careful to use the correct forms already +suggested. Also pay attention to punctuation, spelling, and grammar. Write +only on one side of the paper and fold the letter correctly. In fact, be +businesslike in everything connected with the writing of business letters. + +A few examples are here given for your notice:-- + + +(1) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Ypsilanti, Mich. | + | April 4, 1905. | + | | + | Mr. William Wylie, | + | 807 Linn St., Peoria, Ill. | + | | + | Dear Mr. Wylie; | + | Inclosed is a letter from Superintendent Rogers | + | of Rockford, Ill. The position of teacher of | + | mathematics is vacant. The salary may not be so | + | much as you now receive, but in many respects the | + | position is a desirable one. I advise you to apply | + | for it. | + | Sincerely yours, | + | Charles M. Gates. | + | | + + +(2) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | 586 State St., | + | Chicago, Ill. | + | July 20,1905. | + | | + | Mrs. Charles H. McNett, | + | 2345 Franklin St., | + | Denver, Colorado. | + | | + | Dear Madam:--Your card of July 9th is at hand. We | + | beg to say that we sent you the books by express, | + | prepaid, July 9th, and they have probably reached | + | you by this time. If you have not received them, | + | please notify us, and we will send a tracer after | + | them. | + | Very truly yours, | + | Brown and Sherman. | + | | + | | + + +(3) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Elgin High School, | + | Elgin, Ill. | + | Sept. 4, 1905. | + | | + | | + | Miss Ella B. Walker, | + | Herkimer, New York. | + | | + | My dear Miss Walker: | + | I am very sorry to have to trouble you, | + | but I am desirous of obtaining some information | + | concerning the High School Library. Will you kindly | + | let me know whether the card catalogue was kept up | + | to date prior to your departure and also whether the | + | accession book was in use up to that time? | + | I shall be greatly indebted to you if you will | + | give me this information. | + | Very sincerely yours, | + | Edward J. Taylor. | + | | + + +EXERCISE + + +Write at least three of the following suggested letters, paying attention +to the rules for writing business letters:-- + +1. Write to a dry goods firm, asking them to send you one of their + catalogues. + +2. Write to the manager of a football team of some town near yours, + proposing a game. + +3. Write the reply. + +4. In reply to an advertisement, write an application for the position of + clerk or bookkeeper. + +5. Write to the publishers of some magazine, asking them to change your + address from 27 K Street, Toledo, Ohio, to 2011 Prospect Avenue, + Beatrice, Nebraska. + +6. Suppose yourself doing postgraduate work in your high school. Write to + the president of some college, asking him concerning advanced credit. + + ++102. Letters of Friendship.+--While a great deal of information may be +obtained from some letters of friendship, the real purpose of such letters +is, usually, not to give information, but to entertain. You will notice +that the information derived from letters of friendship differs from that +found in business letters. Its nature is such that of itself it gives +pleasure. Our letters to our relatives, friends, and acquaintances are but +visits on paper, and it should be our purpose to make these visits as +enjoyable as possible. + +So much depends upon the circumstances attendant upon the writing of +letters of friendship, that it is impossible to make any definite +statement as to what they should contain. We may say in general that they +should contain matter interesting to the recipient, and that they should +be characterized by vividness and naturalness. Interesting material is a +requisite, but that of itself is not sufficient to make an entertaining +letter. Interesting material may be presented in so unattractive and +lifeless a manner that much of its power to please is lost. Let your +letters be full of life and spirit. In your descriptions, narrations, and +explanations, express yourself so clearly and so vividly that those who +read your letters will be able to understand exactly what you mean. + + +EXERCISES + + +1. Write a letter to a classmate who has moved to another town, telling + him of the school of which he was once a member. + +2. Write to a friend, describing your visit to the World's Fair at St. + Louis. + +3. Suppose yourself away from home. Write a letter to your little brother + or sister at home. + +4. If you have ever been abroad, describe in a letter some place of + interest that you have visited. + +5. Write to a friend who is fond of camping, about your camping + experience. + +6. Suppose your mother is away from home on a visit. Write her about the + home life. + +7. Write to a friend, describing a party that you recently attended. + +8. Suppose you have moved from one town to another. In a letter compare + the two towns. + + ++103. Adaptation to the Reader.+--The golden rule of letter writing is, +Adapt the letter to the reader. Although the letter is an expression of +yourself, yet it should be that kind of expression which shall most +interest and please your correspondent. In business letters the necessity +of brevity and clearness forces attention to the selection and arrangement +of details. In letters to members of the family or to intimate friends +we must include many very minor things, because we know that our +correspondent will be interested in them, but a rambling, disjointed +jumble of poorly selected and ill-arranged details becomes tedious. What +we should mention is determined by the interests of the readers, and the +successful letter writer will endeavor to know what they wish to have +mentioned. In writing letters to our friends we ought to show that +sympathetic interest in them and their affairs which we should have if we +were visiting with them. On occasion, our congratulations should be prompt +and sincere. + +In reading letters we must not be hasty to take offense. Many good +friendships have been broken because some statement in a letter was +misconstrued. The written words convey a meaning very different from that +which would have been given by the spoken word, the tone of voice, the +smile, and the personal presence. So in our writing we must avoid +all that which even borders on complaint, or which may seem critical or +fault-finding to the most sensitive. + + ++104. Notes.+--Notes may be divided in a general way into two classes, +formal and informal. Formal notes include formal invitations, replies, +requests, and announcements. Informal notes include informal invitations +and replies, and also other short communications of a personal nature on +almost every possible subject. + + ++105. Formal Notes.+--A formal invitation is always written in the third +person. The lines may be of the same length, or they may be so arranged +that the lines shall be of different lengths, thus giving the page a +somewhat more pleasing appearance. The heading, salutation, complimentary +close, and signature are all omitted. The address of the sender may be +written below the body of the letter. Many prefer it a little to the left, +and the date is sometimes written below it. Others, however, prefer it +directly below or a little to the right. + +Replies to formal invitations should always be written in the third +person, and should in general follow the style of the invitation. The date +and the hour of the invitation should be repeated in the reply, and this +reply should be sent immediately after receiving the invitation. + +A few examples are here given to show the correct forms of both +invitations and replies:-- + + +(1) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Mr. and Mrs. Frederick William Thompson | + | request the pleasure of your company | + | on Monday evening, December thirtieth, | + | at half-past eight o'clock. | + | | + + +(2) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Miss Barrows accepts with pleasure Mr. and | + | Mrs. Thompson's invitation for Monday evening, | + | December thirtieth, at half-past eight o'clock. | + | | + + +(3) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Mr. Morris regrets that a previous engagement | + | prevents his accepting Mr. and Mrs. Thompson's | + | kind invitation for Monday evening, December | + | the thirtieth. | + | | + + +(4) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Mr. and Mrs. Albert W. Elliott request the | + | pleasure of Mr. John Barker's company at dinner | + | on Wednesday, December sixth, at seven o'clock. | + | | + | 1068 Euclid Ave. | + | | + + +(5) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Mr. Barker regrets his inability to accept | + | Mr. and Mrs. Albert W. Elliott's invitation to | + | dinner at seven o'clock, Wednesday, December | + | sixth. | + | | + + +EXERCISE + + +1. Write an invitation to a golden wedding. + +2. Mrs. Homer A. Payne invites Miss Eva Milton to dine with her next week + Thursday at eight o'clock. Write out a formal invitation. + +3. Write regrets to Mrs. Payne's invitation. + +4. Write an acceptance of the same invitation. + +5. Write a formal invitation to a party to be given in honor of your + guest, Miss Grace Mason. + + ++106. Informal Notes.+--Informal invitations and replies may contain the +same subject-matter as formal invitations and replies. The only difference +is in the form in which they are written. The informal invitation is in +form similar to a letter except that the same exactness about the heading +is not required. Sometimes the heading is written and sometimes it is +omitted entirely. The address of the one sending the invitation and the +date may be written below the body of the note to the left of the +signature. The reply to an informal invitation should always be informal, +but the date and hour should be repeated as in replies to formal +invitations. + +A great many informal notes not included in invitations and replies are +constantly written. These are simply brief letters of friendship, and the +purposes for which they are written are exceedingly varied. When we write +congratulations or words of condolence, when we introduce one friend to +another, when we thank some one for a gift, and when we give words of +advice, and in many other instances, we make use of informal notes. They +should be simple, personal, and as a rule confined to but one subject. + +Notice the following examples of informal notes:-- + + +(1) + _________________________________________________________________ + | | + | My dear Mrs. Lathrop, | + | | + | Will you not give us the pleasure of your company | + | at dinner, on next Friday evening at seven o'clock? Miss Todd | + | of Philadelphia is visiting us, and we wish our friends to meet | + | her. | + | | + | Very sincerely yours, | + | Ethel M. Trainor. | + | 840 Forest Avenue, | + | Dec. 5, 1905. | + | | + + +(2) + _________________________________________________________________ + | | + | Dec. 6, 1905. | + | | + | My dear Mrs. Trainor, | + | | + | I sincerely regret that I cannot accept your invitation | + | to dinner next Friday evening, for I have made a previous | + | engagement which it will be impossible for me to break. | + | | + | Yours most sincerely, | + | Emma Lathrop. | + | | + + +(3) + _________________________________________________________________ + | | + | My dear Blanche, | + | | + | Mr. Gilmore and I are planning for a little party | + | Thursday evening of this week. I hope you have no other | + | engagement for that evening, as we shall be pleased to have | + | you with us. | + | Very cordially yours, | + | Margaret Gilmore. | + | | + + +(4) + ______________________________________________________________ + | | + | My dear Margaret, | + | | + | Fortunately I have no other engagement for this | + | week Thursday evening, and I shall be delighted to spend an | + | evening with you and your friends. | + | | + | Very sincerely yours, | + | Blanche A. Church. | + | | + + +EXERCISE + +Write the following informal notes:-- + +1. Write to a friend, asking him or her to lend you a book. + +2. Write an invitation to an informal trolley, tennis, or golf party. + +3. Write the reply. + +4. Invite one of your friends to spend his or her vacation with you. + +5. Write a note to your sister, asking her to send you your theme that you + left at home this morning. + +6. Mrs. Edgar A. Snow invites Miss Mabel Minard to dine with her. Write + out the invitation. + +7. Write the acceptance. + + + + +VII. POETRY + +[Footnote: _To the Teacher._--Since the expression of ideas in metrical +form is seldom the one best suited to the conditions of modern life, it +has not seemed desirable to continue the themes throughout this chapter. +The study of this chapter, with suitable illustrations from the poems to +which the pupils have access, may serve to aid them in their appreciation +of poetry. This appreciation of poetry will be increased if the pupils +attempt some constructive work. It is recommended, therefore, that one or +more of the simpler kinds of metrical composition be tried. For example, +one or two good ballads may be read and the pupils asked to write similar +ones. Some pupils may be able to write blank verse.] + ++107. Purpose of Poetry.+--All writing aims to give information or to +furnish entertainment (Section 54). Often the same theme may both inform +and entertain, though one of these purposes may be more prominent than the +other. Prose may merely entertain, or it may so distinctly attempt to set +forth ideas clearly that the giving of pleasure is entirely neglected. In +poetry the entertainment side is never thus subordinated. Poetry always +aims to please by the presentation of that which is beautiful. All real +poetry produces an aesthetic effect by appealing to our aesthetic sense; +that is, to our love of the beautiful. + +In making this appeal to our love of the beautiful, poetry depends both +upon the ideas it contains and upon the forms it uses. Like prose, it +may increase its aesthetic effect by appropriate phrasing, effective +arrangement, and subtle suggestiveness, but it also makes use of certain +devices of language such as rhythm, rhyme, etc., which, though they may +occur in writings that would be classed as prose, are characteristic of +poetry. Much depends upon the ideas that poetry contains; for mere +nonsense, though in perfect rhyme and rhythm, is not poetry. But it is not +the idea alone which makes a poem beautiful; it is the form as well. The +merely trivial cannot be made beautiful by giving it poetical form, but +there are many poems containing ideas of small importance which please us +because of the perfection of form. We enjoy them as we do the singing of +the birds or the murmuring of the brooks. In fact, poetry is inseparable +from its characteristic forms. To sort out, re-arrange, and paraphrase +into second-class prose the ideas which a poem contains is a profitless +and harmful exercise, because it emphasizes the intellectual side of a +work which was created for the purpose of appealing to our aesthetic +sense. + ++108. Rhythm.+--There are several forms characteristic of poetry, by the +use of which its beauty and effectiveness are enhanced. Of these, rhythm +is the most prominent one, without which no poetry is possible. In its +widest sense, rhythm indicates a regular succession of motions, impulses, +sounds, accents, etc., producing an agreeable effect. Rhythm in poetry +consists of the recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables in regular +succession. In poetry, care must be taken to make the accented syllable of +a word come at the place where the rhythm demands an accent. The regular +recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables produces a harmony which +appeals to our aesthetic sense and thus enhances for us the beauty of +poetry. Read the following selections so as to show the rhythm:-- + + +1. + +We were crowded in the cabin; + Not a soul would dare to speak; +It was midnight on the waters + And a storm was on the deep. + +--James T. Fields. + + +2. + +Break, break, break, + At the foot of thy crags, O sea! +But the tender grace of a day that is dead + Will never come back to me. + +--Tennyson. + + +3. + +Ah, distinctly I remember, it was in the bleak December, + And each separate dying ember wrought its ghost upon the floor + +--Poe. + + +4. + +Sweet and low, sweet and low, + Wind of the western sea, +Low, low, breathe and blow, + Wind of the western sea! + +Over the rolling waters go, + Come from the dying moon and blow, +Blow him again to me; + While my little one, while my pretty one sleeps. + +--Tennyson. + + +5. + +Stone walls do not a prison make, + Nor iron bars a cage; +Minds innocent and quiet take + That for a hermitage. + +--Lovelace. + + +6. + +Merrily swinging on brier and weed, + Near to the nest of his little dame, +Over the mountain side or mead, + Robert of Lincoln is telling his name: +Bob-o'-link, bob-o'-link, + Spink, spank, spink, +Snug and safe is this nest of ours, + Hidden among the summer flowers. + Chee, chee, chee. + +--Bryant. + + +7. + +Grow old along with me! + The best is yet to be, +The last of life, for which the first was made: + Our times are in His hand +Who saith, "A whole I planned, + Youth shows but half; trust God: see all, nor be afraid!" + +--Browning. + + ++109. Feet.+--The metrical effect of the preceding selections is produced +by the regular recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables. A group of +accented and unaccented syllables is called a foot. There are four regular +feet in English verse, the iambus, the anapest, the trochee, and the +dactyl. Three irregular feet, the pyrrhic, the spondee, the amphibrach, +are occasionally found in lines, but not in entire poems, and are often +considered merely as substitutes for regular feet. For the sake of +convenience the accented syllables are indicated thus: _, and the +unaccented syllables thus: U. + +_An iambus_ is a foot consisting of two syllables with the accent on the +last. + + + U _| U _| U _| U _| U _| +Let not ambition mock their useful toil. + +--Gray. + + +U _|U _| U _|U _| +He prayeth best who loveth best + + U _| U _| U _| + All things both great and small; + + _ U | U _| U _|U _| +For the dear God who loveth us, + + U _| U _|U _| + He made and loveth all. + +--Coleridge. + + +_An anapest_ is a foot consisting of three syllables with the accent on +the last. + + +U U _| U U _|U U _| +I am monarch of all I survey. +U U _ | U U _ | U U _ | +I would hide with the beasts of the chase. + + +_A trochee_ is a foot consisting of two syllables with the accent on the +first. + + + _ U | _ U | _ U | _ U| +Double, double, toil and trouble. + +--Shakespeare. + + + _ U | _ U |_ U |_ U | +Let us then be up and doing, + _ U| _ U | _U | _ | +With a heart for any fate, + _ U |_ U | _ U|_ U | +Still achieving, still pursuing, + _ U | _ U |_ U | _ | +Learn to labor and to wait. + +--Longfellow. + + +_A dactyl_ is a foot consisting of three syllables with the accent on the +first. + + +_ U U | _ U U | +Cannon to right of them, +_ U U | _ U U | +Cannon to left of them, +_ U U | _ U U | +Cannon in front of them, +_ U U |_ U | +Volleyed and thundered. + +--Tennyson. + + +It will be convenient to remember that two of these, the iambus and the +anapest, have the accent on the last syllable, and that two, the trochee +and the dactyl, have the accent on the first syllable. + + +_A spondee_ is a foot consisting of two syllables, both of which are +accented about equally. It is an unusual foot in English poetry. + + + U _ | _ _ | U _| U _ | +Come now, blow, Wind, and waft us o'er. + + +_A pyrrhic_ is a foot consisting of two syllables both of which are +unaccented. It is frequently found at the end of a line. + + + U _ | U _ | U _|U U + Life is so full of misery. + + +_An amphibrach_ is a foot consisting of three syllables, with +the accent on the second. + + + U _ U U _ U| U _ U| U _ | + Creator, Preserver, Redeemer and friend. + + ++110. Names of Verse.+--A single line of poetry is called a verse. A +stanza is composed of several verses. When a verse consists of one foot, +it is called a monometer; of two feet, a dimeter; of three feet, a +trimeter; of four feet, a tetrameter; of five feet, a pentameter; and of +six feet, a hexameter. + + _ U +Monometer. Slowly. + + + _ U U| _ U U | +Dimeter. Emblem of happiness. + + + _ U| _U| _ U | +Trimeter. Like a poet hidden. + + + _ U| _ U| _ U | _ U | +Tetrameter. Tell me not in mournful numbers. + + + U _ |U _ |U _| U _ | U _ | +Pentameter. O, what a goodly outside falsehood hath. + + + _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U +Hexameter. This is the forest primeval; the murmuring pines and + U | _ U | + the hemlocks. + + +When we say that a verse is of any particular kind, we do not mean that +every foot in that line is necessarily of the same kind. Verse is named by +stating first the prevailing foot which composes it, and second the number +of feet in a line. A verse having four iambic feet is called iambic +tetrameter. So we have dactylic hexameter, trochaic pentameter, iambic +trimeter, anapestic dimeter, etc. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Mark the accented and unaccented syllables in the following +selections, and name the kind of verse:-- + +1. + +Build me straight, O worthy Master! + Stanch and strong, a goodly vessel +That shall laugh at all disaster + And with wave and whirlwind wrestle. + +--Longfellow. + + +2. + +I know not where His islands lift + Their fronded palms in air, +I only know I cannot drift + Beyond His love and care. + +--Whittier. + + +3. + +For tho' from out our bourne of Time and Place + The flood may bear me far, +I hope to see my Pilot face to face + When I have crossed the bar. + +--Tennyson. + + +4. + +Chanting of labor and craft, and of Wealth in the pot and the + garner; +Chanting of valor and fame, and the man who can, fall with the + foremost, +Fighting for children and wife, and the field which his father + bequeathed him, +Sweetly and solemnly sang she, and planned new lessons for + mortals. + +--Kingsley. + + +5. + +Have you read in the Talmud of old, +In the Legends the Rabbins have told, + Of the limitless realms of the air, +Have you read it,--the marvelous story +Of Sandalphon, the Angel of Glory, + Of Sandalphon, the Angel of Prayer? + +--Longfellow. + + +_B._ 1. Find three poems written in iambic verse, and three written in +trochaic verse. + +2. Write at least one stanza, using iambic verse. + +3. Write at least one stanza, using the same kind of verse that you find +in Tennyson's "Charge of the Light Brigade." + +4. Write two anapestic lines. + + ++111. Variation in Rhythm.+--The name given to a verse is determined by +the foot which prevails, but not every foot in the line needs to be of the +same kind. Just as in music we may substitute a quarter for two eighth +notes, so may we in poetry substitute one foot for another, provided it is +given the same amount of time. + +Notice in the following that the rhythm is perfect and the beat regular, +although a three-syllable anapest has been substituted in the second line +for a two-syllable iambus:-- + + + U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ | +Beneath those rugged elms, that yew tree's shade, + U _ | U _ | U _| U U _ | U _ | +Where heaves the turf in many a moldring heap, + _ U | U _ | U _ | U _ |U _ | +Each in his narrow cell for ever laid, + U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ | +The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. + + +The following from _Evangeline_ illustrates the substitution of trochees +for dactyls:-- + + + _ U U | _ U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U | +Waste are those pleasant farms, and the farmers forever departed. + + _ U U | _ U | _ U U | _ U | _ U U|_ U +Scattered like dust and leaves, when the mighty blasts of October + + _ U U | _ U U |_ U | _ U U | _ U U |_ U | +Seize them and whirl them aloft, and sprinkle them far o'er the ocean. + + _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U +Naught but tradition remains of the beautiful village of Grand-Pre. + + +It is evident that one foot can be substituted for another if the accent +is not changed. Since both the iambus and the anapest are accented on the +last syllable, they may be interchanged. The trochee and the dactyl are +both accented on the first syllable and may, therefore, be interchanged. + +There are some exceptions to the general rule that in substituting one +foot for another the accented syllable must be kept in the same part of +the foot. Occasionally a poem in which the prevailing foot is iambic has a +trochee for the first foot of a line in order that it may begin with an +accented syllable. At the beginning of a line the change of accent is +scarcely noticeable. + + +_ U | U _ | U _ |U _ | +Over the rail my hand I trail. + +_ U | U _ | U _ | U _ | +Silent the crumbling bridge we cross! + + +But if the reader has once fallen into the swing of iambic verse, the +substitution of a trochee will bring the accent at an unexpected place, +interrupt the smooth flow of the rhythm, and produce a harsh and jarring +effect. Such a change of accent is justified only when the sense of the +verse leads the reader to expect the changed accent, or when the emphasis +thus given to the sense of the poem more than compensates for the break in +the rhythm produced by the change of accent. + +Another form of metrical variation is that in which there are too few or +too many syllables in a foot. This generally occurs at the end of a line, +but may occur at the beginning. If a syllable is added or omitted +skillfully, the rhythm will be unbroken. + +When the feet are accented on the last syllable,--that is, when the verse +is iambic or anapestic,--an extra syllable may be added at the end of a +line. + + +U _ |U U _ |U _ | U +I stood on the bridge at midnight, + + U U _ | U _ |U U _ | + As the clocks were striking the hour; + + U U _ | U _ | U _|U +And the Moon rose o'er the city, + + U _ | U _ | U _ | + Behind the dark church tower. + +--Longfellow. + + + U _ | U _ |U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ | +Girt round with rugged moun[tains], the fair Lake Constance lies, + + U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ |U _ | +In her blue heart reflect[ed] shine back the starry skies; + + U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ |U _ | U _ | +And watching each white cloud[let] float silently and slow, + + U _ | U _ | U _ | U _| U _ | U _| +You think a piece of heav[en] lies on our earth below. + +--Adelaide A. Procter. + + +In the second illustration the extra syllables have the same relative +position in the metrical scheme as in the first, though they appear to be +in the middle of the line. The pauses fill in the time and preserve the +rhythm unbroken. + +When the feet are accented on the first syllable--as in trochaic or +dactylic verse--a syllable may be omitted from the end of a line as in the +second and fourth below. + + +_ U U | _ U U | _ U U| _ U | +Up with the lark in the first flush of morning, + + _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ | + Ere the world wakes to its work or its play; + + _ U U| _ U U | _ U U | _ U | +Off for a spin to the wide-stretching country, + + _ U U | _ U U | _ U U|_ | + Far from the close, stifling city away. + + +Sometimes we find it necessary to suppress a syllable in order to make the +rhythm more nearly perfect. Syllables may be suppressed in two ways: by +suppressing a vowel at the end of a word when the next word commences with +a vowel; by suppressing a vowel within a word. The former method is termed +elision, and the latter, slurring. + + + U _ | U _ |U _ | U _ | U _ | +Thou glorious mirror where the Almighty's form + U U + + _ U |U _| U _ | U +Glasses itself in tempests. + +--Byron. + + +An accented syllable often takes the place of an entire foot. This occurs +most frequently at the end of a line, but it is sometimes found at the +beginning. Occasionally whole lines are formed in this way. If a pause or +rest is made, the rhythm will be unbroken. + + +u _ | u _ | u _ | + Break, break, break, + + U U _ | U _ | U _ | + On thy cold gray stones, O sea! + + U U _ | U U _ | U _|U + And I would that my tongue could utter + + U _ | U U _ |U _| + The thoughts that arise in me. + +--Tennyson. + + +We frequently find verses in which a syllable is lacking at the close of +the line; we also find many verses in which an extra syllable is added. +Verse that contains the number of syllables required by its meter is said +to be acatalectic; if it contains more than the required number of +syllables, it is said to be hypercatalectic; and if it lacks a syllable, +it is termed catalectic. It is difficult to tell whether a line has the +required number of syllables or not when it is taken by itself; but by +comparing it with the line prevailing in the rest of the stanza we are +enabled to tell whether it is complete or not. Shakespeare's _Julius +Caesar_ is written in iambic pentameter verse. Knowing this, we can detect +the hypercatalectic and catalectic lines. + + + U _| U _ | U _| U _| U _ | +You all did see that on the Lupercal + +U _ | U _| U _ |U _| U _| +I thrice presented him a kingly crown + + U _| U _ |U _ | U _ | U _| U +Which he did thrice refuse. Was this ambition? + + U _| U _ | U _ | U _ | U +Yet Brutus says he was ambitious. + +--Shakespeare. + + ++112. Cesura.+--Besides the pauses caused by rests or silences there is +the cesural pause which needs to be considered in reading verse. A cesura +is a pause determined by the sense. It coincides with some break in the +sense. It is found in different parts of the verse and may be entirely +lacking. Its observance does not noticeably interfere with the rhythm. In +the following selection it is marked thus: ||. + + + U _ | U _ | U _| U _ | +The sun came up || upon the left, + + _ U| U _ | U _ | + Out of the sea || came he; + + U _| U _ | U _| U _| +And he shone bright, || and on the right + + U _ | U_ | U _ | + Went down || into the sea + +--Coleridge. + + +Lives of great men || all remind us + We can make our lives || sublime, +And, departing, || leave behind us, + Footprints || on the sands of time. + +--Longfellow. + + +Read the selections on page 197 so as to indicate the position of the +cesural pauses. + + ++113. Scansion.+--Scansion is the separation of a line into the feet which +compose it. In order to scan a line we must determine the rhythmic +movement of it. The rhythmic movement determines the accented syllables. +Sometimes in scanning, merely the accented syllables are marked. Usually +the whole metrical scheme is indicated, as in the examples on page 199. + + +EXERCISE + + +Scan the following selections. Note substitutions and +elusions. + + +1. + +The night has a thousand eyes, + And the day but one; +Yet the light of the bright world dies + With the dying sun. +The mind has a thousand eyes, + And the heart but one; +Yet the light of a whole life dies + When love is gone. + +--Francis W. Bourdillon. + + +2. + +Laugh, and the world laughs with you, +Weep, and you weep alone; +For the sad old earth must borrow its mirth, +But has trouble enough of its own. + +--Ella Wheeler Wilcox. + + +3. + +Hear the robin in the rain, +Not a note does he complain. +But he fills the storm refrain +With music of his own. + +--Charles Coke Woode. + + +4. + +The mistletoe hung in the castle hall, +The holly branch shone on the old back wall +And the baron's retainers are blithe and gay, +And keeping their Christmas holiday. + +--Thomas Haynes Bagley. + + ++114. Rhyme.+--Rhyme is a regular recurrence of similar sounds. In a broad +sense, it may include sounds either terminal or not, but as here used it +refers to terminal sounds. + +Just as we expect a recurrence of accent in a line, so may we expect a +recurrence of similar sounds at the end of certain lines of poetry. The +interval between the rhymes may be of different lengths in different +poems, but when the interval is once established, it should be followed +throughout the poem. A rhyme out of place jars upon the rhythmic +perfection of a stanza just as an accent out of place interferes with the +rhythm of the verse. + +Not only should the rhymes occur at expected places, but they should be +the expected rhymes; that is, real rhymes. If we are expecting a word +which will rhyme with _blossom_ and find _bosom_, or if we are expecting a +rhyme for _breath_ and find _beneath_, the effect is unpleasant. The +rhymes named above are based on spelling, while a real rhyme is based on +sound. A correct rhyme should have precisely the same vowel sounds and the +final consonants should be the same, but the initial consonant should be +different. For example: _death, breath; home, roam; tongue, young; +debating, relating_. + +Notice the arrangement of the rhymes in the following selections:-- + + +1. + +My soul to-day is far away, +Sailing the Vesuvian Bay; +My winged boat, a bird afloat, +Swims round the purple peaks remote. + +--T. Buchanan Read. + + +2. + +I come from haunts of coot and hern, + I make a sudden sally, +And sparkle out among the fern, + To bicker down the valley. + +By thirty hills I hurry down, + Or slip between the ridges, +By twenty thorps, a little town, + And half a hundred bridges. + +--Tennyson. + + +3. + +I know it is a sin +For me to sit and grin + At him here; +But the old three-cornered hat +And the breeches, and all that, + Are so queer! + +--Holmes. + + +4. + + The splendor falls on castle walls + And snowy summits old in story; + The long light shakes across the lakes + And the wild cataract leaps in glory. +Blow, bugle, blow, set the wild echoes flying; +Blow, bugle; answer, echoes, dying, dying, dying. + +--Tennyson. + + +5. + +Breathes there a man with soul so dead +Who never to himself hath said, + This is my own, my native land! +Whose heart hath ne'er within him burned +As home his footsteps he hath turned + From wandering in a foreign strand! +If such there be, go mark him well: +For him no minstrel raptures swell; +High though his titles, proud his name, +Boundless his wealth as wish can claim: +Despite those titles, power, and pelf, +The wretch concentered all in self, +Living, shall forfeit fair renown +And, doubly dying, shall go down +To the vile dust from whence he sprung, +Unwept, unhonored, and unsung. + +--Scott. + + ++115. Blank Verse.+--When rhyme is omitted, we have blank verse. This is +the most dignified of all kinds of verse, and is, therefore, appropriate +for epic and dramatic poetry, where it is chiefly found. Most blank verse +makes use of the iambic pentameter measure, but we find many exceptions. +Read the following examples of blank verse so as to show the rhythm:-- + + +1. + + So live, that when thy summons comes to join +The innumerable caravan that moves +To the pale realms of shade, where each shall take +His chamber in the silent halls of death, +Thou go not like the quarry slave at night +Scourged to his dungeon, but, sustained and soothed +By an unfaltering trust, approach the grave +Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch +About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams. + +--Bryant. + + +2. + + I stood upon the steps-- +The last who left the door--and there I found +The lady and her friend. The elder turned +And with a cordial greeting took my hand, +And rallied me on my forgetfulness. +Her eyes, her smile, her manner, and her voice. +Touched the quick springs of memory, and I spoke +Her name. She was my mother's early friend +Whose face I had not seen in all the years +That had flown over us, since, from her door, +I chased her lamb to where I found--myself. + +--Holland. + + ++116. The Stanza.+--Some of our verse is continuous like Milton's +_Paradise Lost_ or Shakespeare's plays, but much of it is divided into +groups called stanzas. The lines or verses composing a stanza are bound +together by definite principles of rhythm and rhyme. Usually stanzas of +the same poem have the same structure, but stanzas of different poems show +a variety of structure. + +Two of the most simple forms are the couplet and the triplet. They often +form a part of a continuous poem, but they are occasionally found in +divided poems. + + +1. + +The western waves of ebbing day +Roll'd o'er the glen their level way. + +--Scott. + + +2. + +A chieftain's daughter seemed the maid; +Her satin snood, her silken plaid, +Her golden brooch such birth betray'd. + +--Scott. + + +A stanza of four lines is called a quatrain. The lines of quatrains show a +variety in the arrangement of their rhymes. The first two lines may rhyme +with each other and the last two with each other; the first and fourth may +rhyme and the second and third; or the rhymes may alternate. Notice the +example on page 208, and also the following:-- + + +1. + +I ask not wealth, but power to take + And use the things I have aright. +Not years, but wisdom that shall make + My life a profit and delight. + +--Phoebe Cary. + + +2. + +I count this thing to be grandly true: + That a noble deed is a step toward God,-- + Lifting the soul from the common sod +To a purer air and a broader view. + +--Holland. + + +A quatrain consisting of iambic pentameter verse with alternate rhymes is +called an elegiac stanza. + + +Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight, + And all the air a solemn stillness holds, +Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight, + And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds. + +--Gray. + + +The Tennysonian stanza consists of four iambic tetrameter lines in which +the first line rhymes with the fourth, and the second with the third. + + +Let knowledge grow from more to more, + But more of reverence in us dwell; + That mind and soul, according well, +May make one music as before. + +--Tennyson. + + +Five and six line stanzas are found in a great variety. The following are +examples:-- + + +1. + +We look before and after, + And pine for what is not; +Our sincerest laughter + With some pain is fraught; +Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought. + +--Shelley. + + +2. + +And if I should live to be +The last leaf upon the tree + In the spring. +Let them smile as I do now, +At the old forsaken bough + Where I cling. + +--Holmes. + + +3. + +The upper air burst into life; +And a hundred fire flags sheen, +To and fro they were hurried about; +And to and fro, and in and out, +The wan stars danced between. + +--Coleridge. + + +The Spenserian stanza consists of nine lines: the first eight are iambic +pentameters, and the last line is an iambic hexameter or Alexandrine. +Burns makes use of this stanza in _The Cotter's Saturday Night._ The +following stanza from that poem shows the plan of the rhymes:-- + + +O Scotia! my dear, my native soil! + For whom my warmest wish to Heaven is sent! +Long may thy hardy sons of rustic toil + Be blest with health, and peace, and sweet content! + And oh! may Heaven their simple lives prevent +From luxury's contagion, weak and vile! + Then, howe'er crowns and coronets be rent, +A virtuous populace may rise the while, +And stand a wall of fire around their much beloved isle. + + +EXERCISES + +_A._ Scan the following:-- + + +Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting: +The soul that rises with us, our life's star, + Hath had elsewhere its setting, + And cometh from afar: + Not in entire forgetfulness, + And not in utter nakedness, +But trailing clouds of glory do we come + From God, who is our home. + +--Wordsworth. + + +Into the sunshine, + Full of light, +Leaping and flashing + From morn to night! + +--Lowell. + + +_B._ Name each verse in the following stanza:-- + + + Hear the sledges with the bells-- + Silver bells! +What a world of merriment their melody foretells! + How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle, + In the icy air of night! +While the stars that oversprinkle + All the heavens seem to twinkle + With a crystalline delight-- + Keeping time, time, time, + In a sort of Runic rhyme +To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells + From the bells, bells, bells, bells, + Bells, bells, bells-- +From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells. + +--Poe. + + ++117. Kinds of Poetry.+-There are three general classes of poetry: +narrative, lyric, and dramatic. + +_A. Narrative poetry_, as may be inferred from its name, relates events +which may be either real or imaginary. Its chief varieties are the epic, +the metrical romance or lesser epic, the tale, and the ballad. + +_An epic_ poem is an extended narrative of an elevated character that +deals with heroic exploits which are frequently under supernatural +control. This kind of poetry is characterized by the intricacy of plot, by +the delineation of noble types of character, by its descriptive effects, +by its elevated language, and by its seriousness of tone. The epic is +considered as the highest effort of man's poetic genius. It is so +difficult to produce an epic that but few literatures contain more than +one. Homer's _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, Virgil's _Aeneid_, the German +_Nibelungenlied_, the Spanish _Cid_, Dante's _Divine Comedy_, and Milton's +_Paradise Lost_ are important epics found in different literatures. + +A _metrical romance_ or lesser epic is a narrative poem, shorter and less +dignified than the epic. Longfellow's _Evangeline_ and Scott's _Marmion_ +and _Lady of the Lake_ are examples of this kind of poetry. + +_A metrical tale is_ a narrative poem somewhat simpler and shorter than +the metrical romance, but more complex than the ballad. Longfellow's +_Tales of a Wayside Inn_, Tennyson's _Enoch Arden_, and Lowell's _Vision +of Sir Launfal_ are examples of the tale. + +_A ballad_ is the shortest and most simple of all narrative poems. It +relates but a single incident and has a very simple structure. In this +kind of poetry the interest centers upon the incident rather than upon any +beauty or elegance of language. Many of the Robin Hood Ballads are well +known. Macaulay's _Lays of Ancient Rome_ and Longfellow's _Wreck of the +Hesperus_ are other examples of the ballad. It may be well to note here +that it is not always possible to draw definite lines between two +different kinds of narrative poetry. In fact, there will sometimes be a +difference of opinion as regards the classification. + +_B. Lyric poetry_ was the name originally applied to poetry that was to be +sung to the accompaniment of the lyre, but now the name is often applied +to poems that are not intended to be sung at all. Lyric poetry deals +primarily with the feelings and emotions. Love, hate, jealousy, grief, +hope, and praise are emotions that may be expressed in lyric poetry. Its +chief varieties are the song, the ode, the elegy, and the sonnet. + +A _song_ is a short poem intended to be sung. Songs may be divided into +sacred and secular. _Jerusalem, the Golden_, and _Lead, Kindly Light_, are +examples of sacred songs. Secular songs may be patriotic, convivial, or +sentimental. + +An _ode_ expresses exalted emotion and is more complex in structure than +the song. Some of the best odes in our language are Dryden's _Ode to St. +Cecilia_, Wordsworth's _Ode on Intimations of Immortality_, Keats's _Ode +on a Grecian Urn_, Shelley's _Ode to a Skylark_, and Lowell's +_Commemoration Ode_. + +An _elegy_ is a lyric pervaded by the feeling of grief or melancholy. +Milton's _Lycidas_, Tennyson's _In Memoriam_, and Gray's _Elegy in a +Country Churchyard_ are all noted elegies. + +A _sonnet_ is a lyric poem of fourteen lines which deals with a single +idea or sentiment. It is not a stanza taken from a poem, but is a complete +poem itself. In the Italian sonnet and those modeled after it, the +emotional feeling rises through the first two quatrains, reaching its +climax at or near the end of the eighth line, and then subsides through +the two tercets which make up the remaining six lines. If the sentiment +expressed does not adjust itself to this ebb and flow, it is not suitable +for a sonnet. Milton's sonnet on his blindness is one of the best. Notice +the emotional transition in the middle of the eighth line. This sonnet +will also illustrate the fixed rhyme scheme:-- + + +When I consider how my light is spent +Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide, +And that one talent, which is death to hide, +Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent +To serve therewith my Maker, and present +My true account, lest he, returning, chide; +Doth God exact day labor, light denied? +I fondly ask. But Patience, to prevent +That murmur, soon replies, God doth not need, +Either man's work or his own gifts. Who best +Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best. His state +Is kingly; thousands at his bidding speed, +And post o'er land and ocean without rest; +They also serve who only stand and wait. + + +There is a form of sonnet called the Shakespearean which differs in its +arrangement from the Italian sonnet. + +_C. Dramatic poetry_ relates the occurrence of human events, and is +designed to be spoken on the stage. If the drama has an unhappy ending, it +is _a tragedy_. As is becoming in such a theme, the language is dignified +and impressive, and the whole appeals to our deeper emotions. If the drama +has a happy conclusion, it is _a comedy_. Here the movement is quicker, +the language less dignified, and the effort is to make the whole light and +amusing. + + + +PART II + + +Description, Narration, Exposition, and Argument have been treated in an +elementary way in Part I. A more extensive treatment of each is given in +Part II. It has been deemed undesirable to repeat in Part II many things +which have been previously treated. The treatment of any one of the forms +of discourse as given in Part II is not complete. By reference to the +index all the sections treating of any phase of any one subject may be +found. + + +[Illustration: See page 224, _C._] + + + +VIII. DESCRIPTION + + ++118. Description Defined.+--By means of our senses we gain a knowledge of +the world. We see, hear, taste, smell, and feel; and the ideas so acquired +are the fundamental elements of our knowledge, without which thinking +would be impossible. It, therefore, happens that much of the language that +we use has for its purpose the transmission to others of such ideas. Such +writing is called description. We may, therefore, define description as +that form of discourse which has for its purpose the formation of an +image. + +As here used, the term _image_ applies to any idea presented by the +senses. In a more limited sense it means the mental picture which is +formed by aid of sight. It is for the purpose of presenting images of this +kind that description is most often employed. It is most frequently +concerned with images of objects seen, less frequently with sounds, and +seldom with ideas arising through touch, taste, and smell. In this +chapter, therefore, we shall consider chiefly the methods of using +language for the purpose of arousing images of objects seen. + + ++119. Order of Observation.+--In description we shall find it of advantage +to use such language that the reader will form the image in the same way +as he would form an image from actual observation. There is a customary +and natural order of observation, and if we present our material in that +same order, the mind more easily forms the desired image. Our first need +in the study of description is to determine what this natural order of +observation is. + +Look at the building across the street. Your _first_ impression is that of +size, shape, and color. Almost instantly, but nevertheless _secondly_, you +add certain details as to roof, door, windows, and surroundings. Further +observation adds to the number of details, such as the size of the window +panes or the pattern of the lattice work. Our first glance may assure us +that we see a train, our second will tell us how many cars, our third will +show us that each car is marked Michigan Central. The oftener we look or +the longer we look, the greater is the number of details of which we +become conscious. Any number of illustrations will show that we first see +the general outline, and after that the details. We do not observe the +details one by one and then combine them into an object, but we first see +the object as a whole, and our first impression becomes more vivid as we +add detail after detail. + +Following this natural order of observation a description should begin +with a sentence that will give the reader a general impression of the +whole. Notice the beginnings of the following selections. After reading +the italicized sentence in each, consider the image that it has caused you +to form. + + +The door opened upon the main or living room. _It was a long apartment +with low ceiling and walls of hewn logs chinked and plastered and all +beautifully whitewashed and clean._ The tables, chairs, and benches were +all homemade. On the floor were magnificent skins of wolf, bear, musk ox, +and mountain goat. The walls were decorated with heads and horns of deer +and mountain sheep, eagle's wings, and a beautiful breast of a loon, which +Gwen had shot and of which she was very proud. At one end of the room a +huge stone fireplace stood radiant in its summer decorations of ferns and +grasses and wildflowers. At the other end a door opened into another room, +smaller, and richly furnished with relics of former grandeur. + +--Connor: _The Sky Pilot_. + + +_The stranger was of middle height, loosely knit and thin, with a cunning, +brutal face._ He had a bullet-shaped head, with fine, soft, reddish brown +hair; a round, stubbly beard shot with gray; and small, beady eyes set +close together. He was clothed in an old, black, grotesquely fitting +cutaway coat, with coarse trousers tucked into his boot tops. A worn +visored cloth cap was on his head. In his right hand he carried an old +muzzle-loading shotgun. + +--George Kibbe Turner: _Across the State_ ("McClure's"). + + ++120. The Fundamental Image.+--The first impression of the object as a +whole is called the fundamental image. The beginning of a description +should cause the reader to form a correct general outline, which will +include the main characteristics of the object described. While the +fundamental image lacks definiteness and exactness, yet it must be such +that it shall not need to be revised as we add the details. If one should +begin a description by saying, "Opposite the church there is a large +two-story, brick house with a conservatory on the left," the reader would +form at once a mental picture including the essential features of the +house. Further statements about the roof, the windows, the doors, the +porch, the yard, and the fence, would each add something to the picture +until it was complete. The impression with which the reader started would +be added to, but not otherwise changed. But if we should conclude the +description with the statement, "This house was distinguished from its +neighbors by the fact that it was not of the usual rectangular form, but +was octagonal in shape," the reader would find that the image which he +had formed would need to be entirely changed. It is evident that if the +word _octagonal_ is to appear at all, it must be at the beginning. Care +must be taken to place all the words that affect the fundamental image in +the sentence that gives the general characteristics of that which we are +describing. + +Hawthorne begins _The House of the Seven Gables_ as follows:-- + + +Halfway down a by-street of one of our New England towns stands a rusty +wooden house, with seven acutely peaked gables, facing towards various +points of the compass, and a huge, clustered chimney in the midst. The +street is Pyncheon street; the house is the old Pyncheon house; and an elm +tree, of wide circumference, rooted before the door, is familiar to every +town-born child by the title of the Pyncheon elm. On my occasional visits +to the town aforesaid, I seldom failed to turn down Pyncheon street, for +the sake of passing through the shadow of these two antiquities,--the +great elm tree and the weather-beaten edifice. + + +Later he gives a detailed description of the house on the morning of its +completion as follows:-- + + +Maule's lane, or Pyncheon street, as it were now more decorous to call it, +was thronged, at the appointed hour, as with a congregation on its way to +church. All, as they approached, looked upward at the imposing edifice, +which was henceforth to assume its rank among the habitations of mankind. +There it rose, a little withdrawn from the line of the street, but in +pride, not modesty. Its whole visible exterior was ornamented with quaint +figures, conceived in the grotesqueness of a Gothic fancy, and drawn or +stamped in the glittering plaster, composed of lime, pebbles, and bits of +glass, with which the woodwork of the walls was overspread. On every side +the seven gables pointed sharply towards the sky, and presented the aspect +of a whole sisterhood of edifices, breathing through the spiracles of one +great chimney. The many lattices, with their small, diamond-shaped panes, +admitted the sunlight into hall and chamber, while, nevertheless, the +second story, projecting far over the base, and itself retiring beneath +the third, threw a shadowy and thoughtful gloom into the lower rooms. +Carved globes of wood were affixed under the jutting stories. Little +spiral rods of iron beautified each of the seven peaks. On the triangular +portion of the gable, that fronted next the street, was a dial, put up +that very morning, and on which the sun was still marking the passage of +the first bright hour in a history that was not destined to be all so +bright. All around were scattered shavings, chips, shingles, and broken +halves of bricks; these, together with the lately turned earth, on which +the grass had not begun to grow, contributed to the impression of +strangeness and novelty proper to a house that had yet its place to make +among men's daily interests. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Select the sentence or part of a sentence which gives the fundamental +image in each of the following selections:-- + +1. It was a big, smooth-stone-faced house, product of the 'Seventies, +frowning under an outrageously insistent Mansard, capped by a cupola, and +staring out of long windows overtopped with "ornamental" slabs. Two +cast-iron deer, painted death-gray, twins of the same mold, stood on +opposite sides of the front walk, their backs toward it and each other, +their bodies in profile to the street, their necks bent, however, so that +they gazed upon the passer-by--yet gazed without emotion. Two large, calm +dogs guarded the top of the steps leading to the front door; they also +were twins and of the same interesting metal, though honored beyond the +deer by coats of black paint and shellac. + +--Booth Tarkington: _The Conquest of Canaan_ ("Harper's"). + + +2. At the first glance, Phoebe saw an elderly personage, in an +old-fashioned dressing gown of faded damask, and wearing his gray or +almost white hair of an unusual length. It quite overshadowed his +forehead, except when he thrust it back, and stared vaguely about the +room. After a very brief inspection of his face, it was easy to conceive +that his footstep must necessarily be such an one as that which, slowly, +and with as indefinite an aim as a child's first journey across a floor, +had just brought him hitherward. Yet there were no tokens that his +physical strength might not have sufficed for a free and determined gait. +It was the spirit of a man that could not walk. The expression of his +countenance--while, notwithstanding, it had the light of reason in it-- +seemed to waver, and glimmer, and nearly to die away, and feebly to +recover itself again. It was like a flame which we see twinkling among +half-extinguished embers; we gaze at it more intently than if it were a +positive blaze, gushing vividly upward--more intently, but with a certain +impatience, as if it ought either to kindle itself into satisfactory +splendor, or be at once extinguished. + +--Hawthorne: _The House of the Seven Gables_. + + +3. One of the best known of the flycatchers all over the country is the +kingbird. He is a little smaller than a robin, and all in brownish black, +with white breast. He has also white tips to his tail feathers, which look +very fine when he spreads it out wide in flying. Among the head feathers +of the kingbird is a small spot of orange color. This is called in the +books a "concealed patch," because it is seldom seen, it is so hidden by +the dark feathers. + +--Mary Rogers Miller: _The Brook Book_. +(Copyright, 1902, by Doubleday, Page and Co.) + + +Notice the use of a comparison in establishing a correct fundamental image +in example 3. + +_B._ Select five buildings with which the members of the class are +familiar. Write a single sentence for each, giving the fundamental image. +Read these sentences to the class. Let them determine for which building +each is written. + +_C._ Notice the pictures on page 218. Write a single sentence for each, +giving the fundamental image. + + ++Theme LII.+--_Write a paragraph, describing something with which you are +familiar._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. The county court house. + 2. The new church. + 3. My neighbor's house. + 4. Where we go fishing. + 5. A neighboring lake. + 6. A cozy nook. + + +(Underscore the sentence that gives the fundamental image. Will the +reader get from it at once a correct general outline of the object to +be described? Will he need to change the fundamental image as your +description proceeds?) + + ++121. Point of View.+--What we shall see first depends upon the point of +view. Seen from one position, an object or a landscape will present a +different appearance from that which it will present when viewed from +another position. A careful writer will give that fundamental image that +would come from actual observation if the reader were looking at the scene +described from the point of view chosen by the writer. He will not include +details that cannot be seen from that position even though he knows that +they exist. + +Notice that the following descriptions include only that which can be seen +from the place indicated in the italicized phrases:-- + + +_Forward from the bridge_ he beheld a landscape of wide valleys and +irregular heights, with groves and lakes and fanciful houses linked +together by white paths and shining streams. The valleys were spread +below, that the river might be poured upon them for refreshment in day of +drought, and they were as green carpets figured with beds and fields of +flowers and flecked with flocks of sheep white as balls of snow; and the +voices of shepherds following the flocks were heard afar. As if to tell +him of the pious inscription of all he beheld, the altars out under the +open sky seemed countless, each with a white-gowned figure attending it, +while processions in white went slowly hither and thither between them; +and the smoke of the altars half risen hung collected in pale clouds over +the devoted places. + +Wallace: _Ben-Hur_. +(Copyright, 1880. Harper and Bros.) + + +The house stood unusually near the river, facing eastward, and standing +four-square, with an immense veranda about its sides, and a flight of +steps in front, spreading broadly downward, as we open our arms to a +child. _From the veranda_ nine miles of river were seen; and in their +compass near at hand, the shady garden full of rare and beautiful flowers; +farther away broad fields of cane and rice, and the distant quarters of +the slaves, and on the horizon everywhere a dark belt of cypress forest. + +--Cable: _Old Creole Days_. + + ++122. Selection of Details Affected by Point of View.+--A skillful writer +will not ask his reader to perform impossible feats. We cannot see the +leaves upon a tree a mile away, and so should not describe them. The finer +effects and more minute details should be included only when our chosen +point of view brings us near enough to appreciate them. In the selection +below, Stevenson tells only as much about Swanston cottage as can be seen +at a distance of six miles. + + +So saying she carried me around the battlements _towards the opposite or +southern side of the fortress and indeed to a bastion_ almost immediately +overlooking the place of our projected flight. Thence we had a view of +some foreshortened suburbs at our feet, and beyond of a green, open, and +irregular country rising towards the Pentland Hills. The face of one of +these summits (say two leagues from where we stood) is marked with a +procession of white scars. And to this she directed my attention. + +"You see those marks?" she said. "We call them the Seven Sisters. Follow a +little lower with your eye, and you will see a fold of the hill, the tops +of some trees, and a tail of smoke out of the midst of them. That is +Swanston cottage, where my brother and I are living." + +--Stevenson: _St. Ives_. +(Copyright, 1897. Charles Scribner's Sons.) + + +Notice in the selection below that for objects _near at hand_ details so +small as the lizard's eye are given, but that these details are not given, +when we are asked to observe things far away. + + +Slow though their march had been, by this time _they had come to the end +of the avenue, and were in the wide circular sweep before the castle._ +They stopped here and stood looking off over the garden, with its somber +cypresses and bright beds of geranium, down upon the valley, dim and +luminous in a mist of gold. Great, heavy, fantastic-shaped clouds, +pearl-white with pearl-gray shadows, piled themselves up against the +scintillant dark blue of the sky. In and out among the rose trees _near at +hand_, where the sun was hottest, heavily flew, with a loud bourdonnement, +the cockchafers promised by Annunziata,--big, blundering, clumsy, the +scorn of their light-winged and businesslike competitors, the bees. +Lizards lay immobile as lizards cast in bronze, only their little +glittering, watchful pin heads of eyes giving sign of life. And of course +the blackcaps never for a moment left off singing. + +--Henry Habland: _My Friend Prospero_ ("McClure's"). + + +_We round a corner of the valley, and beyond, far below us, looms the town +of Sorata. From this distance_ the red tile roofs, the soft blue, green, +and yellow of its stuccoed walls, look indescribably fresh and grateful. A +closer inspection will probably dissipate this impression; it will be +squalid and dirty, the river-stone paving of its street will be deep in +the accumulation of filth, dirty Indian children will swarm in them with +mangy dogs and bedraggled ducks, the gay frescoes of its walls will peel +in ragged patches, revealing the 'dobe of their base, and the tile roofs +will be cracked and broken. But from the heights at this distance and in +the warm glow of the afternoon sun it looks like a dainty fairy village +glistening in a magic splendor against the Titanic setting of the Andes. + +--Charles Johnson Post: _Across the Highlands of the World_ +("Harper's"). + + + Come on, sir; here's the place. Stand still. How fearful +And dizzy 'tis to cast one's eyes so low! +The crows and choughs that wing the midway air +Show scarce so gross as beetles. Halfway down +Hangs one that gathers sampire, dreadful trade! +Methinks he seems no bigger than his head. +The fishermen that walk upon the beach +Appear like mice; and yond tall anchoring bark +Diminish'd to her cock; her cock, a buoy +Almost too small for sight. The murmuring surge +That on the unnumber'd idle pebble chafes, +Cannot be heard so high. I'll look no more, +Lest my brain turn and the deficient sight +Topple down headlong. + +--Shakespear: _King Lear_ + + ++123. Implied Point of View.+--Often the point of view is not specifically +stated, but the language of the description shows where the observer is +located. Often such an implied point of view gives a delicate touch to a +description that could not be obtained by direct statements. + +In which of the following selections is the point of view merely implied? + + +1. Thus pondering and dreaming, he came by the road down a gentle hill +with close woods on either hand; and so into the valley with a swift river +flowing through it; and on the river a mill. So white it stood among the +trees, and so merrily whirred the wheel as the water turned it, and so +bright blossomed the flowers in the garden, that Martimor had joy of the +sight, for it reminded him of his own country. + +--Henry Van Dyke: _The Blue Flower_. (Copyright, 1902. Charles Scribner's +Sons.) + + +2. There is an island off a certain part of the coast of Maine,--a little +rocky island, heaped and tumbled together as if Dame Nature had shaken +down a heap of stones at random from her apron, when she had finished +making the larger islands, which lie between it and the mainland. At one +end, the shoreward end, there is a tiny cove, and a bit of silver sand +beach, with a green meadow beyond it, and a single great pine; but all the +rest is rocks, rocks. At the farther end the rocks are piled high, like a +castle wall, making a brave barrier against the Atlantic waves; and on top +of this cairn rises the lighthouse, rugged and sturdy as the rocks +themselves; but painted white, and with its windows shining like great, +smooth diamonds. This is Light Island. + +--Laura E. Richards: _Captain January_. + + ++124. Changing Point of View.+--We cannot see the four sides of a house +from the same place, though we may wish to have our reader know how each +side looks. It is, therefore, necessary to change our point of view. It is +immaterial whether the successive points of view are named or merely +implied, providing the reader has due notice that we have changed from one +to the other, and that for each we describe only what can be seen from +that position. A description of a cottage that by its wording leads us to +think ourselves inside of the building and then tells about the yard would +be defective. + +Notice the changing point of view in the following:-- + + +At long distance, looking over the blue waters of the Gulf of St. Lawrence +in clear weather, you might think that you saw a lonely sea gull, +snow-white, perching motionless on a cobble of gray rock. Then, as your +boat drifted in, following the languid tide and the soft southern breeze, +you would perceive that the cobble of rock was a rugged hill with a few +bushes and stunted trees growing in the crevices, and that the gleaming +speck near the summit must be some kind of a building,--if you were on the +coast of Italy or Spain you would say a villa or a farmhouse. Then as you +floated still farther north and drew nearer to the coast, the desolate +hill would detach itself from the mainland and become a little mountain +isle, with a flock of smaller islets clustering around it as a brood of +wild ducks keep close to their mother, and with deep water, nearly two +miles wide, flowing between it and the shore; while the shining speck on +the seaward side stood clearly as a low, whitewashed dwelling with a +sturdy, round tower at one end, crowned with a big eight-sided lantern--a +solitary lighthouse. + +--Henry Van Dyke: _The Keeper of the Light_. +(Copyright, 1905. Charles Scribner's Sons.) + + ++125. Place of Point of View in Paragraph.+--The point of view may be +expressed or only implied or wholly omitted, but in any case the reader +must assume one in order to form a clear and accurate image. Beginners +will find that they can best cause their readers to form the desired +images by stating a point of view. When the point of view is stated it +must of necessity come early in the paragraph. We have already learned +that the beginning of a description should present the fundamental image. +For this reason the first sentence of a description frequently includes +both the point of view and the fundamental image. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Consider the following selections with reference to-- + (_a_) The point of view. + (_b_) The fundamental image. + (_c_) The completeness of the images which you have formed (see + Sections 26, 27). + + +1. The Lunardi [balloon], mounting through a stagnant calm in a line +almost vertical, had pierced the morning mists, and now swam emancipated +in a heaven of exquisite blue. Below us by some trick of eyesight, the +country had grown concave, its horizon curving up like the rim of a +shallow bowl--a bowl heaped, in point of fact, with sea fog, but to our +eyes with a froth delicate and dazzling as a whipped syllabub of snow. +Upon it the traveling shadow of the balloon became no shadow, but a stain; +an amethyst (you might call it) purged of all grosser properties than +color and lucency. At times thrilled by no perceptible wind, rather by the +pulse of the sun's rays, the froth shook and parted; and then behold, deep +in the crevasses vignetted and shining, an acre or two of the earth of +man's business and fret--tilled slopes of the Lothians, ships dotted on +the Firth, the capital like a hive that some child had smoked--the ear of +fancy could almost hear it buzzing. + +--Stevenson: _St. Ives_. +(Copyright, 1897. Charles Scribner's Sons.) + + +2. When Aswald and Corinne had gained the top of the Capitol, she showed +him the Seven Hills and the city, bound first by Mount Palatinus, then by +the walls of Servius Tullius, which inclose the hills, and by those of +Aurelian, which still surround the greatest part of Rome. Mount Palatinus +once contained all Rome, but soon did the imperial palace fill the space +that had sufficed for a nation. The Seven Hills are far less lofty now +than when they deserted the title of steep mountains, modern Rome being +forty feet higher than its predecessor, and the valleys which separated +them almost filled up by ruins; but what is still more strange, two heaps +of shattered vases have formed new hills, Cestario and Testacio. Thus, in +time, the very refuse of civilization levels the rock with the plain, +effacing in the moral, as in the material world, all the pleasing +inequalities of nature. + +--Madame De Staël: _Corinne: Italy_. + + +_B._--Select five descriptions from the following books and note whether +each has a point of view expressed or implied:-- + + Cooper: Last of the Mohicans. + Scott: Ivanhoe. + Scott: Lady of the Lake. + Irving: Sketch Book. + Burroughs: Wake Robin. + Van Dyke: The Blue Flower. + Howells: The Rise of Silas Lapham. + Muir: Our National Parks. + Kate Douglas Wiggin: Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm. + + ++Theme LIII.+--_Write a descriptive paragraph beginning with a point of +view and a fundamental image._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. The crossroads inn. + 2. A historical building. + 3. The shoe factory. + 4. The gristmill. + 5. The largest store in town. + 6. The union station. + + +(In your description underscore the sentence giving the point of view. Can +you improve the description by using a different point of view? Will the +reader form at once a correct general outline? Will the entire description +enable the reader to form a clear and accurate image?) + + ++126. Clear Seeing.+-Clear statement depends upon clear seeing. Not only +must we choose an advantageous point of view, but we must be able to +reproduce what can be seen from that location. We may write a description +while we are looking at the object, but it is frequently convenient to do +the writing when the object is not visible. Oral descriptions are nearly +always made without having the object at hand. When we attempt to describe +we examine not the object itself, but our mental image of it. It is +evident that at least the essential features of this mental picture must +stand out clearly and definitely, or we shall be unable to make our +description accurate. + +The habit of accurate observation is a desirable acquisition, and our +ability in this direction can be improved by effort. It is not the +province of this book to provide a series of exercises which shall +strengthen habits of accurate observation. Many of your studies, +particularly the sciences, devote much attention to training the observing +powers, and will furnish many suitable exercises. A few have been +suggested below merely to emphasize the point that every successful effort +in description must be preceded by a definite exercise in clear seeing. + + +EXERCISE + + +1. Walk rapidly past a building. Form a mental picture of it. Write down +as many of the details as you can. Now look at the building again and +determine what you have left out. + +2. Call to mind some building with which you are familiar. Write a list of +the details that you recall. Now visit the building and see what important +ones you have omitted. + +3. While looking at some scene make a note of the important details. Lay +this list away for a day. Then recall the scene. After picturing the scene +as vividly as you can, read your notes. Do they add anything to your +picture? + +4. Make a list of the things on some desk that you cannot see but with +which you are familiar; for example, the teacher's desk. At the first +opportunity notice how accurate your list is. + +5. Look for some time at the stained glass windows of a church or at the +wall paper of the room. What patterns do you notice that you did not see +at first? What colors? + +6. Make a list of the objects visible from your bedroom window. When you +go home notice what you have omitted. + +7. Practice observation contests similar to the following: Let two or more +persons pass a store window. Each shall then make a list of what the +window contains. Compare lists with one another. + + ++Theme LIV.+--_Write a description of some dwelling._ + +(Select a house that you can see on the way home. Choose a point of view +and notice carefully what can be seen from it. When you are ready to +write, form as vivid a mental picture of the house as you can. Write the +sentence that gives the fundamental image. Add such of the details as will +enable the reader to form an accurate image.) + + ++127. Selection of Essential Details.+--After deciding upon a point of +view and such general characteristics as are essential to the forming of a +correct outline of the object to be described, we must next give our +attention to the selection of the details. If our description has been +properly begun, this general outline will not be changed, but each +succeeding phrase or sentence will add to the clearness and distinctness +of the picture. Our first impression of a house may include windows, but +the mention of them later will bring them out clearly on our mental +picture much as the details appear when one is developing a negative in +photography. + +If the peculiarities of an object are such as to effect its general form, +they need to be stated in the opening sentence; but when the peculiar or +distinguishing characteristic does not affect the form, it may be +introduced later. If we say, "On the corner across the street from the +post office there is a large, two-story, red brick store," the reader can +form at once a general picture of such a store. Only those things which +give a general outline have been included. As yet nothing has been +mentioned to distinguish the store from any other similar one. If some +following sentence should be, "Though not wider, it yet presents a more +imposing appearance than its neighbors, because the door is placed at one +side, thus making room for a single wide display window instead of two +stuffy, narrow ones," a detail has been added which, though not changing +the general outline, makes the picture clearer and at the same time +emphasizes the distinguishing feature of this particular store. + + +EXERCISES + + +1. Observe your neighbor's barn. What would you select as its +characteristic feature? + +2. Take a rapid glance at some stranger whom you meet. What did you notice +most vividly? + +3. In what respect does the Methodist church in your city differ from the +other church buildings? + +4. Does your pet dog differ from others of the same breed in appearance? +In actions? + + ++Theme LV.+--_Write a descriptive paragraph, using one of the following +subjects:_-- + + 1. A mountain view. + 2. An omnibus. + 3. A fort. + 4. A lighthouse. + 5. A Dutch windmill. + 6. A bend in the river. + 7. A peculiar structure. + 8. The picture on this page. + +(Underscore the sentence that pictures the details most essential to the +description. Consider the unity of your paragraph. Section 81.) + + +[Illustration] + + ++128. Selection and Subordination of Minor Details.+--In many descriptions +the minor details are wholly omitted, and in all descriptions many that +might have been included have been omitted. A proper number of such +details adds interest and clearness to the images; too many but serve to +render the whole obscure. If properly selected and effectively presented, +minor details add much to the beauty or usefulness of a description, but +if strung together in short sentences, the effect may be both tiresome and +confusing. A mere catalogue of facts is not a good description. They must +be arranged so that those which are the more important shall have the +greater prominence, while those of less importance shall be properly +subordinated. + +Often minor details may be stated in a word or phrase inserted in the +sentence which gives the general view. Notice the italicized portion of +the following: "Opposite the church, _and partly screened by the scraggly +evergreens of a broad, unkempt lawn_, there is a large, octagonal, brick +house, with a conservatory on the left." This arrangement adds to the +general view and gives a better result than would be obtained by +describing the lawn in a separate sentence. Often a single adjective adds +some element to a description more effectively than can be done with a +whole sentence. Notice how much is added by the use of _scraggly_ and +_unkempt_. + + +EXERCISES + + +Make a careful study of the following selections with reference to the way +in which the minor details are presented. Can any of them be improved by +re-arranging them? + + +1. At night, as I look from my windows over Kassim Pasha, I never tire of +that dull, soft coloring, green and brown, in which the brown of roofs and +walls is hardly more than a shading of the green of the trees. There is +the lonely curve of the hollow, with its small, square, flat houses of +wood; and above, a sharp line of blue-black cypresses on the spine of the +hill; then the long desert plain, with its sandy road, shutting in the +horizon. Mists thicken over the valley, and wipe out its colors before the +lights begin to glimmer out of it. Below, under my windows, are the +cypresses of the Little Field of the Dead, vast, motionless, different +every night. Last night each stood clear, tall, apart; to-night they +huddle together in the mist, and seem to shudder. The sunset was brief, +and the water has grown dull, like slate. Stamboul fades to a level mass +of smoky purple, out of which a few minarets rise black against a gray sky +with bands of orange fire. Last night, after a golden sunset, a fog of +rusty iron came down, and hung poised over the jagged level of the hill. +The whole mass of Stamboul was like black smoke; the water dim gray, a +little flushed, and then like pure light, lucid, transparent, every ship +and every boat sharply outlined in black on its surface; the boats seemed +to crawl like flies on a lighted pane. + +--Arthur Symons: _Constantinople: An Impression_ ("Harper's"). + + +2. The boy was advancing up the road, carrying a half-filled pail of milk. +He was a child of perhaps ten years, exceedingly frail and thin, with a +drawn, waxen face, and sick, colorless lips and ears. On his head he wore +a thick plush cap, and coarse, heavy shoes upon his feet. A faded coat, +too long in the arms, drooped from his shoulders, and long, loose overalls +of gray jeans broke and wrinkled about his slender ankles. + +--George Kibbe Turner: _Across the State_ ("McClure's"). + + +3. They met few people abroad, even on passing from the retired +neighborhood of the House of the Seven Gables into what was ordinarily the +more thronged and busier portion of the town. Glistening sidewalks, with +little pools of rain, here and there, along their unequal surface; +umbrellas displayed ostentatiously in the shop windows, as if the life of +trade had concentered itself in that one article; wet leaves of the +horse-chestnut or elm trees, torn off untimely by the blast, and scattered +along the public way; an unsightly accumulation of mud in the middle of +the street, which perversely grew the more unclean for its long and +laborious washing;--these were the more definable points of a very somber +picture. In the way of movement, and human life, there was the hasty +rattle of a cab or coach, its driver protected by a water-proof cap over +his head and shoulders; the forlorn figure of an old man, who seemed to +have crept out of some subterranean sewer, and was stooping along the +kennel, and poking the wet rubbish with a stick, in quest of rusty nails; +a merchant or two, at the door of the post office, together with an +editor, and a miscellaneous politician, awaiting a dilatory mail; a few +visages of retired sea captains at the window of an insurance office, +looking out vacantly at the vacant street, blaspheming at the weather, and +fretting at the dearth as well of public news as local gossip. What a +treasure trove to these venerable quidnuncs, could they have guessed the +secret which Hepzibah and Clifford were carrying along with them! + +--Hawthorne: _The House of the Seven Gables_. + + ++Theme LVI.+--_Write a description of one of the following:_-- + + 1. A steamboat. + 2. An orchard. + 3. A colonial mansion. + 4. A wharf. + 5. A stone quarry. + 6. A shop. + + +(Consider what you have written with reference to the point of view, +fundamental image, and essential details. After these have been arranged +to suit you, notice the way in which the minor details have been +introduced. Have you given undue prominence to any? Can a single adjective +or phrase be substituted for a whole sentence? Think of the image which +your words will produce in the mind of the reader. Consider your theme +with reference to unity. Section 81.) + + ++129. Arrangement of Details.+--The quality of a description depends as +much upon the arrangement of the material as upon the selection. Under +paragraph development we have discussed the necessity of arranging the +details with reference to their natural position in space (see Sections 47 +and 86). Such an arrangement is the most desirable one and should be +departed from only with good reason. Such departures may, however, be +made, as shown in the following selection:-- + + +A pretty picture the lad made as he lay there dreaming over his earthly +possessions--a pretty picture in the shade of the great elm, that sultry +morning of August, three quarters of a century ago. The presence of the +crutch showed there was something sad about it; and so there was; for if +you had glanced at the little bare brown foot, set toes upward on the +curbstone, you would have discovered that the fellow to it was missing-- +cut off about two inches above the ankle. And if this had caused you to +throw a look of sympathy at his face, something yet sadder must long +have held your attention. Set jauntily on the back of his head was a +weather-beaten dark blue cloth cap, the patent leather frontlet of which +was gone; and beneath the ragged edge of this there fell down over his +forehead and temples and ears a tangled mass of soft yellow hair, slightly +curling. His eyes were large and of a blue to match the depths of a calm +sky above the treetops: the long lashes which curtained them were brown; +his lips were red, his nose delicate and fine, and his cheek tanned to the +color of ripe peaches. It was a singularly winning face, intelligent, +frank, not describable. On it now rested a smile, half joyous, half sad, +as though his mind was full of bright hopes, the realization of which was +far away. From the neck fell the wide collar of a white cotton shirt, +clean but frayed at the elbows, and open and buttonless down to his bosom. +Over this he wore an old-fashioned satin waistcoat of a man, also frayed +and buttonless. His dress was completed by a pair of baggy tow breeches, +held up by a single tow suspender fastened to big brown horn buttons. + +--James Lane Allen: _Flute and Violin_. +(Copyright, 1892, Harper and Brothers.) + + +The details are not stated with reference to their natural position in +space, but they are given in the probable order of observation. If we were +to look upon such a boy, the crutch would attract our attention and would +lead us to look at once for the reason why a crutch was needed. The writer +skillfully uses the sympathy thus aroused as a means of transition to the +face. In the remainder of the description the natural position in space is +closely followed. + + ++Theme LVII.+-_Write a description of one of the following:_-- + + 1. The bayou. + 2. Looking down the mountain. + 3. Looking up the mountain. + 4. The floorwalker. + 5. An old-fashioned rig. + 6. A house said to be haunted. + 7. The deacon. + +(Consider the arrangement of details with reference to their position in +space. Consider your paragraphs with reference to coherence and emphasis. +Sections 82 and 83.) + + ++130. Effectiveness in Description.+--Every part of a description should +aid in rendering it effective, and this effectiveness is as much +the purpose of the principles previously discussed as it is of those +which follow. This paragraph is inserted here to separate more or less +definitely those things which can be done under direction from those which +cannot be determined by rule. Up to this point emphasis has been laid upon +the clear presentation of a mental image as the object of description. +But the clear presentation of mental images is not all there is to +description. A point of view, a fundamental image, a judicious selection +of essential and minor details and the relating of them with reference to +their natural position in space, may set forth an image clearly and yet +fail to be satisfactory as a description. + +For the practical affairs of life it may be sufficient to limit ourselves +to clear images set forth barely and sparely, but there is a pleasure +and a profit in using the subtler arts of language, in placing a word +here or a phrase there that shall give a touch of beauty or a flash of +suggestiveness and so save our descriptions from the commonplace. It is to +these less easily demonstrated methods of giving strength and beauty that +we wish now to turn our attention. + + ++131. Word Selection.+--The effectiveness of our description will depend +largely upon our right choice of words. If our range of vocabulary is +limited, the possibility of effective description is correspondingly +limited. Only when our working vocabulary contains many words may we hope +to choose with ease the one most suitable for the effective expression of +the idea we wish to convey. To prepare a list of words that may apply and +then attempt to write a theme that shall make use of them is a mechanical +process of little value. The idea we wish to express should call up the +word that exactly expresses it. If our ideas are not clear or our +vocabulary is limited, we may be satisfied with the trite and commonplace; +but if our experience has been broad or our reading extended, we may have +at command the word which, because it is just the right one, gives +individuality and force to our phrasing. Every one is familiar with dogs, +and has in his vocabulary many words which he applies to them, but a +reading of one or two good dog stories, such as _Bob, Son of Battle_, or +_The Call of the Wild_, will show how wide is the range of such words and +how much the description is enhanced by their careful use. + + +EXERCISE + + +Consider the following selections with reference to the choice of words +which add to the effectiveness of the descriptions:-- + +1. She was a little, brown, thin, almost skinny woman with big, rolling, +violet-blue eyes and the sweetest manners in the world. + +2. The sounds and the straits and the sea with its plump, sleepy islands +lay north and east and south. + +3. The mists of the Cuchullins are not fat, dull, and still, like lowland +and inland mists, but haggard, and streaming from the black peaks, and +full of gusty lines. We saw them first from the top of Beimna-Caillach, a +red, round-headed mountain hard by Bradford, in the isle of Skye. + +Shortly after noon the rain came up from the sea and drew long delicate +gray lines against the cliffs. It came up licking and lisping over the +surface of Cornisk, and drove us to the lee of rocks and the shelter of +our ponchos, to watch the mists drifting, to listen to the swell and lull +of the wind and the patter of the cold rain. There were glimpses now and +then of the inner Cuchullins, a fragment of ragged sky line, the sudden +jab of a black pinnacle through the mist, the open mouth of a gorge +steaming with mist. + +We climbed the great ridge, at length, of rock and wet heath that +separates Cornisk from Glen Sligachan, slowly through the fitful rain and +driving cloud, and saw Sgurr-nan-Gillian, sharp, black, and pitiless, the +northernmost peak and sentinel of the Cuchullins. The yellow trail could +be seen twisting along the flat, empty glen. Seven miles away was a white +spot, the Sligachan Hotel. + +I think it must be the dreariest glen in Scotland. The trail twists in a +futile manner, and, after all, is mainly bog holes and rolling rocks. The +Red Hills are on the right, rusty, reddish, of the color of dried blood, +and gashed with sliding bowlders. Their heads seem beaten down, a Helot +population, and the Cuchullins stand back like an army of iron conquerors. +The Red Hills will be a vanished race one day, and the Cuchullins remain. + +Arthur Colton: _The Mists o' Skye_ ("Harper's"). + + ++132. Additional Aids to Effectiveness.+--Comparison and figures of speech +not only aid in making our picture clear and vivid, but they may add +a spice and flavor to our language, which counts for much in the +effectiveness and beauty of our description. Notice the following +descriptions:-- + + +He was a mongoose, rather like a little cat in his fur and his tail, but +quite like a weasel in his head and his habits. His eyes and the end of +his restless nose were pink; he could scratch himself anywhere he pleased, +with any leg, front or back, that he chose to use; he could fluff up his +tail till it looked like a bottle brush, and his war cry as he scuttled +through the long grass was Rikk-tikk-tikki-tikki-tikk. + +--Kipling: _Jungle Book_. + + +Ichabod was a suitable figure for such a steed. He rode with short +stirrups, which brought his knees nearly up to the pommel of his saddle; +his sharp elbows stuck out like grasshoppers' legs; he carried his whip +perpendicularly in his hand, like a scepter, and, as his horse jogged on, +the motion of his arms was not unlike the flapping of a pair of wings. A +small wool hat rested on the top of his nose, for so his scanty strip of +forehead might be called; and the skirts of his black coat fluttered out +almost to the horse's tail. Such was the appearance of Ichabod and his +steed, as they shambled out of the gate of Hans Van Ripper, and it was +altogether such an apparition as is seldom to be met with in broad +daylight. + +--Irving: _Legend of Sleepy Hollow_. + + ++Theme LVIII.+--_Write a description of one of the following:_-- + + 1. My cat. + 2. The pony at the farm. + 3. The glen. + 4. The prairie. + 5. The milldam. + 6. The motorman. + 7. The picture on this page. + + +[Illustration] + + +(Consider the effectiveness of your description. Can you improve your +choice of words? Have you used comparisons or figures, and if so, do they +improve your description? Consider your theme with reference to euphony. +Section 16.) + + ++133. Classes of Objects Frequently Described.+--There is no limit to the +things that we may wish to describe, but there are certain general classes +of objects that are described more frequently than others. We have greater +occasion to describe men or places than we have to describe pictures or +trees. A person may be an accurate observer having a large vocabulary +applicable to one class of objects, and thus be able to describe objects +of that class clearly and effectively; though at the same time, on account +of limited experience and small vocabulary, he cannot well describe +objects belonging to some other class. The ability to observe accurately +the classes of objects named below, and to appreciate descriptions of such +objects when made by others, is a desirable acquisition. Every effort +should be made to master as many as possible of the words applicable to +each class of objects. A slight investigation will show how great is the +number of such words with which we are unfamiliar. + + +1. _Descriptions of buildings or portions of buildings._ + + +In most buildings the basement story is heaviest, and each succeeding +story increases in lightness; in the Ducal palace this is reversed, making +it unique amongst buildings. The outer walls rest upon the pillars of open +colonnades, which have a more stumpy appearance than was intended, owing +to the raising of the pavement in the piazza. They had, however, no base, +but were supported by a continuous stylobate. The chief decorations of the +palace were employed upon the capitals of these thirty-six pillars, and it +was felt that the peculiar prominence and importance given to its angles +rendered it necessary that they should be enriched and softened by +sculpture, which is interesting and often most beautiful. The throned +figure of Venice above bears a scroll inscribed: _Fortis, justa, trono +furias, mare sub pede, pono_. (Strong and just, I put the furies beneath +my throne, and the sea beneath my foot.) One of the corners of the palace +joined the irregular buildings connected with St. Mark's, and is not +generally seen. There remained, therefore, only three angles to be +decorated. The first main sculpture may be called the "Fig-tree angle," +and its subject is the "Fall of Man." The second is "the Vine angle," and +represents the "Drunkenness of Noah." The third sculpture is "the Judgment +angle," and portrays the "Judgment of Solomon." + +--Hare: _Venice_. + + ++Theme LIX.+--_Write a description of the exterior of some building._ + + ++Theme LX.+--_Write a description of some room._ + + ++Theme LXI.+--_Write a description of some portion of a building, such as +an entrance, spire, window, or stairway._ + +(Consider each description with reference to-- + _a._ Point of view. + _b._ Fundamental image. + _c._ Selection of essential details. + _d._ Selection and subordination of minor details. + _e._ Arrangement of details with reference to their natural positions in + space. + _f._ Effective choice of words and comparisons.) + + +2. _Natural features: valleys, rivers, mountains, etc._ + + +Beyond the great prairies and in the shadow of the Rockies lie +the Foothills. For nine hundred miles the prairies spread themselves +out in vast level reaches, and then begin to climb over softly +rounded mounds that ever grow higher and sharper, till here and +there, they break into jagged points and at last rest upon the great +bases of the mighty mountains. These rounded hills that join the +prairies to the mountains form the Foothill Country. They extend +for about a hundred miles only, but no other hundred miles of the +great West are so full of interest and romance. The natural features +of the country combine the beauties of prairie and of mountain +scenery. There are valleys so wide that the farther side melts into +the horizon, and uplands so vast as to suggest the unbroken prairie. +Nearer the mountains the valleys dip deep and ever deeper till they +narrow into canyons through which mountain torrents pour their +blue-gray waters from glaciers that lie glistening between the white +peaks far away. + +--Connor: _The Sky Pilot_. + + +Long lines of cliff breaking have left a chasm; +And in the chasm are foam and yellow sands; +Beyond, red roofs about a narrow wharf +In cluster; then a molder'd church; and higher +A long street climbs to one tall tower'd mill; +And high in heaven behind it a gray down +With Danish barrows, and a hazelwood, +By autumn nutters haunted, flourishes +Green in a cuplike hollow of the down. + +--Tennyson: _Enoch Arden_. + + ++Theme LXII.+--_Write a description of some valley, mountain, field, +woods, or prairie._ + + ++Theme LXIII.+--_Write a description of some stream, pond, lake, dam, or +waterfall._ + +(Consider especially your choice of words.) + + +3. _Sounds or the use of sounds._ + + +And the noise of Niagara? Alarming things have been said about it, but +they are not true. It is a great and mighty noise, but it is not, as +Hennepin thought, an "outrageous noise." It is not a roar. It does not +drown the voice or stun the ear. Even at the actual foot of the falls it +is not oppressive. It is much less rough than the sound of heavy surf-- +steadier, more homogeneous, less metallic, very deep and strong, yet +mellow and soft; soft, I mean, in its quality. As to the noise of the +rapids, there is none more musical. It is neither rumbling nor sharp. It +is clear, plangent, silvery. It is so like the voice of a steep brook-- +much magnified, but not made coarser or more harsh--that, after we have +known it, each liquid call from a forest hillside will seem, like the odor +of grapevines, a greeting from Niagara. It is an inspiriting, an +exhilarating sound, like freshness, coolness, vitality itself made +audible. And yet it is a lulling sound. When we have looked out upon the +American rapids for many days, it is hard to remember contented life amid +motionless surroundings; and so, when we have slept beside them for many +nights, it is hard to think of happy sleep in an empty silence. + +--Mrs. Van Rensselaer: _Niagara_ ("Century"). + + +Yell'd on the view the opening pack; +Rock, glen, and cavern, paid them back; +To many a mingled sound at once +The awaken'd mountain gave response. +A hundred dogs bay'd deep and strong, +Clatter'd a hundred steeds along, +Their peal the merry horns rung out, +A hundred voices join'd the shout; +With hark, and whoop, and wild halloo, +No rest Benvoirlich's echoes knew. +Far from the tumult fled the roe, +Close in her covert cower'd the doe; +The falcon, from her cairn on high, +Cast on the rout a wondering eye, +Till far beyond her piercing ken +The hurricane had swept the glen. +Faint, and more faint, its failing din +Return'd from cavern, cliff, and linn, +And silence settled, wide and still, +On the lone wood and mighty hill. + +--SCOTT: _Lady of the Lake_. + + ++Theme LXIV.+--_Describe some sound or combination of sounds, or write a +description introducing sounds._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. Alone in the house. + 2. In the woods at night. + 3. Beside the brook. + 4. In the factory. + 5. A day at the beach. + 6. Before the Fourth. + 7. On the seashore. + + +(Notice especially the words that indicate sound.) + + +4. _Color or the use of color._ + + +A gray day! soft gray sky, like the breast of a dove; sheeny gray sea with +gleams of steel running across; trailing skirts of mist shutting off the +mainland, leaving Light Island alone with the ocean; the white tower +gleaming spectral among the folding mists; the dark pine tree pointing a +somber finger to heaven; the wet, black rocks, from which the tide had +gone down, huddling together in fantastic groups as if to hide their +nakedness. + +--Laura E. Richards: _Captain January_. + + +The large branch of the Po we crossed came down from the mountains which +we were approaching. As we reached the post road again they were glowing +in the last rays of the sun, and the evening vapors that settled over the +plain concealed the distant Alps, although the snowy top of the Jungfrau +and her companions the Wetterhorn and Schreckhorn rose above it like the +hills of another world. A castle or church of brilliant white marble +glittered on the summit of one of the mountains near us, and, as the sun +went down without a cloud, the distant summits changed in hue to a glowing +purple, mounting almost to crimson, which afterwards darkened into a deep +violet. The western half of the sky was of a pale orange and the eastern a +dark red, which blended together in the blue of the zenith, that deepened +as twilight came on. + +--Taylor: _Views Afoot_. + + ++Theme LXV.+--_Write a description in which the color element enters +largely._ + +5. _Animals, birds, fishes, etc._ + + +The Tailless Tyke had now grown into an immense dog, heavy of muscle and +huge of bone. A great bull head; undershot jaw, square and lengthy and +terrible; vicious yellow gleaming eyes; cropped ears; and an expression +incomparably savage. His coat was a tawny lionlike yellow, short, harsh, +dense; and his back running up from shoulder to loins ended abruptly in a +knoblike tail. He looked like the devil of a dog's hell, and his +reputation was as bad as his looks. He never attacked unprovoked; but a +challenge was never ignored and he was greedy of insults. + +--Alfred Ollivant: _Bob, Son of Battle_. +(Copyright, Doubleday and McClure.) + + +Read the description of the kingbird (page 224), and of the mongoose (page +242). + + ++Theme LXVI.+--_Write a description of some animal, bird, or fish._ + +(What questions should you ask yourself about each description you write?) + +6. _Trees and plants._ + + +How shall kinnikinnick be told to them who know it not? To a New Englander +it might be said that a whortleberry bush changed its mind one day and +decided to be a vine, with leaves as glossy as laurel, bells pink-striped +and sweet like the arbutus, and berries in clusters and of scarlet instead +of black. The Indians call it kinnikinnick, and smoke it in their pipes. +White men call it bearberry, I believe; and there is a Latin name for it, +no doubt, in the books. But kinnikinnick is the best,--dainty, sturdy, +indefatigable kinnikinnick, green and glossy all the year round, lovely at +Christmas and lovely among flowers at midsummer, as content and thrifty on +bare, rocky hillsides as in grassy nooks, growing in long, trailing +wreaths, five feet long, or in tangled mats, five feet across, as the rock +or the valley may need, and living bravely many weeks without water, to +make a house beautiful. I doubt if there be in the world a vine I should +hold so precious, indoors and out. + +--Helen Hunt Jackson: _Bits of Travel at Home_. + + +A mango tree is beautiful and attractive. It grows as large as the oak, +and has a rich and glossy foliage. The fruit is shaped something like a +short, thick cucumber, and is as large as a large pear. It has a thick, +tough skin, and a delicious, juicy pulp. When ripe it is a golden color. A +tree often bears a hundred bushels of mangoes. + +--Marian M. George. + + ++Theme LXVII.+--_Write a description of some tree that you have seen._ + +(Consider your theme with reference to the general principles of +composition treated in Chapter V.) + + ++134. Description of Persons: Character Sketches.+--The general principles +of description are applicable to the description of a person, and should +be followed for the purpose of presenting a clear and vivid image. Our +interest, however, so naturally runs beyond the appearance and is +concerned with the character, that most descriptions of persons become +character sketches. Even the commonest terms of description, such as _keen +gray eyes, square chin, rugged countenance_, are interpreted as showing +character, and depart to some degree from pure description. Often the sole +purpose of description is to show character, and only those details are +introduced which accomplish this purpose. + +In life we judge a man's character by his actions, and so in the character +sketch we are led to infer his character from what he does. The character +indicated by his appearance is corroborated by a statement of his actions +and especially by showing how he acts. (See Section 10.) Sometimes no +descriptive matter is given, but we are left to make our own picture to +fit the character indicated by the actions. In many books the descriptive +elements which would enable us to form an image of some person are +distributed over several pages, each being introduced where it supplements +and emphasizes the character shown by the actions. + +Notice the following examples:-- + + +The Rev. Daniel True stood beside the holy table. For such a scene, +perhaps for any scene, he was a memorable figure. He had the dignity of +early middle life, but none of its signs of advancing age. His hair was +quite black, and curled on his temples boyishly; his mustache, not without +a worldly cut, was as dark as his hair, and concealed a mouth so clean and +fine that it was an ethical mistake to cover it. He had sturdy shoulders, +although not quite straight; they had the scholar's stoop; his hands were +thin, with long fingers; his gestures were sparing and significant; his +expression was so sincere that its evident devoutness commanded respect; +so did his voice, which was authoritative enough to be a little priestly +and lacking somewhat in elocutionary finish as the voices of ministers are +apt to be, but genuine, musical, persuasive, at moments vibrant with +oratorical power. He had a warm eye and a lovable smile. He was every inch +a minister, but he was every nerve a man. + +--Elizabeth Stuart Phelps: _A Sacrament_ ("Harper's"). + + +She was not more than fifteen. Her form, voice, and manner belonged to the +period of transition from girlhood. Her face was perfectly oval, her +complexion more pale than fair. The nose was faultless; the lips, slightly +parted, were full and ripe, giving to the lines of the mouth warmth, +tenderness, and trust; the eyes were blue and large, and shaded by +drooping lids and long lashes; and, in harmony with all, a flood of golden +hair, in the style permitted to Jewish brides, fell unconfined down her +back to the pillion on which she sat. The throat and neck had the downy +softness sometimes seen which leaves the artist in doubt whether it is an +effect of contour or color. To these charms of feature and person were +added others more--an indefinable air of purity which only the soul can +impart, and of abstraction natural to such as think much of things +impalpable. Often, with trembling lips, she raised her eyes to heaven, +itself not more deeply blue; often she crossed her hands upon her breast, +as in adoration and prayer; often she raised her head like one listening +eagerly for a calling voice. Now and then midst his slow utterance, Joseph +turned to look at her, and, catching the expression kindling her face as +with light, forgot his theme, and with bowed head, wondering, plodded on. + +--Lew Wallace: _Ben-Hur_. +(Copyright, 1880, Harper and Bros.) + + +When Washington was elected general of the army he was forty-three years +of age. In stature he a little exceeded six feet; his limbs were sinewy +and well proportioned; his chest broad, his figure stately, blending +dignity of presence with ease of manner. His robust constitution had been +tried and invigorated by his early life in the wilderness, his habit of +occupation out of doors, and his rigid temperance, so that few equalled +him in strength of arm or power of endurance. His complexion was florid, +his hair dark brown, his head in shape perfectly round. His broad nostrils +seemed formed to give expression and escape to scornful anger. His dark +blue eyes, which were deeply set, had an expression of resignation and an +earnestness that was almost sad. + +--Bancroft. + + +There were many Englishmen of great distinction there, and Tennyson was +the most conspicuous among the guests. Tennyson's appearance was very +striking and his figure might have been taken as a living illustration of +romantic poetry. He was tall and stately, wore a great mass of thick, long +hair--long hair was then still worn even by men who did not affect +originality; his frame was slightly stooping, his shoulders were bent as +if with the weight of thought; there was something entirely out of the +common and very commanding in his whole presence, and a stranger meeting +him in whatever crowd would probably have assumed at once that he must be +a literary king. + +--Justin McCarthy: _Literary Portraits from the Sixties_ ("Harper's"). + + +The door opened and there appeared to these two a visitor. He was a young +man, and tall,--so tall that, even with his hat off, his head barely +cleared the ceiling of the low-studded room. He was slim and fair-haired +and round-shouldered. He had the pink and white complexion of a girl; +soft, fair hair; dark, serious eyes; the high, white brow of a thinker; +the nose of an aristocrat; and he was in clerical garb. + +--Sewall Ford: _The Renunciation of Petruo_ ("Harper's"). + + +EXERCISE + + +Notice the pictures on page 253. Can you determine from the picture +anything about the character of the person? Just what feature in each +helps you in this? + + ++Theme LXVIII.+--_Describe some person known to most of the class._ + +(Do not name the person, but combine description and character sketching +so that the class may be able to tell whom you mean.) + + +[Illustrations] + + ++135. Impression of a Description.+--Often the effectiveness of a +description is determined more by the impression which it makes upon our +feelings than by the vividness of the picture which it presents. Read the +following description of the Battery in New York by Howells. Notice how +the details which have been selected emphasize the "impression of +forlornness." The sickly trees, the decrepit shade, the mangy grass plots, +hungry-eyed and hollow children, the jaded women, silent and hopeless, the +shameless houses, the hard-looking men, unite to give the one impression. +Even the fresh blue water of the bay, which laughs and dances beyond, by +its very contrast gives greater emphasis to the melancholy and forlorn +appearance of the Battery. + + +All places that fashion has once loved and abandoned are very melancholy; +but of all such places, I think the Battery is the most forlorn. Are there +some sickly locust trees there that cast a tremulous and decrepit shade +upon the mangy grass plots? I believe so, but I do not make sure; I am +certain only of the mangy grass plots, or rather the spaces between the +paths, thinly overgrown with some kind of refuse and opprobrious weed, a +stunted and pauper vegetation proper solely to the New York Battery. At +that hour of the summer morning when our friends, with the aimlessness of +strangers who are waiting to do something else, saw the ancient promenade, +a few scant and hungry-eyed little boys and girls were wandering over this +weedy growth, not playing, but moving listlessly to and fro, fantastic in +the wild inaptness of their costumes. One of these little creatures wore, +with an odd, involuntary jauntiness, the cast-off best dress of some +happier child, a gay little garment cut low in the neck and short in the +sleeves, which gave her the grotesque effect of having been at a party the +night before. Presently came two jaded women, a mother and a grandmother, +that appeared, when they crawled out of their beds, to have put on only so +much clothing as the law compelled. They abandoned themselves upon the +green stuff, whatever it was, and, with their lean hands clasped outside +their knees, sat and stared, silent and hopeless, at the eastern sky, at +the heart of the terrible furnace, into which in those days the world +seemed cast to be burnt up, while the child which the younger woman had +brought with her feebly wailed unheeded at her side. On one side of the +women were the shameless houses out of which they might have crept, and +which somehow suggested riotous maritime dissipation; on the other side +were those houses in which had once dwelt rich and famous folk, but which +were now dropping down to the boarding-house scale through various +unhomelike occupations to final dishonor and despair. Down nearer the +water, and not far from the castle that was once a playhouse and is now +the depot of emigration, stood certain express wagons, and about these +lounged a few hard-looking men. Beyond laughed and danced the fresh blue +water of the bay, dotted with sails and smokestacks. + +--Howells: _Their Wedding Journey_. + + +The successive images of the preceding selection are clear enough, but +they are bound together by a common purpose, which is the creation of a +single impression. Often, however, a description may present, not a single +impression, but a series of such impressions, to which a unity is given by +the fact that they are all connected with one event, or occur at the same +time, or in the same place. Such a series of impressions is illustrated in +the following:-- + + +It is a phenomenon whose commonness alone prevents it from being most +impressive, that departure of the night-express. The two hundred miles it +is to travel stretch before it, traced by those slender clews, to lose +which is ruin, and about which hang so many dangers. The drawbridges that +gape upon the way, the trains that stand smoking and steaming on the +track, the rail that has borne the wear so long that it must soon snap +under it, the deep cut where the overhanging mass of rocks trembles to its +fall, the obstruction that a pitiless malice may have placed in your path, +you think of these after the journey is done, but they seldom haunt +your fancy while it lasts. The knowledge of your helplessness in any +circumstances is so perfect that it begets a sense of irresponsibility, +almost of security; and as you drowse upon the pallet of the sleeping car +and feel yourself hurled forward through the obscurity, you are almost +thankful that you can do nothing, for it is upon this condition only that +you can endure it; and some such condition as this, I suppose, accounts +for many heroic acts in the world. To the fantastic mood which possesses +you equally, sleeping or waking, the stoppages of the train have a weird +character, and Worcester, Springfield, New Haven, and Stamford are rather +points in dreamland than well-known towns of New England. As the train +stops you drowse if you have been waking, and wake if you have been in a +doze; but in any case you are aware of the locomotive hissing and coughing +beyond the station, of flaring gas-jets, of clattering feet of passengers +getting on and off; then of some one, conductor or station master, walking +the whole length of the train; and then you are aware of an insane +satisfaction in renewed flight through the darkness. You think hazily of +the folk in their beds in the town left behind, who stir uneasily at the +sound of your train's departing whistle; and so all is blank vigil or a +blank slumber. + +--Howells: _Their Wedding Journey_. + + ++136. Impression as the Purpose of Description.+--The impression that it +gives may become the central purpose of a description. It is evident in +Howells's description of the Battery that the purpose was the creating of +an impression of forlornness, and that the author kept this purpose in +mind when choosing the details. If his aim had been to enable us to form a +clear picture of the Battery in its physical outlines, he would have +chosen different details and would have presented them in different +language. + +The same scene or object may present a different appearance to two +different observers because each may discover a different set of +likenesses or resemblances and so select different essential +characteristics. An artist will paint a picture that centers around some +one feature. Each added detail seems but to set forth and increase the +effect of this central element of the picture. Similarly the observer will +in his description lay emphasis on the central point and will select +details that bear a helpful relation to it. If he wishes to present the +picture of a valley, he will lay emphasis on its fundamental image and +essential details with reference to its appearance; but if his desire is +to present the impression of fertility or of rural simplicity and quiet, +the elements that are important for the producing of the desired +impression may not be at all the ones essential to his former picture. + +When the presentation of a picture is our central purpose, we attempt to +present it as it appears to us, and select details that will enable others +to form the desired image; but if we desire to set forth how a scene +affected us, we must choose details that will make our reader feel as we +felt. + + ++137. Necessity of Observing our Impressions.+--In order to write a +description which shall give our impression of an object or scene, we must +know definitely what that impression is. Just as clear seeing is necessary +for the reproduction of definite images, so is the clear perception of our +impressions necessary to their reproduction. Furthermore, we may know what +our impressions are without being able to select those elements in a scene +that have produced them; but in order to write a description that shall +affect others as the scene itself affected us, we must know what these +elements are and emphasize them in the description. Thus it becomes +necessary to pay attention both to our impression and to the selection of +those details which create that impression. One glance at a room may cause +us to believe that the housekeeper is untidy. If we wish to convey this +impression to our reader, our description must include the details that +give that impression of untidiness to us. + +Nor are we limited to sight alone, for our impressions may be made +stronger by the aid of the other senses. Sound and smell and taste may +supplement the sight, and though they add little to the clearness, yet +they add much to the impression which we get. + + +Within the cabin, through which Basil and Isabel now slowly moved, there +were numbers of people lounging about on the sofas, in various attitudes +of talk or vacancy; and at the tables there were others reading _Lothair_, +a new book in the remote epoch of which I write, and a very fashionable +book indeed. There was in the air that odor of paint and carpet which +prevails on steamboats; the glass drops of the chandeliers ticked softly +against each other, as the vessel shook with her respiration, like a +comfortable sleeper, and imparted a delicious feeling of coziness and +security to our travelers. + +--Howells: _Their Wedding Journey_. + + ++138. Impression Limited to Experience.+--If we attempt to write a +description for the sake of giving an impression, it must be an impression +that we have ourselves experienced. If the sight of the gorge of Niagara +has filled us with a feeling of sublimity and awe, we shall find it hard +to write a humorous account of it. If we see the humorous elements of a +situation, we cannot easily make our description give the impression of +grief. Neither can we successfully imitate the impressions of others. No +two persons are affected in the same way by the same thing. Our age, our +temperament, our emotional attitude, and all of our past experiences +affect our way of looking at things and modify the impressions which we +get. The successful presentation of our impression will depend largely +upon the definite perception of our feelings. + + ++139. Impression Affected by Mood.+--Not only is our impression affected +by details in the scene observed, but it is even more largely influenced +by our mood at the time of the observation. The same landscape may cheer +at one time and dishearten at another. To-day we see the ridiculous; +to-morrow, the sad and sorrowful. A thousand things may change our mood, +but under certain general conditions, certain impressions are likely to +arise. There is something in the air of spring, or the heat of summer, +which affects us all. The weather, too, has its effect. Sunshine and +shadow find answering attitudes in our feelings, and the skillful writer +takes advantage of these emotional tendencies. + + +Not far we fared-- +The river left behind--when, looking back, +I saw the mountain in the searching light +Of the low sun. Surcharged with youthful pride +In my adventure, I can ne'er forget +The disappointment and chagrin which fell +Upon me; for a change had passed. The steep +Which in the morning sprang to kiss the sun, +Had left the scene; and in its place I saw +A shrunken pile, whose paths my steps had climbed, +Whose proudest height my humble feet had trod. +Its grand impossibilities and all +Its store of marvels and of mysteries +Were flown away, and would not be recalled. + +--Holland: _Katrina_. + + ++140. Union of Image and Impression.+--Because we have discussed image +making and impression giving separately, it must not be judged that they +necessarily occur separately. They are in fact always united. No image, +however clear, can fail to make some impression, and no description, +however strong the impression it gives, fails to create some image. It is +rather the placing of the emphasis that counts. Some descriptions have for +their purpose the giving of an image, and the impression is of little +moment. Other descriptions aim at producing impressions, and the images +are of less importance. In the description of the Battery (page 254) the +images are clear enough, but they are subordinate to the impression. This +subordination may even go farther. Often the impression is made prominent +and we are led by suggestion to form images which fit it, while in reality +few definite images have been set. Notice in the following selection that +the impression of desolation is given without attempting to picture +exactly what was seen:-- + + +The country at the foot of Vesuvius is the most fertile and best +cultivated of the kingdom, most favored by Heaven in all Europe. The +celebrated _Lacrymæ Christi_ vine flourishes beside land totally +devastated by lava, as if nature here made a last effort, and resolved to +perish in her richest array. As you ascend, you turn to gaze on Naples, +and on the fair laud around it--the sea sparkles in the sun as if strewn +with jewels; but all the splendors of creation are extinguished by +degrees, as you enter the region of ashes and smoke, that announces your +approach to the volcano. The iron waves of other years have traced their +large black furrows in the soil. At a certain height birds are no longer +seen; further on, plants become very scarce; then even insects find no +nourishment. At last all life disappears. You enter the realm of death and +the slain earth's dust alone sleeps beneath your unassured feet. + +--Madame De Staël: _Corinne: Italy_. + + +EXERCISES + + +Discuss the following selections with reference to the impression given by +each:-- + + +The third of the flower vines is Wood-Magic. It bears neither flowers nor +fruit. Its leaves are hardly to be distinguished from the leaves of the +other vines. Perhaps they are a little rounder than the Snowberry's, a +little more pointed than the Partridge-berry's; sometimes you might +mistake them for the one, sometimes for the other. No marks of warning +have been written upon them. If you find them, it is your fortune; if you +taste them, it is your fate. For as you browse your way through the +forest, nipping here and there a rosy leaf of young wintergreen, a +fragrant emerald tip of balsam fir, a twig of spicy birch, if by chance +you pluck the leaves of Wood-Magic and eat them, you will not know what +you have done, but the enchantment of the treeland will enter your heart +and the charm of the wildwood will flow through your veins. You will never +get away from it. The sighing of the wind through the pine trees and the +laughter of the stream in its rapids will sound through all your dreams. +On beds of silken softness you will long for the sleep-song of whispering +leaves above your head, and the smell of a couch of balsam boughs. At +tables spread with dainty fare you will be hungry for the joy of the hunt, +and for the angler's sylvan feast. In proud cities you will weary for the +sight of a mountain trail; in great cathedrals you will think of the long, +arching aisles of the woodland: and in the noisy solitude of crowded +streets you will hone after the friendly forest. + +--Henry Van Dyke: _The Blue Flower_. +(Copyright, 1902, Charles Scribner's Sons.) + + +Running your eye across the map of the State, you see two slowly +converging lines of railroad writhing out between the hills to the +sea-coast. Three other lines come down from north to south by the river +valleys and the jagged shore. Along these, huddled in the corners of the +hills and the sea line, lie the cities and the larger towns. A great +majority of mankind, swarming in these little spots, or scuttling to and +fro along the valleys on those slender lines, fondly dream they are +acquainted with the land in which they live. But beyond and around all +this rises the wide, bare face of the country, which they will never know-- +the great patches of second-growth woods, the mountain pastures sown +thick with stones, the barren acres of the hillside farmer--a desolate +land, latticed with gray New England roads, dotted with commonplace or +neglected houses, and pitted with the staring cellars of the abandoned +homes of disheartened and defeated men. + +Out here in this semi-obscurity, where the regulating forces of society +grow tardy and weak, strange and dangerous beings move to and fro, +avoiding the apprehension of the law. Occasionally we hear of them--of +some shrewd and desperate city fugitives brought to bay in a corner of the +woods, or some brutal farmhouse murderer still lurking uncaptured among +the hills. Often they pass through the country and out beyond, where they +are never seen again. + +In the extreme southwestern corner of the State the railroads do not come; +the vacant spaces grow between the country roads, and the cities dwindle +down to half-deserted crossroads hamlets. Here the surface of the map is +covered up with the tortuous wrinkles of the hills. It is a beautiful but +useless place. As far as you can see, low, unformed lumps of mountains lie +jumbled aimlessly together between the ragged sky lines, or little silent +cups of valleys stare up between them at their solitary patch of sky. It +seems a sort of waste yard of creation, flung full of the remnants of the +making of the earth. + +--George Kibbe Turner: _Across the State_ ("McClure's"). + + +When once the shrinking dizzy spell was gone, +I saw below me, like a jeweled cup, +The valley hollowed to its heaven-kissed lip-- +The serrate green against the serrate blue-- +Brimming with beauty's essence; palpitant +With a divine elixir--lucent floods +Poured from the golden chalice of the sun, +At which my spirit drank with conscious growth, +And drank again with still expanding scope +Of comprehension and of faculty. + +I felt the bud of being in me burst +With full, unfolding petals to a rose, +And fragrant breath that flooded all the scene. +By sudden insight of myself I knew +That I was greater than the scene,--that deep +Within my nature was a wondrous world, +Broader than that I gazed on, and informed +With a diviner beauty,--that the things +I saw were but the types of those I held, +And that above them both, High Priest and King, +I stood supreme, to choose and to combine, +And build from that within me and without +New forms of life, with meaning of my own, +And then alone upon the mountain top, +Kneeling beside the lamb, I bowed my head +Beneath the chrismal light and felt my soul +Baptized and set apart for poetry. + +--Holland: _Katrina_. + + ++Theme LXIX.+--_Write a description the purpose of which is to give an +impression that you have experienced._ + + +SUMMARY + +1. Description is that form of discourse which has for its + purpose the creation of an image. + +2. The essential characteristics of a description are:-- + _a._ A point of view, + (1) It may be fixed or changing. + (2) It may be expressed or implied. + (3) Only those details should be included that can be seen + from the point of view chosen. + _b._ A correct fundamental image. + _c._ A few characteristic and essential details + (1) Close observation on the part of the writer is necessary + in order to select the essential details. + _d._ A proper selection and subordination of minor details. + _e._ A suitable arrangement of details with reference to their + natural position in space. + _f._ That additional effectiveness which comes from + (1) Proper choice of words. + (2) Suitable comparisons and figures. + (3) Variety of sentence structures. + +3. The foregoing principles of description apply in the describing of many + classes of objects. A description of a person usually gives some + indication of his character and so becomes to some extent a character + sketch. + +4. A description may also have for its purpose the giving of an + impression. + _a._ The writer must select details which will aid in conveying + the impression he desires his readers to receive. + _b._ The writer must observe his own impressions accurately, + because he cannot convey to others that which he has not + himself experienced. + _c._ The impression received is affected by the mood of the person. + _d._ Impression and image are never entirely separated. + + + +IX. NARRATION + + ++141. Kinds of Narration.+--Narration consists of an account of +happenings, and, for this reason, it is, without doubt, the most +interesting of all forms of discourse. It is natural for us all to be +interested in life, movement, action; hence we enjoy reading and talking +about them. To be convinced that there is everywhere a great interest in +narration we need only to listen to conversations, notice what constitutes +the subject-matter of letters of friendship, read newspapers and +magazines, and observe what classes of books are most frequently drawn +from our libraries. + +Narration assumes a variety of forms. Since it relates happenings, it must +include anecdotes, incidents, short stories, letters, novels, dramas, +histories, biographies, and stories of travel and exploration. It also +includes many newspaper articles such as those that give accounts of +accidents and games and reports of various kinds of meetings. Evidently +the field of narration is a broad one, for wherever life or action may be +found or imagined, a subject for a narrative exists. + + +EXERCISES + + +1. Name four different events that have actually taken place in your +school in which you think your classmates are interested. + +2. Name three events that have taken place in other schools that may be of +interest to members of your school. + +3. Name four events of general interest that have occurred in your city +during the last two or three years. + +4. From a daily paper, pick out a narrative that is interesting to you. + +5. Select one that you think ought to interest the most of your +classmates. + +6. Name three national events of recent occurrence. + +7. Name three or four strange or mysterious events of which you have +heard. + +8. Name an actual occurrence that interested you because you wanted to see +how it turned out. + +9. Would an ordinary account of a bicycle or automobile trip be +interesting? If not, why not? + + ++Theme LXX.+--._Write a letter to a pupil in a neighboring high school, +telling about something interesting that has happened in your own school_. + +(Review forms of letter writing. Consider your use of paragraphs.) + + ++142. Plot.+--By plot we mean the outline of the story told in a few +words. All narratives consist of accounts of connected happenings, in +which action on the part of the characters is naturally implied. The +principal action briefly told constitutes the plot. The simple plot of +Tennyson's _Princess_ is as follows:-- + + +A prince of the North, after being affianced as a child to a princess of +the South, has fallen in love with her portrait and a lock of her hair. +When, however, the embassy appears to fetch home the bride, she sends back +the message that she is not disposed to be married. Upon receipt of this +word the Prince and two friends, Florian and Cyril, steal away to seek +the Princess, and learn on reaching her father's court that she has +established a Woman's College on a distant estate. Having got letters +authorizing them to visit the Princess, they ride into her domain, where +they determine to go dressed like girls and apply for admission as +students in the College. They arrive in disguise, and are admitted. On the +first day the young men enroll themselves as students of Lady Psyche, who +recognizes Florian as her brother and agrees not to expose them, since--by +a law of the College inscribed above the gates, which darkness has kept +them from seeing--the penalty of their discovery would be death. Melissa, +a student, overhears them, and is bound over to keep the secret. Lady +Blanche, mother of Melissa and rival to Lady Psyche, also learns of the +alarming invasion, and remains silent for sinister reasons of her own. On +the second day the principal personages picnic in a wood. At dinner Cyril +sings a song that is better fit for the smoking room than for the ears of +ladies; the Prince, in his anger, betrays his sex by a too masculine +reproof; and dire confusion is the result. The Princess in her flight +falls into the river, from which she is rescued by the Prince. Cyril and +Lady Psyche escape together, but the Prince and Florian are brought before +the Princess. At this important moment despatches are brought from her +father saying that the Prince's father has surrounded her palace with +soldiers, taken him prisoner, and holds him as a hostage. The Prince, +after pleading to deaf ears, is sent away at dawn with Florian, and goes +with him to the camp. Meantime during the night, the Princess's three +brothers have come to her aid with an army. An agreement is reached to +decide the case and end the war by a tournament between the brothers, with +fifty men, on one side; the Prince and his two friends, with fifty men, on +the other. This happens on the third day. The Prince and his men are +vanquished, and he himself is badly wounded. + +But the Princess is now gradually to discover that she has "overthrown +more than her enemy,"--that she has defeated yet saved herself. She has +said of Lady Psyche's little child:-- + + +"I took it for an hour in mine own bed +This morning: there the tender orphan hands +Felt at my heart, and seem'd to charm from thence +The wrath I nursed against the world." + + +When Cyril pleads with her to give the child back to its mother, she +kisses it and feels that "her heart is barren." When she passes near the +wounded Prince, and is shown by his father--his beard wet with his son's +blood--her hair and picture on her lover's heart, + + +Her iron will was broken in her mind, +Her noble heart was broken in her breast. + + +From the Princess's cry then, "Grant me your son to nurse," it is but a +natural result that she should bring the Prince's wounded men with him +into the College, now a hospital. Through ministering to her lover, she +comes to love him; and theories yield to "the lord of all." + +--Copeland-Rideout: _Introduction to Tennyson's Princess_. + + ++Theme LXXI.+--_Write the plot of one of the following_:-- + + 1. _Lochinvar_, Scott. + 2. _Rip Van Winkle_, Irving. + 3. One story from _A Tale of Two Cities_, Dickens. + 4. _Silas Marner_, George Eliot. + 5. The last magazine story you have read. + 6. Some story assigned by the teacher. + + ++Theme LXXII.+--_Write three brief plots. Have the class choose the one +that will make the most interesting story._ + + ++Theme LXXIII.+--_Write a story, using the plot selected by the class in +the preceding theme._ + +(Are the events related in your story probable or improbable?) + + ++143. The Introduction.+--Our pleasure in a story depends upon our clear +understanding of the various situations, and this understanding may often +be best given by an introduction that states something of the time, place, +characters, and circumstances as shown in Section 6. The purpose of the +introduction is to make the story more effective, and what it shall +contain is determined by the needs of the story itself. The last half of a +well-written story will not be interesting to one who has not read the +first half, because the first half will contain much that is essential to +the complete understanding of the main point of the story. A story begun +with conversation at once arouses interest, but care must be taken to see +that the reader gets sufficient descriptive and explanatory matter to +enable him to understand the story as the plot develops, or the interest +will begin to lag. + + ++Theme LXXIV.+--_Write a narrative._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. The Christmas surprise. + 2. How the mortgage was paid. + 3. The race between the steam roller and the traction engine. + 4. The new girl in the boarding school. + 5. The Boss, and how he won his title. + +(Be sure that your introduction is such that the entire situation is +understood. Name different points in the story that led you to say what +you have in the introduction. Have you mentioned any unnecessary points?) + + ++144. The Incentive Moment.+--The chief business of a story-teller is to +arouse the interest of his readers, and the sooner he succeeds, the +better. Usually he tries to arouse interest from the very beginning of his +story. He therefore places in the introduction or near it a statement +designed to stimulate the curiosity of his readers. The point at which +interest begins has been termed the incentive moment. In the following +selection notice that the first sentence tells who, when, and where. +(Section 6.) The second sentence causes us to ask, what was it? and by the +time that is answered we are curious to know what happened and how the +adventure ended. + + +On a mellow moonlight evening a cyclist was riding along a lonely road in +the northern part of Mashonaland. As he rode, enjoying the somber beauty +of the African evening, he suddenly became conscious of a soft, stealthy, +heavy tread on the road behind him. It seemed like the jog trot of some +heavy, cushion-footed animal following him. Turning round, he was scared +very badly to find himself looking into the glaring eyes of a large lion. +The puzzled animal acted very strangely, now raising his head, now +lowering it, and all the time sniffling the air in a most perplexed +manner. Here was a surprise for the lion. He could not make out what kind +of animal it was that could roll, walk, and sit still all at the same +time; an animal with a red eye on each side, and a brighter one in front. +He hesitated to pounce upon such an outlandish being--a being whose blood +smelled so oily. + +I believe no cyclist ever "scorched" with more honesty and +single-mindedness of purpose. But although he pedaled and pedaled, +although he perspired and panted, his effort to get away did not seem to +place any more space between him and the lion; the animal kept up his +annoyingly calm jog trot, and never seemed to tire. + +The poor rider was finally so exhausted from terror and exertion that he +decided to have the matter settled right away. Suddenly slowing down, he +jumped from his wheel, and, facing abruptly about, thrust the brilliant +headlight full into the face of the lion. This was too much for the beast. +The sudden glare destroyed the lion's nerve, for at this fresh evidence of +mystery on the part of the strange rider-animal, who broke himself into +halves and then cast his big eye in any direction he pleased, the monarch +of the forest turned tail, and with a wild rush retreated in a very +hyena-like manner into the jungle, evidently thanking his stars for his +miraculous escape from that awful being. Thereupon the bicyclist, with new +strength returning and devoutly blessing his acetylene lamp, pedaled his +way back to civilization. + +--P.L. Wessels. + + ++Theme LXXV.+--_Write a short imaginative story._ + + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. A bicycle race with an unfriendly dog. + 2. An unpleasant experience. + 3. A story told by the school clock. + 4. Disturbing a hornet's nest. + 5. The fate of an Easter bonnet. + 6. Chased by a wolf. + +(Where is the incentive moment? Is it introduced naturally?) + + ++145. Climax.+--You have already noticed in your reading that usually +somewhere near the close of the story, there is a turning point. That +turning point is called the climax. At this point, the suspense of mind is +greatest, for the fate of the principal character is being decided. If the +story is well written as regards the plot, our interest will continually +increase from the incentive moment to the climax. + +In the novel and the drama, both of which may have a complicated plot, +several minor climaxes or crises may be found. There may be a crisis to +each single event or episode, yet they should all be a part of and lead up +to the principal or final climax. Instead of detracting from, they add to +the interest of a carefully woven plot. For example, in the _Merchant of +Venice_, we have a crisis in both the casket story and the Lorenzo and +Jessica episode; but so skillfully are the stories interwoven that the +minor climaxes do not lessen our interest in the principal one. + +In short stories, the turning point should come near the close. There +should be but little said after that point is reached. In novels, and +especially in dramas, we find that the climax is not right at the close, +and considerable action sometimes takes place after the climax has been +reached. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Point out the climax in each of five stories that you have read. + +_B._ Where is the climax in the following selection? + + +We spoke, and Sohrab kindled at his taunts, +And he too drew his sword; at once they rushed +Together, as two eagles on one prey +Come rushing down together from the clouds, +One from the east, one from the west; their shields +Dashed with a clang together, and a din +Rose, such as that the sinewy woodcutters +Make often in the forest's heart at morn, +Of hewing axes, crashing trees--such blows +Rustum and Sohrab on each other hailed. +And you would say that sun and stars took part +In that unnatural conflict; for a cloud +Grew suddenly in heaven, and darked the sun +Over the fighters' heads; and a wind rose +Under their feet, and moaning swept the plain, +And in a sandy whirlwind wrapped the pair. +In gloom they twain were wrapped, and they alone; +For both the onlooking hosts on either hand +Stood in broad daylight, and the sky was pure, +And the sun sparkled on the Oxus stream. +But in the gloom they fought, with bloodshot eyes +And laboring breath; first Rustum struck the shield +Which Sohrab held stiff out; the steel-spiked spear +Rent the tough plates, but failed to reach the skin, +And Rustum plucked it back with angry groan. +Then Sohrab with his sword smote Rustum's helm, +Nor clove its steel quite through; but all the crest +He shore away, and that proud horsehair plume, +Never till now denied, sank to the dust; +And Rustum bowed his head; but then the gloom +Grew blacker, thunder rumbled in the air, +And lightnings rent the cloud; and Ruksh, the horse, +Who stood at hand, uttered a dreadful cry;-- +No horse's cry was that, most like the roar +Of some pained desert lion, who all day +Hath trailed the hunter's javelin in his side, +And comes at night to die upon the sand. +The two hosts heard that cry, and quaked for fear, +And Oxus curdled as it crossed his stream. +But Sohrab heard, and quailed not, but rushed on, +And struck again; and again Rustum bowed +His head; but this time all the blade, like glass, +Sprang in a thousand shivers on the helm, +And in the hand the hilt remained alone. +Then Rustum raised his head; his dreadful eyes +Glared, and he shook on high his menacing spear, +And shouted: "Rustum!"--Sohrab heard that shout, +And shrank amazed: back he recoiled one step, +And scanned with blinking eyes the advancing form; +And then he stood bewildered; and he dropped +His covering shield, and the spear pierced his side. +He reeled, and, staggering back, sank to the ground, +And then the gloom dispersed, and the wind fell, +And the bright sun broke forth, and melted all +The cloud; and the two armies saw the pair-- +Saw Rustum standing, safe upon his feet, +And Sohrab wounded, on the bloody sand. + +--Matthew Arnold: _Sohrab and Rustum_. + + ++Theme LXXVI.+--_Write a story and give special attention to the climax._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. The immigrant's error. + 2. A critical moment. + 3. An intelligent dog. + 4. The lost key. + 5. Catching a burglar. + 6. A hard test. + 7. Won by the last hit. + 8. A story suggested by a picture you have seen. + + +(Name the incidents leading up to the climax. Is the mind held in suspense +until the climax is reached? Are any unnecessary details introduced?) + + ++146. Conversation in Narration.+--When introduced into narration, a +conversation is briefer than when actually spoken. It is necessary to have +the conversation move quickly, for we read with less patience than we +listen. The sentences must be for the most part short, and the changes +from one speaker to another frequent, or the dialogue will have a "made to +order" effect. Notice the conversation in as many different stories as +possible. Observe how variation is secured in indicating the speaker. How +many substitutes for "He said" can you name? In relating conversation +orally, we are less likely to secure such variety. Notice in your own +speech and that of others how often "I said" and "He said" occur. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A_. Notice the indentation and sentence length in the following +selection:-- + + +Louden looked up calmly at the big figure towering above him. + +"It won't do, Judge," he said; that was all, but there was a significance +in his manner and a certainty in his voice which caused the uplifted hand +to drop limply. + +"Have you any business to set foot upon my property?" he demanded. + +"Yes," answered Joe. "That's why I came. + +"What business have you got with me?" + +"Enough to satisfy you, I think. But there's one thing I don't want to +do"--Joe glanced at the open door--"and that is to talk about it here--for +your own sake and because I think Miss Tabor should be present. I called +to ask you to come to her house at eight o'clock to-night." + +"You did!" Martin Pike spoke angrily, but not in the bull bass of yore. +"My accounts with her estate are closed," he said harshly. "If she wants +anything let her come here." + +Joe shook his head. "No. You must be there at eight o'clock." + +--Booth Tarkington: _The Conquest of Canaan_ ("Harper's"). + + +_B_. Notice the conversation in the following narrative. Consider also the +incentive moment and the climax. Suggest improvements. + + +When Widow Perkins saw Widower Parsons coming down the road she looked as +mad as a hornet and stepped to the back door. + +"William Henry," she called to the lank youth chopping wood, "you've +worked hard enough for one day. Come in and rest." + +"Guess that's the first time you ever thought I needed a rest since I was +born. I'll keep right on chopping till you get through acceptin' old +Hull," he replied, whereupon the widow slammed the door and looked twice +as mad as before. + +"Mornin', widdy," remarked the widower, stalking into the room, taking a +chair without an invitation, and hanging his hat on his knee. "Cold day," +he added cheerfully. + +The widow nodded shortly, at the same time inwardly prophesying a still +colder day for him before he struck the weather again. + +"Been buyin' a new cow," resumed the caller, impressively. + +"Have, eh?" returned the widow, with a jerk, bringing out the ironing +board and slamming it down on the table. + +"An' two hogs," went on the widower, wishing the widow would glance at him +just once and see how affectionate he looked. "They'll make pork enough +for all next winter and spring." + +"Will, eh?" responded the widow, with a bang of the iron that nearly +wrecked the table. + +"An' a--a--lot o' odd things 'round the house; an' the fact is, widdy, you +see--that is, you know--was going to say if you'll agree"--the widower +lost his words, and in his desperation hung his hat on the other knee and +hitched a trifle nearer the ironing board. + +"No, Hull Parsons, I don't see a single mite, nor I don't know a particle, +an' I ain't agreein' the least bit," snapped the widow, pounding the +creases out of the tablecloth. + +"But say, widdy, don't get riled so soon," again ventured Parsons. "I was +jest goin' to tell you that I've been proposing to Carpenter Brown to +build a new--" + +By this time the widow was glancing at him in a way he wished she +wouldn't. + +"Is that all the proposin' you've done in the last five mouths, Hull +Parsons?" she demanded stormily. "You ain't asked every old maid for miles +around to marry you, have you, Hull Parsons? An' you didn't tell the last +one you proposed to that if she didn't take you there would be only one +more chance left--that old pepper-box of a Widow Perkins? You didn't say +that, now, did you, Hull Parsons?" and the widow's eyes and voice snapped +fire all at once. + +The caller turned several different shades of red and realized that he had +struck the biggest snag he'd ever struck in any courting career, past or +present. He laughed violently for a second or two, tried to hang his +hat on both knees at the same time, and finally sank his voice to a +confidential undertone:-- + +"Now, widdy, that's the woman's way o' puttin' it. They've been jealous o' +you all 'long, fur they knew where my mind was sot. I wouldn't married one +o' them women for nothing," added the widower, with another hitch toward +the ironing board. + +"Huh!" responded the widow, losing a trifle of her warlike cast of +countenance. "S'pose all them women hadn't refused you, Hull Parsons, what +then?" + +"They didn't refuse me, widdy," returned the widower, trying to look +sheepish, and dropping his voice an octave lower. "S'pose I hadn't oughter +tell on 'em, but--er--can you keep a secret, widdy?" + +"I ain't like the woman who can't," remarked the widow, shortly. + +"Well, then, I was the one who did the refusin'--the hull gang went fer me +right heavy, guess 'cause 'twas leap year, or they was tryin' on some o' +them new women's ways, or somethin' like that. But my mind was sot all +along, d'ye see, widdy?" + +And the Widow Perkins invited Widower Parsons to stay to dinner, because +she thought she saw. + + ++Theme LXXVII.+--_Complete the story on pages 79-80, +or one of the following:_-- + + +THE AUDACIOUS REPORTER + +Soon after Fenimore Dayton became a reporter his city editor sent him to +interview James Mountain. That famous financier was then approaching the +zenith of his power over Wall Street and Lombard Street. It had just been +announced that he had "absorbed" the Great Eastern and Western Railway +System--of course, by the methods which have made some men and some +newspapers habitually speak of him as "the Royal Bandit." The city editor +had two reasons for sending Dayton--first because he did not like him; +second, because any other man on the staff would walk about for an hour +and come back with the report that Mountain had refused to receive him, +while Dayton would make an honest effort. + +Seeing Dayton saunter down Nassau Street--tall, slender, calm, and +cheerful--you would never have thought that he was on his way to interview +one of the worst-tempered men in New York, for a newspaper which that man +peculiarly detested, and on a subject which he did not care to discuss +with the public. Dayton turned in at the Equitable Building and went up to +the floor occupied by Mountain, Ranger, & Blakehill. He nodded to the +attendant at the door of Mountain's own suite of offices, strolled +tranquilly down the aisle between the several rows of desks at which sat +Mountain's personal clerks, and knocked at the glass door on which was +printed "Mr. Mountain" in small gilt letters. + +"Come!" It was an angry voice--Mountain's at its worst. + +Dayton opened the door. Mountain glanced up from a mass of papers before +him. His red forehead became a network of wrinkles and his scant white +eyebrows bristled. "And who are you?" he snarled. + +"My name is Dayton--Fenimore Dayton," replied the reporter, with a +gracefully polite bow. "Mr. Mountain, I believe?" + +It was impossible for Mr. Mountain altogether to resist the impulse to bow +in return. Dayton's manner was compelling. + +"And what the dev--what can I do for you?" + +"I'm a reporter from the ----" + +"What!" roared Mountain, leaping to his feet in a purple, swollen veined +fury.... + +--David Graham Philips ("McClure's"). + + +CAUGHT MASQUERADING + + +When I took my aunt and sister to the Pequot hotel, the night before the +Yale-Harvard boat race, I found a gang of Harvard boys there. They +celebrated a good deal that night, in the usual Harvard way. + +Some of the Harvard men had a room next to mine. About three a.m. things +quieted down. When I woke up next morning, it was broad daylight, and I +was utterly alone. The race was to be at eleven o'clock. I jumped out of +bed and looked at my watch--it was nearly ten! I looked for my clothes. My +valise was gone! I rang the bell, but in the excitement downstairs, I +suppose, no one answered it. + +What was I to do? Those Harvard friends of mine thought it a good joke on +me to steal my clothes and take themselves off to the race without waking +me up. I don't know what I should have done in my anguish, when, thank +goodness, I heard a tap at my door, and went to it. + +"Well, do hurry!" (It was my sister's voice.) "Aunt won't go to the race; +we'll have to go without her." + +"They've stolen my clothes, Mollie--those Harvard fellows." + +"Haven't you anything?" she asked through the keyhole. + +"Not a thing, dear." + +"Oh, well! it's a just punishment to you after last night! That ---- noise +was dreadful!" + +"Perhaps it is," I said, "but don't preach now, sister dear--get me +something to put on. I want to see the race." + +"I haven't anything except some dresses and one of aunt's." + +"Get me Aunt Sarah's black silk," I cried. "I will wear anything rather +than not see the race, and it's half-past ten nearly now." + + +(Correct your theme with reference to the points mentioned in Section +146.) + + ++147. Number and Choice of Details--Unity.+--In relating experiences the +choice of details will be determined by the purpose of the narrative and +by the person or persons for whom we are writing. A brief account of an +accident for a newspaper will need to include only a clear and concise +statement of a few important facts. A traveling experience may be made +interesting and vivid if we select several facts and treat each quite +fully. This is especially true if the experience took place in a country +or part of a country not familiar to our readers. If we are writing for +those with whom we are acquainted, we can easily decide what will interest +them. If we write to different persons an account of the same event, we +find that these accounts differ from one another. We know what each person +will enjoy, and we try to adapt our writing to each individual taste. Our +narrative will be improved by adapting it to an imaginary audience in case +we do not know exactly who our readers will be. In your high school work +you know your readers and can select your facts accordingly. + +To summarize: a narration should possess unity, that is, it should say all +that should be said about the subject and not more than needs to be said. +The length of the theme, the character of the audience to which it is +addressed, and the purpose for which it is written, determine what facts +are necessary and how many to choose in order to give unity. (See Section +81.) + + ++148. Arrangement of Details--Coherence.+--We should use an arrangement of +our facts that will give coherence to our theme. In a coherent theme each +sentence or paragraph is naturally suggested by the preceding one. It has +been pointed out in Sections 82-85 that in narration we gain coherence by +relating our facts in the order of their occurrence. When a single series +of events is set forth, we can follow the real time-order, omitting such +details as are not essential to the unity of the story. + +If, however, more than one series of events are given, we cannot follow +the exact time-order, for, though two events occur at the same time, one +must be told before the other. Here, the actual time relations must be +carefully indicated by the use of expressions; as, _at the same time, +meanwhile, already_, etc. (See Section 12.) Two or more series of events +belong in the same story only if they finally come together at some time, +usually at the point of the story. They should be carried along together +so that the reader shall have in mind all that is necessary for the +understanding of the point when it is reached. In short stories the +changes from one series to another are close together. In a long book one +or more chapters may give one series of incidents, while the following +chapters may be concerned with a parallel series of incidents. Notice the +introductory paragraph of each chapter in Scott's _Ivanhoe_ or Cooper's +_The Last of the Mohicans_. Many of these indicate that a new series of +events is to be related. + +It will be of advantage in writing a narrative to construct an outline as +indicated in Section 84. Such an outline will assist us in making our +narrative clear by giving it unity, coherence, and emphasis. + + +EXERCISES + + +1. Name events that have occurred in your school or city which could be +related in their exact time-order. Relate one of them orally. + +2. Name two accidents that could not be related in their exact time-order. +Relate one of them orally. + +3. Name subjects for real narratives that would need to be written in the +first person; in the third person. + +4. In telling about a runaway accident, what points would you mention if +you were writing a short account for a newspaper? + +5. What points would you add if you were writing to some one who was +acquainted with the persons in the accident? + +6. Consider the choice and arrangement of details in the next magazine +story that you read. + + ++Theme LXXVIII.+--_Write a personal narrative in which the time-order can +be carefully followed._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + + 1. The irate conductor. + 2. A personal adventure with a window. + 3. An interrupted nap. + 4. Lost in the woods. + 5. In a runaway. + 6. An amusing adventure. + 7. A day at grandfather's. + +(Consider the unity and coherence of the theme.) + + ++Theme LXXIX.+--_Write in the third person a true narrative in which +different events are going on at the same time._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. A skating accident. + 2. The hunters hunted. + 3. Capsized on the river. + 4. How he won the race. + 5. An experience with a balky horse. + 6. The search for a lost child. + 7. How they missed each other. + 8. A strange adventure. + 9. A tip over in a bobsleigh. + + +(How many series of events have you in your narrative? Are they well +connected? What words have you used to show the time-order of the +different events?) + + ++149. Interrelation of Plot and Character.+--Though in narration the +interest centers primarily in the action, yet in the higher types of +narration interest in character is closely interwoven with interest in +plot. In reading, our attention is held by the plot; we follow its +development, noticing the addition of incidents, their relation to one +another and to the larger elements of action in the story, and their union +in the final disentanglement of the plot; but our complete appreciation of +the story runs far beyond the plot and depends to a large extent upon our +interpretation of the character of the individuals concerned. The mere +story may be exciting and interesting, but its effect will be of little +permanent value if it does not stir within us some appreciation of +character, which we shall find reflected in our own lives or in the lives +of those about us. We may read the _Merchant of Venice_ for its story, but +a deeper study of the play sets forth and reënforces the character of +Portia, Shylock, and the others. With many of the celebrated characters of +literature this interest has grown quite apart from interest in the plot, +and they stand to-day as the embodiment of phases of human nature. Thus by +means of action does the skillful author portray his conception of human +life and human character. + +On the other hand, when we write we shall need to distinguish action that +indicates character from that which is merely incidental to the plot. In +order to develop a story to its climax we may need to have the persons +concerned perform certain actions. If by skillful wording we can show not +only what was done but also to some extent the way in which it was done, +we may give our readers some notion of the character of the individuals in +our story. (See Section 10.) This portrayal of character may be aided by +the use of description. (See Section 134.) + +Notice that the purpose of the following selection is to indicate the +character of Pitkin rather than to relate the incident. If the author were +to relate other doings of Pitkin, he would need to make the actions of +Pitkin in each case consistent with the character indicated by this +sketch. + + +It was the day of our great football game with Harvard, and when I heard +my friend Pitkin returning to the room we shared in common, I knew that he +was mad. And when I say mad I mean it,--not angry, nor exasperated, nor +aggravated, nor provoked, but mad: not mad according to the dictionary, +that is, crazy, but mad as we common folk use the term. So I say my friend +Pitkin was mad. I thought so when I heard the angry click-clack of his +heels on the cement walk, and I carefully put all the chairs against the +wall; I was sure of it when the door slammed, and I set the coal scuttle +in the corner behind the stove. There was no doubt of it when he mounted +the stairs three steps at a time, and I hastily cleared his side of the +desk. You may wonder why I did all these things, but you have never seen +Pitkin mad. + +Why was Pitkin mad? I did not then know. I had not seen him yet, for I was +so busy--so very, very busy--that I did not look up when he slammed his +books on the desk with a resounding whack which caused the ink bottle to +tremble and the lampshade to clatter as though chattering its teeth with +fear, while the pens and pencils, tumbling from the holder, scurried away +to hide themselves under the desk. + +I was still busily engaged with my books while he threw his wet overcoat +and dripping hat on the white bedspread and kicked his rubbers under the +stove, the smell of which soon warned me to rescue them before they +melted. Pitkin must be very mad this time. He was taking off his collar +and even his shoes. Pitkin always took off his collar when very mad, and +if especially so, put on his slippers, even if he had to change them again +in fifteen minutes. + +"What are you doing? Why don't you say something? You are a pretty fellow +not to speak or even look up." Such was Pitkin's first remark. Sometimes +he was talkative and would insist on giving his opinion of things in +general. At other times he preferred to be left alone to bury himself and +his wrath in his books. Since he had failed to poke the fire, though the +room was very warm, I had decided that he would dive into his books and be +heard no more until a half hour past his suppertime, but I had made a +mistake. Today he was in a talkative mood, and knowing that work was +impossible, I devoted the next half hour to listening to a dissertation on +the general perverseness of human nature, and to an elaborate description +of my friend Pitkin's scheme for endowing a rival institution with a +hundred million, and making things so cheap and attractive that our +university would have to go out of business. When Pitkin reached this +point, I knew that I could safely ask the special reason of his anger and +that, having answered, he would settle down to his regular work. I gently +insinuated that I was still ignorant of the matter, and received the reply +quite in keeping with Pitkin's nature, "I bet on Harvard and won." + + +EXERCISES + + +1. Read one of Dickens's books and bring to class selections that will +show how Dickens portrays character by use of action. + +2. What kind of man is Silas Marner? What leads you to think as you do? + +3. Select three persons from _Ivanhoe_ and state your opinion of their +character. + +4. Notice the relative importance of plot and character in three magazine +stories. + +5. Select some person from a magazine story. Tell the class what makes you +form the estimate of his character that you do. To what extent does the +descriptive matter help you determine his character? + + ++Theme LXXX.+--_Write a character sketch or a story which shows character +by means of action._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. The girl from Texas. + 2. The Chinese cook. + 3. Taking care of the baby. + 4. Nathan's temptation. + 5. The small boy's triumph. + 6. A village character. + 7. The meanest man I ever knew. + + +(Consider the development of the plot. To what extent have you shown +character by action? Can you make the impression of character stronger by +adding some description?) + + ++150. History and Biography.+--Historical and biographical narratives may +be highly entertaining and at the same time furnish us with much valuable +information. Such writings often contain much that is not pure narration. +A historian may set forth merely the program of events, but most histories +contain besides a large amount of description and explanation. Frequently, +too, all of this is but the basis of either a direct or an implied +argument. Likewise a biographer may be chiefly concerned with the acts of +a man, but he usually finds that the introduction of description and +explanation aids him in making clear the life purpose of the man about +whom he writes. In shorter histories and biographies, the expository and +descriptive matter often displaces the narrative matter to such an extent +that the story ceases to be interesting. + +The actual time-order of events need not be followed. It will often make +our account clearer to discuss the literary works of a man at one time, +his education at another, and his practical achievements at a third. +Certain portions of his life may need to be emphasized while others are +neglected. What we include in a biography and what we emphasize will be +determined by the purpose for which it is written. For pure information, a +short account is desirable, but a long account is of greater interest. If +a man is really great, the most insignificant events in his life will be +read with interest, but a good biographer will select such events with +good taste and then will present them so that they will have a bearing +upon the more important phases of the man's life and character. Hundreds +of the stories told about Lincoln would be trivial but for the fact that +they help us better to understand the real character of the man. + + +EXERCISE + + +1. Select some topic briefly mentioned in the history text you study. Look +up a more extended account of it and come to the class prepared to recite +the topic orally. Make your report clear, concise, and interesting. Decide +beforehand just what facts you will relate and in what order. (See +Sections 39, 52, 53.) + + ++Theme LXXXI.+--_Come to class prepared to write upon some topic assigned +by the teacher, or upon one of the following_:-- + + 1. Pontiac's conspiracy. + 2. The battle of Marathon. + 3. The Boston tea party. + 4. The battle of Bannockburn. + 5. Sherman's march to the sea. + 6. Passage of the Alps by Napoleon. + +(Is your narrative told in an interesting way? Are any facts necessary to +the clear understanding of it omitted?) + + +EXERCISES + + +1. Name an English orator, an English statesman, and an English writer +about each of whom an interesting biography might be written. + +2. With the same purpose in view name two American orators, two American +writers, and two American statesmen. + + ++Theme LXXXII.+--_Write a short biography of some prominent person. +Include only well-known and important facts, but do not give his name. +Read the biography before the class and have them tell whose biography it +is._ + + ++151. Description in Narration.+--The descriptive elements, of narration +should always have for their purpose something more than the mere creating +of images. If a house is described, the description should enable us to +bring to mind more vividly the events that take place within or around it. +If the description aids us in understanding how or why the events occur, +it is helpful; but if it fails to do this, it has no place in the +narrative. Description when thus used serves as a background for the +actions told in the story, and has for its purpose the explanation of how +or why they occur. + +Sometimes the descriptions are given before the incident and sometimes the +two are intermixed. In the following incident from the _Legend of Sleepy +Hollow_, notice how the description prepares the mind for the action that +follows. We are told that the brook which Ichabod must cross runs into a +marshy and thickly wooded glen; that the oaks and chestnuts matted with +grapevines throw a gloom over the place, and already we feel that it is a +dreadful spot after dark. The fact that André was captured here adds to +the feeling. We are prepared to have some exciting action take place, and +had Ichabod ridden quietly across the bridge, we should have been +disappointed. + + +About two hundred yards from the tree a small brook crossed the road, and +ran into a marshy and thickly wooded glen, known by the name of Wiley's +swamp. A few rough logs, laid side by side, served for a bridge over this +stream. On that side of the road where the brook entered the woods, a +group of oaks and chestnuts, matted thick with wild grapevines, threw a +cavernous gloom over it. To pass this bridge was the severest trial. It +was at this identical spot that the unfortunate André was captured, and +under covert of those vines were the sturdy yeomen concealed who surprised +him. This has ever since been considered a haunted stream, and fearful are +the feelings of the schoolboy who has to pass it alone after dark. + +As he approached the stream his heart began to thump; he summoned up, +however, all his resolution, gave his horse half a score of kicks in the +ribs, and attempted to dash briskly across the bridge; but instead of +starting forward, the perverse old animal made a lateral movement, and ran +broadside against the fence. Ichabod, whose fears increased with the +delay, jerked the reins on the other side, and kicked lustily with the +contrary foot. It was all in vain; his steed started, it is true, but it +was only to plunge to the opposite side of the road into a thicket of +brambles and alder bushes. The schoolmaster now bestowed both whip and +heel upon the starveling ribs of old Gunpowder, who dashed forward, +snuffling and snorting, but came to a stand just by the bridge, with a +suddenness that had nearly sent his rider sprawling over his head. Just at +this moment a plashy tramp, by the side of the bridge caught the sensitive +ear of Ichabod. In the dark shadow of the grove, on the margin of the +brook, he beheld something huge, misshapen, black, and towering. It +stirred not, but seemed gathered up in the gloom like some gigantic +monster ready to spring upon the traveler. + +--Irving: _Legend of Sleepy Hollow_. + + +The most important use of description in connection with narration is that +of portraying character. Though it is by their actions that the character +of persons is most strongly brought out, yet the descriptive matter may do +much to strengthen the impression of character which we form. (Section +134.) Much of the description found in literature is of this nature. +Stripped of its context such a description may fail to satisfy our ideals +as judged by the principles of description discussed in Chapter VIII. +Nevertheless, in its place it may be perfectly adapted to its purpose and +give just the impression the author wished to give. Such descriptions must +be judged in their settings, and the sole standard of judgment is not +their beauty or completeness as descriptions, but how well they give the +desired impressions. + + ++Theme LXXXIII.+--_Write a short personal narrative containing some +description which explains how or why events occur._ + +(Is there anything in the descriptive part that does not bear on the +narration?) + + ++Theme LXXXIV.+--_Write a narrative containing description that aids in +giving an impression of character._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. Holding the fort. + 2. A steamer trip. + 3. How I played truant. + 4. Kidnapped. + 5. The misfortunes of our circus. + 6. Account for the situation shown in a picture that you have seen. + + +(Will the reader form the impression of character which you wish him to +form? Consider your theme with reference to its introduction, incentive +moment, selection and arrangement of details, and climax.) + + +SUMMARY + + +1. Narration assumes a variety of forms,--incidents, anecdotes, stories, + letters, novels, histories, biographies, etc.,--all concerned with the + relation of events. + +2. The essential characteristics of a narration are,-- + _a._ An introduction which tells the characters, the time, the place, + and enough of the attendant circumstances to make clear the + point of the narrative. + _b._ The early introduction of an incentive moment. + _c._ A climax presented in such a way as to maintain the interest of + the reader. + _d._ The selection of details essential to the climax in accordance + with the principle of unity. + _e._ The arrangement of these details in a coherent order. + _f._ The skillful introduction of minor details which will assist in + the appreciation of the point. + _g._ The introduction of all necessary description and explanation. + _h._ That additional effectiveness which comes from + (1) Proper choice of words. + (2) Suitable comparisons and figures. + (3) Variety of sentence structure. + _i._ A brief conclusion. + + + +X. EXPOSITION + + ++152. Purpose of Exposition.+--It is the purpose of exposition to make +clear to others that which we ourselves understand. Its primary object is +to give information. Herein lies one of the chief differences between the +two forms of discourse just studied and the one that we are about to +study. The primary object of most description and narration is to please, +while that of exposition is to inform. Exposition answers such questions +as how? why? what does it mean? what is it used for? and by these answers +attempts to satisfy demands for knowledge. + +In the following selections notice that the first tells us _how_ to +burnish a photograph; the second, _how_ to split a sheet of paper:-- + + +1. When the prints are almost dry they can be burnished. The burnishing +iron should be heated and kept hot during the burnishing, about the same +heat as a flatiron in ironing clothes. Care must be taken to keep the +polished surface of the burnisher bright and clean. When the iron is hot +enough the prints should be rubbed with a glacé polish, which is sold for +this purpose, and is applied with a small wad of flannel. Then the prints +should be passed through the burnisher two or three times, the burnisher +being so adjusted that the pressure on the prints is rather light; the +degree of pressure will be quickly learned by experience, more pressure +being required if the prints have been allowed to become dry before being +polished. White castile soap will do very well as a lubricator for the +prints before burnishing, and is applied in the same manner as above. + +--_The Amateur Photographer's Handbook_. + + +2. Paper can be split into two or even three parts, however thin the +sheet. It may be convenient to know how to do this sometimes; as, for +instance, when one wishes to paste in a scrapbook an article printed on +both sides of the paper. + +Get a piece of plate glass and place it on a sheet of paper. Then let the +paper be thoroughly soaked. With care and a little skill the sheet can be +split by the top surface being removed. + +The best plan, however, is to paste a piece of cloth or strong paper to +each side of the sheet to be split. When dry, quickly, and without +hesitation, pull the two pieces asunder, when one part of the sheet will +be found to have adhered to one, and part to the other. Soften the paste +in water, and the two pieces can easily be removed from the cloth. + + +EXERCISES + + +A. Explain orally any two of the following:-- + 1. How to fly a kite. + 2. How a robin builds her nest. + 3. How oats are harvested. + 4. How tacks are made. + 5. How to make a popgun. + 6. How fishes breathe. + 7. How to swim. + 8. How to hemstitch a handkerchief. + 9. How to play golf. + 10. How salt is obtained. + + +B. Name several subjects with the explanation of which you are unfamiliar. + + ++Theme LXXXV.+--_Select for a subject something that you know how to do. +Write a theme on the subject chosen._ + +(Have you made use of either general description or general narration? See +Sections 67 and 68.) + +Very frequently explanations of _how_ and _why_ anything is done are +combined, as in the following:-- + + +In cases of sunstroke, place the person attacked in a cool, airy place. Do +not allow a crowd to collect closely about him. Remove his clothing, and +lay him flat upon his back. Dash him all over with cold water--ice-water, +if it can be obtained--and rub the entire body with pieces of ice. This +treatment is used to reduce the heat of the body, for in all cases of +sunstroke the temperature of the body is greatly increased. When the body +has become cooler, wipe it dry and remove the person to a dry locality. If +respiration ceases, or becomes exceedingly slow, practice artificial +respiration. After the patient has apparently recovered, he should be kept +quiet in bed for some time. + +--Baldwin: _Essential Lessons in Human Physiology and Hygiene_. + + +Notice that the following selection answers neither the question _how_? +nor _why_? but explains what journalism is:-- + + +JOURNALISM + +What is a journal? What is a journalist? What is journalism? Is it a +trade, a commercial business, or a profession? Our word _journal_ comes +from the French. It has different forms in the several Romantic languages, +and all go back to the Latin _diurnalis_, daily, from _dies_, a day. +Diurnal and diary are derived from the same source. The first journals +were in fact diaries, daily records of happenings, compiled often for the +pleasure and use of the compiler alone, sometimes for monarchs or +statesmen or friends; later to be circulated for the information of a +circle of readers, or distributed in copies to subscribers among the +public at large. These were the first newspapers. While we still in a +specific sense speak of daily newspapers as journals, the term is often +enlarged to comprise nearly all publications that are issued periodically +and distributed to subscribers. + +A journalist is one whose business is publishing a journal (or more than +one), or editing a journal, or writing for journals, especially a person +who is regularly employed in some responsible directing or creative work +on a journal, as a publisher, editor, writer, reporter, critic, etc. This +use of the word is comparatively modern, and it is commonly restricted to +persons connected with daily or weekly newspapers. Many older newspaper +men scout it, preferring to be known as publishers, editors, writers, or +contributors. Journalism, however, is a word that is needed for its +comprehensiveness. It includes the theory, the business, and the art of +producing newspapers in all departments of the work. Hence, any school of +professional journalism must be presumed to comprise in its scope and +detail of instruction the knowledge that is essential to the making and +conduct of newspapers. It must have for its aim the ideal newspaper which +is ideally perfect in every department. + +Journalism, so far as it is more than mere reporting and mere money +making, so far as it undertakes to frame and guide opinion, to educate the +thought and instruct the conscience of the community, by editorial +comment, interpretation and homily, based on the news, is under obligation +to the community to be truthful, sincere, and uncorrupted; to enlighten +the understanding, not to darken counsel; to uphold justice and honor with +unfailing resolution, to champion morality and the public welfare with +intelligent zeal, to expose wrong and antagonize it with unflinching +courage. If journalism has any mission in the world besides and beyond the +dissemination of news, it is a mission of maintaining a high standard of +thought and life in the community it serves, strengthening all its forces +that make for righteousness and beauty and fair growth. + +This is not solely, nor peculiarly, the office of what is called the +editorial page. To be most influential, it must be a consistent expression +in all departments, giving the newspaper a totality of power in such aim. +This is the right ideal of journalism whenever it is considered as +more than a form of commercialism. No newspaper attains its ideal in +completeness. If it steadfastly works toward attainment, it gives proof of +its right to be. The advancing newspaper, going on from good to better in +the substance of its character and the ability of its endeavor, is the +type of journalism which affords hope for the future. And one strong +encouragement to fidelity in a high motive is public appreciation. + +--_The Boston Herald._ + + +EXERCISES + + +Give as complete an answer as possible to any two of the following +questions:-- + +1. Why do fish bite better on a cloudy day than on a bright one? + +2. Why should we study history? + +3. Why does a baseball curve? + +4. Why did the American colonies revolt against England? + +5. Why did the early settlers of New England persecute the Quakers? + +6. Why should trees be planted either in early spring or late autumn? + +7. Why do we lose a day in going from America to China? + +8. In laying a railroad track, why is there a space left between the ends +of the rails? + + ++Theme LXXXVI.+--_Choose one of the above or a similar question as a +subject for a theme. Write out as complete and exact an explanation as +possible._ + +EXERCISE + +Write out a list of subjects the explanation of which would not answer the +questions _why_? or _how_? How many of them can you explain? + + ++Theme LXXXVII.+--_Write out the explanation of one of the subjects in the +above list._ + +(Read what you have written and consider it with reference to clearness, +unity, and coherence.) + + ++153. Importance of Exposition.+--This form of discourse is important +because it deals so extensively with important subjects, such as questions +of government, facts in science, points in history, methods in education, +and processes of manufacture. It enters vitally into our lives, no matter +what our occupation may be. Business men make constant use of this kind of +discourse. In fact, it would be impossible for business to be transacted +with any degree of success without explanations. Loans of money would not +be made if men did not understand how they could have security for the +sums loaned. A manufacturer cannot expect to have good articles produced +if he is unable to give needful explanations concerning their manufacture. +In order that a merchant be successful he must be able to explain the +relative merits of his goods to his customers. + +Very much of the work done in our schools is of an expository nature. +The text-books used are expositions. When they of themselves are not +sufficient for the clear understanding of the subject, it is necessary +to consult reference books. Then, if the subject is still lacking in +clearness, the teacher is called upon for additional explanation. On the +other hand, the greater part of the pupil's recitations consists simply in +explaining the subjects under discussion. Much of the class-room work in +our schools consists of either receiving or giving explanations. + + +EXERCISES + + +1. Name anything outside of school work that you have been called upon to +explain during the last week or two. + +2. Name anything outside of school work that you have recently learned +through explanation. + +3. Name three topics in each of your studies for to-day that call for +explanation. + +4. Name some topic in which the text-book did not seem to make the +explanation clear. + + ++Theme LXXXVIII.+--_Write out one of the topics mentioned in number three +of the preceding exercise._ + +(Have you included everything that is necessary to make your explanation +clear? Can anything be omitted without affecting the clearness?) + + ++154. Clear Understanding.+--The first requisite of a good explanation +is a clear understanding on the part of the one who is giving the +explanation. It is evident that if we do not understand a subject +ourselves we cannot make our explanations clear to others. If the ideas in +our mind are in a confused state, our explanation will be equally +confused. If you do not understand a problem in algebra, your attempt to +explain it to others will prove a failure. If you attempt to explain how a +canal boat is taken through a lock without thoroughly understanding the +process yourself, you will give your listeners only a confused idea of how +it is done. + +The principal reason why pupils fail in their recitations and examinations +is that in preparing their lessons, they do not make themselves thoroughly +acquainted with the topics that they are studying. They often go over the +lessons hurriedly and carelessly and come to class with confused ideas. +Consequently when the pupils attempt to recite, there is, if anything, an +additional confusion of ideas, and the recitation proves a failure. +Carelessness in the preparation of daily recitations, negligence in asking +for additional explanations, and inattention to the explanations that are +given, inevitably cause failure when tests or examinations are called for. + + +EXERCISES + + +1. Name five subjects about which you know so little that it would be +useless to attempt an explanation. + +2. Name five about which you know something, but not enough to give clear +explanations of them. + +3. Name four about which you know but little, but concerning which you +feel sure that you can obtain information. + +4. Name six that you think you clearly understand. Report orally on one of +them. + + ++Theme LXXXIV.+--_Write out an explanation of one of the subjects named in +number four of the preceding exercise._ + +(Read your theme and criticise it as to clearness. In listening to the +themes read by other members of the class consider them as to clearness. +Call for further explanation of any part not perfectly clear to you.) + + ++155. Selection of Facts--Unity.+--After we have been given a subject for +explanation or have chosen one for ourselves, we must decide concerning +the facts to be presented. In some kinds of exposition this selection is +rather difficult. Since the purpose is to make our meaning clear to the +person addressed, we secure unity by including all that is necessary to +that purpose and by omitting all that is not necessary. It is evident that +selection of facts to secure unity depends to some extent upon the +audience. If a child asks us to explain what a trust is, our explanation +will differ very much from that which we would give if we were addressing +a body of men who were familiar with the term _trusts_, but do not +understand the advantages and disadvantages arising from their existence. + +Examine the following as to selection of facts. For what class of people +do you think it was written? What seems to be the purpose of it? + + +THE FEUDAL SYSTEM + +This connection of king as sovereign, with his princes and great men as +vassals, must be attended to and understood, in order that you may +comprehend the history which follows. A great king, or sovereign prince, +gave large provinces, or grants of land, to his dukes, earls, and +noblemen; and each of these possessed nearly as much power, within his own +district, as the king did in the rest of his dominions. But then the +vassal, whether duke, earl, or lord, or whatever he was, was obliged to +come with a certain number of men to assist the sovereign, when he was +engaged in war; and in time of peace, he was bound to attend on his court +when summoned, and do homage to him, that is, acknowledge that he was his +master and liege lord. In like manner, the vassals of the crown, as they +were called, divided the lands which the king had given them into estates, +which they bestowed on knights, and gentlemen, whom they thought fitted to +follow them in war, and to attend them in peace; for they, too, held +courts, and administered justice, each in his own province. Then the +knights and gentlemen, who had these estates from the great nobles, +distributed the property among an inferior class of proprietors, some of +whom cultivated the land themselves, and others by means of husbandmen and +peasants, who were treated as a sort of slaves, being bought and sold like +brute beasts, along with the farms which they labored. + +Thus, when a great king, like that of France or England, went to war, he +summoned all his crown vassals to attend him, with the number of armed men +corresponding to his fief, as it was called, that is, territory which had +been granted to each of them. The prince, duke, or earl, in order to obey +the summons, called upon all the gentlemen to whom he had given estates, +to attend his standard with their followers in arms. The gentlemen, in +their turn, called on the franklins, a lower order of gentry, and upon the +peasants; and thus the whole force of the kingdom was assembled in one +array. This system of holding lands for military service, that is, for +fighting for the sovereign when called upon, was called the _feudal +system_. It was general throughout all Europe for a great many ages. + +--Scott: _Tales of a Grandfather_. + + ++Theme LXXXV.+--_Write a theme on one of the following:_-- + +1. Tell your younger brother how to make a whistle. + +2. Explain some game to a friend of your own age. + +3. Give an explanation of the heating system of your school to a member of +the school board of an adjoining city. + +4. Explain to a city girl how butter is made. + +5. Explain to a city boy how hay is cured. + +6. Explain to a friend how to run an automobile. + + +(Consider the selection of facts as determined by the person addressed.) + + ++156. Arrangement--Coherence.+--Some expositions are of such a nature that +there is but little question concerning the proper arrangement of the +topics composing them. In order to be coherent, all we do is to follow the +natural order of occurrence in time and place. This is especially true of +general narrations and of some general descriptions. In explaining the +circulation of the blood, for instance, it is most natural for us to +follow the course which the blood takes in circulating through the body. +In explaining the manufacture of articles we naturally begin with the +material as it comes to the factory, and trace the process of manufacture +in order through its successive stages. + +In other kinds of exposition a coherent arrangement is somewhat difficult. +We should not, however, fail to pay attention to it. A clear understanding +of the subject, on the part of the listener, depends largely upon the +proper arrangement of topics. As you study examples of expositions of some +length, you will notice that there are topics which naturally belong +together. These topics form groups, and the groups are treated separately. +If the expositions are good ones, the related facts will not only be +united into groups, but the groups will also be so arranged and the +transition from one group to another be so naturally made that it will +cause no confusion. + +In brief explanations of but one paragraph there should be but one group +of facts. Even these facts need to be so arranged as to make the whole +idea clear. The writer may have a clear understanding of the whole idea, +but in order to give the reader the same clear understanding, certain +facts must be presented before others are. In order to make an explanation +clear, the facts must be so arranged that those which are necessary to the +understanding of others shall come first. + +Examine the following expositions as to the grouping of related facts and +the arrangement of those groups:-- + + +Fresh, pure air at all times is essential to bodily comfort and good +health. Air may become impure from many causes. Poisonous gases may be +mixed with it; sewer gas is especially to be guarded against; coal gas +which is used for illuminating purposes is very poisonous and dangerous if +inhaled; the air arising from decaying substances, foul cellars, or +stagnant pools, is impure and unhealthy, and breeds diseases; the foul and +poisonous air which has been expelled from the lungs, if breathed again, +will cause many distressing symptoms. Ventilation has for its object the +removal of impure air and the supplying of fresh, wholesome air in its +place. Proper ventilation should be secured in all rooms and buildings, +and its importance cannot be overestimated. + +In the summer time and in climates which permit of it with comfort, +ventilation may be secured by having the doors and windows open, thus +allowing the fresh air to circulate freely through the house. In stormy +and cold weather, however, some other means of ventilation must be +supplied. If open fires or grates are used for heating purposes, good +ventilation exists, for under such circumstances, the foul and impure air +is drawn out of the rooms through the chimneys, and the fresh air enters +through the cracks of the doors and windows. + +Where open fireplaces are not used, several plans of ventilation +may be used, as they all operate on the same principle. Two openings +should be in the room, one of them near the floor, through which +the fresh air may enter, the other higher up, and connected with a +shaft or chimney, which producing a draft, may serve to free the room +from impure air. The size of these openings may be regulated according +to the size of the room. + +--Baldwin: _Essential Lessons in Human Physiology_. + + +THE QUEEN BEE + +It is a singular fact, also, that the queen is made, not born. If the +entire population of Spain or Great Britain were the offspring of one +mother, it might be found necessary to hit upon some device by which a +royal baby could be manufactured out of an ordinary one, or else give up +the fashion of royalty. All the bees in the hive have a common parentage, +and the queen and the worker are the same in the egg and in the chick; the +patent of royalty is in the cell and in the food; the cell being much +larger, and the food a peculiar stimulating kind of jelly. In certain +contingencies, such as the loss of the queen with no eggs in the royal +cells, the workers take the larva of an ordinary bee, enlarge the cell by +taking in the two adjoining ones, and nurse it and stuff it and coddle it, +till at the end of sixteen days it comes out a queen. But ordinarily, in +the natural course of events, the young queen is kept a prisoner in her +cell till the old queen has left with the swarm. Not only kept, but +guarded against the mother queen, who only wants an opportunity to murder +every royal scion in the hive. Both the queens, the one a prisoner and the +other at large, pipe defiance at each other at this time, a shrill, fine, +trumpetlike note that any ear will at once recognize. This challenge, not +being allowed to be accepted by either party, is followed, in a day or +two, by the abdication of the old queen; she leads out the swarm, and her +successor is liberated by her keepers, who, in her turn, abdicates in +favor of the next younger. When the bees have decided that no more swarms +can issue, the reigning queen is allowed to use her stiletto upon her +unhatched sisters. Cases have been known where two queens issued at the +same time, when a mortal combat ensued, encouraged by the workers, who +formed a ring about them, but showed no preference, and recognized the +victor as the lawful sovereign. For these and many other curious facts we +are indebted to the blind Huber. + +It is worthy of note that the position of the queen cells is always +vertical, while that of the drones and workers is horizontal; majesty +stands on its head, which fact may be a part of the secret. + +The notion has always very generally prevailed that the queen of the bees +is an absolute ruler, and issues her royal orders to willing subjects. +Hence Napoleon the First sprinkled the symbolic bees over the imperial +mantle that bore the arms of his dynasty; and in the country of the +Pharaohs the bee was used as the emblem of a people sweetly submissive to +the orders of its king. But the fact is, a swarm of bees is an absolute +democracy, and kings and despots can find no warrant in their example. The +power and authority are entirely vested in the great mass, the workers. +They furnish all the brains and foresight of the colony, and administer +its affairs. Their word is law, and both king and queen must obey. They +regulate the swarming, and give the signal for the swarm to issue from the +hive; they select and make ready the tree in the woods and conduct the +queen to it. + +The peculiar office and sacredness of the queen consists in the fact that +she is the mother of the swarm, and the bees love and cherish her as a +mother and not as a sovereign. She is the sole female bee in the hive, and +the swarm clings to her because she is their life. Deprived of their +queen, and of all brood from which to rear one, the swarm loses all heart +and soon dies, though there be an abundance of honey. + +The common bees will never use their sting upon the queen,--if she is to +be disposed of they starve her to death; and the queen herself will sting +nothing but royalty--nothing but a rival queen. + +--John Burroughs: _Birds and Bees_. + + ++Theme LXXXVI.+--_Write an expository theme._ + + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. Duties of the sheriff. + 2. How a motor works. + 3. How wheat is harvested. + 4. Why the tide exists. + 5. How our schoolhouse is ventilated. + 6. What is meant by the theory of evolution. + 7. The manufacture of ----. + 8. How to make a ----. + + +(Consider the arrangement of your statements.) + + ++157. Use of an Outline.+--Before beginning to write an explanation we +need to consider what we know about the subject and what our purpose is; +we need to select facts that will make our explanations clear to our +readers; and we need to decide what arrangement of these facts will best +show their relation to each other. We shall find it of advantage, +especially in lengthy explanations, to express our thoughts in the form of +an outline. An outline helps us to see clearly whether our facts are well +chosen, and it also helps us to see whether the arrangement is orderly or +not. Clearness is above all the essential of exposition, and outlines aid +clearness by giving unity and coherence. + + +EXERCISES + + +Select three of the following subjects and make lists of facts that you +know about them. From these select those which would be necessary in +making a clear explanation of each. After making out these lists of facts, +arrange them in what seems to you the best possible order for making the +explanation clear to your classmates. + + 1. The value of a school library. + 2. Sponges. + 3. The manufacture of clocks. + 4. Drawing. + 5. Athletics in the high school. + 6. Examinations. + 7. Debating societies. + + ++Theme LXXXVII.+--_Following the outline, write an exposition on one of +the subjects chosen._ + + +(Notice the transition from one paragraph to another. See Section 87.) + + ++158. Exposition of Terms--Definition.+--Explanation of the meaning of +general terms is one form of exposition (Section 63). The first step in +the exposition of a term is the giving of a definition. This may be +accomplished by the use of a synonym (Section 64). We make a term +intelligible to the reader by the use of a synonym with which he is +familiar; and though such a definition is inexact, it gives a rough idea +of the meaning of the term in question, and so serves a useful purpose. +If, however, we wish exactness, we shall need to make use of the logical +definition. + + ++159. The Logical Definition.+--The logical definition sets exact limits +to the meaning of a term. An exact definition must include all the members +of a class indicated by the term defined, and it must exclude everything +that does not belong to that class. A logical definition is composed of +two parts. It first names the class to which the term to be defined +belongs, and then it names the characteristic that distinguishes that term +from all other members of the same class. The class is termed the _genus_, +and the distinguishing characteristics of the different members of the +class are termed the _differentia_. Notice the following division into +genus and differentia. + + + TERM TO BE | CLASS | DISTINGUISHING + DEFINED | _(Genus)_ | CHARACTERISTIC + | | _(Differentia)_ + | | +A parallelogram | is a quadrilateral | whose opposite sides + | | are parallel + | | +Exposition | is that form of | which seeks to explain + | discourse | the meaning of a term. + | | + + +Each definition includes three elements: the term to be defined, the +genus, and the differentia; but these are not necessarily arranged in the +order named. + + +EXERCISE + + +Select the three elements (the term to be defined, the genus, and the +differentia) in each of the following:-- + +1. A polygon of three sides is called a triangle. + +2. A square is an equilateral rectangle. + +3. A rectangle whose sides are equal is a square. + +4. Description is that form of discourse which aims to present a picture. + +5. The characters composing written words are called letters. + +6. The olfactory nerves are the first pair of cranial nerves. + +7. Person is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes the +speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or things spoken of. + +8. The diptera, or true flies, are readily distinguishable from other +insects by their having a single pair of wings instead of two pairs, the +hind wings being transformed into small knob-headed pedicles called +balancers or halters. + + ++160. Difficulty of Framing Exact Definitions.+--In order to frame a +logical definition, exactness of thought is essential. Even when the +thought is exact, it will be found difficult and often impossible to frame +a satisfactory definition. Usually there is little difficulty in selecting +the genus, still care should be taken to select one that includes the term +to be defined. We might begin the definition of iron by saying, "Iron is a +metal," since all iron is metal, but it would be incorrect to begin the +definition of rodent by saying, "A rodent is a beaver," because the term +beaver does not include all rodents. We must also take care to choose for +the genus some term familiar to the reader, because the object of the +definition is to make the meaning clear to him. + +The chief difficulty of framing logical definitions arises in the +selection of differentia. In many cases it is not easy to decide just what +characteristics distinguish one member of a class from all other members +of that class. We all know that iron is a metal, but most of us would +find it difficult to add to the definition just those things which +distinguish iron from other metals. We may say, "A flute is a musical +instrument"; so much of the definition is easily given. The difficulty +lies in distinguishing it from all other musical instruments. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Select proper differentia for the following:-- + + | +TERM TO BE DEFINED | CLASS (Genus) | DISTINGUISHING + | | CHARACTERISTIC + | | _(Differentia)_ + | | +1. Narration | is that form of discourse | ? + | | +2. A circle | is a portion of a plane | ? + | | +3. A dog | is an animal | ? + | | +4. A hawk | is a bird | ? + | | +5. Physiography | is the science | ? + | | +6. A sneak | is a person | ? + | | +7. A quadrilateral | is a plane figure | ? + | | +8. A barn | is a building | ? + | | +9. A bicycle | is a machine | ? + | | +10. A lady | is a woman | ? + + +_B._ Give logical definitions for at least four words in the list below. + +1. Telephone. + +2. Square. + +3. Hammer. + +4. Novel + +5. Curiosity. + +6. Door. + +7. Camera. + +8. Brick. + +9. Microscope. + + ++161. Inexact Definitions.+--If the distinguishing characteristics are not +properly selected, the definition though logical in form may be inexact, +because the differentia do not exclude all but the term to be defined. If +we say, "Exposition is that form of discourse which gives information," +the definition is inexact because there are other forms of discourse that +give information. Many definitions given in text-books are inexact. Care +should be taken to distinguish them from those which are logically exact. + + +EXERCISE + + +Which of the following are exact? + +1. A sheep is a gregarious animal that produces wool. + +2. A squash is a garden plant much liked by striped bugs. + +3. A pronoun is a word used for a noun. + +4. The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle and tendon, convex on its upper +side, and attached by bands of striped muscle to the lower ribs at the +side, to the sternum, and to the cartilage of the ribs which join it in +front, and at the back by very strong bands to the lumbar vertebrae. + +5. A man is a two-legged animal without feathers. + +6. Argument is that form of discourse which has for its object the proof +of the truth or falsity of a proposition. + +7. The base of an isosceles triangle is that side which is equal to no +other. + +8. Zinc is a metal used under stoves. + +9. The epidermis of a leaf is a delicate, transparent skin which covers +the whole leaf. + + ++Theme LXXXVIII.+--_Write an expository paragraph about one of the +following:_-- + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. Household science and arts. + 2. Architecture. + 3. Aesthetics. + 4. Poetry. + 5. Fiction. + 6. Half tones. + 7. Steam fitting. + 8. Swimming. + + +(Consider the definitions you have used.) + + ++162. Division.+--The second step in the exposition of a term is division. +Definition establishes the limits of the term. Division separates into its +parts that which is included by the term. By definition we distinguish +triangles from squares, circles, and other plane figures. By division we +may separate them into scalene, isosceles, and equilateral, or if we +divide them according to a different principle into right and oblique +triangles. In either case the division is complete and exact. By +completeness is meant that every object denoted by the term explained is +included in the division given, thus making the sum of these divisions +equal to the whole. By exactness is meant that but a single principle has +been used, and so no object denoted by the term explained will be included +in more than one of the divisions made. There are no triangles which are +neither right nor oblique, so the division is complete; and no triangle +can be both right and oblique, so the division is exact. Such a complete +and exact division is called _classification_. + +Nearly every term may be divided according to more than one principle. We +may divide the term _books_ into ancient and modern, or into religious and +secular, or in any one of a dozen other ways. Which principle of division +we shall choose will depend upon our purpose. If we wish to discuss +_sponges_ with reference to their shapes, our division will be different +from what it would be if we were to discuss them with reference to their +uses. When a principle of division has once been chosen it is essential +that it be followed throughout. The use of two principles causes an +overlapping of divisions, thus producing what is called cross division. +Using the principle of use, a tailor may sort his bolts of cloth into +cloth for overcoats, cloth for suits, and cloth for trousers; using the +principle of weight, into heavy weight and light weight; or he may sort +them with reference to color or price. In any case but a single principle +is used. It would not do to divide them into cloth for suits, light weight +goods, and brown cloth. Such a division would be neither complete nor +exact; for some of the cloth would belong to none of the classes while +other pieces might properly be placed in all three. + +In the exact sciences complete exposition is the aim, and classification +is necessary; but in other writing the purpose in hand is often better +accomplished by omitting minor divisions. A writer of history might +consider the political growth, the wars, and the religion of a nation and +omit its domestic life and educational progress, especially if these did +not greatly influence the result that he wishes to make plain. If we +wished to explain the plan of the organization of a high school, it would +be satisfactory to divide the pupils into freshmen, sophomores, juniors, +and seniors, even though, in any particular school, there might be a few +special and irregular pupils who belonged to none of these classes. +An exposition of the use of hammers would omit many occasional and +unimportant uses. Such a classification though exact is incomplete and is +called _partition_. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Can you tell which of the following are classifications? Which are +partitions? Which are defective? + + +1. The inhabitants of the United States are Americans, Indians, and +negroes. + +2. Lines are straight, curved, and crooked. + +3. Literature is composed of prose, poetry, and fiction. + +4. The political parties in the last campaign were Republican and +Democrat. + +5. The United States Government has control of states and territories + +6. Plants are divided into two groups: (1) the phanerogams, or flowering +plants, and (2) cryptogams, or flowerless plants. + +7. All phanerogamous plants consist of (1) root and (2) shoot; the shoot +consisting of (_a_) stem and (_b_) leaf. It is true that some exceptional +plants, in maturity, lack leaves, or lack root. These exceptions are few. + +8. We may divide the activities of the government into: keeping order, +making law, protecting individual rights, providing public schools, +providing and mending roads, caring for the destitute, carrying the mail, +managing foreign relations, making war, and collecting taxes. + + +_B_. Notice the following paragraphs, State briefly the divisions made. + + ++1. Plan of the Book.+--What is government? Who is the government? We +shall begin by considering the American answers to these questions. + +What does The Government do? That will be our next inquiry. And with +regard to the ordinary practical work of government, we shall see that +government in the United States is not very different from government in +the other civilized countries of the world. + +Then we shall inquire how government officials are chosen in the United +States, and how the work of government is parceled out among them. This +part of the book will show what is meant by self-government and local +self-government, and will show that our system differs from European +systems chiefly in these very matters of self-government and local +self-government. + +Coming then to the details of our subject, we shall consider the names and +duties of the principal officials in the United States; first, those of +the township, county, and city, then those of the state, and then those of +the federal government. + +Finally, we shall examine certain operations in the American system, such +as a trial in court, and nominations for office, and conclude with an +outline of international relations, and a summary of the commonest laws of +business and property. + +--Clark: _The Government_. + + +2. +Zoölogy and its Divisions.+--What things we do know about the dog, +however, and about its relatives, and what things others know can be +classified into several groups; namely, things or facts about what a dog +does or its behavior, things about the make-up of its body, things about +its growth and development, things about the kind of dog it is and the +kinds of relatives it has, and things about its relations to the outer +world and its special fitness for life. + +All that is known of these different kinds of facts about the dog +constitutes our knowledge of the dog and its life. All that is known by +scientific men and others of these different kinds of facts about all the +500,000 or more kinds of living animals, constitutes our knowledge of +animals and is the science _zoölogy_. Names have been given to these +different groups of facts about animals. The facts about the bodily +make-up or structure of animals constitute that part of zoölogy called +animal _anatomy_ or _morphology;_ the facts about the things animals do, +or the functions of animals, compose animal _physiology;_ the facts about +the development of animals from young to adult condition are the facts of +animal _development;_ the knowledge of the different kinds of animals and +their relationships to each other is called _systematic_ zoölogy or animal +_classification;_ and finally the knowledge of the relations of animals to +their external surroundings, including the inorganic world, plants and +other animals, is called animal _ecology_. + +Any study of animals and their life, that is, of zoölogy, may include all +or any of these parts of zoölogy. + +--Kellogg: _Elementary Zoölogy_. + + +3. Are not these outlines of American destiny in the near-by future +rational? In these papers an attempt has been made:-- + +First, to picture the physical situation and equipment of the American in +the modern world. + +Second, to outline the large and fundamental elements of American +character, which are:-- + + (_a_) Conservatism--moderation, thoughtfulness, and poise. + (_b_) Thoroughness--conscientious performance, to the minutest detail, + of any work which we as individuals or people may have in hand. + (_c_) Justice--that spirit which weighs with the scales of righteousness + our conduct toward each other and our conduct as a nation toward + the world. + (_d_) Religion--the sense of dependence upon and responsibility to the + Higher Power; the profound American belief that our destiny is in + His hands. + (_e_) The minor elements of American character--such as the tendency to + organize, the element of humor, impatience with frauds, and the + movement in American life toward the simple and sincere. + +--Beveridge: _Americans of To-day and To-morrow_. + + + _C._ Consult the table of contents or opening chapters of any text-book +and notice the main divisions. + + _D._ Find in text-books five examples of classification or division. + + _E._ Make one or more divisions of each of the following:-- + + 1. The pupils in your school. + 2. Your neighbors. + 3. The books in the school library. + 4. The buildings you see on the way to school. + 5. The games you know how to play. + 6. Dogs. + 7. Results of competition. + + ++Theme LXXXIX.+--_Write an introductory paragraph showing what divisions +you, would make if called upon, to write about one of the following +topics:_-- + +1. Mathematics. + +2. The school system of our city. + +3. The churches of our town. + +4. Methods of transportation. + +5. Our manufacturing interests. + +6. Games that girls like. + +7. The inhabitants of the United States. + + +(Have you mentioned all important divisions of your subject? Have you +included any minor and unimportant divisions? Consider other possible +principles of division of your subject. Have you chosen the one best +suited to your purpose?) + + ++163. Exposition of a Proposition.+--Two terms united into a sentence so +that one is affirmed of the other become a proposition. Propositions, like +terms, may be either specific or general. "Napoleon was ambitious" is a +specific proposition; "Politicians are ambitious" is a general one. + +When a proposition is presented to the mind, its meaning may not at once +be clear. The obscurity may arise from the fact that some of the terms in +the proposition are unfamiliar, or are obscure, or misleading. In this +case the first step, and often the only step necessary, is the explanation +of the terms in the proposition. The following selection taken from +Dewey's _Psychology_ illustrates the exposition of a proposition by +explaining its terms:-- + + +The habitual act thus occurs automatically and mechanically. When we say +that it occurs automatically, we mean that it takes place, as it were, of +itself, spontaneously, without the intervention of the will. By saying +that it is mechanical, we mean that there exists no consciousness of the +process involved, nor of the relation of the means, the various muscular +adjustments, to the end, locomotion. + + +It is possible for our listeners or readers to understand each term in a +proposition and yet not be able to understand the meaning of the +proposition as a whole. When this is the case, we shall find it necessary +to make use of methods of exposition discussed later. + + +EXERCISES + + +Explain orally the following propositions by explaining any of the terms +likely to be unfamiliar or misunderstood: + +1. The purpose of muscular contraction is the production of motion. + +2. Ping-pong is lawn tennis in miniature, with a few modifications. + +3. An inevitable dualism bisects nature. + +4. Never inflict corporal chastisement for intellectual faults. + +5. Children should be led to make their own investigations and to draw +their own inferences. + +6. The black willow is an excellent tonic as well as a powerful +antiseptic. + +7. Give the Anglo-Saxon equivalent for "nocturnal." + +8. A negative exponent signifies the reciprocal of what the expression +would be if the exponent were positive. + + ++Theme XC.+--_Write an explanation of one of the following:_ + +1. Birds of a feather flock together. + +2. Truths and roses have thorns about them. + +3. Where there's a will, there's a way. + +4. Who keeps company with a wolf will learn to howl. + +5. He gives nothing but worthless gold, who gives from a sense of duty. + +6. All things that are, +Are with more spirit chased than enjoyed. + +7. Be not simply good--be good for something. + +8. He that hath light within his own clear breast, May sit i' the center, +and enjoy bright day; But he that hides a dark soul and foul thoughts +Benighted walks under the midday sun; Himself is his own dungeon. + + +(Select the sentence that seems most difficult to you, determine what it +means, and then attempt to make an explanation that will show that you +thoroughly understand its meaning.) + + ++164. Exposition by Repetition.+--In discussing paragraph development +(Section 50) we have already learned that the meaning of a proposition may +be made clearer by the repetition of the topic statement. This repetition +may be used to supplement the definition of terms, or it may by itself +make clear both the meaning of the terms and of the proposition. Each +repetition of the proposition presents it to the reader in a new light or +in a stronger light. Each time the idea is presented it seems more +definite, more familiar, more clear. Such statements of a proposition take +advantage of the fact that the reader is thinking, and we merely attempt +to direct his thought in such a way that he will turn the proposition over +and over in his mind until it is understood. + +Notice how the following propositions are explained largely by means of +repetitions, each of which adds a little to the original statement. + + +How to live?--that is the essential question for us. Not how to live in +the mere material sense only, but in the widest sense. The general +problem, which comprehends every special problem, is the right ruling of +conduct in all directions under all circumstances. In what way to treat +the body; in what way to treat the mind; in what way to manage our +affairs; in what way to bring up a family; in what way to behave as a +citizen; in what way to utilize all those sources of happiness which +nature supplies--how to use all our faculties to the greatest advantage of +ourselves and others--how to live completely? And this being the great +thing needful for us to learn, is, by consequence, the great thing which +education has to teach. To prepare us for complete living is the function +which education has to discharge: and the only radical mode of judging of +any educational course, is, to judge in what degree it discharges such +functions. + +--Herbert Spencer: _Education_. + + +The gray squirrel is remarkably graceful in all his movements. It seems as +though some subtle curve was always produced by the line of the back and +tail at every light bound of the athletic little creature. He never moves +abruptly or jerks himself impatiently, as the red squirrel is continually +doing. On the contrary, all his movements are measured and deliberate, but +swift and sure. He never makes a bungling leap, and his course is marked +by a number of sinuous curves almost equal to those of a snake. He is here +one minute, and the next he has slipped away almost beyond the ability of +our eyes to follow. + +--F. Schuyler Matthews: _American Nut Gatherers_. + + ++Theme XCI.+--_Write a paragraph explaining one of the propositions below +by means of repetition._ + +1. Physical training should be made compulsory in the high school. + +2. Some people who seem to be selfish are not really so. + +3. The dangers of athletic contests are overestimated. + +4. The Monroe Doctrine is a warning to European powers to keep their hands +off territory in North and South America. + +5. By the "treadmill of life" we mean the daily routine of duties. + +6. The thirst for novelty is one of the most powerful incentives that take +a man to distant countries. + +7. There are unquestionably increasing opportunities for an honorable and +useful career in the civil service of the United States. + + +(Have you used any method besides that of repetition? Does your paragraph +really explain the proposition?) + + ++165. Exposition by Use of Examples.+--Exposition treats of general +subjects, and the topic statement of a paragraph is, therefore, a general +statement. In order to understand what such a general statement means, the +reader may need to think of a concrete case. The writer may develop his +paragraph by furnishing concrete cases. (See Section 44.) In many cases no +further explanation is necessary. + +The following paragraph illustrates this method of explanation:-- + + +The lower portions of stream valleys which have sunk below sea level are +called _drowned valleys_. The lower St. Lawrence is perhaps the greatest +example of a drowned valley in the world, but many other rivers are in the +same condition. The old channel of the Hudson River may be traced upon the +sea bottom about 125 miles beyond its present mouth, and its valley is +drowned as far up as Troy, 150 miles. The sea extends up the Delaware +River to Trenton, and Chesapeake Bay with its many arms is the drowned +valleys of the Susquehanna and its former tributaries. Many of the most +famous harbors in the world, as San Francisco Bay, Puget Sound, the +estuaries of the Thames and the Mersey, and the Scottish firths, are +drowned valleys. + +--Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_. + + ++Theme XCII.+--_Develop one of the following topic statements into an +expository paragraph by use of examples:_-- + +1. Weather depends to a great extent upon winds. + +2. Progress in civilization has been materially aided by the use of nails. + +3. Habit is formed by the repetition of the same act. + +4. Men become criminals by a gradual process. + +5. Men's lives are affected by small things. + +6. Defeat often proves to be real success. + + +(Have you made your meaning clear? Does your example really illustrate the +topic statement? Can you think of other illustrations?) + + ++166. Exposition by Comparison or Contrast.+--We can frequently make our +explanations clear by comparing the subject under discussion with +something that is already familiar to the reader. In such a case we shall +need to show in what respect the subject we are explaining is similar to +or differs from that with which it is compared. (Section 48.) Though +customary it is not necessary to compare the term under discussion with +some well-known term. In the example below the term _socialism_ is +probably no more familiar than the term _anarchism_. Both are explained in +the selection, and the explanations are made clearer by contrasting the +one with the other. + + +Socialism, which is curiously confounded by the indiscriminating with +Anarchism, is its exact opposite. Anarchy is the doctrine that there +should be no government control; Socialism--that is, State Socialism--is +the doctrine that government should control everything. State Socialism +affirms that the state--that is, the government--should own all the tools +and implements of industry, should direct all occupations, and should give +to every man according to his need and require from every man according to +his ability. State Socialism points to the evils of overproduction in some +fields and insufficient production in others, under our competitive +system, and proposes to remedy these evils by assigning to government the +duty of determining what shall be produced and what each worker shall +produce. If there are too many preachers and too few shoemakers, the +preacher will be taken from the pulpit and assigned to the bench; if there +are too many shoemakers and too few preachers, the shoemaker will be taken +from the bench and assigned to the pulpit. Anarchy says, no government; +Socialism says, all government; Anarchy leaves the will of the individual +absolutely unfettered, Socialism leaves nothing to the individual will; +Anarchism would have no social organism which is not dependent on the +entirely voluntary assent of each individual member of the organism at +every instant of its history; Socialism would have every individual of the +social organism wholly subordinate in all his lifework to the authority of +the whole body expressed through its properly constituted officers. It is +true that there are some writers who endeavor to unite these two +antagonistic doctrines by teaching that society should be organized wholly +for industry, not at all for government. But how a coöperative industry +can be carried on without a government which controls as well as counsels, +no writer, so far as I have been able to discover, has ever even +suggested. + +--Lyman Abbott: _Anarchism: Its Cause and Cure_. + + ++Theme XCIII.+--_Write an exposition that makes use of comparison:_-- + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. A bad habit is a tyrant. + 2. Typewritten letters. + 3. The muskrat's house. + 4. Compare Shylock with Barabas in Marlowe's _Jew of Malta_. + 5. Methods of reading. + 6. All the world's a stage. + 7. Compare life to a flower. + +(Can you suggest any other comparisons which you might have used? Have you +been careful in your selection of facts and arrangement?) + + ++167. Exposition by Obverse Statements.+--In explaining an idea it is +necessary to distinguish it from any related or similar idea with which it +may be confused in the minds of our readers. Clearness is added by the +statement that one is _not_ the other. To say that socialism is not +anarchy is a good preparation for the explanation of what socialism really +is. In the following selection Burke excludes different kinds of peace and +by this exclusion emphasizes the kind of peace which he has in mind. + + +The proposition is peace. Not peace through the medium of war; not peace +to be hunted through the labyrinth of intricate and endless negotiations; +not peace to arise out of universal discord, fomented from principle, +in all parts of the empire; not peace to depend on the juridical +determination of perplexing questions, or the precise marking the shadowy +boundaries of a complex government. It is simple peace; sought in its +natural course, and in its ordinary haunts.--It is peace sought in the +spirit of peace; and laid in principles purely pacific. I propose, by +removing the ground of the difference, and by restoring the _former +unsuspecting confidence of the colonies in the Mother Country_, to give +permanent satisfaction to your people; and (far from a scheme of ruling by +discord) to reconcile them to each other in the same act, and by the bond +of the very same interest which reconciles them to British government. + + ++168. Exposition by Giving Particulars or Details.+--One of the most +natural methods of explaining is to give particulars or details. After a +general statement has been made, our minds naturally look for details to +make the meaning of that statement clearer. (See Sections 45-47.) This +method is used very largely in generalized descriptions and narrations. + +Notice the use of particulars or details in the following examples:-- + + +Happy the boy who knows the secret of making a willow whistle! He must +know the best kind of willow for the purpose, and the exact time of year +when the bark will slip. The country boy seems to know these things by +instinct. When the day for whistles arrives he puts away marbles and hunts +the whetstone. His jackknife must be in good shape, for the making of a +whistle is a delicate piece of handicraft. The knife has seen service in +mumblepeg and as nut pick since whistle-making time last year. Surrounded +by a crowd of spectators, some admiring, some skeptical, the boy selects +his branch. There is an air of mystery about the proceeding. With a +patient indulgent smile he rejects all offers of assistance. He does not +attempt to explain why this or that branch will not do. When finally he +raises his shining knife and cuts the branch on which his choice has +fallen, all crowd round and watch. From the large end between two twigs he +takes a section about six inches long. Its bark is light green and smooth. +He trims one end neatly and passes his thumb thoughtfully over it to be +sure it is finished to his taste. He then cuts the other end of the stick +at an angle of about 45°, making a clean single cut. The sharp edge of +this is now cut off to make a mouthpiece. This is a delicate operation, +for the bark is apt to crush or split if the knife is dull, or the hand is +unskillful. The boy holds it up, inspecting his own work critically. +Sometimes he is dissatisfied and cuts again. If he makes a third cut and +is still unsuccessful he tosses the spoiled piece away. It is too short +now. A half dozen eager hands reach for the discarded stick, and the one +who gets it fondles it lovingly. I once had such a treasure and cherished +it until I learned the secret of the whistle-maker's art. He next places +the knife edge about half an inch back from the end of the mouthpiece and +cuts straight towards the center of the branch about one-fourth the way +through. A three-cornered piece is now cut out, and the chip falls to the +ground unheeded. + +When this is finished the boy's eye runs along the stick with a +calculating squint. The knife edge is placed at the middle, then moved a +short distance towards the mouthpiece. With skillful hand he cuts through +the bark in a perfect circle round the stick. While we watch in fascinated +silence, he takes the knife by the blade and resting the unfinished +whistle on his knees he strikes firmly but gently the part of the stick +between the ring and the mouthpiece. Only the wooden part of the handle +touches the bark. He goes over and over it until every spot on its surface +has felt his light blow. Now he lays the knife aside, and grasping the +stick with a firm hand below the ring in the bark, with the right hand he +holds the pounded end. He tries it with a careful twist. It sticks. Back +to his knees it goes and the tap, tap, begins again. When he twists it +again it slips, and the bark comes off smoothly in one piece, while we +breathe a sigh of relief. How white the stick is under the bark! It shines +and looks slippery. Now the boy takes his knife again. He cuts towards the +straight jog where the chip was taken out, paring the wood away, sloping +up to within an inch of the end of the bark. Now he cuts a thin slice of +the wood between the edge of the vertical cut and the mouthpiece. + +The whistle is nearly finished. We have all seen him make them before and +know what comes next. Our tongues seek over moist lips sympathetically, +for we know the taste of peeled willow. He puts the end of the stick into +his mouth and draws it in and out until it is thoroughly wet. Then he +lifts the carefully guarded section of bark and slips it back into place, +fitting the parts nicely together. + +The willow whistle is finished. There remains but to try it. Will it go? +Does he dare blow into it and risk our jeers if it is dumb? + +With all the fine certainty of the Pied Piper the boy lifts the humble +instrument to his lips. His eyes have a far-off look, his face changes; +while we strain eyes and ears, he takes his own time. The silence is +broken by a note, so soft, so tender, yet so weird and unlike other +sounds! Our hands quiver, our hearts beat faster. It is as if the spirit +of the willow tree had joined with the spirit of childhood in the natural +song of earth. + +It goes! + +--Mary Rogers Miller: _The Brook Book_. +(Copyright, 1902, Doubleday, Page and Co.) + + ++Theme XCIV.+--_Write an exposition on one of the following +subjects, making use of particulars or details:_-- + + 1. How ice cream is made. + 2. The cultivation of rice. + 3. Greek architecture. + 4. How paper is made. + 5. A tornado. + 6. Description of a steam engine. + 7. The circulatory system of a frog. + 8. A western ranch. + 9. Street furniture. + 10. A street fair. + +(Have you used particulars sufficient to make your meaning clear? Have you +used any unnecessary particulars? Why is the arrangement of your topics +easy in this theme?) + + ++169. Exposition by Cause and Effect.+--When our general statement is in +the form of a cause or causes, the question naturally arises in our mind +as to the effects resulting from those causes. In like manner, when the +general statement takes the form of an effect, we want to know what the +causes are that produce such an effect. From the very nature of exposition +we may expect to find much of this kind of discourse relating to causes +and effects. (See Section 49.) + +Notice the following example:-- + + +The effect of the polar whirls may be seen in the rapid rotation of water +in a pan or bowl. The centrifugal force throws the water away from the +center, where the surface becomes depressed, and piles it up around the +sides, where the surface becomes elevated. The water being deeper at the +sides than at the center, its pressure upon the bottom is proportionately +greater. A similar effect is produced by the whirl of the air around the +polar regions. It is thrown away from the polar regions and piled up +around the circumference of the whirl. There is less air above the polar +regions than above latitude 30°-40°, and the atmospheric pressure is +correspondingly low at one place and high at the other. Thus the +centrifugal force of the polar whirl makes the pressure low in spite of +the low temperature. The position of the tropical belts of high pressure +is a resultant of the high temperature of the equatorial regions on one +side and the polar whirls on the other. + +--Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_. + + ++Theme XCV.+--_Write an expository theme using cause or effect._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + + 1. The causes of the French Revolution. + 2. How ravines are formed. + 3. Irrigation. + 4. Effects of smoking. + 5. Lack of exercise. + 6. Volcanic eruptions. + + +(Did you find it necessary to make use of any other method of explanation? +Did you make use of description in any place?) + + +SUMMARY + + +1. Exposition is that form of discourse the purpose of which is to + explain. + +2. The essential characteristics of an exposition are-- + _a._ That it possess unity because it contains only those facts + essential to its purpose. + _b._ That the facts used be arranged in a coherent order. + +3. Exposition is concerned with (_a_) general terms or (_b_) general + propositions. + +4. The steps in the exposition of a term are-- + _a._ Definition. This may be-- + (1) By synonym (inexact). + (2) By use of the logical definition (exact). + _b._ Division. This may be-- + (1) Complete (classification). + (2) Incomplete (partition). + The same principle of division should be followed throughout. + +5. Exposition of a proposition may use any one of the +following methods-- + _a._ By repetition. + _b._ By giving examples. + _c._ By stating comparisons and contrasts. + _d._ By making obverse statements. + _e._ By relating particulars or details. + _f._ By stating cause or effect. + _g._ By any suitable combination of these methods. + + + +XI. ARGUMENT + + ++170. Difference between Argument and Exposition.+--Argument differs from +exposition in its purpose. By exposition we endeavor to make clear the +meaning of a proposition; by argument we attempt to prove its truth. If a +person does not understand what we mean, we explain; if, after he does +understand, he does not believe, we argue. + +Often a simple explanation is sufficient to convince. As soon as the +reader understands the real meaning of a proposition, he accepts our view +of the case. A heated discussion may end with the statement, "Oh, if that +is what you mean, I agree with you." In Section 70, we have learned that +the first step in argument is explanation, by which we make clear the +meaning of the proposition the truth of which we wish to establish. +This explanation may include both the expounding of the terms in the +proposition and the explanation of the proposition as a whole. + +There is another difference between exposition and argument. We cannot +argue about single terms, though we may explain them. We may explain what +is meant by the term _elective studies_, or _civil service;_ but an +argument requires a proposition such as, Pupils should be allowed to +choose their own studies, or, Civil Service should be established. Even +with such a topic as Expansion or Restricted Immigration, which seems to +be a subject of argument, there is really an implied proposition under +discussion; as, The United States should acquire control of territory +outside of its present boundaries; or, It should be the policy of our +government to restrict immigration. We may explain the meaning of +single terms or of propositions, but in order to argue, we must have a +proposition either expressed or implied. + + ++171. Proposition of Fact and Proposition of Theory.+--Some propositions +state facts and some propositions state theories. Every argument therefore +aims either to prove the occurrence of a fact or the truth of a theory. +The first would attempt to show the actual or probable truth of a specific +proposition; for example:-- + + + Nero was guilty of burning Rome. + Joan of Arc was burned at the stake. + Barbara Frietchie actually existed. + Sheridan never made the ride from Winchester. + Homer was born at Chios. + + +The second would try to establish the probable truth of a general theory; +for example:-- + + + A college education is a profitable investment. + Light is caused by a wave motion of ether. + + ++172. Statement of the Proposition.+--The subject about which we argue may +be stated in any one of the three forms discussed in Section 74; that is, +as a declarative sentence, a resolution, or a question. The statement does +not necessarily appear first in the argument, but it must be clearly +formulated in the mind of the writer before he attempts to argue. Before +trying to convince others he must know exactly what he himself believes, +and the attempt to state his belief in the form of a proposition will +assist in making his own thought clear and definite. + +If we are going to argue concerning elective studies, we should first of +all be sure that we understand the meaning of the term ourselves. Then +we must consider carefully what we believe about it, and state our +proposition so that it shall express exactly this belief. On first thought +we may believe the proposition that pupils should be allowed to choose +their own studies. But is this proposition true of pupils in the grades as +well as in the high schools? Or is it true only of the upper classes +in the high school or only of college students? Can you state this +proposition so that it will express your own belief on the subject? + + +EXERCISES + + +_A_. Use the following terms in expressed propositions:-- + + 1. Immigration. + 2. Elevated railways. + 3. American history. + 4. Military training. + 5. Single session. + 6. Athletics. + +_B_. Explain the following propositions:-- + + 1. The United States should adopt a free-trade policy. + 2. Is vivisection justifiable? + 3. The author has greater influence than the orator. + 4. The civil service system should be abolished. + 5. The best is always cheapest. + +_C_. Can you restate the following propositions so that +the meaning of each will be made more definite? + +1. Athletics should be abolished. (Should _all_ athletic exercises be + abolished?) + +2. Latin is better than algebra. (_Better_ for what purpose? _Better_ for + whom?) + +3. Training in domestic arts and sciences should be provided for high + school pupils. (Define domestic arts and sciences. Should they be + taught to _all_ high school pupils?) + +4. Punctuality is more important than efficiency. + +5. The commercial course is better than the classical course. + +6. A city should control the transportation facilities within its limits. + + ++Theme XCVI.+--_Write out an argument favoring one of the propositions as +restated in Exercise C above._ + +(Before writing, make a brief as indicated in Section 77. Consider the +arrangement of your argument.) + + ++173. Clear Thinking Essential to Argument.+--Having clearly in mind the +proposition which we wish to prove, we next proceed to give arguments in +its support. The very fact that we argue at all assumes that there are two +sides to the question. If we hope to have another accept our view we must +present good reasons. We cannot convince another that a proposition is +true unless we can tell him why it is true; and certainly we cannot tell +him why until we know definitely our own reasons for believing the +statement. In order to present a good argument we must be clear logical +thinkers ourselves; that is, we must be able to state definite reasons for +our beliefs and to draw the correct conclusions. + + ++174. Inductive Reasoning.+--One of the best preparations for trying to +convince others is for us to consider carefully our own reasons for +believing as we do. Minds act in a similar manner, and what leads you and +me to believe certain truths will be likely to cause others to believe +them also. A brief consideration of how our belief in the truth of a +proposition has been established will indicate the way in which we should +present our material in order to cause others to believe the same +proposition. If you ask yourself the question, What leads me to believe as +I do? the answer will undoubtedly be effective in convincing others. + +Are the following propositions true or false? Why do +you believe or refuse to believe each? + + 1. Maple trees shed their leaves in winter. + 2. Dogs bark. + 3. Kettles are made of iron. + 4. Grasshoppers jump. + 5. Giraffes have long necks. + 6. Raccoons sleep in the daytime. + 7. The sun will rise to-morrow. + 8. Examinations are not fair tests of a pupil's knowledge. + 9. Honest people are respected. + 10. Water freezes at 32° Fahrenheit. + 11. Boys get higher standings in mathematics than girls do. + + +It is at once evident that we believe a proposition such as one of +these, because we have known of many examples. If we reject any of the +propositions it is because we know of exceptions (we have seen kettles not +made of iron), or because we do not know of instances (we may never have +seen a raccoon, and so not know what he does in the daytime). The greater +the number of cases which have occurred without presenting an exception, +the stronger our belief in the truth of the proposition (we expect the sun +to rise because it has never failed). + +The process by which, from many individual cases, we establish the truth +of a proposition is called +inductive reasoning+. + + ++175. Establishing a General Theory.+--A general theory is established by +showing that for all known particular cases it will offer an acceptable +explanation. By investigation or experiment we note that a certain fact is +true in one particular instance, and, after a large number of individual +cases have been noted, and the same fact found to be true in each, we +assume that such is true of all like cases, and a general law is +established. This is the natural scientific method and is constantly being +made use of in pursuing scientific studies. By experiment, it was found +that one particular kind of acid turned blue litmus red. This, of course, +was not sufficient proof to establish a general law, but when, upon +further investigation, it was found to be true of all known acids, +scientists felt justified in stating the general law that acids turn blue +litmus red. + +In establishing a new theory in science it is necessary to bring forward +many facts which seem to establish it, and the argument will consist in +pointing out these facts. Frequently the general principle is assumed to +be true, and the argument then consists in showing that it will apply to +and account for all the facts of a given kind. Theories which have been +for a time believed have, as the world progressed in learning, been found +unable to account for all of a given class of conditions. They have been +replaced, therefore, by other theories, just as the Copernican theory of +astronomy has displaced the Ptolemaic theory. + +Our belief may be based upon the absence of facts proving the contrary as +well as upon the presence of facts proving the proposition. If A has never +told an untruth, that fact is an argument in favor of his truthfulness on +the present occasion. A man who has never been dishonest may point to this +as an argument in favor of placing him in a position of trust. Often the +strongest evidence that we can offer in favor of a proposition is the +absence of any fact that would support the negative conclusion. + +The point of the whole matter is that from the observation of a large +number of cases, we may establish the _probable_ truth of a proposition, +but emphasis needs to be laid upon the probability. We cannot be sure. Not +all crows are black, though you may never have seen a white one. The sun +may not rise to-morrow, though it has never failed up to this time. Still +it is by this observation of many individual cases that the truth of the +propositions that men do believe has been established. We realize that our +inductions are often imperfect, but the general truths so established will +be found to underlie every process of reasoning, and will be either +directly or indirectly the basis upon which we build up all argument. + +We may then redefine inductive reasoning as the process by which from +many individual cases we establish the _probable_ truth of a general +proposition. + + +EXERCISES + + +Notice in the following selections that the truth of the conclusion is +shown by giving particular examples:-- + + +1. It is curious enough that _we always remember people by their worst +points_, and still more curious that _we always suppose that we ourselves +are remembered by our best_. I once knew a hunchback who had a well-shaped +hand, and was continually showing it. He never believed that anybody +noticed his hump, but lived and died in the conviction that the whole town +spoke of him no otherwise than as the man with the beautiful hand, +whereas, in fact, they only looked at his hump, and never so much as +noticed whether he had a hand at all. This young lady, so pretty and so +clever, is simply the girl who had that awkward history with So-and-so; +that man, who has some of the very greatest qualities, is nothing more +than the one who behaved so badly on such an occasion. It is a terrible +thing to think that we are all always at watch one upon the other, to +catch the false step in order that we may have the grateful satisfaction +of holding our neighbor for one who cannot walk straight. No regard is +paid to the better qualities and acts, however numerous; all the attention +is fixed upon the worst, however slight. If St. Peter were alive he would +be known as the man who denied his Master; St. Paul would be the man who +stoned Stephen; and St. Thomas would never be mentioned in any decent +society without allusions to that unfortunate request for further +evidence. Probably this may be the reason why we all have so much greater +a contempt for and distrust of each other than would be warranted by a +correct balance between the good and the evil that are in each. + +--Thomas Gibson Bowles: _Flotsam and Jetsam_. + + + +2. In the first place, 227 withered leaves of various kinds, mostly of +English plants, were pulled out of worm burrows in several places. Of +these, 181 had been drawn into the burrows by or near their tips, so that +the footstalk projected nearly upright from the mouth of the burrow; 20 +had been drawn in by their bases, and in this case the tips projected from +the burrows; and 26 had been seized near the middle, so that these had +been drawn in transversely and were much crumpled. Therefore 80 per cent +(always using the nearest whole number) had been drawn in by the tip, 9 +per cent by the base or footstalk, and 11 per cent transversely or by the +middle. This alone is almost sufficient to show that _chance does not +determine the manner in which leaves are dragged into the burrows_. + +--Darwin: _Vegetable Mold and Earthworms_. + + +3. _The catastrophe of every play is caused always by the folly or fault +of a man; the redemption, if there be any, is by the wisdom and virtue of +a woman, and, failing that, there is none_. The catastrophe of King +Lear is owing to his own want of judgment, his impatient vanity, his +misunderstanding of his children; the virtue of his one true daughter +would have saved him from all the injuries of the others, unless he had +cast her away from him; as it is, she all but saves him. Of Othello, I +need not trace the tale; nor the one weakness of his so mighty love; nor +the inferiority of his perceptive intellect to that even of the second +woman character in the play, the Emilia who dies in wild testimony against +his error:-- + +"Oh, murderous coxcomb! what should such a fool +Do with so good a wife?" + +In _Romeo and Juliet_, the wise and brave stratagem of the wife is brought +to ruinous issue by the reckless impatience of her husband. In _The +Winter's Tale_, and in _Cymbeline_, the happiness and existence of two +princely households, lost through long years, and imperiled to the death +by the folly and obstinacy of the husbands, are redeemed at last by the +queenly patience and wisdom of the wives. In _Measure for Measure_, the +foul injustice of the judge, and the foul cowardice of the brother, are +opposed to the victorious truth and adamantine purity of a woman. In +_Coriolanus_, the mother's counsel, acted upon in time, would have saved +her son from all evil; his momentary forgetfulness of it is his ruin; her +prayer, at last, granted, saves him--not, indeed, from death, but from the +curse of living as the destroyer of his country. + +--Ruskin: _Sesame and Lilies_. + + +4. + + _Bas. _So may the outward shows be least themselves; +_The world is still deceived with ornament_. +In law, what plea so tainted and corrupt +But, being season'd with a gracious voice, +Obscures the show of evil? In religion, +What damned error, but some sober brow +Will bless it and approve it with a text, +Hiding the grossness with fair ornament? +There is no vice so simple but assumes +Some mark of virtue on his outward parts: +How many cowards, whose hearts are all as false +As stairs of sand, wear yet upon their chins +The beards of Hercules and frowning Mars, +Who, inward search'd, have livers white as milk; +And these assume but valor's excrement +To render them redoubted! Look on beauty, +And you shall see 'tis purchased by the weight; +Which therein works a miracle in nature, +Making them lightest that wear most of it: +So are those crisped snaky golden locks +Which make such wanton gambols with the wind, +Upon supposed fairness, often known +To be the dowry of a second head, +The skull that bred them in the sepulcher. +Thus ornament is but the guiled shore +To a most dangerous sea; the beauteous scarf +Veiling an Indian beauty; in a word, +The seeming truth which cunning times put on +To entrap the wisest. Therefore, thou gaudy gold, +Hard food for Midas, I will none of thee; +Nor none of thee, thou pale and common drudge +'Tween man and man: but thou, though meager lead, +Which rather threatenest than dost promise aught, +Thy paleness moves me more than eloquence; +And here choose I: joy be the consequence! + +--Shakespeare: _The Merchant of Venice_. + + ++Theme XCVII.+--_Write a paragraph proving the truth of one of the +following statements:_-- + +1. It is a distinct advantage to a large town to be connected with the +smaller towns by electric car lines. + +2. Vertical penmanship should be taught in all elementary schools. + +3. Examinations develop dishonesty. + +4. Novel reading is a waste of time. + +5. Tramps ought not to be fed. + +(Make a brief. Consider the arrangement of your arguments. Read Section +72.) + + ++176. Errors of Induction.+--A common error is that of too hasty +generalization. We conclude that something is always so because it +happened to be so in the few cases that have come under our observation. A +broader experience frequently shows that the hastily made generalization +will not hold. + +Some people are led to lose faith in all humanity because one or two of +their acquaintances have shown themselves unworthy of their trust. Others +are ready to pronounce a merchant dishonest because some article purchased +at his store has not proved to be so good as it was expected to be. There +are those who are superstitious concerning the wearing of opals, claiming +that these jewels bring the wearer ill luck, because they have heard of +some instances where misfortune seemed to follow the wearing of that +particular stone. What may seem to be causes and effects at first may, +upon further investigation or inquiry, prove to be merely chance +coincidences. In your work in argument, whether for the class room or +outside, be careful about this point. Remember that your induction will be +weak or even worthless if you draw conclusions from too few examples. + +Often one example seems sufficient to cause belief. We might believe that +all giraffes have long necks, even though we had seen but one; but such a +belief would exist because, by many examples of other animals, we have +learned that a single specimen will fairly represent all other specimens +of the same class. On the other hand, if this one giraffe should possess +one brown eye and one white eye, we should not expect all other giraffes +to have such eyes, for our observation of many hundreds of animals teaches +us that the eyes of an animal are usually alike in color. In order to +establish a true generalization, the _essential_ characteristics must be +selected, and these cannot be determined by rule, but rather by common +sense. + + ++177. Deductive Reasoning.+--When once a general principle has been +established, we may demonstrate the truth of a specific proposition by +showing that the general principle applies to it. We see a gold ring and +say, "This ring is valuable," because we believe the general proposition, +"All articles made of gold are valuable." Expressed in full, the process +of reasoning would be-- + + _A._ All articles made of gold are valuable. + _B._ This ring is made of gold. + _C._ Therefore this ring is valuable. + +A series of statements such as the above is called a syllogism. It +consists of a major premise (_A_), a minor premise (_B_), and a conclusion +(_C_). + +Of course we shall not be called upon to prove so simple a proposition as +the one given, but with more difficult ones the method of reasoning is the +same. The process which applies a general proposition (_A_) to a specific +instance (_C_), is called deductive reasoning. + + ++178. Relation between Inductive and Deductive Reasoning.+--Deductive +reasoning is shorter and seems more convincing than inductive reasoning, +for if the premises are true and the statement is made in correct form, +the conclusions are irresistible. Each conclusion carries with it, +however, the weakness of the premises on which it is based, and as these +premises are general principles that have been themselves established by +inductive reasoning, the conclusions of deductive reasoning can be no more +_sure_ than those of inductive reasoning. Each may prove only that the +proposition is probably true rather than that it is surely true, though in +many cases this probability becomes almost a certainty. + + ++179. The Enthymeme.+--We seldom need to state our argument in the +syllogistic form. One of the premises is usually omitted, and we pass +directly from one premise to the conclusion. If we say, "Henry will not +succeed as an engineer," and when asked why he will not, we reply, +"Because he is not good in mathematics," we have omitted the premise, "A +knowledge of mathematics is necessary for success in engineering." A +shortened syllogism, that is, a syllogism with one premise omitted, is +called an enthymeme. + +Thus in ordinary matters our thought turns at once to the conclusion in +connection with but one premise. We make a thousand statements which a +moment's thought will show that we believe because we believe some +unexpressed general principle. If I should say of my dog, "Fido will die +sometime," no sensible person would doubt the truth of the statement. If +asked to prove it, I would say, "Because he is a dog, and all dogs die +sometime." Thus I apply to a specific proposition, Fido will die, the +general one, All dogs die, a proposition about which there is no doubt. + +Frequently the suppressed premise is not so well established as in this +case, and the belief or nonbelief of the proposition will be determined by +the individuals addressed, each in accordance with his experience. Suppose +that in reading we find the statement, "A boy of fourteen ought not to be +allowed to choose his own subjects of study, because he will choose all +the easy ones and avoid the more difficult though more valuable ones." The +omitted premise that all boys will choose easy studies, needs to be +established by induction. If a high school principal had noticed that out +of five hundred boys, four hundred elected the easy studies, he would +admit the truth of the omitted premise, and so of the conclusion. But if +only one hundred had chosen the easy subjects, he would reject the major +premise and likewise the conclusion. + +It is evident that in order to be sure of the truth of a proposition we +must determine the truth of the premises upon which it is based. An +argument therefore is frequently given over wholly to establishing the +premises. If their truth can be demonstrated, the conclusion inevitably +follows. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Supply the missing premise for the following:-- + + 1. John will succeed because he has a college education. + 2. Henry is happy because he has plenty of money. + 3. Candy is nutritious because it is made of sugar. + 4. These biscuits will make me ill because they are heavy. + 5. This dog must be angry because he is growling. + 6. This fish can swim. + 7. The plural of the German noun _der Garten_ is _die Gärten_. + 8. It will hurt to have this tooth filled. + +_B._ Supply the reasons and complete the syllogism for each of the +following:-- + + 1. This book should not be read. + 2. This hammer is useful. + 3. That dog will bite. + 4. This greyhound can run rapidly. + 5. The leaves have fallen from the trees. + 6. That boy ought to be punished. + 7. It is too early to go nutting. + 8. This boy should not study. + 9. You ought not to vote for this man for mayor. + + ++Theme XCVIII.+--_Write a paragraph proving the truth of one of the +following propositions:_-- + + +1. Labor-saving machinery is of permanent advantage to mankind. + +2. New Orleans will some day be a greater shipping port than New York. + +3. Poetry has a greater influence on the morals of a nation than prose +writing. + +4. Boycotting injures innocent persons and should never be employed. + +5. Ireland should have Home Rule. + +6. The President of the United States should be elected by the direct vote +of the people. + + +(Consider your argument with reference to the suppressed premises.) + + ++180. Errors of Deduction.+--The deductive method of reasoning, if +properly used, is effective, but much care needs to be taken to avoid +false conclusions. A complete exposition of the variations of the +syllogism is not necessary here, but it will be of value to consider +briefly three chief errors. + +If the terms are not used with the same meaning throughout, the conclusion +is valueless. A person might agree with you that domestic arts should be +taught to girls in school, but if you continued by saying that scrubbing +the floor is a form of domestic art, therefore the girls should be taught +to scrub the floor, he would reject your conclusion because the meaning of +the term _domestic art_ as he understood it in the first statement, is not +that used in the second. + +It will be noticed that each syllogism includes three terms. For example, +the syllogism,-- + + +All hawks eat flesh; +This bird is a hawk; +Therefore this bird eats flesh,-- + + +contains the three terms, _hawk, eats flesh, this bird_; of these but two +appear in the conclusion. The one which does not (in this case _hawk_) is +called the middle term. If the major premise does not make a statement +about every member of the class denoted by the middle term, the conclusion +may not be valid even though the premises are true. For example:-- + + +All hawks are birds; +This chicken is a bird; +Therefore this chicken is a hawk. + + +In this case the middle term is _birds_, and the major premise, _All hawks +are birds_, does not make a statement which applies to all birds. The +conclusion is therefore untrue. Such an argument is a fallacy. + +The validity of the conclusion is impaired if either premise is false. In +the enthymeme, "Henry is a coward; he dare not run away from school," the +suppressed premise, "All persons who will not run away from school, are +cowards," is not true, and so invalidates the conclusion. It is well to +test the validity of your own argument and that of your opponent by +seeking for the suppressed premise and stating it, for this may reveal a +fatal weakness in the thought. + + +EXERCISES + + +Which of the following are incorrect? + + +1. The government should pay for the education of its people; + Travel is a form of education; + Therefore the government should pay the traveling expenses of the + people. + +2. All horses are useful; + This animal is useful; + Therefore this animal is a horse. + +3. I ought not to study algebra because it is a very difficult subject. + +4. Pupils ought not to write notes because note writing interferes with + the rights of others. + +5. All fish can swim; + Charles can swim; + Therefore Charles is a fish. + +6. Henry is a fool because he wears a white necktie. + +7. All dogs bark; + This animal barks; + Therefore this animal is a dog. + + ++Theme XCIX.+--_Write a paragraph proving the truth of one of the +following propositions:_-- + +1. The government should establish a parcels post. + +2. The laws of mind determine the forms of composition. + +3. Training for citizenship should be given greater attention in the +public schools. + +4. The members of the school board should be appointed by the mayor of the +city. + +5. In the estimation of future ages ---- will be considered the greatest +President since Lincoln. + +(State your premises. Have you shown that they are true?) + + ++181. Evidence.+--We may reach belief in the truth of a specific statement +by means of deductive reasoning. Commonly, however, when dealing with an +actual state or occurrence, we present other facts or circumstances that +show its existence. The facts presented may be those of experience, the +testimony of witnesses, the opinion of those considered as experts in the +subject, or a combination of circumstances known to have existed. To be of +any value as arguments, they must be true, and they must be related to the +fact that we are trying to prove. These true and pertinent facts we term +_evidence_. + +Evidence may be direct or indirect. If a man sees a boy steal a bag of +apples from the orchard across the way, his evidence is direct. If +instead, he only sees him with an empty bag and later with a full one, the +evidence will be indirect. If you testify that early in the evening you +saw a tramp enter a barn which later in the evening caught fire, your +testimony as regards the cause of the fire would be indirect evidence +against the tramp. If you can testify that you saw sparks fall from his +lighted pipe and ignite a pile of hay in the barn, the evidence which you +give will be direct. + +Direct evidence has more weight than indirect, but often the latter is +nearly equal to the former and is sufficient to convince us. Even the +direct testimony of eye-witnesses must be carefully considered. Several +persons may see the same thing and yet make very different reports, even +though they may all desire to tell the truth. The weight that we shall +give to a person's testimony will depend upon his ability to observe and +to report accurately what he has experienced, and upon his desire to tell +the truth. + +Notice in the following selection what facts, specific instances, and +circumstances are advanced in support of the proposition. Assuming that +they are true, are they pertinent to the proposition? + + +Certain species of these army ants which inhabit tropical America, Mr. +Belt considered to be the most intelligent of all the insects of that part +of the world. On one occasion he noticed a wide column of them trying to +pass along a nearly perpendicular slope of crumbling earth, on which they +found great difficulty in obtaining a foothold. A number succeeded in +retaining their positions, and further strengthened them by laying hold of +their neighbors. They then remained in this position, and allowed the +column to march securely and easily over their bodies. On another occasion +a column was crossing a stream of water by a very narrow branch of a tree, +which only permitted them to go in single file. The ants widened the +bridge by a number clinging to the sides and to each other, and this +allowed the column to pass over three or four deep. These ants, having no +permanent nests, carry their larvae and pupae with them when marching. The +prey they capture is cut up and carried to the rear of the army to be +distributed as food. + +--Robert Brown: _Science for All_. + + ++Theme C.+--_Present all the evidence you can either to prove or disprove +one of the following propositions:_-- + +Select some question of local interest as:-- + 1. The last fire in our town was of incendiary origin. + 2. The football team from ---- indulged in "slugging" at the last game. + 3. Our heating system is inadequate. + 4. It rained last night. + +If you prefer, choose one of the following subjects:-- + 1. The Stuart kings were arbitrary rulers. + 2. The climate of our country is changing. + 3. Gutenberg did not invent the printing press. + 4. The American Indians have been unjustly treated by the whites. + 5. Nations have their periods of rise and decay. + +(Are the facts you use true? Are they pertinent? Do you know of facts +that would tend to show that your proposition is not true?) + + ++182. Number and Value of Reasons.+--Although a statement may be true and +pertinent it is seldom sufficient for proof. We need, as a rule, several +such statements. If you are trying to convince a friend that one kind of +automobile is superior to another, and can give only one reason for its +superiority, you no doubt will fail in your attempt. If, however, you can +give several reasons, you may succeed in convincing him. Suppose you go to +your principal and ask permission to take an extra study. You may give as +a reason the fact that your parents wish you to take it. He may not think +that is a sufficient reason for your doing so, but when he finds that with +your present studies you do not need to study evenings, that one of them +is a review, and that you have been standing well in all your studies, he +may be led to think that it will be wise for you to take the desired extra +study. + +While we must guard against insufficiency of reasons, we must not forget +that numbers alone do not convince. One good reason is more convincing +than several weak ones. Two or three good reasons, clearly and definitely +stated, will have much more weight than a large number of less important +ones. + + + EXERCISES + + +_A._ Give a reason or two in addition to the reasons already given in each +of the following:-- + +1. It is better to attend a large college than a small one, because the +teachers are as a rule greater experts in their lines of work. + +2. The school board ought to give us a field for athletics as the school +ground is not large enough for practice. + +3. Gymnasium work ought to be made compulsory. Otherwise many who need +physical training will neglect it. + +4. The game of basket ball is an injury to a school, since it detracts +from interest in studies. + +5. Rudolph Horton will make a good class president because he has had +experience. + +_B._ Be able to answer orally any two of the following: + +1. Prove to a timid person that there is no more danger in riding in an +automobile than there is in riding in a carriage drawn by horses. Use but +one argument, but make it as strong as possible. + +2. Give two good reasons why the superstition concerning Friday is absurd. + +3. What, in your mind, is the strongest reason why you wish to graduate +from a high school? For your wishing to go into business after leaving the +high school? For your wishing to attend college? + +4. What are two or three of the strong arguments in favor of woman +suffrage? Name two or three arguments in opposition to woman suffrage. + +_C._ Name all the points that you can in favor of the following. Select +the one that you consider the most important. + +1. Try to convince a friend that he ought to give up the practice of +cigarette smoking. + +2. Show that athletics in a high school ought to be under the management +of the faculty. + +3. Show that athletics should be under the management of the pupils +themselves. + +4. Macbeth's ambition and not his wife was the cause of his ruin. + +5. Macbeth's wife was the cause of his ruin. + + ++Theme CI.+--_Select one of the subjects in the exercise above, and write +out two or three of the strongest arguments in its favor._ + + (Consider the premises, especially those which are not expressed. Is +your argument deductive or inductive?) + + ++183. The Basis of Belief.+--If you ask yourself, Why do I believe this? +the answer will in many cases show that your belief in the particular case +under consideration arises because you believe some general principle or +theory which applies to it. + +One person may believe that political economy should be taught in high +schools because he believes that it is the function of the high school to +train its pupils for citizenship, and that the study of political economy +will furnish this training. Another person may oppose the teaching of +political economy because he believes that pupils of high school age are +not sufficiently mature in judgment to discuss intelligently the +principles of political economy, and that the study of these principles at +that age does not furnish desirable training for citizenship. It is +evident that an argument between these two concerning the teaching of +political economy in any particular school would consist in a discussion +of the conflicting general theories which each believed to be true. + +We have shown in Section 179 that one high school principal might believe +that boys should be allowed to choose their own studies because he +believed that they would not generally select the easy ones; while another +principal would oppose free electives because he believes that boys would +choose the less difficult studies. The proposition that "The United States +should retain its hold on the Philippines" involves conflicting theories +of the function of this government. So it will be found with many of our +beliefs that either consciously or unconsciously they are based on general +theories. It is important in argument to know what these theories are, and +especially to consider what may be the general theories of those whom we +wish to convince. + + ++184. Appeals to General Theory, Authority, and Maxims.+--A successful +argument in deductive form must be based upon principles and theories that +the audience believes. A minister in preaching to the members of his +church may with success proceed by deductive methods, because the members +believe the general principles upon which he bases his arguments. But in +addressing a mixed audience, many of whom are not church members, such an +argument might not be convincing, because his hearers might deny the +validity of the premises from which his conclusions were drawn. In such a +case he must either keep to general theories which his auditors do +believe, or by inductive methods seek to prove the truth of the general +principles themselves. + +If in support of our view we quote the opinion of some one whom we believe +competent to speak with weight and authority upon the question, we must +remember that it will have weight with our audience only if they too look +upon the person as an authority. It proves nothing to a body of teachers +to say that some educational expert believes as you do unless they have +confidence in him as a man of sound judgment. On the other hand, it may +count against a proposition to show that it has not been endorsed by any +one of importance or prominence. + +In a similar way a maxim or proverb may be quoted in support of a +proposition. If a boy associates with bad company, we may offer the maxim, +"Birds of a feather flock together," in proof that he is probably bad too. +Such maxims or proverbs are brief statements of principles generally +believed, and the use of them in an argument is in effect the presentation +of a general theory in a form which appeals to the mind of the hearer and +causes him to believe our proposition. + + ++185. Argument by Inference.+--The statement of a fact may be introduced +into an argument, not because the fact itself applies directly to the +proposition we wish to prove, but because it by inference suggests a +general theory which does so apply. Though the reader may not be conscious +of it, the presence of this general theory may influence his decision even +more than the explicit statement of the general theory would. + +An argument implies that there are two sides to a question. Which you +shall take depends on the way you look on it, that is, on what may be +called your mental point of view. Therefore any fact, allusion, maxim, +comparison, or other statement which may cause you to look at the question +in a different light or from a different point of view may be used as an +argument. In effect, it calls up a general theory whose presence affects +your decision. Notice how brief the argument is in the following selection +from Macaulay:-- + + +Many politicians of our time are in the habit of laying it down as a +self-evident proposition, that no people ought to be free till they are +fit to use their freedom. The maxim is worthy of the fool in the old +story, who resolved not to go into the water till he had learned to swim. +If men are to wait for liberty till they become wise and good in slavery, +they may indeed wait forever. + +--Macaulay: _Milton_. + + ++186. Summary.+--To summarize the preceding paragraphs, the authority we +quote, the maxims we state, the facts we adduce become valuable because +they appeal to general theories already believed by the reader. Success in +argument demands, therefore, that we consider carefully what theories may +probably be in the mind of our audience, and that we present our argument +in such a way as to appeal to those theories. + + ++Theme CII.+--_Write a short argument, using one of the following:_-- + +1. A young boy is urging his father to permit him to attend an +entertainment. Give his reasons as he would give them to his father. + +2. Suppose the father refuses the request. Write out his reasons. + +3. Try to convince a companion just entering high school to take the +college preparatory course instead of the commercial course. + + +(Are your reasons true and pertinent? To what general theories have you +appealed? Consider the coherence of each paragraph.) + + ++187. Arrangement of Arguments.+--We have learned that in arguing we need +to consider how those whom we address arrive at the belief they hold, and +that it will assist us to this knowledge of others if we consider our own +beliefs and the manner of their establishing. We must present our material +in the order that convinces. Each case may differ so from every other that +no general rule can be followed, but the consideration of some general +principles of arrangement will be of assistance. It is the purpose of the +following paragraphs to point out in so far as possible the most effective +order of arrangement. + ++188. Possibility, Probability, and Actuality.+--It has been stated, in +Section 175, that reasoning leads to probable truth, and that this +probability may become so strong as to be accepted as certainty. In common +speech this difference is borne in mind, and we distinguish a fact or +event that is only possible from one that is probable; and likewise one +that is only probable from one in which the probability approaches so near +to certainty as to convince us that it actually did exist or occur. Our +arguments may therefore be directed to proving possibility, probability, +or actuality. + +If we believe that an event actually occurred, the belief implies both +possibility and probability. Therefore, if we wish a person to believe in +the actual occurrence of an event, we must first be sure that he does not +question the possibility of its existence, and then we must show him that +it probably did take place. Only when we have shown that an event is +extremely probable have we the right to say that we have shown its actual +occurrence. + +A mother finding some damage done to one of the pictures on the wall could +not justly accuse her young son unless by the presence of a chair or +stepladder it had been possible for him to reach the picture. This +possibility, reënforced by a knowledge of his tendency to mischief, and by +the fact that he was in the house at the time the damage was done, would +lead to the belief that he probably was guilty. Proof that he was actually +responsible for the damage would still be lacking, and it might later be +discovered that the injury had been done accidentally by one of the +servants. + +Possibility, probability, and actuality merge into one another so +gradually that no sharply defined distinctions can be observed. It is +impossible to say that a certain argument establishes possibility, another +probability, and a third the actuality of an event. One statement may do +all three, but any proof of actuality must include arguments showing both +possibility and probability. A person accused of murder attempts to +demonstrate his innocence by proving an _alibi;_ that is, he attempts to +show that he was at some other place at the time the murder was committed +and so cannot possibly be guilty. Such an alibi, established by reliable +witnesses, is positive proof of innocence, no matter how strong the +evidence pointing to probable guilt may be. + + ++189. Argument from Cause.+--We have learned, in Section 49, that the +relation of cause and effect is one which is ingrained in our nature. We +accept a proposition as plausible if a cause which we consider adequate +has been assigned. Our belief in a proposition often depends upon our +belief in some other proposition which may be accepted as a cause. + +Thus, in the following statements, the truth of one proposition leads to +the belief that the other is also true:-- + +_a._ Henry has studied hard this year; therefore he will pass his college +entrance examinations. + +_b._ The man has severed an artery; therefore he will probably bleed to +death before the physician arrives. + +_c._ It will soon grow warmer, because the sun has risen. + +_An argument from cause_ may be of itself conclusive evidence of the fact. +But, for the most part, such arguments merely establish the possibility or +probability of the proposition and so render it ready for proof. In our +arrangement of material, we therefore place such arguments _first_. + + ++190. Argument from Sign.+--Cause and effect are so closely united that +when an effect is observed we assume that there has been a cause, and we +direct our argument to proving what it is. An effect is so associated with +its cause that the existence of an effect is a sign of the existence of a +cause, and such an argument is called an _argument from sign_. Reasoning +from sign is very common in our daily life. The wild geese flying south +indicate the approach of cold weather. The baby's toys show that the baby +has been in the room. A man's hat found beside a rifled safe will convict +the man of the crime. A dog's track in the garden is proof that a dog has +been there. + +If the effect observed is always associated with the same cause, the +argument is conclusive. If I observe as an effect that the river has +frozen over during the night, I have no doubt that it has been caused by a +lowering of the temperature. + +If two or three possible causes exist, our argument becomes conclusive +only by considering them all and by showing that all but one did not +produce the observed effect. If the principal of a school knows that one +of three boys broke a window light, he may be able to prove which one did +it by finding out the two who did not. If a man is found shot to death, +the coroner's jury may prove that he was murdered by showing that he did +not commit suicide. If there are many possible causes, the method of +elimination becomes too tedious and must be abandoned. If you find that +your horse is lame, it would be difficult to prove which of the many +possible causes actually operated to produce the lameness, though the +attendant circumstances might point to some one cause and so lead you to +assume that it was the one. + +Under _arguments from sign_ should be included also those cases when we +pass directly from one effect to another that arises from the same cause; +as, "I hear the windmill turning, it will be a good day to sail;" or, +"These beans are thrifty, therefore if I plant potatoes here I shall get a +good crop." In these sentences the wind and the fertile soil are not +mentioned, but we pass directly from one effect to another. + +As used by rhetoricians, arguments from sign include also arguments from +attendant circumstances. If we have observed that two events have happened +near together in time, we accept the occurrence of one as a sign that the +other will follow. When we hear the factory whistle blow, we conclude that +in a few minutes the workmen will pass our window on their way home. Such +a conclusion is based upon a belief established by an inductive process. +The degree of probability that it gives depends upon the number of times +that it has been observed to act without failure. If we have seen two boys +frequently together, the presence of one is a sign of the probable +presence of the other. A camp fire would point to the recent presence of +some one who kindled it. + +In using an argument from sign care must be taken not to confuse the +relation of cause and effect with that of contiguity in time or place. Do +not allege that which happened at the same time or near the same place as +a cause. If you do use an attendant circumstance, be sure that it adds +something to the probability. + + ++191. Argument from Example.+--It has been pointed out in the study of +inductive reasoning (Section 176) that a single example may suffice to +establish a general notion of a class. In dealing with objects of the +physical world, if essential and invariable qualities of the object are +considered, they may be asserted to be qualities of each member of the +class, and such an argument from an individual to all the members of the +class is convincing. They thus rank with arguments from sign as effective +in proving the certainty of a proposition. + +In dealing with human actions, on the other hand, examples are seldom +proofs of fact. We cannot say that all men will act in a certain way under +given circumstances because one man has so acted. Nevertheless, arguments +by examples are frequently used and are especially powerful when we wish +not only to convince a man, but also to persuade him to action. This +persuasion to action must be based on conviction, and in such a case the +argument from sign that convinces the man of the truth of a proposition +should precede the example that urges him to action. After convincing a +friend that there are advantages to be derived from joining a society, we +may persuade him to join by naming those who have joined. + + ++192. Argument from Analogy.+--Analogy is very much relied upon in +practical life. Reasoning from analogy depends upon the recognition of +similarity in regard to some particulars followed by the inference that +the similarity extends to other particulars. As soon as it was known that +the atmospheric conditions of the planet Mars are similar to those of the +earth, it was argued by analogy that Mars must also, be inhabited. + +An analogy is seldom conclusive and, though it is often effective in +argument, it must not be taken as proof of fact. The mind very readily +observes likenesses, and when directed toward the establishing of a +proposition easily overlooks the differences. In order to determine the +strength of an argument from analogy, attention should be given to the +differences existing between the two propositions considered. False +analogies are very common. We must guard against using them, and +especially against allowing ourselves to be convinced by them. Even when +the resemblance is so slight as to render analogy impossible, it may serve +to produce a metaphor that often has the effect of argument. + + +It is much easier to captivate the fancy with a pretty or striking figure +than to move the judgment with sound reason.... His (the speaker's) +picture appeals to the mind's visible sense, hence his power over us, +though his analogies are more apt to be false than true.... + +The use of metaphor, comparison, analogy, is twofold--to enliven and to +convince; to illustrate and enforce an accepted truth, and to press home +and clinch one in dispute. An apt figure may put a new face upon an old +and much worn truism, and a vital analogy may reach and move the reason. +Thus when Renan, referring to the decay of the old religious beliefs, says +that the people are no poorer for being robbed of false bank notes and +bogus shares, his comparison has a logical validity.... + +The accidental analogies or likenesses are limitless, and are the great +stock in trade of most writers and speakers. An ingenious mind finds types +everywhere, but real analogies are not so common. The likeness of one +thing to another may be valid and real, but the likeness of a thought with +a thing is often merely fanciful.... + +I recently have met with the same fallacy in a leading article in one of +the magazines. "The fact revealed by the spectroscope," says the writer, +"that the physical elements of the earth exist also in the stars, supports +the faith that a moral nature like our own inhabits the universe." A +tremendous leap--a leap from the physical to the moral. We know that +these earth elements are found in the stars by actual observation and +experience; but a moral nature like our own--this is assumed, and is not +supported by the analogy. + +John Burroughs: _Analogy, True and False_. + + +Notice the use of analogy in the argument below. + + +There is only one cure for the evils which newly acquired freedom +produces; and that cure is freedom. When a prisoner first leaves his cell +he cannot bear the light of day: he is unable to discriminate colors, or +recognize faces. But the remedy is, not to remand him into his dungeon, +but to accustom him to the rays of the sun. The blaze of truth and liberty +may at first dazzle and bewilder nations which have become blind in the +house of bondage. But, let them gaze on, and they will soon be able to +bear it. In a few years men learn to reason. The extreme violence of +opinions subsides. Hostile theories correct each other. The scattered +elements of truth cease to contend and begin to coalesce, and at length a +system of justice and order is educed out of the chaos. + +--Macaulay: _Milton_. + + ++193. Summary of Arrangement.+--The necessity of argument arises because +some one does not believe the truth of a proposition. To establish in his +mind a belief, we must present our arguments in an orderly and convincing +way. The order will usually be to show him first the possibility and then +the probability, and finally to lead him as near to certainty as we can. +We may say, therefore, that we should use arguments from cause, arguments +from sign, and arguments from example in the order named. + +Another principle of arrangement is that inductive argument will usually +precede deductive argument. We naturally proceed by induction to establish +general truths which, when established, we may apply. If our audience +already believe the general theories, the inductive part may be omitted. + +Both of these principles of arrangement should be considered with +reference to that of a third, namely, climax. Climax means nothing more +than the orderly progression of our argument to the point where it +convinces our hearer. We call that argument which finally convinces him +the strongest, and naturally this should be the end of the argument. Of +several proofs of equal grade, one that will attract the attention of the +hearer should come first, while the most convincing one should come last. + +In arranging arguments attention needs also to be given to coherence. One +proof may be so related to another that the presentation of one naturally +suggests the other. Sometimes, for the sake of climax, the coherent order +must be abandoned. More often the climax is made more effective by +following the order which gives the greatest coherence. + + ++Theme CII.+--_Prove one of the following propositions:_ + +1. The Presidential term should be extended. + +2. Bookkeeping is of greater practical value than any other high school +study. + +3. In cities all buildings should be restricted to three stories in +height. + +4. Sumptuary laws are never desirable. + +5. No pupil should carry more than four studies. + +6. This school should have a debating society. + + +(Have you proved possibility, probability, or actuality? Have you used +arguments from cause, sign, or example? Consider the arrangement of your +arguments. Consider the analogies you have used, if any. Can you shorten +your theme without weakening it?) + + ++194. The Brief.+--Arrangement is of very great importance in argument. In +fact, it is so important that much more care and attention needs to be +given to the outline in argument, and the outline itself may be more +definitely known to the hearer than in the other forms of discourse. In +description and narration especially, it detracts from the value of the +impressions if the reader becomes aware of the plan of composition. In +exposition a view of the framework may not hinder clear understanding, but +in argument it may be of distinct advantage to have the orderly +arrangements of our arguments definitely known to him whom we seek to +convince. + +The brief not only assists us in making our own thought orderly and exact, +but enables us to exclude that which is trivial or untrue. An explanation +may fail to make every point clear and yet retain some valuable elements, +but an argument fails of its purpose if it does not establish a belief. A +single false argument or even a trivial one may so appeal to a mind +prejudiced against the proposition that all the valid proofs fail to +convince. This single weakness is at once used by our opponent to show +that our other arguments are false because this one is. A committee once +endeavored to persuade the governor of a state not to sign a certain bill, +but they defeated themselves because their opponents pointed out to the +governor that two of the ten reasons which they presented were false and +that the committee presenting them knew they were false. This cast a doubt +upon the honesty of the committee and the validity of their whole +argument, and the governor signed the bill. + +The brief differs from the ordinary outline in that it is composed of +complete sentences rather than of topics. + +Notice the following example. + + ++Term examinations should be abolished.+ + + +AFFIRMATIVE + + +I. There is no necessity for such examinations. + +1. The teacher knows the pupil's standing from his daily recitations. + +2. Monthly reviews or tests may be substituted if desirable. + +II. The evils arising from examinations more than offset any advantages +that may be derived from them. + +1. The best pupils are likely to work hardest, and to overtax their +strength. + +2. Pupils often aim to pass rather than to know their subject. + +3. A temptation to cheat is placed before them. + +III. Examinations are not a fair test of a pupil's ability. + +1. A pupil may know his subject as a whole and yet not be able to answer +one or two of the questions given him. + +2. A pupil who has done poor work during the term may cram for an +examination and pass very creditably. + +3. Pupils are likely to be tired out at the end of the term and often are +not able to do themselves justice. + + + +NEGATIVE + + +If the writer should choose to defend the negative of the above +proposition, the brief might be as follows:-- + +I. Examinations are indispensable to school work. + +1. In no other way can teachers find out so well what their pupils know +about their subjects, especially in large classes. + +2. They are essential as an incentive to pupils who are inclined to let +their work lag. + +II. As a rule they are fair tests of a pupil's ability. + +1. Pupils who prepare the daily recitations well are almost sure to pass a +good examination. + +2. Pupils who cram are likely to write a hurried, faulty examination. + +3. It seldom happens that many in a class are too worn out to take a term +examination. + +III. They prepare the pupils for later examinations. + (1) For college entrance examinations. + (2) For examinations at college. + (3) For civil service examinations. + (4) For examinations for teachers' certificates. + + +EXERCISES + +_A._ Write out subordinate propositions proving the main subdivisions. +Also change the arrangement when you think it desirable to do so. + +1. Two sessions are preferable to one in a high school. + (1) One long session is too fatiguing to both teachers and pupils. + (2) Boys and girls as a rule study better at school than they do at + home. + (3) The time after school is long enough for recreation. + +2. The pupils of this high school should be granted a holiday during the + street (county or state) fair. + (1) They will all go at least one day. + (2) It will cause less interruption in the school work if they all go + the same day. + +3. Women should be allowed to vote. + (1) They are now taxed without representation. + (2) Whenever they have been allowed to take part in the affairs of the + government, it has been an advantage to that government. + (3) Many of them are much more intelligent than some men who vote. + +_B._ Write out briefs for the following propositions (affirmative or +negative):-- + +1. High school studies should be made elective in the last two years of +the course. + +2. The government should own and control the railroads of our country. + +3. The old building on the corner of ---- Street ought to be removed. + +4. Latin should not be made a compulsory study. + +5. Reading newspapers is unprofitable. + +6. Laws should be made to prohibit all adulteration of foods. + +7. We are all selfish. + +8. A system of self-government should be introduced into our school. + + ++Theme CIV.+--_Write out the argument for one of the +preceding propositions._ + +(Examine the brief carefully before beginning to write. +Can you improve it? ) + + ++Theme CV.+--_Write a theme proving one of the following propositions:_-- + +1. Immigration is detrimental to the United States. + +2. The descriptions in _Ivanhoe_ are better than those in the _House of +the Seven Gables_. + +3. Argument is of greater practical value than exposition. + +4. The Mexican Indians were a civilized race when America was discovered. + +5. The standing army of the United States should be increased. + +6. All police officers should be controlled by the state and not by the +city. + +(Have you used arguments from cause, sign, or example? Are they arranged +with reference to the principles of arrangement? (Section 192.) Consider +each paragraph and the whole theme with reference to unity.) + + ++Theme CVI.+--_Write a debate on some question assigned by the teacher._ + +(To what points should you give attention in correcting your theme? Read +Section 79.) + + ++195. Difference between Persuasion and Argument.+--Up to this point we +have considered argument as having for its aim the proof of the truth +of a proposition. If we consider the things about which we argue most +frequently, we shall find that in many cases we attempt to do more than +merely to convince the hearer. We wish to convince him in order to cause +him to act. We argue with him in order to persuade him to do something. +Such an argument tries to establish the wisdom of a course of action and +is termed _persuasion_. Persuasion differs from argument in its aim. In +argument by an appeal principally to the reason, we endeavor to convince; +in persuasion by an appeal mainly to the feelings, we endeavor to move to +action. + + ++196. Importance of Persuasion.+--Persuasion deals with the practical +affairs of life, and for that reason the part that it performs is a large +and important one. All questions of advantage, privilege, and duty are +included in the sphere of persuasion. Since such questions are so directly +related to our business interests, to our happiness, and to our mode of +conduct and action, we are constantly making use of persuasion and quite +as constantly are being influenced by it. Our own welfare and happiness +depends to so great an extent upon the actions of others that our success +in life is often measured by our ability to persuade others to act in +accordance with our desires. + + ++197. Necessity of Persuasion.+--It is frequently not enough to convince +our hearer of the truth of a proposition. Often a person believes a +proposition, yet does not act. If we wish action, persuasion must be added +to argument. If we always acted at the time we were convinced, and in +accordance with our convictions, there would be no need of persuasion. +Strange as it seems, we often believe one thing and do just the opposite, +or we are indifferent and do nothing at all. We all know that disobedience +to the laws of health brings its punishment--yet how many of us act as if +we did not believe it at all! The indifferent pupil is positive that he +will fail if he does not study. He knows that he ought to apply himself +diligently to his work. There is no excuse for doing otherwise, yet he +neglects to act and failure is the result. + + ++198. Motive in Persuasion.+--The motive of persuasion depends upon the +nature of the question. The motives that we have in mind may be selfish, +or, on the other hand, they may be supremely unselfish. We may urge others +to act in order to bring about our own pleasure or profit; we may urge +them to act for their own self-interest or for the interest of others. We +may appeal to private or public interest, to social or religious duty. +When a boy urges his father to buy him a bicycle, he has his own pleasure +in mind. When we urge people to take care of their health, we have their +interest in view; and when we urge city improvements or reforms in +politics, we are thinking of the welfare of people in general. + + ++199. The Material of Persuasion.+--Persuasion aims to produce action and +may make use of any of the forms of discourse that will fit that purpose. +We may describe the beauty of the Adirondacks or narrate our experiences +there in order to persuade a friend to accompany us on a camping trip. We +may explain the workings of a new invention in order to persuade a +capitalist to invest money in its manufacture. Or we may by argument +demonstrate that there is a great opportunity for young men in New +Orleans, hoping to persuade an acquaintance to move there. When thus used, +description, narration, exposition, and argument may become persuasion; +but their effectiveness depends upon their appeal to some fundamental +belief or feeling in the person addressed. Our description and narration +would not bring to the Adirondacks a man who cared nothing for scenery and +who disliked camp life. The explanation of our invention would not +interest a capitalist unless he was seeking a profitable investment. Our +argument would not induce a man to move to New Orleans if his prejudice +against the South was greater than his desire for profit and position. In +each case there has been an appeal to some belief or sentiment or desire +of the person whom we seek to persuade. + + ++200. Appeal to the Feelings.+--Persuasion, therefore, in order to produce +action must appeal largely to the feelings. But all persons are not +affected in the same way. In order to bring about the same result we may +need to make a different appeal to different individuals. One person may +be led to act by an appeal made to his sense of justice, another by an +appeal made to his patriotism, while still another, unmoved by either of +these appeals, may be led to act by an appeal made to his pride or to his +love of power. If we would be successful in persuading others, we ought to +be able to understand what to appeal to in individual cases. Children may +be enticed by candy, and older persons may be quite as readily influenced +if we but choose the proper incentive. It is our duty to see that we are +persuaded only by the presentation of worthy motives, and that in our own +efforts to persuade others we do not appeal to envy, jealousy, religious +prejudices, race hatred, or lower motives. + + +EXERCISES + + +Show how an appeal to the feelings could be made in the following. To what +particular feeling or feelings would you appeal in each case? + +1. Try to gain your parents' permission to attend college. + +2. Urge a friend to give up card playing. + +3. Try to persuade your teachers not to give so long lessons. + +4. Persuade others to aid an unfortunate family living in our community. + +5. Induce the school board to give you a good gymnasium. + +6. Persuade a tramp to give up his mode of life. + +7. Try to get some one to buy your old bicycle. + +8. Urge your country to act in behalf of some oppressed people. + +9. Urge a resident of your town to give something for a public park. + + ++Theme CVII.+--_Write out one of the preceding._ + +(Consider what you have written with reference to coherence and climax.) + + ++201. Argument with Persuasion.+--In some cases we are sure that our +hearers are already convinced as to the truth of a proposition. Then there +is no need of argument and persuasion is used alone, but more frequently +both are used. Argument naturally precedes persuasion, but with few +exceptions the two are intermixed and even so blended as to be scarcely +distinguishable, the one from the other. A good example of the use of both +forms is found in the speech of Antony over the dead body of Caesar in +Shakespeare's _Julius Caesar_. Read the speech and note the argument and +persuasion given in it. What three arguments does Antony advance to prove +that Caesar was not ambitious? Does he draw conclusions or leave that for +his listeners to do? Where is there an appeal to their pity? To their +curiosity? To their gratitude? What is the result in each case of the +various appeals? + +In the following examples note the argument and persuasion. Remember that +persuasion commences when we begin to urge to action. Notice what feelings +are appealed to in the persuasive parts of the speeches. + + +They tell us, Sir, that we are weak, unable to cope with so formidable an +adversary. But, when shall we be stronger? Will it be the next week, or +the next year? Will it be when we are totally disarmed and when a British +guard shall be stationed in every house? Shall we gather strength by +irresolution and inaction? Shall we acquire the means of effectual +resistance, by lying supinely on our backs and hugging the delusive +phantom of hope, until our enemies shall have bound us hand and foot? Sir, +we are not weak, if we make a proper use of the means which the God of +nature hath placed in our power. Three millions of people, armed in the +holy cause of liberty, and in such a country as that which we possess, are +invincible by any force which our enemy can send against us. Besides, Sir, +we shall not fight our battles alone. There is a just God who presides +over the destinies of nations; and who will raise up friends to fight our +battles for us. The battle, Sir, is not to the strong alone; it is to the +vigilant, the active, the brave. Besides, Sir, we have no election. If we +were base enough to desire it, it is now too late to retire from the +contest. There is no retreat, but in submission and slavery. Our chains +are forged! Their clanking may be heard on the plains of Boston! The war +is inevitable--and let it come! I repeat it, Sir, let it come!--It is +vain, sir, to extenuate the matter. Gentlemen may cry peace, peace--but +there is no peace. The war is actually begun! The next gale that sweeps +from the north will bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms! Our +brethren are already in the field. Why stand we here, idle? Is life so +dear, is peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and +slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course others may take; +but as for me, give me liberty, or give me death. + +--Patrick Henry. + + +The pictures in the American newspapers of the starving reconcentrados are +true. They can all be duplicated by the thousands. I never before saw, +and please God, I may never again see, so deplorable a sight as the +reconcentrados in the suburbs of Matanzas. I can never forget to my dying +day the hopeless anguish in their despairing eyes. Huddled about their +little bark huts, they raised no voice of appeal to us for alms as we went +among them.... Men, women, and children stand silent, famishing with +hunger. Their only appeal comes from their sad eyes, through which one +looks as through an open window into their agonizing souls. + +The Government of Spain has not appropriated and will not appropriate one +dollar to save these people. They are now being attended and nursed and +administered to by the charity of the United States. Think of the +spectacle! We are feeding the citizens of Spain; we are nursing their +sick; we are saving such as can be saved, and yet there are those who +still say it is right for us to send food, but we must keep hands off. I +say that the time has come when muskets ought to go with the food.... + +The time for action has, then, come. No greater reason for it can exist +to-morrow than exists to-day. Every hour's delay only adds another chapter +to the awful story of misery and death. Only one power can intervene--the +United States of America. Ours is the one great nation of the New World, +the mother of American republics. She holds a position of trust and +responsibility toward the peoples and the affairs of the whole Western +Hemisphere. + +Mr. President, there is only one action possible, if any is taken--that +is, intervention for the independence of the island. But we cannot +intervene and save Cuba without the exercise of force, and force means +war; war means blood. The lowly Nazarene on the shores of Galilee preached +the divine doctrine of love, "Peace on earth, good will toward men." Not +peace on earth at the expense of liberty and humanity. Not good will +toward men who despoil, enslave, degrade, and starve to death their +fellow-men. I believe in the doctrine of Christ, I believe in the doctrine +of peace; but, Mr. President, men must have liberty before there can come +abiding peace. + +Intervention means force. Force means war. War means blood. But it will be +God's force. When has a battle for humanity and liberty ever been won +except by force? What barricade of wrong, injustice, and oppression has +ever been carried except by force? Force compelled the signature of +unwilling royalty to the great Magna Charta; force put life into +the Declaration of Independence and made effective the Emancipation +Proclamation; force beat with naked hands upon the iron gateway of the +Bastile and made reprisal in one awful hour for centuries of kingly crime; +force waved the flag of revolution over Bunker Hill and marked the snows +of Valley Forge with blood-stained feet; force held the broken line at +Shiloh, climbed the flame-swept hill at Chattanooga, and stormed the +clouds on Lookout heights; force marched with Sherman to the sea, rode +with Sheridan in the valley of Shenandoah, and gave Grant victory at +Appomattox; force saved the Union, kept the stars in the flag, made +"niggers" men. + +Others may hesitate, others may procrastinate, others may plead for +further diplomatic negotiations, which means delay; but for me, I am ready +to act now, and for my action I am ready to answer to my conscience, my +country, and my God. + +--John Mellen Thurston: _Speech in United States Senate_, March, 1898. + + +EXERCISES + + +1. A young boy is trying to gain his father's permission to attend an +evening entertainment with some other boys. Make a list of his appeals to +his father's reason; to his father's feelings. Make a list of his father's +objections. Is there any appeal to his son's feelings? + +2. Suppose you are about to address the voters of your city on the +question of granting saloon licenses. Make a list of appeals to their +reason; to their intellect. Remember that appeals to the feelings are made +more forcible by descriptive and narrative examples than by direct general +appeals. + +3. Urge your classmates to vote for some member of your class for +president. What qualifications should a good class president have? + + ++Theme CVIII.+--_Select one of the subjects, concerning which you have +written an argument; either add persuasion to the argument or intermix +them._ + +(What part of your theme is argument and what part persuasion? Does the +introduction of persuasion affect the order of arrangement?) + + ++Theme CIX.+--_Select one of the subjects given on page 361 of which you +have not yet made use. Write a theme appealing to both feeling and +intellect._ + +(Are your facts true and pertinent? Consider the arrangement.) + + ++Theme CX.+--_Write a letter to a friend who went to work instead of +entering the high school. Urge him to come to the high school._ + +(What arguments have you made? To what feelings have you appealed?) + + ++Theme CXI.+--_Use one of the following as a subject for a persuasive +theme:_-- + +1. Induce your friends not to play ball on Memorial Day. + +2. Ask permission to be excused from writing your next essay. + +3. Persuade one of your friends to play golf. + +4. Induce your friends not to wear birds on their hats. + +5. Write an address to young children, trying to persuade them not to be +cruel to the lower animals. + + ++202. Questions of Right and Questions of Expediency.+--Arguments that aim +to convince us of the wisdom of an action are very common. In our home +life and in our social and religious life these questions are always +arising. They may be classified into two kinds: (1) those which answer the +question, Is it right? and (2) those which answer the question, Is it +expedient? + +The moral element enters into questions of right. It is always wise for us +to do that which is morally right, but sometimes we are in doubt as to +what course of action is morally right. Opinions differ concerning what is +right, and for that reason we spend much time in defending our opinions or +in trying to make others believe as we do. In answering such a question +honestly, we must lose sight of all advantage or disadvantage to +ourselves. When asked to do something we should at once ask ourselves, Is +it right? and when once that is determined one line of action should be +clear. + +An argument which aims to answer the question, Is it expedient? +presupposes that there are at least two lines of action each of which is +right. It aims to prove that one course of action will bring greater +advantages than any other. Taking all classes of people into consideration +we shall find that they are arguing more questions of expediency than of +any other kind. Every one is looking for advantages either to himself or +to those in whom he is interested. A question of expediency should never +be separated from the question of right. In determining either our own +course of action or that which we attempt to persuade another to follow, +we should never forget the presupposition of a question of expediency that +either course is right. + + +EXERCISES + + +1. Name five questions the right or wrong of which you have been called +upon to decide. + +2. Name five similar questions that are likely to arise in every one's +experience. + +3. Name five questions of right concerning which opinions very often +differ. + +4. Is an action that is right for one person ever wrong for another? + + ++Theme CXII.+--_Write out the reasons for or against one of the +following:_-- + +1. Should two pupils ever study together? + +2. Is a lie ever justifiable? + +3. Was Shylock's punishment too severe? + +4. Woman's suffrage should be established. + +5. The regular party nominee should not always be supported. + + +EXERCISES + + +Give reasons for or against the following:-- + +1. We should abolish class-day exercises. + +2. The study of science is more beneficial than the study of language. + +3. Foreign skilled laborers should be excluded from the United States. + +4. Hypnotic entertainments should not be allowed. + +5. The study of algebra should not be made compulsory in a high school. + +6. _Uncle Tom's Cabin_ should be excluded from school libraries. + +7. Physical training should be compulsory in public schools. + +8. High school secret societies should not be allowed. + + ++Theme CXIII.+--_Write an argument of expediency using +one of the subjects named in the preceding exercise._ + +(What advantages have you made most prominent? +To what feelings have you appealed?) + + ++Theme CXIV.+--_Write a narration in which the hero is called upon to +decide whether some course of action is right or wrong_. + +(Consider the theme as a narration. Does it fulfill the requirements of +Chapter IX? (See Summary.) Consider just the arguments used. Are the +arguments sufficient to bring conviction to the reader that the hero +decided rightly?) + ++203. Refutation.+--No question is worth argument unless there are two +sides to it--unless there is a chance for some doubt in the mind of the +hearer as to which side seems most reasonable. Many questions are of such +a nature that in trying to convince our hearers of some truth, we often +find it necessary to show them, not only the truth of a proposition or the +expediency of a course of action, but also the falsity of some opposing +proposition or the inexpediency of the opposite course of action. This +tearing to pieces another's argument, is called refutation, or destructive +argument. A successful debater shows nearly if not equal skill in tearing +down his opponent's arguments as in building up his own. + +Even in arguments in which no one takes the opposite side at the given +time, we must not forget that there are points on the opposite side which +are likely to arise in the minds of our hearers. Just as the skillful +teacher must know the difficulties that will arise in the minds of the +pupils even though they are not expressed, so must the skillful debater +consider the objections that his hearer will mentally set up against his +argument. It is well, however, for the debater to avoid overemphasizing +objections. Sometimes his discussion gives the objections a weight that +they would not otherwise have. It is not wise to set up "a man of straw" +for the purpose of knocking him down. + +Notice the refutation in the following argument:-- + + +In no respect is the difference of opinion as to the methods of fishing so +pronounced and disturbing among anglers as the diverse ones of fishing +"up" and "down" stream. + +"Fishing up stream" has many advocates who assert that as trout always lie +with their heads up current, they are less likely to see the fisherman or +the glint of his rod when the casts are made; that the discomfort and +fatigue accompanying wading against strong rapids is amply repaid by the +increased scores secured; that the flies deftly thrown a foot or two above +the head of a feeding trout float more life-like down the current than +those drawn against it by the line, when they are apt to exhibit a +muscular power which in the live insect would be exaggerated and +unnatural. + +On the other hand, the "down stream" fisherman is equally assertive as to +the value of his method. He feels the charm of gurgling waters around his +limbs, a down current that aids rather than retards or fatigues him in +each successive step of enjoyment in his pastime; as he casts his fifty or +more feet of line adown the stream, he is assured that he is beyond the +ken of the most keen-sighted and wary trout; that his artificial bugs, +under the tension of the current seaming it from right to left, reaches +every square inch of the "swim," as English rodsters term a likely water, +and coming naturally down stream, just the direction from whence a hungry +trout is awaiting it, are much more likely to be taken, than those thrown +against the current, with, doubtless, a foot or more of the leader +drooping and bagging before the nose of a trout, with a dead bug, soaked +and bedraggled, following slowly behind. + +By wading "down stream" its advocates do not mean splashing and lifting +the feet above the surface, sending the water hither and yon on to the +banks, into the pools, with the soil of silt or mud or fine gravel from +the bottom, polluting the stream many yards ahead, and causing every fish +to scurry to the shelter of a hole in the bank or under a shelving rock. +They intend that the rodster shall enter the water quietly, and, after a +few preliminary casts to get the water gear in good working order to +proceed down stream by sliding rather than lifting his feet from the +bottom, noiselessly and cautiously approaching the most likely pools or +eddies behind the roots in mid stream, or still stretches close to the +banks, where the quiet reaches broaden down stream, where nine chances in +ten, on a good trout water, one or more fish will be seen lazily rising +and feeding. + +Again, the down-stream angler contends that when a fish is fastened on a +hook, taking the lure in a current, that he is more likely to be well +hooked, hence more certain of capture when the line is tense, than when +rising to a floating bug at the end of a looping line and leader. +Certainly it is very difficult when casting against the current to keep +the line sufficiently taut to strike quickly and effectively a rising +trout, which as a rule ejects the artificial lure the instant he feels the +gritty impact of the steel. + +In fishing down stream, the advocate of the principle that the greater the +surface commotion made by the flies used, the surer the rise and catch, +has an advantage over his brother who always fishes "fine" and with flies +that do not make a ripple. Drawing the artificial bugs across and slightly +up stream over the mirrored bosom of a pool is apt to leave a wake behind +them which may not inaptly be compared with the one created by a small +stern-wheel steamer; an unnatural condition of things, but of such is a +trout's make-up. + +--W.C. HARRIS: _Fishing Up or Down Stream_. + + ++Theme CXV.+--_Persuade a friend, to choose some sport from one of the +following pairs:_-- + + 1. Canoeing or sailing. + 2. Bicycling or automobiling. + 3. Golf or polo. + 4. Basket ball or tennis. + 5. Football or baseball. + + ++Theme CXVI.+--_Choose one side of a proposition. Name the probable points +on the other side and write out a refutation of them_. + + ++Theme CXVII.+--_State a proposition and write the direct argument._ + + ++Theme CXVIII.+--_Exchange theme CXVII for one written by a classmate and +write the refutation of the arguments in the theme you receive._ + + +(Theme CXVII and the corresponding Theme CXVIII should be read before the +class.) + + +SUMMARY + +1. Argument is that form of discourse which attempts to prove the truth of +a proposition. + +2. Inductive reasoning is that process by which from many individual cases +we establish the probable truth of a general proposition. + +3. The establishing of a general truth by induction requires-- + _a._ That there be a large number of facts, circumstances, or specific + instances supporting it. + _b._ That these facts be true. + _c._ That they be pertinent. + _d._ That there be no facts proving the truth of the contrary + proposition. + +4. Deductive reasoning is that process which attempts to prove the truth +of a specific proposition by showing that a general theory applies to it. + +5. The establishing of the truth of a specific proposition by deductive +reasoning requires-- + _a._ A major premise that makes an affirmation about _all_ the members + of a class. + _b._ A minor premise that states that the individual under consideration + belongs to the class named. + _c._ A conclusion that states that the affirmation made about the class + applies to the individual. These three statements constitute a + syllogism. + +6. An enthymeme is a syllogism with but one premise expressed. + +7. Errors of deduction arise-- + _a._ If terms are not used throughout with the same meaning. + _b._ If the major premise does not make a statement about every member + of the class denoted by the middle term. + _c._ If either premise is false. + +8. Belief in a specific proposition may arise-- + _a._ Because of the presentation of evidence which is true and + pertinent. + _b._ Because of a belief in some general principle or theory which + applies to it. + +In arguing therefore we-- + _a._ Present true and pertinent facts, or evidence; or + _b._ Appeal directly to general theories, or by means of facts, maxims, + allusions, inferences, or the quoting of authorities, seek to call + up such theories. + +9. Classes of arguments:-- + _a._ Arguments from cause. + _b._ Arguments from sign and attendant circumstances. + _c._ Arguments from example and analogy. + +10. Arrangement. + _a._ Arguments from cause should precede arguments from sign, and + arguments from sign should precede arguments from example. + _b._ Inductive arguments usually precede deductive arguments. + _c._ Arguments should be arranged with reference to climax. + _d._ Arguments should be arranged, when possible, in a coherent order. + +11. In making a brief the above principles of arrangement should be +observed. Attention should be given to unity so that the trivial and false +may be excluded. + +12. Persuasion is argument that aims to establish the wisdom of a course +of action. + +13. Persuasion appeals largely to the feelings. + _a._ Those feelings of satisfaction resulting from approval, + commendation, or praise, or the desire to avoid blame, disaster, + or loss of self-esteem. + _b._ Those feelings resulting from the proper and legitimate use of + one's powers. + _c._ Those feelings which arise from possession, either actual or + anticipated. + +14. Persuasion is concerned with-- + _a._ Questions of right. + _b._ Questions of expediency. + + + + +APPENDIX + + +I. ELEMENTS OF FORM + ++1. Importance of Form.+--The suggestions which have been made for the +correction of the Themes have laid emphasis upon the thought. Though the +thought side is the more important, yet careful attention must also be +given to the form in which it is stated. If we wish to express our +thoughts so that they will be understood by others, we shall be surer to +succeed if we use the forms to which our hearers are accustomed. The great +purpose of composition is the clear expression of thought, and this is +aided by the use of the forms which are conventional and customary. + +Wrong habits of speech indicate looseness and carelessness of thought, and +if not corrected show a lack of training. In speaking, our language goes +directly to the listener without revision. It is, therefore, essential +that we pay much attention to the form of the expression so that it may be +correct when we use it. Our aim should be to avoid an error rather than to +correct it. + +Similarly in writing, your effort should be given to avoiding errors +rather than to correcting those already made. A misspelled word or an +incorrect grammatical form in the letter that you send to a business man +may show you to be so careless and inaccurate that he will not wish to +have you in his employ. In such a case it is only the avoidance of the +error that is of value. You must determine for yourself that the letter is +correct before you send it. This same condition should prevail with +reference to your school themes. The teacher may return these for +correction, but you must not forget that the purpose of this correction is +merely to emphasize the correct form so that you will use it in your next +theme. It will be helpful to have some one point out your individual +mistakes, but it is only by attention to them on your own part and by a +definite and long-continued effort to avoid them that you will really +accomplish much toward the establishing of correct language habits. In +this, as in other things, the most rapid progress will be made by doing +but one thing at a time. + +Many matters of form are already familiar to you. A brief statement of +these is made in order to serve as a review and to secure uniformity in +class work. + + +1. _Neatness._--All papers should be free from blots and finger marks. +Corrections should be neatly done. Care in correcting or interlining will +often render copying unnecessary. + +2. _Legibility._--Excellence of thought is not dependent upon penmanship, +and the best composition may be the most difficult to read. A poorly +written composition is, however, more likely to be considered bad than one +that is well written. A plain, legible, and rapid handwriting is so +valuable an accomplishment that it is well worth acquiring. + +3. _Paper._--White, unruled paper, about 8-1/2 by 11 inches, is best for +composition purposes. The ability to write straight across the page +without the aid of lines can be acquired by practice. It is customary to +write on only one side of the paper. + +4. _Margins._--Leave a margin of about one inch at the left of the sheet. +Except in formal notes and special forms there will be no margin at the +right. Care should be taken to begin the lines at the left exactly under +each other, but the varying length of words makes it impossible to end the +lines at the right at exactly the same place. A word should not be crowded +into a space too small for it, nor should part of it be put on the next +line, as is customary in printing, unless it is a compound one, such as +steam-boat. Spaces of too great length at the end of a line may be avoided +by slightly lengthening the preceding words or the spaces between them. + +5. _Spacing._--Each theme should have a title. It should be placed in the +center of the line above the composition, and should have all important +words capitalized. Titles too long for a single line may be written as +follows:-- + + + MY TRIP TO CHICAGO + ON A BICYCLE + + +With unruled paper some care must be taken to keep the lines the same +distance apart. The spaces between sentences should be somewhat greater +than those between words. Paragraphs are indicated by indentations. + +6. _Corrections._--These are best made by using a sharp knife or an ink +eraser. Sometimes, if neatly done, a line may be drawn through an +incorrect word and the correct one written above it. Omitted words may be +written between the lines and the place where they belong indicated by a +caret. If a page contains many corrections, it should be copied. + +7. _Inscription and Folding._--The teacher will give directions as to +inscription and folding. He will indicate what information he wishes, such +as name, class, date, etc., and where it is to be written. Each page +should be numbered. If the paper is folded, it should be done with +neatness and precision. + + ++2. Capitals.+--The use of capitals will serve to illustrate the value of +using conventional forms. We are so accustomed to seeing a proper name, +such as Mr. Brown, written with capitals that we should be puzzled if we +should find it written without capitals. The sentence, Ben-Hur was written +by Lew Wallace, would look unfamiliar if written without capitals. We are +so used to our present forms that beginning sentences with small letters +would hinder the ready comprehension of the thought. Everybody agrees that +capitals should be used to begin sentences, direct questions, names of +deity, days of the week, the months, each line of poetry, the pronoun I, +the interjection O, etc., and no good writer will fail to use them. Usage +varies somewhat in regard to capitals in some other places. Such +expressions as Ohio river, Lincoln school, Jackson county, state of +Illinois, once had both names capitalized. The present tendency is to +write them as above. Even titles of honor are not capitalized unless they +are used with a proper name; for example, He introduced General Grant The +general then spoke. + + ++3. Rules of Capitalization.+--1. Every sentence and every line of poetry +begin with capitals. + +2. Every direct quotation, except brief phrases and subordinate parts of +sentences, begins with a capital. + +3. Proper nouns and adjectives derived from proper nouns begin with +capitals. Some adjectives, though derived from proper nouns, are no longer +capitalized; _e.g._ voltaic. + +4. Titles of honor when used with the name of a person begin with +capitals. + +5. The first word and every important word in the titles of books, etc., +begin with capitals. + +6. The pronoun I and the interjection O are always capitalized. + +7. Names applied to the Deity are capitalized and pronouns referring +thereto, especially if personal, are usually capitalized. + +8. Important words are often capitalized for emphasis, especially words in +text-books indicating topics. + + ++4. Punctuation.+--The meaning of a sentence depends largely on the +grouping of words that are related in sense to each other. When we are +reading aloud we make the sense clear by bringing out to the hearer this +grouping. This is accomplished by the use of pauses and by emphasis and +inflection. In writing we must do for the eye what inflection and pauses +do for the ear. We therefore use punctuation marks to indicate inflection +and emphasis, and especially to show word grouping. Punctuation marks are +important because their purpose is to assist in making the sense clear. +There are many special rules more or less familiar to you, but they may +all be included under the one general statement: Use such marks and only +such marks as will assist the reader in getting the sense. + +What marks we shall use and how we shall use them will be determined by +custom. In order to benefit a reader, marks must be used in ways with +which he is familiar. Punctuation changes from time to time. The present +tendency is to omit all marks not absolutely necessary to the clear +understanding of the sentence. + +There are some very definite rules, but there are others that cannot be +made so definite, and the application of them requires care and +judgment on the part of the writer. Improvement will come only by +practice. Sentences should not be written for the purpose of illustrating +punctuation. The meaning of what you are writing ought to be clear to you, +and the punctuation marks should be put in _as you write_, not inserted +afterward. + + ++5. Rules for the Use of the Comma.+--1. The comma is used to separate +words or phrases having the same construction, used in a series. + + Judges, senators, and representatives were imprisoned. + + The country is a good place to be born in, a good place to die in, a + good place to live in at least part of the year. + + +If any conjunctions are used to connect the last two members, the comma +may or may not be used in connection with the conjunction. + + + The cabbage palmetto affords shade, kindling, bed, and food. + + +2. Words or expressions in apposition should be separated by a comma. + + + The native Indian dress is an evolution, a survival from long years of + wild life. + + +3. Commas are used to separate words in direct address from the rest of +the sentence. + + + Bow down, dear Land, for thou hast found release. + O, Sohrab, an unquiet heart is thine! + + +4. Introductory and parenthetical words or expressions are +set off by commas. + + + However, the current is narrow and very shallow here. + + This, in a general way, describes the scope of the small parks or + playgrounds. + + +If the parenthetical expression is long and not very closely related to +the rest of the sentence, dashes or marks of parenthesis are frequently +used. Some writers use them even when the connection is somewhat close. + + +5. The comma is frequently used to separate the parts of a long compound +predicate. + + + Pine torches have no glass to break, and are within the reach of any man + who can wield an ax. + + +6. A comma is often used to separate a subject with several modifiers, or +with a long modifier, from the predicate verb. + + + One of the mistakes often made in beginning the study of birds with +small children, is in placing stress upon learning by sight and name +as many species of birds as possible. + + +7. Participial and adjective phrases and adverb phrases out of their +natural order should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. + + + A knight, clad in armor, was the most conspicuous figure of all. + + To the mind of the writer, this explanation has much to commend it. + + +8. When negative expressions are used in order to show a contrast, they +are set off by commas. + + + They believed in men, not in mere workers in the great human workshop. + + +9. Commas are used in complex sentences to separate the dependent clause +from the rest of the sentence. + + + The great majority of people would be better off, if they had more money + and spent it. + + While the flour is being made, samples are sent every hour to the + testing department. + + +If the connection is close, the comma is usually omitted, especially when +the dependent clause comes last. + + + I will be there when the train arrives. + + +10. When a relative clause furnishes an additional thought, it should be +separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma. + + + Hiram Watts, who has been living in New York for six years, has just + returned to England. + + +If the relative clause is restrictive, that is, if it restricts or +limits the meaning of the antecedent, the comma is unnecessary. + + + This is the best article that he ever wrote. + + + +11. Commas are used to separate the members of a compound sentence when +they are short or closely connected. + + + Ireland is rich in minerals, yet there is but little mining done there. + + Breathe it, exult in it, + All the day long, + Glide in it, leap in it, + Thrill it with song. + + +12. Short quotations should be separated from the rest of the sentence by +a comma. + + + "There must be a beaver dam here," he called. + + +13. The omissions of important words in a sentence should be indicated by +commas. + + + If you can, come to-morrow; if not, come next week. + + ++6. Rules for the Use of the Semicolon.+--1. When the members of a +compound sentence are long or are not closely connected, semicolons should +be used to separate them. + + + Webster could address a bench of judges; Everett could charm a + college; Choate could delude a jury; Clay could magnetize a senate, + and Tom Corwin could hold the mob in his right hand; but no one + of these men could do more than this one thing. + +--Wendell Phillips. + + We might as well decide the question now; for we shall surely be + obliged to soon. + + +2. When the members of a compound sentence themselves contain commas, they +should be separated from one another by semicolons. + + + As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at + it; as he was valiant, I honor him; but, as he was ambitious, I slew + him. + +--Shakespeare. + + +3. The semicolon should be used to precede _as, namely, i.e., e.g., viz_. + + + Some adjectives are compared irregularly; as, good, bad, and little. + + +4. When a series of distinct statements all have a common dependence on +what precedes or follows them, they may be separated from each other by +semicolons. + + + When subject to the influence of cold we eat more; we choose more + heat-producing foods, as fatty foodstuffs; we take more vigorous + exercise; we put on more clothing, especially of the non-conducting + kinds--woolens. + + ++7. Rules for the Use of the Colon.+--1. The colon is used +before long or formal quotations, before enumerations, and before +the conclusion of a previous statement. + + + Old Sir Thomas Browne shrewdly observes: "Every man is not only + himself. There have been many Diogeneses and many Timons + though but few of the name. Men are lived over again. The world + is now as it was in ages past. There were none then, but there has + been one since, that parallels him, and is, as it were, revived self." + +--George Dana Boardman. + + Adjectives are divided into two general classes: descriptive and + definitive adjectives. + + The following members sent in their resignations: Mrs. William M. + Murphy, Mrs. Ralph B. Wiltsie, and Mrs. John C. Clark. + + +2. The colon is used to separate the different members of a compound +sentence, when they themselves are divided by semicolons. + + + It is too warm to-day; the sunshine is too bright; the shade, too + pleasant: we will wait until to-morrow or we will have some one else + do it when the busy time is over. + + ++8. Rules for the Use of the Period.+--1. The period is used at the close +of imperative and declarative sentences. + +2. All abbreviations should be followed by a period. + + ++9. Rule for the Use of the Interrogation Mark.+--The interrogation mark +should be used after all direct questions. + + ++10. Rule for the Use of the Exclamation Mark.+--Interjections and +exclamatory words and expressions should be followed by the exclamation +mark. Sometimes the exclamatory word is only a part of the whole +exclamation. In this case, the exclamatory word should be followed by a +comma, and the entire exclamation by an exclamation mark. + + +See, how the lightning flashes! + + ++11. Rules for the Use of the Dash.+--1. The dash is used to show sudden +changes in thought or breaks in speech. + + +I can speak of this better when temptation comes my way--if it ever does. + + +2. The dash is often used in the place of commas or marks of parenthesis +to set off parenthetical expressions. + + +In the mountains of New York State this most valuable tree--the spruce-- +abounds. + + +3. The dash, either alone or in connection with the comma, is used to +point out that part of a sentence on which special stress is to be placed. + + +I saw unpruned fruit trees, broken fences, and farm implements, rusting in +the rain--all evidences of wasted time. + + +4. The dash is sometimes used with the colon before long quotations, +before an enumeration of things, or before a formally introduced +statement. + + ++12. Rules for the Use of Quotation Marks.+--1. Quotation marks are used +to inclose direct quotations. + + +"In all the great affairs of life one must run some risk," she remarked. + + +2. A quotation within a quotation is usually indicated by single quotation +marks. + + +"Can you tell me where I can find 'Rienzi's Address'?" asked a young lady +of a clerk in Brooklyn. + + +3. When a quotation is interrupted by parenthetical expressions, the +different parts of the quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks. + + +"Bring forth," cried the monarch, "the vessels of gold." + +4. When the quotation consists of several paragraphs, the quotation marks +are placed at the beginning of each paragraph and at the close of the last +one. + + ++13. Rule for the Use of the Apostrophe.+--The apostrophe is used to +denote the possessive case, to indicate the omission of letters, and to +form the plural of signs, figures, and letters. + + +In the teacher's copy book you will find several fancy A's and 3's which +can't be distinguished from engravings. + + + +II. REVIEW OF GRAMMAR + + +THE SENTENCE + + ++14. English grammar+ is the study of the forms of English words and their +relationship to one another as they appear in sentences. A _sentence_ is a +group of words that expresses a complete thought. + + ++15. Elements of a Sentence.+--The elements of a sentence, as regards the +office that they perform, are the _subject_ and the _predicate_. The +_subject_ is that about which something is asserted, and the _predicate_ +is that which asserts something about the subject. + +Some predicates may consist of a single word or word-group, able in itself +to complete a sentence: [The thrush _sings_. The thrush _has been +singing_]. Some require a following word or words: [William struck +_John_ (object complement, or object). Edward became _king_ (attribute +complement). The people made Edward _king_ (objective complement)]. + +The necessary parts of a sentence are: some name for the object of thought +(to which the general term _substantive_ may be given); some word or group +of words to make assertion concerning the substantive (general term, +_assertive_); and, in case of an incomplete assertive, one of the above +given completions of its meaning (object complement, attribute complement, +objective complement). + +In addition to these necessary elements of the sentence, words or groups +of words may be added to make the meaning of any one of the elements more +exact. Such additions are known as _modifiers_. The word-groups which are +used as modifiers are the _phrase_ and the _clause_. + +[The thrush, sings _in the pine woods_ (phrase). The wayfarer _who hears +the thrush_ is indeed fortunate (clause).] + +Both the subject and the predicate may be unmodified: + +[Bees buzz]; both may be modified: [The honey bees buzz in the clover]; +one may be modified and the other unmodified: [Bees buzz in the clover]. + +The unmodified subject may be called the _simple subject_, or, merely, the +_subject_. If modified, it becomes the _complete subject_. + +The assertive element, together with the attribute complement, if one is +present, may be called the _simple predicate_. If modified, it becomes the +_complete predicate_. + +Some grammarians call the assertive element, alone, the _simple +predicate_; modified or completed, the _complete predicate_. + + ++16. Classification of Sentences as to Purpose.+--Sentences are classified +according to purpose into three classes: _declarative_, _interrogative_, +and _imperative_ sentences. + +A _declarative_ sentence is one that makes a statement or declares +something: [Columbus crossed the Atlantic]. + +An _interrogative_ sentence is one that asks a question: [Who wrote +_Mother Goose_?]. + +An _imperative_ sentence is one that expresses a command or entreaty: +["Fling away ambition"]. + +Each kind of sentence may be of an exclamatory nature, and then the +sentence is said to be an _exclamatory_ sentence: [How happy all the +children are! (exclamatory declarative). "Who so base as be a slave?" +(exclamatory interrogative). "Heap high the farmer's wintry hoard!" +(exclamatory imperative)]. + +Notice that the exclamation point follows the declarative and imperative +forms, but the interrogative form is followed by the question mark. + + +WORDS AND THEIR OFFICES + + ++17. The Individual Elements+ of which every sentence is composed are +_words_. Every word is the sign of some idea. Each of the words _horse, +he, blue, speaks, merrily, at_, and _because_, has a certain naming value, +more or less definite, for the mind of the reader. Of these, _horse, blue, +he, merrily_, have a fairly vivid descriptive power. In the case of _at_ +and _because_, the main office is, evidently, to express a relation +between other ideas: ["I am _at_ my post"], ["I go _because_ I must"]. The +word _speaks_ is less clearly a relational word; at first thought it would +seem to have only the office of picturing an activity. That it also fills +the office of a connective will be evident if we compare the following +sentences: He _speaks_ in public. He _is_ a public _speaker_. It is +evident that _speaks_ contains in itself the _naming_ value represented in +the word _speaker_, but also has the _connecting_ office fulfilled in the +second sentence by _is_. + +All words have, therefore, a naming office, and some have in addition a +connecting or relational office. + + +PARTS OF SPEECH + + ++18. Parts of Speech.+--When we examine the different words in sentences +we find that, in spite of these fundamentally similar qualities, the words +are serving different purposes. This difference in purpose or use serves +as the basis for dividing words into eight classes, called Parts of +Speech. Use alone determines to which class a word in any given sentence +shall belong. Not only are single words so classified, but any part of +speech may be represented by a group of words. Such a group is either a +_phrase_ or a _clause_. + +A _phrase_ is a group of words, containing neither subject nor predicate, +that is used as a single part of speech. + +A _clause_ is a group of words, containing both subject and predicate, +that is used as part of a sentence. If used as a single part of speech, it +is called a _subordinate_, or _dependent_, clause. Some grammarians use the +word _clause_ for a subordinate statement only. + + ++19. Classification.+--The eight parts of speech may be classified as +follows:-- + + I. Substantives: nouns, pronouns. + II. Assertives: verbs. +III. Modifiers: adjectives, adverbs. + IV. Connectives: prepositions, conjunctions. + V. Interjections. + + ++20. Definitions.+--The parts of speech may be defined as +follows:-- + +(1) A _noun_ is a word used as a name. + +(2) A _pronoun_ is a word used in place of a noun, designating a person, +place, or thing without naming it. + +(3) An _adjective_ is a word that modifies a substantive. + +(4) A _verb_ is a word that asserts something--action, state, or being--- +concerning a substantive. + +(5) An _adverb_ is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, or another +adverb. + +(6) A _preposition_ is a word that shows the relation of the substantive +that follows it to some other word or words in the sentence. + +(7) A _conjunction_ is a word that connects words or groups of words used +in the same way. + +(8) An _interjection_ is a cry expressing emotion, but not forming part of +the sentence. + + + NOUNS + + ++21. Classes of Nouns.+--Nouns are divided into two general classes: +_proper_ nouns [Esther] and _common_ nouns [girl]. + +Common nouns include _abstract_ nouns [happiness] and _collective_ nouns +[army]. + +Any word mentioned merely _as a word_ is a noun: [_And_ is a conjunction]. + + ++22. Inflection.+--A change in the form of a word to denote a change in +its meaning is termed _inflection_. + + ++23. Number.+--The most common inflection of the noun is that which shows +us whether the name denotes one or more than one. The power of the noun to +denote one or more than one is termed _number_. A noun that denotes but +one object is _singular_ in number. A noun that denotes more than one +object is _plural_ in number. + +The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by adding _s_ and _es_ to +the singular [bank, banks; box, boxes]. + +Other points to be noted concerning the plural of nouns are as follows:-- + +1. The irregular plural in _en_ [child, children]. + +2. Formation of the plural by internal change [goose, geese]. + +3. Fourteen nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_ change the _f_ or _fe_ into _yes_ +[leaf, leaves]. + +4. Nouns ending in _y_, preceded by a consonant, change the _y_ to _i_ and +add _es_ [enemy, enemies]. + +5. Letters, figures, signs, etc., form their plural by adding '_s_:[You +have used too many _i_'s]. + +6. Nouns taken from other languages usually form their plurals according +to the laws of those languages [phenomenon, phenomena]. + +7. A few nouns in our language do not change their form to denote number. + (_a_) Some nouns have the same form, for both the singular and the +plural [sheep, deer]. + (_b_) Some nouns are used only in the plural [scissors, thanks]. + (_c_) Some nouns have no plurals [pride, flesh]. + (_d_) Some nouns, plural in form, have a singular meaning [measles, +news, politics]. + +8. Compound nouns usually form their plural by pluralizing the noun part +of the compound [sister-in-law, sisters-in-law]. If the words of the +compound are both nouns, and are of equal importance, both are given a +plural ending [manservant, menservants]. When the compound is thought of +as a whole, the last part only is made plural [spoonful, spoonfuls]. + + 9. Proper names usually form their plurals regularly. If they are +preceded by titles, they form their plurals either by pluralizing the +title or by pluralizing the name [The Misses Hunter or the Miss Hunters. +The Messrs. Keene or the two Mr. Keenes. The Masters Burke. The Mrs. +Harrisons.] + + 10. A few nouns have two plurals differing in meaning or use [cloth, +cloths, clothes; penny, pennies, pence]. + + ++24. Case.+--Case is the relation that a noun or pronoun +bears to some other word in the sentence. + +Inflection of nouns or pronouns for the purpose of denoting +case is termed _declension_. There are three cases in the English +language: the _nominative_, the _possessive_, and the _objective_; but +nouns show only two forms for each number, as the nominative and +objective cases have the same form. + ++25. Formation of the Possessive.+--Nouns in the singular, and those in +the plural not already ending in _s_, form the possessive regularly by +adding '_s_ to the nominative [finger, finger's; geese, geese's]. + +In case the plural already ends in _s_, the possessive case adds only the +apostrophe [girls']. + +A few singular nouns add only the apostrophe, when the addition of the +'_s_ would make an unpleasant sound [Moses']. + +Compound nouns form the possessive case by adding '_s_ to the last word. +This is also the rule when two names denoting joint ownership are used: +[Bradbury and Emery's Algebra]. + +Notice that in the following expression the '_s_ is affixed to the second +noun only: [My sister Martha's book]. + +Names of inanimate objects usually substitute prepositional phrases to +denote possession: [The hardness _of the rock_, not The rock's hardness]. + + ++26. Gender.+--Gender is the power of nouns and pronouns to denote sex. +Nouns or pronouns denoting males are of the _masculine_ gender; those +denoting females are of the _feminine_ gender; and those denoting things +without animal life are of the _neuter_ gender. + + ++27. Person.+--Person is the power of one class of pronouns to show +whether the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken +of is designated. According to the person denoted, the pronoun is said to +be in the _first, second_, or _third_ person. Nouns and many pronouns are +not inflected for person, but most grammarians attribute person to them +because the context of the sentence in which they are used shows what +persons they represent. + + ++28. Constructions of Nouns.+--The following are the usual constructions +of nouns:-- + +(_a_) The _possessive_ case of the noun denotes possession. + +(_b_) Nouns in the _nominative_ case are used as follows:-- + +1. As the subject of a verb: [The western _sky_ is all aflame] + +2. As an attribute complement: [Autumn is the most gorgeous _season_ of +the year]. + +3. In an exclamation: [Alas, poor _soul_, it could not be!]. + +4. In direct address: [O hush thee, my _baby_!]. + +5. Absolutely: [The _rain_ being over, the grass twinkled in the +sunshine]. + +6. As a noun in apposition with a nominative: [Columbus; a _native_ of +Genoa, discovered America]. + +(_c_) Nouns in the _objective_ case are used as follows:-- + + 1. As the direct object of a verb, termed either the direct object or the +object complement: [I saw a _host_ of golden daffodils]. + + 2. As the objective complement: [They crowned him _king_]. + + 3. As the indirect object of a verb: [We gave _Ethel_ a ring]. + + 4. As the object of a preposition: [John Smith explored the coast of _New +England_]. + + 5. As the subject of an infinitive: [He commanded _the man_ (_him_)to go +without delay]. + + 6. As the attribute of an expressed subject of the infinitive _to be_: [I +thought it to be _John_ (_him_)]. + + 7. As an adverbial noun: [He came last _week_]. + + 8. As a noun in apposition with an object: [Stanley found Livingstone, +the great _explorer_]. + + ++29. Equivalents for Nouns.+ + +1. Pronoun: [John gave _his_ father a book for Christmas]. + +2. Adjective: [The _good_ alone are truly great]. + +3. Adverb: [I do not understand the _whys_ and _wherefores_ of the +process]. + +4. A gerund, or infinitive in _ing_: [_Seeing_ is _believing_]. + +5. An infinitive or infinitive phrase: [With him, _to think_ is _to +act_]. + +6. Clause: [It is hard for me to believe _that she took the money_]. Noun +clauses may be used as subject, object, attribute complement, and +appositive. + +7. A prepositional phrase: [_Over the fence_ is out]. + + + PRONOUNS + + ++30. Antecedent.+--The most common equivalent for a noun is the pronoun. +The substantive for which the pronoun is an equivalent is called the +_antecedent_, and with this antecedent the pronoun must agree in _person, +number_, and _gender_, but not necessarily in _case_. + + ++31. Classes of Pronouns.+--Pronouns are commonly divided into five +classes, and sometimes a sixth class is added: (1) personal pronouns, (2) +relative pronouns, (3) interrogative pronouns, (4) demonstrative pronouns, +(5) adjective pronouns,(6) indefinite pronouns (not always added). + + ++32. Personal Pronouns.+--Personal pronouns are so called because they +show by their form whether they refer to the first, the second, or the +third person. There are five personal pronouns in common use: _I, you, he, +she_, and _it_. + + ++33. Constructions of Personal Pronouns.+--The personal pronouns are used +in the same ways in which nouns are used. Besides the regular uses that the +personal pronoun has, there are some special uses that should be +understood. + +1. The word _it_ is often used in an indefinite way at the beginning of a +sentence: [It snows]. When so used, it has no antecedent, and we say it is +used _impersonally_. + +2. The pronoun _it_ is often used as the _grammatical_ subject of a +sentence in which the _logical_ subject is found after the predicate verb: +[_It_ is impossible for us to go]. When so used the pronoun _it_ is called +an _expletive. There_ is used in the same way. + + ++34. Cautions and Suggestions.+ + +1. Be careful not to use the apostrophe in the possessive forms _its, +yours, ours_, and _theirs_. + +2. Be careful to use the nominative form of a pronoun used as an attribute +complement: [It is _I_; it is _they_]. + +3. Be sure that the pronoun agrees in number with its antecedent. One of +the most common violations of this rule is in using _their_ in such +sentences as the following:--Every boy and girl must arrange _his_ desk. +Who has lost _his_ book? The use of _every_ and the form _has_ obliges us +to make the possessive pronouns singular. + +_His_ may be regarded as applying to females as well as males, where it is +convenient not to use the expression _his or her_. + +4. The so-called subject of an infinitive is always in the objective case: +[I asked _him_ to go]. + +5. The attribute complement will agree in case with the subject of the +verb. Hence the attribute complement of an infinitive is in the objective +case: [I knew it (obj.) to be _him_]; but the attribute complement of the +subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case: [I knew it (nom.) was +_he_]. + +6. Words should be so arranged in a sentence that there will be no doubt +in the mind concerning the antecedent of the pronoun. + +7. Do not use the personal pronoun form _them_ for the adjective _those_: +[_Those_ books are mine]. + + ++35. Compound Personal Pronouns.+--To the personal pronouns _my, our, +your, him, her, it_, and _them_, the syllables _self_ (singular) and +_selves_ (plural) may be added, thus forming what are termed _compound +personal_ pronouns. These pronouns have only two uses:-- + +1. They are used for emphasis: [He _himself_ is an authority on the +subject]. + +2. They are also used reflexively: [The boy injured _himself_]. + + ++36. The Relative or Conjunctive Pronouns.+--The pronouns _who, which, +what_ (= that which), _that_, and _as_ (after _such_) are more than +equivalents for nouns, inasmuch as they serve as connectives. They are +often named _relative pronouns_ because they relate to some antecedent +either expressed or implied; they are equally well named _conjunctive +pronouns_ because they are used as connectives. They introduce subordinate +clauses only; these clauses are called _relative clauses_, and since they +modify substantives, are also called _adjective clauses_. + + ++37. Uses of Relative Pronouns.+--_Who_ is used to represent persons, and +objects or ideas personified; _which_ is used to represent things; _that_ +and _as_ are used to represent both persons and things. + +When a clause is used _for the purpose_ of pointing out some particular +person, object, or idea, it is usually introduced by _that_; but when the +clause supplies an additional thought, _who_ or _which_ is more frequently +used. The former is called a _restrictive clause_, and the latter, a +_non-restrictive clause_. + +[The boy that broke his leg has fully recovered (restrictive).] Note the +omission of the comma before _that_. [My eldest brother, who is now in +England, will return by June (non-restrictive).] Note the inclosure of the +clause in commas. See Appendix 5, rule 10. + +In the first sentence it is evident that the intent of the writer is to +separate, in thought, _the boy that broke his leg_ from all other boys. +Although the clause does indeed describe the boy's condition, it does so +_for the purpose_ of _limiting_ or _restricting_ thought to one especial +boy among many. In the second sentence the especial person meant is +indicated by the word _eldest_. The clause, _who is now in England_, is +put in for the sake of giving an additional bit of information. + + ++38. Constructions of Relative Pronouns.+--Relative pronouns may be used +as subject, object, object of a preposition, subject of an infinitive, and +possessive modifier. + +The relative pronoun is regarded as agreeing in person with its +antecedent. Its verb, therefore, takes the person of the antecedent: [_I_, +who _am_ your friend, will assist you]. + +The case of the relative is determined by its construction in the clause +in which it is found: [He _whom_ the president appointed was fitted for +the position]. + + ++39. Compound Relative Pronouns.+--The compound relative pronouns are +formed by adding _ever_ and _soever_ to the relative pronouns _who, +which_, and _what_. These have the constructions of the simple relatives, +and the same rules hold about person and case: [Give it to _whoever_ +wishes it. Give it to _whomever_ you see]. + + ++40. Interrogative Pronouns.+--The pronouns _who, which_, and _what_ are +used to ask questions, and when so used, are called _interrogative_ +pronouns. _Who_ refers to persons; _what_, to things; and _which_, to +persons or things. Like the relatives _who_ has three case forms; _which_ +and _what_ are uninflected. + +The implied question in the sentence, I know whom you saw, is, Whom did +you see? The introductory _whom_ is an interrogative pronoun, and the +clause itself is called an _indirect question_. + +The words _which, what_, and _whose_ may also be used as modifiers of +substantives, and when so used they are called _interrogative adjectives_: +["_What_ manner of man is this?" _Whose_ child is this? _Which_ book +did you choose?]. + + ++41. Demonstrative Pronouns.+--_This_ and _that_, with their plurals +_these_ and _those_, are called _demonstrative pronouns_, because they +point out individual persons or things. + + ++42. Indefinite Pronouns.+--Some pronouns, as _each, either, some, any, +many, such_, etc., are indefinite in character. Many indefinites may be +used either as pronouns or adjectives. Of the indefinites only two, _one_ +and _other_, are inflected. + + + SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL + +NOM. AND OBJ. one ones other others + +POSS. one's ones' other's others' + + ++43. Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives.+--Many words, as has +been noted already, are either pronouns or adjectives according to the +office that they perform. If the noun is expressed, the word in question +is called a _pronominal adjective_; but if the noun is omitted so that the +word in question takes its place, it is called an _adjective pronoun_. +[_That_ house is white (adjective). _That_ is the same house (pronoun).] + + +ADJECTIVES + + ++44. Classes of Adjectives.+--There are two general classes of adjectives: +the _descriptive_ [blue, high, etc.], so called because they describe, and +the _limiting_ or _definitive_ adjectives [yonder, three, that, etc.], so +called because they limit or define. It is, of course, true that any +adjective which describes a noun limits its meaning; but the adjective is +named from its descriptive power, not from its limiting power. A very +large per cent of all adjectives belong to the first class,--_descriptive_ +adjectives. Proper adjectives and _participial_ adjectives form a small +part of this large class: [_European_ countries. A _running_ brook]. + + ++45. Limiting or Definitive Adjectives.+--The _limiting_ adjectives +include the various classes of _pronominal adjectives_ (all of which have +been mentioned under pronouns), the _articles_ (_a_, _an_, and _the_), +and adjectives denoting _place_ and _number_. + + ++46. Comparison of Adjectives.+--With the exception of the words _this_ +and _that_, adjectives are not inflected for number, and none are +inflected for case. Many of them, however, change their form to express a +difference in degree. This change of form is called _comparison_. There +are three degrees of comparison: the _positive_, the _comparative_, and +the _superlative_. Adjectives are regularly compared by adding the +syllables _er_ and _est_ to the positive to form the comparative and +superlative degrees. In some cases, especially in the case of adjectives +of more than one syllable, the adverbs _more_ and _most_ are placed before +the positive degree in order to form the other two degrees [long, longer, +longest; beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful]. + ++47. Irregular Comparison of Adjectives.+--A few adjectives are compared +irregularly. These adjectives are in common use and we should be familiar +with the correct forms. + + +POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE + +bad } +evil } worse worst +ill } + +far farther farthest + +good } better best +well } + +fore former { foremost + { first + +late { later { latest + { latter { last + +little less least + +many } more most +much } + +near nearer { nearest + { next + +old { older { oldest + { elder { eldest + + +The following words are used as adverbs or prepositions in the positive +degree, and as _adjectives_ in the other two degrees:-- + + +(forth) further furthest + +(in) inner { innermost + { inmost + +(out) { outer { outermost + { utter { utmost + { uttermost + +(up) upper { upmost + { uppermost + + ++48. Cautions concerning the Use of Adjectives.+ + +1. When two or more adjectives modify the same noun, the article is +placed only before the first, unless emphasis is desired: [He is an +industrious, faithful pupil]. + +2. If the adjectives refer to different things, the article should be +repeated before each adjective: [She has a white and a blue dress]. + +3. When two or more nouns are in apposition, the article is placed only +before the first: [I received a telegram from Mr. Richards, _the_ broker +and real estate agent]. + +4. _This, these, that_, and _those_ must agree in number with the noun +they modify: [_This kind_ of flowers; _those sorts_ of seeds]. + +5. When but two things are compared, the comparative degree is used: +[This is the more complete of the two]. + +6. When _than_ is used after a comparative, whatever is compared should +be excluded from the class with which it is compared: [I like this house +better than any other house; not, I like this house better than any +house]. + +7. Do not use _a_ after _kind of, sort of_, etc.: [What kind of man is +he? (not, What kind of _a_ man)]. _One_ man does not constitute a class +consisting of many kinds. + + ++49. Constructions of Adjectives.+--Adjectives that merely describe or +limit are said to be _attributive_ in construction. When the adjective +limits or describes, and, at the same time, adds to the predicate, it is +called a _predicate adjective_.Predicate adjectives may be used either as +attribute or objective complements: [The sea is _rough_ to-day (attribute +complement), He painted the boat _green_ (objective complement)]. + + ++50. Equivalents for Adjectives.+--The following are used as equivalents +for the typical adjective:-- + +1. A noun used in apposition: [Barrie's story of his mother, "_Margaret +Ogilvy_," is very beautiful]. + +2. A noun used as an adjective: [A _campaign_ song]. + +3. A prepositional phrase: [His little, nameless, unremember'd acts _of +kindness_ and _of love_]. + +4. Participles or participial phrases: [We saw a brook _running_ between +the alders. Soldiers _hired to serve a foreign country_ are called +mercenaries]. + +5. Relative clauses: [This is the house _that Jack built_]. + +6. An adverb (sometimes called the _locative_ adjective): [The book _here_ +is the one I want]. + + + + VERBS + + ++51. Uses of Verbs.+--A _verb_ is the word or word-group that makes an +assertion or statement, and it is therefore the most important part of the +whole sentence. It has been already shown that such a verb as _speaks_ +serves the double purpose of suggesting an activity and showing relation. +The most purely _relational_ verb is the verb _to be_, which is called the +_copula_ or _linking verb_, for the very reason that it joins predicate +words to the subject: [The lake _is_ beautiful]. _To be_, however, is not +always a pure _copula_. In such a sentence as, "He that cometh to God must +believe that He _is_," the word _is_ means _exists_.Verbs that are like +the copula, such as, _appear, become, seem_, etc., are called _copulative_ +verbs. Verbs that not only are relational but have descriptive power, such +as _sings, plays, runs_, etc., are called _attributive_ verbs. They +attribute some quality or characteristic to the subject. + + ++52. Classes of Verbs.+--According to their uses in a sentence verbs are +divided into two classes: _transitive_ and _intransitive_. + +A _transitive_ verb is one that takes a following substantive, expressed +or implied, called the _object_, to designate the receiver or the product +of the action: [They seized the _city_. They built a _city_]. The +transitive verb may sometimes be used _absolutely_:[The horse eats]. Here +the object is implied. + +An _intransitive_ verb is one that does not take an object to complete its +meaning; or, in other words, an intransitive verb is one that denotes an +action, state, or feeling that involves the subject only: [He ran away. +They were standing at the water's edge]. + +A few verbs in our language are always transitive, and a few others are +always intransitive. The verbs _lie_ and _lay, rise_ and _raise, sit_ and +_set_, are so frequently misused that attention is here called to them. +The verbs _lie, rise_, and _sit_ (usually) are intransitive in meaning, +while the verbs _lay, raise_, and _set_ are transitive. The word _sit_ may +sometimes take a reflexive object: [They sat _themselves_ down to rest]. + +The majority of verbs in our language are either transitive or +intransitive, according to the sense in which they are used. + + [The fire _burns_ merrily (intransitive). + The fire _burned_ the building (transitive). + The bird _flew_ swiftly (intransitive). + The boy _flew_ his kite (transitive).] + +Some intransitive verbs take what is known as a _cognate object_: [He died +a noble _death_.] Here the object repeats the meaning of the verb. + + ++53. Complete and Incomplete Verbs.+--Some intransitive verbs make a +complete assertion or statement without the aid of any other words. Such +verbs are said to be of _complete predication_: [The snow melts]. + +All transitive verbs and some intransitive verbs require one or more words +to complete the meaning of the predicate. Such verbs are said to be +incomplete. Whatever is added to complete the meaning of the predicate is +termed a _complement_. The complement of a transitive verb is called the +_object complement_, or simply the _object_: [She found the _book_]. +Some transitive verbs, from the nature of their meaning, take also an +_indirect_ object: [I gave _her_ the book]. When a word belonging to +the subject is added to an intransitive verb in order to complete the +predicate, it is termed an _attribute complement_. This complement may be +either a noun or an adjective: [He is our _treasurer_ (noun). This rose is +_fragrant_ (adjective)]. Among the incomplete intransitive verbs the most +conspicuous are the copula and the copulative verbs. + + ++54. Auxiliary Verbs.+--English verbs have so few changes of form to +express differences in meaning that it is often necessary to use the +so-called _auxiliary_ verbs. The most common are: _do, be, have, may, +must, might, can, shall, will, should, would, could_, and _ought_. Some of +these may be used as principal verbs. A few notes and cautions are added. + +_Can_ is used to denote the ability of the subject. + +_May_ is used to denote permission, possibility, purpose, or desire. Thus +the request for permission should be, "May I?" not "Can I?" + +_Must_ indicates necessity. + +_Ought_ expresses obligation. + +_Had_ should never be used with _ought_. To express a moral obligation in +past time, combine _ought_ with the perfect infinitive: [I ought _to have +done_ it]. + +_Should_ sometimes expresses duty: [You should not go]. + +_Would_ sometimes denotes a custom: [He would sit there for hours]. +Sometimes it expresses a wish: [Would he were here!]. For other uses of +_should_ and _would_, see Appendix 60. + + ++55. Principal Parts.+--The main forms of the verb--so important as to be +called the _principal parts_ because the other parts are formed from them-- +are the _root infinitive_, the _preterite_ (_past_) _indicative_, and the +_past participle_ [move, moved, moved; sing, sang, sung; be, was, been]. +The _present_ participle is sometimes given with the principal parts. + + ++56. Inflection.+--As is evident from the preceding paragraph, verbs have +certain changes of form to indicate change of meaning. Such a change or +_inflection_, in the case of the noun, is called _declension;_ in the +case of the verb it is called _conjugation_. Nouns are _declined_; verbs +are _conjugated_. + + ++57. Person and Number.+--In Latin, or any other highly inflected +language, there are many terminations to indicate differences in person +and number, but in English there is but one in common use, _s_ in the +third person singular: [_He runs_], _St_ or _est_ is used after _thou_ in +the second person singular: [_Thou lovest_]. + + ++58. Agreement.+--Verbs must agree with their subjects in +person and number. The following suggestions concerning +agreement may be helpful:-- + +1. A compound subject that expresses a single idea takes a singular verb: +[Bread and milk _is_ wholesome food]. + +2. When the members of a compound subject, connected by _neither ... nor_, +differ as regards person and number, the verb should agree with the nearer +of the two: [Neither they nor I _am_ to blame]. + +3. When the subject consists of singular nouns or pronouns connected by +_or, either ... or, neither ... nor_, the verb is singular: [Either this +book or that _is_ mine]. + +4. Words joined to the subject by _with, together with, as well as_, etc., +do not affect the number of the verb. The same is true of any modifier of +the subject: [John, as well as the girls, _is_ playing house. One of my +books _is_ lying on the table. Neither of us _is_ to blame]. + +5. When the article _the_ precedes the word _number_, used as a subject, +the verb should be in the singular; otherwise the verb is plural: [_The_ +number of pupils in our schools _is_ on the increase. _A_ number of +children _have_ been playing in the sand pile]. + +6. The pronoun _you_ always takes a plural verb, even if its meaning is +singular: [You _were_ here yesterday]. + +7. A collective noun takes a singular or plural verb, according as the +collection is thought of as a whole or as composed of individuals. + + ++59. Tense.+--The power of the verb to show differences of time is called +_tense_. Tense shows also the completeness or incompleteness of an act or +condition at the time of speaking. There are three _primary_ tenses: +_present, preterite_ (_past_), and _future_; and three _secondary_ tenses +for completed action:_present perfect, past perfect_ (_pluperfect_), and +_future perfect_. + +English has only two simple tenses, the present and the preterite: _I +love, I loved_. All other tenses are formed by the use of the auxiliary +verbs. By combining the present and past tenses of _will, shall, have, +be_, or _do_ with those parts of the verb known as infinitives and +participles, the various tenses of the complete conjugation of the verb +are built up. The formation of the _preterite_ tense, and the consequent +division of verbs into _strong_ and _weak_, will be discussed later. + ++60. The Future Tense.+--The future tense is formed by combining _shall_ +or _will_ with the root infinitive, without _to_. + +The correct form of the _future tense_ in assertions is here given:-- + + + SINGULAR PLURAL + +1. I shall fall 1. We shall fall +2. Thou wilt fall 2. You will fall +3. He will fall 3. They will fall + + +_Will_, in the _first_ person, denotes not simple futurity, but +determination: [I will (= am determined to) go]. + +_Shall_, in the _second_ and _third_ persons, is not simply the sign of +the future tense in declarative sentences. It is used to denote the +determination of the speaker with reference to others. + +Notice:-- + +1. In clauses introduced by _that_, expressed or understood, if the noun +clause and the principal clause have _different_ subjects, the same +auxiliary is used that would be used were the subordinate clause used +independently: [I fear we _shall_ be late. My friend is determined that +her son _shall_ not be left alone]. + +2. In all other subordinate clauses, _shall_, for all persons, denotes +simple futurity; _will_, an expression of willingness or determination: +[He thinks that he _shall_ be there. He promises that he _will_ be there]. + +3. In questions, _shall_ is always used in the first person; in the second +and third persons the same auxiliary is used which is expected in the +answer. + +(NOTE.--_Should_ and _would_ follow the rules for _shall_ and _will_.) + + ++61. Tenses for the Completed Action.+ + +1. To represent an action as completed at the _present_ time, the past +participle is used with _have_ (_hast, has_). This forms the _present +perfect_ tense: [I _have finished_]. + +2. To represent an action as completed in _past_ time, the past participle +is combined with _had_ (_hadst_). This forms the _past perfect_, or +_pluperfect_, tense: [I _had finished_]. + +3. To represent action that will be completed _in future_ time, _shall +have_ or _will have_ is combined with the past participle. This forms the +_future perfect_ tense: [I _shall have finished_]. + + ++62. Sequence of Tenses.+--It is, in general, true that the tense of a +subordinate clause changes when the tense of the main verb changes. This +is known as the Law of the Sequence (or _following_) of Tenses: [I know he +means well. I knew he meant well]. + +The verb in the main clause and the verb in the subordinate clause are not +necessarily in the same tense. + + + [I think he _is_ there. I thought he was there. + I think he _was_ there. I thought he had been there. + I think he _will be_ there. I thought he would be there.] + + +In general, the principle may be laid down that in a complex sentence the +tense for both principal and subordinate clauses is that which the sense +requires. + +General truths and present facts should be expressed in the +present tense, whatever the tense of the principal verb: [He +believed that truth _is_ unchangeable. Who did you say _is_ president +of your society?]. + +The _perfect infinitive_ is used to denote action completed at +the time of the main verb: [I am sorry _to have wounded_ you]. + ++63. Mode.+--A statement may be regarded as the expression of a fact, of a +doubt or supposition, or of a command. The power of the verb to show how +an action should be regarded is called _mode (mood_). In our language +there is but a slight change of form for this purpose. The distinction of +mode which we must make is a distinction that has regard to the thought or +attitude of mind of the speaker rather than to the form of the verb. + +The _indicative_ mode is used to state a fact or to ask questions of fact: +[I shall write a letter. Shall I write a letter?]. + +The _subjunctive_ mode indicates uncertainty, unreality, and some forms of +condition: [If she were here, I should be glad]. + +The _imperative_ mode expresses a command or entreaty: [Come here]. + + ++64. The Subjunctive Mode.+--The subjunctive is disappearing from +colloquial speech, and the indicative form is used almost entirely. + +The verb _to be_ has the following indicative and subjunctive forms in the +present and preterite:-- + + + IND. SUBJ. IND. SUBJ. + { I am I be { I was I were + { Thou art Thou be { Thou wast Thou were +PRESENT { He is He be PRETERITE { He was He were + { We are We be { We were We were + { You are You be { You were You were + { They are They be { They were They were + + +In other verbs the indicative and subjunctive forms are the same, except +that the second and third persons singular subjunctive have no personal +endings. + + +INDICATIVE Thou learnest He learns +SUBJUNCTIVE Thou learn He learn + + +The subjunctive idea is sometimes expressed by verb phrases, containing +the auxiliary verbs _may (might), would_, or _should_. _May, would_, and +_should_ are not, however, always subjunctive. In "I _may_ go" (may = am +allowed to), _may_ is indicative. In "you _should_ go" (= ought to), +_should_ is indicative. + +The subjunctive mode is used most frequently to express:-- + +1. A wish: [The Lord be with you]. + +2. A condition regarded as doubtful: [If it be true, what shall we +think?], or a condition regarded as untrue: [If I were you, I should go]. +When condition is expressed by the subjunctive without _if_, the verb +precedes the subject: [Were my brother here, he could go with me]. + +3. A purpose: [He studies that he may learn]. + +4. Exhortations: [Sing we the song of freedom]. + +5. A concession,--supposed, not given as a fact: [Though he be my enemy, I +shall pity him]. + +6. A possibility: [We fear lest he be too late]. + +The tenses of the subjunctive require especial notice. In conditional +clauses, the _present_ refers either to present or future time: [Though +the earth be removed, we shall not fear]. + +The _preterite_ refers to present time. It implies that the supposed case +is not a fact: [If he were here, I should be much pleased]. + +The _pluperfect_ subjunctive expresses a false supposition in past time: +[If you had been here, this would not have happened]. + +The phrases with _may, might, can, must, could, would_, and _should_ are +sometimes called the _potential mode_, but the constructions all fall +within either the indicative or the subjunctive uses, and a fourth mode is +only an incumbrance. + + ++65. The Imperative Mode.+--The imperative is the mode of command and +entreaty. It has but one form for both singular and plural, and but one +tense,--the present. It has but one person,--the second. The subject is +usually omitted. The case of direct address, frequently used with the +imperative, should not be confused with the subject. In, "John, hold my +books," the subject is _you_, understood. Were _John_ the subject, the +verb must be _holds_. _John_ is, here, a compellative, or vocative. + + ++66. Voice.+--Verbs are said to be in the _active_ voice when they +represent the subject as acting, and in the _passive_ voice when they +represent the subject as being acted upon. Intransitive verbs, from their +very nature, have no passive voice. Transitive verbs may have both voices, +for they may represent the subject either as acting or as being acted +upon. + +The direct object in the active voice generally becomes the subject in the +passive; if the subject of the active appears in the passive, it is the +object of the preposition _by_: [My dog loves me (active). I am loved by +my dog (passive)]. + +Verbs of calling, naming, making, and thinking may take two objects +referring to the same person or thing. The first of these is the direct +object and the second is called the objective complement: [John called him +_a coward_]. The objective complement becomes an attribute complement when +the verb is changed from the active to the passive voice: [He was called +_a coward_ by John]. + +Certain verbs take both a direct and an indirect object in the active: +[John paid him nine _dollars_]. If the indirect object becomes the subject +in the passive voice, the direct object is known as the _retained object:_ +[He was paid nine _dollars_ by John]. + + ++67. Infinitives.+--The infinitive form of the verb is often called a +verbal noun, because it partakes of the nature both of the verb and of the +noun. It is distinguished from the _finite_, or true, verb because it does +not make an assertion, and yet it assumes one. While it has the modifiers +and complements of a verb, it at the same time has the uses of a noun. + +There are two infinitives: the _root infinitive_ (commonly preceded by +_to_, the so-called _sign_ of the infinitive), and the _gerund_, or +_infinitive in -ing_. + +1. Root infinitive: [_To write_ a theme requires practice]. + +2. Gerund: [_Riding_ rapidly is dangerous]. In each of these sentences +the infinitive, in its capacity as noun, stands as the subject of the +sentence. In 1, _to write_ shows its verb nature by governing the object +_theme;_ in 2, _riding_ shows its verb nature by taking as a modifier the +adverb _rapidly_. + +Each form of the infinitive is found as the subject of a verb, as its +object, as an attribute complement, and as the object of a preposition. +The root infinitive, together with its subject in the objective case, is +used as the object of verbs of knowing, telling, etc.: [I know _him to be +a good boy_]. See also Appendix 85 for adjective and adverbial uses. + +The infinitive has two tenses: the _present_ and the _perfect_. The +_present_ tense denotes action which is not completed at the time of the +principal verb: [He tries _to write_. He tried _to write_. He will try _to +write_]. The _perfect_ infinitive denotes action complete with reference +to the time of the principal verb: [I am glad _to have known_ her]. + + ++68. Participles.+--Participles are verbal adjectives: [The girl _playing_ +the piano is my cousin]. _Playing_, as an _adjective_, modifies the noun +_girl_; it shows its _verbal_ nature by taking the object _piano_. + +The _present participle_ ends in _-ing_. When the _past participle_ has an +ending, it is either _-d, -ed, -t_, or _-en_. The _perfect participle_ is +formed by combining _having_ with a past participle; as, _having gone_. + +There is danger of confusing the present participle with the gerund, or +infinitive in _-ing_, unless the adjective character of the one and the +noun character of the other are clearly distinguished: [The boy, _driving_ +the cows to pasture, was performing his daily task (participle). _Driving_ +the cows to pasture was his daily task (gerund)]. + +Participles are used to form verb-phrases. The present participle is used +for the formation of the progressive conjugation; the past participle, for +the formation of the compound or perfect tenses. Participles are also used +in all the adjective constructions. + +One especial construction requires notice,--the _absolute_ construction, +or the _nominative absolute_, as it is called: [_The ceremony having been +finished_, the people dispersed]. The construction here is equivalent to a +clause denoting _time_ or _cause_ or some _circumstance_ attendant on the +main action of the sentence. The participle is sometimes omitted, but the +substantive must not be, lest the participle be left apparently belonging +to the nearest substantive; as, Walking home, the rain began to fall. As +the sentence stands, _walking_ modifies _rain_. + + ++69. Conjugation.+--The complete and orderly arrangement of the various +forms of a verb is termed its conjugation. Complete conjugations will be +found in any text-book on English grammar. + +The passive voice must not be confused with such a form as the progressive +conjugation of the verb. The passive consists of a form of _to be_ and a +_past participle_: [I am instructed]. The progressive tenses combine some +form of _to be_ with a _present_ participle: [I am instructing]. + +It may be well to distinguish here between the passive voice and a past +participle used as an attribute complement of the verb _be_. Both have the +same form, but there is a difference of meaning. The passive voice always +shows action received by the subject, while the participle is used only as +an adjective denoting condition: [James _was tired_ by his day's work +(passive voice). James was _tired_ (attribute complement)]. + + ++70. Weak and Strong Conjugations.+--Verbs are divided into two classes as +regards their conjugations. It has been the custom to call all verbs which +form the preterite and past participle by adding _-d_ or _-ed_ to the +present, _regular_ verbs [love, loved, loved], and to call all others +_irregular_. A better classification, based on more careful study of the +history of the English verb, divides verbs into those of the _weak_ and +those of the _strong_ conjugations. + +The _weak verbs_ are those which form the preterite by adding _-ed, -d_, +or _-t_ to the present: _love, loved_. There is also infrequently a change +of vowel: _sell, sold_; _teach, taught_. + +All verbs which form the preterite without the addition of an ending are +_strong verbs_. There is usually a change of vowel. The termination of the +past participle in _-n_ or _-en_ is a sure indication that a verb is +_strong_. Some verbs show forms of both conjugations. + +A complete list of _strong_ verbs cannot be given here, but a few of the +most common will be given, together with a few _weak_ verbs, in the use of +which mistakes occur. + + +PRESENT PRETERITE PAST PARTICIPLE +am was been +arise rose arisen +bear bore borne, born[1] +begin began begun +bid (command) bade bidden +bite bit bitten +blow blew blown +break broke broken +bring brought brought +burst burst burst +catch caught caught +choose chose chosen +climb climbed climbed +come came come +do did done +drink drank drunk[2] +drive drove driven +drown drowned drowned +eat ate eaten +fall fell fallen +fly flew flown +freeze froze frozen +get got got +give gave given +go went gone +grow grew grown +have had had +hide hid hidden +hurt hurt hurt +know knew known +lay laid laid +lie (recline) lay lain +lead led led +read read read +ride rode ridden +ring rang rung +run ran run +see saw seen +shake shook shaken +show showed shown +sing sang sung +sink sank sunk +sit sat sat +slay slew slain +speak spoke spoken +spring sprang sprung +steal stole stolen +swell swell { swelled + { swollen +swim swam swum +take took taken +tear tore torn +throw threw thrown +wear wore worn +wish wished wished +write wrote written + +[Footnote 1: Used only in the passive sense of "born into the world."] +[Footnote 2: _Drunken_ is an adjective.] + + +CAUTION.--Do not confuse the preterite with the past participle. Always +use the past participle form in the compound tenses. + + + +ADVERBS + + ++71. Classes of Adverbs.+--Adverbs vary much as to their use and meaning. +It is therefore impossible to make a very accurate classification, but we +may divide them, according to use, into _limiting, interrogative_, and +_conjunctive_ adverbs. + +_Limiting_ adverbs modify the meaning of verbs, etc.: [He rows _well_]. + +_Interrogative_ adverbs are used to ask questions: [_When_ shall you come? +He asked _where_ we were going (indirect question)]. + +_Conjunctive_ adverbs introduce clauses: [We went to the seashore, _where_ +we stayed a month]. Here _where_ is used as a connective and also as a +modifier of _stayed_. + +Conjunctive adverbs introduce the following kinds of clauses: + +1. Adverbial clauses: [Go _where_ duty calls]. + +2. Adjective clauses: [This is the very spot _where_ I put them]. + +3. Noun clause: [I do not know _how_ he will succeed]. + +Adverbs may also be classified, according to meaning, into adverbs of +_manner, time, place_, and _degree_. The classification is not, however, a +rigid one. + +Adverbs of _manner_ answer the question How? Most of these terminate in +_-ly_. A few, however, are identical in form with adjectives of like +meaning: [She sang very loud]. + +Adverbs of _time_ answer the question When? + +Adverbs of _place_ answer the question Where? This class, together with +the preceding two classes, usually modify verbs. + +_Adverbs of degree_ answer the question To what extent? These adverbs +modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. + + ++72. Phrasal Adverbs.+--Certain phrases, adverbial in character, cannot +easily be separated into parts. They have been called _phrased adverbs;_ +as, arm-in-arm, now-a-days, etc. + + ++73. Inflection.+--Some adverbs, like adjectives, are compared for the +purpose of showing different degrees of quality or quantity. + +The comparative and superlative degrees may be formed by adding the +syllables _er_ and _est_ to the positive degree. The great majority of +adverbs, however, make use of the words _more_ and _most_ or _less_ +and _least_ to show a difference in degree: [Fast, faster, fastest; +skillfully, more skillfully, most skillfully; carefully, less carefully, +least carefully]. + +Some adverbs are compared irregularly:-- + +badly } worse worst +ill (evil)} +far } { farther { farthest +forth } { further { furthest +late later { latest + { last +little less least +much more most +nigh nigher { nigher + { next +well better best + + ++74. Suggestions and Cautions concerning the Use of Adverbs.+ + +1. Some words, as _fast, little, much, more_, and others, have the same +form for both adjective and adverb, and use alone can determine what part +of speech each is. + +(Adjective) He is a fast driver. She looks well (in good health). + +(Adverb) How fast he walks! I learned my lesson well. + +2. Corresponding adjectives and adverbs usually have different forms which +should not be confused. + +(Adjective) She is a good student. + +(Adverb) He works well. + +3. The adjective, and not the adverbial, form should be used after a +copulative verb, since adverbs cannot modify substantives: [I feel bad; +not, I feel badly]. + +4. Two negatives imply an affirmative. Hence only one should be used to +denote negation: [I have nothing to say. I have no patience with him]. + + ++75. Equivalents for Adverbs.+ + +1. A phrase: [The child ran away _with great glee_]. + +2. A clause: [I will go canoeing _when the lake is calm_]. + +3. A noun: [Please come _home_. I will stay five _minutes_]. + + + +PREPOSITIONS + + ++76. Classes of Prepositions.+--The _simple_ prepositions are: _at, after, +against, but, by, down, for, from, in, of, off, over, on, since, through, +till, to, under, up_, and _with_. + +Other prepositions are either derived or compound: such as, _underneath, +across, between, concerning_, and _notwithstanding_. + + ++77. Suggestions concerning the Use of Prepositions.+--Mistakes are +frequently made in the use of the preposition. This use cannot be fully +discussed here, but a partial list of words with the required preposition +will be given. + + +afraid _of_. +agree _with_ a person. +agree _to_ a proposal. +bestow _upon_. +compare _to_ (to show similarity). +compare _with_ (to show similarity or difference). +comply _with_. +conform _to_. +convenient _for_ or _to_. +correspond _to_ or _with_ (a thing). +correspond _with_ (a person). +dependent _on_. +differ _from_ (a person or thing). +differ _from_ or _with_ (an opinion). +different _from_. +disappointed _in_. +frightened _at_ or _by_. +glad _of_. +need _of_. +profit _by_. +scared _by_. +taste _of_ (food). +taste _for_ (art). +thirst _for_ or _after_. + + +_Like_, originally an adjective or adverb, is often, in some of its uses, +called a preposition. It governs the objective case, and should not be +used as a conjunction: [She looks like _me;_ not, She looks like I do]. +The appropriate _conjunction_ here would be _as_: [She speaks _as_ I do]. + +The prepositions _in_ and _at_ denote rest or motion _in_ a place; _into_ +denotes motion _toward_ a place: [He is _in_ the garden. He went _into_ +the garden]. + + ++78. Prepositional Phrases.+--The preposition, with its object, forms what +is termed a prepositional phrase. This phrase is _adjective_ in force when +it modifies a substantive; and _adverbial_, when it modifies a verb, +adjective, or other adverb: [In the cottage _by the sea_ (adjective). He +sat _on the bench_ (adverb)]. + +Some prepositions were originally adverbs; such as, _in, on, off, up_, and +_to_. Many of them are still used adverbially or as adverbial suffixes: +[The ship lay to. A storm came on]. + + + +CONJUNCTIONS + + ++79. Classes of Conjunctions.+--Conjunctions are divided according to +their use into two general classes: the _coördinate_ and the _subordinate_ +conjunctions. + +_Coördinate_ conjunctions are used to connect words, phrases, and clauses +of equal rank; _subordinate_ conjunctions connect clauses of unequal rank. + +The principal coördinate conjunctions are _and, but, or, nor_, and _for_. +_And_ is said to be _copulative_ because it merely adds something to what +has just been said. Other conjunctions having a copulative use are _also, +besides, likewise, moreover_, and _too_; and the correlative conjunctions, +_both ... and, not only ... but also_, etc. These are termed _correlative_ +because they occur together. _But_ is termed the _adversative_ coördinate +conjunction because it usually introduces something adverse to what has +already been said. Other words of an adversative nature are _yet, however, +nevertheless, only, notwithstanding_, and _still_. _Or_ is alternative in +its force. This conjunction implies that there is a choice to be made. + +Other similar conjunctions are _either ... or, neither ... nor, or, else_. +_Either ... or_ and _neither ... nor_ are termed _correlative_ +conjunctions, and they introduce alternatives. _For, because, such_, and +as are _coördinate_ conjunctions only in such a case as the following: +[She has been running, for she is out of breath]. + +Some of the most common conjunctions of the _subordinate_ type are those +of place and time, cause, condition, purpose, comparison, concession, and +result. _That_ introducing a subordinate clause may be called a +_substantive_ conjunction: [I knew _that_ I ought to go]. + +There are a number of subordinate conjunctions used in pairs which are +called _correlatives_. The principal pairs are _as ... so, as ... as, so +... as, if ... then, though ... yet_. + + ++80. Simple and Compound Sentences.+--In the first section of this review +the parts of a sentence were named as the _subject_ and _predicate_. + +The _subject_ may itself consist of two parts joined by one of the +coördinating conjunctions: [Alice _and_ her cousin are here]. The +predicate may be formed in a similar fashion: [John played _and_ made +merry all day long]. Both subject and predicate may be so compounded: +[John _and_ Richard climbed the ladder _and_ jumped on the hay]. + +In all these cases the sentence, consisting as it does of but one subject +and one predicate, is said to be _simple_. + +When two clauses--that is, two groups of words containing each a subject +and predicate--are united by a coördinate conjunction, the sentence is +said to be _compound_: [John wished to play Indian, _but_ Richard +preferred to play railroad]. + +The coördinating conjunction need not actually appear in the sentence. Its +omission is then indicated by the punctuation: [John wished to play +Indian; Richard preferred another game]. + + ++81. Subordinate Conjunctions and Complex Sentences.+--A _subordinate_ +conjunction is used to join a subordinate clause to a principal clause, +thus forming a _complex_ sentence. The test to be applied to a clause in +order to ascertain whether it is a subordinate clause, is this: if any +group of words in a sentence, containing a subject and predicate, fulfills +the office of some single part of speech, it is a _subordinate_ clause. In +the sentence, "I went because I knew that I must," the clause, "because I +knew that I must" states the reason for the action named in the main +clause. It, therefore, stands in _adverbial_ relation to the verb "went." +"That I must" is the object of "knew." It, therefore, stands in a +_substantive_ relation to the verb. + +Subordinate clauses are often introduced by subordinate conjunctions +(sometimes by relative pronouns or adverbs); but, whenever such a +clause appears in a sentence, otherwise simple, the sentence is _complex_. +If it appears in a sentence otherwise compound, the sentence is +_compound-complex_. + +The different types of subordinate clauses will be discussed later. + + + +SENTENCE STRUCTURE + + ++82. Phrases.+--Phrases are classified both as to structure and use. + +From the standpoint of structure, a phrase is classified from its +introductory word or words, as:-- + +1. _Prepositional_: [They were _in the temple_]. + +2. _Infinitive_: [He tried _to make us hear_]. + +3. _Participial_: [_Having finished my letter_]. + +Classified as to use, a phrase may be-- + +1. A _noun_: [_To be good is to be truly great_]. + +2. An _adjective_: [The horse is an animal _of much intelligence_]. + +3. An _adverb_: [He lives _in the city_]. + + ++83. Clauses.+--It has been already shown that clauses may be either +principal or subordinate. A principal clause is sometimes defined as "one +that can stand alone," and is therefore independent of the rest of the +sentence. This statement is misleading, for, although true in most cases, +it does not hold in cases like the following:-- + +1. As the tree falls, so it must lie. + +2. That sunshine is cheering, cannot be denied. + +The genuine test for the subordinate clause is the one already given in +connection with the study of the subordinate conjunction. It must serve +the purpose of some single part of speech. All other clauses are principal +clauses. + + ++84. Classification of Subordinate Clauses.+--_A._ Subordinate clauses may +be classified into _substantive_ and _modifying_ clauses. + +_Substantive clauses_ show the various substantive constructions. Thus:-- + +1. Subject: ["_Thou shalt not covet_," is the tenth commandment]. + +2. Object: [I know _what you wish_]. + +3. Appositive: [The truth _that the earth is spherical_ is generally +believed]. + +4. Attribute complement: [The truth is _that she is not well_]. + +_Modifying clauses_ show adjective and adverbial constructions. + +Thus:-- + +1. Adjective: [The house _which you see_ is mine]. + +2. Adverb: [I will go _when_ it is possible]. + +_B._ Subordinate clauses may also be classified according to the +introductory word. + +(_a_) Clauses introduced by _relative_ or _interrogative pronouns_: _who, +which, what, that_ (= who or which), _as_ (after such), and the compound +relatives, _whoever, whichever, whatever_ (the first three are both +relative and interrogative): [The school _that stands on the hillside_ is +painted white. I know _whom you_ mean]. + +(_b_) Clauses introduced by a relative or interrogative adjective: [The +man _whose library is well furnished_ is rich. I see _which way I ought to +take_]. + +(_c_) Clauses introduced by a relative or interrogative adverb, such as +_when, whenever, since_ (referring to time), _until, before, after, where, +whence, whither, wherever, why, as, how_: [I know the house _where lie +lives_]. + +(_d_) Clauses introduced by a subordinate conjunction, such as _because, +since_ (= because), _though, although, if, unless, that_ (= in order +that), _as, as if, as though, then_: [I will go _since you wish it_]. + +_C._ Subordinate clauses may also be classified according to the nature of +the thought expressed. + +(_a_) General description: [The house, _which stands on the hill_, has a +fine view]. + +(_b_) Place: [The house _where he was born_ is torn down]. + +(_c_) Time: [He works _whenever he_ can]. + +(_d_) Cause: [_Since you wish it_, I will go]. + +(_e_) Concession: [_Although he is my friend_, I can see his faults]. + +(_f_) Purpose: [Run, _that you may obtain the prize_]. + +(_g_) Result: [She was so tired _that she stumbled_]. + +(_h_) Condition: [_If it rains_, we shall not go]. + +(_i_) Comparison: [You look as _if you were tired_]. + +Note that the subordinate clauses in the above examples are modifying +clauses. + +(_j_) Direct quotation: [She said, "_I will go_"]. + +(_k_) Indirect statement: [She said _that she would go_]. + +(_l_) Indirect question: [I knew _where his house_ was]. + +Note that the subordinate clauses in the above examples are substantive +clauses. + + ++85. The Framework of a Sentence+ has been already described as consisting +of the _subject_, the _verb_, and, if the verb be incomplete, of some +completing element, _object_ or _attribute complement_. Occasionally an +_objective complement_ must be added. Besides these elementary parts, both +subject and predicate may have modifiers. + +The usual modifiers of the subject are:-- + +1. Adjective: [The _golden_ bowl is broken]. + +2. Adjective phrase: [The house _on the hill_ is beautiful]. + +3. Adjective clause: [The house _which stands on the hill_ is beautiful]. + +4. Noun or pronoun in possessive case: [_Helen's_ paint box is lost]. + +5. Noun in apposition: [Mr. Merrill, the _president_ of the club, will +open the debate]. + +6. Adverb used as an adjective: [My _sometime_ friend]. + +7. Infinitive used adjectively: [Work _to do_ is a blessing]. + +8. Participle: [The child, _lagging_ behind, lost her way]. + +The modifiers of the predicate are:-- + +1. Adverb: [The snow melted very _quickly_]. + +2. Noun used adverbially: [I walked a _mile_]. + +3. Infinitive used adverbially: [We were called together _to decide_ an +important question]. + +4. Adverbial phrase: [She ran _along the road_]. + +5. Adverbial clause: [Go _when you can_]. + +6. Nominative absolute: [The _speeches being over_, the audience +dispersed]. + +Occasionally, adverbs and phrases of adverbial character modify the entire +thought in a sentence, rather than some single word: [_To speak plainly,_ +I cannot go. _Perhaps_ I may help you]. + + + +LIST OF SPECIAL WORDS + + ++86. Special Words.+--A list is here given of words which +appear as various parts of speech:--- + ++a+ (1) Adjective: _A_ book. (2) Preposition: I go a-fishing. + ++about+ (1) Preposition: Walk _about_ the house. (2) Adverb: We walked + _about_ for an hour. _By, over, up_, etc., are used in the + same way. + ++above+ (1) Preposition: The sun is _above_ the horizon. (2) Adverb: Go + _above_. (3) Noun: Every good gift is from _above_. (4) + Adjective: The _above_ remarks are discredited. _Below_ has + the same uses. + ++after+ (1) Preposition: _After_ our sail. (2) Conjunctive adverb: He + came _after_ she went away. + ++all+ (1) Pronoun: _All_ went merry as a marriage bell. (2) Noun: I + gave my _all_. (3) Adjective: _All_ hands to the rescue. + (4) Adverb: The work is _all_ right. + ++as+ (1) Conjunctive pronoun: I give such _as_ I have. (2) Conjunctive + adverb: I am not so old _as_ she. (3) Adverb: What other + grief is _as_ hard to bear? (4) Conjunction: _As_ it was hot, + we did not go. (5) Preposition: I warned her _as_ a friend. + (6) Compound Conjunction: He looks _as_ if he were not well. + ++before+ (1) Preposition: He stood _before_ the door. (2) Conjunctive + Adverb: I will do it _before_ I go. (3) Adverb: She has never + been here _before_. + ++both+ (1) Adjective: _Both_ white and red pines are beautiful. (2) + Pronoun: _Both_ are yours. (3) Conjunction: She is _both_ + good and beautiful. + ++but+ (1) Conjunction: John reads _but_ Richard plays. (2) Preposition: + All _but_ him are at home. (3) Adverb: We can _but_ fail. + ++either+ (1) Adjective: _Either_ dress is becoming. (2) Conjunction: + _Either_ this dress or the other is becoming. (3) Pronoun: + _Either_ is right. + ++fast+ (1) Noun: A long _fast_. (2) Verb: They _fast_ often. (3) Adverb: + The rain fell _fast_. (4) Adjective: He is a _fast_ walker. + ++for+ (1) Subordinate Conjunction: I must go, _for_ I promised. (2) + Coördinate Conjunction: She stayed at home, _for_ I saw her. + (3) Preposition: I have nothing _for_ you. + ++hard+ (1) Adjective: _Hard_ labor. (2) Adverb: He works _hard_. + ++like+ (1) Noun: We may never see her _like_ again. (2) Adjective: This + process gives _like_ results. (3) Adverb: _Like_ as a father + pitieth his children. (4) Preposition: She looks _like_ me. + (By some grammarians _like_ in this case is considered a + _adjective_ with the preposition _to_ omitted.) (5) Verb: + You _like_ your work. + ++little+ (1) Adjective: A _little_ bread. (2) Noun: I wish a _little_. + (3) Adverb: He laughs _little_. _Much_ has the same uses. + ++many a+ (1) Adjective: _Many a_ tree. + ++notwithstanding+ (1) Preposition: _Notwithstanding_ the rain, we were + content. (2) Conjunction or Preposition: She is happy, + _notwithstanding_ (the fact that) she is an invalid. + ++only+ (1) Adjective: This is the _only_ way. (2) Adverb: _Only_ + experienced persons need apply. (3) Conjunction: I should + go, _only_ it is stormy. + ++since+ (1) Preposition: _Since_ that day I have not seen her. (2) + Conjunction: _Since_ you lost it, you must replace it. + (3) Adverb: I have not seen her _since_. (4) Conjunctive + Adverb: You have been here _since_ I have. + ++still+ (1) Adjective: The lake is _still_. (2) Adverb: The tree is + _still_ lying where it fell. (3) Conjunction: He is + entertaining; _still_ he talks too much. (4) Verb: Oil + is said to _still_ the waves. (5) Noun: In the _still_ of + noonday the song of the locust was loud. + ++than+ (1) Conjunction: I am older _than_ she. (2) Preposition: _Than_ + whom there is none wiser. + ++that+ (1) Demonstrative Pronoun: _That_ is right. (2) Conjunctive + Pronoun: He _that_ lives nobly is happy. (3) Adjective: + _That_ book is mine. (4) Conjunction: I say this _that_ you + may understand my position. (5) Substantive Conjunction: + _That_ this is true is evident. + ++the+ (1) Adjective (article): _The_ lake. (2) Adverb: _The_ more ... + _the_ merrier. + ++then+ (1) Adverb: I shall know _then_. (2) Conjunction: If you so + decide, _then_ we may go. + ++there+ (1) Adverb: The stream runs _there_. (2) Expletive: _There_ are + many points to be considered. (3) Interjection: _There! + there!_ it makes no difference! + ++what+ (1) Conjunctive Interrogative Pronoun: I heard _what_ you said. + Pronoun: _What_ shall I do? (3) Interrogative Adjective: + _What_ game do you prefer? (4) Conjunctive Adjective: I + know _what_ books he enjoys. (5) Adverb: _What_ with this + and _what_ with that, he finally got his wish. (6) + Interjection: _What! what!_ + ++while+ (1) Noun: A long _while_. (2) Verb: To _while_ away the time. + (3) Conjunctive Adverb: I stay in _while_ it snows. + + + +III. FIGURES OF SPEECH + + ++87. Figures of Speech.+--A figure of speech is a change from the usual +form of expression for the purpose of producing a greater effect. These +changes may be effective either because they are more pleasing to us or +because they are more forcible, or for both reasons. + +While figurative language is a change from the usual mode of expression, +we are not to think of it as being unnatural. It is, in fact, as natural +as plain language, and nearly every one, from the illiterate to the most +learned, makes use of it, more or less, in his ordinary conversation. This +arises from, the fact that we all enjoy comparisons and substitutions. +When we say that we have been pegging away all day at our work, or that +the wind howls, or that the man has a heart of steel, we are making use of +figures of speech. Figurative language ranges from these very simple +expressions to the beautiful figures of speech found in so much of our +poetry. Written prose contains many beautiful and forcible examples, but +it is in poetry that we find most of them. + + ++88. Simile.+--A simile is an expressed comparison between objects +belonging to different classes. We must remember, however, that all +resemblances do not constitute similes. If we compare two trees, or two +beehives, or two rivers, our comparison is not a simile. If we compare a +tree to a person, a beehive to a schoolroom, or time to a river, we may +form a good simile, since the things compared do not belong to the same +class. The best similes are those in which the ideas compared have one +strong point of resemblance, and are unlike in all other respects. + + +1. How far that little candle throws its beams! + So shines a good deed in a naughty world. + +--Shakespeare. + + +2. For very young he seemed, tenderly reared; + Like some young cypress, tall, and dark, and straight. + +--Matthew Arnold. + + +3. In the primrose-tinted sky + The wan little moon + Hangs like a jewel dainty and rare. + +--Francis C. Rankin. + + ++89. Metaphor.+--A metaphor differs from a simile in that the comparison +is implied rather than expressed. They are essentially the same as far as +the comparison is concerned, and usually the one kind may be easily +changed to the other. In a simile we say that one object _is like_ +another, in a metaphor we say that one object _is_ another. + + +EXERCISES + + +Select the metaphors in the following and change them to +similes:-- + + +1. In arms the Austrian phalanx stood, + A living wall, a human wood. + +--James Montgomery. + + +2. The familiar lines + Are footpaths for the thoughts of Italy. + +--Longfellow. + + +3. Life is a leaf of paper white, + Whereon each one of us may write + His word or two, and then comes night. + +--Lowell. + + ++90. Personification.+--Personification is a special form of the metaphor +in which life is attributed to inanimate objects or the characteristics of +persons are attributed to objects, animals, or even to abstract ideas. + + +EXERCISES + + +Explain why the following quotations are examples of personifications:-- + + +1. The day is done; and slowly from the scene + The stooping sun upgathers his spent shafts + And puts them back into his golden quiver. + +--Longfellow. + + +2. Time is a cunning workman and no man can detect his joints. + +--Charles Pierce Burton. + + +3. The sun is couched, the seafowl gone to rest, + And the wild storm hath somewhere found a nest. + +--Wordsworth. + + +4. See the mountains kiss high heaven, + And the waves clasp one another; + No sister flower would be forgiven + If it disdained its brother. + +--Shelley. + + ++91. Apostrophe.+--Apostrophe is like personification, but has an +additional characteristic. When we directly address inanimate objects or +the absent as if they were present, we call the figure of speech thus +formed apostrophe. + +The following are examples of apostrophe:-- + + +1. Break, break, break, + At the foot of thy crags, O Sea! + +--Tennyson. + + +2. Backward, turn backward, O Time, in your flight, + Make me a child again just for to-night! + Mother, come back from the echoless shore, + Take me again to your heart as of yore. + +--Elizabeth Akers Allen. + + ++92. Metonymy.+--Metonymy consists in substituting one object for another, +the two being so closely associated that the mention of one suggests the +other. + + 1. The pupils are reading George Eliot. + 2. Each hamlet heard the call. + 3. Strike for your altars and your fires. + 4. Gray hairs should be respected. + + ++93. Synecdoche.+--Synecdoche consists in substituting a part of anything +for the whole or a whole for the part. + + 1. A babe, two summers old. + 2. Give us this day our daily bread. + 3. Ring out the thousand years of woe, + Ring in the thousand years of peace. + 4. Fifty mast are on the ocean. + + ++94. Other Figures of Speech.+--Sometimes, especially in older rhetorics, +the following so-called figures of speech are added to the list already +given: irony, hyperbole, antithesis, climax, and interrogation. The two +former pertain rather to style, in fact, are qualities of style, while the +last two might properly be placed along with kinds of sentences or +paragraph development. Since these so-called figures are not all mentioned +elsewhere in this text, a brief explanation and example of each will be +given here. + +1. _Irony_ consists in saying just the opposite of the intended meaning, +but in such a way that it emphasizes that meaning. + + What has the gray-haired prisoner done? + Has murder stained his hands with gore? + Not so; his crime is a fouler one-- + God made the old man poor. + +--Whittier. + + +2. _Hyperbole_ is an exaggerated expression used to increase +the effectiveness of a statement. + + +He was a man of boundless knowledge. + + +3. _Antithesis_ consists merely of contrasted statements. This contrast +may be found in a single sentence or it may be extended through an entire +paragraph. + + + Look like the innocent flower, + But be the serpent under it. + +--Shakespeare. + + +4. _Climax_ consists of an ascendant arrangement of words or ideas. + + +I came, I saw, I conquered. + + +5. When a question is asked, not for the purpose of obtaining information +but in order to make speech more effective, it is called the figure of +_interrogation_. An affirmative question denies and a negative question +affirms. + + 1. Am I my brother's keeper? + 2. Am I not free? + + + +IV. THE RHETORICAL FEATURES OF THE SENTENCE + + ++95. Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis in Sentences.+--On pages 153-155 we +have considered the principles of unity, coherence, and emphasis as +applied to the whole composition. In much the same way these principles +are applicable to the sentence. A sentence possesses unity if all that it +contains makes one complete statement, and no more; and if all minor ideas +are made subordinate to one main idea. The effect must be single. A +sentence exhibits coherence when the relation of all of its parts is +perfectly clear. We secure emphasis in the sentence by placing ideas that +deserve distinction in conspicuous positions; by arranging the members of +a series in the order of climax; by using specific rather than general +terms; by expressing thoughts with directness and simplicity; and by +employing the devices of balance and contrast. + +We must remember that, in the sentence as well as in the whole composition +and the paragraph, if coherence and unity are secured, emphasis is quite +likely to follow naturally. On the other hand, a violation of coherence or +unity often results in a lack of emphasis. + + ++96. Unity in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+-- + +1. _The presence of more than one main thought_. (Stonewall Jackson was a +general in the Confederate Army, and he is said to have been a very +religious man.) In this sentence two distinct thoughts are embodied, and +in such a way that their relation to each other is altogether illogical. +The effect is not that of a single thought. To possess unity the two or +more thoughts of a compound sentence should sustain some particular +relation, like cause and effect, contrast, series, details of a picture. +We can unite the two thoughts in a perfectly logical sentence, thus: +(Stonewall Jackson, the Confederate general, is said to have been a very +religious man.) + +2. _The addition of too many dependent clauses_. (The boy was startled +when he awoke, for he heard the plan of his captors, who were preparing to +seize the boat, which had been left by his friends who had so mysteriously +deserted him at a time when he needed them most.) Here, the numerous +dependent clauses tacked on obscure the main thought. The sentence should +be broken up and, where possible, clauses should be reduced to phrases and +words. (The boy was startled when he awoke, for he heard the plan of his +captors. They were preparing to seize the boat left by his friends, who +had deserted him in the hour of greatest need.) + +3. _The presence of incongruous ideas_. (With his hair combed and his +shoes blacked, he gave the impression of being a very strong man.) The +ideas of this sentence have no logical relation to each other. There is +little likelihood, too, of making them more congruous by any change in the +sentence. Blacking one's shoes and combing one's hair do not make one look +strong. The remedy for such a sentence is to separate the incongruous +ideas. + +4. _A needless change of construction_. (Silas was kindly received by the +men in the tavern; and when they had listened to his story and his answers +to their questions had been noted, they began to think of catching the +thief.) Confusion arises from such sudden and needless changes of the +subject. By keeping the same subject throughout, we secure unity of +impression. (The men in the tavern received Silas kindly; and when they +had listened to his story and had noted his answers to their questions, +they began to think of catching the thief.) + +5. _Making the sentence too short and fragmentary to serve as a logical +unit of the paragraph_. (I went to the park yesterday. It was a pleasant +day. I saw many animals. I had a good time, etc.) Each of these sentences, +when considered in its relation to the others, and to the development of +the thought, is altogether too incomplete and unimportant in ideas +expressed to stand alone. Unity of impression and dignity of thought are +gained by combining the sentences. (Yesterday was a pleasant day; so I +went to the park, where I saw many animals, and had a good time.) + + ++97. Coherence in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+-- + +1. _The wrong placing of modifiers_. (The victorious general was +returning to his native city after many hard-fought campaigns with his +staff officers.) It is not likely that the campaigns here referred +to were waged against the staff officers. By changing the position of +phrases we express the thought that the writer had in mind. (After many +hard-fought campaigns, the victorious general, with his staff officers, +was approaching his native city.) Especial care should be taken in placing +the correlatives _either, or; neither, nor; not only, but also;_ and the +word _only_. Incoherence frequently arises through the wrong placing of +these words. + +2. _The careless use of pronouns_. (Argument plays a very little part in +that work, and those that do occur are not interesting.) (He repeated to +his father what he had told him the night before when he was in his room.) +In both sentences, the relation between pronouns and antecedents is not +clear, and incoherence results. With the ambiguity in the use of the +pronouns remedied, the sentences are entirely coherent. (Argument plays a +very little part in that work, and whatever argumentative material is +found is not interesting.) (He repeated to his father what he had told +this parent the night before in his room.) + +3. _Careless participial and infinitive relations_. (After carefully +preparing my lessons, a friend came in.) (Standing on Brooklyn Bridge, a +great many ferryboats can be seen.) The relation of the parts is +manifestly illogical and absurd. The sentences should read: (After I had +carefully prepared my lessons, a friend came in.) (While standing on +Brooklyn Bridge, one can see a great many ferryboats.) + +4. _The use of wrong connectives_. (It rained yesterday, and I went to +school.) We assume that the pupil wishes to convey the thought that he +went to school yesterday in spite of the rain. But by his use of the +coordinating conjunction, "and," he has failed to establish a logical +relation between the two clauses. In this case unity is violated as well +as coherence. Use different connectives and note the result, (Although it +rained yesterday, I went to school) or, (It rained yesterday, but I went +to school). + +5. _Failure to observe parallelism in form_. (The stranger seemed +courteous in his conduct and to have a solicitude for my welfare.) +Although this sentence is grammatically correct, the shift in structure +from the adjective and its phrase to the infinitive phrase leads to +confusion in thought. How much clearer and smoother this rendering: (The +stranger seemed courteous in his conduct and solicitous for my welfare.) + + ++98. Emphasis in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+-- + +1. _Weak beginnings and endings_. (A fire in the city is an exciting event +to the average boy.) (It seemed that the unprincipled fellow had forged +his father's name.) In the first sentence, the important words are +"exciting event," and they should occupy the most conspicuous position,-- +at the end of the sentence. The effectiveness is much improved by this +order: (To the average boy, a fire in the city is an exciting event.) In +the second sentence the weak place is the beginning. The subject and its +modifiers are striking enough to demand their rightful position,--as the +introductory words; in "forged his father's name" we have ideas startling +enough for a place at the end of the sentence. "It seemed that" can be +reduced to one word, "apparently," and this can be made parenthetical. +(The unprincipled fellow, apparently, had forged his father's name.) This +sentence, it will be observed, illustrates the periodic or suspended +structure, a type particularly effective to employ for sustaining interest +as well as for securing emphasis. + +2. _Failure to observe the order of climax_. (Dazed, broken-hearted, +hungry, the poor mother resumed her daily tasks.) Clearly, the strongest +idea is suggested by "broken-hearted." A better order would be: (Hungry, +dazed, broken-hearted, the poor mother resumed her daily tasks.) + +3. _The use of superfluous words_. (I rushed hurriedly into the burning +house and hastily snatched my few possessions.) In this sentence, "rushed" +and "snatched" lose rather than gain force by adding "hurriedly" and +"hastily." Look up definitions of "rush" and "snatch." When we wish to +express strong emotion or to describe action resulting from excitement, we +only weaken the impression by using unnecessary words. Simple, direct +sentences are most forceful. In aiming to secure sentence emphasis, then, +we should avoid circumlocution, redundancy, tautology, and verbosity. +(Look up these terms in the Century Dictionary.) + +4. _The use of general rather than specific terms_. (He approached the +brook cautiously, and concealing himself in the bushes, began fishing.) A +consideration of the choice of words in the sentence belongs strictly to +the study of diction; however, force in the sentence is dependent in a +large measure on the words employed. Observe how forceful the following +sentence is as contrasted with the first example: (He crept noiselessly to +the fishing hole, and hiding in the willows, threw his hook into the +stream.) + +5. _Failure to employ balance and contrast_. (Worth makes the man; but the +fellow is made by the want of it.) (His life was spent in repenting of +past misdeeds; in doing what was wrong, while he inculcated principles of +righteousness.) Compare these with: (Worth makes the man; the want of it, +the fellow.) (His life was spent in sinning and repenting; in inculcating +what was right, and doing what was wrong.) Here the regularity of form +gives pleasure to the taste, while the position of balanced and parallel +parts adds clearness, coherence, and emphasis to the thoughts expressed. +This method of sentence structure, if employed too frequently, however, +will lead to a mannerism difficult to overcome. The caution to be heeded +in the case of this type of sentence as well as in the case of every other +is, "Nothing too much." Observe the law of variety. + + +EXERCISES + +Point out the specific faults and correct:-- + +1. He neither gave satisfaction as butler nor as coachman. + +2. Elaine deserves our sympathy from the beginning to the end of the +novel. + +3. John only played once and won; and then, after watching the other +players for a time, he got up and left the room. + +4. The boy had an unconquerable fear of reptiles which no reasoning could +overcome. + +5 The Vicar's son Moses was a good student of the classics, but he made a +bad bargain in his purchase of the green spectacles. + +6. In all of his behavior toward Lynette, Gareth was patient and +courteous, which reflected much credit on his knightly character. + +7. Johnson was a man with a heroic soul, a wonderful intellect, and a kind +heart. + +8. After they had all assembled and come together, Odysseus addressed +them. + +9. He had reached the age of seventy, and his death was due to a nervous +disorder. + +10. The boys were only injured a little. + +11. George Eliot's writings are filled with the philosophy of life, if we +are wise enough to discover it. + +12. Addison was sincere and kindly in his attitude toward men, and Pope +was hypocritical and spiteful. + +13. With reputation, character, and wealth gone, the poor man had little +to live for. + +14. Lancelot loved Queen Guinevere dearly, and he was Arthur's most +valorous knight. + +15. We are at peace with all the world and the rest of mankind. + +16. Cedric lived with two great ends in view,--the union of Athelstane and +Rowena and to see a restored Saxon monarchy. + +17. James was walking backward and forward on the mountain side, which at +this place was very precipitous and from which a little silvery stream +issued to begin its rapid descent to the quiet hamlet that lay far below. + +18. In our efforts to succeed in life we work hard that we may make names +for ourselves and to acquire property. + +19. He is a good hunter, but his wife is a Methodist. + +20. Going up the street I saw the strangest-looking man. + +21. James speaks German fluently, and he did not begin to study it until +last year. + +22. On returning to the deck, the sea assumed a very different aspect. + + + +V. LIST OF SYNONYMS + + +Abandon, cast off, desert, forswear, quit, renounce, withdraw from. + +Abate, decrease, diminish, mitigate, moderate. + +Abhor, abominate, detest, dislike, loathe. + +Abiding, enduring, lasting, permanent, perpetual. + +Ability, capability, capacity, competency, efficacy, power. + +Abolish, annul, eradicate, exterminate, obliterate, root out, wipe out. + +Abomination, curse, evil, iniquity, nuisance, shame. + +Absent, absent-minded, absorbed, abstracted, oblivious, preoccupied. + +Absolve, acquit, clear. + +Abstemiousness, abstinence, frugality, moderation, sobriety, temperance. + +Absurd, ill-advised, ill-considered, ludicrous, monstrous, paradoxical, +preposterous, unreasonable, wild. + +Abundant, adequate, ample, enough, generous, lavish, plentiful. + +Accomplice, ally, colleague, helper, partner. + +Active, agile, alert, brisk, bustling, energetic, lively, supple. + +Actual, authentic, genuine, real. + +Address, adroitness, courtesy, readiness, tact. + +Adept, adroit, deft, dexterous, handy, skillful. + +Adequate, adjoining, bordering, near, neighboring. + +Admire, adore, respect, revere, venerate. + +Admit, allow, concede, grant, suffer, tolerate. + +Admixture, alloy. + +Adverse, disinclined, indisposed, loath, reluctant, slow, unwilling. + +Aerial, airy, animated, ethereal, frolicsome. + +Affectation, cant, hypocrisy, pretense, sham. + +Affirm, assert, avow, declare, maintain, state. + +Aged, ancient, antiquated, antique, immemorial, old, venerable. + +Air, bearing, carriage, demeanor. + +Akin, alike, identical. + +Alert, on the alert, sleepless, wary, watchful. + +Allay, appease, calm, pacify. + +Alliance, coalition, compact, federation, union, fusion. + +Allude, hint, imply, insinuate, intimate, suggest. + +Allure, attract, cajole, coax, inveigle, lure. + +Amateur, connoisseur, novice, tyro. + +Amend, better, mend, reform, repair. + +Amplify, develop, expand, extend, unfold, widen. + +Amusement, diversion, entertainment, pastime. + +Anger, exasperation, petulance, rage, resentment. + +Animal, beast, brute, living creature, living organism. + +Answer, rejoinder, repartee, reply, response, retort. + +Anticipate, forestall, preclude, prevent. + +Apiece, individually, severally, separately. + +Apparent, clear, evident, obvious, tangible, unmistakable. + +Apprehend, comprehend, conceive, perceive, understand. + +Arraign, charge, cite, impeach, indict, prosecute, summon. + +Arrogance, haughtiness, presumption, pride, self-complacency, +superciliousness, vanity. + +Artist, artificer, artisan, mechanic, operative, workman. + +Artless, boorish, clownish, hoidenish, rude, uncouth, unsophisticated. + +Assent, agree, comply. + +Assurance, effrontery, hardihood, impertinence, impudence, incivility, +insolence, officiousness, rudeness. + +Atom, grain, scrap, particle, shred, whit. + +Atrociousness, barbaric, barbarous, brutal, merciless. + +Attack, assault, infringement, intrusion, onslaught. + +Attain, accomplish, achieve, arrive at, compass, reach, secure. + +Attempt, endeavor, essay, strive, try, undertake. + +Attitude, pose, position, posture. + +Attribute, ascribe, assign, charge, impute. + +Axiom, truism. + + +Baffle, balk, bar, check, embarrass, foil, frustrate, hamper, hinder, +impede, retard, thwart. + +Banter, burlesque, drollery, humor, jest, raillery, wit, witticism. + +Beg, plead, press, urge. + +Beguile, divert, enliven, entertain, occupy. + +Bewilderment, confusion, distraction, embarrassment, perplexity. + +Bind, fetter, oblige, restrain, restrict. + +Blaze, flame, flare, flash, flicker, glare, gleam, gleaming, glimmer, +glitter, light, luster, shimmer, sparkle. + +Blessed, hallowed, holy, sacred, saintly. + +Boasting, display, ostentation, pomp, pompousness, show. + +Brave, adventurous, bold, courageous, daring, dauntless, fearless, +gallant, heroic, undismayed. + +Bravery, coolness, courage, gallantry, heroism. + +Brief, concise, pithy, sententious, terse. + +Bring over, convince, induce, influence, persuade, prevail upon, win over. + + +Calamity, disaster, misadventure, mischance, misfortune, mishap. + +Candid, impartial, open, straightforward, transparent, unbiased, +unprejudiced, unreserved. + +Candor, frankness, truth, veracity. + +Caprice, humor, vagary, whim. + +Caricature, burlesque, parody, travesty. + +Catch, capture, clasp, clutch, grip, secure. + +Cause, consideration, design, end, ground, motive, object, reason, +purpose. + +Caution, discretion, prudence. + +Censure, criticism, rebuke, reproof, reprimand, reproach. + +Character, constitution, disposition, reputation, temper, temperament. + +Characteristic, peculiarity, property, singularity, trait. + +Chattering, garrulous, loquacious, talkative. + +Cheer, comfort, delight, ecstasy, gayety, gladness, gratification, +happiness, jollity, satisfaction. + +Churlish, crusty, gloomy, gruff, ill-natured, morose, sour, sullen, surly. + +Class, circle, clique, coterie. + +Cloak, cover, gloss over, mitigate, palliate, screen. + +Cloy, sate, satiate, satisfy, surfeit. + +Commit, confide, consign, intrust, relegate. + +Compassion, forbearance, lenience, mercy. + +Compassionate, gracious, humane. + +Complete, consummate, faultless, flawless, perfect. + +Confirm, corroborate. + +Conflicting, discordant, discrepant, incongruous, mismated. + +Confused, discordant, miscellaneous, various. + +Conjecture, guess, suppose, surmise. + +Conscious, aware, certain. + +Consequence, issue, outcome, outgrowth, result, sequel, upshot. + +Continual, continuous, incessant, unbroken, uninterrupted. + +Credible, conceivable, likely, presumable, probable, reasonable. + +Customary, habitual, normal, prevailing, usual, wonted. + + +Damage, detriment, disadvantage, harm, hurt, injury, prejudice. + +Dangerous, formidable, terrible. + +Defame, deprecate, disparage, slander, vilify. + +Defile, infect, soil, stain, sully, taint, tarnish. + +Deleterious, detrimental, hurtful, harmful, mischievous, pernicious, +ruinous. + +Delicate, fine, minute, refined, slender. + +Delightful, grateful, gratifying, refreshing, satisfying. + +Difficult, hard, laborious, toilsome, trying. + +Digress, diverge, stray, swerve, wander. + +Disown, disclaim, disavow, recall, renounce, repudiate, retract. + +Dispose, draw, incline, induce, influence, move, prompt, stir. + + +Earlier, foregoing, previous, preliminary. + +Effeminate, feminine, womanish, womanly. + +Emergency, extremity, necessity. + +Empty, fruitless, futile, idle, trifling, unavailing, useless, vain, +visionary. + +Erudition, knowledge, profundity, sagacity, sense, wisdom. + +Eternal, imperishable, interminable, perennial, perpetual, unfailing. + +Excuse, pretense, pretext, subterfuge. + +Exemption, immunity, liberty, license, privilege. + +Explicit, express. + + +Faint, faint-hearted, faltering, half-hearted, irresolute, languid, +listless, purposeless. + +Faithful, loyal, stanch, trustworthy, trusty. + +Fanciful, fantastic, grotesque, imaginative, visionary. + +Fling, gibe, jeer, mock, scoff, sneer, taunt. + +Flock, bevy, brood, covey, drove, herd, litter, pack. + +Fluctuate, hesitate, oscillate, vacillate, waver. + +Folly, imbecility, senselessness, stupidity. + + +Grief, melancholy, regret, sadness, sorrow. + + +Hale, healthful, healthy, salutary, sound, vigorous. + + +Ignorant, illiterate, uninformed, uninstructed, unlettered, untaught. + +Impulsive, involuntary, spontaneous, unbidden, voluntary, willing. + +Indispensable, inevitable, necessary, requisite, unavoidable. + +Inquisitive, inquiring, intrusive, meddlesome, peeping, prying. + +Intractable, perverse, petulant, ungovernable, wayward, willful. + +Irritation, offense, pique, resentment. + + +Probably, presumably. + + +Reliable, trustworthy, trusty. + +Remnant, trace, token, vestige. + +Requite, repay, retaliate, satisfy. + + +VI. LIST OF WORDS FOR EXERCISES IN WORD USAGE + +Ability, capacity. + +Accept, except. + +Acceptance, acceptation. + +Access, accession. + +Accredit, credit. + +Act, action. + +Admire, like. + +Admittance, admission. + +Advance, advancement, progress, progression. + +Affect, effect. + +After, afterward. + +Aggravating, irritating, provoking, exasperating. + +Allege, maintain + +Allow, guess, think. + +Allusion, illusion, delusion. + +Almost, most, mostly. + +Alone, only. + +Alternate, choice. + +Among, between. + +Amount, number, quantity. + +Angry, mad. + +Apparently, evidently. + +Apt, likely, liable. + +Arise, rise. + +At, in. + +Avocation, vocation. + +Awfully, very. + + +Balance, rest, remainder. + +Begin, commence. + +Beside, besides. + +Both, each, every. + +Bring, fetch. + +By, with. + + +Calculate, intend. + +Carry, bring, fetch. + +Casuality, casualty. + +Character, reputation. + +Claim, assert. + +Clever, pleasant. + +College, university, school. + +Completeness, completion. + +Compliment, complement. + +Confess, admit. + +Construe, construct. + +Contemptible, contemptuous. + +Continual, continuous. + +Convince, convict. + +Council, counsel. + +Couple, pair. + +Credible, creditable, credulous. + +Custom, habit. + + +Deadly, deathly. + +Decided, decisive. + +Decimate, destroy. + +Declare, assert. + +Degrade, demean. + +Depot, station, R.R. + +Discover, invent. + +Drive, ride. + + +Each other, any other, one another. + +Emigration, immigration, migration. + +Enormity, enormousness. + +Estimate, esteem. + +Exceptional, exceptionable. + +Expect, suppose. + + +Falseness, falsity. + +Fly, flee. + +Funny, odd. + +Grant, give. + +Habit, practice. + +Haply, happily. + +Healthy, healthful, wholesome. + +Human, humane. + + +Lady, woman. + +Last, latest, preceding. + +Learn, teach. + +Lease, hire. + +Less, fewer. + +Lie, lay. + +Loan, lend. + +Love, like. + + +Mad, angry. + +Majority, plurality. + +Manly, mannish. + +May, can. + +Mutual, common. + + +Necessities, necessaries. + +Nice, pleasant, attractive. + +Noted, notorious. + + +Observation, observance. + +Official, officious. + +Oral, verbal. + + +Part, portion. + +Partly, partially. + +Persecute, prosecute. + +Person, party. + +Practicable, practical. + +Prescribe, proscribe. + +Prominent, predominant. + +Purpose, propose. + + +Quite, very, rather. + + +Relation, relative. + +Repair, mend. + +Requirement, requisite. + +Rise, raise. + + +Scholar, pupil, student. + +Sensible of, sensitive to. + +Series, succession. + +Settle, locate. + +Sewage, sewerage. + +Shall, will. + +Should, would. + +Sit, set. + +Splendid, elegant. + +Statement, assertion. + +Statue, statute, stature. + +Stay, stop. + + +Team, carriages. + +Transpire, happen. + + +Verdict, testimony. + +Without, unless. + +Womanly, womanish. + + +INDEX + +Abbott. +Action: observation of. +Actuality: in argument. +Adams. +Adjectives. +Advantages: + of expressing ideas gained from experience; + of imaginative theme writing. +Adverbs. +Agreement. +Allen, Elizabeth A. +Allen, James Lane. +Ambiguity. +Analogy: argument from. +Antithesis. +Apostrophe: + rule for; + as figure of speech. +Argument: + purpose of; + use of explanation in; + by stating advantages and disadvantages; + by use of specific instances; + refutation or indirect; + differs from exposition; + clear thinking essential; + by inference; + from cause; + from sign; + from example; + from analogy; + differs from persuasion; + with persuasion. +Argumentative themes. +Arnold. +Arrangement: + _see_ coherence; + in argument; + summary of. +Attendant circumstances: argument from. +Authority: appeals to in argument. +Auxiliary verbs. +Ayton. + + +Bagley. +Baldwin. +Ballad. +Bancroft. +Belief: + necessity in debate; + establishing a general theory; + basis of. +Beveridge. +Biography. +Blank verse. +Boardman. +Bourdillon. +Bowles. +Bradley. +Brief. +Brown. +Browning. +Bryant. +Budgell. +Burke. +Burns. +Burroughs. +Byron. + + +Cable. +Camp. +Capitals. +Cary. +Case. +Cause and effect: + development of paragraph by use of; + development of composition by use of; + use in exposition; + use in argument. +Cautions and suggestions: + use of figures of speech; + in debating; + use of pronouns; + use of adjectives; + use of verbs; + use of adverbs; + prepositions. +Character sketch. +Choice of words: + adapted to reader; + as to meaning; + simple. +Clark. +Classification. +Clauses: restrictive and non-restrictive. +Clearness. +Climax: + in narration; + in argument; + as figure of speech. +Coherence: + definition; + in outline; + in composition; + arrangement of details; + arrangement of facts in exposition; + aided by outline; + in argument; + in sentences. +Coleridge. +Colon: rules for. +Colton. +Comma: rules for. +Comparison: + as an aid to formation of images; + development of a paragraph by; + definitions supplemented by; + as a method of developing a composition; + as an aid in establishing fundamental image; + as an aid to effectiveness in description; + use in exposition; + analogy; + of adjectives; + of adverbs. +Complete and incomplete verbs. +Composition: + kinds of; + general principles of. +Conclusion. +Conjugation. +Conjunctions. +Connolly. +Connor. +Constructions: + of nouns; + of personal pronouns; + of relative pronouns; + of adjectives. +Contrast: + development of a paragraph by; + development of a composition by; + use in exposition. +Conversation. +Cooper. +Copeland-Rideout. +Correction of themes. + + +Darwin. +Dash: rules for. +Debate: + value of; + statement of question; + necessity of belief; + order of presentation; + cautions. +Deductive reasoning: errors of. +Definition: + by synonym; + by use of simpler words; + definitions to be supplemented; + first step in exposition; + logical; + difficulty in framing; + inexact. +Description: + Chapter VIII (_see also_ descriptive themes); + defined; + effectiveness in; + classes of objects frequently described: + buildings; + natural features; + sounds; + color; + animals; + plants; + persons; + impression of; + impression as purpose of; + in narration; + general description. +Descriptive themes. +Details: + selection of; + paragraph developed by; + related in time-order; + related with reference to position in space; + used in general description; + in general narration; + composition developed by giving details in time-order; + by giving details with reference to position in space; + selection of, affected by point of view; + selection of essential; + selection and subordination of minor; + arrangement of; + in narration; + arrangement; + selection of facts in exposition; + exposition by use of. +Dewey. +Diction. +Discourse: forms of + presupposes an audience. +Division. +Dixey. +Dramatic poetry. +Dryer. +Dunbar, Mary Louise. + + +Ease. +Effectiveness in description + comparison and figures of speech, as aids to. +Elegance. +Elegy. +Eliot, George. +Emphasis + in sentences. +Enthymeme. +Epic. +Equivalents: for nouns + for adjectives. + for adverbs +Essentials of expression. +Euphony. +Evidence. +Examples: use in exposition + argument from _(see also_ specific instances). +Exclamation mark: rule for. +Expediency: questions of. +Experience: ideas gained from, Chapter I; relation to imagination + impressions limited to. +Exposition: Chapter X (see _also_ expository themes); purpose of + importance of + clear understanding necessary + of terms + of propositions + by repetition + by examples + by comparison and contrast + by obverse statements + by details + by cause and effect + by general description + by general narration + by use of specific instances. +Expository themes. +Expression: essentials of. + + +Fallacy. +Feelings: appeal to, in persuasion. +Feet. +Fields. +Figures of speech + use of + as an aid to effectiveness in description. +Ford. +Form: importance of + directions as to. +Forms of discourse. +Fundamental image. + + +Gender. +General theory: how established, + basis of + appeals to. +George, Marian M. +Gilman. +Grammar review. +Gray. + + +Hare. +Harland. +Harris. +Hawthorne. +Henry. +Higginson and Channing. +Hinman. +History: writing of. +Hoar. +Holland. +Holmes. +Howells. +Hyperbole. + + +Ideas: from experience, Chapter I; +from imagination, Chapter II; from +language, Chapter III. + pleasure in expressing + sources of + advantages of expressing ideas gained from experience + from imagination + ideas from pictures + acquired through language. +Images: making of + complete and incomplete + reproduction of + other requirements to determine meaning + fundamental + union with impression. +Imagination, Chapter II. +Impression: + of description, + as purpose of description, + necessity of observing impressions, + limited to experience, + affected by mood, + union with image. +Improbability. +Incentive moment. +Indentation. +Inductive reasoning: + errors of. +Inference: use in argument. +Infinitives. +Interrogation. +Interrogation mark: rule for. +Introduction. +Invitations. +Irony. +Irving. + + +Jackson, Helen Hunt. +Jordan and Kellogg. + + +Kellogg. +Kingsley. +Kipling. + + +Language: + as a medium through which ideas are acquired, + adapted to reader, +Letter writing: Chapter VI; + importance of, + paper, + beginning, + body, + conclusion, + envelope, + rule of, + business letters, + letters of friendship, + adaptation to reader, + notes. +Lodge. +Longfellow. +Lovelace. +Lowell. +Lyric poetry. + + +Macaulay. +Macy-Norris. +Madame de Stael. +Matthews. +Maxims: appeals to in argument. +McCarthy, Justin. +Meaning of words. +Memory. +Metaphor: + mixed. +Methods of developing a composition: + with reference to time-order, + with reference to position in space, + by use of comparison or contrast, + by use of generalization and facts, + by stating cause and effect, + by a combination of methods. +Metonymy. +Metrical romance. +Metrical tale. +Mill. +Mill, J. S. +Miller, Mary Rogers. +Milton. +Mode. +Montgomery. +Morris, Clara. +Motive, in persuasion. + + +Narration: Chapter IX _(see also_ narrative themes below); + kinds of, + use of description in, + general narration, + narrative poetry. +Narrative themes. +Newcomer. +Notes: + formal, + informal. +Nouns. +Number. + + +Observation: + of actions, + order of, + accuracy in, + observation of impression. +Obverse statements. +Ode. +Ollivaut. +Oral compositions. +Order of events. +Outline: + of a paragraph. + the brief. + making of. + use of in exposition. + + +Palmer. +Paragraph: + defined, + topic statement, + importance of, + length, + indentation, + reasons for studying, + methods of development-- + by specific instances, + by giving details, + in time-order, + as determined by position in space, + by comparison, + by cause and effect, + by repetition, + by a combination of methods. +Paraphrasing. +Participles. +Partition. +Parts of speech. +Period: rules for. +Person. +Personification. +Persuasion: + differs from argument, + importance and necessity of, + motive in, + material of, + appeal to feelings, + with argument. +Phelps, Elizabeth Stuart. +Philips, David Graham. +Phillips, Wendell. +Phrases. +Plot: + interrelation with character. +Poe. +Poetry: Chapter VII; + aim of, + kinds of. +Point: of a story, + _see also_ climax. +Point of view: + selection of details effected by, + implied, + changing, + place in paragraph. +Possibility: in argument. +Post. +Prepositions. +Preston and Dodge. +Principal parts of verbs. +Probability: + in narration, + in argument. +Procter, Adelaide. +Pronouns. +Pronunciation. +Proportion of parts: for emphasis. +Propositions: + specific, + general, + exposition of, + necessary to argument, + of fact and of theory, + statement of. +Proverbs: use in argument. +Punctuation. + + +Quotation marks: rules for. + + +Rankin. +Read. +Reasoning: + inductive, + errors of induction, + deductive, + relation between inductive and deductive, + errors of deduction. +Reasons: number and value of. +Recitations: + preparation for, + topical. +Refutation. +Reid, Captain Mayne. +Repetition: + developing a paragraph by, + exposition by use of. +Reproduction: + of a story, + of the thought of a paragraph. +Restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses. +Rhyme. +Rhythm: variation in. +Richards, Laura E. +Right: questions of. +Robertson. +Roosevelt. +Ruskin. + + +Scansion. +Scott. +Semicolon: rules for. +Sentences: + length, + in conversation, + relations, + rhetorical features. +Sewell, Anna. +Shakespeare. +Shelley. +Sign: argument from. +Simile. +Slang. +Smith. +Song. +Sonnet. +Sources of ideas. +Specific instances: + development of a paragraph by use of, + use in argument and exposition, + development of a composition by use of, + use in exposition. +Spelling. +Spencer. +Stanza. +Stevenson. +Stoddard. +Strong verbs. +Subject: + selection of, + adapted to reader, + sources, + should be definite, + narrowing. +Suggestions, _see_ cautions. +Summaries, at the end of the chapters. +Summarizing paragraph. +Syllogism. +Symons. +Synecdoche. +Synonyms. + + +Tarkington. +Taylor. +Tennyson. +Tense. +Terms: + specific, general, + explanation of, + exposition of, + use in argument and exposition. +Themes: _see_ descriptive, narrative, expository, argumentative, and + reproduction themes. +Thoreau. +Thurston. +Time-order. +Title: selecting of. +Topic statement. +Transition from one paragraph to another. +Transition paragraph. +Trowbridge. +Turner. + + +Unity: + aided by time relations, + aided by position in space, + definition, + in life; + in outline, + in composition, + in sentences, + selection of details giving, + selection of facts in exposition, + aided by outline. + + +Van Dyke. +Van Rensselaer (Mrs.). +Variety. +Verbs. +Verse: names of. +Vocabulary: + how to increase, + words applicable to classes of objects. +Voice. + + +Wallace. +Warner. +Wessels. +Whittier. +Wilcox, Ella Wheeler. +Woode. +Words: + choice of, + spelling, pronunciation, meaning, use, + relations of, + adapted to reader, + selection, + use of simpler words, + selection, + applicable to classes of objects, + offices of, + special list of. +Wordsworth. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Composition-Rhetoric, by Stratton D. 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For +example an eBook of filename 10234 would be found at: + + https://www.gutenberg.org/1/0/2/3/10234 + +or filename 24689 would be found at: + https://www.gutenberg.org/2/4/6/8/24689 + +An alternative method of locating eBooks: + https://www.gutenberg.org/GUTINDEX.ALL + + diff --git a/old/12088-8.zip b/old/12088-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..4b4d090 --- /dev/null +++ b/old/12088-8.zip diff --git a/old/12088.txt b/old/12088.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..2fef5ef --- /dev/null +++ b/old/12088.txt @@ -0,0 +1,18304 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Composition-Rhetoric, by Stratton D. Brooks + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Composition-Rhetoric + +Author: Stratton D. Brooks + +Release Date: April 20, 2004 [EBook #12088] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK COMPOSITION-RHETORIC *** + + + + +Produced by Kevin Handy, Dave Maddock, John R. Bilderback and PG +Distributed Proofreaders + + + + + + COMPOSITION-RHETORIC + + BY + + STRATTON D. BROOKS + _Superintendent of Schools, Boston, Mass._ + + AND + + MARIETTA HUBBARD + _Formerly English Department, High School La Salle, Illinois_ + + * * * * * + + NEW YORK - CINCINNATI - CHICAGO + AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY + + 1905 + STRATTON D. BROOKS. + + Entered at Stationers' Hall, London. + + * * * * * + + Brooks's Rhet. + W.P. 10 + + + To MARCIA STUART BROOKS + Whose teaching first demonstrated + to the authors that composition + could become a delight and pleasure, + this book is dedicated...... + + + +PREFACE + +The aim of this book is not to produce critical readers of literature, nor +to prepare the pupil to answer questions about rhetorical theory, but to +enable every pupil to express in writing, freely, clearly, and forcibly, +whatever he may find within him worthy of expression. + +Three considerations of fundamental importance underlie the plan of the +book:-- + +First, improvement in the performance of an act comes from the repetition +of that act accompanied by a conscious effort to omit the imperfections of +the former attempt. Therefore, the writing of a new theme in which, the +pupil attempts to avoid the error which occurred in his former theme is of +much greater educational value than is the copying of the old theme for +the purpose of correcting the errors in it. To copy the old theme is to +correct a result, to write a new theme correctly is to improve a process; +and it is this improvement of process that is the real aim of composition +teaching. + +Second, the logical arrangement of material should be subordinated to the +needs of the pupils. A theoretical discussion of the four forms of +discourse would require that each be completely treated in one place. Such +a treatment would ignore the fact that a high school pupil has daily need +to use each of the four forms of discourse, and that some assistance in +each should be given him as early in his course as possible. The book, +therefore, gives in Part 1 the elements of description, narration, +exposition, and argument, and reserves for Part II a more complete +treatment of each. In each part the effort has been made to adapt the +material presented to the maturity and power of thought of the pupil. + +Third, expression cannot be compelled; it must be coaxed. Only under +favorable conditions can we hope to secure that reaction of intellect and +emotion which renders possible a full expression of self. One of the most +important of these favorable conditions is that the pupil shall write +something he wishes to write, for an audience which wishes to hear it. The +authors have, therefore, suggested subjects for themes in which high +school pupils are interested and about which they will wish to write. It +is hoped that the work will be so conducted by the teacher that every +theme will be read aloud before the class. It is essential that the +criticism of a theme so read shall, in the main, be complimentary, +pointing out and emphasizing those things which the pupil has done well; +and that destructive criticism be largely impersonal and be directed +toward a single definite point. Only thus may we avoid personal +embarrassment to the pupil, give him confidence in himself, and assure him +of a sympathetic audience--conditions essential to the effective teaching +of composition. + +The plan of the book is as follows:-- + +1. Part 1 provides a series of themes covering description, narration, +exposition, and argument. The purpose is to give the pupil that +inspiration and that confidence in himself which come from the frequent +repetition of an act. + +2. Each theme differs from the preceding usually by a single point, and +the teaching effort should be confined to that point. Only a false +standard of accuracy demands that every error be corrected every time it +appears. Such a course loses sight of the main point in a multiplicity of +details, renders instruction ineffective by scattering effort, produces +hopeless confusion in the mind of the pupil, and robs composition of that +inspiration without which it cannot succeed. In composition, as in other +things, it is better to do but one thing at a time. + +3. Accompanying the written themes is a series of exercises, each designed +to emphasize the point presented in the text, but more especially intended +to provide for frequent drills in oral composition. + +4. Throughout the first four chapters the paragraph is the unit of +composition, but for the sake of added interest some themes of greater +length have been included. Chapter V, on the Whole Composition, serves as +a review and summary of the methods of paragraph development, shows how to +make the transition from one paragraph to another, and discusses the more +important rhetorical principles underlying the union of paragraphs into a +coherent and unified whole. + +5. The training furnished by Part 1 should result in giving to the pupil +some fluency of expression, some confidence in his ability to make known +to others that which he thinks and feels, and some power to determine that +the theme he writes, however rough-hewn and unshapely it may be, yet in +its major outlines follows closely the thought that is within his mind. If +the training has failed to give the pupil this power, it will be of little +advantage to him to have mastered some of the minor matters of technique, +or to have learned how to improve his phrasing, polish his sentences, and +distribute his commas. + +6. Part II provides a series of themes covering the same ground as Part I, +but the treatment of these themes is more complete and the material is +adapted to the increased maturity and thought power of the pupils. By +means of references the pupils are directed to all former treatments of +the topics they are studying. + +7. Part II discusses some topics usually treated in college courses in +rhetoric. These have been included for three reasons: first, because +comparatively few high school pupils go to college; second, because the +increased amount of time now given to composition enables the high school +to cover a wider field than formerly; and third, because such topics can +be studied with profit by pupils in the upper years of the high school +course. + +8. It is not intended that the text shall be recited. Its purpose is to +furnish a basis for discussion between teacher and pupils before the +pupils attempt to write. The real test of the pupils' mastery of a +principle discussed in the text will be their ability to put it into +practice. + +Any judgment of the success or failure of the book should be based upon +the quality of the themes which the pupils write. Criticisms and +suggestions will be welcomed from those who use the book. + +The authors wish to express their obligation for advice and assistance to +Professor Edward Fulton, Department of Rhetoric, University of Illinois; +Messrs. Gilbert S. Blakely and H. E. Foster, Instructors in English, +Morris High School, New York; Miss Elizabeth Richardson, Girls' High +School, Boston; Miss Katherine H. Shute, Boston Normal School; Miss E. +Marguerite Strauchon, Kansas City High School. + +The selections from Hawthorne, Longfellow, Lowell, Holmes, Whittier, +Warner, Burroughs, Howells, and Trowbridge are used by permission of and +by special arrangement with Hoaghton, Mifflin, and Company, publishers of +their works. + +Grateful acknowledgment is made to Harper and Brothers; The Century +Company; Doubleday, Page, and Company; and Charles Scribner's Sons for +permission to use the selections to which their names are attached: to the +publishers of the _Forum, Century, Atlantic Monthly, McClure's, Harper's, +Scribner's_, and the _Outlook_ for permission to use extracts: and to +Scott, Foresman, and Company; D. Appleton and Company; Henry Holt and +Company; G. P. Putnam's Sons; Thomas Y. Crowell and Company; and Benjamin +H. Sanborn and Company for permission to use copyrighted material. + + + +CONTENTS + + +PART I + +1. Expression of Ideas arising from Experience + +II. Expression of Ideas furnished by Imagination + +III. Expression of Ideas acquired through Language + +IV. The Purpose of Expression + +V. The Whole Composition + +VI. Letter Writing + +VII. Poetry + + +PART II + +VIII. Description + +IX. Narration + +X. Exposition + +XI. Argument + +Appendix + +I. Elements of Form + +II. Review of Grammar + +III. Figures of Speech + +IV. The Rhetorical Features of the Sentence + +V. List of Synonyms + +VI. List of Words for Exercise in Word Usage + +Index + + + +PART 1 + + +1. EXPRESSION OF IDEAS ARISING FROM EXPERIENCE + ++1. Pleasure in Expressing Ideas.+--Though we all enjoy talking, we cannot +write so easily as we talk, nor with the same pleasure. We seldom talk +about topics in which we are not interested and concerning which we know +little or nothing, but we often have such topics assigned to us as +subjects for compositions. Under such conditions it is no wonder that +there is little pleasure in writing. The ideas that we express orally are +those with which we are familiar and in which we are interested, and we +tell them because we wish to tell them to some one who is likewise +interested and who desires to hear what we have to say. Such expression of +ideas is enjoyed by all. If we but choose to express the same kinds of +ideas and for the same reason, there is an equal or even greater pleasure +to be derived from the expression of ideas in writing. The purpose of this +book is to show you how to express ideas _clearly, effectively_, and _with +pleasure_. + + ++2. Sources of Ideas.+--We must have ideas before we can express them. +There are three sources from which ideas arise. We may gain them from +experience; we may recombine them into new forms by the imagination; and +we may receive them from others through the medium of language, either by +conversation or by reading. + +Every day we add to our knowledge through our senses. We see and hear and +do, and thus, through experience, acquire ideas about things. By far the +greater part of expression has to do with ideas that have originated in +this way. The first chapter in this book is concerned with the expression +of ideas gained through experience. + +We may, however, think about things that have not actually occurred. We +may allow our minds to picture a football game that we have not seen, or +to plan a story about a boy who never existed. Nearly every one takes +pleasure in such an exercise of the imagination. The second chapter has to +do with the expression of ideas of this kind. + +We also add to our knowledge through the medium of language. Through +conversation and reading we learn what others think, and it is often of +value to restate these ideas. The expression of ideas so acquired is +treated in the third chapter. + + ++3. Advantages of Expressing Ideas Gained from Experience.+--Young people +sometimes find difficulty in writing because they "have nothing to say." +Such a reason will not hold in regard to ideas gained from experience. +Every one has a multitude of experiences every day, and wishes to tell +about some of them. Many of the things which happen to you or to your +friends, especially some which occur outside of the regular routine of +school work, are interesting and worth telling about. Thus experience +furnishes an abundance of material suitable for composition purposes, and +this material is of the best because the ideas are _sure to be your own_. +The first requisite of successful composition is to have thoughts of your +own. The expressing of ideas that are not your own is mere copy work, and +seldom worth doing. + +Ideas acquired through experience are not only interesting and your own, +but they are likely to be _clear_ and _definite_. You know what you do and +what you see; or, if you do not, the effort to express your ideas so that +they will be clear to others will make you observe closely for yourself. + +Still another advantage comes from the fact that your experiences are not +presented to you through the medium of language. When experience furnishes +the ideas, you are left free to choose for yourself the words that best +set forth what you wish to tell. The things of your experience are the +things with which you are most familiar, and therefore the words that best +apply to them are those which you most often use and whose meanings are +best known to you. + +Because experience supplies an abundance of interesting, clear, and +definite ideas, which are your own and which may be expressed in familiar +language, it furnishes better material for training in expression than +does either imagination or reading. + + ++4. Essentials of Expression.+--The proper expression of ideas depends +upon the observance of two essentials: first, you should say what you +mean; and second, you should say it clearly. Without these, what you say +may be not only valueless, but positively misleading. If you wish your +hearer to understand what occurred at a certain time and place, you must +first of all know yourself exactly what did occur. Then you must express +it in language that shall make him understand it as clearly as you do. You +will learn much about clearness, later; but even now you can tell whether +you know what is meant by each sentence which you hear or read. It is not +so easy to tell whether what you say will convey clearly to another the +meaning you intend to convey, but you will be helped in this if you ask +yourself the questions: "Do I know exactly what happened?" "Have I said +what I intended to say?" "Have I said it so that it will be clear to the +listener?" + + ++Oral Composition 1.+--_Report orally on one of the following:_-- + +1. Were you so interested in anything yesterday that you told it to your +parents or friends? Tell the class about it. + +2. Tell about something that you have done this week, so that the class +may know exactly what you did. + +3. Name some things in which you have been interested within the last two +or three months. Tell the class about one of them. + +4. Tell the class about something that happened during vacation. Have you +told the event exactly as it occurred? + + ++5. Interest.+--In order to enjoy listening to a story we must take an +interest in it, and the story should be so told as to arouse and maintain +this interest. As you have listened to the reports of your classmates you +have been more pleased with some than with others. Even though the meaning +of each was clear, yet the interest aroused was in each case different. +Since the purpose of a story is to entertain, any story falls short of its +purpose when it ceases to be interesting. We must at all times say what we +mean and say it clearly; but in story telling especially we must also take +care that what we say shall arouse and maintain interest. + + ++6. The Introduction.+--The story of an event should be introduced in such +a manner as to enable the hearer to understand the circumstances that are +related. Such an introduction contributes to clearness and has an +important bearing upon the interest of the entire composition. In order to +render our account of an event clear and interesting it is usually +desirable to tell the hearers _when_ and _where_ the event occurred and +_who_ were present. Their understanding of it may be helped further by +telling such of the attendant circumstances as will answer the question, +_Why_? If I begin my story by saying, "Last summer John Anderson and I +were on a camping trip in the Adirondacks," I have told when, where, and +who; and the addition of the words "on a camping trip" tells why we were +in the Adirondacks, and may serve to explain some of the events that are +to follow. Even the statement of the place indicates in some degree the +trend of the story, for many things that might occur "in the Adirondacks" +could not occur in a country where there are no mountains. Certainly the +story that would follow such an introduction would be expected to differ +from one beginning with the words, "Last summer John Anderson and I went +to visit a friend in New York." + +It is not always necessary to tell when, where, who, and why in the +introduction, but it is desirable to do so in most cases of oral story +telling. These four elements may not always be stated in incidents taken +from books, for the reader may be already familiar with them from the +preceding portions of the book. The title of a printed or written story +may serve as an introduction and give us all needed information. In +relating personal incidents the time element is seldom omitted, though it +may be stated indirectly or indefinitely by such expressions as "once" or +'lately.' In many stories the interest depends upon the plot, and the time +is not definitely stated. + + +EXERCISE + +Notice what elements are included in each of the following +introductions:-- + +1. Saturday last at Mount Holly, about eight miles from this place, nearly +three hundred people were gathered together to see an experiment or two +tried on some persons accused of witchcraft. + +2. On the morning of the 10th instant at sunrise, they were discovered +from Put-in-Bay, where I lay at anchor with the squadron under my command. + +3. It was on Sunday when I awoke to the realization that I had quitted +civilization and was afloat on an unfamiliar body of water in an open +boat. + +4. Up and down the long corn rows Pap Overholt guided the old mule and the +small, rickety, inefficient plow, whose low handles bowed his tall, broad +shoulders beneath the mild heat of a mountain June sun. As he went--ever +with a furtive eye upon the cabin--he muttered to himself, shaking his +head. + +5. After breakfast, I went down to the Saponey Indian town, which is about +a musket shot from the fort. + +6. The lonely stretch of uphill road, upon whose yellow clay the midsummer +sun beat vertically down, would have represented a toilsome climb to a +grown and unencumbered man. To the boy staggering under the burden of a +brimful carpet bag, it seemed fairly unscalable; wherefore he stopped at +its base and looked up in dismay to its far-off, red-hot summit. + +7. One afternoon last summer, three or four people from New York, two from +Boston, and a young man from the Middle West were lunching at one of the +country clubs on the south shore of Long Island, and there came about a +mild discussion of the American universities. + +8. "But where is the station?" inquired the Judge. + +"Ain't none, boss. Dis heah is jes a crossing. Train's about due now, sah; +you-all won't hab long fer to wait. Thanky, sah; good-by; sorry you-all +didn't find no birds." + +The Judge picked up his gun case and grip and walked toward his two +companions waiting on the platform a few yards away. Silhouetted against +the moonlight they made him think of the figure 10, for Mr. Appleton was +tall and erect, and the little Doctor short and circular. + +9. I sprang to the stirrup, and Joris and he; + I galloped, Dirck galloped, we galloped all three; + "Good speed!" cried the watch, as the gate bolts undrew, + "Speed!" echoed the wall to us galloping through. + Behind shut the postern, the lights sank to rest, + And into the midnight we galloped abreast. +--Browning. + + ++Oral Composition II.+--_Relate orally to the class some incident in which +you were personally concerned._ + +The following may suggest a subject:-- + 1. How I made friends with the squirrels. + 2. A trick of a tame crow. + 3. Why I missed the train. + 4. How a horse was rescued. + 5. Lost and found. + 6. My visit to a menagerie. + +(When preparing to relate this incident ask yourself first whether you +know exactly what happened. Consider then how to begin the story so that +your hearer will know when and where it happened and who were there. +Include in the beginning any statement that will assist the reader in +understanding the events which follow.) + + ++7. The Point of a Story.+--It is not necessary that a story be concerned +with a thrilling event in order to be interesting. Even a most commonplace +occurrence may be so told that it is worth listening to. It is more +important that a story have a point and be so told that this point will be +readily appreciated than that it deal with important or thrilling events. +The story should lead easily and rapidly to its point, and when this is +reached the end of the story should not be far distant. The beginning of a +story will contain statements that will assist us in appreciating the +point when we come to it, but if the point is plainly stated near the +beginning, or even if it is too strongly suggested, our story will drag. + +At what point in the following selection is the interest greatest? + + +During the Civil War, I lived in that portion of Tennessee which was +alternately held by the conflicting armies. My father and brothers were +away, as were all the other men in the neighborhood, except a few very old +ones and some half-grown boys. Mother and I were in constant fear of +injury from stragglers from both armies. We had never been disturbed, +for our farm was a mile or more back from the road along which such +detachments usually moved. We had periods of comparative quiet in which we +felt at ease, and then would come reports of depredation near at hand, or +rumors of the presence of marauding bands in neighboring settlements. + +One evening such a rumor came to us, and we were consequently anxious. +Early next morning, before the fog had lifted, I caught sight of two men +crossing the road at the far end of the orchard. They jumped over the +fence into the orchard and disappeared among the trees. I had but a brief +glimpse of them, but it was sufficient to show me that one had a gun over +his shoulder, while the other carried a saber. + +"Quick, Mother, quick!" I cried. "Come to the window. There are soldiers +in the orchard." + +Keeping out of sight, we watched the progress of the men through the +orchard. Our brief glimpses of them through the trees showed that they +were not coming directly to the house, but were headed for the barn and +sheds, and in order to keep out of sight, were following a slight ravine +which ran across the orchard and led to the back of the barns. + +Mother and I were very much excited and hardly knew what to do. Finally it +was determined to hide upstairs in hopes that the men were bent on +stealing chickens or pigs, and might leave without disturbing the house. +We locked the doors and went upstairs, taking with us the old musket and +the butcher knife. We could hear the men about the barn, and after what +seemed an interminable time we heard them coming towards the house. + +Though shaking all over, I summoned courage enough to go to the window and +look out of a hole in the shade. As the men came into sight around the +corner, I screamed outright, but from relief rather than fear, for the men +were not soldiers, but Grandpa Smith and his fourteen-year-old grandson. +They stopped at the well to get a drink, and when we opened the window, +the old man said, "We're just on our way to mow the back lot and stopped +to grind the scythe on your stone. We broke ours yesterday." + +Then he picked up the scythe which in the fog I had taken for a saber, +while the grandson again shouldered his pitchfork musket. + + +What effect would it have on the interest aroused by the preceding story +to begin it as follows? + + +"One morning during the Civil War, I saw two of my neighbors, Grandpa +Smith and his grandson, crossing our orchard, one carrying a scythe and +the other a pitchfork." + + +Why is the expression, "before the fog had lifted," used near the +beginning of the story? Would a description of the appearance of the +house, the barn, or the persons add to the interest aroused by the story? +Is it necessary to add anything to the story? + + +EXERCISE + + +In each of the following selections decide where the interest reaches its +climax. Has anything been said in the beginning of any of them which +suggests what the point will be, or which helps you to appreciate it when +you come to it? + + +1. The next evening our travelers encamped on a sand bar, or rather a +great bank of sand, that ran for miles along one side of the river. They +kept watch as usual, Leon taking the first turn. He seated himself on a +pile of sand and did his best to keep awake; but in about an hour after +the rest were asleep, he felt very drowsy and fell into a nap that lasted +nearly half an hour, and might have continued longer had he not slid down +the sand hill and tumbled over on his side. This awoke him. Feeling vexed +with himself, he rubbed his eyes and looked about to see if any creature +had ventured near. He first looked towards the woods, for of course that +was the direction from which the tigers would come; but he had scarcely +turned himself when he perceived a pair of eyes glancing at him from the +other side of the fire. Close to them another pair, then another and +another, until, having looked on every side, he saw himself surrounded by +a complete circle of glancing eyes. It is true they were small ones, and +some of the heads which he could see by the blaze were small. They were +not jaguars, but they had an ugly look. They looked like the heads of +serpents. Was it possible that a hundred serpents could have surrounded +the camp? + +Brought suddenly to his feet, Leon stood for some moments uncertain what +to do. He believed that the eyes belonged to snakes which had just crept +out of the river; and he feared that any movement on his part would lead +them to attack him. Having risen to his feet, his eyes were above the +level of the blaze, and he was able in a little while to see more clearly. + +He now saw that the snakelike heads belonged to creatures with large oval +bodies, and that, besides the fifty or more which had come up to look at +the fire, there were whole droves of them upon the sandy beach beyond. As +far as he could see on all sides, the bank was covered with them. A +strange sight it was, and most fearful. For his life he could not make out +what it meant, or by what sort of wild animals he was surrounded. + +He could see that their bodies were not larger than those of small sheep; +and, from the way in which they glistened in the moonlight, he was sure +they had come out of the river. He called to the Indian guide, who awoke +and started to his feet in alarm. The movement frightened the creatures +round the fire; they rushed to the shore, and were heard plunging by +hundreds into the water. + +The Indian's ear caught the sounds, and his eye took in the whole thing at +a glance. + +"Turtles," he said. + +"Oh," said the lad; "turtles, are they?" + +"Yes, master," answered the guide. "I suppose this is one of their great +hatching places. They are going to lay their eggs in the sand." + +--Captain Mayne Reid. + +Would the preceding incident be interesting if we were told at the +beginning that the boy and the Indian had encamped near a hatching place +of turtles? + + +2. Not every story that reads like fiction is fact, but the _Brooklyn +Eagle_ assures its readers that the one here quoted is quite true. The man +who told it was for many years an officer of the Chicago, Burlington & +Quincy Railroad Company in Illinois, and had annual passes over all the +important railroads in the country. His duties took him to Springfield, +the state capital, and as he generally went by the Chicago, Alton & St. +Louis road, the conductors on that line knew him so well that they never +asked to see his pass. + +"One day I received a telegram summoning me to meet one of the officers of +my company at Aurora the next morning. I had only a short time to catch my +train to Chicago, and in my haste left my passbook behind. I did not find +this out until I reached Chicago, and was about to take the last train for +Aurora that night. Then I saw that the conductor, a man brought over from +the Iowa division, was a stranger, and the fact that I would need my pass +reminded me that I did not have it. + +"I told the conductor the situation, but he said he could not carry me on +my mere representation that I had a pass. + +"Why, man," said I, "I am an officer of the company, going to Aurora on +company business, and this is the last train that will get me there in +time. You must take me." + +"He was polite, but firm. He said he was a new man on this division, and +could not afford to make any mistakes. + +"When I saw that he was determined, I rushed off to the telegraph office; +but it was too late to catch anybody authorized to issue passes, so I +settled it in my mind that I must go by carriage, and the prospect of an +all-night ride over bad roads through the dark was anything but inviting. +Indeed, it was so forbidding that I resolved to make one more appeal to +the conductor. + +"You simply must take me to Aurora!" I said, with intense earnestness. + +"I can't do it," he answered. "But I believe you are what you represent +yourself to be, and I will lend you the money personally. It is only one +dollar and twelve cents." + +"Well, sir, you could have knocked me down with the flat side of a +palm-leaf fan. I had more than two thousand dollars in currency in my +pocket, but it had never for an instant occurred to me that I could pay my +fare and ride on that train. I showed the conductor a wad of money that +made his eyes stick out. + +"I thought it was funny," said he, "that a man in your position couldn't +raise one dollar and twelve cents. It was that that made me believe you +were playing a trick to see if I would violate the rule." + +"The simple truth was, I had ridden everywhere on passes so many years, +that it did not occur to me that I could ride in any other way." + ++Oral Composition III.+[Footnote: Oral compositions should be continued +throughout the course. A few minutes may be profitably used once or twice +each week in having each member of the class stand before the class and +relate briefly some incident which he has witnessed since the last meeting +of the class. Exercises like those on page 53 also will furnish +opportunities for oral work.]--_Relate to the class some personal +incident suggested by one of the following subjects_:-- + + 1. A day with my cousin. + 2. Caught in the act. + 3. A joke on me. + 4. My peculiar mistake. + 5. My experience on a farm. + 6. My experience in a strange Sunday school. + 7. What I saw when I was coming to school. + +(In preparation for this exercise, consider the point of your story. What +must you tell first in order to enable the hearers to understand the +point? Can you say anything that will make them want to know what the +point is without really telling them? Can you lead up to it without too +long a delay? Can you stop when the point has been made?) + ++8. Theme Writing and Correcting.+--Any written exercise, whether long or +short, is called a theme throughout this book. Just as one learns to skate +by skating, so one learns to write by writing; therefore many themes will +be required. Since the clear expression of thought is one of the essential +characteristics of every theme, theme correction should be primarily +directed to improvement in clearness. The teacher will need to assist in +this correction, but the really valuable part is that which you do for +yourself. After you leave school you will need to decide for yourself what +is right and what is best, and it is essential that you now learn how to +make such decisions. + +To aid you in acquiring a habit of self-correction, questions or +suggestions follow the directions for writing each theme. In Theme I you +are to express clearly to others something that is already clear to you. + + ++Theme I.+-_Write a short theme on one of the subjects that you have used +for an oral composition._ + +(After writing this theme, read it aloud to yourself. Does it read +smoothly? Have you told what actually happened? Have you told it so that +the hearers will understand you? Have you said what you meant to say? +Consider the introduction. Has the story a point?) + + ++9. The Conclusion.+--Since the point of a story marks the climax of +interest, it is evident that the conclusion must not be long delayed after +the point has been reached. If the story has been well told, the point +marks the natural conclusion, and a sentence or two will serve to bring +the story to a satisfactory end. If a suitable ending does not suggest +itself, it is better to omit the conclusion altogether than to construct a +forced or flowery one. Notice the conclusion of the incident of the Civil +War related on page 18. + + ++Theme II.+-_Write a short theme suggested by one of the following +subjects:_-- + + 1. A school picnic. + 2. A race. + 3. The largest fire I have seen. + 4. A skating accident. + 5. A queer mistake. + 6. An experience with a tramp. + +(Correct with reference to meaning and clearness. Consider the +introduction; the point; the conclusion.) + + ++10. Observation of Actions.+--Many of our most interesting experiences +arise from observing the actions of others. A written description of what +we have observed will gain in interest to the reader, if, in addition to +telling what was done, we give some indication of the way in which it was +done. A list of tools a carpenter uses and the operations he performs +during the half hour we watch him, may be dull and uninteresting; but our +description may have an added value if it shows his manner of working so +that the reader can determine whether the carpenter is an orderly, +methodical, and rapid worker or a mere putterer who is careless, +haphazard, and slow. Two persons will perform similar actions in very +different ways. Our description should be so worded as to show what the +differences are. + + ++Theme III.+--_Write a theme relating actions._ + + Suggested subjects:-- + 1. A mason, blacksmith, painter, or other mechanic at work. + 2. How my neighbor mows his lawn. + 3. What a man does when his automobile breaks down. + 4. Describe the actions of a cat, dog, rabbit, squirrel, or other + animal. + 5. Watch the push-cart man a half-hour and report what he did. + + +(Have you told exactly what was done? Can you by the choice of suitable +words show more plainly the way in which it was done? Does this theme need +to have an introduction? A point? A conclusion?) + + ++11. Selection of Details.+--You are at present concerned with telling +events that actually happen; but this does not mean that you need to +include everything that occurs. If you wish to tell a friend about some +interesting or exciting incident at a picnic, he will not care to hear +everything that took place during the day. He may listen politely to a +statement of what train you took and what you had in your lunch basket, +but he will be little interested in such details. In order to maintain +interest, the point of your story must not be too long delayed. Brevity is +desirable, and details that bear little relation to the main point, and +that do not prepare the listener to understand and appreciate this point, +are better omitted. + + ++Theme IV.+--_Write about something that you have done. Use any of the +following subjects, or one suggested by them:_-- + + 1. My first hunt. + 2. Why I was tardy. + 3. My first fishing trip. + 4. My narrow escape. + 5. A runaway. + 6. What I did last Saturday. + +(Read the theme aloud to yourself. Does it read smoothly? Have you said +what you meant to say? Have you expressed it clearly? Consider the +introduction; the point; the conclusion. Reject unnecessary details.) + + ++12. Order of Events.+--The order in which events occur will assist in +establishing the order in which to relate them. If you are telling about +only one person, you can follow the time order of the events as they +actually happened; but if you are telling about two or more persons who +were doing different things at the same time, you will need to tell first +what one did and then what another did. You must, however, make it clear +to the reader that, though you have told one event after the other, they +really happened at the same time. + +In the selection below notice how the italicized portions indicate the +relation in time that the different events bear to one another. + + +At the beach yesterday a fat woman and her three children caused a great +commotion. They had rigged themselves out in hired suits which might be +described as an average fit, for that of the mother was as much too small +as those of the children were too large. They trotted gingerly out into +the surf, wholly unconscious that the crowd of beach loungers had, for the +time, turned their attention from each other to the quartet in the water. +By degrees the four worked out farther and farther until a wave larger +than usual washed the smallest child entirely off his feet, and caused the +mother to scream lustily for help. The people on the beach started up, and +two or three men hastened to the rescue, but their progress was impeded by +the crowd of frightened girls and women _who were scrambling and splashing +towards the shore_. The mother's frantic efforts to reach the little boy +were rendered ineffectual by the two girls, _who at the moment of the +first alarm had been strangled_ by the salt water and _were now clinging_ +desperately to her arms and _attempting_ to climb up to her shoulders. +_Meanwhile_, the lifeboat man was rowing rapidly towards the scene, but it +seemed to the onlookers _who had rushed to the platform railing_ that he +would never arrive. _At the same time_ a young man, _who had started from +the diving raft some time before_, was swimming towards shore with +powerful strokes. He _now_ reached the spot, caught hold of the boy, and +lifted him into the lifeboat, which had _at last_ arrived. + +Such expressions as _meanwhile, in the meantime, during, at last, while_, +etc., are regularly used to denote the kind of time relations now under +discussion. They should be used when they avoid confusion, but often a +direct transition from one set of actions to another can be made without +their use. Notice also the use of the relative clause to indicate time +relations. + + ++Theme V.+-_Write a short theme, using some one of the subjects named +under the preceding themes or one suggested by them. Select one which you +have not already used._ + +(Have you told enough to enable the reader to follow easily the thread of +the story and to understand what you meant to tell? If your theme is +concerned with more than one set of activities, have you made the +transition from one to another in such a way as to be clear to the reader? +Have you expressed the transitions with the proper time relations? What +other questions should you ask yourself while correcting this theme?) + + +SUMMARY + + 1. There is a pleasure to be derived from the expression of ideas. + + 2. There are three sources of ideas: experience, imagination, language. + + 3. Ideas gained from experience may be advantageously used for + composition purposes because-- + _a._ They are interesting. + _b._ They are your own. + _c._ They are likely to be clear and definite. + _d._ They offer free choice of language. + + 4. The two essentials of expression are-- + _a._ To say what you mean. + _b._ To say it clearly. + 5. A story should be told so as to arouse and maintain interest. + Therefore,-- + _a._ The introduction usually tells when, where, who, and why. + _b._ Every story worth telling has a point. + _c._ Only such details are included as are essential to the + development + of the point. + _d._ The conclusion is brief. The story comes to an end shortly + after the point is told. + + 6. Care must be taken to indicate the time order, especially when two or + more events occur at the same time. + + 7. The correction of one's own theme is the most valuable form of + correction. + + + +II. EXPRESSION OF IDEAS FURNISHED BY IMAGINATION + + ++13. Relation of Imagination to Experience.+--All ideas are based upon and +spring from experience, and the imagination merely places them in new +combinations. For the purpose of this book, however, it is convenient to +distinguish those themes that relate real events as they actually occurred +from those themes that relate events that did not happen. That body of +writing which we call literature is largely composed of works of an +imaginative character, and for this reason it has sometimes been +carelessly assumed that in order to write one must be possessed of an +excellent imagination. Such an assumption loses sight of the fact that +imaginative writings cover but one small part of the whole field. The +production of literature is the business of a few, while every one has +occasion every day to express ideas. It is evident that by far the greater +part of the ideas we are called upon to express do not require the use of +the imagination, but exercises in writing themes of an imaginative +character are given here because there is pleasure in writing such themes +and because practice in writing them will aid us in stating clearly and +effectively the many ideas arising from our daily experiences. + + ++14. Advantages and Disadvantages of Imaginative Theme Writing.+--Ideas +furnished by the imagination are no less your own than are those furnished +by experience, and the same freedom in the choice of language prevails. +Such ideas are, however, not likely to be so clear and definite. At the +time of their occurrence they do not make so deep and vital an impression +upon you. If not recorded as they occur, they can seldom be recalled in +the original form. Even though you attempt to write these imaginary ideas +as you think them, you can and do change and modify them as you go along. +This lack of clearness and permanent form, while it seems to give greater +freedom, carries with it disadvantages. In the first place the ideas are +less likely to be worth recording, and in the second place it is more +difficult to give them a unity and directness of statement that will hold +the attention and interest of the reader until the chief point is reached. + + ++15. Probability.+--Not everything that the imagination may furnish is +equally worth expressing. If you choose to write about something for which +imagination supplies the ideas, you may create for yourself such ideas as +you wish. Their order of occurrence and their time and place are not +determined by outward events, but solely by the mind itself. The events +are no longer real and actual, but may be changed and rearranged without +limit. An imaginative series of events may conform closely to the real and +probable, or it may be manifestly improbable. Which will be of greater +interest will depend upon the reader, but it will be found that the story +which comes nearest to reality is most satisfactory. In relating fairy +tales we confessedly attempt to tell events not possible in the real +world, but in relating tales of real life, however imaginary, we should +tell the events so that everything seems both possible and probable. An +imaginative story, in which the persons seem to be real persons who do and +say the things that real persons do and say, will be found much more +satisfactory than a story that depends for its outcome on something +manifestly impossible. He who really does the best in imaginative writing +is the one who has most closely observed the real events of everyday life, +and states his imaginary events so that they seem real. + + ++Theme VI.+--_Write a short theme, using one of the subjects below. You +need not tell something that actually happened, but what you tell should +be so told that your readers will think it might have happened._ + + 1. A trip in a sailboat. + 2. The travels of a penny. + 3. How I was lost. + 4. A cat's account of a mouse hunt. + 5. The mouse's account of the same hunt. + 6. My experience with a burglar. + 7. The burglar's story. + + ++16. Euphony.+--Besides clearness in a composition there are other +desirable qualities. To one of these, various names have been applied, as +"euphony," "ease," "elegance," "beauty," etc. Of two selections equally +clear in meaning one may be more pleasing than the other. One may seem +harsh and rough, while the other flows along with a satisfying ease and +smoothness. If the thought that is in our mind fails to clothe itself in +suitable language and appropriate figures, we can do little by conscious +effort toward improving the beauty of the language; but by avoiding choppy +sentences and inharmonious combinations of words and phrases, we may +remove from our compositions much that is harsh and rough. That quality +which we call ease or euphony is better detected by the ear than by the +eye, and for this reason it has been suggested that you read each theme +aloud to yourself before presenting it to the class. Such a reading will +assist you to determine whether you have made your meaning clear and to +eliminate some of the more disagreeable combinations. + + ++17. Variety.+--Of the many elements which affect the euphony of a theme +none is more essential than variety. The constant repetition of the same +thing grows monotonous and distasteful, while a pleasing variety maintains +interest and improves the story. For the sake of this variety we avoid the +continual use of the same words and phrases, substituting synonyms and +equivalent expressions if we have need to repeat the same idea many times. + +Most children begin every sentence of a story with "and," or perhaps it is +better to say that they conclude many sentences with "and-uh," leaving the +thought in suspense while they are trying to think of what to say next. +High school pupils are not wholly free from this habit, and it is +sometimes retained in their written work. This excessive use of _and_ +needs to be corrected. An examination of our language habits will show +that nearly every one has one or more words which he uses to excess. A +professor of rhetoric, after years of correcting others, discovered by +underscoring the word _that_ each time it occurred in his own writing that +he was using it twice as often as necessary. _Got_ is one of the words +used too frequently, and often incorrectly. + + +EXERCISES + +1. In the following selection notice how each sentence begins. Compare it +with one of your own themes. + + +I was witness to events of a less peaceful character. One day when I went +out to my woodpile, or rather my pile of stumps, I observed two large +ants, the one red, and the other much larger, nearly half an inch long, +and black, fiercely contending with each other. Having once got hold, they +never let go, but struggled and wrestled and rolled on the chips +incessantly. Looking farther, I was surprised to find that the chips were +covered with such combatants; that it was not a _duellum_, but a +_bellum_,--a war between two races of ants, the red always pitted against +the black, and frequently two red ones to one black. The legions of these +Myrmidons covered all the hills and vales in my woodyard, and the ground +was already strewn with the dead and the dying, both red and black. + +It was the only battle which I have ever witnessed--the only battlefield I +ever trod while the battle was raging.... On every side they were engaged +in deadly combat, yet without any noise that I could hear, and human +soldiers never fought so resolutely.--Thoreau. + + +2. Examine one of your own themes. If some word occurs frequently, +underscore it each time, and then substitute words or expressions for it +in as many places as you can. If necessary, reconstruct the sentences so +as to avoid using the word in some cases. Notice how these substitutions +give a variety to your expression and improve the euphony of your +composition. + + +Theme VII.--_Write a short story suggested by one of the following +subjects:_-- + + 1. The trout's revenge. + 2. A sparrow's mistake. + 3. A fortunate shot. + 4. The freshman and the professor. + 5. What the bookcase thought about it. + +(Correct with reference to meaning and clearness. Cross out unnecessary +_ands_. Consider the beginnings of the sentences. Can you improve the +euphony by a different choice of words?) + + +18. Sentence Length.--Euphony is aided by securing a variety in the length +of sentences. In endeavoring to avoid the excessive use of _and_, some +pupils obtain results illustrated by the following example:-- + + +Jean passed through the door of the church. He saw a child sitting on one +of the stone steps. She was fast asleep in the midst of the snow. The +child was thinly clad. Her feet, cold as it was, were bare. + + +A theme composed wholly of such a succession of short sentences is +tedious. Especially when read aloud does its monotony become apparent. +Though the thought in each sentence is complete, the effect is not +satisfactory to the reader, because the thought of the whole does not come +to him as fast as his mind can act. Such an arrangement of sentences might +be satisfactory to young children, because it would agree with their +habits of thought; but as one grows in ability to think more rapidly, he +finds that longer and more complicated sentences best express his thoughts +and are best understood by those for whom he writes. We introduce +sentences of different length and different structure, because they more +clearly express the thought of the whole and state it in a form more in +accordance with the mental activity of the hearer. When we have done this, +we at the same time secure a variety that avoids monotony. + +In attempting to avoid a series of short sentences, care should be taken +not to go to the other extreme. Sentences should not be overloaded. Too +many adjectives or participles or subordinate clauses will render the +meaning obscure. The number of phrases and clauses that may safely be +introduced will be determined by the ability of the mind to grasp the +meaning readily and accurately. It is sometimes quite as important to +separate a long sentence into shorter ones as it is to combine short ones +into those of greater length. + +Notice in the following selection the different ways in which several +ideas have been brought into the same sentence without rendering the +meaning obscure:-- + + +Loki made his way across a vast desert moorland, and came, after three +days, into the barren hill country and among the rugged mountains of the +South. There an earthquake had split the rocks asunder, and opened dark +and bottomless gorges, and hollowed out many a low-walled cavern, where +the light of day was never seen. Along deep, winding ways, Loki went, +squeezing through narrow crevices, creeping under huge rocks, and gliding +through crooked clefts, until he came at last into a great underground +hall, where his eyes were dazzled by a light that was stronger and +brighter than the day; for on every side were glowing fires, roaring in +wonderful little gorges, and blown by wonderful little bellows. + + ++Theme VIII.+--_Write a story suggested by one of the following +subjects:_-- + + 1. School in the year 2000. + 2. The lost door key. + 3. Our big bonfire. + 4. Kidnapped. + 5. A bear hunt. + 6. A mistake in the telegram. + 7. How Fido rescued his master. + + +(Can you render the meaning more clear by uniting short sentences into +longer ones, or by separating long sentences into shorter ones? Can you +omit any _ands_? How many of the sentences begin with the same word? Can +you change any of those words? Pick out the words which show the +subordinate relation of some parts to others. Do all of the incidents in +your story seem probable?) + + ++19. Conversation.+--It must not be inferred from the preceding section +that short sentences are never to be used. They are quite as necessary as +long ones, and in some cases, such as the portraying of strong emotion, +are more effective. Even a succession of short sentences may be used with +good results to describe rapid action. In conversation, also, sentences +are generally short, and often grammatically incomplete, though they may +be understood by the hearer. Sometimes this incompleteness is justified by +the idiom of the language, but more often it is the result of carelessness +on the part of the speaker. The hearer understands what is said either +because he knows about what to expect, or because the expression is a +familiar one. Such carelessness not only causes the omission of words +grammatically necessary, but brings about the incorrect pronunciation of +words and their faulty combination into sentences. + +You speak much more often than you write. Your habits of speech are likely +to become permanent and your errors of speech will creep into your written +work. It is important therefore that you watch your spoken language. +Occasions will arise when the slang expressions that you so freely use +will seem inappropriate, and it will be unfortunate indeed if you find +that you have used the slang so long that you have no other words to take +their place. An abbreviated form of _gymnasium_ or of _mathematics_ may +not attract attention among your schoolmates, but there are circles where +such abbreviations are not used. By watching your own speech you will find +that some incorrect forms are very common. Improvement can be made by +giving your attention to one of them, such as the use of _guess_, or of +_got_, or of _don't_ and _doesn't_. + +In making a written report of conversation you should remember that short +sentences predominate. A conversation composed of long sentences would +seem stilted and made to order. What each person says, however short, is +put into a separate division and indented. Explanatory matter accompanying +the conversation is placed with the spoken part to which it most closely +relates. Notice the indentations and the use of quotation marks in several +printed reports of conversation. + + ++20. Ideas from Pictures.+--If you look at a picture and then attempt to +tell some one else what you see, you will express ideas gained by +experience. A picture may, however, cause a very different set of ideas to +arise. Look at the picture on page 38. Can you imagine the circumstances +that preceded the situation shown by the picture? Or again, can you not +begin with that situation and imagine what would be done next? If you +write out either of the series of events, the theme, though suggested by +the picture, will be composed of ideas furnished by the imagination. In +the writing of a story suggested by a picture, the situation given in the +picture should be made the point of greatest interest, and should be +accounted for by relating a series of events supposed to have preceded it. + + ++Theme IX.+--_Write a story that will account for the condition shown in +the picture on page 38._ + +(Correct with reference to clearness and meaning. Do you need to change +the sentence length either for the sake of clearness or for the sake of +variety? Cross out unnecessary _ands_. Underscore _got_ and _then_ each +time you have used them. Can the reader follow the thread of your story to +its chief point?) + + +[Illustration] + + ++21. Vocabulary.+--A word is the symbol of an idea, and the addition of a +word to one's vocabulary usually means that a new idea has been acquired. +The more we see and hear and read, the greater our stock of ideas becomes. +As our life experiences increase, so should our supply of words increase. +We may have ideas without having the words with which to express them, and +we may meet with words whose meanings we do not know. In either case there +is chance for improvement. When you have a new idea, find out how best to +express it, and when you meet with a new word, add it to your vocabulary. + +It is necessary to distinguish between our reading vocabulary and our +writing vocabulary. There are many words that belong only to the first. We +know what they mean when we meet them in our reading, but we do not use +them in our writing. Our speaking vocabulary also differs from that which +we employ in writing. We use words and phrases on paper that seldom appear +in our speech, and, on the other hand, many of the words that we speak do +not appear in our writing. There is, however, a constant shifting of words +from one to another of these three groups. When we meet an unknown word, +it usually becomes a part of our reading vocabulary. Later it may appear +in our written work, and finally we may use it in speaking. We add a word +to our reading vocabulary when we determine its meaning, but _we must use +it_ in order to add it to our writing and speaking vocabulary. A conscious +effort to aid in this acquisition of words is highly desirable. + +A limited vocabulary indicates limited ideas. If one is limited to +_awfully_ in order to express a superlative; if his use of adjectives is +restricted to _nice, jolly, lovely_, and _elegant;_ if he must always +_abominate_ and never _abhor_, _detest, dislike_, or _loathe;_ if he can +only _adore_ and not _admire, respect, revere_, or _venerate_,--then he +has failed, indeed, to know the possibilities and beauties of English. +Such a language habit shows a mind that has failed to distinguish between +ideas. The best way to study the shades of meaning and the choice of words +is in the actual production of a theme wherein there is need to bring out +these differences in meaning by the use of words; but some help may be +gained from a formal study of synonyms and antonyms and of the distinction +in use and meaning between words which are commonly confused with each +other. For this purpose such exercises are given in the Appendix. + + ++22. Choice of Words.+--Even though our words may express the proper +meaning, the effect may not be a desirable one unless we use words suited +to the occasion described and to the person writing. Pupils of high school +age know the meaning of many words which are too "bookish" for daily use +by them. Edward Everett Hale might use expressions which would not be +suitable for a freshman's composition. Taste and good judgment will help +you to avoid the unsuitable or grandiloquent. + +The proper selection of words not only implies that we shall avoid the +wrong word, but also that we shall choose the right one. A suitable +adjective may give a clearer image than is expressed by a whole sentence; +a single verb may tell better how some one acted than can be told by a +lengthy explanation. Since narration has to do with action, we need in +story telling to be especially careful in our choice of verbs. + +What can you say of the suitability of the words in the following +selection, taken from an old school reader? + + +_Mrs. Lismore._ You are quite breathless, Charles; where have you been +running so violently? + +_Charles._ From the poultry yard, mamma, where I have been diverting +myself with the bravado of the old gander. I did not observe him till he +came toward me very fiercely, when, to induce him to pursue me, I ran from +him. He followed, till, supposing he had beaten me, he returned to the +geese, who appeared to receive him with acclamations of joy, cackling very +loud, and seeming actually to laugh, and to enjoy the triumph of their +gallant chief. + +_Emma._ I wish I had been with you, Charles; I have often admired the +gambols of these beautiful birds, and wondered how they came by the +appellation of _silly_, which is generally bestowed on them. I remember +Martha, our nursery maid, used often to call me a _silly goose_. How came +they to deserve that term, mamma? they appear to me to have as much +intelligence as any of the feathered tribe. + +_Mrs. Lismore._ I have often thought with you, Emma, and supposed that +term, like many others, misapplied, for want of examining into the justice +of so degrading an epithet. + + ++23. Improbability.+--Up to this point we have been concerned with +relating events that _could_ exist, though we knew that they _did_ not. We +may, however, imagine a series of events that are manifestly impossible. +There is a pleasure in inventing improbable stories, and if we know from +the beginning that they are to be so, we enjoy listening to them. Such +tales are more satisfactory to young persons than to older ones, as is +shown by our declining interest in fairy stories as we grow older. + +By limiting the improbability to a part of the story, it is possible to +give an air of reality to the whole. Though the conditions described in a +story about a trip to the moon might be wholly impossible, yet the reader +for the time being might feel that the events were actually happening if +the characters in the story were acting as real men would act under +similar circumstances. In stories such as those of Thompson-Seton, where +the animals are personified, the impossibilities are forgotten, because +the actions and situations are so real. In fairy stories and similar tales +neither characters nor actions are in any way limited by probability. + + ++Theme X.+--_Write a short story suggested by one of the subjects below. +Make either the characters or their surroundings seem real._ + + 1. A week in Mars. + 2. Exploring the lake bottom. + 3. The cat's defense of her kittens. + (_a_) As told by the cat. + (_b_) As told by the dog. + 4. How the fox fooled the hound. + 5. Diary of a donkey. + 6. A biography of Jack Frost. + + +(Correct with reference to meaning and clearness and two other points to +be assigned by the teacher.) + + ++24. How to Increase One's Vocabulary.+--In your daily work do what you +can to add words to your reading vocabulary, and especially to increase +your writing vocabulary. In the conversation of others and in reading you +will meet with many new words, and you should attempt to make them your +own. To do this, four things must be attended to:-- + +1. _Spelling._ Definite attention should be given to each new word until +its form both as written and as printed is indelibly stamped upon the +mind. In your general reading and in each of the subjects that you will +study in the high school you will meet unfamiliar words. It is only by +mastering the spelling of each new word _when you first meet it_ that you +can insure yourself against future chagrin from bad spelling. A part of +the time in each high school subject may well be devoted to the mastering +of the words peculiar to that subject. + +2. _Pronunciation._ The complete acquisition of a word includes its +pronunciation. In reading aloud and in speaking, we have need to know it, +and faulty pronunciation is considered an indication of lack of culture. + +3. _Meaning._ This includes more than the ability to give the definition +as found in the dictionary. It is possible to recite such definitions +glibly without in reality knowing the meaning of the word defined. It is +necessary to connect the word definitely and permanently in our mind with +the idea for which it is the symbol and to be able to distinguish the idea +clearly from others closely related to it. + +4. _Use._ The actual use of a word is very important. If a word is to come +into our speaking and writing vocabulary, we must use it. It is important +that the spelling, pronunciation, and meaning be determined when you +_first_ meet the word, and it is equally important that the word be _used_ +soon and often. + + ++Theme XI.+--_Write a short story suggested by one of the following +subjects. It may be wholly improbable, if you choose._ + + 1. The good fairy. + 2. Mary's luck. + 3. The man in the moon. + 4. The golden apple. + 5. A wonderful fountain pen. + 6. The goobergoo and the kantan. + + +(Correct with reference to meaning and clearness and two other points to +be assigned by the teacher.) + + +SUMMARY + +1. The clear expression of the ideas connected with our daily experiences + is of greater importance to most of us than is the production of + literature. + +2. Ideas furnished by imagination may be advantageously used for + composition purposes, because-- + _a._ They are your own. + _b._ They offer free choice of language. + They are less desirable than those gained from experience, because-- + _a._ They generally lack clearness and permanency. + _b._ They are less likely to be worth recording. + _c._ It is more difficult to give them that unity and directness of + statement that will keep the interest of the reader. + +3. An imaginative series of events may seem probable or improbable. He who + most closely observes real life and states his imaginary events so + that they seem real will succeed best in imaginative writing. + +4. Euphony is a desirable quality in a composition. + +5. Variety aids euphony. It is gained by-- + _a._ Avoiding the repetition of the same words and phrases. + _b._ Beginning our sentences in various ways. + _c._ Using sentences of different lengths. + +6. Conversation is usually composed of short sentences. + +7. Pictures may suggest ideas suitable for use in compositions. + +8. Our reading, writing, and speaking vocabularies differ. + Each should be increased. With each new word + attention should be given to-- + _a._ Spelling. + _b._ Pronunciation. + _c._ Meaning. + _d._ Use. + + + +III. EXPRESSION OF IDEAS ACQUIRED THROUGH LANGUAGE + + ++25. Language as a Medium through Which Ideas are Acquired.+--We have +been considering language as a means of expression, an instrument by which +we can convey to others the ideas which come to us from experience and +imagination. We shall now consider it from a different point of view. +Language is not merely a means of expressing ideas, but it is also a +medium through which ideas are acquired. It has a double use: the writer +must put thought into language; the reader must get it out. A large part +of your schooling has been devoted to acquiring ideas from language, and +these ideas may be used for purposes of composition. _Since it is +absolutely necessary to have ideas before you can express them_, it will +be worth while to consider for a time how to get them from language. + + ++26. Image Making.+--Read the following selection from Hawthorne and form +a clear mental image of each scene:-- + + +At first, my fancy saw only the stern hills, lonely lakes, and venerable +woods. Not a tree, since their seeds were first scattered over the infant +soil, had felt the ax, but had grown up and flourished through its long +generation, had fallen beneath the weight of years, been buried in green +moss, and nourished the roots of others as gigantic. Hark! A light paddle +dips into the lake, a birch canoe glides around the point, and an Indian +chief has passed, painted and feather-crested, armed with a bow of +hickory, a stone tomahawk, and flint-headed arrows. But the ripple had +hardly vanished from the water, when a white flag caught the breeze, over +a castle in the wilderness, with frowning ramparts and a hundred +cannon.... A war party of French and Indians were issuing from the gate to +lay waste some village of New England. Near the fortress there was a group +of dancers. The merry soldiers footing it with the swart savage maids; +deeper in the wood, some red men were growing frantic around a keg of the +fire-water; and elsewhere a Jesuit preached the faith of high cathedrals +beneath a canopy of forest boughs. + + +Did you form clear mental images? Can you picture them all at the same +time, or must you turn your attention from one image to another? The +formation of the proper mental images will be aided by making a persistent +effort to create them. + +Many words do not cause us to form images; for example, _goodness, +innocence, position, insurance_; but when the purpose of a word is to set +forth an image, we should take care to get the correct one. In this the +dictionary will not always help us. We must distinguish between the +ability to repeat a definition and the power to form an accurate image of +the thing defined. The difficulty of forming correct images by the use of +dictionary definitions is so great that the definitions are frequently +accompanied by pictures. + + +EXERCISES + + +Notice the different mental images that come to you as you read each of +the following selections. Distinguish words that cause images to arise +from those that do not. + + +1. Before these fields were shorn and tilled, + Full to the brim our rivers flowed; + The melody of waters filled + The fresh and boundless wood; + And torrents dashed, and rivulets played, + And fountains spouted in the shade. + +--Bryant: _An Indian at the Burial Place of his Fathers_. + + +2. At that moment the woods were filled with another burst of cries, and +at the signal four savages sprang from the cover of the driftwood. Heyward +felt a burning desire to rush forward to meet them, so intense was the +delirious anxiety of the moment; but he was restrained by the deliberate +examples of the scout and Uncas. When their foes, who leaped over the +black rocks that divided them, with long bounds, uttering the wildest +yells, were within a few rods, the rifle of Hawkeye slowly rose among the +shrubs and poured out its fatal contents. The foremost Indian bounded like +a stricken deer and fell headlong among the clefts of the island. + +--Cooper: _Last of the Mohicans_. + + +3. The towering flames had now surmounted every obstruction, and rose to +the evening skies, one huge and burning beacon, seen far and wide through +the adjacent country. Tower after tower crashed down, with blazing roof +and rafter; and the combatants were driven from the courtyard. The +vanquished of whom very few remained, scattered and escaped into the +neighboring wood. The victors, assembling in large bands, gazed with +wonder, not unmixed with fear, upon the flames, in which their own ranks +and arms glanced dusky red. The maniac figure of the Saxon Ulrica was for +a long time visible on the lofty stand she had chosen, tossing her arms +abroad with wild exaltation as if she reigned empress of the conflagration +which she had raised. At length, with a terrific crash, the whole turret +gave way and she perished in the flames which had consumed her tyrant. + +--Scott: _Ivanhoe_. + + +4. Under a spreading chestnut tree + The village smithy stands; + The smith, a mighty man is he, + With large and sinewy hands; + And the muscles of his brawny arms + Are strong as iron bands. + +--Longfellow: _The Village Blacksmith_. + + +5. Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered weak and weary, + Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore-- + While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping, + As of some one gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door; + "'Tis some visitor," I muttered, "tapping at my chamber door-- + Only this, and nothing more." + +--Edgar A. Poe: _The Raven_. + + +6. Where with black cliffs the torrents toil, + He watch'd the wheeling eddies boil, + Till, from their foam, his dazzled eyes + Beheld the River Demon rise; + The mountain mist took form and limb + Of noontide hag or goblin grim. + +--Scott: _Lady of the Lake_. + + +7. On nearer approach he was still more surprised at the singularity of +the stranger's appearance. He was a short, square-built old fellow, with +thick, bushy hair and a grizzled beard. His dress was of the antique Dutch +fashion--a cloth jerkin strapped around the waist--several pairs of +breeches, the outer ones of ample volume, decorated with rows of buttons +down the sides and bunches at the knees. He bore on his shoulder a stout +keg that seemed full of liquor, and made signs for Rip to approach and +assist him with his load. + +--Washington Irving: _Rip Van Winkle_. + + ++27. Complete and Incomplete Images.+--Some sentences have for their +purpose the presentation of an image, but in order to form that image +correctly and completely, we must be familiar with the words used. If an +unfamiliar word is introduced, the mind may omit entirely the image +represented, or may substitute some other for it. Notice the image +presented by this sentence from Henry James: "Her dress was dark and rich; +she had pearls around her neck and an old rococo fan in her hand." If the +meaning of _rococo_ is unknown to you, the image which you form will not +be exactly the one that Mr. James had in mind. The pearls and the dress +may stand out clearly in your image, but the fan will be lacking or +indistinct. The whole may be compared to a photograph of which a part is +blurred. If your attention is directed to the fan, you may recall the word +_rococo_, but not the image represented by it. If your attention is not +called to the fan, the mind is satisfied with the indistinct image, or +substitutes for it an image of some other fan. Such an image is therefore +either incomplete or inaccurate. + +An oath in court provides that we shall "tell the truth, the whole truth, +and nothing but the truth," but, in forming images, it is not always +possible to hold our minds to such exactness. We are prone to picture more +or less than the words convey. In fact, in some forms of prose, and often +in poetry, the author purposely takes advantage of this habit of the mind +and wishes us to enlarge with creations of our own imagination the bare +image that his words convey. Such writing, however, aims to give pleasure +or to arouse our emotions. It calls out something in the reader even more +strongly than it sets forth something in the writer. This suggestiveness +in writing will be considered later, but for the present it will be well +for you to bear in mind that most language has for its purpose the exact +expression of a definite idea. Much of the failure in school work arises +from the careless substitution of one image for another, and from the +formation of incomplete and inaccurate images. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Make a list of the words in the following selections whose meanings +you need to look up in order to make the images exact and complete. Do not +attempt to memorize the language of the definition, but to form a correct +image. + + +1. The sun stared brazenly down on a gray farmhouse, on ranges of +whitewashed outbuildings, and on a goodly array of dark-thatched ricks. + +2. In his shabby frieze jacket and mud-laden brogans, he was scarcely an +attractive object. + +3. In a sunlit corner of an old coquina fort they came suddenly face to +face with a familiar figure. + +4. Somewhat back from the village street + Stands the old-fashioned country seat. + Across its antique portico + Tall poplar trees their shadows throw, + And from its station in the hall + An ancient timepiece says to all: + "Forever--never! + Never--forever!" + +--Longfellow: _The Old Clock on the Stairs_. + +5. There was a room which bore the appearance of a vault. Four spandrels +from the corners ran up to join a sharp cup-shaped roof. The architecture +was rough, but very strong. It was evidently part of a great building. + +6. The officer proceeded, without affecting to hear the words which +escaped the sentinel in his surprise; nor did he again pause, until he had +reached the low strand, and in a somewhat dangerous vicinity to the +western water bastion of the fort. + +7. She stood on the top step under the _porte-cochere_, on the extreme +edge, so that the toes of her small slippers extended a little over it. +She bent forward, and then tipped back on the high, exiguous heels again. + +8. Before the caryatides of the fireplace, under the ancestral portraits, a +valet moves noiselessly about, arranging the glistening silver service on +the long table and putting in order the fruits, sweets, and ices. + +9. No sooner is the heavy gate of the portal passed than one sees from +afar among the leafage the court of honor, to which one comes along an +alley decorated uniformly with upright square shafts like classic termae +in stone and bronze. The impression of the antique lines is striking: it +springs at once to the eyes, at first in this portico with columns and a +heavy entablature, but lacking a pediment. + + +_B._ Read again the selections beginning on page 46. Do you form complete +images in every case? + + +_C._ Notice in each of your lessons for to-day what images are incomplete. +Bring to class a list of the words you would need to look up in order to +form complete images. Do not include all the words whose meanings are not +clear, but only those that assist in forming images. + + ++Theme XII.+--_Form a clear mental image of some incident, person, or +place. Write about it, using such words as will give your classmates +complete and accurate images. The following may suggest a subject:_-- + + 1. A party dress I should like. + 2. My room. + 3. A cozy glen. + 4. In the apple orchard. + 5. Going to the fire. + 6. The hand-organ man. + 7. A hornets' nest. + 8. The last inning. + 9. An exciting race. + + +(Consider what you have written with reference to the images which the +_reader_ will form. Do you think that when the members of the class hear +your theme, each will form the same images that you had in mind when +writing? Notice how many of your sentences begin in the same way. Can you +rewrite them so as to give variety?) + + ++28. Reproduction of Images.+--If we were asked to tell about an accident +which we had seen, we could recall the various incidents in the order of +their occurrence. If the accident had occurred recently, or had made a +vivid impression upon us, we could easily form mental images of each +scene. If we had only read a description of the accident, it would be more +difficult to recall the image; because that which we gain through language +is less vitally a part of ourselves than is that which comes to us through +experience. + +When called upon to reproduce the images suggested to us by language, our +memory is apt to concern itself with the words that suggested the image, +and our expression is hampered rather than aided by this remembrance. The +author has made, or should have made, the best possible selection of words +and phrases. If we repeat his language, we have but memory drill or copy +work; and if we do not, we are limited to such second-class language as we +may be able to find. + +Word memory has its uses, but it is less valuable than image memory. It is +necessary to distinguish carefully between the images that a writer +presents and the words that he uses. If a botany lesson should consist of +a description of fifteen different leaves, a pupil deficient in image +memory will attempt to memorize the language of the book. A better-trained +pupil, on meeting such a term as _serrated_, will ask himself: "Have I +ever seen such a leaf? Can I form an image of it?" If so, his only task +will be to give the new name, _serrated_, to the idea that he already has. +In a similar way he will form images for each of the fifteen leaves +described in the lesson. The language of the book may help him form these +images, but he will make no attempt to commit the language to memory. With +him, "getting the lesson" means forming images and naming them, and +reciting the lesson will be but talking about an image that he has clearly +in mind. Try this in your own lessons. + +If we are called upon to reproduce the incidents and scenes of some story +that has been read to us, our success will depend upon the clearness of +the images that we have formed. Our efforts should be directed to making +the images as definite and vivid as possible, and our memory will be +concerned with the recalling of these images in their proper order, and +not with the language that first caused them to appear. + + +EXERCISES + +1. Report orally some interesting incident taken from a book which you +have recently read. Do not reread the story. Use such language as will +cause the class to form clear mental images. + +2. Report orally upon some chapter selected from Cooper's _Last of the +Mohicans_ or Scott's _Ivanhoe_. + +3. Read a portion of Scott's _Lady of the Lake_, and report orally what +happened. + +4. Report orally some incident that you have read about in a magazine. +Select one that caused you to form images, and tell it so that the hearers +will form like images. + + ++Theme XIII.+--_Reproduce a story read to you by the teacher._ + +(Before writing, picture to yourself the scenes and recall the order of +their occurrence. If it is necessary to condense, omit events of the least +importance.) + + ++29. Comparison.+--Writing which contains unfamiliar words fails to call +up complete and definite images. It is often difficult to form the correct +mental picture, even though the words in themselves are familiar. +Definitions, explanations, and descriptions may cause us to understand +correctly, but our understanding usually can be improved by means of a +comparison. We can form an image of an object as soon as we know what it +is like. + +If I wished you to form an image of an okapi, a lengthy description would +give you a less vivid picture than the statement that it was a horselike +animal, having stripes similar to those of a zebra. If an okapi were as +well known to you as is a horse, the name alone would call up the proper +image, and no comparison would be necessary. By means of it we are enabled +to picture the unfamiliar. In this case the comparison is literal. + +If the comparison is imaginative rather than literal, our language becomes +figurative, and usually takes the form of a simile or metaphor. Similes +and metaphors are of great value in rendering thought clear. They make +language forceful and effective, and they may add much to the beauty of +expression. + +We may speak of an object as being like another, or as acting like +another. If the comparison is imaginative rather than literal, and is +directly stated, the expression is a simile. Similes are introduced by +_like, as_, etc. + + + He fought like a lion. + The river wound like a serpent around the mountains. + + +If two things are essentially different, but yet have a common quality, +their _implied comparison_ is a metaphor. A metaphor takes the form of a +statement that one is the other. + + + "He was a lion in the fight." + "The river wound its serpent course." + + +Sometimes inanimate objects, abstract ideas, or the lower animals +are given the attributes of human beings. Such a figure is called +personification, and is in fact a modified metaphor, since it is based +upon some resemblance of the lower to the higher. + + + This music crept by me upon the waters. + + Time is a very bankrupt, and owes more than he is worth to + season. + Nay, he's a thief, too; have you not heard men say, + That time comes stealing on by night and day? + +--Shakespeare. + + ++30. Use of Figures of Speech.+--The three figures of speech, simile, +metaphor, and personification, are more frequently used than are the +others. Figures of speech are treated in a later chapter, but some +suggestions as to their use will be of value to beginners. + +1. Never write for the purpose of using figures of speech. Nearly +everything that we need to say can be well expressed in plain, bare +English, and the ability to express our thoughts in this way is the +essential thing. If a figure that adds to the force and clearness of your +expression occurs to you, use it without hesitation. A figure may also add +to the beauty of our expression. The examples to be found in literature +are largely of this character. If well used, they are effective, but the +beginner should beware of a figure that is introduced for decorative +purposes only. An attempt to find figures of speech in ordinary prose +writing will show how rarely they are used. + +2. The figures should fit the subject in hand. Some comparisons are +appropriate and some are not. If the writer is familiar with his subject +and deeply in earnest, the appropriate figures will rise spontaneously in +his mind. If they do not, little is gained by seeking for them. + +3. The effectiveness of a comparison, whether literal or figurative, +depends upon the familiarity of the reader with one of the two things +compared. To say that a petrel resembled a kite would be of no value to +one who knew nothing of either bird. Similarly a figure is defective if +neither element of the comparison is familiar to the readers. + +4. Suitable figures give picturesqueness and vivacity to language, but +hackneyed figures are worse than none. + +5. Elaborate and long-drawn-out figures, or an overabundance of short +ones, should be avoided. + +6. A figure must be consistent throughout. A comparison once begun must be +carried through without change; mixing figures often produces results +which are ridiculous. The "mixed metaphor" is a common blunder of +beginners. This fault may arise either from confusing different metaphors +in the same sentence, or from blending literal language with metaphorical. +The following will serve to illustrate:-- + + +1. [Confused metaphor.] Let us pin our faith to the rock of perseverance +and honest toil, where it may sail on to success on the wings of hope. + +2. [Literal and figurative blended.] Washington was the father of his +country and a surveyor of ability. + +3. When the last awful moment came, the star of liberty went down with all +on board. + +4. The glorious work will never be accomplished until the good ship +"Temperance" shall sail from one end of the land to the other, and with a +cry of "Victory!" at each step she takes, shall plant her banner in every +city, town, and village in the United States. + +5. All along the untrodden paths of the future we see the hidden +footprints of an unseen hand. + +6. The British lion, whether it is roaming the deserts of India, or +climbing the forests of Canada, will never draw in its horns nor retire +into its shell. + +7. Young man, if you have the spark of genius in you, water it. + + +EXERCISES + + +Are the images which you form made more vivid by +the use of the figures in the following selections? + +1. She began to screech as wild as ocean birds. + +2. And when its force expended, + The harmless storm was ended; + And as the sunrise splendid + Came blushing o'er the sea-- + +3. As a demon is hurled by an angel's spear, + Heels over head, to his proper sphere-- + Heels over head and head over heels,-- + Dizzily down the abyss he wheels,-- + So fell Darius. + +--J.T. Trowbridge. + +4. In this republican country, amid the fluctuating waves of our social +life, somebody is always at the drowning point. + +--Hawthorne. + +5. Poverty, treading close at her heels for a lifetime, has come up with +her at last. + +--Hawthorne. + +6. Friendships begin with liking or gratitude--roots that can be pulled +up. + +--George Eliot. + +7. Nearing the end of the narrative, Ben paced up and down the narrow +limits of the tent in great excitement, running his fingers through his +hair, and barking out a question now and then. + +8. A sky above, + Where one white cloud like a stray lamb doth move. + +--Lowell. + +9. In days of public commotion every faction, like an Oriental army, is +attended by a crowd of camp followers, a useless and heartless rabble, who +prowl round its line of march in the hope of picking up something under +its protection, but desert it in the day of battle, and often join to +exterminate it after a defeat. + +--Macaulay. + +10. It is to be regretted that the prose writings of Milton should, in our +time, be so little read. As compositions, they deserve the attention of +every man who wishes to become acquainted with the full power of the +English language. They abound with passages compared with which the finest +declamations of Burke sink into insignificance. They are a perfect field +of cloth of gold. The style is stiff with gorgeous embroidery. + +--Macaulay. + +11. And close behind her stood + Eight daughters of the plow, stronger than men, + Huge women blowzed with health, and wind, and rain, + And labor. Each was like a Druid rock, + Or like a spire of land that stands apart + Cleft from the main and wall'd about with mews. + +--Tennyson. + +12. But bland the smile that, like a wrinkling wind + On glassy water, drove his cheek in lines. + +--Tennyson. + +13. The rush of affairs drifts words from their original meanings, as +ships drag their anchors in a gale, but terms sheltered from common use +hold to their moorings forever. + +--Mill. + + ++Theme XIV.+--_Write a story suggested by the picture on page 59 or by one +of the following subjects:_-- + + 1. A modern fable. + 2. The willow whistle. + 3. How I baked a cake. + 4. The delayed picnic. + 5. The missing slipper. + 6. A misdirected letter. + 7. A ride on a raft. + 8. The rescue of Ezekiel. + 9. A railway experience. + 10. A soldier's soldier. + +(Do you think the reader will form the images you wish him to form? +Consider what you have written with reference to climax. (See Section 7.) +Have you needed to use figures? If so, have you used them in accordance +with the suggestions on page 55? If you have used the word _only_, is it +placed so as to give the correct meaning?) + + ++31. Determination of Meaning Requires More than Image Making.+--The +emphasis laid upon image making should not lead to the belief that this is +all that is necessary in order to determine what is meant by the language +we hear or read. Image making is important, but much of our language is +concerned with presenting ideas of which no mental pictures can be formed. + + +[Illustration] + + +This very paragraph will serve as an illustration of such language. Our +understanding of language of this kind depends upon our knowledge of the +meanings of words, upon our understanding of the relations between word +groups, or parts of sentences, and especially upon our appreciation of the +relations in thought that sentences bear to one another. Each of these +will be discussed in the following pages. Later it will be necessary to +consider the relations in thought existing among paragraphs. + + ++32. Word Relations.+--In order to get the thought of a sentence, we must +understand the relations that exist between the words and word groups +(phrases and clauses) that compose it. If the thought is simple, and +expressed in straightforward terms, we grasp it readily and without any +conscious effort to determine these relations. If the thought is complex, +the relations become more complicated, and before we are sure that we know +what the writer intends to say it may be necessary to note with care which +is the main clause and which are the subordinate clauses. In either case +our acquiring the thought depends upon our understanding the relations +between words and word groups. We may understand them without any +knowledge of the names that have been applied to them in grammar, but a +knowledge of the names will assist somewhat. These relations are treated +in the grammar review in the Appendix and need not be repeated here. + + ++33. Incomplete Thoughts.+--We have learned (Section 27) that the +introduction of unfamiliar words may cause us to form incomplete images. +When the language is not designed to present images, we may, in a similar +way, fail to get its real meaning if we are unfamiliar with the words +used. If you do not know the meaning of _fluent_ and _viscous_, you will +fail to understand correctly the statement, "Fluids range from the +peculiarly fluent to the peculiarly viscous." If we wish to think +precisely what the writer intended us to think, we must know the meanings +of the words he uses. Many of us are inclined to substitute other ideas +than those properly conveyed by the words of the writer, and so get +confused or incomplete or inaccurate ideas. The ability to determine +exactly what images the writer suggests, and what ideas his language +expresses, is the first requisite of scholarship and an important element +of success in life. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ The first step in acquiring knowledge is to determine what it is that +we do not know. Just which word or words in each of the following +sentences keep you from understanding the full meaning of the sentence? +Notice that a dictionary definition will not always make the meaning +clear. + +1. It is really more scientific to repeat a quotation from a political +speech correctly, or to pass on a story undistorted, than it is to know of +the rings of Saturn or the striation of diatoms. + +2. The process of testing a hypothesis requires great caution in order to +prevent mistakes. + +3. The aerial foliage stem is the most favorable for studying stem +structure. + +4. Taken collectively, isotherms indicate the distribution of mean +temperature over the region embraced in the map. + +5. Vibrations of the membrane of the tympanum are "damped" by the ossicles +of the middle ear, which also receive and pass on the auditory tremors to +the membrane closing the oval window. + +6. In the battle which followed, the mobile Roman legion, arranged in open +order three ranks deep, proved its superiority over the massive Macedonian +phalanx. + +7. The narrow and dissected forms have been attributed to the scarcity of +carbon dioxide and oxygen in the water. + + +_B._ Make a list of words in your lessons in other subjects for to-day +that you need to look up in order to understand the lessons. This should +be done daily, whether assigned or not. + + +34. +Choice of Words Adapted to the Reader.+--Words familiar to the reader +should be used. Since the reader's ability to understand the thought of a +paragraph depends to some extent upon his understanding of the words +employed, it is necessary for the writer to choose words that will be +understood by those whom he addresses. Of course we cannot tell whether a +particular word will be understood by our readers, but, in case there is +doubt, it is well to substitute one that is more likely to be understood. +When you have written anything, it is well to ask yourself the question, +Have I used words with which _the reader_ is probably familiar? + ++Theme XV.+---_Write a theme about one of the following subjects, using +words that you think will be understood by your readers:_-- + + 1. How we breathe. + 2. How to make a kite. + 3. The causes of the seasons. + 4. Why wood floats on water. + 5. The use of baking powder. + 6. The difference between arithmetic and algebra. + +(Have you said what you meant to say? Have you used words that your reader +will understand? Find your longest sentence. Is its meaning clear? Notice +the short sentences. Should some of them be united into a longer one?) + + ++35. Word Selection.+--There are many shades of meaning which differ but +little, and a careful writer will select just the word that best conveys +his thought. The reader needs to be no less careful in determining the +exact meaning that the writer intends to convey. Exercises in synonyms are +thus of double importance (Section 21). + +Another source of error, both in acquiring and expressing thought, arises +from the confusion of similar words. Some similarity of spelling causes +one word to be substituted for another. There are many words and +expressions that are so often interchanged that some time may be spent +with profit upon exercises in determining their correct usage. These +usually consist of brief reports to the class that set forth the meanings +of the words, show their uses, and illustrate their differences. + +In preparing such reports, determine the meaning of the words from as many +sources as are available. The usual meaning can be determined from the +dictionary. A fuller treatment is given in some dictionaries in a chapter +on faulty diction. Additional material may be found in many of the +text-books on rhetoric, and in special books treating of word usage. After +you are sure that you know the correct use, prepare a report for the class +that shall make that use clear to others. In the simplest form this will +consist of definitions and sentences in which the words are correctly +used. The following examples, handed in by pupils, will serve to +illustrate such reports:-- + +1. A _council_ is an assembly of persons convened for consultation or +deliberation. _Counsel_ is used to indicate either (1) an opinion as the +result of consultation or (2) a lawyer engaged to give advice or to act as +advocate in court. Lewis furnishes the following example of the use of +these two words: "The plaintiff's _counsel_ held a _council_ with his +partners in law, and finally gave him as his best _counsel_ the advice +that he should drop the suit; but, as Swift says, 'No man will take +_counsel_, but every man will take money,' and the plaintiff refused to +accept the advice unless the _counsel_ could persuade the defendant to +settle the case out of court by paying a large sum." + +2. The correct meaning of _transpire_ may perhaps be best understood by +considering its derivations. It comes from _trans_, through, and _spiro_, +to breathe, from which it gets its meaning, to escape gradually from +secrecy. It is frequently used incorrectly in the sense of to happen, but +both Webster and the Standard dictionary condemn this use of the word. The +latter says that it is often so misused especially in carelessly edited +newspapers, as in "Comments on the heart-rending disaster which transpired +yesterday are unnecessary, but," etc. When _transpire_ is correctly used, +it is not a synonym of _happen_. A thing that happened a year ago may +transpire to-day, that is, it may "become known through unnoticed +channels, exhale, as it were, through invisible pores like a vapor or a +gas disengaging itself." Many things which happen in school, thus become +known by being passed along in a semi-secret manner until nearly all know +of them though few can tell just how the information was spread. +_Transpire_ may properly be applied to such a diffusion of knowledge. + + ++Theme XVI.+--_Report as suggested above on any one of the following +groups of words:_-- + + 1. Allude, mention. + 2. Beside, besides. + 3. Character, reputation. + 4. Degrade, demean, debase. + 5. Last, latest, preceding. + 6. Couple, pair. + 7. Balance, rest, remainder. + +(Have you made clear the correct use of the words under discussion? Can +you give examples which do not follow the dictionaries so closely as do +the illustrative reports above?) + +NOTE.--Lists of words suitable for exercises similar to the above are +given in the Appendix. The teacher will assign them to such an extent and +at such times as seems desirable. One such lesson a week will be found +profitable. + + ++36. Sentence Relations.+--What we read or hear usually consists of +several sentences written or spoken together. The meaning of any +particular sentence may depend upon the sentence or sentences preceding. +In order to determine accurately the meaning of the whole, we must +understand the relation in thought that each sentence bears to the others. +Notice the two sentences: "Guns are dangerous. Boys should not use them." +Though the last sentence is independent, it gets its meaning from the +first. + +In the following selection consider each sentence apart from the others. +Notice that the meaning of the whole becomes intelligible only when the +sentences are considered in their relations to each other. + + +Once upon a time, a notion was started, that if all the people in the +world would shout at once, it might be heard in the moon. So the +projectors agreed it should be done in just ten years. Some thousand +shiploads of chronometers were distributed to the selectmen and other +great folks of all the different nations. For a year beforehand, nothing +else was talked about but the awful noise that was to be made on the great +occasion. When the time came, everybody had his ears so wide open, to hear +the universal ejaculation of Boo,--the word agreed upon,--that nobody +spoke except a deaf man in one of the Fiji Islands, and a woman in Pekin, +so that the world was never so still since the creation.--Holmes. + + +Gutenberg did a great deal of his work in secret, for he thought it was +much better that his neighbors should know nothing of what he was doing. +So he looked for a workshop where no one would be likely to find him. He +was now living in Strasburg, and there was in that city a ruined old +building where, long before his time, a number of monks had lived. There +was one room in the building which needed only a little repairing to make +it fit to be used. So he got the right to repair the room and use it as +his workshop. + + +In all good writing we find a similar dependence in thought. Each sentence +takes a meaning because of its relation to some other. The personal +pronouns and pronominal adjectives, adverbial phrases indicating time or +place, conjunctions, and such expressions as _certainly, however, on the +other hand_, etc., are used to indicate more or less directly a relation +in thought between the phrase or sentence in which they occur and some +preceding one. If the reader cannot readily determine to what they refer, +the meaning becomes obscure or ambiguous. The pronominal adjectives and +the personal pronouns are especially likely to be used in such a way as to +cause ambiguity. Care must be taken to use them so as to keep the meaning +clear, and your own good sense will help you in this more than rules. +Notice in your reading how frequently expressions similar to those +mentioned above are used. + + ++Theme XVII.+--_Write a theme suggested by one of the following +subjects:_-- + + 1. The last quarter. + 2. An excursion with the physical geography class. + 3. What I saw while riding to town. + 4. The broken bicycle. + 5. An hour in the study hall. + 6. Seen from my study window. + +(Are your sentences so arranged that the relation in thought is clear? Are +the personal pronouns and pronominal adjectives used so as to avoid +ambiguity? Does your story relate real events or imaginary ones? If +imaginary events are related, have you made them seem probable?) + + ++37. Getting the Main Thought.+--In many cases the relation in thought is +not directly indicated, and we are left to determine it from the context, +just as we decide upon the meaning of a word because of what precedes or +follows it. In this case the meaning of a particular sentence may be made +clear if we have in mind the main topic under discussion. Many pupils fail +in recitations because they do not distinguish that which is more +important from that which is less so. If a dozen pages of history are +assigned, they cannot master the lesson because it is too long to be +memorized, and they are not able to select the three or four things of +importance with which it is really concerned. Thirty or forty minor +details are jumbled together without any clear knowledge of the relations +that they bear either to one another or to the main thoughts of the +lesson. + +In the following selection but three things are discussed. Determine what +they are, but not what is said about them. + + +In all the ages the extent and value of flood plains have been increased +by artificial means. Dikes or levees are built to regulate the spread and +flow of the water and to protect the land from destructive floods. Dams +and reservoirs are constructed for the storage of water, which is led by a +system of canals and ditches to irrigate large tracts of land which would +be otherwise worthless. By means of irrigation, the farmer has control of +his water supply and is able to get larger returns than are possible where +he depends upon the irregular and uncertain rainfall. It is estimated that +in the arid regions of western United States there are 150,000 square +miles of land which may be made available for agriculture by irrigation. +Perhaps in the future the valley of the lower Colorado may become as +productive as that of the Nile. + +Streams are the easiest routes of travel and commerce. A river usually +furnishes from its mouth well up toward its source a smooth, graded +highway, upon which a cargo may be transported with much less effort than +overland. If obstructions occur in the form of rapids or falls, boat and +cargo are carried around them. It is often easy to pass by a short portage +or "carry" from one stream system across the divide to another. In regions +which are not very level the easiest grades in every direction are found +along the streams, and the main routes of land travel follow the stream +valleys. In traversing a mountainous region, a railroad follows the +windings of some river up to the crest of the divide, which it crosses +through a pass, or often by a tunnel, and descends the valley of some +stream on the other side. + +Man is largely indebted to streams for the variety and beauty of scenery. +Running water itself is attractive to young and old. A landscape without +water lacks its chief charm. A child instinctively finds its way to the +brook, and the man seeks beside the river the pleasure and recreation +which no other place affords. Streams have carved the surface of the land +into an endless variety of beautiful forms, and a land where stream +valleys are few or shallow is monotonous and tiresome. The most common as +well as the most celebrated beauty of scenery in the world, from the tiny +meanders of a meadow brook to the unequaled grandeur of the Colorado +canyons, is largely due to the presence and action of streams. + +--Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_. + + +In the above selection we find that each group of sentences is related to +some main topic. A more extended observation of good writing will give the +same result. Men naturally think in sentence groups. A group of sentences +related to each other and to the central idea is called a +paragraph.+ + + ++38. Topic Statement.+--In the three paragraphs of the selection on page +67, notice that the first sentence in each tells what the paragraph is +about. In a well-written paragraph it is possible to select the phrase or +sentence that states the main thought. If such a sentence does not occur +in the paragraph itself, one can be framed that will express clearly and +concisely the chief idea of the paragraph. This brief, comprehensive +summary of the contents of a paragraph is called the topic statement. + +In order to master the thought of what we read we must be able to select +or to make the successive topic statements, and in order to express our +own thoughts clearly we must write our paragraphs so that our readers may +easily grasp the topic statement of each. + +When expressed in the paragraph, the topic statement may be a part of a +sentence, a whole sentence, or it may extend through two sentences. It is +usual to place the topic statement first, but it may be preceded by one or +more introductory sentences, or even withheld until the end of the +paragraph. For emphasis it may be repeated, though usually in a slightly +different form. + + +EXERCISES + + +Determine the topic statements of the following paragraphs. If one is not +expressed, make one. + + +1. No less valuable is the mental stimulus of play. The child is +trained by it to quick perception, rapid judgment, prompt decision. His +imagination cunningly suggests a thousand things to be done, and then +trains the will and every power of body and mind in the effort to do them. +The sports of childhood are admirably adapted to quicken the senses and +sharpen the wits. Nature has effective ways in her school of securing the +exercise which is needed to develop every mental and every bodily power. +She fills the activity brimful of enjoyment, and then gives her children +freedom, assured that they will be their own best teachers. + +--Bradley + + +2. Our Common Law comes from England, and originated there in custom. It +is often called the unwritten law, because unwritten in origin, though +there are now many books describing it. Its principles originated as +habits of the people, five hundred, eight hundred, years ago, perhaps some +of them back in the time when the half-savage Saxons landed on the shores +of England. When the time came that the government, through its courts, +punished the breach of a custom, from that time the custom was a law. And +so the English people acquired these laws, one after another, just as they +were acquiring at the same time the habits of making roads, using forks at +table, manufacturing, meeting in Parliament, using firearms, and all the +other habits of civilization. When the colonists came to America, they +brought the English Common Law with them, not in a book, but in their +minds, a part of their life, like their religion. + +--Clark: _The Government_. + + +3. Accuracy is always to be striven for but it can never be attained. This +fact is only fully realized by scientific workers. The banker can be +accurate because he only counts or weighs masses of metal which he assumes +to be exactly equal. The Master of the Mint knows that two coins are never +exactly equal in weight, although he strives by improving machinery and +processes to make the differences as small as possible. When the utmost +care is taken, the finest balances which have been constructed can weigh 1 +lb. of a metal with an uncertainty less than the hundredth part of a +grain. In other words, the weight is not accurate, but the inaccuracy is +very small. No person is so stupid as not to feel sure that the height of +a man he sees is between 3 ft. and 9 ft.; some are able by the eye to +estimate the height as between 5 ft. 6 in. and 5 ft. 8 in.; measurement +may show it to be between 5 ft. 6 in. and 5 ft. 7 in., but to go closer +than that requires many precautions. Training in observation and the use +of delicate instruments thus narrow the limits of approximation. Similarly +with regard to space and time, there are instruments with which one +millionth of an inch, or of a second, can be measured, but even this +approximation, although far closer than is ever practically necessary, is +not accuracy. In the statement of measurements there is no meaning in more +than six significant figures, and only the most careful observations can +be trusted so far. The height of Mount Everest is given as 29,002 feet; +but here the fifth figure is meaningless, the height of that mountain not +being known so accurately that two feet more or less would be detected. +Similarly, the radius of the earth is sometimes given as 3963.295833 +miles, whereas no observation can get nearer the truth than 3963.30 miles. + +--Mill: _The Realm of Nature_. (Copyright, 1892, by Charles Scribner's +Sons.) + + +4. The chief cause which made the fusion of the different elements of +society so imperfect was the extreme difficulty which our ancestors found +in passing from place to place. Of all the inventions, the alphabet and +the printing press alone excepted, those inventions which abridge distance +have done most for the civilization of our species. Every improvement of +the means of locomotion benefits mankind morally and intellectually as +well as materially, and not only facilitates the interchange of the +various productions of nature and art, but tends to remove national and +provincial prejudices, and to bind together all the branches of the great +human family. In the seventeenth century the inhabitants of London were +for almost every practical purpose farther from Reading than they are now +from Edinburgh, and farther from Edinburgh than they are now from Vienna. + +--Macaulay: _History of England_. + + +5. He touched New England at every point. He was born a frontiersman. He +was bred a farmer. He was a fisherman in the mountain brooks and off the +shore. He never forgot his origin, and he never was ashamed of it. Amid +all the care and honor of his great place here he was homesick for the +company of his old neighbors and friends. Whether he stood in Washington, +the unchallenged prince and chief in the Senate, or in foreign lands, the +kingliest man of his time in the presence of kings, his heart was in New +England. When the spring came, he heard far off the fife bird and the +bobolink calling him to his New Hampshire mountains, or of the +waves on the shore at Marshfield alluring him with a sweeter than siren's +voice to his home by the summer sea. + +--George F. Hoar: _Daniel Webster_. + + +6. Nor must I forget the suddenly changing seasons of the northern clime. +There is no long and lingering spring, unfolding leaf and blossom one by +one; no long and lingering autumn, pompous with many-colored leaves and +the glow of Indian summer. But winter and summer are wonderful, and pass +into each other. The quail has hardly ceased piping in the corn when +winter, from the folds of trailing clouds, sows broadcast over the land +snow, icicles, and rattling hail. The days wane apace. Erelong the sun +hardly rises above the horizon, or does not rise at all. The moon and the +stars shine through the day; only at noon they are pale and wan, and in +the southern sky a red, fiery glow, as of a sunset, burns along the +horizon and then goes out. And pleasantly under the silver moon, and under +the silent, solemn stars, ring the steel shoes of the skaters on the +frozen sea, and voices, and the sound of bells. + +--Longfellow: _Rural Life in Sweden_. + +7. Extreme _busyness_, whether at school or college, kirk or market, is a +symptom of deficient vitality; and a faculty for idleness implies a +catholic appetite and a strong sense of personal identity. There is a sort +of dead-alive, hackneyed people about, who are scarcely conscious of +living except in the exercise of some conventional occupation. Bring these +fellows into the country, or set them aboard ship, and you will see how +they pine for their desk or their study. They have no curiosity; they +cannot give themselves over to random provocations; they do not take +pleasure in the exercise of their faculties for its own sake; and unless +Necessity lays about them with a stick, they will even stand still. It is +no good speaking to such folk: they _cannot_ be idle, their nature is not +generous enough; and they pass those hours in a sort of coma, which are +not dedicated to furious moiling in the gold mill. When they do not +require to go to the office, when they are not hungry and have no mind to +drink, the whole breathing world is a blank to them. If they have to wait +an hour or so for a train, they fall into a stupid trance, with their eyes +open. To see them, you would suppose there was nothing to look at and no +one to speak with; you would imagine they were paralyzed or alienated; and +yet very possibly they are hard workers in their own way, and have good +eyesight for a flaw in a deed or a turn of the market. They have been to +school and college, but all the time they had their eye on the medal; they +have gone about in the world and mixed with clever people, but all the +time they were thinking of their own affairs. As if a man's soul were not +too small to begin with, they have dwarfed and narrowed theirs by a life +of all work and no play; until here they are at forty, with a listless +attention, a mind vacant of all material amusement, and not one thought to +rub against another while they wait for the train. Before he was breeched, +he might have clambered on the boxes; when he was twenty, he would have +stared at the girls; but now the pipe is smoked out, the snuffbox is +empty, and my gentleman sits bolt upright on a bench, with lamentable +eyes. This does not appeal to me as being Success in Life. + +--Robert Louis Stevenson. (Copyright, by Charles Scribner's Sons.) + + +_B._ Examine the themes which you have written. Does each paragraph have a +topic statement? Have you introduced sentences which do not bear upon this +topic statement? Are the paragraphs real ones treating of a single topic, +or are they merely groups of sentences written together without any close +connection in thought? + + ++Theme XVIII.+--_State two or three advantages of public high schools over +private boarding schools. Use each as a topic statement and develop it +into a short paragraph._ + +(Add to each topic statement such sentences as will prove to a pupil of +your own age that the topic statement states a real advantage. Include in +each paragraph only that which bears upon the topic statement. Consider +the definition of a paragraph on page 68. Does this definition apply to +your paragraphs?) + + ++39. Reproduction of the Thought of a Paragraph.+--Our ability to +reproduce the thought of what we read will depend largely upon our ability +to select the topic statements. In preparing a lesson for recitation it is +evident that we must first determine definitely the topic statement of +each paragraph. These may bear upon one general subject or upon different +subjects. The three paragraphs on page 67 are all concerned with one +subject, the uses of rivers. A pupil preparing to recite them would have +in mind, when he went to class, an outline about as follows:-- + + +General subject: The uses of rivers. + First topic statement: The fertility of flood plains is improved by + irrigation. + Second topic statement: Streams are the easiest routes of travel and + commerce. + Third topic statement: Man is indebted to streams for beauty of scenery. + + +While such a clear statement is the first step toward a proper +understanding of the lesson, it is not enough. In order to understand +thoroughly a topic statement, we need explanation or illustration. The +idea is not really our own until we have thought about it in its relations +to other knowledge already in our possession. In order to know whether you +understand the topic statements, the teacher will ask you to discuss them. +This may be done by telling what the writer said about them, or by giving +thoughts and illustrations of your own, but best of all, by doing both. It +is necessary, then, to know in what way the writer develops each topic +statement. + +Read the following paragraph:-- + + +The most productive lands in the world are flood plains. At every period +of high water, a stream brings down mantle rock from the higher grounds, +and deposits it as a layer of fine sediment over its flood plain. A soil +thus frequently enriched and renewed is literally inexhaustible. In a +rough, hilly, or mountainous country the finest farms and the densest +population are found on the "bottom lands" along the streams. The flood +plain most famous in history is that of the river Nile in Egypt. For a +distance of 1500 miles above its mouth this river flows through a rainless +desert, and has no tributary. The heavy spring rains which fall upon the +highlands about its sources produce in summer a rise of the water, which +overflows the valley on either side. Thus the lower Nile valley became one +of the earliest centers of civilization, and has supported a dense +population for 7000 years. The conditions in Mesopotamia, along the Tigris +and Euphrates rivers, are similar to those along the lower Nile, and in +ancient times this region was the seat of a civilization perhaps older +than that of Egypt. The flood plains of the Ganges in India, and the Hoang +in China, are the most extensive in the world, and in modern times the +most populous. The alluvial valley of the Mississippi is extremely +productive of corn, cotton, and sugar cane. + +--Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_. + + +Notice that the first sentence gives the topic statement, flood plains are +productive. The second and third sentences tell why this is so, and the +rest of the paragraph is given up to illustrations. + +In preparing this paragraph for recitation the pupil should have in mind +an outline about as follows:-- + +Topic statement: Flood plains are the most productive lands in the world. + +1. Reasons. +2. Examples: (_a_) Bottom lands. + (_b_) Nile. + (_c_) Tigris and Euphrates. + (_d_) Ganges. + (_e_) Hoang. + (_f_) Mississippi. + +In order to make such an outline, the relative importance of the ideas in +the paragraph must be mastered. A recitation that omitted the topic +statement or the reasons would be defective, while one that omitted one or +more of the examples might be perfect, especially if the pupil could +furnish other examples from his own knowledge. The illustration about +bottom lands is a general one, and should suggest specific cases that +could be included in the recitation. The details in regard to the Nile +might be included if they happened to be recalled at the time of the +recitation, but even the omission of all mention of the Nile might not +materially detract from the value of the recitation. The effort to +remember minor details hinders real thought-getting power. + +It is better not to write this outline. The use of notes or written +outlines at the time of the recitation soon establishes a habit of +dependence that renders real scholarship an impossibility. With such an +analysis of the thought clearly in mind, the pupil need not attempt to +remember the language of the writer. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Complete the partial outline given for the paragraph below. Which of +the illustrations might be omitted from a recitation? For which can you +furnish different illustrations? + + +Mountain ranges have great influence upon climate, political geography, +and commerce. Many of them form climatic boundaries. The Cordilleras of +western America and the Scandinavian mountains arrest the warm, moist, +western winds which rise along those great rock barriers to cooler +altitudes, where their water vapor is condensed and falls as rain, so that +the country on the windward side of the mountains is wet and that on the +leeward side is dry. Mountain chains stretching east and west across +central Asia protect the southern part of the continent from frigid arctic +winds. The large winter tourist traffic of the Riviera is due to the +mountains that shield this favored French-Italian coast from the north and +northeast continental winds, giving it a considerably warmer winter's +temperature than that of Rome, two and a half degrees farther south. As +North America has no mountain barriers across the pathway of polar winds, +they sweep southward even to the Gulf of Mexico and have twice destroyed +Florida's orange groves within a decade. Mountain ranges are conspicuous +in political geography because they are the natural boundary between many +nations and languages, as the Pyrenees between France and Spain, the Alps +between Austria and Italy, and the Himalayas between Tibet and India. +Mountains sometimes guard nations from attack by the isolation they give, +and therefore promote national unity. Thus the Swiss are among the few +peoples in Europe who have maintained the integrity of their state. +Commercially, mountains are of great importance as a source of water, +which they store in snow, glaciers, and lakes. Snow and ice, melting +slowly on the mountains, are an unfailing source of supply for perennial +rivers, and thus promote navigation. Mountains are the largest source of +water-power, which is more valuable than ever now that electricity is +employed to transmit it to convenient centers for use in the industries. A +large part of the mining machinery in the United States is run by water +power. Switzerland, which has no coal, turns the wheels of its mills with +water. Mountains supply most of the metals and minerals, and are therefore +the scene of the largest mining industry. They are also among the greatest +sources of forest wealth. Though the slopes are not favorable for +agriculture they afford good pasturage, and the debris of the rocks washed +into the valleys and plains by mountain torrents supplies good soil. Thus +the Appalachians have been worn down to a comparatively low level, and the +soil formed from their rock particles is the basis of large husbandry. +The scenic attractions of many mountain regions is a source of large +revenue. The Alps attract crowds of tourists, who spend about twenty +million dollars a year in Switzerland and Austria, and give to many +thousands of persons. + +--Adams: _Commercial Geography_. + + + +OUTLINE (to be completed) + +Mountain ranges have great influence upon-- + I. Climate. + Why? + Where? + _a, b,_ etc. + II. Political geography. + Why? + Where? + _a, b,_ etc. +III. Commerce. + Why? + Where? + _a, b,_ etc. + + +_B._ Make an outline of the following paragraph:-- + + +1. The armor of the different classes was also accurately ordered by the +law. The first class was ordered to wear for the defense of the body, +brazen helmets, shields, and coats of mail, and to bear spears and swords, +excepting the mechanics, who were to carry the necessary military engines +and to serve without arms. The members of the second class, excepting that +they had bucklers instead of shields and wore no coats of mail, were +permitted to bear the same armor and to carry the sword and spear. The +third class had the same armor as the second, excepting that they could +not wear greaves for the protection of their legs. The fourth had no arms +excepting a spear and a long javelin. The fifth merely carried slings and +stones for use in them. To this class belonged the trumpeters and horn +blowers. + +--Gilman: _Story of Rome_. + + +_C._ In preparing your other lessons for to-day, make outlines of the +paragraphs. + + ++Theme XIX.+--_Reproduce the thought of some paragraph read to you by the +teacher._ + +(Do not attempt to remember the language. Try to get the main thought of +what is read and then write a paragraph which sets forth that same idea. +Use different illustrations if you can.) + +NOTE.--This theme may be repeated as many times as seems desirable. + + ++40. Importance of the Paragraph.+--Emphasis needs to be laid upon the +importance of the paragraph. Our ability to express our thoughts clearly +depends, to a large extent, upon our skill in constructing paragraphs. The +writing of correct sentences is not sufficient. Though each of a series of +sentences may be correct, they may, as a whole, say but little, and that +very poorly; while another set of sentences, which cluster around some +central idea, may set it forth most effectively. It is only by giving our +sentence groups that unity of thought which combines them into paragraphs +that we make them most effective. A well-constructed paragraph will make +clear some idea, and a series of such paragraphs, related to each other +and properly arranged, will set forth the sum of our thoughts on any +subject. + + ++41. Paragraph Length.+--The proper length of a paragraph cannot be +determined by rule. Sometimes the thought to be presented will require +several sentences; sometimes two or three will be sufficient. A single +illustration may make a topic statement clear, or several illustrations +may be required. The writer must judge when he has included enough to make +his meaning understood, and must avoid including so much that the reader +will become weary. Usually a paragraph that exceeds three hundred words +will be found too long, or else it will contain more than one main idea, +each of which could have been presented more effectively in a separate +paragraph. + + ++42. Indentation.+--In written and printed matter the beginning of a +paragraph is indicated by an indentation. Indentation does not make a +paragraph, but we indent because we are beginning a new paragraph. +Indentation thus serves the same purpose as punctuation. It helps the +reader to determine when we have finished one main thought and are about +to begin another. Beginners are apt to use indentations too frequently. +There are some special uses of indentation in letter writing, printed +conversation, and other forms, but for ordinary paragraph division the +indentation is determined by the thought, and its correct use depends upon +clear thinking. Can the following selection be improved by reparagraphing? + +Outside in the darkness, gray with whirling snowflakes, he saw the wet +lamps of cabs shining, and he darted along the line of hansoms and coupes +in frantic search for his own. + +"Oh, there you are," he panted, flinging his suit case up to a +snow-covered driver. "Do your best now; we're late!" And he leaped into +the dark coupe, slammed the door, and sank back on the cushions, +turning up the collar of his heavy overcoat. + +There was a young lady in the farther corner of the cab, buried to her +nose in a fur coat. At intervals she shivered and pressed a fluffy muff +against her face. A glimmer from the sleet-smeared lamps fell across her +knees. + +Down town flew the cab, swaying around icy corners, bumping over car +tracks, lurching, rattling, jouncing, while its silent occupants, huddled +in separate corners, brooded moodily at their respective windows. + +Snow blotted the glass, melting and running down; and over the watery +panes yellow light from shop windows played fantastically, distorting +vision. + +Presently the young man pulled out his watch, fumbled for a match box, +struck a light, and groaned as he read the time. + +At the sound of the match striking, the young lady turned her head. Then, +as the bright flame illuminated the young man's face, she sat bolt +upright, dropping the muff to her lap with a cry of dismay. + +He looked up at her. The match burned his fingers; he dropped it and +hurriedly lighted another; and the flickering radiance brightened upon the +face of a girl whom he had never before laid eyes on. + +"Good heavens!" he said, "where's my sister?" + +The young lady was startled but resolute. "You have made a dreadful +mistake," she said; "you are in the wrong cab--" + + + ++Theme XX.+--_Write a theme using one of the subjects below:_-- + + 1. A personal incident. + 2. The advantages and disadvantages of recesses. + 3. Complete the story commenced in the selection just + preceding. + +(Make a note of the different ideas you may discuss. Which are important +enough to become topic statements? Which may be grouped together in one +paragraph? In what order shall they occur? After your theme is written, +consider the paragraphs. Does the definition apply to them? Are any of +them too short or too long?) + + ++43. Reasons for Studying Paragraph Structure.+--A knowledge of the way in +which a paragraph is constructed will aid us in determining the thought it +contains. There are several methods of developing paragraphs, and usually +one of these is better suited than another to the expression of our +thought. Attention given to the methods used by others will enable us both +to understand better what we read, and to employ more effectively in our +own writing that kind of paragraph which best expresses our thought. Hence +we shall give attention to the more common forms of paragraph development. + + ++44. Development by Giving Specific Instances.+--If you hear a general +statement, such as, "Dogs are useful animals," you naturally think at once +of some of the ways in which they are useful, or of some particular +occasion on which a dog was of use. If a friend should say, "My dog, Fido, +knows many amusing tricks," you would expect the friend to tell you some +of them. A large part of our thinking consists of furnishing specific +instances to illustrate general ideas which arise. Since the language we +use is but the expression of the thoughts we have, it happens that many of +our paragraphs are made up of general statements and the specific +instances used to illustrate these statements. When the topic sentence is +a general statement, we naturally seek to supply specific instances, and +the writer will most readily make his meaning clear by furnishing such +illustrations. Either one or many instances may be used. The object is to +explain the topic statement or to prove its truth, and a good writer will +use that number of instances which best accomplishes his purpose. + +In the following selection notice how the topic statement, set forth and +repeated in the first part of the paragraph, is illustrated in the last +part by means of several specific instances:-- + + +Nine tenths of all that goes wrong in this world is because some one does +not mind his business. When a terrible accident occurs, the first cry is +that the means of prevention were not sufficient. Everybody declares we +must have a new patent fire escape, an automatic engine switch, or a +high-proof non-combustible sort of lamp oil. But a little investigation +will usually show that all the contrivances were on hand and in good +working order; the real trouble was that somebody didn't mind his +business; he didn't obey orders; he thought he knew a better way than the +way he was told; he said, "Just this once I'll take the risk," and in so +doing, he made other people take the risk too; and the risk was too great. +At Toronto, Canada, not long ago, a conductor, against orders, ran his +train on a certain siding, which resulted in the death of thirty or forty +people. The engineer of a mill, at Rochester, N.Y., thought the engine +would stand a higher pressure than the safety valve indicated, so he tied +a few bricks to the valve to hold it down; result--four workmen killed, a +number wounded, and a mill blown to pieces. The _City of Columbus_, an iron +vessel fitted out with all the means of preservation and escape in use on +shipboard, was wrecked on the best-known portion of the Atlantic coast, on +a moonlight night, at the cost of one hundred lives, because the officer +in command took it into his head to save a few ship-lengths in distance by +hugging the shore, in direct disobedience to the captain's parting orders. +The best-ventilated mine in Colorado was turned into a death trap for half +a hundred miners because one of the number entered with a lighted lamp the +gallery he had been warned against. Nobody survived to explain the +explosion of the dynamite-cartridge factory in Pennsylvania, but as that +type of disaster almost always is due to heedlessness, it is probable that +this instance is not an exception to the rule. + +--Wolstan Dixey: _Mind Your Business_. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Which sentences make the general statements, and which furnish +specific instances, in the following paragraphs? + +My contemplations were often interrupted by strangers who came down +from Forsyth's to take their first view of the falls. A short, ruddy, +middle-aged gentleman, fresh from Old England, peeped over the rock, and +evinced his approbation by a broad grin. His spouse, a very robust lady, +afforded a sweet example of maternal solicitude, being so intent on the +safety of her little boy that she did not even glance at Niagara. As for +the child, he gave himself wholly to the enjoyment of a stick of candy. +Another traveler, a native American, and no rare character among us, +produced a volume of Captain Hall's tour, and labored earnestly to adjust +Niagara to the captain's description, departing, at last, without one new +idea or sensation of his own. The next comer was provided, not with a +printed book, but with a blank sheet of foolscap, from top to bottom of +which, by means of an ever pointed pencil, the cataract was made +to thunder. In a little talk which we had together, he awarded his +approbation to the general view, but censured the position of Goat Island, +observing that it should have been thrown farther to the right, so as to +widen the American falls, and contract those of the Horseshoe. Next +appeared two traders of Michigan, who declared that, upon the whole, the +sight was worth looking at; there certainly was an immense water power +here; but that, after all, they would go twice as far to see the noble +stone works of Lockport, where the Grand Canal is locked down a descent of +sixty feet. They were succeeded by a young fellow, in a homespun cotton +dress, with a staff in his hand, and a pack over his shoulders. He +advanced close to the edge of the rock, where his attention, at first +wavering among the different components of the scene, finally became fixed +in the angle of the Horseshoe falls, which is, indeed, the central point +of interest. His whole soul seemed to go forth and be transported thither, +till the staff slipped from his relaxed grasp, and falling down--down-- +down--struck upon the fragment of the Table Rock. + +--Hawthorne: _My Visit to Niagara_. + + +No wonder he learned English quickly, for he was ever on the alert--no +strange word escaped him, no unusual term. He would say it over and over +till he met a friend, and then demand its meaning. One day he came to me +with a very troubled face. "Madame," he said, "please tell me why shall a +man, like me, like any man, be a 'bluenose'?" + +"A what?" I asked. + +"A 'bluenose.' So he was called in the restaurant, but he seemed not +offended about it. I have looked in my books; I can't find any disease of +that name." + +With ill-suppressed laughter I asked, "Do you know Nova Scotia and +Newfoundland?" + +"I hear the laugh in your voice," he said; then added, "Yes, I know both +these places." + +"They are very cold and foggy and wet," I explained. + +But with brightening eyes he caught up the sentence and continued: + +"And the people have blue noses, eh? Ha! ha! Excuse me, then, but is a +milksop a man from some state, or some country, too?" + +At tea some one used the word "claptrap." "What's that?" quickly demanded +the student in our midst. "'Claptrap'--'clap' is so (he struck his hands +together); 'trap' is for rats--what is, then, 'claptrap'?" + +"It is a vulgar or unworthy bid for applause," I explained. + +"Bah!" he contemptuously exclaimed. "I know him,--that cheap actor who +plays at the gallery. He is, then, in English a 'clap-trapper,' is he not?" + +It was hardly possible to meet him without having a word or a term offered +thus for explanation. + +--Clara Morris: _Alessandro Salvini_ ("McClure's"). + + +_B._ Write six sentences which might be developed into paragraphs by +giving specific instances. + + ++Theme XXI.+--_Write a paragraph by furnishing specific instances for one +of the following topic statements:_-- + + +1. Nine tenths of all that goes wrong in this world is because some one +does not mind his business. + +2. It requires a man of courage and perseverance to become a pioneer. + +3. Even the wisest teacher does not always punish the boy who is most at +fault. + +4. It is impossible to teach a dog many amusing tricks. + +5. Even so stupid a creature as a chicken may sometimes exhibit much +intelligence. + +6. Carelessness often leads into difficulty. + +7. Our school clock must see many interesting things. + +8. Our first impressions are not always our best ones. + +9. I am a very busy lead pencil, for my duties are numerous. + +10. Dickens's characters are taken from the lower classes of +people. + +11. Some portions of the book I am reading are very interesting. + +(Do your specific instances really illustrate the topic +statement? Have you said what you intended to say? +Can you omit any words or sentences? Have you used +_and_ or _got_ unnecessarily?). + + ++45. Development by Giving Details.+--Many general statements lead to a +desire to know the details, and the writer may make his idea clearer by +giving them. The statement, "The wedding ceremony was impressive," at once +arouses a desire to know the details. If a friend should say, "I enjoyed +my trip to the city," we wish him to relate that which pleased him. These +details assist us in understanding the topic statement, and increase our +interest in it. Notice in the paragraphs below how much is added to our +understanding of the topic statement by the sentences that give the +details:-- + + +1. I left my garden for a week, just at the close of a dry spell. A season +of rain immediately set in, and when I returned the transformation was +wonderful. In one week every vegetable had fairly jumped forward. The +tomatoes, which I left slender plants, eaten of bugs and debating whether +they would go backward or forward, had become stout and lusty, with thick +stems and dark leaves, and some of them had blossomed. The corn waved like +that which grows so rank out of the French-English mixture at Waterloo. +The squashes--I will not speak of the squashes. The most remarkable growth +was the asparagus. There was not a spear above ground when I went away; +and now it had sprung up, and gone to seed, and there were stalks higher +than my head. + +--Warner: _My Summer in a Garden_. + + +2. The wedding ceremony was solemn and beautiful, in the church on the +estate. At the door of the palace stood the mother of the bride, to greet +her return from the ceremony with the blessing, "May you always have bread +and salt," as she served her from a loaf of black bread, with a salt +cellar in the center, as is the Russian custom for prince and peasant. +Just at this dramatic moment a courier dashed up with a telegram from the +Czar and Czarina, and their gifts for the bride,--a magnificent tiara and +necklace of diamonds. The other presents were already displayed in a +magnificent room; but we saw their splendor through the glass of locked +cases,--a precaution surprising to an Englishwoman. The large swan of +forcemeat was the only reminder of boyar customs at the rather Parisian +feast. Wine was served between the courses, with a toast; while guests in +turn left their seats to express their sentiments to bride and groom, who +stood to receive them. + +--Mary Louise Dunbar: _The Household of a Russian Prince_ +("Atlantic Monthly "). + + ++Theme XXII.+--_Write a paragraph by giving details for one of the +following topic statements:_-- + + +1. There were many interesting things on the farm where I spent my summer +vacation. + +2. The sounds heard in the forest at night are somewhat alarming to one +who is not used to the language of the woods. + +3. I am always much amused when the Sewing Circle meets at my mother's +house. + +4. Good roads are of advantage to farmers in many ways. + +5. A baseball game furnishes abundant opportunity to exercise good +judgment. + +6. I remember well the first time that I visited a large city. + +7. I shall never forget my first attempt at milking a cow. + +8. The haunted house is a square, old-fashioned one of the colonial type. + +9. A mouse suddenly entering the class room caused much disturbance. + +10. A freshman's trials are numerous. + + +(Do the details bear upon the main idea? If the paragraph is long and +rambling, condense by omitting the least important parts. By changing the +order of the sentences, can you improve the paragraph?) + + ++46. Details Related in Time-Order.+--The experiences of daily life follow +each other in time, and when we read of a series of events we at once +think of them as having occurred in a certain time-order. To assist in +establishing the correct time-order, the writer should generally state the +details of his story in the order in which they occurred. The method of +showing time relations for simultaneous events has been discussed in +Section 11. + +If the narrative is of considerable length, it may be divided into +paragraphs, each dealing with some particular stage of its progress. The +time relations among the sentences within the paragraph and among the +paragraphs themselves should be such that the reader may readily follow +the thread of the story to its main point. Narrative paragraphs often do +not have topic sentences. + +In the following selection from _Black Beauty_ notice how the time +relations give unity of thought both to the paragraphs and to the whole +selection:-- + + +He hung my rein on one of the iron spikes, and was soon hidden among the +trees. Lizzie was standing quietly by the side of the road, a few paces +off, with her back to me. My young mistress was sitting easily, with a +loose rein, humming a little song. I listened to my rider's footsteps +until he reached the house, and heard him knock at the door. + +There was a meadow on the opposite side of the road, the gate of which +stood open. As I looked, some cart horses and several young colts came +trotting out in a very disorderly manner, while a boy behind was cracking +a great whip. The colts were wild and frolicsome. One of them bolted +across the road and blundered up against Lizzie. Whether it was the stupid +colt or the loud cracking of the whip, or both together, I cannot say, but +she gave a violent kick and dashed off into a headlong gallop. It was so +sudden that Lady Anne was nearly unseated, but she soon recovered herself. + +I gave a long, shrill neigh for help. Again and again I neighed, pawing +the ground impatiently, and tossing my head to get the rein loose. I had +not long to wait. Blantyre came running to the gate. He looked anxiously +about, and just caught sight of the flying figure now far away on the +road. In an instant he sprang to the saddle. I needed no whip, no spur, +for I was as eager as my rider. He saw it; and giving me a free rein, and +leaning a little forward, we dashed after them. + +For about a mile and a half the road ran straight, then bent to the right; +after this it divided into two roads. Long before we came to the bend my +mistress was out of sight. Which way had she turned? A woman was standing +at her garden gate, shading her eyes with her hand, and looking eagerly up +the road. Scarcely drawing rein, Lord Blantyre shouted, "Which way?" "To +the right!" cried the woman, pointing with her hand, and away we went up +the right-hand road. For a moment we caught sight of Lady Anne; another +bend, and she was hidden again. Several times we caught glimpses of the +flying rider, only to lose her again. We scarcely seemed to gain ground +upon her at all. + +An old road mender was standing near a heap of stones, his shovel dropped +and his hands raised. As we came near he made a sign to speak. Lord +Blantyre drew the rein a little. "To the common, to the common, sir! She +has turned off there." + +I knew this common very well. It was, for the most part, very uneven +ground, covered with heather and dark-green bushes, with here and there a +scrubby thorn tree. There were also open spaces of fine, short grass, with +ant-hills and mole turns everywhere--the worst place I ever knew for a +headlong gallop. + +We had just turned on to the common, when we caught sight again of the +green habit flying on before us. My mistress's hat was gone, and her long +brown hair was streaming behind her. Her head and body were thrown back, +as if she were pulling with all her remaining strength, and as if that +strength were nearly exhausted. It was clear that the roughness of the +ground had very much lessened Lizzie's speed, and there seemed a chance +that we might overtake her. + +While we were on the highroad, Lord Blantyre had given me my head; but +now, with a light hand and a practiced eye, he guided me over the ground +in such a masterly manner that my pace was scarcely slackened, and we +gained on them every moment. + +About halfway across the common a wide dike had recently been cut and the +earth from the cutting cast up roughly on the other side. Surely this +would stop them! But no; scarcely pausing, Lizzie took the leap, stumbled +among the rough clods, and fell. + +--Anne Sewell: _Black Beauty_. + + ++Theme XXIII.+--_Write a brief narrative giving unity to the paragraphs by +means of the time relations._ + + +Suggested subjects:-- + + 1. An adventure on horseback. + 2. A trip with the engineer. + 3. A day on the river. + 4. Fido's mishaps. + 5. An inquisitive crow. + 6. The unfortunate letter carrier. + 7. Teaching a calf to drink. + 8. The story of a silver dollar. + 9. A narrow escape. + 10.An afternoon at the circus. + 11.A story accounting for the situation shown in the + picture on page 90. + + +(Do you need more than one paragraph? If so, is each a group of sentences +treating of a single topic? Can the reader follow the thread of your +story? Leave out details not essential to the main point.) + + ++47. Order of Details Determined by Position in Space.+--The order of +presentation of details may be determined by the position that the details +themselves occupy in space. In description we wish both to give a correct +general impression of the thing described, and to make certain details +clear. The general impression should be given in the first sentence or two +and the details should follow. The effectiveness of the details will +depend upon their order of presentation. When one looks at a scene the eye +passes from one object to another near it; similarly when one is recalling +the scene the image of one thing naturally recalls that of an adjoining +one. A skillful writer takes advantage of this habit of thinking, and +states the details in his description in the order in which we would +naturally see them if we were actually looking at them. By so doing he +most easily presents to our minds the image he wishes to convey. + +[Illustration] + +In the following paragraphs notice that we get first an impression of the +general appearance, to which we are enabled to add new details as the +description proceeds. + + +The companion of the church dignitary was a man past forty, thin, strong, +tall, and muscular; an athletic figure, which long fatigue and constant +exercise seemed to have left none of the softer part of the human form, +having reduced the whole to brawn, bones, and sinews, which had sustained +a thousand toils, and were ready to dare a thousand more. His head was +covered with a scarlet cap, faced with fur, of that kind which the French +call _mortier_, from its resemblance to the shape of an inverted mortar. +His countenance was therefore fully displayed, and its expression was +calculated to impress a degree of awe, if not of fear, upon strangers. +High features, naturally strong and powerfully expressive, had been burnt +almost into negro blackness by constant exposure to the tropical sun, and +might, in their ordinary state, be said to slumber after the storm of +passion had passed away; but the projection of the veins of the forehead, +the readiness with which the upper lip and its thick black mustache +quivered upon the slightest emotion, plainly intimated that the tempest +might be again and easily awakened. His keen, piercing, dark eyes told in +every glance a history of difficulties subdued and dangers dared, and +seemed to challenge opposition to his wishes, for the pleasure of sweeping +it from his road by a determined exertion of courage and of will; a deep +scar on his brow gave additional sternness to his countenance and a +sinister expression to one of his eyes, which had been slightly injured on +the same occasion, and of which the vision, though perfect, was in a slight +and partial degree distorted. + +The upper dress of this personage resembled that of his companion in +shape, being a long monastic mantle; but the color, being scarlet, showed +that he did not belong to any of the four regular orders of monks. On the +right shoulder of the mantle there was cut, in white cloth, a cross of a +peculiar form. This upper robe concealed what at first view seemed rather +inconsistent with its form, a shirt, namely, of linked mail, with sleeves +and gloves of the same, curiously plaited and interwoven, as flexible to +the body as those which are now wrought in the stocking loom out of less +obdurate materials. The fore part of his thighs, where the folds of his +mantle permitted them to be seen, were also covered with linked mail; the +knees and feet were defended by splints, or thin plates of steel, +ingeniously jointed upon each other; and mail hose, reaching from the +ankle to the knee, effectually protected the legs, and completed the +rider's defensive armor. In his girdle he wore a long and double-edged +dagger, which was the only offensive weapon about his person. + +He rode, not a mule, like his companion, but a strong hackney for the +road, to save his gallant war horse, which a squire led behind, fully +accoutered for battle, with a chamfron or plaited headpiece upon his head, +having a short spike projecting from the front. On one side of the saddle +hung a short battle-ax, richly inlaid with Damascene carving; on the other +the rider's plumed headpiece and hood of mail, with a long two-handed +sword, used by the chivalry of the period. A second squire held aloft his +master's lance, from the extremity of which fluttered a small banderole, +or streamer, bearing a cross of the same form with that embroidered upon +his cloak. He also carried his small triangular shield, broad enough at +the top to protect the breast, and from thence diminishing to a point. It +was covered with a scarlet cloth, which prevented the device from being +seen. + +--Scott: _Ivanhoe_. + + +Notice also how the description proceeds in an orderly way from one thing +to another, placing together in the description those which occur together +in the person described. Just as we turn our eyes naturally from one thing +to another near it in space, so in a paragraph should our attention be +called from one thing to that which naturally accompanies it. If the first +sentence describes a man's eyes, the second his feet, and a third his +forehead, our mental image is likely to become confused. If a description +covers several paragraphs, each may be given a unity by placing in it +those things which are associated in space. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ If you were to write three paragraphs describing a man, which of the +following details should be included in each paragraph? + +(_a_) eyes, (_b_) shoes, (_c_) size, (_d_) complexion, (_e_) general +appearance, (_f_) hair, (_g_) carriage, (_h_) trousers,(_i_) mouth, (_j_) +coat, (_k_) nose. + + +_B._ Make a list of the details which might be mentioned in describing the +outside of a church. Arrange them in appropriate groups. + + +_C._ In the following paragraphs which sentences give the general outline +and which give details? Are the details arranged with reference to their +position in space? Can the paragraph be improved by rearranging them? + + +1. We came finally to a brook more wild and mysterious than the others. +There were a half dozen stepping-stones between the path we were on and +the place where it began again on the opposite side. After a few missteps +and much laughter we were landed at last, but several of the party had wet +feet to remember the experience by. We found ourselves in a space that had +once been a clearing. A tumbledown chimney overgrown with brambles and +vines told of an abandoned hearthstone. The blackened remnants of many a +picnic camp fire strewed the ground. A slight turn brought us to the spot +where the Indian Spring welled out of the hillside. The setting was all +that we could have hoped for,--great moss-grown rocks wet and slippery, +deep shade which almost made us doubt the existence of the hot August +sunshine at the edge of the forest, cool water dripping and tinkling. A +half-dozen great trees had been so undermined by the action of the water +long ago that they had tumbled headlong into the stream bed. There they +lay, heads down, crisscross--one completely spanning the brook just below +the spring--their tangled roots like great dragons twisting and thrusting +at the shadows. The water trickled slowly over the smooth rocky bottom as +if reluctant to leave a spot enchanted. A few yards below, the overflow +from Indian Spring joined the main stream, and their waters mingled in a +pretty little cataract. We went below and looked back at it. How it +wrinkled and paused over the level spaces, played with the bubbles in the +eddies, and ran laughing and turning somersaults wherever the ledges were +abrupt. + +--Mary Rodgers Miller: _The Brook Book_. (Copyright, 1902, by Doubleday, +Page & Co.) + + +2. Rowena was tall in stature, yet not so much so as to attract +observation on account of superior height. Her complexion was exquisitely +fair, but the noble cast of her head and features prevented the insipidity +which sometimes attaches to fair beauties. Her clear blue eyes, which sat +enshrined beneath a graceful eyebrow of brown, sufficiently marked to give +expression to the forehead, seemed capable to kindle as well as to melt, +to command as well as to beseech. Her profuse hair, of a color betwixt +brown and flaxen, was arranged in a fanciful and graceful manner in +numerous ringlets, to form which art had probably been aided by nature. +These locks were braided with gems, and being worn at full length, +intimated the noble birth and free-born condition of the maiden. A golden +chain, to which was attached a small reliquary of the same metal, hung +around her neck. She wore bracelets on her arms, which were bare. Her +dress was an under gown and kirtle of pale sea-green silk, over which hung +a long loose robe, which reached to the ground, having very wide sleeves, +which came down, however, very little below the elbow. This robe was +crimson, and manufactured out of the very finest wool. A veil of silk, +interwoven with gold, was attached to the upper part of it, which could +be, at the wearer's pleasure, either drawn over the face and bosom after +the Spanish fashion, or disposed as a sort of drapery round the shoulders. + +--Scott: _Ivanhoe_. + + ++Theme XXIV.+--_Write a paragraph and arrange the details with reference +to their association in space._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + + 1. Ichabod Crane. + 2. Rip Van Winkle. + 3. The man who lives near us. + 4. A minister I met yesterday. + 5. Our family doctor. + 6. The gymnasium. + 7. A fire engine. + 8. The old church. + 9. The shoe factory. + 10. Some character in the book you are reading. + + +(Which sentence gives the general impression and which sentences give the +details? Are the details arranged with reference to their real space +order? Should others be added? Can any be omitted? Will the reader form +the mental image you wish him to form?) + + ++48. Development by Comparison.+--In Section 29 we found that comparison, +whether literal or figurative, aided us in forming mental images of +objects. In a similar way events and general principles may be explained +by making suitable comparisons. We are continually comparing one thing +with another. Every idea tends to recall other ideas that are similar to +it or in contrast with it. When an unfamiliar idea is presented to us we +at once seek to associate it with similar ideas already known to us. A +writer, therefore, will make his meaning clear by furnishing, the desired +comparisons. If these are familiar to us, they enable us to understand +the new ideas presented. Even when both ideas in the comparison are +unfamiliar, each may gain in clearness by comparison with the other. + +In comparing two objects, events, or principles we may point out that they +are _not_ alike in certain respects. A comparison that thus emphasizes +differences, rather than likenesses, becomes a contrast. The contrast may +be given in a single sentence or in a single paragraph, but often a +paragraph or more may be required for each of the two ideas contrasted. + + +EXERCISE + + +Notice how comparisons and contrasts are used in the following +paragraphs:-- + + +1. Niagara is the largest cataract in the world, while Yosemite is the +highest; it is the volume that impresses you at Niagara, and it is the +height of Yosemite and the grand surroundings that make its beauty. +Niagara is as wide as Yosemite is high, and if it had no more water than +Yosemite has, it would not be of much consequence. The sound of the two +falls is quite different: Niagara makes a steady roar, deep and strong, +though not oppressive, while Yosemite is a crash and rattle, owing to the +force of the water as it strikes the solid rock after its immense leap. + +2. It is not only in appearance that London and New York differ widely. +They also speak with different accents, for cities have distinctive +accents as well as people. Tennyson wrote about "streaming London's +central roar"; the roar is a gentle hum compared with the din which +tingles the ears of visitors to New York. The accent of New York is harsh, +grating, jarring. The rattle of the elevated railroad, the whir of the +cable cars, the ringing of electric-car bells, the rumble of vehicles over +the hard stones, the roar of the traffic as it reechoes through the narrow +canyons of down-town streets, produce an appalling combination of +discords. The streets of New York are not more crowded than those of +London, but the noise in London is subdued. It is more regular, less +jarring and piercing. The muffled sounds in London are due partly to the +wooden and asphalt pavements, which deaden the sounds. London must be +soothing to the New Yorker, as the noise of New York is at first +disconcerting to the Londoner.--_Outlook._ + +3. Now their separate characters are briefly these. The man's power is +active, progressive, defensive. He is eminently the doer, the creator, the +discoverer, the defender. His intellect is for speculation and invention; +his energy for adventure, for war, and for conquest wherever war is just, +wherever conquest necessary. But the woman's power is for rule, not for +battle, and her intellect is not for invention or creation, but for sweet +ordering, arrangement, and decision. She sees the qualities of things, +their claims, and their places. + +--Ruskin: _Sesame and Lilies_. + + ++Theme XXV.+--_Write a paragraph using comparison or contrast._ + + +Suggested topics:-- + + 1. The school, a beehive. + 2. The body, a steam engine. + 3. Two generals about whom you have read. + 4. Girls, boys. + 5. Two of your studies. + 6. Graded school work, high school work. + 7. Animal life, plant life. + 8. Two of your classmates. + + +(Have you used comparison or contrast? Have you introduced any of the +other methods of development? Have you developed the paragraph so that the +reader will understand fully your topic statement? Omit sentences not +really needed.) + + ++49. Development by Stating Cause and Effect.+--We are better satisfied +with our understanding of a thing if we know the causes which have +produced it or the effects which follow it. Likewise we feel that another +has mastered the topic statement of a paragraph if he can answer the +question, Why is this so? or, What will result from this? When either is +stated, we naturally begin to think about the other. The idea of a topic +statement may, therefore, be satisfactorily developed by stating its +causes or its effects. A cause may be stated and the effects given or the +effects may be made the topic statement for which we account by giving its +causes. + +The importance of the relation of cause and effect to scientific study is +discussed in the following paragraph from Mill:-- + + +The relation of cause and effect is the fundamental law of nature. There +is no recorded instance of an effect appearing without a previous cause, +or of a cause acting without producing its full effect. Every change in +nature is the effect of some previous change and the cause of some change +to follow; just as the movement of each carriage near the middle of a long +train is a result of the movement of the one in front and a precursor +of the movement of the one behind. Facts or effects are to be seen +everywhere, but causes have usually to be sought for. It is the function +of science or organized knowledge to observe all effects, or phenomena, +and to seek for their causes. This twofold purpose gives richness and +dignity to science. The observation and classifying of facts soon become +wearisome to all but the specialist actually engaged in the work. But when +reasons are assigned, and classification explained, when the number of +causes is reduced and the effects begin to crystallize into essential and +clearly related parts of one whole, every intelligent student finds +interest, and many, more fortunate, even fascination in the study. + +--Mill: _The Realm of Nature_. (Copyright, 1892, by Charles Scribner's +Sons.) + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ In your reading, notice how often the effects are indicated by the +use of some one of the following expressions: _as a result, accordingly, +consequently, for, hence, so, so that, thus._ + +_B._ Which sentences state causes and which state effects in the following +paragraphs? + + +1. The power of water to dissolve most minerals increases with its +temperature and the amount of gases it contains. Percolating water at +great depths, therefore, generally dissolves more mineral matter than it +can hold in solution when it reaches the surface, where it cools, and, +being relieved of pressure, much of its carbonic acid gas escapes to the +atmosphere or is absorbed by aquatic plants or mosses. Hence, deep-seated +springs are usually surrounded by a deposit of the minerals with which the +water is impregnated. Sometimes this deposit may even form large hills; +sometimes it forms a mound around the spring, over the sides of which the +water falls, while the spray, evaporating from surrounding objects, leaves +them also incrusted with a mineral deposit. Percolating water evaporating +on the sides and roof of limestone caverns, leaves the walls incrusted +with carbonate of lime in beautiful masses of crystals. Water slowly +evaporating as it drips from the roof of caverns to the floor beneath +leaves a deposit on both places, which gradually grows downward from the +roof as a _stalactite_, and upward from the floor as a _stalagmite_, until +these meet and form one continuous column of stone. + +--Hinman: _Eclectic Physical Geography_. + + +2. The frequent use of cigars or cigarettes by the young seriously affects +the quality of the blood. The red blood corpuscles are not fully developed +and charged with their normal supply of life-giving oxygen. This causes +paleness of the skin, often noticed in the face of the young smoker. +Palpitation of the heart is also a common result, followed by permanent +weakness, so that the whole system is enfeebled, and mental vigor is +impaired as well as physical strength. Observant teachers can usually tell +which of the boys under their care are addicted to smoking, simply by the +comparative inferiority of their appearance, and by their intellectual and +bodily indolence and feebleness. After full maturity is attained the evil +effects of commencing the use of tobacco are less apparent; but competent +physicians assert that it cannot be safely used by those under the age of +forty. + +--Macy-Norris: _Physiology for High Schools_. + + +3. In many other ways, too, the Norman Conquest affected England. For +example, before long all the best places in the Church were filled with +foreigners. But most of the new bishops and abbots were far superior in +morals and education to the Englishmen whom they succeeded. They were also +devoted to the Pope of Rome, and soon made the English National Church a +part of the Roman Catholic Church. But William, while willing to bow to +the Pope as his chief in religious matters, refused to give way to him in +things which concerned only this world. No former English king had done +that, he knew, and no more would he. This union with the Roman Catholic +Church was of the greatest benefit to England, as it brought her once more +into connection with the educated men of Europe. Indeed, Lanfranc, the +Conqueror's Archbishop of Canterbury, was one of the best and wisest men +of his day. + +--Higginson and Channing: _English History for American Readers_. + + ++Theme XXVI.+--_Develop one of the following topic statements into +paragraphs by stating causes or effects:_-- + +1. A government which had no soldiers to call upon in an emergency would +not last long. + +2. One of the first needs of a new country is roads. + +3. The number of people receiving public support is smaller in this +country than in Europe. + +4. An efficient postal system is a great aid to civilization. + +5. A straight stream is an impossibility in nature. + +6. Mountain ranges have great influence upon climate. + +7. The United States holds first place as a manufacturing nation. + +8. There are many swift rivers in New England. + +9. Towns or cities are located at the mouths of navigable rivers. + + +(Which sentences state causes and which state effects? Would the effects +which you have stated really follow the given causes?) + + ++50. Development by Repetition.+--The repetition of a thought in different +form will often make plain that which we do not at first understand. This +is especially true if the repetitions are accompanied by new comparisons. +In every school the teacher makes daily use of repetition in her efforts +to explain to the pupils that which they do not understand. In a similar +way a writer makes use of this tendency of ours, and develops the idea of +the topic sentence by repetition. Each sentence should, however, do more +than merely repeat. It should add something to the central idea, making +this idea clearer, more definite, or more emphatic. If repetition is +excessive and purposeless, it becomes a fault. + +Repetition may extend through the whole paragraph, or it may be used to +explain any sentence or any part of a sentence. It may tell what the thing +is or what it is not, and in effect becomes a definition setting limits to +the original idea. + + +EXERCISE + + +Notice how the idea in the topic statement of each of the following +paragraphs is repeated in those which follow:-- + + +1. No man ever made a complete new system of law and gave it to a people. +No monarch, however absolute or powerful, ever had the power to change the +habits of a people to that extent. Revolution generally means, not a +change of law, but merely a change of government officials; even when it +is a change from monarchy to democracy. Our Revolution made practically no +changes in the criminal and civil laws of the colonies. + +--Clark: _The Government_. + + +2. People talk of liberty as if it meant the liberty to do just what a man +likes. I call that man free who fears doing wrong, but fears nothing else. +I call that man free who has learned the most blessed of all truths,--that +liberty consists in obedience to the power, and to the will, and to the +law that his higher soul reverences and approves. He is not free because +he does what he likes; but he is free because he does what he ought, and +there is no protest in his soul against the doing. + +--Frederick William Robertson. + + +3. This dense forest was to the Indians a home in which they had lived +from childhood, and where they were as much at ease as a farmer on his own +acres. To their keen eyes, trained for generations to more than a wild +beast's watchfulness, the wilderness was an open book. Nothing at rest or +in motion escaped them. They had begun to track game as soon as they could +walk; a scrape on a tree trunk, a bruised leaf, a faint indentation of the +soil, which no white man could see, all told them a tale as plainly as if +it had been shouted in their ears. + +--Theodore Roosevelt: _The Winning of the West_. + + +4. Public enterprises, whether conducted by the municipality or committed +to the public service corporation, exist to render public services. +Streets are public highways. They exist for the people's use. Nothing +should be placed in them unless required to facilitate their use by or for +the people. Only the general need of water, gas, electricity, and +transportation justifies the placing of pipes and wires and tracks in the +streets. The public need is the sole test and measure of such occupation. +To look upon the streets as a source of private gain, or even municipal +revenue, except as incidents of their public use, is to disregard their +public character. Adequate service at the lowest practicable rates, not +gain or revenue, is the test. The question is, not how much the public +service corporation may gain, but what can be saved to the people by its +employment. + +--Edwin Burrett Smith: _The Next Step in Municipal Reform_ +("Atlantic Monthly"). + + ++Theme XXVII.+--_Develop one of the following topic statements into a +paragraph, using the method, of repetition as far as possible:_-- + +1. It is difficult to become angry with one who is always good-natured. + +2. It is gloomy in the woods on a rainy day. + +3. The government is always in need of honest men. + +4. Rural free delivery of mail will have a great effect on country life. + +5. Not every boy in school uses his time to the best advantage. + +6. Haste is waste. + +7. Regular exercise is one of the essentials of good health. + + +(Have the repetitions really made the idea of the topic sentence clearer +or more emphatic or more definite? What other methods of development have +you used?) + + ++51. Development by a Combination of Methods.+--A paragraph should have +unity of thought, and, so long as this unity of thought is kept, it does +not matter what methods of development are used. A dozen paragraphs taken +at random will show that combinations are very frequent. Often it will be +difficult to determine just how a paragraph has been developed. In +general, however, it may be said that an indiscriminate mixture of methods +is confusing and interferes with unity of thought. If more than one is +used, it requires skillful handling to maintain such a relation between +them that both contribute to the clear and emphatic statement of the main +thought. + +The paragraph from Dryer, page 74, shows a combination of cause and effect +with specific illustrations; that from Wolstan Dixey, page 81, shows a +combination of repetition with specific instances. + + +EXERCISES + + +What methods of paragraph development, or what combinations of methods, +are used in the following selections? + + +1. I believe the first test of a truly great man is his humility. I do not +mean, by humility, doubt of his power, or hesitation in speaking of his +opinions; but a right understanding of the relation between what he can do +and say and the rest of the world's sayings and doings. All great men not +only know their business, but usually know that they know it; and are not +only right in their main opinions, but they usually know that they are +right in them; only they do not think much of themselves on that account. +Arnolfo knows he can build a good dome at Florence; Albert Duerer writes +calmly to one who had found fault with his work, "It cannot be better +done"; Sir Isaac Newton knows that he has worked out a problem or two +that would have puzzled anybody else; only they do not expect their +fellow-men therefore to fall down and worship them; they have a curious +undersense of powerlessness, feeling that the greatness is not _in_ them, +but _through_ them; that they could not do or be anything else than God +made them. And they see something divine and God-made in every other man +they meet, and are endlessly, foolishly, and incredibly merciful. + +--Ruskin. + + +2. The first thing to be noted about the dress of the Romans is that its +prevalent material was always woolen. Sheep raising for wool was practiced +among them on an extensive scale, from the earliest historic times, and +the choice breeds of that animal, originally imported from Greece or Asia +Minor, took so kindly to the soil and climate of Italy that home-grown +wool came even to be preferred to the foreign for fineness and softness of +quality. Foreign wools were, however, always imported more or less, partly +because the supply of native wools seems never to have been quite +sufficient, partly because the natural colors of wools from different +parts varied so considerably as to render the art of the dyer to some +extent unnecessary. Thus, the wools of Canusium were brown or reddish, +those of Pollentia in Liguria were black, those from the Spanish Baetica, +which comprised Andalusia and a part of Granada, had either a golden brown +or a grayish hue; the wools of Asia were almost red; and there was a +Grecian fleece, called the crow colored, of which the natural tint was a +peculiarly deep and brilliant black. + +--Preston and Dodge: _'The Private Life of the Romans_. + + +3. Art has done everything for Munich. It lies on a large flat plain +sixteen hundred feet above the sea and continually exposed to the cold +winds from the Alps. At the beginning of the present century it was but a +third-rate city, and was rarely visited by foreigners; since that time its +population and limits have been doubled, and magnificent edifices in every +style of architecture erected, rendering it scarcely secondary in this +respect to any capital in Europe. Every art that wealth or taste could +devise seems to have been spent in its decoration. Broad, spacious streets +and squares have been laid out; churches, halls, and colleges erected, and +schools of painting and sculpture established which drew artists from all +parts of the world. + +--Taylor: _Views Afoot_. + + +4. In all excursions to the woods or to the shore the student of +ornithology has an advantage over his companions. He has one more, avenue +of delight. He, indeed, kills two birds with one stone and sometimes +three. If others wander, he can never get out of his way. His game is +everywhere. The cawing of a crow makes him feel at home, while a new note +or a new song drowns all care. Audubon, on the desolate coast of Labrador, +is happier than any king ever was; and on shipboard is nearly cured of his +seasickness when a new gull appears in sight. + +--Burroughs: _Wake Robin_. + + ++Theme XXVIII.+--_Write a paragraph, using any method or combination of +methods which best suits your thought. Use any of the subjects hitherto +suggested that you have not already used._ + + +(Is every sentence related to the topic statement so that your paragraph +possesses unity? What methods of development have you used?) + + ++52. The Topical Recitation.+--In conducting a recitation the teacher may +ask direct questions about each part of a paragraph or she may ask a pupil +to discuss some topic. Such a topical recitation should be an exercise in +clear thinking rather than in word memory, and in order to prepare for it, +the pupil should have made a careful analysis of the thought in each +paragraph similar to that discussed on page 74. When this analysis has +been made he will have clearly in mind the topic statement and the way it +has been developed, and will be able to distinguish the essential from the +non-essential elements. + +A topical recitation demands that the pupil know the main idea and be able +to develop it in one of the following methods, or by a combination of +them: (1) by giving specific instances, (2) by giving details, (3) by +giving comparisons or contrasts, (4) by giving causes or effects, and (5) +by repetition. + +Thoughts so mastered are our own. We understand them and believe them; and +consequently we can explain them, or describe them, or prove them to +others. We can furnish details or instances, originate comparisons, or +state causes and effects. _When ideas gained from language have thus +become our own, we do not need to remember the language in which they were +expressed, and not until then do they become proper material for +composition purposes._ + + ++53. Outlining Paragraphs.+--Making an outline of a paragraph that we have +read brings the thought clearly before our mind. In a similar way we may +make our own thoughts clear and definite by attempting to prepare in +advance an outline of a paragraph that we are about to write. Arranging +the material that we have in mind and deciding upon the order in which we +shall present it, will both help us to understand the thought ourselves, +and enable us to present it more effectively to others. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Prepare for recitation the following selection from Newcomer's +introduction to Macaulay's _Milton and Addison:_-- + + +There were two faculties of Macaulay's mind that set his work far apart +from other work in the same field,--the faculties of organization and +illustration. He saw things in their right relation and he knew how to +make others see them thus. If he was describing, he never thrust minor +details into the foreground. If he was narrating, he never "got ahead of +his story." The importance of this is not sufficiently recognized. Many +writers do not know what organization means. They do not know that in all +great and successful literary work it is nine tenths of the labor. Yet +consider a moment. History is a very complex thing: divers events may be +simultaneous in their occurrence; or one crisis may be slowly evolving +from many causes in many places. It is no light task to tell these things +one after another and yet leave a unified impression, to take up a dozen +new threads in succession without tangling them and without losing the old +ones, and to lay them all down at the right moment and without confusion. +Such is the narrator's task, and it was at this task that Macaulay proved +himself a past master. He could dispose of a number of trivial events in a +single sentence. Thus, for example, runs his account of the dramatist +Wycherley's naval career: "He embarked, was present at a battle, and +celebrated it, on his return, in a copy of verses too bad for the +bellman." On the other hand, when it is a question of a great crisis, like +the impeachment of Warren Hastings, he knew how to prepare for it with +elaborate ceremony and to portray it in a scene of the highest dramatic +power. + +This faculty of organization shows itself in what we technically name +structure; and logical and rhetorical structure may be studied at their +very best in his work. His essays are perfect units, made up of many +parts, systems within systems, that play together without clog or +friction. You can take them apart like a watch and put them together +again. But try to rearrange the parts and the mechanism is spoiled. Each +essay has its subdivisions, which in turn are groups of paragraphs. And +each paragraph is a unit. Take the first paragraph of the essay on Milton: +the word _manuscript_ appears in the first sentence, and it reappears in +the last; clearly the paragraph deals with a single very definite topic. +And so with all. Of course the unity manifests itself in a hundred ways, +but it is rarely wanting. Most frequently it takes the form of an +expansion of a topic given in the first sentence, or a preparation for a +topic to be announced only in the last. These initial and final sentences-- +often in themselves both aphoristic and memorable--serve to mark with the +utmost clearness the different stages in the progress of the essay. + +Illustration is of more incidental service, but as used by Macaulay +becomes highly organic. For his illustrations are not farfetched or +laboriously worked out. They seem to be of one piece with his story or his +argument. His mind was quick to detect resemblances and analogies. He was +ready with a comparison for everything, sometimes with half a dozen. For +example, Addison's essays, he has occasion to say, were different every +day of the week, and yet, to his mind, each day like something--like +Horace, like Lucian, like the "Tales of Scheherezade." He draws long +comparisons between Walpole and Townshend, between Congreve and Wycherley, +between Essex and Villiers, between the fall of the Carlovingians and the +fall of the Moguls. He follows up a general statement with swarms of +instances. Have historians been given to exaggerating the villainy of +Machiavelli? Macaulay can name you half a dozen who did so. Did the +writers of Charles's faction delight in making their opponents appear +contemptible? "They have told us that Pym broke down in a speech, that +Ireton had his nose pulled by Hollis, that the Earl of Northumberland +cudgeled Henry Marten, that St. John's manners were sullen, that Vane had +an ugly face, that Cromwell had a red nose." Do men fail when they quit +their own province for another? Newton failed thus; Bentley failed; Inigo +Jones failed; Wilkie failed. In the same way he was ready with quotations. +He writes in one of his letters: "It is a dangerous thing for a man with a +very strong memory to read very much. I could give you three or four +quotations this moment in support of that proposition; but I will bring +the vicious propensity under subjection, if I can." Thus we see his mind +doing instantly and involuntarily what other minds do with infinite pains, +bringing together all things that have a likeness or a common bearing. + +It is precisely these talents that set Macaulay among the simplest and +clearest of writers, and that accounts for much of his popularity. People +found that in taking up one of his articles they simply read on and on, +never puzzling over the meaning of a sentence, getting the exact force of +every statement, and following the trend of thought with scarcely a mental +effort. And his natural gift of making things plain he took pains to +support by various devices. He constructed his sentences after the +simplest normal fashion, subject and verb and object, sometimes inverting +for emphasis, but rarely complicating, and always reducing expression to +the barest terms. He could write, for example, "One advantage the chaplain +had," but it is impossible to conceive of his writing, "Now, amid all the +discomforts and disadvantages with which the unfortunate chaplain was +surrounded, there was one thing which served to offset them, and which, if +he chose to take the opportunity of enjoying it, might well be regarded as +a positive advantage." One will search his pages in vain for loose, +trailing clauses and involved constructions. His vocabulary was of the +same simple nature. He had a complete command of ordinary English and +contented himself with that. He rarely ventured beyond the most abridged +dictionary. An occasional technical term might be required, but he was shy +of the unfamiliar. He would coin no words and he would use no archaisms. +Foreign words, when fairly naturalized, he employed sparingly. "We shall +have no disputes about diction," he wrote to Napier, Jeffrey's successor; +"the English language is not so poor but that I may very well find in it +the means of contenting both you and myself." + + +_B._ Recite upon some topic taken from your other lessons for the day. Let +the class tell what method of development you have used. + + +_C._ Make a collection of well-written paragraphs illustrating each of the +methods of development. + + ++Theme XXIX.+--_Write two paragraphs using the same topic statement, but +developing each by a different method._ + +Suggested topic statements:-- + +1. The principal tools of government are buildings, guns, and money. + +2. The civilized world was never so orderly as now. + +3. Law suits take time, especially in cities; sometimes they take years. + +4. There is a difference between law and justice. + +5. We cry for a multitude of reasons of surprising variety. + +6. In the growth of a child nothing is more surprising than his ceaseless +activity. + +7. Education for the children of a nation is a benefit to the whole +nation. + + +(Have you said what you intended to say? What methods of development have +you used? Is the main thought of the two paragraphs the same even though +they begin with the same sentence?) + + +SUMMARY + + +1. Language is (1) a means of expressing ideas, and (2) a medium through + which ideas are acquired. + +2. The acquisition of ideas by means of language requires:-- + _a._ That we know the meanings of words, and so avoid forming + incomplete images (Section 27) and incomplete thoughts (Section + 33). + _b._ That we understand the relations in thought existing among words, + phrases, clauses, sentences, and paragraphs (Section 32). + +3. Ideas acquired through language may be used for composition purposes-- + _a._ Provided we form complete and accurate images and do not confuse + the image with the language that suggested it (Section 28). + _b._ Provided we make the main thoughts so thoroughly our own that we + can furnish details and instances, originate comparisons, or + state causes and effects, and thus become able to describe them + or explain them, or prove them to others (Section 52). + Until both _a_ and _b_ as stated above are done, ideas acquired + through language are undesirable for composition purposes. + +4. Comparisons aid in the forming of correct images. They may be literal + or imaginative. If imaginative, they become figures of speech. + +5. Figures of speech. (Complete list in the Appendix.) + _a._ A simile is a direct comparison. + _b._ A metaphor is an implied comparison. + _c._ Personification is a modified metaphor, assigning human + attributes to objects, abstract ideas, or the lower animals. + +6. Suggestions as to the use of figures of speech. + _a._ Never write for the purpose of using them. + _b._ They should be appropriate to the subject. + _c._ One of the two things compared must be familiar to the reader. + _d._ Avoid hackneyed figures. + _e._ Avoid long figures. + _f._ Avoid mixed metaphors. + +7. Choice of words. + _a._ Use words presumably familiar to the reader. + _b._ Use words that express your exact meaning. Do not confuse similar + words. + _e._ Avoid the frequent use of the same word (Section 17). + +8. Ambiguity of thought must be avoided. Care must be exercised in the + use of the forms which show relations in thought between sentences, + especially with pronouns and pronominal adjectives (Section 36). + +9. A paragraph is a group of sentences related to each other and to one + central idea. +10. The topic statement of a paragraph is a brief comprehensive summary of + the contents of the paragraph. + +11. Methods of paragraph development. A paragraph may be developed-- + _a._ By giving specific instances (Section 44). + _b._ By giving details (Section 45). The order in which the details + are told may be determined by-- + (1) The order of their occurrence in time (Section 46). + (2) Their position in space (Section 47). + _c._ By comparison or contrast (Section 48). + _d._ By stating cause and effect (Section 49). + _e._ By repetition (Section 50). + _f._ By any suitable combination of the methods stated above. + +12. The topical recitation demands-- + _a._ That the pupil get the central idea of the paragraph and be able + to make the topic statement. + _b._ That he be able to determine the relative importance of the + remaining ideas in the paragraph. + _c._ That he know by which of the five methods named above the + paragraph has been developed. + _d._ That he be able to furnish details, instances, and comparisons of + his own. (See Sections 37, 38, 39, 52, 53.) + + + +IV. THE PURPOSE OF EXPRESSION + + ++54. Kinds of Composition.+--When considered with reference to the +purpose in the mind of the writer, there are two general classes of +writing,--that which informs, and that which entertains. The language that +we use should make our meaning clear, arouse interest, and give vividness. +Writing that informs will lay greatest emphasis on clearness, though it +may at the same time be interesting and vivid. We do not add to the value +of an explanation by making it dull. On the other hand, writing that +entertains, though it must be clear, will lay greater emphasis on interest +and vividness. That language is best which combines all three of these +characteristics. The writer's purpose will determine to which the emphasis +shall be given. + +Composition is also divided into description, narration, exposition, and +argument (including persuasion). These are called forms of discourse. It +will be found that this division is also based upon the purpose for which +the composition is written. You have occasion to use each of these forms +of discourse daily; you describe, you narrate, you explain, you argue, you +persuade. You have used language for these purposes from your infancy, and +you are now studying composition in order to acquire facility and +effectiveness in that use. When this chapter is completed, you will have +considered each of the four forms of discourse in an elementary way. A +more extended treatment is given in later chapters. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ To which of the two general classes of composition would each of the +following belong? + + +1. A business letter. + +2. The story of a runaway. + +3. A description of a lake written by a geologist. + +4. A description of a lake written by a boy who was camping near it. + +5. A letter to a friend describing a trip. + +6. A text-book on algebra. + +7. An application for a position as stenographer. + +8. A recipe for making cake. + +9. How I made a cake. + +10. How to make a kite. + +11. A political speech. + +12. A debate. + + +_B._ Could a description be written for the purpose of entertaining? Could +the same object be described for the purpose of giving information? + +_C._ To which general class do narratives belong? Explanations? Arguments? + ++55. Discourse Presupposes an Audience.+--The object of composition is +communication, and communication is not concerned with one's self alone. +It always involves two,--the one who gives and the one who receives. If +its purpose is to inform, it must inform _somebody_; if to entertain, it +must entertain _somebody_. To be sure, discourse may be a pleasure to us, +because it is a means of self-expression, but it is _useful_ to us because +it conveys ideas to that other somebody who hears or reads it. We describe +in order that another may picture that which we have experienced; we +narrate, events for the entertainment of others; we explain to others that +which we understand; and we argue in order to prove to some one the truth +of a proposition or to persuade him to action. Thus all discourse, to be +useful, demands an audience. Its effective use requires that the writer +shall give quite as much attention to the way in which that reader will +receive his ideas as he gives to the ideas themselves. "Speaking or +writing is, therefore, a double-ended process. It springs from me, it +penetrates him; and both of these ends need watching. Is what I say +precisely what I mean? That is an important question. Is what I say so +shaped that it can readily be assimilated by him who hears? This is a +question of quite as great consequence and much more likely to be +forgotten.... As I write I must unceasingly study what is the line of +least intellectual resistance along which my thought may enter the +differently constituted mind; and to that line I must subtly adjust, +without enfeebling my meaning. Will this combination of words or that make +the meaning clear? Will this order of presentation facilitate swiftness of +apprehension or will it clog the movement?"[Footnote: Professor George +Herbert Palmer: _Self-cultivation in English_.] + +In the preceding chapters emphasis has been laid upon the care that a +writer must give to saying exactly what he means. This must never be +neglected, but we need to add to it a consideration of how best to adapt +what we say to the interest and intelligence of our readers. It will +become clear in writing the following theme that the discussion of +paragraph development in Chapter III was in reality a discussion of +methods of adapting our discourse to the mental habits of our readers. + + ++Theme XXX.+--_Write a theme showing which one of the five methods of +paragraph development proceeds most nearly in accordance with the way the +mind usually acts._ + +(This theme will furnish a review of the methods of paragraph development +treated in Chapter III. If possible, write your theme without consulting +the chapter. "Think it out" for yourself. After the theme has been +written, review paragraph development treated in Chapter III. Can you +improve your theme? What methods of development have you used?) + + ++56. Selecting a Subject.+--Sometimes our theme subjects are chosen for +us, but usually we shall need to choose our own subjects. What we should +choose depends both upon ourselves and upon those for whom we write. The +elements which make a subject suitable for the reader will be considered +later. In so far as the writer is concerned, two things determine the +suitableness of a subject:-- + +First, the writer's knowledge of the subject. We cannot make ideas clear +to others unless they are clear to us. Our information must be clearly and +definitely our own before we can hope to present it effectively. This is +one of the advantages possessed by subjects arising from experience. Any +subject about which we know little or nothing, should be rejected. We must +not, however, reject a subject too soon. When it is first thought of we +may find that we have but few ideas about it, but by thinking we may +discover that our information is greater than it at first seemed. We may +be able to assign reasons or to give instances or to originate comparisons +or to add details, and by these processes to amplify our knowledge. Even +if we find that we know but little about the subject from our own +experience, we may still be able to use it for a composition subject by +getting our information from others. We may from conversation or from +reading gain ideas that we can make our own and consequently be able to +write intelligently. Care must be taken that this "reading up" on a +subject does not fill our minds with smatterings of ideas that we think we +understand because we can remember the language in which they were +expressed; but reading, _supplemented by thinking_, may enable us to write +well about a subject concerning which on first thought we seem to know but +little. + +Second, the writer's interest in the subject. It will be found difficult +for the writer to present vividly a subject in which he himself has no +special interest. Enthusiasm is contagious, and if the writer has a real +interest in his subject, he is likely to present his material in such a +manner as to arouse interest in others. In our earlier years we are more +interested in the material presented by experience and imagination than in +that presented by reading, but as we grow older our interest in thoughts +conveyed to us by language increases. As we enlarge our knowledge of a +subject by reading and by conversation, so we are likely to increase our +interest in that subject. A boy may know but little about Napoleon, but +the effort to inform himself may cause him to become greatly interested. +This interest will lead him to a further search for information about +Napoleon, and will at the same time aid in making what he writes +entertaining to others. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ About which of the following subjects do you now possess a sufficient +knowledge to enable you to write a paragraph? In which of them are you +interested? Which would you need to "read up" about? + +1. Golf. +2. Examinations. +3. Warships. +4. Wireless telegraphy. +5. Radium. +6. Tennis. +7. Automobiles. +8. Picnics. +9. Printing. +10. Bees. +11. Birds. +12. Pyrography. +13. Photography. +14. Beavers. +15. Making calls. +16. Stamp collecting. +17. The manufacture of tacks. +18. The manufacture of cotton. +19. The smelting of zinc. +20. The silver-plating process. + + +_B._ Make a list of thirty things about which you know something. + + +_C._ Bring to class a list of five subjects in which you are interested. + + +_D._ Make a list of five subjects about which you now possess a sufficient +knowledge to enable you to write a paragraph. + + ++Theme XXXI.+--_Write a short theme: Select a suitable subject from the +lists in the preceding exercise._ + +(What method or methods of paragraph development have you used? Have your +paragraphs unity of thought?) + + ++57. Subject Adapted to Reader.+--We may be interested in a subject and +possess sufficient knowledge to enable us to treat it successfully, but it +may still be unsuitable because it is not adapted to the reader. Some +knowledge of a subject and some interest in it are quite as necessary on +the part of the reader as on that of the writer, though in the beginning +this knowledge and interest may be meager. The possibility of developing +both knowledge and interest must exist, however, or the writing will be a +failure. It would be difficult to make "Imperialism" interesting to third +grade pupils, or "Kant's Philosophy" to high school pupils. Even if you +know enough to write a valuable "Criticism" of _Silas Marner_, or a real +"Review" of the _Vicar of Wakefield_, the work is time wasted if your +readers do not have a breadth of knowledge sufficient to insure a vital +and appreciative interest in the subject. You must take care to select a +subject that is of present, vital interest to your readers. + + ++58. Sources of Subjects.+--Thought goes everywhere, and human interest +touches everything. The sources of subjects are therefore unlimited; for +anything about which we think and in which we are interested may become a +suitable subject for a paragraph, an essay, or a book. Such subjects are +everywhere--in what we see and do, in what we think and feel, in what we +hear and read. We relate to our parents what a neighbor said; we discuss +for the teacher an event in history, or a character in literature; we show +a companion how to make a kite or work a problem in algebra; we consider +the advantages of a commercial course or relate the pleasures of a day's +outing,--in each case we are interested, we think, we express our +thoughts, and so are practicing oral composition with _subjects that may +be used for written exercises_. + ++59. Subjects should be Definite.+--Both the writer and the reader are +more interested in definite and concrete subjects than in the general and +abstract ones, and we shall make our writing more interesting by +recognizing this fact. One might write about "Birds," or "The Intelligence +of Birds," or "How Birds Protect their Young," or "A Family of Robins." +The last is a specific subject, while the other three are general +subjects. Of these, the first includes more than the second; and the +second, more than the third. A person with sufficient knowledge might +write about any one of these general subjects, but it would be difficult +to give such a subject adequate treatment in a short theme. Though a +general subject may suggest more lines of thought, our knowledge about a +specific subject is less vague, and consequently more usable. We really +know more about the specific subject, and we have a greater interest in +it. The subject, "A Family of Robins," indicates that the writer knows +something interesting that he intends to tell. Such a subject compels +expectant attention from the reader and aids in arousing an appreciative +interest on his part. + +On first thought, it would seem easier to write about a general subject +than about a specific one, but this is not the case. A general subject +presents so many lines of thought that the writer is confused, rather than +aided, by the abundance of material. A skilled and experienced writer +possessing a large fund of information may treat general subjects +successfully, but for the beginner safety lies only in selecting definite +subjects and in keeping within the limits prescribed. The "Women of +Shakespeare" might be an interesting subject for a book by a Shakespearean +scholar, but it is scarcely suitable for a high school pupil's theme. + + ++60. Narrowing the Subject.+--It is often necessary to narrow a subject in +order to bring it within the range of the knowledge and interest of +ourselves and of our readers. A description of the transportation +of milk on the electric roads around Toledo would probably be more +interesting than an essay on "Freight Transportation by Electricity," or +on "Transportation." The purpose that the writer has in mind, and the +length of the article he intends to write, will affect the selection of a +subject. "Transportation" might be the subject of a book in which a +chapter was given to each important subdivision of it; but it would be +quite as difficult to treat such a subject in three hundred words as it +would be to make use of three hundred pages for "The Transportation of +Milk at Toledo." + +A general subject may suggest many lines of thought. It is the task of the +writer to select one about which he knows something or can learn +something, in which both he and his readers are interested, or can become +interested, and for which the time and space at his disposal are adequate. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Arrange the subjects in each of the following groups so that the most +general ones shall come first:-- + + 1. The intelligence of wild animals. + How a fox escaped from the hounds. + How animals escape destruction by their enemies. + Animals. + + 2. The benefits that arise from war. + The defeat of the Cimbri and Teutons by Marius. + War. + The value of military strength to the Romans. + + 3. Pleasure. + A summer outing in the Adirondacks. + Value of vacations. + Catching bass. + + +_B._ Narrow ten of the following subjects until the resulting subject may +be treated in a single paragraph:-- + +1. Fishing. +2. Engines. +3. Literature. +4. Heroes of fiction. +5. Cooking. +6. Houses. +7. Games. +8. Basketball. +9. Cats. +10. Canaries. +11. Sympathy. +12. Sailboats. +13. Baseball. +14. Rivers. +15. Trees. + + +C. A general subject may suggest several narrower subjects, each of which +would be of interest to a different class of persons; for example-- + + General subject,--Education. + Specific subjects,-- + 1. Methods of conducting recitations. (Teachers.) + 2. School taxes. (Farmers.) + 3. Ventilation of school buildings. (Architects.) + +In a similar way, narrow each of the following subjects +so that the resulting subjects will be of interest to two or +more classes of persons:-- + + Subjects Classes + 1. Vacations. 1. Farmers. + 2. Mathematics. 2. High School Pupils. + 3. Picnics. 3. Ministers. + 4. Civil service. 4. Merchants. + 5. Elections. 5. Sailors. + 6. Botany. 6. Girls. + 7. Fish. 7. Boys. + + ++Theme XXXII.+--_Write a paragraph about one of narrowed subjects._ + +(Does your paragraph have unity of thought? What methods of development +have you used? Have you selected a subject which will be of interest to +your readers?) + + ++61. Selecting a Title.+--The subject and the title may be the same, but +not necessarily so. The statement of the subject may require a sentence of +considerable length, while a title is best if short. In selecting this +brief title, it is well to get one which will attract the attention and +arouse the curiosity of a reader without appearing obviously to do so. A +peculiar or unusual title is not at all necessary, though if properly +selected such a title may be of value. Care must be taken not to have the +title make a promise that the theme cannot fulfill. If it does, the effect +is unsatisfactory. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Discuss the appropriateness of the titles for the subjects in the +following:-- + +1. Title: "My Kingdom for a Horse." + Subject: An account of a breakdown of an automobile at an inconvenient + time. + +2. Title: A Blaze of Brilliance. + Subject: Description of a coaching parade. + +3. Title: A Brave Defense. + Subject: An account of how a pair of birds drove a snake away from + their nest. + +4. Title: The Banquet Book. + Subject: Quotations designed for general reference, and also as an + aid in the preparation of the toast list, the after-dinner + speech, and the occasional address. + +5. Title: Dragons of the Air. + Subject: An account of extinct flying reptiles. + +6. Title: Rugs and Rags. + Subject: A comparison of the rich and the poor, from a socialistic + point of view. + +7. Title: Lives of the Hunted. + Subject: A true account of the doings of five quadrupeds and three + birds. + +8. Title: The Children of the Nations. + Subject: A discussion of colonies and the problems of colonization. + + +_B._ Supply an appropriate title for a story read by the teacher. + +_C._ Suggest a title, other than the one given it, for each magazine +article you have read this month. + + ++62. Language Adapted to the Reader.+--A writer may select a subject with +reference to the knowledge and interest of his readers; he may develop his +paragraphs in accordance with the methods studied in Chapter III, and yet +he may fail to make his meaning clear, because he has not used language +suited to the reader. Fortunately, the language that we understand and use +is that which is most easily understood by those of equal attainments with +ourselves. It therefore happens that when writing for those of our own age +and attainments, or for those of higher attainments, we usually best +express for them that which we make most clear and pleasing to ourselves. +But if we write for younger people, or for those of different interests in +life, we must give much attention to adapting what we write to our +readers. Before writing it is well to ask, For whom am I writing? Then, if +necessary, you should modify your language so that it will be adapted to +your readers. Can you tell for what kind of an audience each of the +following is intended? + + +In the field both teams played faultless ball, not the semblance of an +error being made. Besides backing up their pitchers in this fashion, both +local and visiting athletes turned sensational plays. + +The element of luck figured largely in the result. In the first inning +Dougherty walked and Collins singled. Dougherty had third base sure on the +drive, but stumbled and fell down between second and third, and he was an +easy out. + +Boston got its only run in the second. Parent sent the ball to extreme +left for two bases. He stole third nattily when catcher Sugden tried to +catch him napping at the middle station. Ferris scored him with a drive to +left. St. Louis promptly tied the score in its half. Wallace opened with a +screeching triple to the bulletin board. At that he would not have scored +if J. Stahl had not contributed a passed ball, Heidrick, Friel, and +Sugden, the next three batters, expiring on weak infield taps. The Browns +got the winning run in the sixth on Martin's triple and Hill's swift cut +back of first. Lachance knocked the ball down and got his man at the +initial sack, but could not prevent the tally. + +--_Boston Herald._ + + +His name was Riley, and although his parents had called him Thomas, to the +boys he had always been "Dennis," and by the time he had reached his +senior year in college he was quite ready to admit that his "name was +Dennis," with all that slang implied. He had tried for several things, +athletics particularly, and had been substitute on the ball nine, one of +the immortal second eleven backs of the football squad, and at one time +had been looked upon as promising material for a mile runner on the track +team. + +But it was always his luck not quite to make anything. He couldn't bat up +to 'varsity standard, he wasn't quite heavy enough for a Varsity back, and +in the mile run he always came in fresh enough but could not seem to get +his speed up so as to run himself out, and the result was that, although +he finished strong and with lots of running in him, the other fellows +always reached the tape first, even though just barely getting over and +thoroughly exhausted. + +Now "Dennis" had made up his mind at Christmas time that he actually would +have one more trial on the track, and that his family, consisting of his +mother and a younger brother, both of them great believers in and very +proud of Thomas, should yet see him possessed of a long-coveted "Y." + +So he went out with the first candidates in the spring, and the addition +of the two-mile event to the programme of track contests gave him a +distance better suited to his endurance. There were a half-dozen other men +running in his squad, and Dennis, from his former failures, was not looked +upon with much favor, or as a very likely man. But he kept at it. When the +first reduction of the squad was made, some one said, "Denny's kept on +just to pound the track." With the middle of March came some class games, +and Dennis was among the "also rans," getting no better than fourth place +in the two-mile. The worst of it was that he knew he could have run it +faster, for he felt strong at the finish, but had no burst of speed when +the others went up on the last lap. But in April he did better, and it +soon developed that he was improving. The week before the Yale-Harvard +games he was notified that he was to run in the two-mile as pace maker to +Lang and Early, the two best distance men on the squad. Nobody believed +that Yale would win this event, although it was understood that Lang stood +a fair chance if Dennis and Early could carry the Harvard crack, Richards, +along at a fast gait for the first mile. + +So it was all arranged that Early should set the pace for the first half +mile, and Dennis should then go up and carry the field along for a fast +second half. Then, after the first mile was over, Early and Dennis should +go out as fast as they could, and stay as long as they could in the +attempt to force the Harvard man and exhaust him so that Lang could come +up, and, having run the race more to his liking, be strong enough to +finish first. + +The day of the games came, and with it a drenching rain, making the track +heavy and everybody uncomfortable. But as the inter-collegiates were +the next week, it was almost impossible to postpone the games, and +consequently it was decided to run them off. As the contest progressed, it +developed that the issue would hang on the two-mile event, and interest +grew intense. When the call for starters came, Dennis felt the usual +trepidation of a man who is before the public for the first time in a +really important position. But the feeling did not last long, and by the +time he went to his mark he had made up his mind that that Harvard runner +should go the mile and a half fast at any rate, or else be a long way +behind. + +At the crack of the pistol the six men went off, and, according to orders, +during the first mile Early and Dennis set the pace well up. Richards, the +Harvard man, let them open up a gap on him in the first half-mile, and, +being more or less bothered by the conditions of the wet track, he seemed +uncertain whether the Yale runners were setting the pace too high or not, +and in the second half commenced to move up. In doing this his team mates +gradually fell back until they were out of it, and the order was Dennis, +Early, Richards, and Lang. At the beginning of the second mile, Early, +whose duty it was to have gone up and helped Dennis make the pace at the +third half-mile, had manifestly had enough of it, and, after two or three +desperate struggles to keep up, was passed by Richards. When, therefore, +they came to the mile and a half, Dennis was leading Richards by some +fifteen yards, and those who knew the game expected to see the Harvard man +try to overtake Dennis, and in so doing exhaust himself, so that Lang, who +was running easily in the rear, could come up and in the last quarter +finish out strong. Dennis, too, was expecting to hear the Harvard man come +up with him pretty soon, and knew that this would be the signal for him to +make his dying effort in behalf of his comrade, Lang. As they straightened +out into the back stretch Richards did quicken up somewhat, and Dennis let +himself out. In fact, he did this so well that as they entered upon the +last quarter Richards had not decreased the distance, and indeed it had +opened up a little wider. But where was Lang? Dennis was beginning to +expect one or the other of these two men to come up, and, as he turned +into the back stretch for the last time, it began to dawn upon him, as it +was dawning upon the crowd, that the pace had been too hot for Lang, and, +moreover, that Yale's chance depended on the despised Dennis, and that the +Harvard runner was finding it a big contract to overhaul the sturdy +pounder on the wet track. But Richards was game, and commenced to cut the +gap down. As they turned into the straight, he was within eight yards of +Dennis. But Dennis knew it, and he ran as he had never run before. He +could fairly feel the springing tread of Richards behind him, and knew it +was coming nearer every second. But into the straight they came, and the +crowd sprang to its feet with wild yells for Dennis. Twenty yards from +home Richards, who had picked up all but two yards of the lead, began to +stagger and waver, while Dennis hung to it true and steady, and breasted +the tape three yards in advance, winning his "Y" at last! + +--Walter Camp: _Winning a "Y"_ ("Outlook") + + +In which of the preceding accounts were you more interested? Which made +the more vivid impression? Which would be better suited for a school class +composed of boys and girls? Which for a newspaper report? + +In attempting to relate a contest it is essential that the writer know +what really happened, and in what order it happened, but his successful +presentation will depend to some extent upon the consideration given to +adapting the story to the audience. A person thoroughly conversant with +the game will understand the technical terms, and may prefer the first +account to the second, but those to whom the game is not familiar would +need to have so much explanation of the terms used that the narration +would become tedious to those already familiar with the terms. In order +to make an account of a game interesting to persons unfamiliar with that +game, we must introduce enough of explanation to make clear the meaning +of the terms we use. + + ++Theme XXXIII.+--_Write a theme telling some one who does not understand +the game about some contest which you have seen_. + +Suggested subjects:-- + +1. A basket ball game. +2. A football game. +3. A tennis match. +4. A baseball game. +5. A croquet match. +6. A golf tournament. +7. A yacht race. +8. A relay race. + +(Have you introduced technical terms without making the necessary +explanations? Have you explained so many terms that your narrative is +rendered tedious? Have you related what really happened, and in the proper +time order? Have your paragraphs unity? Can you shorten the theme without +affecting the clearness or interest? Does _then_ occur too frequently?) + + ++Theme XXXIV.+--_Write a theme, using the same subject that you used for +Theme XXXIII. Assume that the reader understands the game._ + + +(Will the reader get the whole contest clearly in mind? Can you shorten +the account? Compare this theme with Theme XXXIII.) + + ++63. Explanation of Terms.+--Any word that alone or with its modifiers +calls to mind a single idea, is a term. When applied to a particular +object, quality, or action, it is a specific term; but when applied to any +one of a class of objects, qualities, or actions, it is a general term. +For example: _The Lake_, referring to a lake near at hand, is a specific +term; but _a lake_, referring to any lake, is a general term. In Theme +XXXIII you had occasion to explain some of the terms used. If, in telling +about a baseball game, you mentioned a particular "fly," your statement +was description or narration; but if some one should ask what you meant by +"a fly," your answer would be general in character; that is, it would +apply to all "flies," and would belong to that division of composition +called exposition. Exposition is but another name for explanation. It is +always concerned with that which is general, while description and +narration deal with particular cases. We may describe a particular lake; +but if we answer the question, What is a lake? the answer would apply to +any lake, and would be exposition. Explanation of the meaning of general +terms is one form of exposition. + + ++64. Definition by Synonyms.+--If we are asked to explain the meaning of a +general term, our reply in many cases will be a brief definition. Often it +is sufficient to give a synonym. For example, in answer to the question, +What is exposition? we make its meaning clearer by saying, Exposition is +explanation. + +Definition by synonym is frequently used because of its brevity. In the +smaller dictionaries the definitions are largely of this kind. For +example: to desert, _to abandon_; despot, _tyrant_; contemptible, _mean or +vile_; to fuse, _to blend_; inviolable, _sacred_. Synonyms are, however, +seldom exact, but a fair understanding of a term may be gained by +comparing it with its synonyms and discussing the different shades of +meaning. Such a discussion, especially if supplemented by examples showing +the correct use of each term, is a profitable exercise in exposition. For +example:-- + + +Both _discovery_ and _invention_ denote generally something new that is +found out in the arts and sciences. But the term _discovery_ involves in +the thing discovered not merely novelty, but curiosity, utility, +difficulty, and consequently some degree of importance. All this is less +strongly involved in invention. But there are yet wider differences. One +can only discover what has in its integrity existed before the discovery, +while invention brings a thing into existence. America was discovered. +Printing was invented. Fresh discoveries in science often lead to new +inventions in the industrial arts. Indeed, discovery belongs more to +science; invention, to art. Invention increases the store of our practical +resources, and is the fruit of search. Discovery extends the sphere of our +knowledge, and has often been made by accident. + +--Smith: _Synonyms Discriminated_. + + +If exactness is desired, this is obtained by means of the logical +definition, which will be discussed in a later chapter. + + ++Theme XXXV.+--Explain the meaning of the words in one of the following +groups:_-- + + +1. Caustic, satirical, biting. +2. Imply, signify, involve. +3. Martial, warlike, military, soldierlike. +4. Wander, deviate, err, stray, swerve, diverge. +5. Abate, decrease, diminish, lessen, moderate. +6. Emancipation, freedom, independence, liberty. +7. Old, ancient, antique, antiquated, obsolete. +8. Adorn, beautify, bedeck, decorate, ornament, +9. Active, alert, brisk, lively, spry. + + ++65. Use of Simpler Words.+--In defining terms by giving a synonym we must +be careful to choose a synonym which will be most likely to be understood +by our listeners, or our explanation will be of no avail. For instance, in +explaining the term _abate_ to a child, if we say it means _to diminish_, +and he is unfamiliar with that word, he is made none the wiser by our +explanation. If we tell him that it means _to grow less_, he will, in all +probability, understand our explanation. Very many words in our language +have equivalents that may be substituted, the one for the other. Much of +our explanation to children and to those whose attainments are less than +our own consists in substituting common, everyday words for less familiar +ones. + + +EXERCISE + + +Give familiar equivalents for the following words:-- + + +1. emancipate. +2. procure. +3. opportunity. +4. peruse. +5. elapsed. +6. approximately. +7. abbreviate. +8. constitute. +9. simultaneous. +10. familiar. +11. deceased. +12. oral. +13. adhere. +14. edifice. +15. collide. +16. suburban. +17. repugnance. +18. grotesque. +19. equipage. +20. exaggerate. +21. ascend. +22. financial. +23. nocturnal. +24. maternal. +25. vision. +26. affinity. +27. cohere. +28. athwart. +29. clavicle. +30. omnipotent. +31. enumerate. +32. eradicate. +33. application. +34. constitute. +35. employer. +36. rendezvous. +37. obscure. +38. indicate. +39. prevaricate. + + ++66. Definitions Need to be Supplemented.+--The purpose of exposition is +to make clear to others that which we understand ourselves. If the mere +statement of a definition does not accomplish this result, we may often +make our meaning clear by supplementing the definition with suitable +comparisons and examples. In making use of comparisons and examples we +must choose those with which our readers are familiar, and we must be sure +that they fairly represent the term that we wish to illustrate. + + ++Theme XXXVI.+--_Explain any one of the following terms. Begin with as +exact a definition as you can frame._ + +1. A "fly" in baseball. +2. A "foul" in basket ball. +3. A "sneak." +4. A hero. +5. A "spitfire." +6. A laborer. +7. A capitalist. +8. A coward. +9. A freshman. +10. A "header." + + +(Is your definition exact, or only approximately so? How have you made its +meaning clear? Can you think of a better comparison or a better example? +Can your meaning be made clearer, or be more effectively presented, by +arranging your material in a different order?) + + ++67. General Description.+--We may often make clear the meaning of a term +by giving details. In describing a New England village we might enumerate +the streets, the houses, the town pump, the church, and other features. +This would be specific description if the purpose was to have the reader +picture some particular village; but if the purpose was to give the reader +a clear conception of the general characteristics of all New England +villages, the paragraph would become a general description. + +Such a general description would include all the characteristics common +to all the members of the class under discussion, but would omit +any characteristic peculiar to some of them. For example, a general +description of a windmill includes the things common to all windmills. If +an object is described more for the purpose of giving a clear conception +of the class of which it is a type than for the purpose of picturing the +object described, we have a general description. Such a description is in +effect an enlarged definition, and is exposition rather than description. +It is sometimes called scientific description because it is so commonly +employed by writers of scientific books. + +Notice the following examples of general description:-- + + +1. Around every house in Broeck are buckets, benches, rakes, hoes, and +stakes, all colored red, blue, white, or yellow. The brilliancy and +variety of colors and the cleanliness, brightness, and miniature pomp of +the place are wonderful. At the windows there are embroidered curtains +with rose-colored ribbons. The blades, bands, and nails of the gayly +painted windmills shine like silver. The houses are brightly varnished and +surrounded with red and white railings and fences. + +The panes of glass in the windows are bordered by many lines of different +hues. The trunks of all the trees are painted gray from root to branch. +Across the streams are many little wooden bridges, each painted as white +as snow. The gutters are ornamented with a sort of wooden festoon +perforated like lace. The pointed facades are surmounted with a small +weathercock, a little lance, or something resembling a bunch of flowers. +Nearly every house has two doors, one in front and one behind, the last +for everyday entrance and exit, the former opened only on great occasions, +such as births, deaths, and marriages. The gardens are as peculiar as the +houses. The paths are hardly wide enough to walk in. One could put his +arms around the flower beds. The dainty arbors would barely hold two +persons sitting close together. The little myrtle hedges would scarcely +reach to the knees of a four-year-old child. + + +2. Ginseng has a thick, soft, whitish, bulbous root, from one to three +inches long,--generally two or three roots to a stalk,--with wrinkles +running around it, and a few small fibers attached. It has a peculiar, +pleasant, sweetish, slightly bitter, and aromatic taste. The stem or stalk +grows about a foot high, is smooth, round, of a reddish green color, +divided at the top into three short branches, with three to five leaves to +each branch, and a flower stem in the center of the branches. The flower +is small and white, followed by a large, red berry. It is found growing in +most of the states in rich, shady soils. + + +3. As a general proposition, the Scottish hotel is kept by a +benevolent-looking old lady, who knows absolutely nothing about the +trains, nothing about the town, nothing about anything outside of +the hotel, and is non-committal regarding matters even within her +jurisdiction. Upon arrival you do not register, but stand up at the desk +and submit to a cross-examination, much as if you were being sentenced in +an American police court. + +Your hostess always wants twelve hours' notice of your departure, so that +she can make out your bill--a very arduous, formidable undertaking. The +bill is of prodigious dimensions, about the size of a sheet of foolscap +paper, lined and cross-lined for a multitude of entries. When the account +finally reaches you, it closely resembles a design for a cobweb factory. +Any attempt to decipher the various hieroglyphics is useless--it can't be +done. The only thing that can be done is to read the total at the foot of +the page and pay it. + +--_Hotels in Scotland_ ("Kansas City Star"). + + ++Theme XXXVII.+--_Write a general description of one of the following:_-- + +1. A bicycle. +2. A country hay barn. +3. A dog. +4. A summer cottage. +5. An Indian wigwam. +6. A Dutch windmill. +7. A muskrat's house. +8. A robin's nest. +9. A blacksmith's shop. +10. A chipmunk. +11. A threshing machine. +12. A sewing circle. + + +(The purpose is not to picture a particular object, but to give a general +notion of a class of objects. Cross out everything in your theme that +applies only to some particular object. Have you included enough to make +your meaning clear?) + + ++Theme XXXVIII.+--_Using the same title as for Theme XXXVII, write a +specific description of some particular object._ + + +(How does it differ from the general description? What elements have you +introduced which you did not have in the other? Which sentence gives the +general outline? Are your details arranged with regard to their proper +position in space? Will the reader form a vivid picture--just the one you +mean him to have?) + + ++68. General Narration.+--Explanations of a process of manufacture, +methods of playing a game, and the like, often take the form of +generalized narration. Just as we gain a notion of the appearance of a sod +house from a general description, so may we gain a notion of a series of +events from a general narration. Such a narration will not tell what some +one actually did, but will relate the things that are characteristic of +the process or action under discussion whenever it happens. Such general +narration is really exposition. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Notice that the selection below is a generalized narration, showing +what a hare does when hunted. In it no incident peculiar to some special +occasion is introduced. + + +She [the hare] generally returns to the beat from which she was put up, +running, as all the worlds knows, in a circle, or sometimes something +like it, we had better say, that we may keep on good terms with the +mathematical. At starting, she tears away at her utmost speed for a mile +or more, and distances the dogs halfway; she then turns, diverging a +little to the right or left, that she may not run into the mouths of her +enemies--a necessity which accounts for what we call the circularity of +her course. Her flight from home is direct and precipitate; but on her way +back, when she has gained a little time for consideration and stratagem, +she describes a curious labyrinth of short turnings and windings as if to +perplex the dogs by the intricacy of her track. + +--Richard Atton. + + +_B_. The selection below narrates an actual hunt. Notice in what respects +it differs from the preceding selection. + +Sir Roger is so keen at this sport that he has been out almost every day +since I came down; and upon the chaplain's offering to lend me his easy +pad, I was prevailed on yesterday morning to make one of the company. I +was extremely pleased, as we rid along, to observe the general benevolence +of all the neighborhood towards my friend. The farmers' sons thought +themselves happy if they could open a gate for the good old knight as he +passed by; which he generally requited with a nod or a smile, and a kind +inquiry after their fathers and uncles. + +After we had rid about a mile from home, we came upon a large heath, and +the sportsmen began to beat. They had done so for some time, when, as I +was at a little distance from the rest of the company, I saw a hare pop +out from a small furze brake almost under my horse's feet. I marked the +way she took, which I endeavored to make the company sensible of by +extending my arm; but to no purpose, till Sir Roger, who knows that none +of my extraordinary motions are insignificant, rode up to me and asked me +if puss was gone that way? Upon my answering "Yes," he immediately called +in the dogs, and put them upon the scent. As they were going off, I heard +one of the country fellows muttering to his companion, that 'twas a wonder +they had not lost all their sport, for want of the silent gentleman's +crying, "Stole away." + +This, with my aversion to leaping hedges, made me withdraw to a rising +ground, from whence I could have the pleasure of the whole chase, without +the fatigue of keeping in with the hounds. The hare immediately threw them +above a mile behind her; but I was pleased to find, that instead of +running straight forwards, or, in hunter's language, "flying the country," +as I was afraid she might have done, she wheeled about, and described a +sort of circle round the hill, where I had taken my station, in such +manner as gave me a very distinct view of the sport. I could see her first +pass by, and the dogs some time afterwards, unraveling the whole track she +had made, and following her through all her doubles. I was at the same +time delighted in observing that deference which the rest of the pack paid +to each particular hound, according to the character he had acquired among +them: if they were at a fault, and an old hound of reputation opened but +once, he was immediately followed by the whole cry; while a raw dog, or +one who was a noted liar, might have yelped his heart out without being +taken notice of. + +The hare now, after having squatted two or three times, and been put up +again as often, came still nearer to the place where she was at first +started. The dogs pursued her, and these were followed by the jolly +knight, who rode upon a white gelding, encompassed by his tenants and +servants, and cheering his hounds with all the gayety of five and twenty. +One of the sportsmen rode up to me, and told me that he was sure the chase +was almost at an end, because the old dogs, which had hitherto lain +behind, now headed the pack. The fellow was in the right. Our hare took a +large field just under us, followed by the full cry in view. I must +confess the brightness of the weather, the cheerfulness of everything +around me, the chiding of the hounds, which was returned upon us in a +double echo from two neighboring hills, with the hallooing of the +sportsmen, and the sounding of the horn, lifted my spirits into a most +lively pleasure, which I freely indulged because I was sure it was +innocent. If I was under any concern, it was on account of the poor hare, +that was now quite spent, and almost within the reach of her enemies; when +the huntsman getting forward, threw down his pole before the dogs. They +were now within eight yards of that game which they had been pursuing for +almost as many hours; yet on the signal before mentioned they all made a +sudden stand, and though they continued opening as much as before, durst +not once attempt to pass beyond the pole. At the same time Sir Roger rode +forward, and alighting, took up the hare in his arms; which he soon after +delivered up to one of his servants with an order, if she could be kept +alive, to let her go in his great orchard; where it seems he has several +of these prisoners of war, who live together in a very comfortable +captivity. I was highly pleased to see the discipline of the pack, and the +good nature of the knight, who could not find in his heart to murder a +creature that had given him so much diversion. + +--Budgell: _Sir Roger de Coverley Papers_. + + ++Theme XXXIX.+--_Explain one of the following by the use of general +narration:_-- + + 1. Baking bread. + 2. How paper is made. + 3. How to play tennis (or some other game). + 4. Catching trout. + 5. Life at school. + 6. How to pitch curves. + + +(Have you arranged your details with reference to their proper time-order? +Have you introduced unnecessary details? Have your paragraphs unity? +Underscore _then_ each time you have used it.) + + ++69. Argument.+--Especially in argument is it evident that language +presupposes an audience. The fact that we argue implies that some one does +not agree with us. The purpose of our argument is to convince some one +else of the truth of a proposition which we ourselves believe, and he who +wishes to succeed in this must give careful attention to his audience. The +question which must always be in the mind of the writer is, What facts +shall I select and in what order shall I present them in order to convince +my reader? The various ways of arguing are more fully treated in a later +chapter, but a few of them are given here. + + ++70. The Use of Explanation in Argument.+--In preparing an argument we +must consider first the amount of explanation that it will be necessary to +make. We cannot expect one to believe a proposition the meaning of which +he does not understand. Often the explanation alone is sufficient to +convince the hearer. Suppose you are trying to gain your parents' consent +to take some course of study. They ask for an explanation of the different +courses, and when they know what each contains they are already convinced +as to which is best for you. + +If you are trying to convince a member of your school board that it would +be well to introduce domestic science into the high school, and he already +understands what is meant by the term "domestic science," you not only +waste time in explaining it, but you make him appear ignorant of what he +already understands. With him you should proceed at once to give your +reasons for the advisability of the introduction of this branch into your +school. On the other hand, if you are talking with a member who does not +understand the term, an explanation will be the first thing necessary. It +is evident, therefore, that the amount of explanation that we shall make +depends upon the previous knowledge of the audience addressed. If we +explain too much, we prejudice our case; and if we explain too little, the +reader may fail to appreciate the arguments that follow. + +The point of the whole matter, then, is that explanation is the first step +in argument, and that in order to determine the amount necessary we must +consider carefully the audience for which our argument is intended. + + ++71. Statement of Advantages and Disadvantages.+ An argument is often +concerned with determining whether it is expedient to do one thing or +another. Such an argument frequently takes the form of a statement of the +advantages that will follow the adoption of the course we recommend, or of +the disadvantages that the following of the opposite course will cause. + +If a corporation should ask for a franchise for a street railway, the city +officials might hold the opinion that a double track should be laid. In +support of this opinion they would name the advantageous results that +would follow from the use of a double track, such as the avoidance of +delays on turnouts, the lessening of the liability of accidents, the +greater rapidity in transportation, etc. On the other hand, the persons +seeking the franchise might reply that a double track would occupy too +much of the street and become a hindrance to teams, or that the advantages +were not sufficient to warrant the extra expense. + +Concerning such a question there can be no absolute decision. We are not +discussing what is right, but what is expedient, and the determination of +what is expedient is based upon a consideration of advantages or +disadvantages. In deciding, we must balance the advantages against the +disadvantages and determine which has the greater weight. If called upon +to take one side or the other, we must consider carefully the value of the +facts counting both for and against the proposition before we can make up +our mind which side we favor. + +You must bear in mind that a thing may not be an advantage because you +believe it to be. That which seems to you to be the reason why you should +take some high school subject, may seem to your father or your teacher to +be the very reason why you should not. In writing arguments of this kind +you must take care to select facts that will appeal to your readers as +advantages. + +Notice the following editorial which appeared in the _Boston Latin School +Register_ shortly after a change was made whereby the pupils instead of +the teachers moved from room to room for their various recitations:-- + + +The new system of having the classes move about from room to room to their +recitations has been in use for nearly a month, and there has been +sufficient opportunity for testing its practicability and its advantages. +There is no doubt that the new system alters the old form of recesses, +shortening the two regular ones, but giving three minutes between +recitations as a compensation for this loss. Although theoretically we +have more recess time than formerly, in the practical working out of the +system we find that the three minutes between recitations is occupied in +gathering up one's books, and reaching the next recitation room; besides +this, that there is often some confusion in reaching the various +classrooms, and that there are many little inconveniences which would not +occur were we sitting at our own desks. On the other hand, as an offset to +these disadvantages, there is the advantage of a change of position, and a +respite from close attention, with a breathing spell in which to get the +mind as well as the books ready for another lesson. The masters have in +every recitation their own maps and reference books, with which they can +often make their instruction much more forceful and interesting. Besides +that, they have entire control of their own blackboards, and can leave +work there without fear of its being erased to make room for that of some +other master. The confusion will doubtless be lessened as time goes on and +we become more used to the system. Even the first disadvantage is more or +less offset by the fact that the short three-minute periods, although they +cannot be used like ordinary recesses, yet serve to give us breathing +space between recitations and to lessen the strain of continuous +application; so that, on the whole, the advantages seem to counterbalance +the disadvantages. + + +EXERCISES + + +What advantages and disadvantages can you think of for each of the +following propositions? State them orally. + + +1. All telephone and telegraph wires in cities should be put under ground. + +2. The speed of bicycles and automobiles should be limited to eight miles + per hour. + +3. High school football teams should not play match games on regular + school days. + +4. High school pupils should not attend evening parties excepting on + Fridays and Saturdays. + +5. Monday would be a better day than Saturday for a school holiday. + +6. The school session should be lengthened. + + ++Theme XL.+--_Write two paragraphs, one of which shall give the advantages +and the other the disadvantages that would arise from the adoption of any +one of the following:_ + +1. This school should have a longer recess. + +2. This school should have two hours for the noon recess. + +3. This school should be in session from eight o'clock until one o'clock. + +4. All the pupils in this school should be seated in one room. + +5. The public library should be in the high school building. + +6. The football team should be excused early in order to practice. + +7. This school should have a greater number of public entertainments. + + ++72. Explanation and Argument by Specific Instances.+--Often we may make +the meaning of a general proposition clear by citing specific instances. +If these instances are given for the purpose of explanation merely, the +paragraph is exposition. If, however, the aim is not merely to cause the +reader to understand the proposition, but also to believe that it is true, +we have argument. In either case we have a paragraph developed by specific +instances as discussed in Section 44. Notice how in the following +paragraph the author brings forward specific cases in order to prove the +proposition:-- + + +Nearly everything that an animal does is the result of an inborn instinct +acted upon by an outward stimulus. The margin wherein intelligent choice +plays a part is very small.... Instinct is undoubtedly often modified by +intelligence, and intelligence is as often guided or prompted by instinct, +but one need not hesitate long as to which side of the line any given act +of man or beast belongs. When the fox resorts to various tricks to outwit +and delay the hound (if he ever consciously does so), he exercises a kind +of intelligence--the lower form of which we call cunning--and he is +prompted to this by an instinct of self-preservation. When the birds set +up a hue and cry about a hawk, or an owl, or boldly attack him, they show +intelligence in its simpler form, the intelligence that recognizes its +enemies, prompted again by the instinct of self-preservation. When a hawk +does not know a man on horseback from a horse, it shows a want of +intelligence. When a crow is kept away from a corn-field by a string +stretched around it, the fact shows how masterful is its fear and how +shallow its wit. When a cat or a dog or a horse or a cow learns to open a +gate or a door, it shows a degree of intelligence--power to imitate, to +profit by experience. A machine could not learn to do it. If the animal +were to close the door or gate behind it, that would be another step in +intelligence. But its direct wants have no relation to the closing of +the door, only to the opening of it. To close the door involves an +afterthought that an animal is not capable of. A horse will hesitate to go +upon thin ice or frail bridges. This, no doubt, is an inherited instinct +which has arisen in its ancestors from their fund of general experience +with the world. How much with them has depended upon a secure footing! A +pair of house-wrens had a nest in my well-curb; when the young were partly +grown and heard any one enter the curb, they would set up a clamorous +calling for food. When I scratched against the sides of the curb beneath +them like some animal trying to climb up, their voices instantly hushed; +the instinct of fear promptly overcame the instinct of hunger! Instinct is +intelligence, but it is not the same as acquired individual intelligence; +it is untaught. + +John Burroughs: _Some Natural History Doubts_ ("Harper's"). + + +EXERCISES + + +What facts or instances do you know which would lead you to believe either +the following propositions or their opposites? + +1. Dogs are intelligent. + +2. Only excellent pupils can pass the seventh grade examination. + +3. Some teachers do not ask fair questions on examination. + +4. Oak trees grow to be larger than maples. + +5. Strikes increase the cost to the consumer. + +6. A college education pays. + +7. Department stores injure the trade of smaller stores. + +8. Advertising pays. + + ++Theme XLI.+--_Write a paragraph, proving by one or more examples one of +the propositions in the preceding exercise:_ + + +(Do your examples really illustrate what you are trying to prove? Do they +show that the proposition is always true or merely that it is true +for certain cases? Would your argument cause another to believe the +proposition?) + + ++73. The Value of Debate.+--Participation in oral debate furnishes +excellent practice in accurate and rapid thinking. We may choose one side +of a question and may write out an argument which, considered alone, and +from our point of view, seems convincing, but when this is submitted to +the criticism of some one of opposite views, or when the arguments in +favor of the other side of the question are brought forward, we are not so +sure that we have chosen the side which represents the truth. The ability +to think "on one's feet," to present arguments concisely and effectively, +and to reply to opposing arguments, giving due weight to those that are +true, and detecting and pointing out those that are false, is an +accomplishment of great practical value. Such ability comes only from +practice, and the best preparation for it is the careful writing out of +arguments. + + ++74. Statement of the Question.+--The subject of debate may be stated in +the form of a resolution, a declarative sentence, or a question; as, +"Resolved that the recess should be lengthened," or "The recess should be +lengthened," or, "Should the recess be lengthened?" In any case, the +affirmative must show why the recess should be lengthened, and the +negative why it should not be lengthened. + +In a formal debate the statement of the question and its meaning should be +definitely determined in advance. Care must be taken to state it so that +no mere quibbling over the meanings of terms can take the place of real +arguments. Even if the subject of debate is so stated that this is +possible, any self-respecting debater will meet the question at issue +fairly and squarely, preferring defeat to a victory won by juggling with +the meanings of terms. + + ++75. Is Belief Necessary in Debate?+--If we are really arguing for a +purpose, we should believe in the truth of the proposition which +we support. If the members of the school board were discussing the +desirability of building a new schoolhouse, each would speak in accordance +with his belief. But if a class in school should debate such a question, +having in mind not the determination of the question, but merely the +selection and arrangement of the arguments for and against the proposition +in the most effective way, each pupil might present the side in which he +did not really believe. + + +EXERCISES + + +Consider each of the following propositions. Do you believe the +affirmative or the negative? + +1. This city needs a new high school building. + +2. All the pupils in the high school should be members of the athletic + association. + +3. The school board should purchase an inclosed athletic field. + +4. The street railway should carry pupils to and from school for half + fare. + +5. There should be a lunch room in this school. + +6. Fairy stories should not be told to children. + + ++Theme XLII.+--_Write a paragraph telling why you believe one of the +propositions in the preceding exercise:_ + +(What questions should you ask yourself while correcting your theme?) + + ++76. Order of Presentation.+--If you were preparing to debate one of the +propositions in the preceding exercise, you would need to have in mind +both the reasons for and against it. Next you would consider the order in +which these reasons should be discussed. This will be determined by the +circumstances of each debate, but generally the emphatic positions, that +is, the first and the last, will be given to those arguments that seem to +you to have the greatest weight, while those of less importance will +occupy the central portion of your theme. + + ++77. The Brief.+--If, after making a note of the various advantages, +examples, and other arguments that you wish to use in support of one of +the propositions in Section 75, you arrange these in the order in which +you think they can be most effectively presented, the outline so formed is +called a brief. Its preparation requires clear thinking, but when it is +made, the task of writing out the argument is not difficult. When the +debate is to be spoken, not read, the brief, if kept in mind, will serve +to suggest the arguments we wish to make in the order in which we wish to +present them. The brief differs from the ordinary outline in that it is +composed of complete sentences. Notice the following brief:-- + +Manual Training should be substituted for school athletics. + + _Affirmative_ + +1. The exercise furnished by manual training is better adapted to the + developing of the whole being both physical and mental; for-- + _a._ It requires the mind to act in order to determine what to do + and how to do it. + _b._ It trains the muscles to carry out the ideal of the mind. + +2. The effect of manual training on health is better; for-- + _a._ Excessive exercise, harmful to growing children, is avoided. + _b._ Dangerous contests are avoided. + +3. The final results of manual training are more valuable; for-- + _a._ The objects made are valuable. + _b._ The skill of hand and eye may become of great practical value + in after life. + +4. The moral effect of manual training is better; for-- + _a._ Athletics develops the "anything to win" spirit, while manual + training creates a wholesome desire to excel in the creation + of something useful or beautiful. + _b._ Dishonesty in games may escape notice, but dishonesty in + workmanship cannot be concealed. + _c._ Athletics fosters slovenliness of dress and manners, while + manual training cultivates the love of the beautiful. + +5. The beneficial results of manual training have a wider effect upon the + school; for-- + _a._ But comparatively few pupils "make the team" and receive the + maximum athletic drill, while all pupils can take manual + training. + + ++78. Refutation or Indirect Argument.+--In debate we need to consider not +only the arguments in favor of our own side, but also those presented by +our opponents. That part of our theme which states our own arguments is +called direct argument, and that part in which we reply to our opponents +is called indirect argument or refutation. It is often very important to +show that the opposing argument is false or, if true, has been given an +exaggerated importance that it does not really possess. If, however, the +argument is true and of weight, the fact should be frankly acknowledged. +Our desire for victory should not cause us to disregard the truth. If the +argument of our opponent has been so strong that it seems to have taken +possession of the audience, we must reply to it in the beginning. If it is +of less weight, each separate point may be discussed as we take up related +points in our own argument. Often it will be found best to give the +refutation a place just preceding our own last and strongest argument. + +From the foregoing it will be seen that each case cannot be determined by +rule, but must be determined for itself, and it is because of the exercise +of judgment required, that practice in debating is so valuable. A dozen +boys or girls may, with much pleasure and profit, spend an evening a week +as a debating club. + + ++Theme XLIII.+--_Prepare a written argument for or against one of the +propositions in Section 75._ + + +(Make a brief. Re-arrange the arguments that you intend to use until they +have what seems to you the best order. Consider the probable arguments on +the other side and what reply can be made. Answer one or two of the +strongest ones. If you have any trivial arguments for your own side, +either omit them or make their discussion very brief.) + + ++79. Cautions in Debating.+--When we have made a further study of argument +we shall need to consider again the subject of debating. In the meantime a +few cautions will be helpful. + +1. Be fair. A debate is in the nature of a contest, and is quite as +interesting as any other contest. The desire to win should never lead you +to take any unfair advantage or to descend to mere quibbling over the +statement of the proposition or the meanings of the terms. Win fairly or +not at all. + +2. Be honest with yourself. Do not present arguments which you know to be +false, in the hope that your opponent cannot prove their falsity. This +does not mean that you cannot present arguments in favor of a proposition +unless you believe it to be true, but that those you do present should be +real arguments for the side that you uphold, even though you believe that +there are weightier ones on the other side. Do not use an example that +seems to apply if you know that it does not. You are to "tell the truth +and nothing but the truth," but in debate you may tell only that part of +the "whole truth" which favors your side of the proposition. + +3. Do not allow your desire for victory to overcome your desire for truth. +Do not argue for the sake of winning, nor develop the habit of arguing in +season and out. In the school and outside there are persons who, like Will +Carleton's Uncle Sammy, "were born for arguing." They use their own time +in an unprofitable way, and what is worse, they waste the time of others. +They are not seeking for truth, but for controversy. It is quite as bad to +doubt everything you hear as it is to believe everything. + +4. Remember that mere statement is not argument. The fact that you believe +a proposition does not make it true. In order to carry weight, a statement +must be based on principles and theories that _the audience_ believes. + +5. Remember that exhortation is not argument. Entreaty may persuade one to +action, but in debate you should aim to convince the intellect. Clear, +accurate thinking on your own part, so that you may present sound, logical +arguments, is the first essential. + + ++Theme XLIV.+--_Prepare a written argument for or against one of the +following propositions:_-- + +1. Boys who cannot go to college should take a commercial course in the + high school. + +2. Novel reading is a waste of time. + +3. Asphalt paving is more satisfactory than brick. + +4. Foreign skilled labor should be kept out of the United States. + +5. Our own town should be lighted by electricity. + +6. Athletic contests between high schools should be prohibited. + + +(Consider your argument with reference to the cautions given in Section +79.) + + +SUMMARY + + +1. The purpose of discourse may be to inform or to entertain. + +2. The forms of discourse are-- + _a._ Description. + _b._ Narration. + _c._ Exposition. + _d._ Argument (Persuasion). + +3. Discourse presupposes an audience, and we must select a subject and use + language adapted to that audience. + +4. The suitableness of a subject is determined-- + _a._ By the writer's knowledge of the subject. + (1) This may be based on experience, or + (2) It may be gained from others through conversation and + reading. + _b._ By the writer's interest in the subject. + (1) This may exist from the first, or + (2) It may be aroused by our search for information. + _c._ By adaptability of the subject to the reader. It should be of + present, vital interest to him. + +5. Subjects. + _a._ The sources of subjects are unlimited. + _b._ Subjects should be definite. They often need to be narrowed in + order to be made definite. + _c._ The title should be brief and should be worded so as to arouse + a desire to hear the theme. + +6. Exposition is explanation. + +7. We may make clear the meaning of a term-- + _a._ By using synonyms. + _b._ By using simpler words. + _c._ By supplementing our definitions with examples or comparisons. + +8. General description includes the characteristics common to all members + of a class of objects. + +9. General narration is one form of exposition. It relates the things that + characterize a process or action whenever it occurs. + +10. Argument. + _a._ Explanation is the first step in argument. + _b._ A statement of advantages and disadvantages may assist us to + determine which side of a question we believe. + _c._ Specific instances may be used either for explanation or + argument. + +11. Debate. + _a._ The subject of the debate may be stated in the form of a + resolution, a declarative sentence, or a question. + _b._ The most important arguments should be given the first and last + positions. + _c._ A brief will assist us in arranging our arguments in the most + effective order. + _d._ The refutation of opposing arguments should usually be placed + just before our own last and strongest argument. + _e._ Cautions in debating. + (1) Be fair. + (2) Be honest with yourself. + (3) Do not allow your desire for victory to overcome your + desire for truth. + (4) Remember that mere statement is not argument. + (5) Remember that exhortation is not argument. + + + + +V. THE WHOLE COMPOSITION + + ++80. General Principles of Composition.+--There are three important +principles to be considered in every composition: unity, coherence, and +emphasis. Though not always named, each of these has been considered and +used in our writing of paragraphs. The consideration of methods of +securing unity, coherence, and emphasis in the composition as a whole is +the purpose of this chapter. It will serve also as a review and especially +as an enlarged view of paragraph development as treated in Chapter III, +for the methods discussed with regard to the whole composition are the +same that are used in applying the three principles to single paragraphs. + + ++81. Unity.+--A composition possesses unity if all that it contains bears +directly upon the subject. It is evident that the title of the theme +determines in a large degree the matter that should be included. Much that +is appropriate to a theme on "Bass Fishing" will be found unnecessary in a +theme entitled "How I caught a Bass." It is easier to secure unity in a +theme treating of a narrow, limited subject than in one treating of a +broad, general subject. The first step toward unity is, therefore, the +selection of a limited subject and a suitable title (see Sections 58-61); +the second is the collection of all facts, illustrations, and other +material which may appropriately be used in a theme having the chosen +title. + + ++82. Coherence.+--A composition is given coherence by placing the ideas in +such an order that each naturally suggests the one which follows. If the +last paragraph is more closely related in thought to the first paragraph +than it is to the intervening ones, the composition lacks coherence. +Similarly, that paragraph is coherent in which the thought moves forward +in an orderly way with each sentence growing out of the preceding one. + +In describing the capture of a large trout a boy might state that he broke +his pole. Then he might tell what kind of pole he had, why he did not have +a better one, what poles are best adapted to trout fishing, etc. Though +each of these ideas is suggested by the preceding, the story still lacks +coherence because the boy will need later to go back and tell us what +happened to him or to the trout when the pole broke. If a description of +the kind of pole is necessary in order to make the point of the story +clear, it should have been introduced earlier. Stopping at the moment of +vital interest to discuss fishing poles, spoils the effect of the story. +Good writers are very skillful in the early introducing of details that +will enable the reader to appreciate the events as they happen, and they +are equally skillful in omitting unnecessary details. The proper selection +of these details gives unity, and their introduction at the proper place +gives coherence to a narrative. By saying, "I am getting ahead of my +story," the narrator confesses that coherence is lacking. Read again the +selection on page 106. + + ++83. Emphasis.+--If we desire to make one part of a theme more emphatic +than another, we may do so by giving a prominent position to that part. In +debating we give the first place and the last to the strongest arguments. +In simple narration the order in which incidents must be related is fixed +by the time-order of their occurrence, but even in a story the point gains +in force if it is near the close. Because these two positions are the ones +of greatest emphasis, a poor beginning or a bad ending will ruin an +otherwise good story. + +Emphasis may also be affected by the proportional amount of attention and +space given to the different parts of a theme. The extent to which any +division of a theme should be developed depends upon the purpose and the +total length of the theme. A biography of Grant might appropriately devote +two or three chapters to his boyhood, while a short sketch of his life +would treat his boyhood in a single paragraph. In determining the amount +of space to be given to the different parts of a composition, care must be +taken that the space assigned to each shall be proportional to its +importance, the largest amount of space being devoted to the part which is +of greatest worth. + +Emphasis is sometimes given by making a single sentence into a paragraph. +This method should be used with care, for such a paragraph may be too +short for unity because it does not include all that should be said about +the topic statement, and though it makes that statement emphatic, fails to +make its meaning clear. + +Clearness, unity, and coherence are of more importance +than emphasis, and usually, if a theme possesses the first +three qualities, it will possess the fourth in sufficient +measure. + + ++84. The Outline.+--An outline will assist us in securing unity, +coherence, and emphasis. + +1. The first step in making an outline has relation to unity. Unity +requires that a theme include only that which pertains to the subject. +There are always many more ideas that seem to bear upon a subject than can +be included in the theme. We may therefore jot down brief notes that will +suggest our ideas on the subject, and then we should reject from this list +all that seem irrelevant or trivial. We should also reject the less +important ideas which pertain directly to the subject if without them we +have all that are needed in order to fulfill the purpose of the theme. + +Which items in the following should be omitted as not necessary to the +complete treatment of the subject indicated by the title? Should anything +be added? + + +_My First Partridge_ + + +Where I lived ten years ago. +Kinds of game: partridge, quail, squirrels. +Partridge drumming. +My father went hunting often. +How he was injured. +Birch brush near hemlock; partridge often found in such localities. +Loading the gun. +Going to the woods. +Why partridge live near birch brush. +Fall season. +Hunting for partridge allowed from September to December. +Tramping through the woods. +Something moving. +Creeping up. +How I felt; excited; hand shook. +Partridge on log. +Gun failed to go off; cocking it properly. +The shot; the recoil. +The flurry of the bird. +How partridges fly. +How they taste when cooked. +Getting the bird. +Going home. +Partridges are found in the woods; quail in the fields. +What my sister said. +My brother's interest. +My father's story about shooting three partridges with one shot. +What mother did. + + +2. The second step in outline making has relation to coherence. After we +have rejected from our notes all items which would interfere with the +unity of our theme, we next arrange the remaining items in a coherent +order. One method of securing coherence is illustrated by a simple +narrative which follows the time-order. We naturally group together in our +memory those events which occurred at a given time, and in recalling a +series of events we pass in order from one such group to another. These +groups form natural paragraph units, and the placing of them in their +actual time-order gives coherence to the composition. + +After rejecting the unnecessary items in the preceding list, re-arrange +the remaining ones in a coherent order. How many paragraphs would you make +and what would you include in each? + +3. The third step in making an outline has relation to emphasis. In some +outlines emphasis is secured by placing the more important points first, +in others by placing them last. In this particular outline we have a +natural time-order to follow, and emphasis will be determined mainly by +the relative proportion to be given to different paragraphs. Do not give +unimportant paragraphs too much space. Be sure that the introduction and +the conclusion are short. + + ++Theme XLV.+--_Write a personal narrative at least three paragraphs in +length._ + + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. How I was saved from drowning. + 2. The largest string of fish I ever caught. + 3. An incident of the skating season. + 4. What I did on Christmas day. + 5. A Saturday with my grandmother. + 6. To the city and back. + + +(Make an outline. Keep in mind unity, coherence, and +emphasis. Consider each paragraph with reference to +unity, coherence, and emphasis.) + + ++85. Development of a Composition with Reference to the Time-Order.+-- +Of the several methods of developing a composition let us consider first +that of giving details in the natural time-order. (See Section 46.) If a +composition composed of a series of paragraphs possesses coherence, each +paragraph is so related to the preceding ones that the thought goes +steadily forward from one to another. Often the connection in thought is +so evident that no special indication needs to be made, but if the +paragraphs are arranged with reference to a time-order, this time-order +is usually indicated. + +Notice how the relation in time of each paragraph to the preceding is +shown by the following sentences of parts of sentences taken in order from +a magazine article entitled "Yachting at Kiel," by James B. Connolly:-- + + +1. It was slow waiting in Travemunde. The long-enduring twilight of a + summer's day at fifty-four north began to settle down... + +2. The dusk comes on, and on the ships of war they seem to be getting + nervous... + +3. The dusk deepens... + +4. It is getting chilly in the night air, with the rations running low, + and the charterers of some of the fishing boats decide to go home... + +5. It is eleven o'clock--dark night--and the breeze is freshening, when + the first of the fleet heaves in sight... + +6. After that they arrive rapidly... + +7. At midnight there is still no _Meteor_... + +8. Through the entire night they keep coming... + +9. Next morning... + + ++Theme XLVI.+--_Write a narrative, four or more paragraphs in length, +showing the time-order._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. The race up the river. + 2. The life of some well-known man. + 3. The cake that fell. + 4. Retell some incident that you have recently read. + 5. Relate some personal experience. + 6. A story suggested by the picture on page 160. + + +(Make an outline. Consider the unity, coherence, and emphasis of each +paragraph separately. Then consider the unity, coherence, and emphasis of +the whole composition. Notice what expressions you have used to indicate +the relations in time. Have you used the same expression too often?) + + ++86. Development of a Composition with Reference to Position in Space.+-- +A second method of development is to relate details with reference to +their position in space. + + +[Illustration] + + +Just as we may give either a paragraph or a whole theme coherence by +following a given time-order, so may we make a paragraph or a whole theme +coherent by arranging the parts in an order determined by their position +in space. In developing a theme by this method we simply apply to the +whole theme the principles discussed for the development of a paragraph +(Section 47). + +In a description composed of several paragraphs, each paragraph should +contain a group of details closely related to one another in space. The +paragraphs should be constructed so that each shall possess unity and +coherence within itself, and they should be so arranged that we may pass +most easily from the group of images presented by one paragraph to the +images presented by the next. In narration, the space arrangement may +supplement time-order in giving coherence. + +If the most attractive features of an art room are its +wall decorations, five paragraphs describing the room may +be as follows:-- + + 1. Point of view: general impression. + 2. The north wall: general impression; details. + 3. The east wall: general impression; details. + 4. The south wall: general impression; details. + 5. The west wall: general impression; details. + + +It is easy to imagine a room in the description of which the following +paragraphs would be appropriate:-- + + 1. Point of view. + 2. The fireplace. + 3. The easy-chair. + 4. The table. + 5. The bookcase. + 6. The cozy nook. + + +Such an arrangement of paragraphs would give coherence. Unity would be +secured by including in each only that which properly belonged to it. + +There are many words and expressions which indicate the relative position +of objects. The paragraph below is an illustration of the method of +development described in Section 47. Notice the words which indicate the +location of the different details in the scene. If each of these details +should be developed into a paragraph the italicized expressions would +serve to introduce these paragraphs and would show the relative positions +of the objects described. + +The beauty of the sea and shore was almost indescribable: _on one side_ +rose Point Loma, grim, gloomy as a fortress wall; _before_ me stretched +away to the horizon the ocean with its miles of breakers curling into +foam; _between_ the surf and the city, wrapped in its dark blue mantle, +lay the sleeping bay; _eastward_ the mingled yellow, red, and white of San +Diego's buildings glistened in the sunlight like a bed of coleus; _beyond_ +the city heaved the rolling plains rich in their garb of golden brown, +_from which_ rose the distant mountains, tier on tier, wearing the purple +veil which Nature here loves oftenest to weave for them; while _in the +foreground_, like a jewel in a brilliant setting, stood the Coronado. + +--Stoddard: _California_. + + ++Theme XLVII.+--_Write a description three or more paragraphs in length._ + + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. Some well-known building (exterior). + 2. A prominent person. + 3. An attractive room. + 4. The interior of a church. + +(Consider your outline with reference to unity, coherence, and proportion +of parts. When the theme is completed, consider the unity, coherence, and +emphasis of each paragraph and of the composition as a whole.) + + ++87. Paragraph Relations.+--Relations in thought other than those of time +and space may be indicated by the use of certain words and phrases. Such +expressions as, _however, nevertheless, consequently, indeed, moreover, at +all events_, etc., are often used to indicate a relation in thought +between paragraphs. Notice how _nevertheless_, at the beginning of the +selection below, serves to connect it in thought with a preceding +paragraph not printed here. Notice also the relations in thought shown by +the italicized words. These and similar words are used to make the +transition from one paragraph to the next. + +_Nevertheless_, Howe was at last in possession of Philadelphia, the object +of his campaign, and with his communications by water open. He had +consumed four months in this business since he left New York, three months +since he landed near the Elk River. His prize, now that he had got it, was +worth less than nothing in a military point of view, and he had been made +to pay a high price for it, not merely in men, but in precious time, for +while he was struggling sluggishly for Philadelphia, Burgoyne, who really +meant something very serious, had gone to wreck and sunk out of sight in +the northern forests. _Indeed_, Howe did not even hold his dearly bought +town in peace. After the fall of the forts, Greene, aided by Lafayette, +who had joined the army on its way to the Brandywine, made a sharp +dash and broke up an outlying party of Hessians. _Such things_ were +intolerable, they interfered with personal comfort, and they emanated from +the American army which Washington had now established in strong lines at +Whitemarsh. _So_ Howe announced that in order to have a quiet winter, he +would drive Washington beyond the mountains. Howe did not often display +military intelligence, but that he was profoundly right in this particular +intention must be admitted. In pursuit of his plan, _therefore_, he +marched out of Philadelphia on December 4th, drove off some Pennsylvania +militia on the 5th, considered the American position for four days, did +not dare to attack, could not draw his opponent out, returned to the city, +and left Washington to go into winter quarters at Valley Forge, whence he +could easily strike if any move was made by the British army. + +--Henry Cabot Lodge. + + ++88. The Transition Paragraph.+--Just as a word or phrase may serve to +denote the relation in thought between paragraphs, so may a whole +paragraph be used to carry over the thought from one group of paragraphs +to another in the same theme. Such a paragraph makes a transition from one +general topic or method of treating the subject of the theme to some other +general topic or to the consideration of the subject from a different +point of view. This transitional paragraph may summarize the thought of +the preceding paragraph in addition to announcing a change of topic; or it +may mark the transition to the new topic and set it forth in general +terms. + + ++89. The Summarizing Paragraph.+--Frequently we give emphasis to our +thought by a final paragraph summarizing the main points of the theme. +Such a summary is in effect a restatement of the topic sentences of our +paragraphs. If our theme has been coherent, these sentences stated in +order will need but little changing to make a coherent paragraph. In a +similar way, it is of advantage to close a long paragraph with a sentence +which repeats the topic statement or summarizes the thought of the +paragraph. See the last sentence in Section 57. + + ++90. Development of a Composition by Comparison or Contrast.+--The third +method of development is that of comparison or contrast. Nearly every idea +which we have suggests one that is similar to it or in contrast with it. +We are thus led to make comparisons or to state contrasts. When these are +few and brief, they may make a single paragraph (Section 48). If our +comparisons or contrasts are extended, they may make several paragraphs, +and thus a whole theme may be developed by this method. + +In such a theme no fixed order of presentation is determined by the actual +occurrence in time or space of that which we present. Consequently, in +outlining a theme of this kind, we must devote special attention to +arranging our paragraphs in an order that shall give coherence and +emphasis. + + ++Theme XLVIII.+--_Write a theme of three or more paragraphs developed by +comparison._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. Compare men with verbs (active, passive, transitive, intransitive, + defective, redundant, auxiliary, copulative, etc.). + 2. Show that the body resembles a machine. + 3. In what way is the school like a factory? + 4. How do two books that you have read differ? + 5. Compare Lincoln and McKinley. How alike? How different? + 6. How can you tell an oak tree from an elm tree? + 7. Without naming them, compare two of your friends with each other. + 8. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of public high schools + with those of private academies. + + ++91. Development of a Composition by Use of Generalization and Facts.+-- +Using the fourth method of development, we may give an entire composition +to the explanation of the meaning of a general proposition or to the +demonstration of the truth of such a proposition. To accomplish this +purpose we state facts or instances that illustrate the meaning of the +proposition or that show it to be true. In such a composition each +important fact or instance may be given a separate paragraph, while +several minor facts or illustrations may be properly combined in the same +paragraph. (See Section 44.) Greater emphasis may also be given the more +important facts by assigning them to the emphatic positions. + +Notice how by specific instances the following selection illustrates the +truth of the generalization set forth in the second sentence and restated +in the last sentence. + + +DEGENERATION THROUGH QUIESCENCE + + +While parasitism is the principal cause of degeneration among animals, yet +it is not the sole cause. It is evident that if for any other reason +animals should become fixed, and live inactive lives, they would +degenerate. There are not a few instances of degeneration due simply to a +quiescent life, unaccompanied by parasitism. + +The Tunicata, or sea squirts, are animals which have become simple through +degeneration, due to the adoption of a sedentary life, the withdrawal from +the crowd of animals and from the struggle which it necessitates. The +young tunicate is a free-swimming, active, tadpolelike, or fishlike +creature, which possesses organs very like those of the adult of the +simplest fishes or fishlike forms. That is, the sea squirt begins life as +a primitively simple vertebrate. It possesses in its larval stage a +notochord, the delicate structure which precedes the formation of a +backbone, extending along the upper part of the body below the spinal +cord. The other organs of the young tunicate are all of vertebral type. +But the young sea squirt passes a period of active and free life as a +little fish, after which it settles down and attaches itself to a shell or +wooden pier by means of suckers, and remains for the rest of its life +fixed. Instead of going on and developing into a fishlike creature, it +loses its notochord, its special sense organs, and other organs; it loses +its complexity and high organization, and becomes a "mere rooted bag with +a double neck," a thoroughly degenerate animal. + +A barnacle is another example of degeneration through quiescence. The +barnacles are crustaceans related most nearly to the crabs and shrimps. +The young barnacle just from the egg is a six-legged, free-swimming +nauplius, very like a young prawn or crab, with a single eye. In its next +larval stage it has six pairs of swimming feet, two compound eyes, and two +antennae or feelers, and still lives an independent free-swimming life. +When it makes its final change to the adult condition, it attaches itself +to some stone, or shell, or pile, or ship's bottom, loses its compound +eyes and feelers, develops a protecting shell, and gives up all power of +locomotion. Its swimming feet become changed into grasping organs, and it +loses most of its outward resemblance to the other members of its class. + +Certain insects live sedentary or fixed lives. All the members of the +family of scale insects (Coccidae), in one sex at least, show degeneration +that has been caused by quiescence. One of these coccids, called the red +orange scale, is very abundant in Florida and California and in other +fruit-growing regions. The male is a beautiful, tiny, two-winged midge, +but the female is a wingless, footless, little sack, without eyes or other +organs of special sense, which lies motionless under a flat, thin, +circular, reddish scale composed of wax and two or three cast skins of the +insect itself. The insect has a long, slender, flexible, sucking beak, +which is thrust into the leaf or stem or fruit of the orange on which the +"scale bug" lives, and through which the insect sucks the orange sap, +which is its only food. It lays eggs under its body, and thus also under +the protecting wax scale, and dies. From the eggs hatch active little +larval "scale bugs," with eyes and feelers, and six legs. They crawl from +under the wax scale and roam about over the orange tree. Finally, they +settle down, thrusting their sucking beak into the plant tissue, and cast +their skin. The females lose at this molt their legs and eyes and feelers. +Each becomes a mere motionless sack capable only of sucking up sap and +laying eggs. The young males, however, lose their sucking beak and can no +longer take food, but they gain a pair of wings and an additional pair of +eyes. They fly about and fertilize the sacklike females, which then molt +again and secrete the thin wax scale over them. + +Throughout the animal kingdom loss of the need of movement is followed by +the loss of the power to move and of all structures related +to it. + +--Jordon and Kellogg: _Animal Life_. + + +Has the principle of unity been observed in the above selection; that is, +of the many things that might be told about a sea squirt, a barnacle, or a +scale bug, have the authors selected only those which serve to illustrate +degeneration through quiescence? + +Instead of one generalization supported by a series of facts to +each of which a paragraph is given, we may have several subordinate +generalizations relating to the subject of the theme. Each of these +subordinate generalizations may become the topic statement of a paragraph +which is further developed by giving specific instances or by some other +method of paragraph development. Such an order, that is, generalization +followed by the facts which illustrate it, is coherent; but care must be +taken to give each fact under the generalization to which it is most +closely related. On the other hand, our theme may be made coherent by +giving the facts first, and then the generalization that they establish. + + ++Theme XLIX.+--_Write a theme of three or more paragraphs illustrating or +proving some general statement by means of facts or specific instances._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. Young persons should not drink coffee. + 2. Reasons for the curfew bell. + 3. Girls wear their hair in a variety of ways. + 4. There are several kinds of boys in this school. + 5. Civilization increases as the facilities for transportation + increase. + 6. Trolley roads are of great benefit to the country. + 7. Presence of mind often averts danger. + + ++92. Development of a Composition by Stating Cause and Effect.+--The +statement of the causes of an event or condition may be used as a fifth +method of development. The principle, however, is not different from that +applied to the development of a paragraph by stating cause and effect +(Section 49). If several causes contribute to the same effect, each may be +given a separate paragraph, or several minor ones may be combined in one +paragraph. For the sake of unity we must include each fact, principle, or +statement in the paragraph to which it really belongs. The coherent order +is usually that which proceeds from causes to effects rather than that +which traces events backward from effects to causes. + + ++Theme L.+--_Write a theme of three or more paragraphs, stating causes and +effects._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. Why hospitals are necessary. + 2. Why cigarette smoking is dangerous. + 3. Why girls should take music lessons. + 4. The effect of climate upon health. + 5. The effect of rainfall upon the productivity and industries of a + country. + 6. The effect of mountains, lakes, or rivers upon exploration and + travel. + 7. What connection is there between occupation and height above the + sea level, and why? + 8. Why our city is located where it is. + 9. Why I came late to school. + + ++93. Combination of Methods of Development.+--Frequently the presentation +of our thought is made most effective by using some combination of the +methods of development discussed in this chapter. Time and place are often +interwoven, comparisons and contrasts flash into mind, general statements +need specific illustration, or results demand immediate explanation--all +in the same theme. Sometimes the order of coherence will be in doubt, for +cause and effect demand a different order of statement from that which +would be given were we to follow either time-order or position in space. +In such cases we must choose whether it is most important to tell first +_why_ or _when_ or _where_. The only rule that can be suggested is to do +that which will make our meaning most clear, because it is for the sake of +the clear presentation of our thought that we seek unity, coherence, and +emphasis. + + ++Theme LI.+--_Write a theme of several paragraphs. Use any method of +development or any combination of methods._ + +(Choose your own subject. After the theme is written make a list of all +the questions you should ask yourself about it. Correct the theme with +reference to each point in your list of questions.) + + +SUMMARY + + +1. General principles of composition. + _a._ Unity. + _b._ Coherence. + _c._ Emphasis. + (1) By position. + (2) By proportion of parts. + +2. An outline assists in securing unity, coherence, and emphasis. + +3. Methods of composition development: A composition may be developed-- + _a._ With reference to time-order. + _b._ With reference to position in space. + _c._ By use of comparison and contrast. + _d._ By stating generalization and facts. + _e._ By stating cause and effect. + _f._ By any suitable combination of the above methods. + +4. Transition and summary paragraphs may occur in compositions. + + + +VI. LETTER WRITING + + ++94. Importance of Good Letter Writing.+--Letter writing is the form of +written language used by most of us more frequently than any other form. +The importance of good letter writing is therefore obvious. Business, +personal, and social relations necessitate the writing of letters. We +are judged by those letters; and in order that we may be considered +businesslike, educated, and cultured, it is necessary that we should be +able to write good letters, not only as regards the form but also as +regards the subject-matter. The writing of good letters is often the means +of securing desirable positions and of keeping up pleasant and helpful +friendships. Since this form of composition plays so important a part in +our lives and the lives of those about us, it is worthy of careful study. + +The subject-matter is the most important part of the letter, but adherence +to usages generally adopted is essential to successful letter writing. +Some of these usages may seem trivial in themselves, but a lack of +attention to them shows either ignorance or carelessness on the part of +the writer, and the consequences resulting from this inattention are often +anything but trivial. Applicants for good positions have been rejected +either because they did not know the correct usages of letter writing, or +because they did not heed them. In no other form of composition are +the rules concerning form so rigid; hence the need of knowledge and +carefulness concerning them. + + ++95. Paper.+--The nature of the letter determines to some extent our +choice of paper. Business letters are usually written on large paper, +about ten by eight inches in size, while letters of friendship and notes +of various kinds are written on paper of smaller size. White or delicately +tinted paper is always in good taste for all kinds of letters. The use of +highly tinted paper is occasionally in vogue with some people, but failure +to use it is never an offense against the laws of good taste. It is +customary now to use unruled paper for all kinds of letters as well as for +other forms of compositions. For letters of friendship four-page paper is +preferred to that in tablet form. The order in which the pages are used +may vary; but whatever the order is, it should not be confusing to the +reader. + +Black ink should always be used. The writing should be neat and legible. +Attention should be paid to margin, paragraphs, and indentation. In fact, +all the rules of theme writing apply to letter writing, and to these are +added several others. + ++96. The Beginning of a Letter.+--Certain forms for the +beginning of letters have been agreed upon, and these +forms should be followed. The beginning of a letter +usually includes the heading, the address of the person or +persons to whom the letter is sent, and the salutation. + +Notice the following examples:-- + + +(1) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | 171 Miles Ave., | + | Cleveland, Ohio. | + | Oct. 21, 1905. | + | Marshall Field & Co., | + | State St., Chicago, Ill. | + | | + | Gentlemen: | + | | + + +(2) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Ottawa, Ill. | + | Nov. 9, 1905. | + | Dear Harold, | + | | + + +(3) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | 1028 Jackson Boulevard, | + | Chicago Ill. | + | Nov. 10, 1905. | + | Messrs. Johnson & Foote, | + | 120 Main St., | + | Pittsfield, Mass. | + | | + | Dear Sirs, | + | | + + +(4) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | 120 P Street, | + | Lincoln, Neb. | + | Oct. 17, 1905. | + | My dear Mrs. Scott, | + | | + + +(5) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Boston, Mass., Nov. 23, 1905. | + | | + | Dear Mother, | + | | + + +(6) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | 33 Front St., | + | Adrian, Mich. | + | Nov. 30, 1905. | + | Miss Gertrude Brown, | + | 228 Warren Ave., Chicago, Ill. | + | | + | Dear Madam: | + | | + + +(7) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | New Hartford, Conn. | + | Nov. 3, 1905. | + | My dear Henry, | + | | + + +The heading of a letter includes the address of the writer and the date of +the writing. When numerous letters are sent from one place to another, the +street and number may after a time be omitted from the heading. Example +(5) illustrates this. A son living in Boston has written to his mother +frequently and no longer considers it necessary to write the street and +number in every letter. If there is any doubt in the writer's mind as to +whether his address will be remembered or not, he should include it in the +letter. If the writer lives in a small place where the street and number +will not be needed in a reply sent to him, it is unnecessary for him to +make use of it in his letter. When the street and number are omitted, the +heading may be written on one line, as in example (5), but the use of two +lines is preferable. + +Custom has decreed that the proper place for the heading is in the +right-hand upper corner of the first page. Sometimes, especially in +business letters, we find the writer's address at the close of the letter, +but for the sake of convenience it is preferably placed at the beginning. +The first line should be about one inch and a half from the top of the +page. The second line should begin a little to the right of the first +line, and the third line, a little to the right of the second line. +Attention should be paid to proper punctuation in each line. + +In a comparatively few cases we may find that the omission of the date of +the letter will make no difference to the recipient, but in most cases it +will cause annoyance at least, and in many cases result in serious trouble +both to ourselves and to those who receive our letters. We should not +allow ourselves to neglect the date even in letters of apparently no great +importance. If we allow the careless habit of omitting dates to develop, +we may some day omit a date when the omission will affect affairs of great +importance. This date should include the day, month, and year. It is +better to write out the entire year, as 1905, not '05. + +In business letters it is customary to write the address of the person or +persons addressed at the left side of the page. Either two or three lines +may be used. The first line of this address should be one line lower than +the last line of the heading. Notice examples (1), (3), and (6). When the +address is thus written, the salutation is commonly written one line below +it. Sometimes the salutation is commenced at the margin, and sometimes a +little to the right of the address. Where there is no address, the +salutation is written a line below the date and begins with the margin, as +in examples (2), (4), (5), and (7). + +The form of salutation naturally depends upon the relations existing +between the correspondents. The forms _Dear Sir, My dear Sir, Madam, My +dear Madam, Dear Sirs, Gentlemen_, are used in formal business letters. +The forms _Dear Miss Robinson, My dear Mrs. Hobart, Dear Mr. Fraser, My +dear Mr. Scott_, are used in business letters when the correspondents are +acquainted with each other. The same forms are also used in letters of +friendship when the correspondents are not well enough acquainted with +each other to warrant the use of the more familiar forms, _My dear Mary, +Dear Edmund, My dear Friend, Dear Cousin, My dear little Niece_. + +There is no set rule concerning the punctuation of the salutation. The +comma, the colon, or the semicolon may be used either alone or in +connection with the dash. The comma alone seems to be the least formal of +all, and the colon the most so. Hence the former is used more frequently +in letters of friendship, and the latter more frequently in business +letters. + + ++97. Body of the Letter.+--The body of the letter is the important part; +in fact, it is the letter itself, since it contains the subject-matter. It +will be discussed under another head later, and is only mentioned here in +order to show its place in connection with the beginning of a letter. As a +rule, it is best to begin the body of our letters one line below, and +either directly underneath or to the right of the salutation. It is not +improper, however, especially in business letters, to begin it on the same +line with the salutation. A few examples will be sufficient to show the +variations of the place for beginning the main part of the letter. + + +(1) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | 1694 Cedar Ave., | + | Cleveland, Ohio. | + | June 23, 1905. | + | Messrs. Hanna, Scott & Co., | + | Aurora, Ill. | + | | + | Gentlemen:--I inclose a money order for $10.00, | + | etc. | + | | + + +(2) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Everett, Washington. | + | Oct. 20, 1905. | + | My dear Robert, | + | We are very glad that you have decided to make | + | us a visit, etc. | + | | + + +(3) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Greenwich, N.Y. | + | Sept. 19, 1905. | + | My dear Miss Russ, | + | Since I have been Miss Clark's assistant, etc. | + | | + + +(4) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | 2 University Ave., | + | Nashville, Tenn. | + | April 19, 1905. | + | The American Book Company, | + | 300 Pike St., | + | Cinncinnati, O. | + | | + | Dear Sirs:--Please send me by express two copies | + | of Halleck's English Literature, etc. | + | | + + ++98. Conclusion of a Letter.+--The conclusion of a letter includes what is +termed the complimentary close and the signature. Certain forms have been +agreed upon, which should be closely followed. + +Our choice of a complimentary close, like that of a salutation, depends +upon the relations existing between us and those to whom we are writing. +Such forms as _Your loving daughter, With love, Ever your friend, Your +affectionate mother_, should be used only when intimate relations exist +between correspondents. In letters where existing relations are not so +intimate and in some kinds of business letters the forms _Sincerely yours, +Yours very sincerely,_ may be used appropriately. The most common forms in +business letters are _Yours truly_ and _Very truly yours_. The forms +_Respectfully yours,_ or _Yours very respectfully,_ should be used only +when there is occasion for some special respect, as in writing to a person +of high rank or position. + +The complimentary close should be written one line below the last line of +the main part of the letter, and toward the right-hand side of the page. +Its first word should commence with a capital, and a comma should be +placed at its close. + +The signature properly belongs below and a little to the right of the +complimentary close. Except in cases of familiar relationship, the name +should be signed in full. It is difficult to determine the spelling of +unfamiliar proper names if they are carelessly written. It is therefore +important in writing to strangers that the signature should be made +plainly legible in order that they may know how to address the writer in +their reply. A lady should make it plain whether she is to be addressed as +_Miss_ or _Mrs._ This can be done either by placing the title _Miss_ or +_Mrs._ in parentheses before the name, or by writing the whole address +below and to the left of the signature. Boys and men may often avoid +confusion by signing their first name instead of using only initials. + +Notice the following examples of the complimentary close and signature:-- + + +(1) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Appleton, Wisconsin. | + | Sept. 3, 1905. | + | | + | My dear Cousin, | + | | + | | + | (Body of letter.) | + | | + | | + | Yours with love, | + | Gertrude Edmonds. | + | | + + +(2) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | 192 Lincoln Ave., | + | Worcester, Mass. | + | Nov. 25, 1905. | + | | + | L.B. Bliss & Co., | + | 109 Summer St., | + | Boston, Mass. | + | | + | | + | Dear Sirs; | + | | + | (Body of letter.) | + | | + | | + | | + | Very truly yours, | + | Walter A. Cutler. | + | | + + +(3) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Paxton, Ill. | + | July 3, 1905. | + | | + | American Typewriter Co., | + | 263 Broadway, New York. | + | | + | | + | Gentlemen: | + | | + | | + | (Body of letter.) | + | | + | | + | | + | Very truly yours, | + | (Miss) Jennie R. McAllister. | + | | + + +(4) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | May 5, 1905. | + | | + | Daniel Low & Co., | + | 232 Essex St., Salem, Mass. | + | | + | | + | Dear Sirs; | + | | + | | + | (Body of letter.) | + | | + | | + | | + | Mary E. Ball | + | | + | Mrs. George W. Ball, | + | 415 Fourth St., | + | La Salle, Ill. | + | | + + +(5) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Marshalltown, Iowa. | + | Oct. 3, 1905. | + | | + | My dear Miss Meyer, | + | | + | | + | (Body of letter.) | + | | + | | + | Sincerely yours, | + | Dorothy Doddridge. | + | | + + +EXERCISE + +Write suitable headings, salutations, complimentary endings, and +signatures for the following letters:-- + +1. To Spaulding & Co., Wabash Ave., Chicago, Ill., ordering their rules + for basket ball. + +2. To your older brother. + +3. To the school board, asking for a gymnasium. + +4. To some business house, making application for a position. + +5. To the governor of your state. + +6. From one stranger to another. + +7. From an older brother to his little sister. + +8. From a boy living in New Orleans to the father of his most intimate + friend. + + ++99. The Envelope.+--The direction on the envelope, commonly called the +superscription, consists of the name and address of the person or persons +to whom the letter is sent. This direction should be written in a careful +and _courteous manner_, and should include all that is necessary to insure +the prompt delivery of the letter to the proper destination. + +The superscription may be arranged in three or four lines, each line +beginning a little to the right of the preceding line. The name should be +written about midway between the upper and lower edges of the envelope, +and there should be nearly an equal amount of space left at each side. If +there is any difference, there should be less space at the right than at +the left. The street and number may be written below the name, and the +city or town and state below. The street and number may be properly +written in the lower left-hand corner. This is also the place for any +special direction that may be necessary for the speedy transmission of the +letter; for example, "In care of Mr. Charles R. Brown." + +Women should be addressed as _Miss_ or _Mrs._ In case the woman is +married, her husband's first name and middle initial are commonly used, +unless it is known that she prefers to have her own first name used. Men +should be addressed as _Mr._, and a firm may in many cases be addressed as +_Messrs._ It is considered proper to use the titles _Dr._, _Rev._, etc., +in directing an envelope to a man bearing such a title, but it would be +entirely out of place to address the wife of a physician or clergyman as +_Mrs. Dr._ or _Mrs. Rev._ + +The names of states may be abbreviated, but care should be taken that +these abbreviations be plainly written, especially when there are other +similar abbreviations. In compound names, as North Dakota and West +Virginia, do not abbreviate one part of the compound and write out the +other. Either abbreviate both or write out both. If any punctuation +besides the period after abbreviations is used, it consists of a comma +after each line. It is the custom now to omit such punctuation. Either +form is in good taste, but whichever form is adopted, it should be +employed throughout the entire superscription. The comma should not be +used in one line and omitted in another. + +Notice the following forms of correct superscriptions:-- + +(1) + ______________________________________________________ + | + | + | + | + | Mr. Milo R. Maltbie + | 85 West 118th St. + | New York. + |______________________________________________________ + + +(2) + ______________________________________________________ + | + | + | + | + | Mr. John D. Clark + | New York + | N.Y. + | + | Teachers College + | Columbia University. + |______________________________________________________ + + +(3) + ______________________________________________________ + | + | + | + | + | Mrs. Edgar N. Foster + | South Haven + | Mich. + | + | Avery Beach Hotel. + | ______________________________________________________ + + +(4) + ______________________________________________________ + | + | + | + | + | Miss Louise M. Baker + | Nottingham + | Ohio. + | + | Box 129. + |______________________________________________________ + + +(5) + ______________________________________________________ + | + | + | + | + | Dr. James M. Postle + | De Kalb + | Ill. + | + |______________________________________________________ + + +(6) + ______________________________________________________ + | + | + | + | + | Miss Ida Morrison + | Chicago + | Ill. + | + | + | 1048 Warren Ave. + |______________________________________________________ + + +EXERCISE + +Write proper superscriptions to letters written to the following:-- + +1. Thaddeus Bolton, living at 524 Q Street, Lincoln, Nebraska. + +2. The wife of a physician of your acquaintance. + +3. James B. Angell, President of the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, + Michigan. + +4. Your mother, visiting some relative or friend. + +5. The publishers Allyn and Bacon, 878 Wabash Avenue, Chicago, Ill. + +6. Edward Harrington, living at 1962 Seventh Avenue, New York. + +7. To a friend at a seaside resort. + +8. To a friend visiting your uncle in Oakland, California. + + ++100. The Great Rule of Letter Writing.+--The great rule of letter writing +is, Never write a letter which you would not be willing to see in print +over your own signature. That which you _say_ in anger may be discourteous +and of little credit to you, but it may in time be forgotten; that which +you _write_, however, may be in existence an untold number of years. +Thousands of letters are now on exhibition whose authors never had such a +use of them in mind. If you ever feel like writing at the end of a letter, +"Burn this as soon as you read it," do not send it, but burn the letter +yourself. Before you sign your name to any letter read it over and ask +yourself, "Is this letter in form and contents one which would do me +credit if it should be published?" + + ++101. Business Letters.+--Since the purpose of business letters is to +inform, they should, first of all, be characterized by clearness. In +asking for information, be sure that you state your questions so that +there shall be no doubt in the mind of the recipient concerning the +information that you desire. In giving information, be equally sure to +state facts so clearly that there can be no possibility of a mistake. + +Brevity is the soul of business letters as well as of wit. Business men +are busy men. They have no time to waste in reading long letters, but wish +to gain their information quickly. Hence we should aim to state the +desired facts in as concise a manner as possible, and we should give only +pertinent facts. Short explanations may sometimes be necessary, but +nothing foreign to the subject-matter should ever be introduced. While we +should aim to make our letters short, they should not be so brief as to +appear abrupt and discourteous. It shows lack of courtesy to omit +important words or to make too frequent use of abbreviations. + +We should answer a business letter as soon as possible. This answer, +besides giving the desired information, should include a reference to the +letter received and an acknowledgment of inclosures, if there were any. +All questions should receive courteous replies. The facts should be +arranged in a form that will be convenient for the recipient. As a rule it +is best to follow the order which the writer has used in his letter, but +in some cases we may be able to state our facts more definitely and +concisely if we follow some other order. + +What has been said in general about attention to forms in letter writing +might well be emphasized here, for business men are keen critics +concerning letters received. Be careful to use the correct forms already +suggested. Also pay attention to punctuation, spelling, and grammar. Write +only on one side of the paper and fold the letter correctly. In fact, be +businesslike in everything connected with the writing of business letters. + +A few examples are here given for your notice:-- + + +(1) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Ypsilanti, Mich. | + | April 4, 1905. | + | | + | Mr. William Wylie, | + | 807 Linn St., Peoria, Ill. | + | | + | Dear Mr. Wylie; | + | Inclosed is a letter from Superintendent Rogers | + | of Rockford, Ill. The position of teacher of | + | mathematics is vacant. The salary may not be so | + | much as you now receive, but in many respects the | + | position is a desirable one. I advise you to apply | + | for it. | + | Sincerely yours, | + | Charles M. Gates. | + | | + + +(2) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | 586 State St., | + | Chicago, Ill. | + | July 20,1905. | + | | + | Mrs. Charles H. McNett, | + | 2345 Franklin St., | + | Denver, Colorado. | + | | + | Dear Madam:--Your card of July 9th is at hand. We | + | beg to say that we sent you the books by express, | + | prepaid, July 9th, and they have probably reached | + | you by this time. If you have not received them, | + | please notify us, and we will send a tracer after | + | them. | + | Very truly yours, | + | Brown and Sherman. | + | | + | | + + +(3) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Elgin High School, | + | Elgin, Ill. | + | Sept. 4, 1905. | + | | + | | + | Miss Ella B. Walker, | + | Herkimer, New York. | + | | + | My dear Miss Walker: | + | I am very sorry to have to trouble you, | + | but I am desirous of obtaining some information | + | concerning the High School Library. Will you kindly | + | let me know whether the card catalogue was kept up | + | to date prior to your departure and also whether the | + | accession book was in use up to that time? | + | I shall be greatly indebted to you if you will | + | give me this information. | + | Very sincerely yours, | + | Edward J. Taylor. | + | | + + +EXERCISE + + +Write at least three of the following suggested letters, paying attention +to the rules for writing business letters:-- + +1. Write to a dry goods firm, asking them to send you one of their + catalogues. + +2. Write to the manager of a football team of some town near yours, + proposing a game. + +3. Write the reply. + +4. In reply to an advertisement, write an application for the position of + clerk or bookkeeper. + +5. Write to the publishers of some magazine, asking them to change your + address from 27 K Street, Toledo, Ohio, to 2011 Prospect Avenue, + Beatrice, Nebraska. + +6. Suppose yourself doing postgraduate work in your high school. Write to + the president of some college, asking him concerning advanced credit. + + ++102. Letters of Friendship.+--While a great deal of information may be +obtained from some letters of friendship, the real purpose of such letters +is, usually, not to give information, but to entertain. You will notice +that the information derived from letters of friendship differs from that +found in business letters. Its nature is such that of itself it gives +pleasure. Our letters to our relatives, friends, and acquaintances are but +visits on paper, and it should be our purpose to make these visits as +enjoyable as possible. + +So much depends upon the circumstances attendant upon the writing of +letters of friendship, that it is impossible to make any definite +statement as to what they should contain. We may say in general that they +should contain matter interesting to the recipient, and that they should +be characterized by vividness and naturalness. Interesting material is a +requisite, but that of itself is not sufficient to make an entertaining +letter. Interesting material may be presented in so unattractive and +lifeless a manner that much of its power to please is lost. Let your +letters be full of life and spirit. In your descriptions, narrations, and +explanations, express yourself so clearly and so vividly that those who +read your letters will be able to understand exactly what you mean. + + +EXERCISES + + +1. Write a letter to a classmate who has moved to another town, telling + him of the school of which he was once a member. + +2. Write to a friend, describing your visit to the World's Fair at St. + Louis. + +3. Suppose yourself away from home. Write a letter to your little brother + or sister at home. + +4. If you have ever been abroad, describe in a letter some place of + interest that you have visited. + +5. Write to a friend who is fond of camping, about your camping + experience. + +6. Suppose your mother is away from home on a visit. Write her about the + home life. + +7. Write to a friend, describing a party that you recently attended. + +8. Suppose you have moved from one town to another. In a letter compare + the two towns. + + ++103. Adaptation to the Reader.+--The golden rule of letter writing is, +Adapt the letter to the reader. Although the letter is an expression of +yourself, yet it should be that kind of expression which shall most +interest and please your correspondent. In business letters the necessity +of brevity and clearness forces attention to the selection and arrangement +of details. In letters to members of the family or to intimate friends +we must include many very minor things, because we know that our +correspondent will be interested in them, but a rambling, disjointed +jumble of poorly selected and ill-arranged details becomes tedious. What +we should mention is determined by the interests of the readers, and the +successful letter writer will endeavor to know what they wish to have +mentioned. In writing letters to our friends we ought to show that +sympathetic interest in them and their affairs which we should have if we +were visiting with them. On occasion, our congratulations should be prompt +and sincere. + +In reading letters we must not be hasty to take offense. Many good +friendships have been broken because some statement in a letter was +misconstrued. The written words convey a meaning very different from that +which would have been given by the spoken word, the tone of voice, the +smile, and the personal presence. So in our writing we must avoid +all that which even borders on complaint, or which may seem critical or +fault-finding to the most sensitive. + + ++104. Notes.+--Notes may be divided in a general way into two classes, +formal and informal. Formal notes include formal invitations, replies, +requests, and announcements. Informal notes include informal invitations +and replies, and also other short communications of a personal nature on +almost every possible subject. + + ++105. Formal Notes.+--A formal invitation is always written in the third +person. The lines may be of the same length, or they may be so arranged +that the lines shall be of different lengths, thus giving the page a +somewhat more pleasing appearance. The heading, salutation, complimentary +close, and signature are all omitted. The address of the sender may be +written below the body of the letter. Many prefer it a little to the left, +and the date is sometimes written below it. Others, however, prefer it +directly below or a little to the right. + +Replies to formal invitations should always be written in the third +person, and should in general follow the style of the invitation. The date +and the hour of the invitation should be repeated in the reply, and this +reply should be sent immediately after receiving the invitation. + +A few examples are here given to show the correct forms of both +invitations and replies:-- + + +(1) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Mr. and Mrs. Frederick William Thompson | + | request the pleasure of your company | + | on Monday evening, December thirtieth, | + | at half-past eight o'clock. | + | | + + +(2) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Miss Barrows accepts with pleasure Mr. and | + | Mrs. Thompson's invitation for Monday evening, | + | December thirtieth, at half-past eight o'clock. | + | | + + +(3) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Mr. Morris regrets that a previous engagement | + | prevents his accepting Mr. and Mrs. Thompson's | + | kind invitation for Monday evening, December | + | the thirtieth. | + | | + + +(4) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Mr. and Mrs. Albert W. Elliott request the | + | pleasure of Mr. John Barker's company at dinner | + | on Wednesday, December sixth, at seven o'clock. | + | | + | 1068 Euclid Ave. | + | | + + +(5) + ______________________________________________________ + | | + | Mr. Barker regrets his inability to accept | + | Mr. and Mrs. Albert W. Elliott's invitation to | + | dinner at seven o'clock, Wednesday, December | + | sixth. | + | | + + +EXERCISE + + +1. Write an invitation to a golden wedding. + +2. Mrs. Homer A. Payne invites Miss Eva Milton to dine with her next week + Thursday at eight o'clock. Write out a formal invitation. + +3. Write regrets to Mrs. Payne's invitation. + +4. Write an acceptance of the same invitation. + +5. Write a formal invitation to a party to be given in honor of your + guest, Miss Grace Mason. + + ++106. Informal Notes.+--Informal invitations and replies may contain the +same subject-matter as formal invitations and replies. The only difference +is in the form in which they are written. The informal invitation is in +form similar to a letter except that the same exactness about the heading +is not required. Sometimes the heading is written and sometimes it is +omitted entirely. The address of the one sending the invitation and the +date may be written below the body of the note to the left of the +signature. The reply to an informal invitation should always be informal, +but the date and hour should be repeated as in replies to formal +invitations. + +A great many informal notes not included in invitations and replies are +constantly written. These are simply brief letters of friendship, and the +purposes for which they are written are exceedingly varied. When we write +congratulations or words of condolence, when we introduce one friend to +another, when we thank some one for a gift, and when we give words of +advice, and in many other instances, we make use of informal notes. They +should be simple, personal, and as a rule confined to but one subject. + +Notice the following examples of informal notes:-- + + +(1) + _________________________________________________________________ + | | + | My dear Mrs. Lathrop, | + | | + | Will you not give us the pleasure of your company | + | at dinner, on next Friday evening at seven o'clock? Miss Todd | + | of Philadelphia is visiting us, and we wish our friends to meet | + | her. | + | | + | Very sincerely yours, | + | Ethel M. Trainor. | + | 840 Forest Avenue, | + | Dec. 5, 1905. | + | | + + +(2) + _________________________________________________________________ + | | + | Dec. 6, 1905. | + | | + | My dear Mrs. Trainor, | + | | + | I sincerely regret that I cannot accept your invitation | + | to dinner next Friday evening, for I have made a previous | + | engagement which it will be impossible for me to break. | + | | + | Yours most sincerely, | + | Emma Lathrop. | + | | + + +(3) + _________________________________________________________________ + | | + | My dear Blanche, | + | | + | Mr. Gilmore and I are planning for a little party | + | Thursday evening of this week. I hope you have no other | + | engagement for that evening, as we shall be pleased to have | + | you with us. | + | Very cordially yours, | + | Margaret Gilmore. | + | | + + +(4) + ______________________________________________________________ + | | + | My dear Margaret, | + | | + | Fortunately I have no other engagement for this | + | week Thursday evening, and I shall be delighted to spend an | + | evening with you and your friends. | + | | + | Very sincerely yours, | + | Blanche A. Church. | + | | + + +EXERCISE + +Write the following informal notes:-- + +1. Write to a friend, asking him or her to lend you a book. + +2. Write an invitation to an informal trolley, tennis, or golf party. + +3. Write the reply. + +4. Invite one of your friends to spend his or her vacation with you. + +5. Write a note to your sister, asking her to send you your theme that you + left at home this morning. + +6. Mrs. Edgar A. Snow invites Miss Mabel Minard to dine with her. Write + out the invitation. + +7. Write the acceptance. + + + + +VII. POETRY + +[Footnote: _To the Teacher._--Since the expression of ideas in metrical +form is seldom the one best suited to the conditions of modern life, it +has not seemed desirable to continue the themes throughout this chapter. +The study of this chapter, with suitable illustrations from the poems to +which the pupils have access, may serve to aid them in their appreciation +of poetry. This appreciation of poetry will be increased if the pupils +attempt some constructive work. It is recommended, therefore, that one or +more of the simpler kinds of metrical composition be tried. For example, +one or two good ballads may be read and the pupils asked to write similar +ones. Some pupils may be able to write blank verse.] + ++107. Purpose of Poetry.+--All writing aims to give information or to +furnish entertainment (Section 54). Often the same theme may both inform +and entertain, though one of these purposes may be more prominent than the +other. Prose may merely entertain, or it may so distinctly attempt to set +forth ideas clearly that the giving of pleasure is entirely neglected. In +poetry the entertainment side is never thus subordinated. Poetry always +aims to please by the presentation of that which is beautiful. All real +poetry produces an aesthetic effect by appealing to our aesthetic sense; +that is, to our love of the beautiful. + +In making this appeal to our love of the beautiful, poetry depends both +upon the ideas it contains and upon the forms it uses. Like prose, it +may increase its aesthetic effect by appropriate phrasing, effective +arrangement, and subtle suggestiveness, but it also makes use of certain +devices of language such as rhythm, rhyme, etc., which, though they may +occur in writings that would be classed as prose, are characteristic of +poetry. Much depends upon the ideas that poetry contains; for mere +nonsense, though in perfect rhyme and rhythm, is not poetry. But it is not +the idea alone which makes a poem beautiful; it is the form as well. The +merely trivial cannot be made beautiful by giving it poetical form, but +there are many poems containing ideas of small importance which please us +because of the perfection of form. We enjoy them as we do the singing of +the birds or the murmuring of the brooks. In fact, poetry is inseparable +from its characteristic forms. To sort out, re-arrange, and paraphrase +into second-class prose the ideas which a poem contains is a profitless +and harmful exercise, because it emphasizes the intellectual side of a +work which was created for the purpose of appealing to our aesthetic +sense. + ++108. Rhythm.+--There are several forms characteristic of poetry, by the +use of which its beauty and effectiveness are enhanced. Of these, rhythm +is the most prominent one, without which no poetry is possible. In its +widest sense, rhythm indicates a regular succession of motions, impulses, +sounds, accents, etc., producing an agreeable effect. Rhythm in poetry +consists of the recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables in regular +succession. In poetry, care must be taken to make the accented syllable of +a word come at the place where the rhythm demands an accent. The regular +recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables produces a harmony which +appeals to our aesthetic sense and thus enhances for us the beauty of +poetry. Read the following selections so as to show the rhythm:-- + + +1. + +We were crowded in the cabin; + Not a soul would dare to speak; +It was midnight on the waters + And a storm was on the deep. + +--James T. Fields. + + +2. + +Break, break, break, + At the foot of thy crags, O sea! +But the tender grace of a day that is dead + Will never come back to me. + +--Tennyson. + + +3. + +Ah, distinctly I remember, it was in the bleak December, + And each separate dying ember wrought its ghost upon the floor + +--Poe. + + +4. + +Sweet and low, sweet and low, + Wind of the western sea, +Low, low, breathe and blow, + Wind of the western sea! + +Over the rolling waters go, + Come from the dying moon and blow, +Blow him again to me; + While my little one, while my pretty one sleeps. + +--Tennyson. + + +5. + +Stone walls do not a prison make, + Nor iron bars a cage; +Minds innocent and quiet take + That for a hermitage. + +--Lovelace. + + +6. + +Merrily swinging on brier and weed, + Near to the nest of his little dame, +Over the mountain side or mead, + Robert of Lincoln is telling his name: +Bob-o'-link, bob-o'-link, + Spink, spank, spink, +Snug and safe is this nest of ours, + Hidden among the summer flowers. + Chee, chee, chee. + +--Bryant. + + +7. + +Grow old along with me! + The best is yet to be, +The last of life, for which the first was made: + Our times are in His hand +Who saith, "A whole I planned, + Youth shows but half; trust God: see all, nor be afraid!" + +--Browning. + + ++109. Feet.+--The metrical effect of the preceding selections is produced +by the regular recurrence of accented and unaccented syllables. A group of +accented and unaccented syllables is called a foot. There are four regular +feet in English verse, the iambus, the anapest, the trochee, and the +dactyl. Three irregular feet, the pyrrhic, the spondee, the amphibrach, +are occasionally found in lines, but not in entire poems, and are often +considered merely as substitutes for regular feet. For the sake of +convenience the accented syllables are indicated thus: _, and the +unaccented syllables thus: U. + +_An iambus_ is a foot consisting of two syllables with the accent on the +last. + + + U _| U _| U _| U _| U _| +Let not ambition mock their useful toil. + +--Gray. + + +U _|U _| U _|U _| +He prayeth best who loveth best + + U _| U _| U _| + All things both great and small; + + _ U | U _| U _|U _| +For the dear God who loveth us, + + U _| U _|U _| + He made and loveth all. + +--Coleridge. + + +_An anapest_ is a foot consisting of three syllables with the accent on +the last. + + +U U _| U U _|U U _| +I am monarch of all I survey. +U U _ | U U _ | U U _ | +I would hide with the beasts of the chase. + + +_A trochee_ is a foot consisting of two syllables with the accent on the +first. + + + _ U | _ U | _ U | _ U| +Double, double, toil and trouble. + +--Shakespeare. + + + _ U | _ U |_ U |_ U | +Let us then be up and doing, + _ U| _ U | _U | _ | +With a heart for any fate, + _ U |_ U | _ U|_ U | +Still achieving, still pursuing, + _ U | _ U |_ U | _ | +Learn to labor and to wait. + +--Longfellow. + + +_A dactyl_ is a foot consisting of three syllables with the accent on the +first. + + +_ U U | _ U U | +Cannon to right of them, +_ U U | _ U U | +Cannon to left of them, +_ U U | _ U U | +Cannon in front of them, +_ U U |_ U | +Volleyed and thundered. + +--Tennyson. + + +It will be convenient to remember that two of these, the iambus and the +anapest, have the accent on the last syllable, and that two, the trochee +and the dactyl, have the accent on the first syllable. + + +_A spondee_ is a foot consisting of two syllables, both of which are +accented about equally. It is an unusual foot in English poetry. + + + U _ | _ _ | U _| U _ | +Come now, blow, Wind, and waft us o'er. + + +_A pyrrhic_ is a foot consisting of two syllables both of which are +unaccented. It is frequently found at the end of a line. + + + U _ | U _ | U _|U U + Life is so full of misery. + + +_An amphibrach_ is a foot consisting of three syllables, with +the accent on the second. + + + U _ U U _ U| U _ U| U _ | + Creator, Preserver, Redeemer and friend. + + ++110. Names of Verse.+--A single line of poetry is called a verse. A +stanza is composed of several verses. When a verse consists of one foot, +it is called a monometer; of two feet, a dimeter; of three feet, a +trimeter; of four feet, a tetrameter; of five feet, a pentameter; and of +six feet, a hexameter. + + _ U +Monometer. Slowly. + + + _ U U| _ U U | +Dimeter. Emblem of happiness. + + + _ U| _U| _ U | +Trimeter. Like a poet hidden. + + + _ U| _ U| _ U | _ U | +Tetrameter. Tell me not in mournful numbers. + + + U _ |U _ |U _| U _ | U _ | +Pentameter. O, what a goodly outside falsehood hath. + + + _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U +Hexameter. This is the forest primeval; the murmuring pines and + U | _ U | + the hemlocks. + + +When we say that a verse is of any particular kind, we do not mean that +every foot in that line is necessarily of the same kind. Verse is named by +stating first the prevailing foot which composes it, and second the number +of feet in a line. A verse having four iambic feet is called iambic +tetrameter. So we have dactylic hexameter, trochaic pentameter, iambic +trimeter, anapestic dimeter, etc. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Mark the accented and unaccented syllables in the following +selections, and name the kind of verse:-- + +1. + +Build me straight, O worthy Master! + Stanch and strong, a goodly vessel +That shall laugh at all disaster + And with wave and whirlwind wrestle. + +--Longfellow. + + +2. + +I know not where His islands lift + Their fronded palms in air, +I only know I cannot drift + Beyond His love and care. + +--Whittier. + + +3. + +For tho' from out our bourne of Time and Place + The flood may bear me far, +I hope to see my Pilot face to face + When I have crossed the bar. + +--Tennyson. + + +4. + +Chanting of labor and craft, and of Wealth in the pot and the + garner; +Chanting of valor and fame, and the man who can, fall with the + foremost, +Fighting for children and wife, and the field which his father + bequeathed him, +Sweetly and solemnly sang she, and planned new lessons for + mortals. + +--Kingsley. + + +5. + +Have you read in the Talmud of old, +In the Legends the Rabbins have told, + Of the limitless realms of the air, +Have you read it,--the marvelous story +Of Sandalphon, the Angel of Glory, + Of Sandalphon, the Angel of Prayer? + +--Longfellow. + + +_B._ 1. Find three poems written in iambic verse, and three written in +trochaic verse. + +2. Write at least one stanza, using iambic verse. + +3. Write at least one stanza, using the same kind of verse that you find +in Tennyson's "Charge of the Light Brigade." + +4. Write two anapestic lines. + + ++111. Variation in Rhythm.+--The name given to a verse is determined by +the foot which prevails, but not every foot in the line needs to be of the +same kind. Just as in music we may substitute a quarter for two eighth +notes, so may we in poetry substitute one foot for another, provided it is +given the same amount of time. + +Notice in the following that the rhythm is perfect and the beat regular, +although a three-syllable anapest has been substituted in the second line +for a two-syllable iambus:-- + + + U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ | +Beneath those rugged elms, that yew tree's shade, + U _ | U _ | U _| U U _ | U _ | +Where heaves the turf in many a moldring heap, + _ U | U _ | U _ | U _ |U _ | +Each in his narrow cell for ever laid, + U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ | +The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. + + +The following from _Evangeline_ illustrates the substitution of trochees +for dactyls:-- + + + _ U U | _ U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U | +Waste are those pleasant farms, and the farmers forever departed. + + _ U U | _ U | _ U U | _ U | _ U U|_ U +Scattered like dust and leaves, when the mighty blasts of October + + _ U U | _ U U |_ U | _ U U | _ U U |_ U | +Seize them and whirl them aloft, and sprinkle them far o'er the ocean. + + _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ U +Naught but tradition remains of the beautiful village of Grand-Pre. + + +It is evident that one foot can be substituted for another if the accent +is not changed. Since both the iambus and the anapest are accented on the +last syllable, they may be interchanged. The trochee and the dactyl are +both accented on the first syllable and may, therefore, be interchanged. + +There are some exceptions to the general rule that in substituting one +foot for another the accented syllable must be kept in the same part of +the foot. Occasionally a poem in which the prevailing foot is iambic has a +trochee for the first foot of a line in order that it may begin with an +accented syllable. At the beginning of a line the change of accent is +scarcely noticeable. + + +_ U | U _ | U _ |U _ | +Over the rail my hand I trail. + +_ U | U _ | U _ | U _ | +Silent the crumbling bridge we cross! + + +But if the reader has once fallen into the swing of iambic verse, the +substitution of a trochee will bring the accent at an unexpected place, +interrupt the smooth flow of the rhythm, and produce a harsh and jarring +effect. Such a change of accent is justified only when the sense of the +verse leads the reader to expect the changed accent, or when the emphasis +thus given to the sense of the poem more than compensates for the break in +the rhythm produced by the change of accent. + +Another form of metrical variation is that in which there are too few or +too many syllables in a foot. This generally occurs at the end of a line, +but may occur at the beginning. If a syllable is added or omitted +skillfully, the rhythm will be unbroken. + +When the feet are accented on the last syllable,--that is, when the verse +is iambic or anapestic,--an extra syllable may be added at the end of a +line. + + +U _ |U U _ |U _ | U +I stood on the bridge at midnight, + + U U _ | U _ |U U _ | + As the clocks were striking the hour; + + U U _ | U _ | U _|U +And the Moon rose o'er the city, + + U _ | U _ | U _ | + Behind the dark church tower. + +--Longfellow. + + + U _ | U _ |U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ | +Girt round with rugged moun[tains], the fair Lake Constance lies, + + U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ |U _ | +In her blue heart reflect[ed] shine back the starry skies; + + U _ | U _ | U _ | U _ |U _ | U _ | +And watching each white cloud[let] float silently and slow, + + U _ | U _ | U _ | U _| U _ | U _| +You think a piece of heav[en] lies on our earth below. + +--Adelaide A. Procter. + + +In the second illustration the extra syllables have the same relative +position in the metrical scheme as in the first, though they appear to be +in the middle of the line. The pauses fill in the time and preserve the +rhythm unbroken. + +When the feet are accented on the first syllable--as in trochaic or +dactylic verse--a syllable may be omitted from the end of a line as in the +second and fourth below. + + +_ U U | _ U U | _ U U| _ U | +Up with the lark in the first flush of morning, + + _ U U | _ U U | _ U U | _ | + Ere the world wakes to its work or its play; + + _ U U| _ U U | _ U U | _ U | +Off for a spin to the wide-stretching country, + + _ U U | _ U U | _ U U|_ | + Far from the close, stifling city away. + + +Sometimes we find it necessary to suppress a syllable in order to make the +rhythm more nearly perfect. Syllables may be suppressed in two ways: by +suppressing a vowel at the end of a word when the next word commences with +a vowel; by suppressing a vowel within a word. The former method is termed +elision, and the latter, slurring. + + + U _ | U _ |U _ | U _ | U _ | +Thou glorious mirror where the Almighty's form + U U + + _ U |U _| U _ | U +Glasses itself in tempests. + +--Byron. + + +An accented syllable often takes the place of an entire foot. This occurs +most frequently at the end of a line, but it is sometimes found at the +beginning. Occasionally whole lines are formed in this way. If a pause or +rest is made, the rhythm will be unbroken. + + +u _ | u _ | u _ | + Break, break, break, + + U U _ | U _ | U _ | + On thy cold gray stones, O sea! + + U U _ | U U _ | U _|U + And I would that my tongue could utter + + U _ | U U _ |U _| + The thoughts that arise in me. + +--Tennyson. + + +We frequently find verses in which a syllable is lacking at the close of +the line; we also find many verses in which an extra syllable is added. +Verse that contains the number of syllables required by its meter is said +to be acatalectic; if it contains more than the required number of +syllables, it is said to be hypercatalectic; and if it lacks a syllable, +it is termed catalectic. It is difficult to tell whether a line has the +required number of syllables or not when it is taken by itself; but by +comparing it with the line prevailing in the rest of the stanza we are +enabled to tell whether it is complete or not. Shakespeare's _Julius +Caesar_ is written in iambic pentameter verse. Knowing this, we can detect +the hypercatalectic and catalectic lines. + + + U _| U _ | U _| U _| U _ | +You all did see that on the Lupercal + +U _ | U _| U _ |U _| U _| +I thrice presented him a kingly crown + + U _| U _ |U _ | U _ | U _| U +Which he did thrice refuse. Was this ambition? + + U _| U _ | U _ | U _ | U +Yet Brutus says he was ambitious. + +--Shakespeare. + + ++112. Cesura.+--Besides the pauses caused by rests or silences there is +the cesural pause which needs to be considered in reading verse. A cesura +is a pause determined by the sense. It coincides with some break in the +sense. It is found in different parts of the verse and may be entirely +lacking. Its observance does not noticeably interfere with the rhythm. In +the following selection it is marked thus: ||. + + + U _ | U _ | U _| U _ | +The sun came up || upon the left, + + _ U| U _ | U _ | + Out of the sea || came he; + + U _| U _ | U _| U _| +And he shone bright, || and on the right + + U _ | U_ | U _ | + Went down || into the sea + +--Coleridge. + + +Lives of great men || all remind us + We can make our lives || sublime, +And, departing, || leave behind us, + Footprints || on the sands of time. + +--Longfellow. + + +Read the selections on page 197 so as to indicate the position of the +cesural pauses. + + ++113. Scansion.+--Scansion is the separation of a line into the feet which +compose it. In order to scan a line we must determine the rhythmic +movement of it. The rhythmic movement determines the accented syllables. +Sometimes in scanning, merely the accented syllables are marked. Usually +the whole metrical scheme is indicated, as in the examples on page 199. + + +EXERCISE + + +Scan the following selections. Note substitutions and +elusions. + + +1. + +The night has a thousand eyes, + And the day but one; +Yet the light of the bright world dies + With the dying sun. +The mind has a thousand eyes, + And the heart but one; +Yet the light of a whole life dies + When love is gone. + +--Francis W. Bourdillon. + + +2. + +Laugh, and the world laughs with you, +Weep, and you weep alone; +For the sad old earth must borrow its mirth, +But has trouble enough of its own. + +--Ella Wheeler Wilcox. + + +3. + +Hear the robin in the rain, +Not a note does he complain. +But he fills the storm refrain +With music of his own. + +--Charles Coke Woode. + + +4. + +The mistletoe hung in the castle hall, +The holly branch shone on the old back wall +And the baron's retainers are blithe and gay, +And keeping their Christmas holiday. + +--Thomas Haynes Bagley. + + ++114. Rhyme.+--Rhyme is a regular recurrence of similar sounds. In a broad +sense, it may include sounds either terminal or not, but as here used it +refers to terminal sounds. + +Just as we expect a recurrence of accent in a line, so may we expect a +recurrence of similar sounds at the end of certain lines of poetry. The +interval between the rhymes may be of different lengths in different +poems, but when the interval is once established, it should be followed +throughout the poem. A rhyme out of place jars upon the rhythmic +perfection of a stanza just as an accent out of place interferes with the +rhythm of the verse. + +Not only should the rhymes occur at expected places, but they should be +the expected rhymes; that is, real rhymes. If we are expecting a word +which will rhyme with _blossom_ and find _bosom_, or if we are expecting a +rhyme for _breath_ and find _beneath_, the effect is unpleasant. The +rhymes named above are based on spelling, while a real rhyme is based on +sound. A correct rhyme should have precisely the same vowel sounds and the +final consonants should be the same, but the initial consonant should be +different. For example: _death, breath; home, roam; tongue, young; +debating, relating_. + +Notice the arrangement of the rhymes in the following selections:-- + + +1. + +My soul to-day is far away, +Sailing the Vesuvian Bay; +My winged boat, a bird afloat, +Swims round the purple peaks remote. + +--T. Buchanan Read. + + +2. + +I come from haunts of coot and hern, + I make a sudden sally, +And sparkle out among the fern, + To bicker down the valley. + +By thirty hills I hurry down, + Or slip between the ridges, +By twenty thorps, a little town, + And half a hundred bridges. + +--Tennyson. + + +3. + +I know it is a sin +For me to sit and grin + At him here; +But the old three-cornered hat +And the breeches, and all that, + Are so queer! + +--Holmes. + + +4. + + The splendor falls on castle walls + And snowy summits old in story; + The long light shakes across the lakes + And the wild cataract leaps in glory. +Blow, bugle, blow, set the wild echoes flying; +Blow, bugle; answer, echoes, dying, dying, dying. + +--Tennyson. + + +5. + +Breathes there a man with soul so dead +Who never to himself hath said, + This is my own, my native land! +Whose heart hath ne'er within him burned +As home his footsteps he hath turned + From wandering in a foreign strand! +If such there be, go mark him well: +For him no minstrel raptures swell; +High though his titles, proud his name, +Boundless his wealth as wish can claim: +Despite those titles, power, and pelf, +The wretch concentered all in self, +Living, shall forfeit fair renown +And, doubly dying, shall go down +To the vile dust from whence he sprung, +Unwept, unhonored, and unsung. + +--Scott. + + ++115. Blank Verse.+--When rhyme is omitted, we have blank verse. This is +the most dignified of all kinds of verse, and is, therefore, appropriate +for epic and dramatic poetry, where it is chiefly found. Most blank verse +makes use of the iambic pentameter measure, but we find many exceptions. +Read the following examples of blank verse so as to show the rhythm:-- + + +1. + + So live, that when thy summons comes to join +The innumerable caravan that moves +To the pale realms of shade, where each shall take +His chamber in the silent halls of death, +Thou go not like the quarry slave at night +Scourged to his dungeon, but, sustained and soothed +By an unfaltering trust, approach the grave +Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch +About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams. + +--Bryant. + + +2. + + I stood upon the steps-- +The last who left the door--and there I found +The lady and her friend. The elder turned +And with a cordial greeting took my hand, +And rallied me on my forgetfulness. +Her eyes, her smile, her manner, and her voice. +Touched the quick springs of memory, and I spoke +Her name. She was my mother's early friend +Whose face I had not seen in all the years +That had flown over us, since, from her door, +I chased her lamb to where I found--myself. + +--Holland. + + ++116. The Stanza.+--Some of our verse is continuous like Milton's +_Paradise Lost_ or Shakespeare's plays, but much of it is divided into +groups called stanzas. The lines or verses composing a stanza are bound +together by definite principles of rhythm and rhyme. Usually stanzas of +the same poem have the same structure, but stanzas of different poems show +a variety of structure. + +Two of the most simple forms are the couplet and the triplet. They often +form a part of a continuous poem, but they are occasionally found in +divided poems. + + +1. + +The western waves of ebbing day +Roll'd o'er the glen their level way. + +--Scott. + + +2. + +A chieftain's daughter seemed the maid; +Her satin snood, her silken plaid, +Her golden brooch such birth betray'd. + +--Scott. + + +A stanza of four lines is called a quatrain. The lines of quatrains show a +variety in the arrangement of their rhymes. The first two lines may rhyme +with each other and the last two with each other; the first and fourth may +rhyme and the second and third; or the rhymes may alternate. Notice the +example on page 208, and also the following:-- + + +1. + +I ask not wealth, but power to take + And use the things I have aright. +Not years, but wisdom that shall make + My life a profit and delight. + +--Phoebe Cary. + + +2. + +I count this thing to be grandly true: + That a noble deed is a step toward God,-- + Lifting the soul from the common sod +To a purer air and a broader view. + +--Holland. + + +A quatrain consisting of iambic pentameter verse with alternate rhymes is +called an elegiac stanza. + + +Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight, + And all the air a solemn stillness holds, +Save where the beetle wheels his droning flight, + And drowsy tinklings lull the distant folds. + +--Gray. + + +The Tennysonian stanza consists of four iambic tetrameter lines in which +the first line rhymes with the fourth, and the second with the third. + + +Let knowledge grow from more to more, + But more of reverence in us dwell; + That mind and soul, according well, +May make one music as before. + +--Tennyson. + + +Five and six line stanzas are found in a great variety. The following are +examples:-- + + +1. + +We look before and after, + And pine for what is not; +Our sincerest laughter + With some pain is fraught; +Our sweetest songs are those that tell of saddest thought. + +--Shelley. + + +2. + +And if I should live to be +The last leaf upon the tree + In the spring. +Let them smile as I do now, +At the old forsaken bough + Where I cling. + +--Holmes. + + +3. + +The upper air burst into life; +And a hundred fire flags sheen, +To and fro they were hurried about; +And to and fro, and in and out, +The wan stars danced between. + +--Coleridge. + + +The Spenserian stanza consists of nine lines: the first eight are iambic +pentameters, and the last line is an iambic hexameter or Alexandrine. +Burns makes use of this stanza in _The Cotter's Saturday Night._ The +following stanza from that poem shows the plan of the rhymes:-- + + +O Scotia! my dear, my native soil! + For whom my warmest wish to Heaven is sent! +Long may thy hardy sons of rustic toil + Be blest with health, and peace, and sweet content! + And oh! may Heaven their simple lives prevent +From luxury's contagion, weak and vile! + Then, howe'er crowns and coronets be rent, +A virtuous populace may rise the while, +And stand a wall of fire around their much beloved isle. + + +EXERCISES + +_A._ Scan the following:-- + + +Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting: +The soul that rises with us, our life's star, + Hath had elsewhere its setting, + And cometh from afar: + Not in entire forgetfulness, + And not in utter nakedness, +But trailing clouds of glory do we come + From God, who is our home. + +--Wordsworth. + + +Into the sunshine, + Full of light, +Leaping and flashing + From morn to night! + +--Lowell. + + +_B._ Name each verse in the following stanza:-- + + + Hear the sledges with the bells-- + Silver bells! +What a world of merriment their melody foretells! + How they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle, + In the icy air of night! +While the stars that oversprinkle + All the heavens seem to twinkle + With a crystalline delight-- + Keeping time, time, time, + In a sort of Runic rhyme +To the tintinnabulation that so musically wells + From the bells, bells, bells, bells, + Bells, bells, bells-- +From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells. + +--Poe. + + ++117. Kinds of Poetry.+-There are three general classes of poetry: +narrative, lyric, and dramatic. + +_A. Narrative poetry_, as may be inferred from its name, relates events +which may be either real or imaginary. Its chief varieties are the epic, +the metrical romance or lesser epic, the tale, and the ballad. + +_An epic_ poem is an extended narrative of an elevated character that +deals with heroic exploits which are frequently under supernatural +control. This kind of poetry is characterized by the intricacy of plot, by +the delineation of noble types of character, by its descriptive effects, +by its elevated language, and by its seriousness of tone. The epic is +considered as the highest effort of man's poetic genius. It is so +difficult to produce an epic that but few literatures contain more than +one. Homer's _Iliad_ and _Odyssey_, Virgil's _Aeneid_, the German +_Nibelungenlied_, the Spanish _Cid_, Dante's _Divine Comedy_, and Milton's +_Paradise Lost_ are important epics found in different literatures. + +A _metrical romance_ or lesser epic is a narrative poem, shorter and less +dignified than the epic. Longfellow's _Evangeline_ and Scott's _Marmion_ +and _Lady of the Lake_ are examples of this kind of poetry. + +_A metrical tale is_ a narrative poem somewhat simpler and shorter than +the metrical romance, but more complex than the ballad. Longfellow's +_Tales of a Wayside Inn_, Tennyson's _Enoch Arden_, and Lowell's _Vision +of Sir Launfal_ are examples of the tale. + +_A ballad_ is the shortest and most simple of all narrative poems. It +relates but a single incident and has a very simple structure. In this +kind of poetry the interest centers upon the incident rather than upon any +beauty or elegance of language. Many of the Robin Hood Ballads are well +known. Macaulay's _Lays of Ancient Rome_ and Longfellow's _Wreck of the +Hesperus_ are other examples of the ballad. It may be well to note here +that it is not always possible to draw definite lines between two +different kinds of narrative poetry. In fact, there will sometimes be a +difference of opinion as regards the classification. + +_B. Lyric poetry_ was the name originally applied to poetry that was to be +sung to the accompaniment of the lyre, but now the name is often applied +to poems that are not intended to be sung at all. Lyric poetry deals +primarily with the feelings and emotions. Love, hate, jealousy, grief, +hope, and praise are emotions that may be expressed in lyric poetry. Its +chief varieties are the song, the ode, the elegy, and the sonnet. + +A _song_ is a short poem intended to be sung. Songs may be divided into +sacred and secular. _Jerusalem, the Golden_, and _Lead, Kindly Light_, are +examples of sacred songs. Secular songs may be patriotic, convivial, or +sentimental. + +An _ode_ expresses exalted emotion and is more complex in structure than +the song. Some of the best odes in our language are Dryden's _Ode to St. +Cecilia_, Wordsworth's _Ode on Intimations of Immortality_, Keats's _Ode +on a Grecian Urn_, Shelley's _Ode to a Skylark_, and Lowell's +_Commemoration Ode_. + +An _elegy_ is a lyric pervaded by the feeling of grief or melancholy. +Milton's _Lycidas_, Tennyson's _In Memoriam_, and Gray's _Elegy in a +Country Churchyard_ are all noted elegies. + +A _sonnet_ is a lyric poem of fourteen lines which deals with a single +idea or sentiment. It is not a stanza taken from a poem, but is a complete +poem itself. In the Italian sonnet and those modeled after it, the +emotional feeling rises through the first two quatrains, reaching its +climax at or near the end of the eighth line, and then subsides through +the two tercets which make up the remaining six lines. If the sentiment +expressed does not adjust itself to this ebb and flow, it is not suitable +for a sonnet. Milton's sonnet on his blindness is one of the best. Notice +the emotional transition in the middle of the eighth line. This sonnet +will also illustrate the fixed rhyme scheme:-- + + +When I consider how my light is spent +Ere half my days, in this dark world and wide, +And that one talent, which is death to hide, +Lodged with me useless, though my soul more bent +To serve therewith my Maker, and present +My true account, lest he, returning, chide; +Doth God exact day labor, light denied? +I fondly ask. But Patience, to prevent +That murmur, soon replies, God doth not need, +Either man's work or his own gifts. Who best +Bear his mild yoke, they serve him best. His state +Is kingly; thousands at his bidding speed, +And post o'er land and ocean without rest; +They also serve who only stand and wait. + + +There is a form of sonnet called the Shakespearean which differs in its +arrangement from the Italian sonnet. + +_C. Dramatic poetry_ relates the occurrence of human events, and is +designed to be spoken on the stage. If the drama has an unhappy ending, it +is _a tragedy_. As is becoming in such a theme, the language is dignified +and impressive, and the whole appeals to our deeper emotions. If the drama +has a happy conclusion, it is _a comedy_. Here the movement is quicker, +the language less dignified, and the effort is to make the whole light and +amusing. + + + +PART II + + +Description, Narration, Exposition, and Argument have been treated in an +elementary way in Part I. A more extensive treatment of each is given in +Part II. It has been deemed undesirable to repeat in Part II many things +which have been previously treated. The treatment of any one of the forms +of discourse as given in Part II is not complete. By reference to the +index all the sections treating of any phase of any one subject may be +found. + + +[Illustration: See page 224, _C._] + + + +VIII. DESCRIPTION + + ++118. Description Defined.+--By means of our senses we gain a knowledge of +the world. We see, hear, taste, smell, and feel; and the ideas so acquired +are the fundamental elements of our knowledge, without which thinking +would be impossible. It, therefore, happens that much of the language that +we use has for its purpose the transmission to others of such ideas. Such +writing is called description. We may, therefore, define description as +that form of discourse which has for its purpose the formation of an +image. + +As here used, the term _image_ applies to any idea presented by the +senses. In a more limited sense it means the mental picture which is +formed by aid of sight. It is for the purpose of presenting images of this +kind that description is most often employed. It is most frequently +concerned with images of objects seen, less frequently with sounds, and +seldom with ideas arising through touch, taste, and smell. In this +chapter, therefore, we shall consider chiefly the methods of using +language for the purpose of arousing images of objects seen. + + ++119. Order of Observation.+--In description we shall find it of advantage +to use such language that the reader will form the image in the same way +as he would form an image from actual observation. There is a customary +and natural order of observation, and if we present our material in that +same order, the mind more easily forms the desired image. Our first need +in the study of description is to determine what this natural order of +observation is. + +Look at the building across the street. Your _first_ impression is that of +size, shape, and color. Almost instantly, but nevertheless _secondly_, you +add certain details as to roof, door, windows, and surroundings. Further +observation adds to the number of details, such as the size of the window +panes or the pattern of the lattice work. Our first glance may assure us +that we see a train, our second will tell us how many cars, our third will +show us that each car is marked Michigan Central. The oftener we look or +the longer we look, the greater is the number of details of which we +become conscious. Any number of illustrations will show that we first see +the general outline, and after that the details. We do not observe the +details one by one and then combine them into an object, but we first see +the object as a whole, and our first impression becomes more vivid as we +add detail after detail. + +Following this natural order of observation a description should begin +with a sentence that will give the reader a general impression of the +whole. Notice the beginnings of the following selections. After reading +the italicized sentence in each, consider the image that it has caused you +to form. + + +The door opened upon the main or living room. _It was a long apartment +with low ceiling and walls of hewn logs chinked and plastered and all +beautifully whitewashed and clean._ The tables, chairs, and benches were +all homemade. On the floor were magnificent skins of wolf, bear, musk ox, +and mountain goat. The walls were decorated with heads and horns of deer +and mountain sheep, eagle's wings, and a beautiful breast of a loon, which +Gwen had shot and of which she was very proud. At one end of the room a +huge stone fireplace stood radiant in its summer decorations of ferns and +grasses and wildflowers. At the other end a door opened into another room, +smaller, and richly furnished with relics of former grandeur. + +--Connor: _The Sky Pilot_. + + +_The stranger was of middle height, loosely knit and thin, with a cunning, +brutal face._ He had a bullet-shaped head, with fine, soft, reddish brown +hair; a round, stubbly beard shot with gray; and small, beady eyes set +close together. He was clothed in an old, black, grotesquely fitting +cutaway coat, with coarse trousers tucked into his boot tops. A worn +visored cloth cap was on his head. In his right hand he carried an old +muzzle-loading shotgun. + +--George Kibbe Turner: _Across the State_ ("McClure's"). + + ++120. The Fundamental Image.+--The first impression of the object as a +whole is called the fundamental image. The beginning of a description +should cause the reader to form a correct general outline, which will +include the main characteristics of the object described. While the +fundamental image lacks definiteness and exactness, yet it must be such +that it shall not need to be revised as we add the details. If one should +begin a description by saying, "Opposite the church there is a large +two-story, brick house with a conservatory on the left," the reader would +form at once a mental picture including the essential features of the +house. Further statements about the roof, the windows, the doors, the +porch, the yard, and the fence, would each add something to the picture +until it was complete. The impression with which the reader started would +be added to, but not otherwise changed. But if we should conclude the +description with the statement, "This house was distinguished from its +neighbors by the fact that it was not of the usual rectangular form, but +was octagonal in shape," the reader would find that the image which he +had formed would need to be entirely changed. It is evident that if the +word _octagonal_ is to appear at all, it must be at the beginning. Care +must be taken to place all the words that affect the fundamental image in +the sentence that gives the general characteristics of that which we are +describing. + +Hawthorne begins _The House of the Seven Gables_ as follows:-- + + +Halfway down a by-street of one of our New England towns stands a rusty +wooden house, with seven acutely peaked gables, facing towards various +points of the compass, and a huge, clustered chimney in the midst. The +street is Pyncheon street; the house is the old Pyncheon house; and an elm +tree, of wide circumference, rooted before the door, is familiar to every +town-born child by the title of the Pyncheon elm. On my occasional visits +to the town aforesaid, I seldom failed to turn down Pyncheon street, for +the sake of passing through the shadow of these two antiquities,--the +great elm tree and the weather-beaten edifice. + + +Later he gives a detailed description of the house on the morning of its +completion as follows:-- + + +Maule's lane, or Pyncheon street, as it were now more decorous to call it, +was thronged, at the appointed hour, as with a congregation on its way to +church. All, as they approached, looked upward at the imposing edifice, +which was henceforth to assume its rank among the habitations of mankind. +There it rose, a little withdrawn from the line of the street, but in +pride, not modesty. Its whole visible exterior was ornamented with quaint +figures, conceived in the grotesqueness of a Gothic fancy, and drawn or +stamped in the glittering plaster, composed of lime, pebbles, and bits of +glass, with which the woodwork of the walls was overspread. On every side +the seven gables pointed sharply towards the sky, and presented the aspect +of a whole sisterhood of edifices, breathing through the spiracles of one +great chimney. The many lattices, with their small, diamond-shaped panes, +admitted the sunlight into hall and chamber, while, nevertheless, the +second story, projecting far over the base, and itself retiring beneath +the third, threw a shadowy and thoughtful gloom into the lower rooms. +Carved globes of wood were affixed under the jutting stories. Little +spiral rods of iron beautified each of the seven peaks. On the triangular +portion of the gable, that fronted next the street, was a dial, put up +that very morning, and on which the sun was still marking the passage of +the first bright hour in a history that was not destined to be all so +bright. All around were scattered shavings, chips, shingles, and broken +halves of bricks; these, together with the lately turned earth, on which +the grass had not begun to grow, contributed to the impression of +strangeness and novelty proper to a house that had yet its place to make +among men's daily interests. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Select the sentence or part of a sentence which gives the fundamental +image in each of the following selections:-- + +1. It was a big, smooth-stone-faced house, product of the 'Seventies, +frowning under an outrageously insistent Mansard, capped by a cupola, and +staring out of long windows overtopped with "ornamental" slabs. Two +cast-iron deer, painted death-gray, twins of the same mold, stood on +opposite sides of the front walk, their backs toward it and each other, +their bodies in profile to the street, their necks bent, however, so that +they gazed upon the passer-by--yet gazed without emotion. Two large, calm +dogs guarded the top of the steps leading to the front door; they also +were twins and of the same interesting metal, though honored beyond the +deer by coats of black paint and shellac. + +--Booth Tarkington: _The Conquest of Canaan_ ("Harper's"). + + +2. At the first glance, Phoebe saw an elderly personage, in an +old-fashioned dressing gown of faded damask, and wearing his gray or +almost white hair of an unusual length. It quite overshadowed his +forehead, except when he thrust it back, and stared vaguely about the +room. After a very brief inspection of his face, it was easy to conceive +that his footstep must necessarily be such an one as that which, slowly, +and with as indefinite an aim as a child's first journey across a floor, +had just brought him hitherward. Yet there were no tokens that his +physical strength might not have sufficed for a free and determined gait. +It was the spirit of a man that could not walk. The expression of his +countenance--while, notwithstanding, it had the light of reason in it-- +seemed to waver, and glimmer, and nearly to die away, and feebly to +recover itself again. It was like a flame which we see twinkling among +half-extinguished embers; we gaze at it more intently than if it were a +positive blaze, gushing vividly upward--more intently, but with a certain +impatience, as if it ought either to kindle itself into satisfactory +splendor, or be at once extinguished. + +--Hawthorne: _The House of the Seven Gables_. + + +3. One of the best known of the flycatchers all over the country is the +kingbird. He is a little smaller than a robin, and all in brownish black, +with white breast. He has also white tips to his tail feathers, which look +very fine when he spreads it out wide in flying. Among the head feathers +of the kingbird is a small spot of orange color. This is called in the +books a "concealed patch," because it is seldom seen, it is so hidden by +the dark feathers. + +--Mary Rogers Miller: _The Brook Book_. +(Copyright, 1902, by Doubleday, Page and Co.) + + +Notice the use of a comparison in establishing a correct fundamental image +in example 3. + +_B._ Select five buildings with which the members of the class are +familiar. Write a single sentence for each, giving the fundamental image. +Read these sentences to the class. Let them determine for which building +each is written. + +_C._ Notice the pictures on page 218. Write a single sentence for each, +giving the fundamental image. + + ++Theme LII.+--_Write a paragraph, describing something with which you are +familiar._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. The county court house. + 2. The new church. + 3. My neighbor's house. + 4. Where we go fishing. + 5. A neighboring lake. + 6. A cozy nook. + + +(Underscore the sentence that gives the fundamental image. Will the +reader get from it at once a correct general outline of the object to +be described? Will he need to change the fundamental image as your +description proceeds?) + + ++121. Point of View.+--What we shall see first depends upon the point of +view. Seen from one position, an object or a landscape will present a +different appearance from that which it will present when viewed from +another position. A careful writer will give that fundamental image that +would come from actual observation if the reader were looking at the scene +described from the point of view chosen by the writer. He will not include +details that cannot be seen from that position even though he knows that +they exist. + +Notice that the following descriptions include only that which can be seen +from the place indicated in the italicized phrases:-- + + +_Forward from the bridge_ he beheld a landscape of wide valleys and +irregular heights, with groves and lakes and fanciful houses linked +together by white paths and shining streams. The valleys were spread +below, that the river might be poured upon them for refreshment in day of +drought, and they were as green carpets figured with beds and fields of +flowers and flecked with flocks of sheep white as balls of snow; and the +voices of shepherds following the flocks were heard afar. As if to tell +him of the pious inscription of all he beheld, the altars out under the +open sky seemed countless, each with a white-gowned figure attending it, +while processions in white went slowly hither and thither between them; +and the smoke of the altars half risen hung collected in pale clouds over +the devoted places. + +Wallace: _Ben-Hur_. +(Copyright, 1880. Harper and Bros.) + + +The house stood unusually near the river, facing eastward, and standing +four-square, with an immense veranda about its sides, and a flight of +steps in front, spreading broadly downward, as we open our arms to a +child. _From the veranda_ nine miles of river were seen; and in their +compass near at hand, the shady garden full of rare and beautiful flowers; +farther away broad fields of cane and rice, and the distant quarters of +the slaves, and on the horizon everywhere a dark belt of cypress forest. + +--Cable: _Old Creole Days_. + + ++122. Selection of Details Affected by Point of View.+--A skillful writer +will not ask his reader to perform impossible feats. We cannot see the +leaves upon a tree a mile away, and so should not describe them. The finer +effects and more minute details should be included only when our chosen +point of view brings us near enough to appreciate them. In the selection +below, Stevenson tells only as much about Swanston cottage as can be seen +at a distance of six miles. + + +So saying she carried me around the battlements _towards the opposite or +southern side of the fortress and indeed to a bastion_ almost immediately +overlooking the place of our projected flight. Thence we had a view of +some foreshortened suburbs at our feet, and beyond of a green, open, and +irregular country rising towards the Pentland Hills. The face of one of +these summits (say two leagues from where we stood) is marked with a +procession of white scars. And to this she directed my attention. + +"You see those marks?" she said. "We call them the Seven Sisters. Follow a +little lower with your eye, and you will see a fold of the hill, the tops +of some trees, and a tail of smoke out of the midst of them. That is +Swanston cottage, where my brother and I are living." + +--Stevenson: _St. Ives_. +(Copyright, 1897. Charles Scribner's Sons.) + + +Notice in the selection below that for objects _near at hand_ details so +small as the lizard's eye are given, but that these details are not given, +when we are asked to observe things far away. + + +Slow though their march had been, by this time _they had come to the end +of the avenue, and were in the wide circular sweep before the castle._ +They stopped here and stood looking off over the garden, with its somber +cypresses and bright beds of geranium, down upon the valley, dim and +luminous in a mist of gold. Great, heavy, fantastic-shaped clouds, +pearl-white with pearl-gray shadows, piled themselves up against the +scintillant dark blue of the sky. In and out among the rose trees _near at +hand_, where the sun was hottest, heavily flew, with a loud bourdonnement, +the cockchafers promised by Annunziata,--big, blundering, clumsy, the +scorn of their light-winged and businesslike competitors, the bees. +Lizards lay immobile as lizards cast in bronze, only their little +glittering, watchful pin heads of eyes giving sign of life. And of course +the blackcaps never for a moment left off singing. + +--Henry Habland: _My Friend Prospero_ ("McClure's"). + + +_We round a corner of the valley, and beyond, far below us, looms the town +of Sorata. From this distance_ the red tile roofs, the soft blue, green, +and yellow of its stuccoed walls, look indescribably fresh and grateful. A +closer inspection will probably dissipate this impression; it will be +squalid and dirty, the river-stone paving of its street will be deep in +the accumulation of filth, dirty Indian children will swarm in them with +mangy dogs and bedraggled ducks, the gay frescoes of its walls will peel +in ragged patches, revealing the 'dobe of their base, and the tile roofs +will be cracked and broken. But from the heights at this distance and in +the warm glow of the afternoon sun it looks like a dainty fairy village +glistening in a magic splendor against the Titanic setting of the Andes. + +--Charles Johnson Post: _Across the Highlands of the World_ +("Harper's"). + + + Come on, sir; here's the place. Stand still. How fearful +And dizzy 'tis to cast one's eyes so low! +The crows and choughs that wing the midway air +Show scarce so gross as beetles. Halfway down +Hangs one that gathers sampire, dreadful trade! +Methinks he seems no bigger than his head. +The fishermen that walk upon the beach +Appear like mice; and yond tall anchoring bark +Diminish'd to her cock; her cock, a buoy +Almost too small for sight. The murmuring surge +That on the unnumber'd idle pebble chafes, +Cannot be heard so high. I'll look no more, +Lest my brain turn and the deficient sight +Topple down headlong. + +--Shakespear: _King Lear_ + + ++123. Implied Point of View.+--Often the point of view is not specifically +stated, but the language of the description shows where the observer is +located. Often such an implied point of view gives a delicate touch to a +description that could not be obtained by direct statements. + +In which of the following selections is the point of view merely implied? + + +1. Thus pondering and dreaming, he came by the road down a gentle hill +with close woods on either hand; and so into the valley with a swift river +flowing through it; and on the river a mill. So white it stood among the +trees, and so merrily whirred the wheel as the water turned it, and so +bright blossomed the flowers in the garden, that Martimor had joy of the +sight, for it reminded him of his own country. + +--Henry Van Dyke: _The Blue Flower_. (Copyright, 1902. Charles Scribner's +Sons.) + + +2. There is an island off a certain part of the coast of Maine,--a little +rocky island, heaped and tumbled together as if Dame Nature had shaken +down a heap of stones at random from her apron, when she had finished +making the larger islands, which lie between it and the mainland. At one +end, the shoreward end, there is a tiny cove, and a bit of silver sand +beach, with a green meadow beyond it, and a single great pine; but all the +rest is rocks, rocks. At the farther end the rocks are piled high, like a +castle wall, making a brave barrier against the Atlantic waves; and on top +of this cairn rises the lighthouse, rugged and sturdy as the rocks +themselves; but painted white, and with its windows shining like great, +smooth diamonds. This is Light Island. + +--Laura E. Richards: _Captain January_. + + ++124. Changing Point of View.+--We cannot see the four sides of a house +from the same place, though we may wish to have our reader know how each +side looks. It is, therefore, necessary to change our point of view. It is +immaterial whether the successive points of view are named or merely +implied, providing the reader has due notice that we have changed from one +to the other, and that for each we describe only what can be seen from +that position. A description of a cottage that by its wording leads us to +think ourselves inside of the building and then tells about the yard would +be defective. + +Notice the changing point of view in the following:-- + + +At long distance, looking over the blue waters of the Gulf of St. Lawrence +in clear weather, you might think that you saw a lonely sea gull, +snow-white, perching motionless on a cobble of gray rock. Then, as your +boat drifted in, following the languid tide and the soft southern breeze, +you would perceive that the cobble of rock was a rugged hill with a few +bushes and stunted trees growing in the crevices, and that the gleaming +speck near the summit must be some kind of a building,--if you were on the +coast of Italy or Spain you would say a villa or a farmhouse. Then as you +floated still farther north and drew nearer to the coast, the desolate +hill would detach itself from the mainland and become a little mountain +isle, with a flock of smaller islets clustering around it as a brood of +wild ducks keep close to their mother, and with deep water, nearly two +miles wide, flowing between it and the shore; while the shining speck on +the seaward side stood clearly as a low, whitewashed dwelling with a +sturdy, round tower at one end, crowned with a big eight-sided lantern--a +solitary lighthouse. + +--Henry Van Dyke: _The Keeper of the Light_. +(Copyright, 1905. Charles Scribner's Sons.) + + ++125. Place of Point of View in Paragraph.+--The point of view may be +expressed or only implied or wholly omitted, but in any case the reader +must assume one in order to form a clear and accurate image. Beginners +will find that they can best cause their readers to form the desired +images by stating a point of view. When the point of view is stated it +must of necessity come early in the paragraph. We have already learned +that the beginning of a description should present the fundamental image. +For this reason the first sentence of a description frequently includes +both the point of view and the fundamental image. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Consider the following selections with reference to-- + (_a_) The point of view. + (_b_) The fundamental image. + (_c_) The completeness of the images which you have formed (see + Sections 26, 27). + + +1. The Lunardi [balloon], mounting through a stagnant calm in a line +almost vertical, had pierced the morning mists, and now swam emancipated +in a heaven of exquisite blue. Below us by some trick of eyesight, the +country had grown concave, its horizon curving up like the rim of a +shallow bowl--a bowl heaped, in point of fact, with sea fog, but to our +eyes with a froth delicate and dazzling as a whipped syllabub of snow. +Upon it the traveling shadow of the balloon became no shadow, but a stain; +an amethyst (you might call it) purged of all grosser properties than +color and lucency. At times thrilled by no perceptible wind, rather by the +pulse of the sun's rays, the froth shook and parted; and then behold, deep +in the crevasses vignetted and shining, an acre or two of the earth of +man's business and fret--tilled slopes of the Lothians, ships dotted on +the Firth, the capital like a hive that some child had smoked--the ear of +fancy could almost hear it buzzing. + +--Stevenson: _St. Ives_. +(Copyright, 1897. Charles Scribner's Sons.) + + +2. When Aswald and Corinne had gained the top of the Capitol, she showed +him the Seven Hills and the city, bound first by Mount Palatinus, then by +the walls of Servius Tullius, which inclose the hills, and by those of +Aurelian, which still surround the greatest part of Rome. Mount Palatinus +once contained all Rome, but soon did the imperial palace fill the space +that had sufficed for a nation. The Seven Hills are far less lofty now +than when they deserted the title of steep mountains, modern Rome being +forty feet higher than its predecessor, and the valleys which separated +them almost filled up by ruins; but what is still more strange, two heaps +of shattered vases have formed new hills, Cestario and Testacio. Thus, in +time, the very refuse of civilization levels the rock with the plain, +effacing in the moral, as in the material world, all the pleasing +inequalities of nature. + +--Madame De Stael: _Corinne: Italy_. + + +_B._--Select five descriptions from the following books and note whether +each has a point of view expressed or implied:-- + + Cooper: Last of the Mohicans. + Scott: Ivanhoe. + Scott: Lady of the Lake. + Irving: Sketch Book. + Burroughs: Wake Robin. + Van Dyke: The Blue Flower. + Howells: The Rise of Silas Lapham. + Muir: Our National Parks. + Kate Douglas Wiggin: Rebecca of Sunnybrook Farm. + + ++Theme LIII.+--_Write a descriptive paragraph beginning with a point of +view and a fundamental image._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. The crossroads inn. + 2. A historical building. + 3. The shoe factory. + 4. The gristmill. + 5. The largest store in town. + 6. The union station. + + +(In your description underscore the sentence giving the point of view. Can +you improve the description by using a different point of view? Will the +reader form at once a correct general outline? Will the entire description +enable the reader to form a clear and accurate image?) + + ++126. Clear Seeing.+-Clear statement depends upon clear seeing. Not only +must we choose an advantageous point of view, but we must be able to +reproduce what can be seen from that location. We may write a description +while we are looking at the object, but it is frequently convenient to do +the writing when the object is not visible. Oral descriptions are nearly +always made without having the object at hand. When we attempt to describe +we examine not the object itself, but our mental image of it. It is +evident that at least the essential features of this mental picture must +stand out clearly and definitely, or we shall be unable to make our +description accurate. + +The habit of accurate observation is a desirable acquisition, and our +ability in this direction can be improved by effort. It is not the +province of this book to provide a series of exercises which shall +strengthen habits of accurate observation. Many of your studies, +particularly the sciences, devote much attention to training the observing +powers, and will furnish many suitable exercises. A few have been +suggested below merely to emphasize the point that every successful effort +in description must be preceded by a definite exercise in clear seeing. + + +EXERCISE + + +1. Walk rapidly past a building. Form a mental picture of it. Write down +as many of the details as you can. Now look at the building again and +determine what you have left out. + +2. Call to mind some building with which you are familiar. Write a list of +the details that you recall. Now visit the building and see what important +ones you have omitted. + +3. While looking at some scene make a note of the important details. Lay +this list away for a day. Then recall the scene. After picturing the scene +as vividly as you can, read your notes. Do they add anything to your +picture? + +4. Make a list of the things on some desk that you cannot see but with +which you are familiar; for example, the teacher's desk. At the first +opportunity notice how accurate your list is. + +5. Look for some time at the stained glass windows of a church or at the +wall paper of the room. What patterns do you notice that you did not see +at first? What colors? + +6. Make a list of the objects visible from your bedroom window. When you +go home notice what you have omitted. + +7. Practice observation contests similar to the following: Let two or more +persons pass a store window. Each shall then make a list of what the +window contains. Compare lists with one another. + + ++Theme LIV.+--_Write a description of some dwelling._ + +(Select a house that you can see on the way home. Choose a point of view +and notice carefully what can be seen from it. When you are ready to +write, form as vivid a mental picture of the house as you can. Write the +sentence that gives the fundamental image. Add such of the details as will +enable the reader to form an accurate image.) + + ++127. Selection of Essential Details.+--After deciding upon a point of +view and such general characteristics as are essential to the forming of a +correct outline of the object to be described, we must next give our +attention to the selection of the details. If our description has been +properly begun, this general outline will not be changed, but each +succeeding phrase or sentence will add to the clearness and distinctness +of the picture. Our first impression of a house may include windows, but +the mention of them later will bring them out clearly on our mental +picture much as the details appear when one is developing a negative in +photography. + +If the peculiarities of an object are such as to effect its general form, +they need to be stated in the opening sentence; but when the peculiar or +distinguishing characteristic does not affect the form, it may be +introduced later. If we say, "On the corner across the street from the +post office there is a large, two-story, red brick store," the reader can +form at once a general picture of such a store. Only those things which +give a general outline have been included. As yet nothing has been +mentioned to distinguish the store from any other similar one. If some +following sentence should be, "Though not wider, it yet presents a more +imposing appearance than its neighbors, because the door is placed at one +side, thus making room for a single wide display window instead of two +stuffy, narrow ones," a detail has been added which, though not changing +the general outline, makes the picture clearer and at the same time +emphasizes the distinguishing feature of this particular store. + + +EXERCISES + + +1. Observe your neighbor's barn. What would you select as its +characteristic feature? + +2. Take a rapid glance at some stranger whom you meet. What did you notice +most vividly? + +3. In what respect does the Methodist church in your city differ from the +other church buildings? + +4. Does your pet dog differ from others of the same breed in appearance? +In actions? + + ++Theme LV.+--_Write a descriptive paragraph, using one of the following +subjects:_-- + + 1. A mountain view. + 2. An omnibus. + 3. A fort. + 4. A lighthouse. + 5. A Dutch windmill. + 6. A bend in the river. + 7. A peculiar structure. + 8. The picture on this page. + +(Underscore the sentence that pictures the details most essential to the +description. Consider the unity of your paragraph. Section 81.) + + +[Illustration] + + ++128. Selection and Subordination of Minor Details.+--In many descriptions +the minor details are wholly omitted, and in all descriptions many that +might have been included have been omitted. A proper number of such +details adds interest and clearness to the images; too many but serve to +render the whole obscure. If properly selected and effectively presented, +minor details add much to the beauty or usefulness of a description, but +if strung together in short sentences, the effect may be both tiresome and +confusing. A mere catalogue of facts is not a good description. They must +be arranged so that those which are the more important shall have the +greater prominence, while those of less importance shall be properly +subordinated. + +Often minor details may be stated in a word or phrase inserted in the +sentence which gives the general view. Notice the italicized portion of +the following: "Opposite the church, _and partly screened by the scraggly +evergreens of a broad, unkempt lawn_, there is a large, octagonal, brick +house, with a conservatory on the left." This arrangement adds to the +general view and gives a better result than would be obtained by +describing the lawn in a separate sentence. Often a single adjective adds +some element to a description more effectively than can be done with a +whole sentence. Notice how much is added by the use of _scraggly_ and +_unkempt_. + + +EXERCISES + + +Make a careful study of the following selections with reference to the way +in which the minor details are presented. Can any of them be improved by +re-arranging them? + + +1. At night, as I look from my windows over Kassim Pasha, I never tire of +that dull, soft coloring, green and brown, in which the brown of roofs and +walls is hardly more than a shading of the green of the trees. There is +the lonely curve of the hollow, with its small, square, flat houses of +wood; and above, a sharp line of blue-black cypresses on the spine of the +hill; then the long desert plain, with its sandy road, shutting in the +horizon. Mists thicken over the valley, and wipe out its colors before the +lights begin to glimmer out of it. Below, under my windows, are the +cypresses of the Little Field of the Dead, vast, motionless, different +every night. Last night each stood clear, tall, apart; to-night they +huddle together in the mist, and seem to shudder. The sunset was brief, +and the water has grown dull, like slate. Stamboul fades to a level mass +of smoky purple, out of which a few minarets rise black against a gray sky +with bands of orange fire. Last night, after a golden sunset, a fog of +rusty iron came down, and hung poised over the jagged level of the hill. +The whole mass of Stamboul was like black smoke; the water dim gray, a +little flushed, and then like pure light, lucid, transparent, every ship +and every boat sharply outlined in black on its surface; the boats seemed +to crawl like flies on a lighted pane. + +--Arthur Symons: _Constantinople: An Impression_ ("Harper's"). + + +2. The boy was advancing up the road, carrying a half-filled pail of milk. +He was a child of perhaps ten years, exceedingly frail and thin, with a +drawn, waxen face, and sick, colorless lips and ears. On his head he wore +a thick plush cap, and coarse, heavy shoes upon his feet. A faded coat, +too long in the arms, drooped from his shoulders, and long, loose overalls +of gray jeans broke and wrinkled about his slender ankles. + +--George Kibbe Turner: _Across the State_ ("McClure's"). + + +3. They met few people abroad, even on passing from the retired +neighborhood of the House of the Seven Gables into what was ordinarily the +more thronged and busier portion of the town. Glistening sidewalks, with +little pools of rain, here and there, along their unequal surface; +umbrellas displayed ostentatiously in the shop windows, as if the life of +trade had concentered itself in that one article; wet leaves of the +horse-chestnut or elm trees, torn off untimely by the blast, and scattered +along the public way; an unsightly accumulation of mud in the middle of +the street, which perversely grew the more unclean for its long and +laborious washing;--these were the more definable points of a very somber +picture. In the way of movement, and human life, there was the hasty +rattle of a cab or coach, its driver protected by a water-proof cap over +his head and shoulders; the forlorn figure of an old man, who seemed to +have crept out of some subterranean sewer, and was stooping along the +kennel, and poking the wet rubbish with a stick, in quest of rusty nails; +a merchant or two, at the door of the post office, together with an +editor, and a miscellaneous politician, awaiting a dilatory mail; a few +visages of retired sea captains at the window of an insurance office, +looking out vacantly at the vacant street, blaspheming at the weather, and +fretting at the dearth as well of public news as local gossip. What a +treasure trove to these venerable quidnuncs, could they have guessed the +secret which Hepzibah and Clifford were carrying along with them! + +--Hawthorne: _The House of the Seven Gables_. + + ++Theme LVI.+--_Write a description of one of the following:_-- + + 1. A steamboat. + 2. An orchard. + 3. A colonial mansion. + 4. A wharf. + 5. A stone quarry. + 6. A shop. + + +(Consider what you have written with reference to the point of view, +fundamental image, and essential details. After these have been arranged +to suit you, notice the way in which the minor details have been +introduced. Have you given undue prominence to any? Can a single adjective +or phrase be substituted for a whole sentence? Think of the image which +your words will produce in the mind of the reader. Consider your theme +with reference to unity. Section 81.) + + ++129. Arrangement of Details.+--The quality of a description depends as +much upon the arrangement of the material as upon the selection. Under +paragraph development we have discussed the necessity of arranging the +details with reference to their natural position in space (see Sections 47 +and 86). Such an arrangement is the most desirable one and should be +departed from only with good reason. Such departures may, however, be +made, as shown in the following selection:-- + + +A pretty picture the lad made as he lay there dreaming over his earthly +possessions--a pretty picture in the shade of the great elm, that sultry +morning of August, three quarters of a century ago. The presence of the +crutch showed there was something sad about it; and so there was; for if +you had glanced at the little bare brown foot, set toes upward on the +curbstone, you would have discovered that the fellow to it was missing-- +cut off about two inches above the ankle. And if this had caused you to +throw a look of sympathy at his face, something yet sadder must long +have held your attention. Set jauntily on the back of his head was a +weather-beaten dark blue cloth cap, the patent leather frontlet of which +was gone; and beneath the ragged edge of this there fell down over his +forehead and temples and ears a tangled mass of soft yellow hair, slightly +curling. His eyes were large and of a blue to match the depths of a calm +sky above the treetops: the long lashes which curtained them were brown; +his lips were red, his nose delicate and fine, and his cheek tanned to the +color of ripe peaches. It was a singularly winning face, intelligent, +frank, not describable. On it now rested a smile, half joyous, half sad, +as though his mind was full of bright hopes, the realization of which was +far away. From the neck fell the wide collar of a white cotton shirt, +clean but frayed at the elbows, and open and buttonless down to his bosom. +Over this he wore an old-fashioned satin waistcoat of a man, also frayed +and buttonless. His dress was completed by a pair of baggy tow breeches, +held up by a single tow suspender fastened to big brown horn buttons. + +--James Lane Allen: _Flute and Violin_. +(Copyright, 1892, Harper and Brothers.) + + +The details are not stated with reference to their natural position in +space, but they are given in the probable order of observation. If we were +to look upon such a boy, the crutch would attract our attention and would +lead us to look at once for the reason why a crutch was needed. The writer +skillfully uses the sympathy thus aroused as a means of transition to the +face. In the remainder of the description the natural position in space is +closely followed. + + ++Theme LVII.+-_Write a description of one of the following:_-- + + 1. The bayou. + 2. Looking down the mountain. + 3. Looking up the mountain. + 4. The floorwalker. + 5. An old-fashioned rig. + 6. A house said to be haunted. + 7. The deacon. + +(Consider the arrangement of details with reference to their position in +space. Consider your paragraphs with reference to coherence and emphasis. +Sections 82 and 83.) + + ++130. Effectiveness in Description.+--Every part of a description should +aid in rendering it effective, and this effectiveness is as much +the purpose of the principles previously discussed as it is of those +which follow. This paragraph is inserted here to separate more or less +definitely those things which can be done under direction from those which +cannot be determined by rule. Up to this point emphasis has been laid upon +the clear presentation of a mental image as the object of description. +But the clear presentation of mental images is not all there is to +description. A point of view, a fundamental image, a judicious selection +of essential and minor details and the relating of them with reference to +their natural position in space, may set forth an image clearly and yet +fail to be satisfactory as a description. + +For the practical affairs of life it may be sufficient to limit ourselves +to clear images set forth barely and sparely, but there is a pleasure +and a profit in using the subtler arts of language, in placing a word +here or a phrase there that shall give a touch of beauty or a flash of +suggestiveness and so save our descriptions from the commonplace. It is to +these less easily demonstrated methods of giving strength and beauty that +we wish now to turn our attention. + + ++131. Word Selection.+--The effectiveness of our description will depend +largely upon our right choice of words. If our range of vocabulary is +limited, the possibility of effective description is correspondingly +limited. Only when our working vocabulary contains many words may we hope +to choose with ease the one most suitable for the effective expression of +the idea we wish to convey. To prepare a list of words that may apply and +then attempt to write a theme that shall make use of them is a mechanical +process of little value. The idea we wish to express should call up the +word that exactly expresses it. If our ideas are not clear or our +vocabulary is limited, we may be satisfied with the trite and commonplace; +but if our experience has been broad or our reading extended, we may have +at command the word which, because it is just the right one, gives +individuality and force to our phrasing. Every one is familiar with dogs, +and has in his vocabulary many words which he applies to them, but a +reading of one or two good dog stories, such as _Bob, Son of Battle_, or +_The Call of the Wild_, will show how wide is the range of such words and +how much the description is enhanced by their careful use. + + +EXERCISE + + +Consider the following selections with reference to the choice of words +which add to the effectiveness of the descriptions:-- + +1. She was a little, brown, thin, almost skinny woman with big, rolling, +violet-blue eyes and the sweetest manners in the world. + +2. The sounds and the straits and the sea with its plump, sleepy islands +lay north and east and south. + +3. The mists of the Cuchullins are not fat, dull, and still, like lowland +and inland mists, but haggard, and streaming from the black peaks, and +full of gusty lines. We saw them first from the top of Beimna-Caillach, a +red, round-headed mountain hard by Bradford, in the isle of Skye. + +Shortly after noon the rain came up from the sea and drew long delicate +gray lines against the cliffs. It came up licking and lisping over the +surface of Cornisk, and drove us to the lee of rocks and the shelter of +our ponchos, to watch the mists drifting, to listen to the swell and lull +of the wind and the patter of the cold rain. There were glimpses now and +then of the inner Cuchullins, a fragment of ragged sky line, the sudden +jab of a black pinnacle through the mist, the open mouth of a gorge +steaming with mist. + +We climbed the great ridge, at length, of rock and wet heath that +separates Cornisk from Glen Sligachan, slowly through the fitful rain and +driving cloud, and saw Sgurr-nan-Gillian, sharp, black, and pitiless, the +northernmost peak and sentinel of the Cuchullins. The yellow trail could +be seen twisting along the flat, empty glen. Seven miles away was a white +spot, the Sligachan Hotel. + +I think it must be the dreariest glen in Scotland. The trail twists in a +futile manner, and, after all, is mainly bog holes and rolling rocks. The +Red Hills are on the right, rusty, reddish, of the color of dried blood, +and gashed with sliding bowlders. Their heads seem beaten down, a Helot +population, and the Cuchullins stand back like an army of iron conquerors. +The Red Hills will be a vanished race one day, and the Cuchullins remain. + +Arthur Colton: _The Mists o' Skye_ ("Harper's"). + + ++132. Additional Aids to Effectiveness.+--Comparison and figures of speech +not only aid in making our picture clear and vivid, but they may add +a spice and flavor to our language, which counts for much in the +effectiveness and beauty of our description. Notice the following +descriptions:-- + + +He was a mongoose, rather like a little cat in his fur and his tail, but +quite like a weasel in his head and his habits. His eyes and the end of +his restless nose were pink; he could scratch himself anywhere he pleased, +with any leg, front or back, that he chose to use; he could fluff up his +tail till it looked like a bottle brush, and his war cry as he scuttled +through the long grass was Rikk-tikk-tikki-tikki-tikk. + +--Kipling: _Jungle Book_. + + +Ichabod was a suitable figure for such a steed. He rode with short +stirrups, which brought his knees nearly up to the pommel of his saddle; +his sharp elbows stuck out like grasshoppers' legs; he carried his whip +perpendicularly in his hand, like a scepter, and, as his horse jogged on, +the motion of his arms was not unlike the flapping of a pair of wings. A +small wool hat rested on the top of his nose, for so his scanty strip of +forehead might be called; and the skirts of his black coat fluttered out +almost to the horse's tail. Such was the appearance of Ichabod and his +steed, as they shambled out of the gate of Hans Van Ripper, and it was +altogether such an apparition as is seldom to be met with in broad +daylight. + +--Irving: _Legend of Sleepy Hollow_. + + ++Theme LVIII.+--_Write a description of one of the following:_-- + + 1. My cat. + 2. The pony at the farm. + 3. The glen. + 4. The prairie. + 5. The milldam. + 6. The motorman. + 7. The picture on this page. + + +[Illustration] + + +(Consider the effectiveness of your description. Can you improve your +choice of words? Have you used comparisons or figures, and if so, do they +improve your description? Consider your theme with reference to euphony. +Section 16.) + + ++133. Classes of Objects Frequently Described.+--There is no limit to the +things that we may wish to describe, but there are certain general classes +of objects that are described more frequently than others. We have greater +occasion to describe men or places than we have to describe pictures or +trees. A person may be an accurate observer having a large vocabulary +applicable to one class of objects, and thus be able to describe objects +of that class clearly and effectively; though at the same time, on account +of limited experience and small vocabulary, he cannot well describe +objects belonging to some other class. The ability to observe accurately +the classes of objects named below, and to appreciate descriptions of such +objects when made by others, is a desirable acquisition. Every effort +should be made to master as many as possible of the words applicable to +each class of objects. A slight investigation will show how great is the +number of such words with which we are unfamiliar. + + +1. _Descriptions of buildings or portions of buildings._ + + +In most buildings the basement story is heaviest, and each succeeding +story increases in lightness; in the Ducal palace this is reversed, making +it unique amongst buildings. The outer walls rest upon the pillars of open +colonnades, which have a more stumpy appearance than was intended, owing +to the raising of the pavement in the piazza. They had, however, no base, +but were supported by a continuous stylobate. The chief decorations of the +palace were employed upon the capitals of these thirty-six pillars, and it +was felt that the peculiar prominence and importance given to its angles +rendered it necessary that they should be enriched and softened by +sculpture, which is interesting and often most beautiful. The throned +figure of Venice above bears a scroll inscribed: _Fortis, justa, trono +furias, mare sub pede, pono_. (Strong and just, I put the furies beneath +my throne, and the sea beneath my foot.) One of the corners of the palace +joined the irregular buildings connected with St. Mark's, and is not +generally seen. There remained, therefore, only three angles to be +decorated. The first main sculpture may be called the "Fig-tree angle," +and its subject is the "Fall of Man." The second is "the Vine angle," and +represents the "Drunkenness of Noah." The third sculpture is "the Judgment +angle," and portrays the "Judgment of Solomon." + +--Hare: _Venice_. + + ++Theme LIX.+--_Write a description of the exterior of some building._ + + ++Theme LX.+--_Write a description of some room._ + + ++Theme LXI.+--_Write a description of some portion of a building, such as +an entrance, spire, window, or stairway._ + +(Consider each description with reference to-- + _a._ Point of view. + _b._ Fundamental image. + _c._ Selection of essential details. + _d._ Selection and subordination of minor details. + _e._ Arrangement of details with reference to their natural positions in + space. + _f._ Effective choice of words and comparisons.) + + +2. _Natural features: valleys, rivers, mountains, etc._ + + +Beyond the great prairies and in the shadow of the Rockies lie +the Foothills. For nine hundred miles the prairies spread themselves +out in vast level reaches, and then begin to climb over softly +rounded mounds that ever grow higher and sharper, till here and +there, they break into jagged points and at last rest upon the great +bases of the mighty mountains. These rounded hills that join the +prairies to the mountains form the Foothill Country. They extend +for about a hundred miles only, but no other hundred miles of the +great West are so full of interest and romance. The natural features +of the country combine the beauties of prairie and of mountain +scenery. There are valleys so wide that the farther side melts into +the horizon, and uplands so vast as to suggest the unbroken prairie. +Nearer the mountains the valleys dip deep and ever deeper till they +narrow into canyons through which mountain torrents pour their +blue-gray waters from glaciers that lie glistening between the white +peaks far away. + +--Connor: _The Sky Pilot_. + + +Long lines of cliff breaking have left a chasm; +And in the chasm are foam and yellow sands; +Beyond, red roofs about a narrow wharf +In cluster; then a molder'd church; and higher +A long street climbs to one tall tower'd mill; +And high in heaven behind it a gray down +With Danish barrows, and a hazelwood, +By autumn nutters haunted, flourishes +Green in a cuplike hollow of the down. + +--Tennyson: _Enoch Arden_. + + ++Theme LXII.+--_Write a description of some valley, mountain, field, +woods, or prairie._ + + ++Theme LXIII.+--_Write a description of some stream, pond, lake, dam, or +waterfall._ + +(Consider especially your choice of words.) + + +3. _Sounds or the use of sounds._ + + +And the noise of Niagara? Alarming things have been said about it, but +they are not true. It is a great and mighty noise, but it is not, as +Hennepin thought, an "outrageous noise." It is not a roar. It does not +drown the voice or stun the ear. Even at the actual foot of the falls it +is not oppressive. It is much less rough than the sound of heavy surf-- +steadier, more homogeneous, less metallic, very deep and strong, yet +mellow and soft; soft, I mean, in its quality. As to the noise of the +rapids, there is none more musical. It is neither rumbling nor sharp. It +is clear, plangent, silvery. It is so like the voice of a steep brook-- +much magnified, but not made coarser or more harsh--that, after we have +known it, each liquid call from a forest hillside will seem, like the odor +of grapevines, a greeting from Niagara. It is an inspiriting, an +exhilarating sound, like freshness, coolness, vitality itself made +audible. And yet it is a lulling sound. When we have looked out upon the +American rapids for many days, it is hard to remember contented life amid +motionless surroundings; and so, when we have slept beside them for many +nights, it is hard to think of happy sleep in an empty silence. + +--Mrs. Van Rensselaer: _Niagara_ ("Century"). + + +Yell'd on the view the opening pack; +Rock, glen, and cavern, paid them back; +To many a mingled sound at once +The awaken'd mountain gave response. +A hundred dogs bay'd deep and strong, +Clatter'd a hundred steeds along, +Their peal the merry horns rung out, +A hundred voices join'd the shout; +With hark, and whoop, and wild halloo, +No rest Benvoirlich's echoes knew. +Far from the tumult fled the roe, +Close in her covert cower'd the doe; +The falcon, from her cairn on high, +Cast on the rout a wondering eye, +Till far beyond her piercing ken +The hurricane had swept the glen. +Faint, and more faint, its failing din +Return'd from cavern, cliff, and linn, +And silence settled, wide and still, +On the lone wood and mighty hill. + +--SCOTT: _Lady of the Lake_. + + ++Theme LXIV.+--_Describe some sound or combination of sounds, or write a +description introducing sounds._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. Alone in the house. + 2. In the woods at night. + 3. Beside the brook. + 4. In the factory. + 5. A day at the beach. + 6. Before the Fourth. + 7. On the seashore. + + +(Notice especially the words that indicate sound.) + + +4. _Color or the use of color._ + + +A gray day! soft gray sky, like the breast of a dove; sheeny gray sea with +gleams of steel running across; trailing skirts of mist shutting off the +mainland, leaving Light Island alone with the ocean; the white tower +gleaming spectral among the folding mists; the dark pine tree pointing a +somber finger to heaven; the wet, black rocks, from which the tide had +gone down, huddling together in fantastic groups as if to hide their +nakedness. + +--Laura E. Richards: _Captain January_. + + +The large branch of the Po we crossed came down from the mountains which +we were approaching. As we reached the post road again they were glowing +in the last rays of the sun, and the evening vapors that settled over the +plain concealed the distant Alps, although the snowy top of the Jungfrau +and her companions the Wetterhorn and Schreckhorn rose above it like the +hills of another world. A castle or church of brilliant white marble +glittered on the summit of one of the mountains near us, and, as the sun +went down without a cloud, the distant summits changed in hue to a glowing +purple, mounting almost to crimson, which afterwards darkened into a deep +violet. The western half of the sky was of a pale orange and the eastern a +dark red, which blended together in the blue of the zenith, that deepened +as twilight came on. + +--Taylor: _Views Afoot_. + + ++Theme LXV.+--_Write a description in which the color element enters +largely._ + +5. _Animals, birds, fishes, etc._ + + +The Tailless Tyke had now grown into an immense dog, heavy of muscle and +huge of bone. A great bull head; undershot jaw, square and lengthy and +terrible; vicious yellow gleaming eyes; cropped ears; and an expression +incomparably savage. His coat was a tawny lionlike yellow, short, harsh, +dense; and his back running up from shoulder to loins ended abruptly in a +knoblike tail. He looked like the devil of a dog's hell, and his +reputation was as bad as his looks. He never attacked unprovoked; but a +challenge was never ignored and he was greedy of insults. + +--Alfred Ollivant: _Bob, Son of Battle_. +(Copyright, Doubleday and McClure.) + + +Read the description of the kingbird (page 224), and of the mongoose (page +242). + + ++Theme LXVI.+--_Write a description of some animal, bird, or fish._ + +(What questions should you ask yourself about each description you write?) + +6. _Trees and plants._ + + +How shall kinnikinnick be told to them who know it not? To a New Englander +it might be said that a whortleberry bush changed its mind one day and +decided to be a vine, with leaves as glossy as laurel, bells pink-striped +and sweet like the arbutus, and berries in clusters and of scarlet instead +of black. The Indians call it kinnikinnick, and smoke it in their pipes. +White men call it bearberry, I believe; and there is a Latin name for it, +no doubt, in the books. But kinnikinnick is the best,--dainty, sturdy, +indefatigable kinnikinnick, green and glossy all the year round, lovely at +Christmas and lovely among flowers at midsummer, as content and thrifty on +bare, rocky hillsides as in grassy nooks, growing in long, trailing +wreaths, five feet long, or in tangled mats, five feet across, as the rock +or the valley may need, and living bravely many weeks without water, to +make a house beautiful. I doubt if there be in the world a vine I should +hold so precious, indoors and out. + +--Helen Hunt Jackson: _Bits of Travel at Home_. + + +A mango tree is beautiful and attractive. It grows as large as the oak, +and has a rich and glossy foliage. The fruit is shaped something like a +short, thick cucumber, and is as large as a large pear. It has a thick, +tough skin, and a delicious, juicy pulp. When ripe it is a golden color. A +tree often bears a hundred bushels of mangoes. + +--Marian M. George. + + ++Theme LXVII.+--_Write a description of some tree that you have seen._ + +(Consider your theme with reference to the general principles of +composition treated in Chapter V.) + + ++134. Description of Persons: Character Sketches.+--The general principles +of description are applicable to the description of a person, and should +be followed for the purpose of presenting a clear and vivid image. Our +interest, however, so naturally runs beyond the appearance and is +concerned with the character, that most descriptions of persons become +character sketches. Even the commonest terms of description, such as _keen +gray eyes, square chin, rugged countenance_, are interpreted as showing +character, and depart to some degree from pure description. Often the sole +purpose of description is to show character, and only those details are +introduced which accomplish this purpose. + +In life we judge a man's character by his actions, and so in the character +sketch we are led to infer his character from what he does. The character +indicated by his appearance is corroborated by a statement of his actions +and especially by showing how he acts. (See Section 10.) Sometimes no +descriptive matter is given, but we are left to make our own picture to +fit the character indicated by the actions. In many books the descriptive +elements which would enable us to form an image of some person are +distributed over several pages, each being introduced where it supplements +and emphasizes the character shown by the actions. + +Notice the following examples:-- + + +The Rev. Daniel True stood beside the holy table. For such a scene, +perhaps for any scene, he was a memorable figure. He had the dignity of +early middle life, but none of its signs of advancing age. His hair was +quite black, and curled on his temples boyishly; his mustache, not without +a worldly cut, was as dark as his hair, and concealed a mouth so clean and +fine that it was an ethical mistake to cover it. He had sturdy shoulders, +although not quite straight; they had the scholar's stoop; his hands were +thin, with long fingers; his gestures were sparing and significant; his +expression was so sincere that its evident devoutness commanded respect; +so did his voice, which was authoritative enough to be a little priestly +and lacking somewhat in elocutionary finish as the voices of ministers are +apt to be, but genuine, musical, persuasive, at moments vibrant with +oratorical power. He had a warm eye and a lovable smile. He was every inch +a minister, but he was every nerve a man. + +--Elizabeth Stuart Phelps: _A Sacrament_ ("Harper's"). + + +She was not more than fifteen. Her form, voice, and manner belonged to the +period of transition from girlhood. Her face was perfectly oval, her +complexion more pale than fair. The nose was faultless; the lips, slightly +parted, were full and ripe, giving to the lines of the mouth warmth, +tenderness, and trust; the eyes were blue and large, and shaded by +drooping lids and long lashes; and, in harmony with all, a flood of golden +hair, in the style permitted to Jewish brides, fell unconfined down her +back to the pillion on which she sat. The throat and neck had the downy +softness sometimes seen which leaves the artist in doubt whether it is an +effect of contour or color. To these charms of feature and person were +added others more--an indefinable air of purity which only the soul can +impart, and of abstraction natural to such as think much of things +impalpable. Often, with trembling lips, she raised her eyes to heaven, +itself not more deeply blue; often she crossed her hands upon her breast, +as in adoration and prayer; often she raised her head like one listening +eagerly for a calling voice. Now and then midst his slow utterance, Joseph +turned to look at her, and, catching the expression kindling her face as +with light, forgot his theme, and with bowed head, wondering, plodded on. + +--Lew Wallace: _Ben-Hur_. +(Copyright, 1880, Harper and Bros.) + + +When Washington was elected general of the army he was forty-three years +of age. In stature he a little exceeded six feet; his limbs were sinewy +and well proportioned; his chest broad, his figure stately, blending +dignity of presence with ease of manner. His robust constitution had been +tried and invigorated by his early life in the wilderness, his habit of +occupation out of doors, and his rigid temperance, so that few equalled +him in strength of arm or power of endurance. His complexion was florid, +his hair dark brown, his head in shape perfectly round. His broad nostrils +seemed formed to give expression and escape to scornful anger. His dark +blue eyes, which were deeply set, had an expression of resignation and an +earnestness that was almost sad. + +--Bancroft. + + +There were many Englishmen of great distinction there, and Tennyson was +the most conspicuous among the guests. Tennyson's appearance was very +striking and his figure might have been taken as a living illustration of +romantic poetry. He was tall and stately, wore a great mass of thick, long +hair--long hair was then still worn even by men who did not affect +originality; his frame was slightly stooping, his shoulders were bent as +if with the weight of thought; there was something entirely out of the +common and very commanding in his whole presence, and a stranger meeting +him in whatever crowd would probably have assumed at once that he must be +a literary king. + +--Justin McCarthy: _Literary Portraits from the Sixties_ ("Harper's"). + + +The door opened and there appeared to these two a visitor. He was a young +man, and tall,--so tall that, even with his hat off, his head barely +cleared the ceiling of the low-studded room. He was slim and fair-haired +and round-shouldered. He had the pink and white complexion of a girl; +soft, fair hair; dark, serious eyes; the high, white brow of a thinker; +the nose of an aristocrat; and he was in clerical garb. + +--Sewall Ford: _The Renunciation of Petruo_ ("Harper's"). + + +EXERCISE + + +Notice the pictures on page 253. Can you determine from the picture +anything about the character of the person? Just what feature in each +helps you in this? + + ++Theme LXVIII.+--_Describe some person known to most of the class._ + +(Do not name the person, but combine description and character sketching +so that the class may be able to tell whom you mean.) + + +[Illustrations] + + ++135. Impression of a Description.+--Often the effectiveness of a +description is determined more by the impression which it makes upon our +feelings than by the vividness of the picture which it presents. Read the +following description of the Battery in New York by Howells. Notice how +the details which have been selected emphasize the "impression of +forlornness." The sickly trees, the decrepit shade, the mangy grass plots, +hungry-eyed and hollow children, the jaded women, silent and hopeless, the +shameless houses, the hard-looking men, unite to give the one impression. +Even the fresh blue water of the bay, which laughs and dances beyond, by +its very contrast gives greater emphasis to the melancholy and forlorn +appearance of the Battery. + + +All places that fashion has once loved and abandoned are very melancholy; +but of all such places, I think the Battery is the most forlorn. Are there +some sickly locust trees there that cast a tremulous and decrepit shade +upon the mangy grass plots? I believe so, but I do not make sure; I am +certain only of the mangy grass plots, or rather the spaces between the +paths, thinly overgrown with some kind of refuse and opprobrious weed, a +stunted and pauper vegetation proper solely to the New York Battery. At +that hour of the summer morning when our friends, with the aimlessness of +strangers who are waiting to do something else, saw the ancient promenade, +a few scant and hungry-eyed little boys and girls were wandering over this +weedy growth, not playing, but moving listlessly to and fro, fantastic in +the wild inaptness of their costumes. One of these little creatures wore, +with an odd, involuntary jauntiness, the cast-off best dress of some +happier child, a gay little garment cut low in the neck and short in the +sleeves, which gave her the grotesque effect of having been at a party the +night before. Presently came two jaded women, a mother and a grandmother, +that appeared, when they crawled out of their beds, to have put on only so +much clothing as the law compelled. They abandoned themselves upon the +green stuff, whatever it was, and, with their lean hands clasped outside +their knees, sat and stared, silent and hopeless, at the eastern sky, at +the heart of the terrible furnace, into which in those days the world +seemed cast to be burnt up, while the child which the younger woman had +brought with her feebly wailed unheeded at her side. On one side of the +women were the shameless houses out of which they might have crept, and +which somehow suggested riotous maritime dissipation; on the other side +were those houses in which had once dwelt rich and famous folk, but which +were now dropping down to the boarding-house scale through various +unhomelike occupations to final dishonor and despair. Down nearer the +water, and not far from the castle that was once a playhouse and is now +the depot of emigration, stood certain express wagons, and about these +lounged a few hard-looking men. Beyond laughed and danced the fresh blue +water of the bay, dotted with sails and smokestacks. + +--Howells: _Their Wedding Journey_. + + +The successive images of the preceding selection are clear enough, but +they are bound together by a common purpose, which is the creation of a +single impression. Often, however, a description may present, not a single +impression, but a series of such impressions, to which a unity is given by +the fact that they are all connected with one event, or occur at the same +time, or in the same place. Such a series of impressions is illustrated in +the following:-- + + +It is a phenomenon whose commonness alone prevents it from being most +impressive, that departure of the night-express. The two hundred miles it +is to travel stretch before it, traced by those slender clews, to lose +which is ruin, and about which hang so many dangers. The drawbridges that +gape upon the way, the trains that stand smoking and steaming on the +track, the rail that has borne the wear so long that it must soon snap +under it, the deep cut where the overhanging mass of rocks trembles to its +fall, the obstruction that a pitiless malice may have placed in your path, +you think of these after the journey is done, but they seldom haunt +your fancy while it lasts. The knowledge of your helplessness in any +circumstances is so perfect that it begets a sense of irresponsibility, +almost of security; and as you drowse upon the pallet of the sleeping car +and feel yourself hurled forward through the obscurity, you are almost +thankful that you can do nothing, for it is upon this condition only that +you can endure it; and some such condition as this, I suppose, accounts +for many heroic acts in the world. To the fantastic mood which possesses +you equally, sleeping or waking, the stoppages of the train have a weird +character, and Worcester, Springfield, New Haven, and Stamford are rather +points in dreamland than well-known towns of New England. As the train +stops you drowse if you have been waking, and wake if you have been in a +doze; but in any case you are aware of the locomotive hissing and coughing +beyond the station, of flaring gas-jets, of clattering feet of passengers +getting on and off; then of some one, conductor or station master, walking +the whole length of the train; and then you are aware of an insane +satisfaction in renewed flight through the darkness. You think hazily of +the folk in their beds in the town left behind, who stir uneasily at the +sound of your train's departing whistle; and so all is blank vigil or a +blank slumber. + +--Howells: _Their Wedding Journey_. + + ++136. Impression as the Purpose of Description.+--The impression that it +gives may become the central purpose of a description. It is evident in +Howells's description of the Battery that the purpose was the creating of +an impression of forlornness, and that the author kept this purpose in +mind when choosing the details. If his aim had been to enable us to form a +clear picture of the Battery in its physical outlines, he would have +chosen different details and would have presented them in different +language. + +The same scene or object may present a different appearance to two +different observers because each may discover a different set of +likenesses or resemblances and so select different essential +characteristics. An artist will paint a picture that centers around some +one feature. Each added detail seems but to set forth and increase the +effect of this central element of the picture. Similarly the observer will +in his description lay emphasis on the central point and will select +details that bear a helpful relation to it. If he wishes to present the +picture of a valley, he will lay emphasis on its fundamental image and +essential details with reference to its appearance; but if his desire is +to present the impression of fertility or of rural simplicity and quiet, +the elements that are important for the producing of the desired +impression may not be at all the ones essential to his former picture. + +When the presentation of a picture is our central purpose, we attempt to +present it as it appears to us, and select details that will enable others +to form the desired image; but if we desire to set forth how a scene +affected us, we must choose details that will make our reader feel as we +felt. + + ++137. Necessity of Observing our Impressions.+--In order to write a +description which shall give our impression of an object or scene, we must +know definitely what that impression is. Just as clear seeing is necessary +for the reproduction of definite images, so is the clear perception of our +impressions necessary to their reproduction. Furthermore, we may know what +our impressions are without being able to select those elements in a scene +that have produced them; but in order to write a description that shall +affect others as the scene itself affected us, we must know what these +elements are and emphasize them in the description. Thus it becomes +necessary to pay attention both to our impression and to the selection of +those details which create that impression. One glance at a room may cause +us to believe that the housekeeper is untidy. If we wish to convey this +impression to our reader, our description must include the details that +give that impression of untidiness to us. + +Nor are we limited to sight alone, for our impressions may be made +stronger by the aid of the other senses. Sound and smell and taste may +supplement the sight, and though they add little to the clearness, yet +they add much to the impression which we get. + + +Within the cabin, through which Basil and Isabel now slowly moved, there +were numbers of people lounging about on the sofas, in various attitudes +of talk or vacancy; and at the tables there were others reading _Lothair_, +a new book in the remote epoch of which I write, and a very fashionable +book indeed. There was in the air that odor of paint and carpet which +prevails on steamboats; the glass drops of the chandeliers ticked softly +against each other, as the vessel shook with her respiration, like a +comfortable sleeper, and imparted a delicious feeling of coziness and +security to our travelers. + +--Howells: _Their Wedding Journey_. + + ++138. Impression Limited to Experience.+--If we attempt to write a +description for the sake of giving an impression, it must be an impression +that we have ourselves experienced. If the sight of the gorge of Niagara +has filled us with a feeling of sublimity and awe, we shall find it hard +to write a humorous account of it. If we see the humorous elements of a +situation, we cannot easily make our description give the impression of +grief. Neither can we successfully imitate the impressions of others. No +two persons are affected in the same way by the same thing. Our age, our +temperament, our emotional attitude, and all of our past experiences +affect our way of looking at things and modify the impressions which we +get. The successful presentation of our impression will depend largely +upon the definite perception of our feelings. + + ++139. Impression Affected by Mood.+--Not only is our impression affected +by details in the scene observed, but it is even more largely influenced +by our mood at the time of the observation. The same landscape may cheer +at one time and dishearten at another. To-day we see the ridiculous; +to-morrow, the sad and sorrowful. A thousand things may change our mood, +but under certain general conditions, certain impressions are likely to +arise. There is something in the air of spring, or the heat of summer, +which affects us all. The weather, too, has its effect. Sunshine and +shadow find answering attitudes in our feelings, and the skillful writer +takes advantage of these emotional tendencies. + + +Not far we fared-- +The river left behind--when, looking back, +I saw the mountain in the searching light +Of the low sun. Surcharged with youthful pride +In my adventure, I can ne'er forget +The disappointment and chagrin which fell +Upon me; for a change had passed. The steep +Which in the morning sprang to kiss the sun, +Had left the scene; and in its place I saw +A shrunken pile, whose paths my steps had climbed, +Whose proudest height my humble feet had trod. +Its grand impossibilities and all +Its store of marvels and of mysteries +Were flown away, and would not be recalled. + +--Holland: _Katrina_. + + ++140. Union of Image and Impression.+--Because we have discussed image +making and impression giving separately, it must not be judged that they +necessarily occur separately. They are in fact always united. No image, +however clear, can fail to make some impression, and no description, +however strong the impression it gives, fails to create some image. It is +rather the placing of the emphasis that counts. Some descriptions have for +their purpose the giving of an image, and the impression is of little +moment. Other descriptions aim at producing impressions, and the images +are of less importance. In the description of the Battery (page 254) the +images are clear enough, but they are subordinate to the impression. This +subordination may even go farther. Often the impression is made prominent +and we are led by suggestion to form images which fit it, while in reality +few definite images have been set. Notice in the following selection that +the impression of desolation is given without attempting to picture +exactly what was seen:-- + + +The country at the foot of Vesuvius is the most fertile and best +cultivated of the kingdom, most favored by Heaven in all Europe. The +celebrated _Lacrymae Christi_ vine flourishes beside land totally +devastated by lava, as if nature here made a last effort, and resolved to +perish in her richest array. As you ascend, you turn to gaze on Naples, +and on the fair laud around it--the sea sparkles in the sun as if strewn +with jewels; but all the splendors of creation are extinguished by +degrees, as you enter the region of ashes and smoke, that announces your +approach to the volcano. The iron waves of other years have traced their +large black furrows in the soil. At a certain height birds are no longer +seen; further on, plants become very scarce; then even insects find no +nourishment. At last all life disappears. You enter the realm of death and +the slain earth's dust alone sleeps beneath your unassured feet. + +--Madame De Stael: _Corinne: Italy_. + + +EXERCISES + + +Discuss the following selections with reference to the impression given by +each:-- + + +The third of the flower vines is Wood-Magic. It bears neither flowers nor +fruit. Its leaves are hardly to be distinguished from the leaves of the +other vines. Perhaps they are a little rounder than the Snowberry's, a +little more pointed than the Partridge-berry's; sometimes you might +mistake them for the one, sometimes for the other. No marks of warning +have been written upon them. If you find them, it is your fortune; if you +taste them, it is your fate. For as you browse your way through the +forest, nipping here and there a rosy leaf of young wintergreen, a +fragrant emerald tip of balsam fir, a twig of spicy birch, if by chance +you pluck the leaves of Wood-Magic and eat them, you will not know what +you have done, but the enchantment of the treeland will enter your heart +and the charm of the wildwood will flow through your veins. You will never +get away from it. The sighing of the wind through the pine trees and the +laughter of the stream in its rapids will sound through all your dreams. +On beds of silken softness you will long for the sleep-song of whispering +leaves above your head, and the smell of a couch of balsam boughs. At +tables spread with dainty fare you will be hungry for the joy of the hunt, +and for the angler's sylvan feast. In proud cities you will weary for the +sight of a mountain trail; in great cathedrals you will think of the long, +arching aisles of the woodland: and in the noisy solitude of crowded +streets you will hone after the friendly forest. + +--Henry Van Dyke: _The Blue Flower_. +(Copyright, 1902, Charles Scribner's Sons.) + + +Running your eye across the map of the State, you see two slowly +converging lines of railroad writhing out between the hills to the +sea-coast. Three other lines come down from north to south by the river +valleys and the jagged shore. Along these, huddled in the corners of the +hills and the sea line, lie the cities and the larger towns. A great +majority of mankind, swarming in these little spots, or scuttling to and +fro along the valleys on those slender lines, fondly dream they are +acquainted with the land in which they live. But beyond and around all +this rises the wide, bare face of the country, which they will never know-- +the great patches of second-growth woods, the mountain pastures sown +thick with stones, the barren acres of the hillside farmer--a desolate +land, latticed with gray New England roads, dotted with commonplace or +neglected houses, and pitted with the staring cellars of the abandoned +homes of disheartened and defeated men. + +Out here in this semi-obscurity, where the regulating forces of society +grow tardy and weak, strange and dangerous beings move to and fro, +avoiding the apprehension of the law. Occasionally we hear of them--of +some shrewd and desperate city fugitives brought to bay in a corner of the +woods, or some brutal farmhouse murderer still lurking uncaptured among +the hills. Often they pass through the country and out beyond, where they +are never seen again. + +In the extreme southwestern corner of the State the railroads do not come; +the vacant spaces grow between the country roads, and the cities dwindle +down to half-deserted crossroads hamlets. Here the surface of the map is +covered up with the tortuous wrinkles of the hills. It is a beautiful but +useless place. As far as you can see, low, unformed lumps of mountains lie +jumbled aimlessly together between the ragged sky lines, or little silent +cups of valleys stare up between them at their solitary patch of sky. It +seems a sort of waste yard of creation, flung full of the remnants of the +making of the earth. + +--George Kibbe Turner: _Across the State_ ("McClure's"). + + +When once the shrinking dizzy spell was gone, +I saw below me, like a jeweled cup, +The valley hollowed to its heaven-kissed lip-- +The serrate green against the serrate blue-- +Brimming with beauty's essence; palpitant +With a divine elixir--lucent floods +Poured from the golden chalice of the sun, +At which my spirit drank with conscious growth, +And drank again with still expanding scope +Of comprehension and of faculty. + +I felt the bud of being in me burst +With full, unfolding petals to a rose, +And fragrant breath that flooded all the scene. +By sudden insight of myself I knew +That I was greater than the scene,--that deep +Within my nature was a wondrous world, +Broader than that I gazed on, and informed +With a diviner beauty,--that the things +I saw were but the types of those I held, +And that above them both, High Priest and King, +I stood supreme, to choose and to combine, +And build from that within me and without +New forms of life, with meaning of my own, +And then alone upon the mountain top, +Kneeling beside the lamb, I bowed my head +Beneath the chrismal light and felt my soul +Baptized and set apart for poetry. + +--Holland: _Katrina_. + + ++Theme LXIX.+--_Write a description the purpose of which is to give an +impression that you have experienced._ + + +SUMMARY + +1. Description is that form of discourse which has for its + purpose the creation of an image. + +2. The essential characteristics of a description are:-- + _a._ A point of view, + (1) It may be fixed or changing. + (2) It may be expressed or implied. + (3) Only those details should be included that can be seen + from the point of view chosen. + _b._ A correct fundamental image. + _c._ A few characteristic and essential details + (1) Close observation on the part of the writer is necessary + in order to select the essential details. + _d._ A proper selection and subordination of minor details. + _e._ A suitable arrangement of details with reference to their + natural position in space. + _f._ That additional effectiveness which comes from + (1) Proper choice of words. + (2) Suitable comparisons and figures. + (3) Variety of sentence structures. + +3. The foregoing principles of description apply in the describing of many + classes of objects. A description of a person usually gives some + indication of his character and so becomes to some extent a character + sketch. + +4. A description may also have for its purpose the giving of an + impression. + _a._ The writer must select details which will aid in conveying + the impression he desires his readers to receive. + _b._ The writer must observe his own impressions accurately, + because he cannot convey to others that which he has not + himself experienced. + _c._ The impression received is affected by the mood of the person. + _d._ Impression and image are never entirely separated. + + + +IX. NARRATION + + ++141. Kinds of Narration.+--Narration consists of an account of +happenings, and, for this reason, it is, without doubt, the most +interesting of all forms of discourse. It is natural for us all to be +interested in life, movement, action; hence we enjoy reading and talking +about them. To be convinced that there is everywhere a great interest in +narration we need only to listen to conversations, notice what constitutes +the subject-matter of letters of friendship, read newspapers and +magazines, and observe what classes of books are most frequently drawn +from our libraries. + +Narration assumes a variety of forms. Since it relates happenings, it must +include anecdotes, incidents, short stories, letters, novels, dramas, +histories, biographies, and stories of travel and exploration. It also +includes many newspaper articles such as those that give accounts of +accidents and games and reports of various kinds of meetings. Evidently +the field of narration is a broad one, for wherever life or action may be +found or imagined, a subject for a narrative exists. + + +EXERCISES + + +1. Name four different events that have actually taken place in your +school in which you think your classmates are interested. + +2. Name three events that have taken place in other schools that may be of +interest to members of your school. + +3. Name four events of general interest that have occurred in your city +during the last two or three years. + +4. From a daily paper, pick out a narrative that is interesting to you. + +5. Select one that you think ought to interest the most of your +classmates. + +6. Name three national events of recent occurrence. + +7. Name three or four strange or mysterious events of which you have +heard. + +8. Name an actual occurrence that interested you because you wanted to see +how it turned out. + +9. Would an ordinary account of a bicycle or automobile trip be +interesting? If not, why not? + + ++Theme LXX.+--._Write a letter to a pupil in a neighboring high school, +telling about something interesting that has happened in your own school_. + +(Review forms of letter writing. Consider your use of paragraphs.) + + ++142. Plot.+--By plot we mean the outline of the story told in a few +words. All narratives consist of accounts of connected happenings, in +which action on the part of the characters is naturally implied. The +principal action briefly told constitutes the plot. The simple plot of +Tennyson's _Princess_ is as follows:-- + + +A prince of the North, after being affianced as a child to a princess of +the South, has fallen in love with her portrait and a lock of her hair. +When, however, the embassy appears to fetch home the bride, she sends back +the message that she is not disposed to be married. Upon receipt of this +word the Prince and two friends, Florian and Cyril, steal away to seek +the Princess, and learn on reaching her father's court that she has +established a Woman's College on a distant estate. Having got letters +authorizing them to visit the Princess, they ride into her domain, where +they determine to go dressed like girls and apply for admission as +students in the College. They arrive in disguise, and are admitted. On the +first day the young men enroll themselves as students of Lady Psyche, who +recognizes Florian as her brother and agrees not to expose them, since--by +a law of the College inscribed above the gates, which darkness has kept +them from seeing--the penalty of their discovery would be death. Melissa, +a student, overhears them, and is bound over to keep the secret. Lady +Blanche, mother of Melissa and rival to Lady Psyche, also learns of the +alarming invasion, and remains silent for sinister reasons of her own. On +the second day the principal personages picnic in a wood. At dinner Cyril +sings a song that is better fit for the smoking room than for the ears of +ladies; the Prince, in his anger, betrays his sex by a too masculine +reproof; and dire confusion is the result. The Princess in her flight +falls into the river, from which she is rescued by the Prince. Cyril and +Lady Psyche escape together, but the Prince and Florian are brought before +the Princess. At this important moment despatches are brought from her +father saying that the Prince's father has surrounded her palace with +soldiers, taken him prisoner, and holds him as a hostage. The Prince, +after pleading to deaf ears, is sent away at dawn with Florian, and goes +with him to the camp. Meantime during the night, the Princess's three +brothers have come to her aid with an army. An agreement is reached to +decide the case and end the war by a tournament between the brothers, with +fifty men, on one side; the Prince and his two friends, with fifty men, on +the other. This happens on the third day. The Prince and his men are +vanquished, and he himself is badly wounded. + +But the Princess is now gradually to discover that she has "overthrown +more than her enemy,"--that she has defeated yet saved herself. She has +said of Lady Psyche's little child:-- + + +"I took it for an hour in mine own bed +This morning: there the tender orphan hands +Felt at my heart, and seem'd to charm from thence +The wrath I nursed against the world." + + +When Cyril pleads with her to give the child back to its mother, she +kisses it and feels that "her heart is barren." When she passes near the +wounded Prince, and is shown by his father--his beard wet with his son's +blood--her hair and picture on her lover's heart, + + +Her iron will was broken in her mind, +Her noble heart was broken in her breast. + + +From the Princess's cry then, "Grant me your son to nurse," it is but a +natural result that she should bring the Prince's wounded men with him +into the College, now a hospital. Through ministering to her lover, she +comes to love him; and theories yield to "the lord of all." + +--Copeland-Rideout: _Introduction to Tennyson's Princess_. + + ++Theme LXXI.+--_Write the plot of one of the following_:-- + + 1. _Lochinvar_, Scott. + 2. _Rip Van Winkle_, Irving. + 3. One story from _A Tale of Two Cities_, Dickens. + 4. _Silas Marner_, George Eliot. + 5. The last magazine story you have read. + 6. Some story assigned by the teacher. + + ++Theme LXXII.+--_Write three brief plots. Have the class choose the one +that will make the most interesting story._ + + ++Theme LXXIII.+--_Write a story, using the plot selected by the class in +the preceding theme._ + +(Are the events related in your story probable or improbable?) + + ++143. The Introduction.+--Our pleasure in a story depends upon our clear +understanding of the various situations, and this understanding may often +be best given by an introduction that states something of the time, place, +characters, and circumstances as shown in Section 6. The purpose of the +introduction is to make the story more effective, and what it shall +contain is determined by the needs of the story itself. The last half of a +well-written story will not be interesting to one who has not read the +first half, because the first half will contain much that is essential to +the complete understanding of the main point of the story. A story begun +with conversation at once arouses interest, but care must be taken to see +that the reader gets sufficient descriptive and explanatory matter to +enable him to understand the story as the plot develops, or the interest +will begin to lag. + + ++Theme LXXIV.+--_Write a narrative._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. The Christmas surprise. + 2. How the mortgage was paid. + 3. The race between the steam roller and the traction engine. + 4. The new girl in the boarding school. + 5. The Boss, and how he won his title. + +(Be sure that your introduction is such that the entire situation is +understood. Name different points in the story that led you to say what +you have in the introduction. Have you mentioned any unnecessary points?) + + ++144. The Incentive Moment.+--The chief business of a story-teller is to +arouse the interest of his readers, and the sooner he succeeds, the +better. Usually he tries to arouse interest from the very beginning of his +story. He therefore places in the introduction or near it a statement +designed to stimulate the curiosity of his readers. The point at which +interest begins has been termed the incentive moment. In the following +selection notice that the first sentence tells who, when, and where. +(Section 6.) The second sentence causes us to ask, what was it? and by the +time that is answered we are curious to know what happened and how the +adventure ended. + + +On a mellow moonlight evening a cyclist was riding along a lonely road in +the northern part of Mashonaland. As he rode, enjoying the somber beauty +of the African evening, he suddenly became conscious of a soft, stealthy, +heavy tread on the road behind him. It seemed like the jog trot of some +heavy, cushion-footed animal following him. Turning round, he was scared +very badly to find himself looking into the glaring eyes of a large lion. +The puzzled animal acted very strangely, now raising his head, now +lowering it, and all the time sniffling the air in a most perplexed +manner. Here was a surprise for the lion. He could not make out what kind +of animal it was that could roll, walk, and sit still all at the same +time; an animal with a red eye on each side, and a brighter one in front. +He hesitated to pounce upon such an outlandish being--a being whose blood +smelled so oily. + +I believe no cyclist ever "scorched" with more honesty and +single-mindedness of purpose. But although he pedaled and pedaled, +although he perspired and panted, his effort to get away did not seem to +place any more space between him and the lion; the animal kept up his +annoyingly calm jog trot, and never seemed to tire. + +The poor rider was finally so exhausted from terror and exertion that he +decided to have the matter settled right away. Suddenly slowing down, he +jumped from his wheel, and, facing abruptly about, thrust the brilliant +headlight full into the face of the lion. This was too much for the beast. +The sudden glare destroyed the lion's nerve, for at this fresh evidence of +mystery on the part of the strange rider-animal, who broke himself into +halves and then cast his big eye in any direction he pleased, the monarch +of the forest turned tail, and with a wild rush retreated in a very +hyena-like manner into the jungle, evidently thanking his stars for his +miraculous escape from that awful being. Thereupon the bicyclist, with new +strength returning and devoutly blessing his acetylene lamp, pedaled his +way back to civilization. + +--P.L. Wessels. + + ++Theme LXXV.+--_Write a short imaginative story._ + + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. A bicycle race with an unfriendly dog. + 2. An unpleasant experience. + 3. A story told by the school clock. + 4. Disturbing a hornet's nest. + 5. The fate of an Easter bonnet. + 6. Chased by a wolf. + +(Where is the incentive moment? Is it introduced naturally?) + + ++145. Climax.+--You have already noticed in your reading that usually +somewhere near the close of the story, there is a turning point. That +turning point is called the climax. At this point, the suspense of mind is +greatest, for the fate of the principal character is being decided. If the +story is well written as regards the plot, our interest will continually +increase from the incentive moment to the climax. + +In the novel and the drama, both of which may have a complicated plot, +several minor climaxes or crises may be found. There may be a crisis to +each single event or episode, yet they should all be a part of and lead up +to the principal or final climax. Instead of detracting from, they add to +the interest of a carefully woven plot. For example, in the _Merchant of +Venice_, we have a crisis in both the casket story and the Lorenzo and +Jessica episode; but so skillfully are the stories interwoven that the +minor climaxes do not lessen our interest in the principal one. + +In short stories, the turning point should come near the close. There +should be but little said after that point is reached. In novels, and +especially in dramas, we find that the climax is not right at the close, +and considerable action sometimes takes place after the climax has been +reached. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Point out the climax in each of five stories that you have read. + +_B._ Where is the climax in the following selection? + + +We spoke, and Sohrab kindled at his taunts, +And he too drew his sword; at once they rushed +Together, as two eagles on one prey +Come rushing down together from the clouds, +One from the east, one from the west; their shields +Dashed with a clang together, and a din +Rose, such as that the sinewy woodcutters +Make often in the forest's heart at morn, +Of hewing axes, crashing trees--such blows +Rustum and Sohrab on each other hailed. +And you would say that sun and stars took part +In that unnatural conflict; for a cloud +Grew suddenly in heaven, and darked the sun +Over the fighters' heads; and a wind rose +Under their feet, and moaning swept the plain, +And in a sandy whirlwind wrapped the pair. +In gloom they twain were wrapped, and they alone; +For both the onlooking hosts on either hand +Stood in broad daylight, and the sky was pure, +And the sun sparkled on the Oxus stream. +But in the gloom they fought, with bloodshot eyes +And laboring breath; first Rustum struck the shield +Which Sohrab held stiff out; the steel-spiked spear +Rent the tough plates, but failed to reach the skin, +And Rustum plucked it back with angry groan. +Then Sohrab with his sword smote Rustum's helm, +Nor clove its steel quite through; but all the crest +He shore away, and that proud horsehair plume, +Never till now denied, sank to the dust; +And Rustum bowed his head; but then the gloom +Grew blacker, thunder rumbled in the air, +And lightnings rent the cloud; and Ruksh, the horse, +Who stood at hand, uttered a dreadful cry;-- +No horse's cry was that, most like the roar +Of some pained desert lion, who all day +Hath trailed the hunter's javelin in his side, +And comes at night to die upon the sand. +The two hosts heard that cry, and quaked for fear, +And Oxus curdled as it crossed his stream. +But Sohrab heard, and quailed not, but rushed on, +And struck again; and again Rustum bowed +His head; but this time all the blade, like glass, +Sprang in a thousand shivers on the helm, +And in the hand the hilt remained alone. +Then Rustum raised his head; his dreadful eyes +Glared, and he shook on high his menacing spear, +And shouted: "Rustum!"--Sohrab heard that shout, +And shrank amazed: back he recoiled one step, +And scanned with blinking eyes the advancing form; +And then he stood bewildered; and he dropped +His covering shield, and the spear pierced his side. +He reeled, and, staggering back, sank to the ground, +And then the gloom dispersed, and the wind fell, +And the bright sun broke forth, and melted all +The cloud; and the two armies saw the pair-- +Saw Rustum standing, safe upon his feet, +And Sohrab wounded, on the bloody sand. + +--Matthew Arnold: _Sohrab and Rustum_. + + ++Theme LXXVI.+--_Write a story and give special attention to the climax._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. The immigrant's error. + 2. A critical moment. + 3. An intelligent dog. + 4. The lost key. + 5. Catching a burglar. + 6. A hard test. + 7. Won by the last hit. + 8. A story suggested by a picture you have seen. + + +(Name the incidents leading up to the climax. Is the mind held in suspense +until the climax is reached? Are any unnecessary details introduced?) + + ++146. Conversation in Narration.+--When introduced into narration, a +conversation is briefer than when actually spoken. It is necessary to have +the conversation move quickly, for we read with less patience than we +listen. The sentences must be for the most part short, and the changes +from one speaker to another frequent, or the dialogue will have a "made to +order" effect. Notice the conversation in as many different stories as +possible. Observe how variation is secured in indicating the speaker. How +many substitutes for "He said" can you name? In relating conversation +orally, we are less likely to secure such variety. Notice in your own +speech and that of others how often "I said" and "He said" occur. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A_. Notice the indentation and sentence length in the following +selection:-- + + +Louden looked up calmly at the big figure towering above him. + +"It won't do, Judge," he said; that was all, but there was a significance +in his manner and a certainty in his voice which caused the uplifted hand +to drop limply. + +"Have you any business to set foot upon my property?" he demanded. + +"Yes," answered Joe. "That's why I came. + +"What business have you got with me?" + +"Enough to satisfy you, I think. But there's one thing I don't want to +do"--Joe glanced at the open door--"and that is to talk about it here--for +your own sake and because I think Miss Tabor should be present. I called +to ask you to come to her house at eight o'clock to-night." + +"You did!" Martin Pike spoke angrily, but not in the bull bass of yore. +"My accounts with her estate are closed," he said harshly. "If she wants +anything let her come here." + +Joe shook his head. "No. You must be there at eight o'clock." + +--Booth Tarkington: _The Conquest of Canaan_ ("Harper's"). + + +_B_. Notice the conversation in the following narrative. Consider also the +incentive moment and the climax. Suggest improvements. + + +When Widow Perkins saw Widower Parsons coming down the road she looked as +mad as a hornet and stepped to the back door. + +"William Henry," she called to the lank youth chopping wood, "you've +worked hard enough for one day. Come in and rest." + +"Guess that's the first time you ever thought I needed a rest since I was +born. I'll keep right on chopping till you get through acceptin' old +Hull," he replied, whereupon the widow slammed the door and looked twice +as mad as before. + +"Mornin', widdy," remarked the widower, stalking into the room, taking a +chair without an invitation, and hanging his hat on his knee. "Cold day," +he added cheerfully. + +The widow nodded shortly, at the same time inwardly prophesying a still +colder day for him before he struck the weather again. + +"Been buyin' a new cow," resumed the caller, impressively. + +"Have, eh?" returned the widow, with a jerk, bringing out the ironing +board and slamming it down on the table. + +"An' two hogs," went on the widower, wishing the widow would glance at him +just once and see how affectionate he looked. "They'll make pork enough +for all next winter and spring." + +"Will, eh?" responded the widow, with a bang of the iron that nearly +wrecked the table. + +"An' a--a--lot o' odd things 'round the house; an' the fact is, widdy, you +see--that is, you know--was going to say if you'll agree"--the widower +lost his words, and in his desperation hung his hat on the other knee and +hitched a trifle nearer the ironing board. + +"No, Hull Parsons, I don't see a single mite, nor I don't know a particle, +an' I ain't agreein' the least bit," snapped the widow, pounding the +creases out of the tablecloth. + +"But say, widdy, don't get riled so soon," again ventured Parsons. "I was +jest goin' to tell you that I've been proposing to Carpenter Brown to +build a new--" + +By this time the widow was glancing at him in a way he wished she +wouldn't. + +"Is that all the proposin' you've done in the last five mouths, Hull +Parsons?" she demanded stormily. "You ain't asked every old maid for miles +around to marry you, have you, Hull Parsons? An' you didn't tell the last +one you proposed to that if she didn't take you there would be only one +more chance left--that old pepper-box of a Widow Perkins? You didn't say +that, now, did you, Hull Parsons?" and the widow's eyes and voice snapped +fire all at once. + +The caller turned several different shades of red and realized that he had +struck the biggest snag he'd ever struck in any courting career, past or +present. He laughed violently for a second or two, tried to hang his +hat on both knees at the same time, and finally sank his voice to a +confidential undertone:-- + +"Now, widdy, that's the woman's way o' puttin' it. They've been jealous o' +you all 'long, fur they knew where my mind was sot. I wouldn't married one +o' them women for nothing," added the widower, with another hitch toward +the ironing board. + +"Huh!" responded the widow, losing a trifle of her warlike cast of +countenance. "S'pose all them women hadn't refused you, Hull Parsons, what +then?" + +"They didn't refuse me, widdy," returned the widower, trying to look +sheepish, and dropping his voice an octave lower. "S'pose I hadn't oughter +tell on 'em, but--er--can you keep a secret, widdy?" + +"I ain't like the woman who can't," remarked the widow, shortly. + +"Well, then, I was the one who did the refusin'--the hull gang went fer me +right heavy, guess 'cause 'twas leap year, or they was tryin' on some o' +them new women's ways, or somethin' like that. But my mind was sot all +along, d'ye see, widdy?" + +And the Widow Perkins invited Widower Parsons to stay to dinner, because +she thought she saw. + + ++Theme LXXVII.+--_Complete the story on pages 79-80, +or one of the following:_-- + + +THE AUDACIOUS REPORTER + +Soon after Fenimore Dayton became a reporter his city editor sent him to +interview James Mountain. That famous financier was then approaching the +zenith of his power over Wall Street and Lombard Street. It had just been +announced that he had "absorbed" the Great Eastern and Western Railway +System--of course, by the methods which have made some men and some +newspapers habitually speak of him as "the Royal Bandit." The city editor +had two reasons for sending Dayton--first because he did not like him; +second, because any other man on the staff would walk about for an hour +and come back with the report that Mountain had refused to receive him, +while Dayton would make an honest effort. + +Seeing Dayton saunter down Nassau Street--tall, slender, calm, and +cheerful--you would never have thought that he was on his way to interview +one of the worst-tempered men in New York, for a newspaper which that man +peculiarly detested, and on a subject which he did not care to discuss +with the public. Dayton turned in at the Equitable Building and went up to +the floor occupied by Mountain, Ranger, & Blakehill. He nodded to the +attendant at the door of Mountain's own suite of offices, strolled +tranquilly down the aisle between the several rows of desks at which sat +Mountain's personal clerks, and knocked at the glass door on which was +printed "Mr. Mountain" in small gilt letters. + +"Come!" It was an angry voice--Mountain's at its worst. + +Dayton opened the door. Mountain glanced up from a mass of papers before +him. His red forehead became a network of wrinkles and his scant white +eyebrows bristled. "And who are you?" he snarled. + +"My name is Dayton--Fenimore Dayton," replied the reporter, with a +gracefully polite bow. "Mr. Mountain, I believe?" + +It was impossible for Mr. Mountain altogether to resist the impulse to bow +in return. Dayton's manner was compelling. + +"And what the dev--what can I do for you?" + +"I'm a reporter from the ----" + +"What!" roared Mountain, leaping to his feet in a purple, swollen veined +fury.... + +--David Graham Philips ("McClure's"). + + +CAUGHT MASQUERADING + + +When I took my aunt and sister to the Pequot hotel, the night before the +Yale-Harvard boat race, I found a gang of Harvard boys there. They +celebrated a good deal that night, in the usual Harvard way. + +Some of the Harvard men had a room next to mine. About three a.m. things +quieted down. When I woke up next morning, it was broad daylight, and I +was utterly alone. The race was to be at eleven o'clock. I jumped out of +bed and looked at my watch--it was nearly ten! I looked for my clothes. My +valise was gone! I rang the bell, but in the excitement downstairs, I +suppose, no one answered it. + +What was I to do? Those Harvard friends of mine thought it a good joke on +me to steal my clothes and take themselves off to the race without waking +me up. I don't know what I should have done in my anguish, when, thank +goodness, I heard a tap at my door, and went to it. + +"Well, do hurry!" (It was my sister's voice.) "Aunt won't go to the race; +we'll have to go without her." + +"They've stolen my clothes, Mollie--those Harvard fellows." + +"Haven't you anything?" she asked through the keyhole. + +"Not a thing, dear." + +"Oh, well! it's a just punishment to you after last night! That ---- noise +was dreadful!" + +"Perhaps it is," I said, "but don't preach now, sister dear--get me +something to put on. I want to see the race." + +"I haven't anything except some dresses and one of aunt's." + +"Get me Aunt Sarah's black silk," I cried. "I will wear anything rather +than not see the race, and it's half-past ten nearly now." + + +(Correct your theme with reference to the points mentioned in Section +146.) + + ++147. Number and Choice of Details--Unity.+--In relating experiences the +choice of details will be determined by the purpose of the narrative and +by the person or persons for whom we are writing. A brief account of an +accident for a newspaper will need to include only a clear and concise +statement of a few important facts. A traveling experience may be made +interesting and vivid if we select several facts and treat each quite +fully. This is especially true if the experience took place in a country +or part of a country not familiar to our readers. If we are writing for +those with whom we are acquainted, we can easily decide what will interest +them. If we write to different persons an account of the same event, we +find that these accounts differ from one another. We know what each person +will enjoy, and we try to adapt our writing to each individual taste. Our +narrative will be improved by adapting it to an imaginary audience in case +we do not know exactly who our readers will be. In your high school work +you know your readers and can select your facts accordingly. + +To summarize: a narration should possess unity, that is, it should say all +that should be said about the subject and not more than needs to be said. +The length of the theme, the character of the audience to which it is +addressed, and the purpose for which it is written, determine what facts +are necessary and how many to choose in order to give unity. (See Section +81.) + + ++148. Arrangement of Details--Coherence.+--We should use an arrangement of +our facts that will give coherence to our theme. In a coherent theme each +sentence or paragraph is naturally suggested by the preceding one. It has +been pointed out in Sections 82-85 that in narration we gain coherence by +relating our facts in the order of their occurrence. When a single series +of events is set forth, we can follow the real time-order, omitting such +details as are not essential to the unity of the story. + +If, however, more than one series of events are given, we cannot follow +the exact time-order, for, though two events occur at the same time, one +must be told before the other. Here, the actual time relations must be +carefully indicated by the use of expressions; as, _at the same time, +meanwhile, already_, etc. (See Section 12.) Two or more series of events +belong in the same story only if they finally come together at some time, +usually at the point of the story. They should be carried along together +so that the reader shall have in mind all that is necessary for the +understanding of the point when it is reached. In short stories the +changes from one series to another are close together. In a long book one +or more chapters may give one series of incidents, while the following +chapters may be concerned with a parallel series of incidents. Notice the +introductory paragraph of each chapter in Scott's _Ivanhoe_ or Cooper's +_The Last of the Mohicans_. Many of these indicate that a new series of +events is to be related. + +It will be of advantage in writing a narrative to construct an outline as +indicated in Section 84. Such an outline will assist us in making our +narrative clear by giving it unity, coherence, and emphasis. + + +EXERCISES + + +1. Name events that have occurred in your school or city which could be +related in their exact time-order. Relate one of them orally. + +2. Name two accidents that could not be related in their exact time-order. +Relate one of them orally. + +3. Name subjects for real narratives that would need to be written in the +first person; in the third person. + +4. In telling about a runaway accident, what points would you mention if +you were writing a short account for a newspaper? + +5. What points would you add if you were writing to some one who was +acquainted with the persons in the accident? + +6. Consider the choice and arrangement of details in the next magazine +story that you read. + + ++Theme LXXVIII.+--_Write a personal narrative in which the time-order can +be carefully followed._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + + 1. The irate conductor. + 2. A personal adventure with a window. + 3. An interrupted nap. + 4. Lost in the woods. + 5. In a runaway. + 6. An amusing adventure. + 7. A day at grandfather's. + +(Consider the unity and coherence of the theme.) + + ++Theme LXXIX.+--_Write in the third person a true narrative in which +different events are going on at the same time._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. A skating accident. + 2. The hunters hunted. + 3. Capsized on the river. + 4. How he won the race. + 5. An experience with a balky horse. + 6. The search for a lost child. + 7. How they missed each other. + 8. A strange adventure. + 9. A tip over in a bobsleigh. + + +(How many series of events have you in your narrative? Are they well +connected? What words have you used to show the time-order of the +different events?) + + ++149. Interrelation of Plot and Character.+--Though in narration the +interest centers primarily in the action, yet in the higher types of +narration interest in character is closely interwoven with interest in +plot. In reading, our attention is held by the plot; we follow its +development, noticing the addition of incidents, their relation to one +another and to the larger elements of action in the story, and their union +in the final disentanglement of the plot; but our complete appreciation of +the story runs far beyond the plot and depends to a large extent upon our +interpretation of the character of the individuals concerned. The mere +story may be exciting and interesting, but its effect will be of little +permanent value if it does not stir within us some appreciation of +character, which we shall find reflected in our own lives or in the lives +of those about us. We may read the _Merchant of Venice_ for its story, but +a deeper study of the play sets forth and reenforces the character of +Portia, Shylock, and the others. With many of the celebrated characters of +literature this interest has grown quite apart from interest in the plot, +and they stand to-day as the embodiment of phases of human nature. Thus by +means of action does the skillful author portray his conception of human +life and human character. + +On the other hand, when we write we shall need to distinguish action that +indicates character from that which is merely incidental to the plot. In +order to develop a story to its climax we may need to have the persons +concerned perform certain actions. If by skillful wording we can show not +only what was done but also to some extent the way in which it was done, +we may give our readers some notion of the character of the individuals in +our story. (See Section 10.) This portrayal of character may be aided by +the use of description. (See Section 134.) + +Notice that the purpose of the following selection is to indicate the +character of Pitkin rather than to relate the incident. If the author were +to relate other doings of Pitkin, he would need to make the actions of +Pitkin in each case consistent with the character indicated by this +sketch. + + +It was the day of our great football game with Harvard, and when I heard +my friend Pitkin returning to the room we shared in common, I knew that he +was mad. And when I say mad I mean it,--not angry, nor exasperated, nor +aggravated, nor provoked, but mad: not mad according to the dictionary, +that is, crazy, but mad as we common folk use the term. So I say my friend +Pitkin was mad. I thought so when I heard the angry click-clack of his +heels on the cement walk, and I carefully put all the chairs against the +wall; I was sure of it when the door slammed, and I set the coal scuttle +in the corner behind the stove. There was no doubt of it when he mounted +the stairs three steps at a time, and I hastily cleared his side of the +desk. You may wonder why I did all these things, but you have never seen +Pitkin mad. + +Why was Pitkin mad? I did not then know. I had not seen him yet, for I was +so busy--so very, very busy--that I did not look up when he slammed his +books on the desk with a resounding whack which caused the ink bottle to +tremble and the lampshade to clatter as though chattering its teeth with +fear, while the pens and pencils, tumbling from the holder, scurried away +to hide themselves under the desk. + +I was still busily engaged with my books while he threw his wet overcoat +and dripping hat on the white bedspread and kicked his rubbers under the +stove, the smell of which soon warned me to rescue them before they +melted. Pitkin must be very mad this time. He was taking off his collar +and even his shoes. Pitkin always took off his collar when very mad, and +if especially so, put on his slippers, even if he had to change them again +in fifteen minutes. + +"What are you doing? Why don't you say something? You are a pretty fellow +not to speak or even look up." Such was Pitkin's first remark. Sometimes +he was talkative and would insist on giving his opinion of things in +general. At other times he preferred to be left alone to bury himself and +his wrath in his books. Since he had failed to poke the fire, though the +room was very warm, I had decided that he would dive into his books and be +heard no more until a half hour past his suppertime, but I had made a +mistake. Today he was in a talkative mood, and knowing that work was +impossible, I devoted the next half hour to listening to a dissertation on +the general perverseness of human nature, and to an elaborate description +of my friend Pitkin's scheme for endowing a rival institution with a +hundred million, and making things so cheap and attractive that our +university would have to go out of business. When Pitkin reached this +point, I knew that I could safely ask the special reason of his anger and +that, having answered, he would settle down to his regular work. I gently +insinuated that I was still ignorant of the matter, and received the reply +quite in keeping with Pitkin's nature, "I bet on Harvard and won." + + +EXERCISES + + +1. Read one of Dickens's books and bring to class selections that will +show how Dickens portrays character by use of action. + +2. What kind of man is Silas Marner? What leads you to think as you do? + +3. Select three persons from _Ivanhoe_ and state your opinion of their +character. + +4. Notice the relative importance of plot and character in three magazine +stories. + +5. Select some person from a magazine story. Tell the class what makes you +form the estimate of his character that you do. To what extent does the +descriptive matter help you determine his character? + + ++Theme LXXX.+--_Write a character sketch or a story which shows character +by means of action._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. The girl from Texas. + 2. The Chinese cook. + 3. Taking care of the baby. + 4. Nathan's temptation. + 5. The small boy's triumph. + 6. A village character. + 7. The meanest man I ever knew. + + +(Consider the development of the plot. To what extent have you shown +character by action? Can you make the impression of character stronger by +adding some description?) + + ++150. History and Biography.+--Historical and biographical narratives may +be highly entertaining and at the same time furnish us with much valuable +information. Such writings often contain much that is not pure narration. +A historian may set forth merely the program of events, but most histories +contain besides a large amount of description and explanation. Frequently, +too, all of this is but the basis of either a direct or an implied +argument. Likewise a biographer may be chiefly concerned with the acts of +a man, but he usually finds that the introduction of description and +explanation aids him in making clear the life purpose of the man about +whom he writes. In shorter histories and biographies, the expository and +descriptive matter often displaces the narrative matter to such an extent +that the story ceases to be interesting. + +The actual time-order of events need not be followed. It will often make +our account clearer to discuss the literary works of a man at one time, +his education at another, and his practical achievements at a third. +Certain portions of his life may need to be emphasized while others are +neglected. What we include in a biography and what we emphasize will be +determined by the purpose for which it is written. For pure information, a +short account is desirable, but a long account is of greater interest. If +a man is really great, the most insignificant events in his life will be +read with interest, but a good biographer will select such events with +good taste and then will present them so that they will have a bearing +upon the more important phases of the man's life and character. Hundreds +of the stories told about Lincoln would be trivial but for the fact that +they help us better to understand the real character of the man. + + +EXERCISE + + +1. Select some topic briefly mentioned in the history text you study. Look +up a more extended account of it and come to the class prepared to recite +the topic orally. Make your report clear, concise, and interesting. Decide +beforehand just what facts you will relate and in what order. (See +Sections 39, 52, 53.) + + ++Theme LXXXI.+--_Come to class prepared to write upon some topic assigned +by the teacher, or upon one of the following_:-- + + 1. Pontiac's conspiracy. + 2. The battle of Marathon. + 3. The Boston tea party. + 4. The battle of Bannockburn. + 5. Sherman's march to the sea. + 6. Passage of the Alps by Napoleon. + +(Is your narrative told in an interesting way? Are any facts necessary to +the clear understanding of it omitted?) + + +EXERCISES + + +1. Name an English orator, an English statesman, and an English writer +about each of whom an interesting biography might be written. + +2. With the same purpose in view name two American orators, two American +writers, and two American statesmen. + + ++Theme LXXXII.+--_Write a short biography of some prominent person. +Include only well-known and important facts, but do not give his name. +Read the biography before the class and have them tell whose biography it +is._ + + ++151. Description in Narration.+--The descriptive elements, of narration +should always have for their purpose something more than the mere creating +of images. If a house is described, the description should enable us to +bring to mind more vividly the events that take place within or around it. +If the description aids us in understanding how or why the events occur, +it is helpful; but if it fails to do this, it has no place in the +narrative. Description when thus used serves as a background for the +actions told in the story, and has for its purpose the explanation of how +or why they occur. + +Sometimes the descriptions are given before the incident and sometimes the +two are intermixed. In the following incident from the _Legend of Sleepy +Hollow_, notice how the description prepares the mind for the action that +follows. We are told that the brook which Ichabod must cross runs into a +marshy and thickly wooded glen; that the oaks and chestnuts matted with +grapevines throw a gloom over the place, and already we feel that it is a +dreadful spot after dark. The fact that Andre was captured here adds to +the feeling. We are prepared to have some exciting action take place, and +had Ichabod ridden quietly across the bridge, we should have been +disappointed. + + +About two hundred yards from the tree a small brook crossed the road, and +ran into a marshy and thickly wooded glen, known by the name of Wiley's +swamp. A few rough logs, laid side by side, served for a bridge over this +stream. On that side of the road where the brook entered the woods, a +group of oaks and chestnuts, matted thick with wild grapevines, threw a +cavernous gloom over it. To pass this bridge was the severest trial. It +was at this identical spot that the unfortunate Andre was captured, and +under covert of those vines were the sturdy yeomen concealed who surprised +him. This has ever since been considered a haunted stream, and fearful are +the feelings of the schoolboy who has to pass it alone after dark. + +As he approached the stream his heart began to thump; he summoned up, +however, all his resolution, gave his horse half a score of kicks in the +ribs, and attempted to dash briskly across the bridge; but instead of +starting forward, the perverse old animal made a lateral movement, and ran +broadside against the fence. Ichabod, whose fears increased with the +delay, jerked the reins on the other side, and kicked lustily with the +contrary foot. It was all in vain; his steed started, it is true, but it +was only to plunge to the opposite side of the road into a thicket of +brambles and alder bushes. The schoolmaster now bestowed both whip and +heel upon the starveling ribs of old Gunpowder, who dashed forward, +snuffling and snorting, but came to a stand just by the bridge, with a +suddenness that had nearly sent his rider sprawling over his head. Just at +this moment a plashy tramp, by the side of the bridge caught the sensitive +ear of Ichabod. In the dark shadow of the grove, on the margin of the +brook, he beheld something huge, misshapen, black, and towering. It +stirred not, but seemed gathered up in the gloom like some gigantic +monster ready to spring upon the traveler. + +--Irving: _Legend of Sleepy Hollow_. + + +The most important use of description in connection with narration is that +of portraying character. Though it is by their actions that the character +of persons is most strongly brought out, yet the descriptive matter may do +much to strengthen the impression of character which we form. (Section +134.) Much of the description found in literature is of this nature. +Stripped of its context such a description may fail to satisfy our ideals +as judged by the principles of description discussed in Chapter VIII. +Nevertheless, in its place it may be perfectly adapted to its purpose and +give just the impression the author wished to give. Such descriptions must +be judged in their settings, and the sole standard of judgment is not +their beauty or completeness as descriptions, but how well they give the +desired impressions. + + ++Theme LXXXIII.+--_Write a short personal narrative containing some +description which explains how or why events occur._ + +(Is there anything in the descriptive part that does not bear on the +narration?) + + ++Theme LXXXIV.+--_Write a narrative containing description that aids in +giving an impression of character._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. Holding the fort. + 2. A steamer trip. + 3. How I played truant. + 4. Kidnapped. + 5. The misfortunes of our circus. + 6. Account for the situation shown in a picture that you have seen. + + +(Will the reader form the impression of character which you wish him to +form? Consider your theme with reference to its introduction, incentive +moment, selection and arrangement of details, and climax.) + + +SUMMARY + + +1. Narration assumes a variety of forms,--incidents, anecdotes, stories, + letters, novels, histories, biographies, etc.,--all concerned with the + relation of events. + +2. The essential characteristics of a narration are,-- + _a._ An introduction which tells the characters, the time, the place, + and enough of the attendant circumstances to make clear the + point of the narrative. + _b._ The early introduction of an incentive moment. + _c._ A climax presented in such a way as to maintain the interest of + the reader. + _d._ The selection of details essential to the climax in accordance + with the principle of unity. + _e._ The arrangement of these details in a coherent order. + _f._ The skillful introduction of minor details which will assist in + the appreciation of the point. + _g._ The introduction of all necessary description and explanation. + _h._ That additional effectiveness which comes from + (1) Proper choice of words. + (2) Suitable comparisons and figures. + (3) Variety of sentence structure. + _i._ A brief conclusion. + + + +X. EXPOSITION + + ++152. Purpose of Exposition.+--It is the purpose of exposition to make +clear to others that which we ourselves understand. Its primary object is +to give information. Herein lies one of the chief differences between the +two forms of discourse just studied and the one that we are about to +study. The primary object of most description and narration is to please, +while that of exposition is to inform. Exposition answers such questions +as how? why? what does it mean? what is it used for? and by these answers +attempts to satisfy demands for knowledge. + +In the following selections notice that the first tells us _how_ to +burnish a photograph; the second, _how_ to split a sheet of paper:-- + + +1. When the prints are almost dry they can be burnished. The burnishing +iron should be heated and kept hot during the burnishing, about the same +heat as a flatiron in ironing clothes. Care must be taken to keep the +polished surface of the burnisher bright and clean. When the iron is hot +enough the prints should be rubbed with a glace polish, which is sold for +this purpose, and is applied with a small wad of flannel. Then the prints +should be passed through the burnisher two or three times, the burnisher +being so adjusted that the pressure on the prints is rather light; the +degree of pressure will be quickly learned by experience, more pressure +being required if the prints have been allowed to become dry before being +polished. White castile soap will do very well as a lubricator for the +prints before burnishing, and is applied in the same manner as above. + +--_The Amateur Photographer's Handbook_. + + +2. Paper can be split into two or even three parts, however thin the +sheet. It may be convenient to know how to do this sometimes; as, for +instance, when one wishes to paste in a scrapbook an article printed on +both sides of the paper. + +Get a piece of plate glass and place it on a sheet of paper. Then let the +paper be thoroughly soaked. With care and a little skill the sheet can be +split by the top surface being removed. + +The best plan, however, is to paste a piece of cloth or strong paper to +each side of the sheet to be split. When dry, quickly, and without +hesitation, pull the two pieces asunder, when one part of the sheet will +be found to have adhered to one, and part to the other. Soften the paste +in water, and the two pieces can easily be removed from the cloth. + + +EXERCISES + + +A. Explain orally any two of the following:-- + 1. How to fly a kite. + 2. How a robin builds her nest. + 3. How oats are harvested. + 4. How tacks are made. + 5. How to make a popgun. + 6. How fishes breathe. + 7. How to swim. + 8. How to hemstitch a handkerchief. + 9. How to play golf. + 10. How salt is obtained. + + +B. Name several subjects with the explanation of which you are unfamiliar. + + ++Theme LXXXV.+--_Select for a subject something that you know how to do. +Write a theme on the subject chosen._ + +(Have you made use of either general description or general narration? See +Sections 67 and 68.) + +Very frequently explanations of _how_ and _why_ anything is done are +combined, as in the following:-- + + +In cases of sunstroke, place the person attacked in a cool, airy place. Do +not allow a crowd to collect closely about him. Remove his clothing, and +lay him flat upon his back. Dash him all over with cold water--ice-water, +if it can be obtained--and rub the entire body with pieces of ice. This +treatment is used to reduce the heat of the body, for in all cases of +sunstroke the temperature of the body is greatly increased. When the body +has become cooler, wipe it dry and remove the person to a dry locality. If +respiration ceases, or becomes exceedingly slow, practice artificial +respiration. After the patient has apparently recovered, he should be kept +quiet in bed for some time. + +--Baldwin: _Essential Lessons in Human Physiology and Hygiene_. + + +Notice that the following selection answers neither the question _how_? +nor _why_? but explains what journalism is:-- + + +JOURNALISM + +What is a journal? What is a journalist? What is journalism? Is it a +trade, a commercial business, or a profession? Our word _journal_ comes +from the French. It has different forms in the several Romantic languages, +and all go back to the Latin _diurnalis_, daily, from _dies_, a day. +Diurnal and diary are derived from the same source. The first journals +were in fact diaries, daily records of happenings, compiled often for the +pleasure and use of the compiler alone, sometimes for monarchs or +statesmen or friends; later to be circulated for the information of a +circle of readers, or distributed in copies to subscribers among the +public at large. These were the first newspapers. While we still in a +specific sense speak of daily newspapers as journals, the term is often +enlarged to comprise nearly all publications that are issued periodically +and distributed to subscribers. + +A journalist is one whose business is publishing a journal (or more than +one), or editing a journal, or writing for journals, especially a person +who is regularly employed in some responsible directing or creative work +on a journal, as a publisher, editor, writer, reporter, critic, etc. This +use of the word is comparatively modern, and it is commonly restricted to +persons connected with daily or weekly newspapers. Many older newspaper +men scout it, preferring to be known as publishers, editors, writers, or +contributors. Journalism, however, is a word that is needed for its +comprehensiveness. It includes the theory, the business, and the art of +producing newspapers in all departments of the work. Hence, any school of +professional journalism must be presumed to comprise in its scope and +detail of instruction the knowledge that is essential to the making and +conduct of newspapers. It must have for its aim the ideal newspaper which +is ideally perfect in every department. + +Journalism, so far as it is more than mere reporting and mere money +making, so far as it undertakes to frame and guide opinion, to educate the +thought and instruct the conscience of the community, by editorial +comment, interpretation and homily, based on the news, is under obligation +to the community to be truthful, sincere, and uncorrupted; to enlighten +the understanding, not to darken counsel; to uphold justice and honor with +unfailing resolution, to champion morality and the public welfare with +intelligent zeal, to expose wrong and antagonize it with unflinching +courage. If journalism has any mission in the world besides and beyond the +dissemination of news, it is a mission of maintaining a high standard of +thought and life in the community it serves, strengthening all its forces +that make for righteousness and beauty and fair growth. + +This is not solely, nor peculiarly, the office of what is called the +editorial page. To be most influential, it must be a consistent expression +in all departments, giving the newspaper a totality of power in such aim. +This is the right ideal of journalism whenever it is considered as +more than a form of commercialism. No newspaper attains its ideal in +completeness. If it steadfastly works toward attainment, it gives proof of +its right to be. The advancing newspaper, going on from good to better in +the substance of its character and the ability of its endeavor, is the +type of journalism which affords hope for the future. And one strong +encouragement to fidelity in a high motive is public appreciation. + +--_The Boston Herald._ + + +EXERCISES + + +Give as complete an answer as possible to any two of the following +questions:-- + +1. Why do fish bite better on a cloudy day than on a bright one? + +2. Why should we study history? + +3. Why does a baseball curve? + +4. Why did the American colonies revolt against England? + +5. Why did the early settlers of New England persecute the Quakers? + +6. Why should trees be planted either in early spring or late autumn? + +7. Why do we lose a day in going from America to China? + +8. In laying a railroad track, why is there a space left between the ends +of the rails? + + ++Theme LXXXVI.+--_Choose one of the above or a similar question as a +subject for a theme. Write out as complete and exact an explanation as +possible._ + +EXERCISE + +Write out a list of subjects the explanation of which would not answer the +questions _why_? or _how_? How many of them can you explain? + + ++Theme LXXXVII.+--_Write out the explanation of one of the subjects in the +above list._ + +(Read what you have written and consider it with reference to clearness, +unity, and coherence.) + + ++153. Importance of Exposition.+--This form of discourse is important +because it deals so extensively with important subjects, such as questions +of government, facts in science, points in history, methods in education, +and processes of manufacture. It enters vitally into our lives, no matter +what our occupation may be. Business men make constant use of this kind of +discourse. In fact, it would be impossible for business to be transacted +with any degree of success without explanations. Loans of money would not +be made if men did not understand how they could have security for the +sums loaned. A manufacturer cannot expect to have good articles produced +if he is unable to give needful explanations concerning their manufacture. +In order that a merchant be successful he must be able to explain the +relative merits of his goods to his customers. + +Very much of the work done in our schools is of an expository nature. +The text-books used are expositions. When they of themselves are not +sufficient for the clear understanding of the subject, it is necessary +to consult reference books. Then, if the subject is still lacking in +clearness, the teacher is called upon for additional explanation. On the +other hand, the greater part of the pupil's recitations consists simply in +explaining the subjects under discussion. Much of the class-room work in +our schools consists of either receiving or giving explanations. + + +EXERCISES + + +1. Name anything outside of school work that you have been called upon to +explain during the last week or two. + +2. Name anything outside of school work that you have recently learned +through explanation. + +3. Name three topics in each of your studies for to-day that call for +explanation. + +4. Name some topic in which the text-book did not seem to make the +explanation clear. + + ++Theme LXXXVIII.+--_Write out one of the topics mentioned in number three +of the preceding exercise._ + +(Have you included everything that is necessary to make your explanation +clear? Can anything be omitted without affecting the clearness?) + + ++154. Clear Understanding.+--The first requisite of a good explanation +is a clear understanding on the part of the one who is giving the +explanation. It is evident that if we do not understand a subject +ourselves we cannot make our explanations clear to others. If the ideas in +our mind are in a confused state, our explanation will be equally +confused. If you do not understand a problem in algebra, your attempt to +explain it to others will prove a failure. If you attempt to explain how a +canal boat is taken through a lock without thoroughly understanding the +process yourself, you will give your listeners only a confused idea of how +it is done. + +The principal reason why pupils fail in their recitations and examinations +is that in preparing their lessons, they do not make themselves thoroughly +acquainted with the topics that they are studying. They often go over the +lessons hurriedly and carelessly and come to class with confused ideas. +Consequently when the pupils attempt to recite, there is, if anything, an +additional confusion of ideas, and the recitation proves a failure. +Carelessness in the preparation of daily recitations, negligence in asking +for additional explanations, and inattention to the explanations that are +given, inevitably cause failure when tests or examinations are called for. + + +EXERCISES + + +1. Name five subjects about which you know so little that it would be +useless to attempt an explanation. + +2. Name five about which you know something, but not enough to give clear +explanations of them. + +3. Name four about which you know but little, but concerning which you +feel sure that you can obtain information. + +4. Name six that you think you clearly understand. Report orally on one of +them. + + ++Theme LXXXIV.+--_Write out an explanation of one of the subjects named in +number four of the preceding exercise._ + +(Read your theme and criticise it as to clearness. In listening to the +themes read by other members of the class consider them as to clearness. +Call for further explanation of any part not perfectly clear to you.) + + ++155. Selection of Facts--Unity.+--After we have been given a subject for +explanation or have chosen one for ourselves, we must decide concerning +the facts to be presented. In some kinds of exposition this selection is +rather difficult. Since the purpose is to make our meaning clear to the +person addressed, we secure unity by including all that is necessary to +that purpose and by omitting all that is not necessary. It is evident that +selection of facts to secure unity depends to some extent upon the +audience. If a child asks us to explain what a trust is, our explanation +will differ very much from that which we would give if we were addressing +a body of men who were familiar with the term _trusts_, but do not +understand the advantages and disadvantages arising from their existence. + +Examine the following as to selection of facts. For what class of people +do you think it was written? What seems to be the purpose of it? + + +THE FEUDAL SYSTEM + +This connection of king as sovereign, with his princes and great men as +vassals, must be attended to and understood, in order that you may +comprehend the history which follows. A great king, or sovereign prince, +gave large provinces, or grants of land, to his dukes, earls, and +noblemen; and each of these possessed nearly as much power, within his own +district, as the king did in the rest of his dominions. But then the +vassal, whether duke, earl, or lord, or whatever he was, was obliged to +come with a certain number of men to assist the sovereign, when he was +engaged in war; and in time of peace, he was bound to attend on his court +when summoned, and do homage to him, that is, acknowledge that he was his +master and liege lord. In like manner, the vassals of the crown, as they +were called, divided the lands which the king had given them into estates, +which they bestowed on knights, and gentlemen, whom they thought fitted to +follow them in war, and to attend them in peace; for they, too, held +courts, and administered justice, each in his own province. Then the +knights and gentlemen, who had these estates from the great nobles, +distributed the property among an inferior class of proprietors, some of +whom cultivated the land themselves, and others by means of husbandmen and +peasants, who were treated as a sort of slaves, being bought and sold like +brute beasts, along with the farms which they labored. + +Thus, when a great king, like that of France or England, went to war, he +summoned all his crown vassals to attend him, with the number of armed men +corresponding to his fief, as it was called, that is, territory which had +been granted to each of them. The prince, duke, or earl, in order to obey +the summons, called upon all the gentlemen to whom he had given estates, +to attend his standard with their followers in arms. The gentlemen, in +their turn, called on the franklins, a lower order of gentry, and upon the +peasants; and thus the whole force of the kingdom was assembled in one +array. This system of holding lands for military service, that is, for +fighting for the sovereign when called upon, was called the _feudal +system_. It was general throughout all Europe for a great many ages. + +--Scott: _Tales of a Grandfather_. + + ++Theme LXXXV.+--_Write a theme on one of the following:_-- + +1. Tell your younger brother how to make a whistle. + +2. Explain some game to a friend of your own age. + +3. Give an explanation of the heating system of your school to a member of +the school board of an adjoining city. + +4. Explain to a city girl how butter is made. + +5. Explain to a city boy how hay is cured. + +6. Explain to a friend how to run an automobile. + + +(Consider the selection of facts as determined by the person addressed.) + + ++156. Arrangement--Coherence.+--Some expositions are of such a nature that +there is but little question concerning the proper arrangement of the +topics composing them. In order to be coherent, all we do is to follow the +natural order of occurrence in time and place. This is especially true of +general narrations and of some general descriptions. In explaining the +circulation of the blood, for instance, it is most natural for us to +follow the course which the blood takes in circulating through the body. +In explaining the manufacture of articles we naturally begin with the +material as it comes to the factory, and trace the process of manufacture +in order through its successive stages. + +In other kinds of exposition a coherent arrangement is somewhat difficult. +We should not, however, fail to pay attention to it. A clear understanding +of the subject, on the part of the listener, depends largely upon the +proper arrangement of topics. As you study examples of expositions of some +length, you will notice that there are topics which naturally belong +together. These topics form groups, and the groups are treated separately. +If the expositions are good ones, the related facts will not only be +united into groups, but the groups will also be so arranged and the +transition from one group to another be so naturally made that it will +cause no confusion. + +In brief explanations of but one paragraph there should be but one group +of facts. Even these facts need to be so arranged as to make the whole +idea clear. The writer may have a clear understanding of the whole idea, +but in order to give the reader the same clear understanding, certain +facts must be presented before others are. In order to make an explanation +clear, the facts must be so arranged that those which are necessary to the +understanding of others shall come first. + +Examine the following expositions as to the grouping of related facts and +the arrangement of those groups:-- + + +Fresh, pure air at all times is essential to bodily comfort and good +health. Air may become impure from many causes. Poisonous gases may be +mixed with it; sewer gas is especially to be guarded against; coal gas +which is used for illuminating purposes is very poisonous and dangerous if +inhaled; the air arising from decaying substances, foul cellars, or +stagnant pools, is impure and unhealthy, and breeds diseases; the foul and +poisonous air which has been expelled from the lungs, if breathed again, +will cause many distressing symptoms. Ventilation has for its object the +removal of impure air and the supplying of fresh, wholesome air in its +place. Proper ventilation should be secured in all rooms and buildings, +and its importance cannot be overestimated. + +In the summer time and in climates which permit of it with comfort, +ventilation may be secured by having the doors and windows open, thus +allowing the fresh air to circulate freely through the house. In stormy +and cold weather, however, some other means of ventilation must be +supplied. If open fires or grates are used for heating purposes, good +ventilation exists, for under such circumstances, the foul and impure air +is drawn out of the rooms through the chimneys, and the fresh air enters +through the cracks of the doors and windows. + +Where open fireplaces are not used, several plans of ventilation +may be used, as they all operate on the same principle. Two openings +should be in the room, one of them near the floor, through which +the fresh air may enter, the other higher up, and connected with a +shaft or chimney, which producing a draft, may serve to free the room +from impure air. The size of these openings may be regulated according +to the size of the room. + +--Baldwin: _Essential Lessons in Human Physiology_. + + +THE QUEEN BEE + +It is a singular fact, also, that the queen is made, not born. If the +entire population of Spain or Great Britain were the offspring of one +mother, it might be found necessary to hit upon some device by which a +royal baby could be manufactured out of an ordinary one, or else give up +the fashion of royalty. All the bees in the hive have a common parentage, +and the queen and the worker are the same in the egg and in the chick; the +patent of royalty is in the cell and in the food; the cell being much +larger, and the food a peculiar stimulating kind of jelly. In certain +contingencies, such as the loss of the queen with no eggs in the royal +cells, the workers take the larva of an ordinary bee, enlarge the cell by +taking in the two adjoining ones, and nurse it and stuff it and coddle it, +till at the end of sixteen days it comes out a queen. But ordinarily, in +the natural course of events, the young queen is kept a prisoner in her +cell till the old queen has left with the swarm. Not only kept, but +guarded against the mother queen, who only wants an opportunity to murder +every royal scion in the hive. Both the queens, the one a prisoner and the +other at large, pipe defiance at each other at this time, a shrill, fine, +trumpetlike note that any ear will at once recognize. This challenge, not +being allowed to be accepted by either party, is followed, in a day or +two, by the abdication of the old queen; she leads out the swarm, and her +successor is liberated by her keepers, who, in her turn, abdicates in +favor of the next younger. When the bees have decided that no more swarms +can issue, the reigning queen is allowed to use her stiletto upon her +unhatched sisters. Cases have been known where two queens issued at the +same time, when a mortal combat ensued, encouraged by the workers, who +formed a ring about them, but showed no preference, and recognized the +victor as the lawful sovereign. For these and many other curious facts we +are indebted to the blind Huber. + +It is worthy of note that the position of the queen cells is always +vertical, while that of the drones and workers is horizontal; majesty +stands on its head, which fact may be a part of the secret. + +The notion has always very generally prevailed that the queen of the bees +is an absolute ruler, and issues her royal orders to willing subjects. +Hence Napoleon the First sprinkled the symbolic bees over the imperial +mantle that bore the arms of his dynasty; and in the country of the +Pharaohs the bee was used as the emblem of a people sweetly submissive to +the orders of its king. But the fact is, a swarm of bees is an absolute +democracy, and kings and despots can find no warrant in their example. The +power and authority are entirely vested in the great mass, the workers. +They furnish all the brains and foresight of the colony, and administer +its affairs. Their word is law, and both king and queen must obey. They +regulate the swarming, and give the signal for the swarm to issue from the +hive; they select and make ready the tree in the woods and conduct the +queen to it. + +The peculiar office and sacredness of the queen consists in the fact that +she is the mother of the swarm, and the bees love and cherish her as a +mother and not as a sovereign. She is the sole female bee in the hive, and +the swarm clings to her because she is their life. Deprived of their +queen, and of all brood from which to rear one, the swarm loses all heart +and soon dies, though there be an abundance of honey. + +The common bees will never use their sting upon the queen,--if she is to +be disposed of they starve her to death; and the queen herself will sting +nothing but royalty--nothing but a rival queen. + +--John Burroughs: _Birds and Bees_. + + ++Theme LXXXVI.+--_Write an expository theme._ + + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. Duties of the sheriff. + 2. How a motor works. + 3. How wheat is harvested. + 4. Why the tide exists. + 5. How our schoolhouse is ventilated. + 6. What is meant by the theory of evolution. + 7. The manufacture of ----. + 8. How to make a ----. + + +(Consider the arrangement of your statements.) + + ++157. Use of an Outline.+--Before beginning to write an explanation we +need to consider what we know about the subject and what our purpose is; +we need to select facts that will make our explanations clear to our +readers; and we need to decide what arrangement of these facts will best +show their relation to each other. We shall find it of advantage, +especially in lengthy explanations, to express our thoughts in the form of +an outline. An outline helps us to see clearly whether our facts are well +chosen, and it also helps us to see whether the arrangement is orderly or +not. Clearness is above all the essential of exposition, and outlines aid +clearness by giving unity and coherence. + + +EXERCISES + + +Select three of the following subjects and make lists of facts that you +know about them. From these select those which would be necessary in +making a clear explanation of each. After making out these lists of facts, +arrange them in what seems to you the best possible order for making the +explanation clear to your classmates. + + 1. The value of a school library. + 2. Sponges. + 3. The manufacture of clocks. + 4. Drawing. + 5. Athletics in the high school. + 6. Examinations. + 7. Debating societies. + + ++Theme LXXXVII.+--_Following the outline, write an exposition on one of +the subjects chosen._ + + +(Notice the transition from one paragraph to another. See Section 87.) + + ++158. Exposition of Terms--Definition.+--Explanation of the meaning of +general terms is one form of exposition (Section 63). The first step in +the exposition of a term is the giving of a definition. This may be +accomplished by the use of a synonym (Section 64). We make a term +intelligible to the reader by the use of a synonym with which he is +familiar; and though such a definition is inexact, it gives a rough idea +of the meaning of the term in question, and so serves a useful purpose. +If, however, we wish exactness, we shall need to make use of the logical +definition. + + ++159. The Logical Definition.+--The logical definition sets exact limits +to the meaning of a term. An exact definition must include all the members +of a class indicated by the term defined, and it must exclude everything +that does not belong to that class. A logical definition is composed of +two parts. It first names the class to which the term to be defined +belongs, and then it names the characteristic that distinguishes that term +from all other members of the same class. The class is termed the _genus_, +and the distinguishing characteristics of the different members of the +class are termed the _differentia_. Notice the following division into +genus and differentia. + + + TERM TO BE | CLASS | DISTINGUISHING + DEFINED | _(Genus)_ | CHARACTERISTIC + | | _(Differentia)_ + | | +A parallelogram | is a quadrilateral | whose opposite sides + | | are parallel + | | +Exposition | is that form of | which seeks to explain + | discourse | the meaning of a term. + | | + + +Each definition includes three elements: the term to be defined, the +genus, and the differentia; but these are not necessarily arranged in the +order named. + + +EXERCISE + + +Select the three elements (the term to be defined, the genus, and the +differentia) in each of the following:-- + +1. A polygon of three sides is called a triangle. + +2. A square is an equilateral rectangle. + +3. A rectangle whose sides are equal is a square. + +4. Description is that form of discourse which aims to present a picture. + +5. The characters composing written words are called letters. + +6. The olfactory nerves are the first pair of cranial nerves. + +7. Person is that modification of a noun or pronoun which denotes the +speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or things spoken of. + +8. The diptera, or true flies, are readily distinguishable from other +insects by their having a single pair of wings instead of two pairs, the +hind wings being transformed into small knob-headed pedicles called +balancers or halters. + + ++160. Difficulty of Framing Exact Definitions.+--In order to frame a +logical definition, exactness of thought is essential. Even when the +thought is exact, it will be found difficult and often impossible to frame +a satisfactory definition. Usually there is little difficulty in selecting +the genus, still care should be taken to select one that includes the term +to be defined. We might begin the definition of iron by saying, "Iron is a +metal," since all iron is metal, but it would be incorrect to begin the +definition of rodent by saying, "A rodent is a beaver," because the term +beaver does not include all rodents. We must also take care to choose for +the genus some term familiar to the reader, because the object of the +definition is to make the meaning clear to him. + +The chief difficulty of framing logical definitions arises in the +selection of differentia. In many cases it is not easy to decide just what +characteristics distinguish one member of a class from all other members +of that class. We all know that iron is a metal, but most of us would +find it difficult to add to the definition just those things which +distinguish iron from other metals. We may say, "A flute is a musical +instrument"; so much of the definition is easily given. The difficulty +lies in distinguishing it from all other musical instruments. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Select proper differentia for the following:-- + + | +TERM TO BE DEFINED | CLASS (Genus) | DISTINGUISHING + | | CHARACTERISTIC + | | _(Differentia)_ + | | +1. Narration | is that form of discourse | ? + | | +2. A circle | is a portion of a plane | ? + | | +3. A dog | is an animal | ? + | | +4. A hawk | is a bird | ? + | | +5. Physiography | is the science | ? + | | +6. A sneak | is a person | ? + | | +7. A quadrilateral | is a plane figure | ? + | | +8. A barn | is a building | ? + | | +9. A bicycle | is a machine | ? + | | +10. A lady | is a woman | ? + + +_B._ Give logical definitions for at least four words in the list below. + +1. Telephone. + +2. Square. + +3. Hammer. + +4. Novel + +5. Curiosity. + +6. Door. + +7. Camera. + +8. Brick. + +9. Microscope. + + ++161. Inexact Definitions.+--If the distinguishing characteristics are not +properly selected, the definition though logical in form may be inexact, +because the differentia do not exclude all but the term to be defined. If +we say, "Exposition is that form of discourse which gives information," +the definition is inexact because there are other forms of discourse that +give information. Many definitions given in text-books are inexact. Care +should be taken to distinguish them from those which are logically exact. + + +EXERCISE + + +Which of the following are exact? + +1. A sheep is a gregarious animal that produces wool. + +2. A squash is a garden plant much liked by striped bugs. + +3. A pronoun is a word used for a noun. + +4. The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle and tendon, convex on its upper +side, and attached by bands of striped muscle to the lower ribs at the +side, to the sternum, and to the cartilage of the ribs which join it in +front, and at the back by very strong bands to the lumbar vertebrae. + +5. A man is a two-legged animal without feathers. + +6. Argument is that form of discourse which has for its object the proof +of the truth or falsity of a proposition. + +7. The base of an isosceles triangle is that side which is equal to no +other. + +8. Zinc is a metal used under stoves. + +9. The epidermis of a leaf is a delicate, transparent skin which covers +the whole leaf. + + ++Theme LXXXVIII.+--_Write an expository paragraph about one of the +following:_-- + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. Household science and arts. + 2. Architecture. + 3. Aesthetics. + 4. Poetry. + 5. Fiction. + 6. Half tones. + 7. Steam fitting. + 8. Swimming. + + +(Consider the definitions you have used.) + + ++162. Division.+--The second step in the exposition of a term is division. +Definition establishes the limits of the term. Division separates into its +parts that which is included by the term. By definition we distinguish +triangles from squares, circles, and other plane figures. By division we +may separate them into scalene, isosceles, and equilateral, or if we +divide them according to a different principle into right and oblique +triangles. In either case the division is complete and exact. By +completeness is meant that every object denoted by the term explained is +included in the division given, thus making the sum of these divisions +equal to the whole. By exactness is meant that but a single principle has +been used, and so no object denoted by the term explained will be included +in more than one of the divisions made. There are no triangles which are +neither right nor oblique, so the division is complete; and no triangle +can be both right and oblique, so the division is exact. Such a complete +and exact division is called _classification_. + +Nearly every term may be divided according to more than one principle. We +may divide the term _books_ into ancient and modern, or into religious and +secular, or in any one of a dozen other ways. Which principle of division +we shall choose will depend upon our purpose. If we wish to discuss +_sponges_ with reference to their shapes, our division will be different +from what it would be if we were to discuss them with reference to their +uses. When a principle of division has once been chosen it is essential +that it be followed throughout. The use of two principles causes an +overlapping of divisions, thus producing what is called cross division. +Using the principle of use, a tailor may sort his bolts of cloth into +cloth for overcoats, cloth for suits, and cloth for trousers; using the +principle of weight, into heavy weight and light weight; or he may sort +them with reference to color or price. In any case but a single principle +is used. It would not do to divide them into cloth for suits, light weight +goods, and brown cloth. Such a division would be neither complete nor +exact; for some of the cloth would belong to none of the classes while +other pieces might properly be placed in all three. + +In the exact sciences complete exposition is the aim, and classification +is necessary; but in other writing the purpose in hand is often better +accomplished by omitting minor divisions. A writer of history might +consider the political growth, the wars, and the religion of a nation and +omit its domestic life and educational progress, especially if these did +not greatly influence the result that he wishes to make plain. If we +wished to explain the plan of the organization of a high school, it would +be satisfactory to divide the pupils into freshmen, sophomores, juniors, +and seniors, even though, in any particular school, there might be a few +special and irregular pupils who belonged to none of these classes. +An exposition of the use of hammers would omit many occasional and +unimportant uses. Such a classification though exact is incomplete and is +called _partition_. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Can you tell which of the following are classifications? Which are +partitions? Which are defective? + + +1. The inhabitants of the United States are Americans, Indians, and +negroes. + +2. Lines are straight, curved, and crooked. + +3. Literature is composed of prose, poetry, and fiction. + +4. The political parties in the last campaign were Republican and +Democrat. + +5. The United States Government has control of states and territories + +6. Plants are divided into two groups: (1) the phanerogams, or flowering +plants, and (2) cryptogams, or flowerless plants. + +7. All phanerogamous plants consist of (1) root and (2) shoot; the shoot +consisting of (_a_) stem and (_b_) leaf. It is true that some exceptional +plants, in maturity, lack leaves, or lack root. These exceptions are few. + +8. We may divide the activities of the government into: keeping order, +making law, protecting individual rights, providing public schools, +providing and mending roads, caring for the destitute, carrying the mail, +managing foreign relations, making war, and collecting taxes. + + +_B_. Notice the following paragraphs, State briefly the divisions made. + + ++1. Plan of the Book.+--What is government? Who is the government? We +shall begin by considering the American answers to these questions. + +What does The Government do? That will be our next inquiry. And with +regard to the ordinary practical work of government, we shall see that +government in the United States is not very different from government in +the other civilized countries of the world. + +Then we shall inquire how government officials are chosen in the United +States, and how the work of government is parceled out among them. This +part of the book will show what is meant by self-government and local +self-government, and will show that our system differs from European +systems chiefly in these very matters of self-government and local +self-government. + +Coming then to the details of our subject, we shall consider the names and +duties of the principal officials in the United States; first, those of +the township, county, and city, then those of the state, and then those of +the federal government. + +Finally, we shall examine certain operations in the American system, such +as a trial in court, and nominations for office, and conclude with an +outline of international relations, and a summary of the commonest laws of +business and property. + +--Clark: _The Government_. + + +2. +Zooelogy and its Divisions.+--What things we do know about the dog, +however, and about its relatives, and what things others know can be +classified into several groups; namely, things or facts about what a dog +does or its behavior, things about the make-up of its body, things about +its growth and development, things about the kind of dog it is and the +kinds of relatives it has, and things about its relations to the outer +world and its special fitness for life. + +All that is known of these different kinds of facts about the dog +constitutes our knowledge of the dog and its life. All that is known by +scientific men and others of these different kinds of facts about all the +500,000 or more kinds of living animals, constitutes our knowledge of +animals and is the science _zooelogy_. Names have been given to these +different groups of facts about animals. The facts about the bodily +make-up or structure of animals constitute that part of zooelogy called +animal _anatomy_ or _morphology;_ the facts about the things animals do, +or the functions of animals, compose animal _physiology;_ the facts about +the development of animals from young to adult condition are the facts of +animal _development;_ the knowledge of the different kinds of animals and +their relationships to each other is called _systematic_ zooelogy or animal +_classification;_ and finally the knowledge of the relations of animals to +their external surroundings, including the inorganic world, plants and +other animals, is called animal _ecology_. + +Any study of animals and their life, that is, of zooelogy, may include all +or any of these parts of zooelogy. + +--Kellogg: _Elementary Zooelogy_. + + +3. Are not these outlines of American destiny in the near-by future +rational? In these papers an attempt has been made:-- + +First, to picture the physical situation and equipment of the American in +the modern world. + +Second, to outline the large and fundamental elements of American +character, which are:-- + + (_a_) Conservatism--moderation, thoughtfulness, and poise. + (_b_) Thoroughness--conscientious performance, to the minutest detail, + of any work which we as individuals or people may have in hand. + (_c_) Justice--that spirit which weighs with the scales of righteousness + our conduct toward each other and our conduct as a nation toward + the world. + (_d_) Religion--the sense of dependence upon and responsibility to the + Higher Power; the profound American belief that our destiny is in + His hands. + (_e_) The minor elements of American character--such as the tendency to + organize, the element of humor, impatience with frauds, and the + movement in American life toward the simple and sincere. + +--Beveridge: _Americans of To-day and To-morrow_. + + + _C._ Consult the table of contents or opening chapters of any text-book +and notice the main divisions. + + _D._ Find in text-books five examples of classification or division. + + _E._ Make one or more divisions of each of the following:-- + + 1. The pupils in your school. + 2. Your neighbors. + 3. The books in the school library. + 4. The buildings you see on the way to school. + 5. The games you know how to play. + 6. Dogs. + 7. Results of competition. + + ++Theme LXXXIX.+--_Write an introductory paragraph showing what divisions +you, would make if called upon, to write about one of the following +topics:_-- + +1. Mathematics. + +2. The school system of our city. + +3. The churches of our town. + +4. Methods of transportation. + +5. Our manufacturing interests. + +6. Games that girls like. + +7. The inhabitants of the United States. + + +(Have you mentioned all important divisions of your subject? Have you +included any minor and unimportant divisions? Consider other possible +principles of division of your subject. Have you chosen the one best +suited to your purpose?) + + ++163. Exposition of a Proposition.+--Two terms united into a sentence so +that one is affirmed of the other become a proposition. Propositions, like +terms, may be either specific or general. "Napoleon was ambitious" is a +specific proposition; "Politicians are ambitious" is a general one. + +When a proposition is presented to the mind, its meaning may not at once +be clear. The obscurity may arise from the fact that some of the terms in +the proposition are unfamiliar, or are obscure, or misleading. In this +case the first step, and often the only step necessary, is the explanation +of the terms in the proposition. The following selection taken from +Dewey's _Psychology_ illustrates the exposition of a proposition by +explaining its terms:-- + + +The habitual act thus occurs automatically and mechanically. When we say +that it occurs automatically, we mean that it takes place, as it were, of +itself, spontaneously, without the intervention of the will. By saying +that it is mechanical, we mean that there exists no consciousness of the +process involved, nor of the relation of the means, the various muscular +adjustments, to the end, locomotion. + + +It is possible for our listeners or readers to understand each term in a +proposition and yet not be able to understand the meaning of the +proposition as a whole. When this is the case, we shall find it necessary +to make use of methods of exposition discussed later. + + +EXERCISES + + +Explain orally the following propositions by explaining any of the terms +likely to be unfamiliar or misunderstood: + +1. The purpose of muscular contraction is the production of motion. + +2. Ping-pong is lawn tennis in miniature, with a few modifications. + +3. An inevitable dualism bisects nature. + +4. Never inflict corporal chastisement for intellectual faults. + +5. Children should be led to make their own investigations and to draw +their own inferences. + +6. The black willow is an excellent tonic as well as a powerful +antiseptic. + +7. Give the Anglo-Saxon equivalent for "nocturnal." + +8. A negative exponent signifies the reciprocal of what the expression +would be if the exponent were positive. + + ++Theme XC.+--_Write an explanation of one of the following:_ + +1. Birds of a feather flock together. + +2. Truths and roses have thorns about them. + +3. Where there's a will, there's a way. + +4. Who keeps company with a wolf will learn to howl. + +5. He gives nothing but worthless gold, who gives from a sense of duty. + +6. All things that are, +Are with more spirit chased than enjoyed. + +7. Be not simply good--be good for something. + +8. He that hath light within his own clear breast, May sit i' the center, +and enjoy bright day; But he that hides a dark soul and foul thoughts +Benighted walks under the midday sun; Himself is his own dungeon. + + +(Select the sentence that seems most difficult to you, determine what it +means, and then attempt to make an explanation that will show that you +thoroughly understand its meaning.) + + ++164. Exposition by Repetition.+--In discussing paragraph development +(Section 50) we have already learned that the meaning of a proposition may +be made clearer by the repetition of the topic statement. This repetition +may be used to supplement the definition of terms, or it may by itself +make clear both the meaning of the terms and of the proposition. Each +repetition of the proposition presents it to the reader in a new light or +in a stronger light. Each time the idea is presented it seems more +definite, more familiar, more clear. Such statements of a proposition take +advantage of the fact that the reader is thinking, and we merely attempt +to direct his thought in such a way that he will turn the proposition over +and over in his mind until it is understood. + +Notice how the following propositions are explained largely by means of +repetitions, each of which adds a little to the original statement. + + +How to live?--that is the essential question for us. Not how to live in +the mere material sense only, but in the widest sense. The general +problem, which comprehends every special problem, is the right ruling of +conduct in all directions under all circumstances. In what way to treat +the body; in what way to treat the mind; in what way to manage our +affairs; in what way to bring up a family; in what way to behave as a +citizen; in what way to utilize all those sources of happiness which +nature supplies--how to use all our faculties to the greatest advantage of +ourselves and others--how to live completely? And this being the great +thing needful for us to learn, is, by consequence, the great thing which +education has to teach. To prepare us for complete living is the function +which education has to discharge: and the only radical mode of judging of +any educational course, is, to judge in what degree it discharges such +functions. + +--Herbert Spencer: _Education_. + + +The gray squirrel is remarkably graceful in all his movements. It seems as +though some subtle curve was always produced by the line of the back and +tail at every light bound of the athletic little creature. He never moves +abruptly or jerks himself impatiently, as the red squirrel is continually +doing. On the contrary, all his movements are measured and deliberate, but +swift and sure. He never makes a bungling leap, and his course is marked +by a number of sinuous curves almost equal to those of a snake. He is here +one minute, and the next he has slipped away almost beyond the ability of +our eyes to follow. + +--F. Schuyler Matthews: _American Nut Gatherers_. + + ++Theme XCI.+--_Write a paragraph explaining one of the propositions below +by means of repetition._ + +1. Physical training should be made compulsory in the high school. + +2. Some people who seem to be selfish are not really so. + +3. The dangers of athletic contests are overestimated. + +4. The Monroe Doctrine is a warning to European powers to keep their hands +off territory in North and South America. + +5. By the "treadmill of life" we mean the daily routine of duties. + +6. The thirst for novelty is one of the most powerful incentives that take +a man to distant countries. + +7. There are unquestionably increasing opportunities for an honorable and +useful career in the civil service of the United States. + + +(Have you used any method besides that of repetition? Does your paragraph +really explain the proposition?) + + ++165. Exposition by Use of Examples.+--Exposition treats of general +subjects, and the topic statement of a paragraph is, therefore, a general +statement. In order to understand what such a general statement means, the +reader may need to think of a concrete case. The writer may develop his +paragraph by furnishing concrete cases. (See Section 44.) In many cases no +further explanation is necessary. + +The following paragraph illustrates this method of explanation:-- + + +The lower portions of stream valleys which have sunk below sea level are +called _drowned valleys_. The lower St. Lawrence is perhaps the greatest +example of a drowned valley in the world, but many other rivers are in the +same condition. The old channel of the Hudson River may be traced upon the +sea bottom about 125 miles beyond its present mouth, and its valley is +drowned as far up as Troy, 150 miles. The sea extends up the Delaware +River to Trenton, and Chesapeake Bay with its many arms is the drowned +valleys of the Susquehanna and its former tributaries. Many of the most +famous harbors in the world, as San Francisco Bay, Puget Sound, the +estuaries of the Thames and the Mersey, and the Scottish firths, are +drowned valleys. + +--Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_. + + ++Theme XCII.+--_Develop one of the following topic statements into an +expository paragraph by use of examples:_-- + +1. Weather depends to a great extent upon winds. + +2. Progress in civilization has been materially aided by the use of nails. + +3. Habit is formed by the repetition of the same act. + +4. Men become criminals by a gradual process. + +5. Men's lives are affected by small things. + +6. Defeat often proves to be real success. + + +(Have you made your meaning clear? Does your example really illustrate the +topic statement? Can you think of other illustrations?) + + ++166. Exposition by Comparison or Contrast.+--We can frequently make our +explanations clear by comparing the subject under discussion with +something that is already familiar to the reader. In such a case we shall +need to show in what respect the subject we are explaining is similar to +or differs from that with which it is compared. (Section 48.) Though +customary it is not necessary to compare the term under discussion with +some well-known term. In the example below the term _socialism_ is +probably no more familiar than the term _anarchism_. Both are explained in +the selection, and the explanations are made clearer by contrasting the +one with the other. + + +Socialism, which is curiously confounded by the indiscriminating with +Anarchism, is its exact opposite. Anarchy is the doctrine that there +should be no government control; Socialism--that is, State Socialism--is +the doctrine that government should control everything. State Socialism +affirms that the state--that is, the government--should own all the tools +and implements of industry, should direct all occupations, and should give +to every man according to his need and require from every man according to +his ability. State Socialism points to the evils of overproduction in some +fields and insufficient production in others, under our competitive +system, and proposes to remedy these evils by assigning to government the +duty of determining what shall be produced and what each worker shall +produce. If there are too many preachers and too few shoemakers, the +preacher will be taken from the pulpit and assigned to the bench; if there +are too many shoemakers and too few preachers, the shoemaker will be taken +from the bench and assigned to the pulpit. Anarchy says, no government; +Socialism says, all government; Anarchy leaves the will of the individual +absolutely unfettered, Socialism leaves nothing to the individual will; +Anarchism would have no social organism which is not dependent on the +entirely voluntary assent of each individual member of the organism at +every instant of its history; Socialism would have every individual of the +social organism wholly subordinate in all his lifework to the authority of +the whole body expressed through its properly constituted officers. It is +true that there are some writers who endeavor to unite these two +antagonistic doctrines by teaching that society should be organized wholly +for industry, not at all for government. But how a cooeperative industry +can be carried on without a government which controls as well as counsels, +no writer, so far as I have been able to discover, has ever even +suggested. + +--Lyman Abbott: _Anarchism: Its Cause and Cure_. + + ++Theme XCIII.+--_Write an exposition that makes use of comparison:_-- + +Suggested subjects:-- + 1. A bad habit is a tyrant. + 2. Typewritten letters. + 3. The muskrat's house. + 4. Compare Shylock with Barabas in Marlowe's _Jew of Malta_. + 5. Methods of reading. + 6. All the world's a stage. + 7. Compare life to a flower. + +(Can you suggest any other comparisons which you might have used? Have you +been careful in your selection of facts and arrangement?) + + ++167. Exposition by Obverse Statements.+--In explaining an idea it is +necessary to distinguish it from any related or similar idea with which it +may be confused in the minds of our readers. Clearness is added by the +statement that one is _not_ the other. To say that socialism is not +anarchy is a good preparation for the explanation of what socialism really +is. In the following selection Burke excludes different kinds of peace and +by this exclusion emphasizes the kind of peace which he has in mind. + + +The proposition is peace. Not peace through the medium of war; not peace +to be hunted through the labyrinth of intricate and endless negotiations; +not peace to arise out of universal discord, fomented from principle, +in all parts of the empire; not peace to depend on the juridical +determination of perplexing questions, or the precise marking the shadowy +boundaries of a complex government. It is simple peace; sought in its +natural course, and in its ordinary haunts.--It is peace sought in the +spirit of peace; and laid in principles purely pacific. I propose, by +removing the ground of the difference, and by restoring the _former +unsuspecting confidence of the colonies in the Mother Country_, to give +permanent satisfaction to your people; and (far from a scheme of ruling by +discord) to reconcile them to each other in the same act, and by the bond +of the very same interest which reconciles them to British government. + + ++168. Exposition by Giving Particulars or Details.+--One of the most +natural methods of explaining is to give particulars or details. After a +general statement has been made, our minds naturally look for details to +make the meaning of that statement clearer. (See Sections 45-47.) This +method is used very largely in generalized descriptions and narrations. + +Notice the use of particulars or details in the following examples:-- + + +Happy the boy who knows the secret of making a willow whistle! He must +know the best kind of willow for the purpose, and the exact time of year +when the bark will slip. The country boy seems to know these things by +instinct. When the day for whistles arrives he puts away marbles and hunts +the whetstone. His jackknife must be in good shape, for the making of a +whistle is a delicate piece of handicraft. The knife has seen service in +mumblepeg and as nut pick since whistle-making time last year. Surrounded +by a crowd of spectators, some admiring, some skeptical, the boy selects +his branch. There is an air of mystery about the proceeding. With a +patient indulgent smile he rejects all offers of assistance. He does not +attempt to explain why this or that branch will not do. When finally he +raises his shining knife and cuts the branch on which his choice has +fallen, all crowd round and watch. From the large end between two twigs he +takes a section about six inches long. Its bark is light green and smooth. +He trims one end neatly and passes his thumb thoughtfully over it to be +sure it is finished to his taste. He then cuts the other end of the stick +at an angle of about 45 deg., making a clean single cut. The sharp edge of +this is now cut off to make a mouthpiece. This is a delicate operation, +for the bark is apt to crush or split if the knife is dull, or the hand is +unskillful. The boy holds it up, inspecting his own work critically. +Sometimes he is dissatisfied and cuts again. If he makes a third cut and +is still unsuccessful he tosses the spoiled piece away. It is too short +now. A half dozen eager hands reach for the discarded stick, and the one +who gets it fondles it lovingly. I once had such a treasure and cherished +it until I learned the secret of the whistle-maker's art. He next places +the knife edge about half an inch back from the end of the mouthpiece and +cuts straight towards the center of the branch about one-fourth the way +through. A three-cornered piece is now cut out, and the chip falls to the +ground unheeded. + +When this is finished the boy's eye runs along the stick with a +calculating squint. The knife edge is placed at the middle, then moved a +short distance towards the mouthpiece. With skillful hand he cuts through +the bark in a perfect circle round the stick. While we watch in fascinated +silence, he takes the knife by the blade and resting the unfinished +whistle on his knees he strikes firmly but gently the part of the stick +between the ring and the mouthpiece. Only the wooden part of the handle +touches the bark. He goes over and over it until every spot on its surface +has felt his light blow. Now he lays the knife aside, and grasping the +stick with a firm hand below the ring in the bark, with the right hand he +holds the pounded end. He tries it with a careful twist. It sticks. Back +to his knees it goes and the tap, tap, begins again. When he twists it +again it slips, and the bark comes off smoothly in one piece, while we +breathe a sigh of relief. How white the stick is under the bark! It shines +and looks slippery. Now the boy takes his knife again. He cuts towards the +straight jog where the chip was taken out, paring the wood away, sloping +up to within an inch of the end of the bark. Now he cuts a thin slice of +the wood between the edge of the vertical cut and the mouthpiece. + +The whistle is nearly finished. We have all seen him make them before and +know what comes next. Our tongues seek over moist lips sympathetically, +for we know the taste of peeled willow. He puts the end of the stick into +his mouth and draws it in and out until it is thoroughly wet. Then he +lifts the carefully guarded section of bark and slips it back into place, +fitting the parts nicely together. + +The willow whistle is finished. There remains but to try it. Will it go? +Does he dare blow into it and risk our jeers if it is dumb? + +With all the fine certainty of the Pied Piper the boy lifts the humble +instrument to his lips. His eyes have a far-off look, his face changes; +while we strain eyes and ears, he takes his own time. The silence is +broken by a note, so soft, so tender, yet so weird and unlike other +sounds! Our hands quiver, our hearts beat faster. It is as if the spirit +of the willow tree had joined with the spirit of childhood in the natural +song of earth. + +It goes! + +--Mary Rogers Miller: _The Brook Book_. +(Copyright, 1902, Doubleday, Page and Co.) + + ++Theme XCIV.+--_Write an exposition on one of the following +subjects, making use of particulars or details:_-- + + 1. How ice cream is made. + 2. The cultivation of rice. + 3. Greek architecture. + 4. How paper is made. + 5. A tornado. + 6. Description of a steam engine. + 7. The circulatory system of a frog. + 8. A western ranch. + 9. Street furniture. + 10. A street fair. + +(Have you used particulars sufficient to make your meaning clear? Have you +used any unnecessary particulars? Why is the arrangement of your topics +easy in this theme?) + + ++169. Exposition by Cause and Effect.+--When our general statement is in +the form of a cause or causes, the question naturally arises in our mind +as to the effects resulting from those causes. In like manner, when the +general statement takes the form of an effect, we want to know what the +causes are that produce such an effect. From the very nature of exposition +we may expect to find much of this kind of discourse relating to causes +and effects. (See Section 49.) + +Notice the following example:-- + + +The effect of the polar whirls may be seen in the rapid rotation of water +in a pan or bowl. The centrifugal force throws the water away from the +center, where the surface becomes depressed, and piles it up around the +sides, where the surface becomes elevated. The water being deeper at the +sides than at the center, its pressure upon the bottom is proportionately +greater. A similar effect is produced by the whirl of the air around the +polar regions. It is thrown away from the polar regions and piled up +around the circumference of the whirl. There is less air above the polar +regions than above latitude 30 deg.-40 deg., and the atmospheric pressure is +correspondingly low at one place and high at the other. Thus the +centrifugal force of the polar whirl makes the pressure low in spite of +the low temperature. The position of the tropical belts of high pressure +is a resultant of the high temperature of the equatorial regions on one +side and the polar whirls on the other. + +--Dryer: _Lessons in Physical Geography_. + + ++Theme XCV.+--_Write an expository theme using cause or effect._ + +Suggested subjects:-- + + 1. The causes of the French Revolution. + 2. How ravines are formed. + 3. Irrigation. + 4. Effects of smoking. + 5. Lack of exercise. + 6. Volcanic eruptions. + + +(Did you find it necessary to make use of any other method of explanation? +Did you make use of description in any place?) + + +SUMMARY + + +1. Exposition is that form of discourse the purpose of which is to + explain. + +2. The essential characteristics of an exposition are-- + _a._ That it possess unity because it contains only those facts + essential to its purpose. + _b._ That the facts used be arranged in a coherent order. + +3. Exposition is concerned with (_a_) general terms or (_b_) general + propositions. + +4. The steps in the exposition of a term are-- + _a._ Definition. This may be-- + (1) By synonym (inexact). + (2) By use of the logical definition (exact). + _b._ Division. This may be-- + (1) Complete (classification). + (2) Incomplete (partition). + The same principle of division should be followed throughout. + +5. Exposition of a proposition may use any one of the +following methods-- + _a._ By repetition. + _b._ By giving examples. + _c._ By stating comparisons and contrasts. + _d._ By making obverse statements. + _e._ By relating particulars or details. + _f._ By stating cause or effect. + _g._ By any suitable combination of these methods. + + + +XI. ARGUMENT + + ++170. Difference between Argument and Exposition.+--Argument differs from +exposition in its purpose. By exposition we endeavor to make clear the +meaning of a proposition; by argument we attempt to prove its truth. If a +person does not understand what we mean, we explain; if, after he does +understand, he does not believe, we argue. + +Often a simple explanation is sufficient to convince. As soon as the +reader understands the real meaning of a proposition, he accepts our view +of the case. A heated discussion may end with the statement, "Oh, if that +is what you mean, I agree with you." In Section 70, we have learned that +the first step in argument is explanation, by which we make clear the +meaning of the proposition the truth of which we wish to establish. +This explanation may include both the expounding of the terms in the +proposition and the explanation of the proposition as a whole. + +There is another difference between exposition and argument. We cannot +argue about single terms, though we may explain them. We may explain what +is meant by the term _elective studies_, or _civil service;_ but an +argument requires a proposition such as, Pupils should be allowed to +choose their own studies, or, Civil Service should be established. Even +with such a topic as Expansion or Restricted Immigration, which seems to +be a subject of argument, there is really an implied proposition under +discussion; as, The United States should acquire control of territory +outside of its present boundaries; or, It should be the policy of our +government to restrict immigration. We may explain the meaning of +single terms or of propositions, but in order to argue, we must have a +proposition either expressed or implied. + + ++171. Proposition of Fact and Proposition of Theory.+--Some propositions +state facts and some propositions state theories. Every argument therefore +aims either to prove the occurrence of a fact or the truth of a theory. +The first would attempt to show the actual or probable truth of a specific +proposition; for example:-- + + + Nero was guilty of burning Rome. + Joan of Arc was burned at the stake. + Barbara Frietchie actually existed. + Sheridan never made the ride from Winchester. + Homer was born at Chios. + + +The second would try to establish the probable truth of a general theory; +for example:-- + + + A college education is a profitable investment. + Light is caused by a wave motion of ether. + + ++172. Statement of the Proposition.+--The subject about which we argue may +be stated in any one of the three forms discussed in Section 74; that is, +as a declarative sentence, a resolution, or a question. The statement does +not necessarily appear first in the argument, but it must be clearly +formulated in the mind of the writer before he attempts to argue. Before +trying to convince others he must know exactly what he himself believes, +and the attempt to state his belief in the form of a proposition will +assist in making his own thought clear and definite. + +If we are going to argue concerning elective studies, we should first of +all be sure that we understand the meaning of the term ourselves. Then +we must consider carefully what we believe about it, and state our +proposition so that it shall express exactly this belief. On first thought +we may believe the proposition that pupils should be allowed to choose +their own studies. But is this proposition true of pupils in the grades as +well as in the high schools? Or is it true only of the upper classes +in the high school or only of college students? Can you state this +proposition so that it will express your own belief on the subject? + + +EXERCISES + + +_A_. Use the following terms in expressed propositions:-- + + 1. Immigration. + 2. Elevated railways. + 3. American history. + 4. Military training. + 5. Single session. + 6. Athletics. + +_B_. Explain the following propositions:-- + + 1. The United States should adopt a free-trade policy. + 2. Is vivisection justifiable? + 3. The author has greater influence than the orator. + 4. The civil service system should be abolished. + 5. The best is always cheapest. + +_C_. Can you restate the following propositions so that +the meaning of each will be made more definite? + +1. Athletics should be abolished. (Should _all_ athletic exercises be + abolished?) + +2. Latin is better than algebra. (_Better_ for what purpose? _Better_ for + whom?) + +3. Training in domestic arts and sciences should be provided for high + school pupils. (Define domestic arts and sciences. Should they be + taught to _all_ high school pupils?) + +4. Punctuality is more important than efficiency. + +5. The commercial course is better than the classical course. + +6. A city should control the transportation facilities within its limits. + + ++Theme XCVI.+--_Write out an argument favoring one of the propositions as +restated in Exercise C above._ + +(Before writing, make a brief as indicated in Section 77. Consider the +arrangement of your argument.) + + ++173. Clear Thinking Essential to Argument.+--Having clearly in mind the +proposition which we wish to prove, we next proceed to give arguments in +its support. The very fact that we argue at all assumes that there are two +sides to the question. If we hope to have another accept our view we must +present good reasons. We cannot convince another that a proposition is +true unless we can tell him why it is true; and certainly we cannot tell +him why until we know definitely our own reasons for believing the +statement. In order to present a good argument we must be clear logical +thinkers ourselves; that is, we must be able to state definite reasons for +our beliefs and to draw the correct conclusions. + + ++174. Inductive Reasoning.+--One of the best preparations for trying to +convince others is for us to consider carefully our own reasons for +believing as we do. Minds act in a similar manner, and what leads you and +me to believe certain truths will be likely to cause others to believe +them also. A brief consideration of how our belief in the truth of a +proposition has been established will indicate the way in which we should +present our material in order to cause others to believe the same +proposition. If you ask yourself the question, What leads me to believe as +I do? the answer will undoubtedly be effective in convincing others. + +Are the following propositions true or false? Why do +you believe or refuse to believe each? + + 1. Maple trees shed their leaves in winter. + 2. Dogs bark. + 3. Kettles are made of iron. + 4. Grasshoppers jump. + 5. Giraffes have long necks. + 6. Raccoons sleep in the daytime. + 7. The sun will rise to-morrow. + 8. Examinations are not fair tests of a pupil's knowledge. + 9. Honest people are respected. + 10. Water freezes at 32 deg. Fahrenheit. + 11. Boys get higher standings in mathematics than girls do. + + +It is at once evident that we believe a proposition such as one of +these, because we have known of many examples. If we reject any of the +propositions it is because we know of exceptions (we have seen kettles not +made of iron), or because we do not know of instances (we may never have +seen a raccoon, and so not know what he does in the daytime). The greater +the number of cases which have occurred without presenting an exception, +the stronger our belief in the truth of the proposition (we expect the sun +to rise because it has never failed). + +The process by which, from many individual cases, we establish the truth +of a proposition is called +inductive reasoning+. + + ++175. Establishing a General Theory.+--A general theory is established by +showing that for all known particular cases it will offer an acceptable +explanation. By investigation or experiment we note that a certain fact is +true in one particular instance, and, after a large number of individual +cases have been noted, and the same fact found to be true in each, we +assume that such is true of all like cases, and a general law is +established. This is the natural scientific method and is constantly being +made use of in pursuing scientific studies. By experiment, it was found +that one particular kind of acid turned blue litmus red. This, of course, +was not sufficient proof to establish a general law, but when, upon +further investigation, it was found to be true of all known acids, +scientists felt justified in stating the general law that acids turn blue +litmus red. + +In establishing a new theory in science it is necessary to bring forward +many facts which seem to establish it, and the argument will consist in +pointing out these facts. Frequently the general principle is assumed to +be true, and the argument then consists in showing that it will apply to +and account for all the facts of a given kind. Theories which have been +for a time believed have, as the world progressed in learning, been found +unable to account for all of a given class of conditions. They have been +replaced, therefore, by other theories, just as the Copernican theory of +astronomy has displaced the Ptolemaic theory. + +Our belief may be based upon the absence of facts proving the contrary as +well as upon the presence of facts proving the proposition. If A has never +told an untruth, that fact is an argument in favor of his truthfulness on +the present occasion. A man who has never been dishonest may point to this +as an argument in favor of placing him in a position of trust. Often the +strongest evidence that we can offer in favor of a proposition is the +absence of any fact that would support the negative conclusion. + +The point of the whole matter is that from the observation of a large +number of cases, we may establish the _probable_ truth of a proposition, +but emphasis needs to be laid upon the probability. We cannot be sure. Not +all crows are black, though you may never have seen a white one. The sun +may not rise to-morrow, though it has never failed up to this time. Still +it is by this observation of many individual cases that the truth of the +propositions that men do believe has been established. We realize that our +inductions are often imperfect, but the general truths so established will +be found to underlie every process of reasoning, and will be either +directly or indirectly the basis upon which we build up all argument. + +We may then redefine inductive reasoning as the process by which from +many individual cases we establish the _probable_ truth of a general +proposition. + + +EXERCISES + + +Notice in the following selections that the truth of the conclusion is +shown by giving particular examples:-- + + +1. It is curious enough that _we always remember people by their worst +points_, and still more curious that _we always suppose that we ourselves +are remembered by our best_. I once knew a hunchback who had a well-shaped +hand, and was continually showing it. He never believed that anybody +noticed his hump, but lived and died in the conviction that the whole town +spoke of him no otherwise than as the man with the beautiful hand, +whereas, in fact, they only looked at his hump, and never so much as +noticed whether he had a hand at all. This young lady, so pretty and so +clever, is simply the girl who had that awkward history with So-and-so; +that man, who has some of the very greatest qualities, is nothing more +than the one who behaved so badly on such an occasion. It is a terrible +thing to think that we are all always at watch one upon the other, to +catch the false step in order that we may have the grateful satisfaction +of holding our neighbor for one who cannot walk straight. No regard is +paid to the better qualities and acts, however numerous; all the attention +is fixed upon the worst, however slight. If St. Peter were alive he would +be known as the man who denied his Master; St. Paul would be the man who +stoned Stephen; and St. Thomas would never be mentioned in any decent +society without allusions to that unfortunate request for further +evidence. Probably this may be the reason why we all have so much greater +a contempt for and distrust of each other than would be warranted by a +correct balance between the good and the evil that are in each. + +--Thomas Gibson Bowles: _Flotsam and Jetsam_. + + + +2. In the first place, 227 withered leaves of various kinds, mostly of +English plants, were pulled out of worm burrows in several places. Of +these, 181 had been drawn into the burrows by or near their tips, so that +the footstalk projected nearly upright from the mouth of the burrow; 20 +had been drawn in by their bases, and in this case the tips projected from +the burrows; and 26 had been seized near the middle, so that these had +been drawn in transversely and were much crumpled. Therefore 80 per cent +(always using the nearest whole number) had been drawn in by the tip, 9 +per cent by the base or footstalk, and 11 per cent transversely or by the +middle. This alone is almost sufficient to show that _chance does not +determine the manner in which leaves are dragged into the burrows_. + +--Darwin: _Vegetable Mold and Earthworms_. + + +3. _The catastrophe of every play is caused always by the folly or fault +of a man; the redemption, if there be any, is by the wisdom and virtue of +a woman, and, failing that, there is none_. The catastrophe of King +Lear is owing to his own want of judgment, his impatient vanity, his +misunderstanding of his children; the virtue of his one true daughter +would have saved him from all the injuries of the others, unless he had +cast her away from him; as it is, she all but saves him. Of Othello, I +need not trace the tale; nor the one weakness of his so mighty love; nor +the inferiority of his perceptive intellect to that even of the second +woman character in the play, the Emilia who dies in wild testimony against +his error:-- + +"Oh, murderous coxcomb! what should such a fool +Do with so good a wife?" + +In _Romeo and Juliet_, the wise and brave stratagem of the wife is brought +to ruinous issue by the reckless impatience of her husband. In _The +Winter's Tale_, and in _Cymbeline_, the happiness and existence of two +princely households, lost through long years, and imperiled to the death +by the folly and obstinacy of the husbands, are redeemed at last by the +queenly patience and wisdom of the wives. In _Measure for Measure_, the +foul injustice of the judge, and the foul cowardice of the brother, are +opposed to the victorious truth and adamantine purity of a woman. In +_Coriolanus_, the mother's counsel, acted upon in time, would have saved +her son from all evil; his momentary forgetfulness of it is his ruin; her +prayer, at last, granted, saves him--not, indeed, from death, but from the +curse of living as the destroyer of his country. + +--Ruskin: _Sesame and Lilies_. + + +4. + + _Bas. _So may the outward shows be least themselves; +_The world is still deceived with ornament_. +In law, what plea so tainted and corrupt +But, being season'd with a gracious voice, +Obscures the show of evil? In religion, +What damned error, but some sober brow +Will bless it and approve it with a text, +Hiding the grossness with fair ornament? +There is no vice so simple but assumes +Some mark of virtue on his outward parts: +How many cowards, whose hearts are all as false +As stairs of sand, wear yet upon their chins +The beards of Hercules and frowning Mars, +Who, inward search'd, have livers white as milk; +And these assume but valor's excrement +To render them redoubted! Look on beauty, +And you shall see 'tis purchased by the weight; +Which therein works a miracle in nature, +Making them lightest that wear most of it: +So are those crisped snaky golden locks +Which make such wanton gambols with the wind, +Upon supposed fairness, often known +To be the dowry of a second head, +The skull that bred them in the sepulcher. +Thus ornament is but the guiled shore +To a most dangerous sea; the beauteous scarf +Veiling an Indian beauty; in a word, +The seeming truth which cunning times put on +To entrap the wisest. Therefore, thou gaudy gold, +Hard food for Midas, I will none of thee; +Nor none of thee, thou pale and common drudge +'Tween man and man: but thou, though meager lead, +Which rather threatenest than dost promise aught, +Thy paleness moves me more than eloquence; +And here choose I: joy be the consequence! + +--Shakespeare: _The Merchant of Venice_. + + ++Theme XCVII.+--_Write a paragraph proving the truth of one of the +following statements:_-- + +1. It is a distinct advantage to a large town to be connected with the +smaller towns by electric car lines. + +2. Vertical penmanship should be taught in all elementary schools. + +3. Examinations develop dishonesty. + +4. Novel reading is a waste of time. + +5. Tramps ought not to be fed. + +(Make a brief. Consider the arrangement of your arguments. Read Section +72.) + + ++176. Errors of Induction.+--A common error is that of too hasty +generalization. We conclude that something is always so because it +happened to be so in the few cases that have come under our observation. A +broader experience frequently shows that the hastily made generalization +will not hold. + +Some people are led to lose faith in all humanity because one or two of +their acquaintances have shown themselves unworthy of their trust. Others +are ready to pronounce a merchant dishonest because some article purchased +at his store has not proved to be so good as it was expected to be. There +are those who are superstitious concerning the wearing of opals, claiming +that these jewels bring the wearer ill luck, because they have heard of +some instances where misfortune seemed to follow the wearing of that +particular stone. What may seem to be causes and effects at first may, +upon further investigation or inquiry, prove to be merely chance +coincidences. In your work in argument, whether for the class room or +outside, be careful about this point. Remember that your induction will be +weak or even worthless if you draw conclusions from too few examples. + +Often one example seems sufficient to cause belief. We might believe that +all giraffes have long necks, even though we had seen but one; but such a +belief would exist because, by many examples of other animals, we have +learned that a single specimen will fairly represent all other specimens +of the same class. On the other hand, if this one giraffe should possess +one brown eye and one white eye, we should not expect all other giraffes +to have such eyes, for our observation of many hundreds of animals teaches +us that the eyes of an animal are usually alike in color. In order to +establish a true generalization, the _essential_ characteristics must be +selected, and these cannot be determined by rule, but rather by common +sense. + + ++177. Deductive Reasoning.+--When once a general principle has been +established, we may demonstrate the truth of a specific proposition by +showing that the general principle applies to it. We see a gold ring and +say, "This ring is valuable," because we believe the general proposition, +"All articles made of gold are valuable." Expressed in full, the process +of reasoning would be-- + + _A._ All articles made of gold are valuable. + _B._ This ring is made of gold. + _C._ Therefore this ring is valuable. + +A series of statements such as the above is called a syllogism. It +consists of a major premise (_A_), a minor premise (_B_), and a conclusion +(_C_). + +Of course we shall not be called upon to prove so simple a proposition as +the one given, but with more difficult ones the method of reasoning is the +same. The process which applies a general proposition (_A_) to a specific +instance (_C_), is called deductive reasoning. + + ++178. Relation between Inductive and Deductive Reasoning.+--Deductive +reasoning is shorter and seems more convincing than inductive reasoning, +for if the premises are true and the statement is made in correct form, +the conclusions are irresistible. Each conclusion carries with it, +however, the weakness of the premises on which it is based, and as these +premises are general principles that have been themselves established by +inductive reasoning, the conclusions of deductive reasoning can be no more +_sure_ than those of inductive reasoning. Each may prove only that the +proposition is probably true rather than that it is surely true, though in +many cases this probability becomes almost a certainty. + + ++179. The Enthymeme.+--We seldom need to state our argument in the +syllogistic form. One of the premises is usually omitted, and we pass +directly from one premise to the conclusion. If we say, "Henry will not +succeed as an engineer," and when asked why he will not, we reply, +"Because he is not good in mathematics," we have omitted the premise, "A +knowledge of mathematics is necessary for success in engineering." A +shortened syllogism, that is, a syllogism with one premise omitted, is +called an enthymeme. + +Thus in ordinary matters our thought turns at once to the conclusion in +connection with but one premise. We make a thousand statements which a +moment's thought will show that we believe because we believe some +unexpressed general principle. If I should say of my dog, "Fido will die +sometime," no sensible person would doubt the truth of the statement. If +asked to prove it, I would say, "Because he is a dog, and all dogs die +sometime." Thus I apply to a specific proposition, Fido will die, the +general one, All dogs die, a proposition about which there is no doubt. + +Frequently the suppressed premise is not so well established as in this +case, and the belief or nonbelief of the proposition will be determined by +the individuals addressed, each in accordance with his experience. Suppose +that in reading we find the statement, "A boy of fourteen ought not to be +allowed to choose his own subjects of study, because he will choose all +the easy ones and avoid the more difficult though more valuable ones." The +omitted premise that all boys will choose easy studies, needs to be +established by induction. If a high school principal had noticed that out +of five hundred boys, four hundred elected the easy studies, he would +admit the truth of the omitted premise, and so of the conclusion. But if +only one hundred had chosen the easy subjects, he would reject the major +premise and likewise the conclusion. + +It is evident that in order to be sure of the truth of a proposition we +must determine the truth of the premises upon which it is based. An +argument therefore is frequently given over wholly to establishing the +premises. If their truth can be demonstrated, the conclusion inevitably +follows. + + +EXERCISES + + +_A._ Supply the missing premise for the following:-- + + 1. John will succeed because he has a college education. + 2. Henry is happy because he has plenty of money. + 3. Candy is nutritious because it is made of sugar. + 4. These biscuits will make me ill because they are heavy. + 5. This dog must be angry because he is growling. + 6. This fish can swim. + 7. The plural of the German noun _der Garten_ is _die Gaerten_. + 8. It will hurt to have this tooth filled. + +_B._ Supply the reasons and complete the syllogism for each of the +following:-- + + 1. This book should not be read. + 2. This hammer is useful. + 3. That dog will bite. + 4. This greyhound can run rapidly. + 5. The leaves have fallen from the trees. + 6. That boy ought to be punished. + 7. It is too early to go nutting. + 8. This boy should not study. + 9. You ought not to vote for this man for mayor. + + ++Theme XCVIII.+--_Write a paragraph proving the truth of one of the +following propositions:_-- + + +1. Labor-saving machinery is of permanent advantage to mankind. + +2. New Orleans will some day be a greater shipping port than New York. + +3. Poetry has a greater influence on the morals of a nation than prose +writing. + +4. Boycotting injures innocent persons and should never be employed. + +5. Ireland should have Home Rule. + +6. The President of the United States should be elected by the direct vote +of the people. + + +(Consider your argument with reference to the suppressed premises.) + + ++180. Errors of Deduction.+--The deductive method of reasoning, if +properly used, is effective, but much care needs to be taken to avoid +false conclusions. A complete exposition of the variations of the +syllogism is not necessary here, but it will be of value to consider +briefly three chief errors. + +If the terms are not used with the same meaning throughout, the conclusion +is valueless. A person might agree with you that domestic arts should be +taught to girls in school, but if you continued by saying that scrubbing +the floor is a form of domestic art, therefore the girls should be taught +to scrub the floor, he would reject your conclusion because the meaning of +the term _domestic art_ as he understood it in the first statement, is not +that used in the second. + +It will be noticed that each syllogism includes three terms. For example, +the syllogism,-- + + +All hawks eat flesh; +This bird is a hawk; +Therefore this bird eats flesh,-- + + +contains the three terms, _hawk, eats flesh, this bird_; of these but two +appear in the conclusion. The one which does not (in this case _hawk_) is +called the middle term. If the major premise does not make a statement +about every member of the class denoted by the middle term, the conclusion +may not be valid even though the premises are true. For example:-- + + +All hawks are birds; +This chicken is a bird; +Therefore this chicken is a hawk. + + +In this case the middle term is _birds_, and the major premise, _All hawks +are birds_, does not make a statement which applies to all birds. The +conclusion is therefore untrue. Such an argument is a fallacy. + +The validity of the conclusion is impaired if either premise is false. In +the enthymeme, "Henry is a coward; he dare not run away from school," the +suppressed premise, "All persons who will not run away from school, are +cowards," is not true, and so invalidates the conclusion. It is well to +test the validity of your own argument and that of your opponent by +seeking for the suppressed premise and stating it, for this may reveal a +fatal weakness in the thought. + + +EXERCISES + + +Which of the following are incorrect? + + +1. The government should pay for the education of its people; + Travel is a form of education; + Therefore the government should pay the traveling expenses of the + people. + +2. All horses are useful; + This animal is useful; + Therefore this animal is a horse. + +3. I ought not to study algebra because it is a very difficult subject. + +4. Pupils ought not to write notes because note writing interferes with + the rights of others. + +5. All fish can swim; + Charles can swim; + Therefore Charles is a fish. + +6. Henry is a fool because he wears a white necktie. + +7. All dogs bark; + This animal barks; + Therefore this animal is a dog. + + ++Theme XCIX.+--_Write a paragraph proving the truth of one of the +following propositions:_-- + +1. The government should establish a parcels post. + +2. The laws of mind determine the forms of composition. + +3. Training for citizenship should be given greater attention in the +public schools. + +4. The members of the school board should be appointed by the mayor of the +city. + +5. In the estimation of future ages ---- will be considered the greatest +President since Lincoln. + +(State your premises. Have you shown that they are true?) + + ++181. Evidence.+--We may reach belief in the truth of a specific statement +by means of deductive reasoning. Commonly, however, when dealing with an +actual state or occurrence, we present other facts or circumstances that +show its existence. The facts presented may be those of experience, the +testimony of witnesses, the opinion of those considered as experts in the +subject, or a combination of circumstances known to have existed. To be of +any value as arguments, they must be true, and they must be related to the +fact that we are trying to prove. These true and pertinent facts we term +_evidence_. + +Evidence may be direct or indirect. If a man sees a boy steal a bag of +apples from the orchard across the way, his evidence is direct. If +instead, he only sees him with an empty bag and later with a full one, the +evidence will be indirect. If you testify that early in the evening you +saw a tramp enter a barn which later in the evening caught fire, your +testimony as regards the cause of the fire would be indirect evidence +against the tramp. If you can testify that you saw sparks fall from his +lighted pipe and ignite a pile of hay in the barn, the evidence which you +give will be direct. + +Direct evidence has more weight than indirect, but often the latter is +nearly equal to the former and is sufficient to convince us. Even the +direct testimony of eye-witnesses must be carefully considered. Several +persons may see the same thing and yet make very different reports, even +though they may all desire to tell the truth. The weight that we shall +give to a person's testimony will depend upon his ability to observe and +to report accurately what he has experienced, and upon his desire to tell +the truth. + +Notice in the following selection what facts, specific instances, and +circumstances are advanced in support of the proposition. Assuming that +they are true, are they pertinent to the proposition? + + +Certain species of these army ants which inhabit tropical America, Mr. +Belt considered to be the most intelligent of all the insects of that part +of the world. On one occasion he noticed a wide column of them trying to +pass along a nearly perpendicular slope of crumbling earth, on which they +found great difficulty in obtaining a foothold. A number succeeded in +retaining their positions, and further strengthened them by laying hold of +their neighbors. They then remained in this position, and allowed the +column to march securely and easily over their bodies. On another occasion +a column was crossing a stream of water by a very narrow branch of a tree, +which only permitted them to go in single file. The ants widened the +bridge by a number clinging to the sides and to each other, and this +allowed the column to pass over three or four deep. These ants, having no +permanent nests, carry their larvae and pupae with them when marching. The +prey they capture is cut up and carried to the rear of the army to be +distributed as food. + +--Robert Brown: _Science for All_. + + ++Theme C.+--_Present all the evidence you can either to prove or disprove +one of the following propositions:_-- + +Select some question of local interest as:-- + 1. The last fire in our town was of incendiary origin. + 2. The football team from ---- indulged in "slugging" at the last game. + 3. Our heating system is inadequate. + 4. It rained last night. + +If you prefer, choose one of the following subjects:-- + 1. The Stuart kings were arbitrary rulers. + 2. The climate of our country is changing. + 3. Gutenberg did not invent the printing press. + 4. The American Indians have been unjustly treated by the whites. + 5. Nations have their periods of rise and decay. + +(Are the facts you use true? Are they pertinent? Do you know of facts +that would tend to show that your proposition is not true?) + + ++182. Number and Value of Reasons.+--Although a statement may be true and +pertinent it is seldom sufficient for proof. We need, as a rule, several +such statements. If you are trying to convince a friend that one kind of +automobile is superior to another, and can give only one reason for its +superiority, you no doubt will fail in your attempt. If, however, you can +give several reasons, you may succeed in convincing him. Suppose you go to +your principal and ask permission to take an extra study. You may give as +a reason the fact that your parents wish you to take it. He may not think +that is a sufficient reason for your doing so, but when he finds that with +your present studies you do not need to study evenings, that one of them +is a review, and that you have been standing well in all your studies, he +may be led to think that it will be wise for you to take the desired extra +study. + +While we must guard against insufficiency of reasons, we must not forget +that numbers alone do not convince. One good reason is more convincing +than several weak ones. Two or three good reasons, clearly and definitely +stated, will have much more weight than a large number of less important +ones. + + + EXERCISES + + +_A._ Give a reason or two in addition to the reasons already given in each +of the following:-- + +1. It is better to attend a large college than a small one, because the +teachers are as a rule greater experts in their lines of work. + +2. The school board ought to give us a field for athletics as the school +ground is not large enough for practice. + +3. Gymnasium work ought to be made compulsory. Otherwise many who need +physical training will neglect it. + +4. The game of basket ball is an injury to a school, since it detracts +from interest in studies. + +5. Rudolph Horton will make a good class president because he has had +experience. + +_B._ Be able to answer orally any two of the following: + +1. Prove to a timid person that there is no more danger in riding in an +automobile than there is in riding in a carriage drawn by horses. Use but +one argument, but make it as strong as possible. + +2. Give two good reasons why the superstition concerning Friday is absurd. + +3. What, in your mind, is the strongest reason why you wish to graduate +from a high school? For your wishing to go into business after leaving the +high school? For your wishing to attend college? + +4. What are two or three of the strong arguments in favor of woman +suffrage? Name two or three arguments in opposition to woman suffrage. + +_C._ Name all the points that you can in favor of the following. Select +the one that you consider the most important. + +1. Try to convince a friend that he ought to give up the practice of +cigarette smoking. + +2. Show that athletics in a high school ought to be under the management +of the faculty. + +3. Show that athletics should be under the management of the pupils +themselves. + +4. Macbeth's ambition and not his wife was the cause of his ruin. + +5. Macbeth's wife was the cause of his ruin. + + ++Theme CI.+--_Select one of the subjects in the exercise above, and write +out two or three of the strongest arguments in its favor._ + + (Consider the premises, especially those which are not expressed. Is +your argument deductive or inductive?) + + ++183. The Basis of Belief.+--If you ask yourself, Why do I believe this? +the answer will in many cases show that your belief in the particular case +under consideration arises because you believe some general principle or +theory which applies to it. + +One person may believe that political economy should be taught in high +schools because he believes that it is the function of the high school to +train its pupils for citizenship, and that the study of political economy +will furnish this training. Another person may oppose the teaching of +political economy because he believes that pupils of high school age are +not sufficiently mature in judgment to discuss intelligently the +principles of political economy, and that the study of these principles at +that age does not furnish desirable training for citizenship. It is +evident that an argument between these two concerning the teaching of +political economy in any particular school would consist in a discussion +of the conflicting general theories which each believed to be true. + +We have shown in Section 179 that one high school principal might believe +that boys should be allowed to choose their own studies because he +believed that they would not generally select the easy ones; while another +principal would oppose free electives because he believes that boys would +choose the less difficult studies. The proposition that "The United States +should retain its hold on the Philippines" involves conflicting theories +of the function of this government. So it will be found with many of our +beliefs that either consciously or unconsciously they are based on general +theories. It is important in argument to know what these theories are, and +especially to consider what may be the general theories of those whom we +wish to convince. + + ++184. Appeals to General Theory, Authority, and Maxims.+--A successful +argument in deductive form must be based upon principles and theories that +the audience believes. A minister in preaching to the members of his +church may with success proceed by deductive methods, because the members +believe the general principles upon which he bases his arguments. But in +addressing a mixed audience, many of whom are not church members, such an +argument might not be convincing, because his hearers might deny the +validity of the premises from which his conclusions were drawn. In such a +case he must either keep to general theories which his auditors do +believe, or by inductive methods seek to prove the truth of the general +principles themselves. + +If in support of our view we quote the opinion of some one whom we believe +competent to speak with weight and authority upon the question, we must +remember that it will have weight with our audience only if they too look +upon the person as an authority. It proves nothing to a body of teachers +to say that some educational expert believes as you do unless they have +confidence in him as a man of sound judgment. On the other hand, it may +count against a proposition to show that it has not been endorsed by any +one of importance or prominence. + +In a similar way a maxim or proverb may be quoted in support of a +proposition. If a boy associates with bad company, we may offer the maxim, +"Birds of a feather flock together," in proof that he is probably bad too. +Such maxims or proverbs are brief statements of principles generally +believed, and the use of them in an argument is in effect the presentation +of a general theory in a form which appeals to the mind of the hearer and +causes him to believe our proposition. + + ++185. Argument by Inference.+--The statement of a fact may be introduced +into an argument, not because the fact itself applies directly to the +proposition we wish to prove, but because it by inference suggests a +general theory which does so apply. Though the reader may not be conscious +of it, the presence of this general theory may influence his decision even +more than the explicit statement of the general theory would. + +An argument implies that there are two sides to a question. Which you +shall take depends on the way you look on it, that is, on what may be +called your mental point of view. Therefore any fact, allusion, maxim, +comparison, or other statement which may cause you to look at the question +in a different light or from a different point of view may be used as an +argument. In effect, it calls up a general theory whose presence affects +your decision. Notice how brief the argument is in the following selection +from Macaulay:-- + + +Many politicians of our time are in the habit of laying it down as a +self-evident proposition, that no people ought to be free till they are +fit to use their freedom. The maxim is worthy of the fool in the old +story, who resolved not to go into the water till he had learned to swim. +If men are to wait for liberty till they become wise and good in slavery, +they may indeed wait forever. + +--Macaulay: _Milton_. + + ++186. Summary.+--To summarize the preceding paragraphs, the authority we +quote, the maxims we state, the facts we adduce become valuable because +they appeal to general theories already believed by the reader. Success in +argument demands, therefore, that we consider carefully what theories may +probably be in the mind of our audience, and that we present our argument +in such a way as to appeal to those theories. + + ++Theme CII.+--_Write a short argument, using one of the following:_-- + +1. A young boy is urging his father to permit him to attend an +entertainment. Give his reasons as he would give them to his father. + +2. Suppose the father refuses the request. Write out his reasons. + +3. Try to convince a companion just entering high school to take the +college preparatory course instead of the commercial course. + + +(Are your reasons true and pertinent? To what general theories have you +appealed? Consider the coherence of each paragraph.) + + ++187. Arrangement of Arguments.+--We have learned that in arguing we need +to consider how those whom we address arrive at the belief they hold, and +that it will assist us to this knowledge of others if we consider our own +beliefs and the manner of their establishing. We must present our material +in the order that convinces. Each case may differ so from every other that +no general rule can be followed, but the consideration of some general +principles of arrangement will be of assistance. It is the purpose of the +following paragraphs to point out in so far as possible the most effective +order of arrangement. + ++188. Possibility, Probability, and Actuality.+--It has been stated, in +Section 175, that reasoning leads to probable truth, and that this +probability may become so strong as to be accepted as certainty. In common +speech this difference is borne in mind, and we distinguish a fact or +event that is only possible from one that is probable; and likewise one +that is only probable from one in which the probability approaches so near +to certainty as to convince us that it actually did exist or occur. Our +arguments may therefore be directed to proving possibility, probability, +or actuality. + +If we believe that an event actually occurred, the belief implies both +possibility and probability. Therefore, if we wish a person to believe in +the actual occurrence of an event, we must first be sure that he does not +question the possibility of its existence, and then we must show him that +it probably did take place. Only when we have shown that an event is +extremely probable have we the right to say that we have shown its actual +occurrence. + +A mother finding some damage done to one of the pictures on the wall could +not justly accuse her young son unless by the presence of a chair or +stepladder it had been possible for him to reach the picture. This +possibility, reenforced by a knowledge of his tendency to mischief, and by +the fact that he was in the house at the time the damage was done, would +lead to the belief that he probably was guilty. Proof that he was actually +responsible for the damage would still be lacking, and it might later be +discovered that the injury had been done accidentally by one of the +servants. + +Possibility, probability, and actuality merge into one another so +gradually that no sharply defined distinctions can be observed. It is +impossible to say that a certain argument establishes possibility, another +probability, and a third the actuality of an event. One statement may do +all three, but any proof of actuality must include arguments showing both +possibility and probability. A person accused of murder attempts to +demonstrate his innocence by proving an _alibi;_ that is, he attempts to +show that he was at some other place at the time the murder was committed +and so cannot possibly be guilty. Such an alibi, established by reliable +witnesses, is positive proof of innocence, no matter how strong the +evidence pointing to probable guilt may be. + + ++189. Argument from Cause.+--We have learned, in Section 49, that the +relation of cause and effect is one which is ingrained in our nature. We +accept a proposition as plausible if a cause which we consider adequate +has been assigned. Our belief in a proposition often depends upon our +belief in some other proposition which may be accepted as a cause. + +Thus, in the following statements, the truth of one proposition leads to +the belief that the other is also true:-- + +_a._ Henry has studied hard this year; therefore he will pass his college +entrance examinations. + +_b._ The man has severed an artery; therefore he will probably bleed to +death before the physician arrives. + +_c._ It will soon grow warmer, because the sun has risen. + +_An argument from cause_ may be of itself conclusive evidence of the fact. +But, for the most part, such arguments merely establish the possibility or +probability of the proposition and so render it ready for proof. In our +arrangement of material, we therefore place such arguments _first_. + + ++190. Argument from Sign.+--Cause and effect are so closely united that +when an effect is observed we assume that there has been a cause, and we +direct our argument to proving what it is. An effect is so associated with +its cause that the existence of an effect is a sign of the existence of a +cause, and such an argument is called an _argument from sign_. Reasoning +from sign is very common in our daily life. The wild geese flying south +indicate the approach of cold weather. The baby's toys show that the baby +has been in the room. A man's hat found beside a rifled safe will convict +the man of the crime. A dog's track in the garden is proof that a dog has +been there. + +If the effect observed is always associated with the same cause, the +argument is conclusive. If I observe as an effect that the river has +frozen over during the night, I have no doubt that it has been caused by a +lowering of the temperature. + +If two or three possible causes exist, our argument becomes conclusive +only by considering them all and by showing that all but one did not +produce the observed effect. If the principal of a school knows that one +of three boys broke a window light, he may be able to prove which one did +it by finding out the two who did not. If a man is found shot to death, +the coroner's jury may prove that he was murdered by showing that he did +not commit suicide. If there are many possible causes, the method of +elimination becomes too tedious and must be abandoned. If you find that +your horse is lame, it would be difficult to prove which of the many +possible causes actually operated to produce the lameness, though the +attendant circumstances might point to some one cause and so lead you to +assume that it was the one. + +Under _arguments from sign_ should be included also those cases when we +pass directly from one effect to another that arises from the same cause; +as, "I hear the windmill turning, it will be a good day to sail;" or, +"These beans are thrifty, therefore if I plant potatoes here I shall get a +good crop." In these sentences the wind and the fertile soil are not +mentioned, but we pass directly from one effect to another. + +As used by rhetoricians, arguments from sign include also arguments from +attendant circumstances. If we have observed that two events have happened +near together in time, we accept the occurrence of one as a sign that the +other will follow. When we hear the factory whistle blow, we conclude that +in a few minutes the workmen will pass our window on their way home. Such +a conclusion is based upon a belief established by an inductive process. +The degree of probability that it gives depends upon the number of times +that it has been observed to act without failure. If we have seen two boys +frequently together, the presence of one is a sign of the probable +presence of the other. A camp fire would point to the recent presence of +some one who kindled it. + +In using an argument from sign care must be taken not to confuse the +relation of cause and effect with that of contiguity in time or place. Do +not allege that which happened at the same time or near the same place as +a cause. If you do use an attendant circumstance, be sure that it adds +something to the probability. + + ++191. Argument from Example.+--It has been pointed out in the study of +inductive reasoning (Section 176) that a single example may suffice to +establish a general notion of a class. In dealing with objects of the +physical world, if essential and invariable qualities of the object are +considered, they may be asserted to be qualities of each member of the +class, and such an argument from an individual to all the members of the +class is convincing. They thus rank with arguments from sign as effective +in proving the certainty of a proposition. + +In dealing with human actions, on the other hand, examples are seldom +proofs of fact. We cannot say that all men will act in a certain way under +given circumstances because one man has so acted. Nevertheless, arguments +by examples are frequently used and are especially powerful when we wish +not only to convince a man, but also to persuade him to action. This +persuasion to action must be based on conviction, and in such a case the +argument from sign that convinces the man of the truth of a proposition +should precede the example that urges him to action. After convincing a +friend that there are advantages to be derived from joining a society, we +may persuade him to join by naming those who have joined. + + ++192. Argument from Analogy.+--Analogy is very much relied upon in +practical life. Reasoning from analogy depends upon the recognition of +similarity in regard to some particulars followed by the inference that +the similarity extends to other particulars. As soon as it was known that +the atmospheric conditions of the planet Mars are similar to those of the +earth, it was argued by analogy that Mars must also, be inhabited. + +An analogy is seldom conclusive and, though it is often effective in +argument, it must not be taken as proof of fact. The mind very readily +observes likenesses, and when directed toward the establishing of a +proposition easily overlooks the differences. In order to determine the +strength of an argument from analogy, attention should be given to the +differences existing between the two propositions considered. False +analogies are very common. We must guard against using them, and +especially against allowing ourselves to be convinced by them. Even when +the resemblance is so slight as to render analogy impossible, it may serve +to produce a metaphor that often has the effect of argument. + + +It is much easier to captivate the fancy with a pretty or striking figure +than to move the judgment with sound reason.... His (the speaker's) +picture appeals to the mind's visible sense, hence his power over us, +though his analogies are more apt to be false than true.... + +The use of metaphor, comparison, analogy, is twofold--to enliven and to +convince; to illustrate and enforce an accepted truth, and to press home +and clinch one in dispute. An apt figure may put a new face upon an old +and much worn truism, and a vital analogy may reach and move the reason. +Thus when Renan, referring to the decay of the old religious beliefs, says +that the people are no poorer for being robbed of false bank notes and +bogus shares, his comparison has a logical validity.... + +The accidental analogies or likenesses are limitless, and are the great +stock in trade of most writers and speakers. An ingenious mind finds types +everywhere, but real analogies are not so common. The likeness of one +thing to another may be valid and real, but the likeness of a thought with +a thing is often merely fanciful.... + +I recently have met with the same fallacy in a leading article in one of +the magazines. "The fact revealed by the spectroscope," says the writer, +"that the physical elements of the earth exist also in the stars, supports +the faith that a moral nature like our own inhabits the universe." A +tremendous leap--a leap from the physical to the moral. We know that +these earth elements are found in the stars by actual observation and +experience; but a moral nature like our own--this is assumed, and is not +supported by the analogy. + +John Burroughs: _Analogy, True and False_. + + +Notice the use of analogy in the argument below. + + +There is only one cure for the evils which newly acquired freedom +produces; and that cure is freedom. When a prisoner first leaves his cell +he cannot bear the light of day: he is unable to discriminate colors, or +recognize faces. But the remedy is, not to remand him into his dungeon, +but to accustom him to the rays of the sun. The blaze of truth and liberty +may at first dazzle and bewilder nations which have become blind in the +house of bondage. But, let them gaze on, and they will soon be able to +bear it. In a few years men learn to reason. The extreme violence of +opinions subsides. Hostile theories correct each other. The scattered +elements of truth cease to contend and begin to coalesce, and at length a +system of justice and order is educed out of the chaos. + +--Macaulay: _Milton_. + + ++193. Summary of Arrangement.+--The necessity of argument arises because +some one does not believe the truth of a proposition. To establish in his +mind a belief, we must present our arguments in an orderly and convincing +way. The order will usually be to show him first the possibility and then +the probability, and finally to lead him as near to certainty as we can. +We may say, therefore, that we should use arguments from cause, arguments +from sign, and arguments from example in the order named. + +Another principle of arrangement is that inductive argument will usually +precede deductive argument. We naturally proceed by induction to establish +general truths which, when established, we may apply. If our audience +already believe the general theories, the inductive part may be omitted. + +Both of these principles of arrangement should be considered with +reference to that of a third, namely, climax. Climax means nothing more +than the orderly progression of our argument to the point where it +convinces our hearer. We call that argument which finally convinces him +the strongest, and naturally this should be the end of the argument. Of +several proofs of equal grade, one that will attract the attention of the +hearer should come first, while the most convincing one should come last. + +In arranging arguments attention needs also to be given to coherence. One +proof may be so related to another that the presentation of one naturally +suggests the other. Sometimes, for the sake of climax, the coherent order +must be abandoned. More often the climax is made more effective by +following the order which gives the greatest coherence. + + ++Theme CII.+--_Prove one of the following propositions:_ + +1. The Presidential term should be extended. + +2. Bookkeeping is of greater practical value than any other high school +study. + +3. In cities all buildings should be restricted to three stories in +height. + +4. Sumptuary laws are never desirable. + +5. No pupil should carry more than four studies. + +6. This school should have a debating society. + + +(Have you proved possibility, probability, or actuality? Have you used +arguments from cause, sign, or example? Consider the arrangement of your +arguments. Consider the analogies you have used, if any. Can you shorten +your theme without weakening it?) + + ++194. The Brief.+--Arrangement is of very great importance in argument. In +fact, it is so important that much more care and attention needs to be +given to the outline in argument, and the outline itself may be more +definitely known to the hearer than in the other forms of discourse. In +description and narration especially, it detracts from the value of the +impressions if the reader becomes aware of the plan of composition. In +exposition a view of the framework may not hinder clear understanding, but +in argument it may be of distinct advantage to have the orderly +arrangements of our arguments definitely known to him whom we seek to +convince. + +The brief not only assists us in making our own thought orderly and exact, +but enables us to exclude that which is trivial or untrue. An explanation +may fail to make every point clear and yet retain some valuable elements, +but an argument fails of its purpose if it does not establish a belief. A +single false argument or even a trivial one may so appeal to a mind +prejudiced against the proposition that all the valid proofs fail to +convince. This single weakness is at once used by our opponent to show +that our other arguments are false because this one is. A committee once +endeavored to persuade the governor of a state not to sign a certain bill, +but they defeated themselves because their opponents pointed out to the +governor that two of the ten reasons which they presented were false and +that the committee presenting them knew they were false. This cast a doubt +upon the honesty of the committee and the validity of their whole +argument, and the governor signed the bill. + +The brief differs from the ordinary outline in that it is composed of +complete sentences rather than of topics. + +Notice the following example. + + ++Term examinations should be abolished.+ + + +AFFIRMATIVE + + +I. There is no necessity for such examinations. + +1. The teacher knows the pupil's standing from his daily recitations. + +2. Monthly reviews or tests may be substituted if desirable. + +II. The evils arising from examinations more than offset any advantages +that may be derived from them. + +1. The best pupils are likely to work hardest, and to overtax their +strength. + +2. Pupils often aim to pass rather than to know their subject. + +3. A temptation to cheat is placed before them. + +III. Examinations are not a fair test of a pupil's ability. + +1. A pupil may know his subject as a whole and yet not be able to answer +one or two of the questions given him. + +2. A pupil who has done poor work during the term may cram for an +examination and pass very creditably. + +3. Pupils are likely to be tired out at the end of the term and often are +not able to do themselves justice. + + + +NEGATIVE + + +If the writer should choose to defend the negative of the above +proposition, the brief might be as follows:-- + +I. Examinations are indispensable to school work. + +1. In no other way can teachers find out so well what their pupils know +about their subjects, especially in large classes. + +2. They are essential as an incentive to pupils who are inclined to let +their work lag. + +II. As a rule they are fair tests of a pupil's ability. + +1. Pupils who prepare the daily recitations well are almost sure to pass a +good examination. + +2. Pupils who cram are likely to write a hurried, faulty examination. + +3. It seldom happens that many in a class are too worn out to take a term +examination. + +III. They prepare the pupils for later examinations. + (1) For college entrance examinations. + (2) For examinations at college. + (3) For civil service examinations. + (4) For examinations for teachers' certificates. + + +EXERCISES + +_A._ Write out subordinate propositions proving the main subdivisions. +Also change the arrangement when you think it desirable to do so. + +1. Two sessions are preferable to one in a high school. + (1) One long session is too fatiguing to both teachers and pupils. + (2) Boys and girls as a rule study better at school than they do at + home. + (3) The time after school is long enough for recreation. + +2. The pupils of this high school should be granted a holiday during the + street (county or state) fair. + (1) They will all go at least one day. + (2) It will cause less interruption in the school work if they all go + the same day. + +3. Women should be allowed to vote. + (1) They are now taxed without representation. + (2) Whenever they have been allowed to take part in the affairs of the + government, it has been an advantage to that government. + (3) Many of them are much more intelligent than some men who vote. + +_B._ Write out briefs for the following propositions (affirmative or +negative):-- + +1. High school studies should be made elective in the last two years of +the course. + +2. The government should own and control the railroads of our country. + +3. The old building on the corner of ---- Street ought to be removed. + +4. Latin should not be made a compulsory study. + +5. Reading newspapers is unprofitable. + +6. Laws should be made to prohibit all adulteration of foods. + +7. We are all selfish. + +8. A system of self-government should be introduced into our school. + + ++Theme CIV.+--_Write out the argument for one of the +preceding propositions._ + +(Examine the brief carefully before beginning to write. +Can you improve it? ) + + ++Theme CV.+--_Write a theme proving one of the following propositions:_-- + +1. Immigration is detrimental to the United States. + +2. The descriptions in _Ivanhoe_ are better than those in the _House of +the Seven Gables_. + +3. Argument is of greater practical value than exposition. + +4. The Mexican Indians were a civilized race when America was discovered. + +5. The standing army of the United States should be increased. + +6. All police officers should be controlled by the state and not by the +city. + +(Have you used arguments from cause, sign, or example? Are they arranged +with reference to the principles of arrangement? (Section 192.) Consider +each paragraph and the whole theme with reference to unity.) + + ++Theme CVI.+--_Write a debate on some question assigned by the teacher._ + +(To what points should you give attention in correcting your theme? Read +Section 79.) + + ++195. Difference between Persuasion and Argument.+--Up to this point we +have considered argument as having for its aim the proof of the truth +of a proposition. If we consider the things about which we argue most +frequently, we shall find that in many cases we attempt to do more than +merely to convince the hearer. We wish to convince him in order to cause +him to act. We argue with him in order to persuade him to do something. +Such an argument tries to establish the wisdom of a course of action and +is termed _persuasion_. Persuasion differs from argument in its aim. In +argument by an appeal principally to the reason, we endeavor to convince; +in persuasion by an appeal mainly to the feelings, we endeavor to move to +action. + + ++196. Importance of Persuasion.+--Persuasion deals with the practical +affairs of life, and for that reason the part that it performs is a large +and important one. All questions of advantage, privilege, and duty are +included in the sphere of persuasion. Since such questions are so directly +related to our business interests, to our happiness, and to our mode of +conduct and action, we are constantly making use of persuasion and quite +as constantly are being influenced by it. Our own welfare and happiness +depends to so great an extent upon the actions of others that our success +in life is often measured by our ability to persuade others to act in +accordance with our desires. + + ++197. Necessity of Persuasion.+--It is frequently not enough to convince +our hearer of the truth of a proposition. Often a person believes a +proposition, yet does not act. If we wish action, persuasion must be added +to argument. If we always acted at the time we were convinced, and in +accordance with our convictions, there would be no need of persuasion. +Strange as it seems, we often believe one thing and do just the opposite, +or we are indifferent and do nothing at all. We all know that disobedience +to the laws of health brings its punishment--yet how many of us act as if +we did not believe it at all! The indifferent pupil is positive that he +will fail if he does not study. He knows that he ought to apply himself +diligently to his work. There is no excuse for doing otherwise, yet he +neglects to act and failure is the result. + + ++198. Motive in Persuasion.+--The motive of persuasion depends upon the +nature of the question. The motives that we have in mind may be selfish, +or, on the other hand, they may be supremely unselfish. We may urge others +to act in order to bring about our own pleasure or profit; we may urge +them to act for their own self-interest or for the interest of others. We +may appeal to private or public interest, to social or religious duty. +When a boy urges his father to buy him a bicycle, he has his own pleasure +in mind. When we urge people to take care of their health, we have their +interest in view; and when we urge city improvements or reforms in +politics, we are thinking of the welfare of people in general. + + ++199. The Material of Persuasion.+--Persuasion aims to produce action and +may make use of any of the forms of discourse that will fit that purpose. +We may describe the beauty of the Adirondacks or narrate our experiences +there in order to persuade a friend to accompany us on a camping trip. We +may explain the workings of a new invention in order to persuade a +capitalist to invest money in its manufacture. Or we may by argument +demonstrate that there is a great opportunity for young men in New +Orleans, hoping to persuade an acquaintance to move there. When thus used, +description, narration, exposition, and argument may become persuasion; +but their effectiveness depends upon their appeal to some fundamental +belief or feeling in the person addressed. Our description and narration +would not bring to the Adirondacks a man who cared nothing for scenery and +who disliked camp life. The explanation of our invention would not +interest a capitalist unless he was seeking a profitable investment. Our +argument would not induce a man to move to New Orleans if his prejudice +against the South was greater than his desire for profit and position. In +each case there has been an appeal to some belief or sentiment or desire +of the person whom we seek to persuade. + + ++200. Appeal to the Feelings.+--Persuasion, therefore, in order to produce +action must appeal largely to the feelings. But all persons are not +affected in the same way. In order to bring about the same result we may +need to make a different appeal to different individuals. One person may +be led to act by an appeal made to his sense of justice, another by an +appeal made to his patriotism, while still another, unmoved by either of +these appeals, may be led to act by an appeal made to his pride or to his +love of power. If we would be successful in persuading others, we ought to +be able to understand what to appeal to in individual cases. Children may +be enticed by candy, and older persons may be quite as readily influenced +if we but choose the proper incentive. It is our duty to see that we are +persuaded only by the presentation of worthy motives, and that in our own +efforts to persuade others we do not appeal to envy, jealousy, religious +prejudices, race hatred, or lower motives. + + +EXERCISES + + +Show how an appeal to the feelings could be made in the following. To what +particular feeling or feelings would you appeal in each case? + +1. Try to gain your parents' permission to attend college. + +2. Urge a friend to give up card playing. + +3. Try to persuade your teachers not to give so long lessons. + +4. Persuade others to aid an unfortunate family living in our community. + +5. Induce the school board to give you a good gymnasium. + +6. Persuade a tramp to give up his mode of life. + +7. Try to get some one to buy your old bicycle. + +8. Urge your country to act in behalf of some oppressed people. + +9. Urge a resident of your town to give something for a public park. + + ++Theme CVII.+--_Write out one of the preceding._ + +(Consider what you have written with reference to coherence and climax.) + + ++201. Argument with Persuasion.+--In some cases we are sure that our +hearers are already convinced as to the truth of a proposition. Then there +is no need of argument and persuasion is used alone, but more frequently +both are used. Argument naturally precedes persuasion, but with few +exceptions the two are intermixed and even so blended as to be scarcely +distinguishable, the one from the other. A good example of the use of both +forms is found in the speech of Antony over the dead body of Caesar in +Shakespeare's _Julius Caesar_. Read the speech and note the argument and +persuasion given in it. What three arguments does Antony advance to prove +that Caesar was not ambitious? Does he draw conclusions or leave that for +his listeners to do? Where is there an appeal to their pity? To their +curiosity? To their gratitude? What is the result in each case of the +various appeals? + +In the following examples note the argument and persuasion. Remember that +persuasion commences when we begin to urge to action. Notice what feelings +are appealed to in the persuasive parts of the speeches. + + +They tell us, Sir, that we are weak, unable to cope with so formidable an +adversary. But, when shall we be stronger? Will it be the next week, or +the next year? Will it be when we are totally disarmed and when a British +guard shall be stationed in every house? Shall we gather strength by +irresolution and inaction? Shall we acquire the means of effectual +resistance, by lying supinely on our backs and hugging the delusive +phantom of hope, until our enemies shall have bound us hand and foot? Sir, +we are not weak, if we make a proper use of the means which the God of +nature hath placed in our power. Three millions of people, armed in the +holy cause of liberty, and in such a country as that which we possess, are +invincible by any force which our enemy can send against us. Besides, Sir, +we shall not fight our battles alone. There is a just God who presides +over the destinies of nations; and who will raise up friends to fight our +battles for us. The battle, Sir, is not to the strong alone; it is to the +vigilant, the active, the brave. Besides, Sir, we have no election. If we +were base enough to desire it, it is now too late to retire from the +contest. There is no retreat, but in submission and slavery. Our chains +are forged! Their clanking may be heard on the plains of Boston! The war +is inevitable--and let it come! I repeat it, Sir, let it come!--It is +vain, sir, to extenuate the matter. Gentlemen may cry peace, peace--but +there is no peace. The war is actually begun! The next gale that sweeps +from the north will bring to our ears the clash of resounding arms! Our +brethren are already in the field. Why stand we here, idle? Is life so +dear, is peace so sweet, as to be purchased at the price of chains and +slavery? Forbid it, Almighty God! I know not what course others may take; +but as for me, give me liberty, or give me death. + +--Patrick Henry. + + +The pictures in the American newspapers of the starving reconcentrados are +true. They can all be duplicated by the thousands. I never before saw, +and please God, I may never again see, so deplorable a sight as the +reconcentrados in the suburbs of Matanzas. I can never forget to my dying +day the hopeless anguish in their despairing eyes. Huddled about their +little bark huts, they raised no voice of appeal to us for alms as we went +among them.... Men, women, and children stand silent, famishing with +hunger. Their only appeal comes from their sad eyes, through which one +looks as through an open window into their agonizing souls. + +The Government of Spain has not appropriated and will not appropriate one +dollar to save these people. They are now being attended and nursed and +administered to by the charity of the United States. Think of the +spectacle! We are feeding the citizens of Spain; we are nursing their +sick; we are saving such as can be saved, and yet there are those who +still say it is right for us to send food, but we must keep hands off. I +say that the time has come when muskets ought to go with the food.... + +The time for action has, then, come. No greater reason for it can exist +to-morrow than exists to-day. Every hour's delay only adds another chapter +to the awful story of misery and death. Only one power can intervene--the +United States of America. Ours is the one great nation of the New World, +the mother of American republics. She holds a position of trust and +responsibility toward the peoples and the affairs of the whole Western +Hemisphere. + +Mr. President, there is only one action possible, if any is taken--that +is, intervention for the independence of the island. But we cannot +intervene and save Cuba without the exercise of force, and force means +war; war means blood. The lowly Nazarene on the shores of Galilee preached +the divine doctrine of love, "Peace on earth, good will toward men." Not +peace on earth at the expense of liberty and humanity. Not good will +toward men who despoil, enslave, degrade, and starve to death their +fellow-men. I believe in the doctrine of Christ, I believe in the doctrine +of peace; but, Mr. President, men must have liberty before there can come +abiding peace. + +Intervention means force. Force means war. War means blood. But it will be +God's force. When has a battle for humanity and liberty ever been won +except by force? What barricade of wrong, injustice, and oppression has +ever been carried except by force? Force compelled the signature of +unwilling royalty to the great Magna Charta; force put life into +the Declaration of Independence and made effective the Emancipation +Proclamation; force beat with naked hands upon the iron gateway of the +Bastile and made reprisal in one awful hour for centuries of kingly crime; +force waved the flag of revolution over Bunker Hill and marked the snows +of Valley Forge with blood-stained feet; force held the broken line at +Shiloh, climbed the flame-swept hill at Chattanooga, and stormed the +clouds on Lookout heights; force marched with Sherman to the sea, rode +with Sheridan in the valley of Shenandoah, and gave Grant victory at +Appomattox; force saved the Union, kept the stars in the flag, made +"niggers" men. + +Others may hesitate, others may procrastinate, others may plead for +further diplomatic negotiations, which means delay; but for me, I am ready +to act now, and for my action I am ready to answer to my conscience, my +country, and my God. + +--John Mellen Thurston: _Speech in United States Senate_, March, 1898. + + +EXERCISES + + +1. A young boy is trying to gain his father's permission to attend an +evening entertainment with some other boys. Make a list of his appeals to +his father's reason; to his father's feelings. Make a list of his father's +objections. Is there any appeal to his son's feelings? + +2. Suppose you are about to address the voters of your city on the +question of granting saloon licenses. Make a list of appeals to their +reason; to their intellect. Remember that appeals to the feelings are made +more forcible by descriptive and narrative examples than by direct general +appeals. + +3. Urge your classmates to vote for some member of your class for +president. What qualifications should a good class president have? + + ++Theme CVIII.+--_Select one of the subjects, concerning which you have +written an argument; either add persuasion to the argument or intermix +them._ + +(What part of your theme is argument and what part persuasion? Does the +introduction of persuasion affect the order of arrangement?) + + ++Theme CIX.+--_Select one of the subjects given on page 361 of which you +have not yet made use. Write a theme appealing to both feeling and +intellect._ + +(Are your facts true and pertinent? Consider the arrangement.) + + ++Theme CX.+--_Write a letter to a friend who went to work instead of +entering the high school. Urge him to come to the high school._ + +(What arguments have you made? To what feelings have you appealed?) + + ++Theme CXI.+--_Use one of the following as a subject for a persuasive +theme:_-- + +1. Induce your friends not to play ball on Memorial Day. + +2. Ask permission to be excused from writing your next essay. + +3. Persuade one of your friends to play golf. + +4. Induce your friends not to wear birds on their hats. + +5. Write an address to young children, trying to persuade them not to be +cruel to the lower animals. + + ++202. Questions of Right and Questions of Expediency.+--Arguments that aim +to convince us of the wisdom of an action are very common. In our home +life and in our social and religious life these questions are always +arising. They may be classified into two kinds: (1) those which answer the +question, Is it right? and (2) those which answer the question, Is it +expedient? + +The moral element enters into questions of right. It is always wise for us +to do that which is morally right, but sometimes we are in doubt as to +what course of action is morally right. Opinions differ concerning what is +right, and for that reason we spend much time in defending our opinions or +in trying to make others believe as we do. In answering such a question +honestly, we must lose sight of all advantage or disadvantage to +ourselves. When asked to do something we should at once ask ourselves, Is +it right? and when once that is determined one line of action should be +clear. + +An argument which aims to answer the question, Is it expedient? +presupposes that there are at least two lines of action each of which is +right. It aims to prove that one course of action will bring greater +advantages than any other. Taking all classes of people into consideration +we shall find that they are arguing more questions of expediency than of +any other kind. Every one is looking for advantages either to himself or +to those in whom he is interested. A question of expediency should never +be separated from the question of right. In determining either our own +course of action or that which we attempt to persuade another to follow, +we should never forget the presupposition of a question of expediency that +either course is right. + + +EXERCISES + + +1. Name five questions the right or wrong of which you have been called +upon to decide. + +2. Name five similar questions that are likely to arise in every one's +experience. + +3. Name five questions of right concerning which opinions very often +differ. + +4. Is an action that is right for one person ever wrong for another? + + ++Theme CXII.+--_Write out the reasons for or against one of the +following:_-- + +1. Should two pupils ever study together? + +2. Is a lie ever justifiable? + +3. Was Shylock's punishment too severe? + +4. Woman's suffrage should be established. + +5. The regular party nominee should not always be supported. + + +EXERCISES + + +Give reasons for or against the following:-- + +1. We should abolish class-day exercises. + +2. The study of science is more beneficial than the study of language. + +3. Foreign skilled laborers should be excluded from the United States. + +4. Hypnotic entertainments should not be allowed. + +5. The study of algebra should not be made compulsory in a high school. + +6. _Uncle Tom's Cabin_ should be excluded from school libraries. + +7. Physical training should be compulsory in public schools. + +8. High school secret societies should not be allowed. + + ++Theme CXIII.+--_Write an argument of expediency using +one of the subjects named in the preceding exercise._ + +(What advantages have you made most prominent? +To what feelings have you appealed?) + + ++Theme CXIV.+--_Write a narration in which the hero is called upon to +decide whether some course of action is right or wrong_. + +(Consider the theme as a narration. Does it fulfill the requirements of +Chapter IX? (See Summary.) Consider just the arguments used. Are the +arguments sufficient to bring conviction to the reader that the hero +decided rightly?) + ++203. Refutation.+--No question is worth argument unless there are two +sides to it--unless there is a chance for some doubt in the mind of the +hearer as to which side seems most reasonable. Many questions are of such +a nature that in trying to convince our hearers of some truth, we often +find it necessary to show them, not only the truth of a proposition or the +expediency of a course of action, but also the falsity of some opposing +proposition or the inexpediency of the opposite course of action. This +tearing to pieces another's argument, is called refutation, or destructive +argument. A successful debater shows nearly if not equal skill in tearing +down his opponent's arguments as in building up his own. + +Even in arguments in which no one takes the opposite side at the given +time, we must not forget that there are points on the opposite side which +are likely to arise in the minds of our hearers. Just as the skillful +teacher must know the difficulties that will arise in the minds of the +pupils even though they are not expressed, so must the skillful debater +consider the objections that his hearer will mentally set up against his +argument. It is well, however, for the debater to avoid overemphasizing +objections. Sometimes his discussion gives the objections a weight that +they would not otherwise have. It is not wise to set up "a man of straw" +for the purpose of knocking him down. + +Notice the refutation in the following argument:-- + + +In no respect is the difference of opinion as to the methods of fishing so +pronounced and disturbing among anglers as the diverse ones of fishing +"up" and "down" stream. + +"Fishing up stream" has many advocates who assert that as trout always lie +with their heads up current, they are less likely to see the fisherman or +the glint of his rod when the casts are made; that the discomfort and +fatigue accompanying wading against strong rapids is amply repaid by the +increased scores secured; that the flies deftly thrown a foot or two above +the head of a feeding trout float more life-like down the current than +those drawn against it by the line, when they are apt to exhibit a +muscular power which in the live insect would be exaggerated and +unnatural. + +On the other hand, the "down stream" fisherman is equally assertive as to +the value of his method. He feels the charm of gurgling waters around his +limbs, a down current that aids rather than retards or fatigues him in +each successive step of enjoyment in his pastime; as he casts his fifty or +more feet of line adown the stream, he is assured that he is beyond the +ken of the most keen-sighted and wary trout; that his artificial bugs, +under the tension of the current seaming it from right to left, reaches +every square inch of the "swim," as English rodsters term a likely water, +and coming naturally down stream, just the direction from whence a hungry +trout is awaiting it, are much more likely to be taken, than those thrown +against the current, with, doubtless, a foot or more of the leader +drooping and bagging before the nose of a trout, with a dead bug, soaked +and bedraggled, following slowly behind. + +By wading "down stream" its advocates do not mean splashing and lifting +the feet above the surface, sending the water hither and yon on to the +banks, into the pools, with the soil of silt or mud or fine gravel from +the bottom, polluting the stream many yards ahead, and causing every fish +to scurry to the shelter of a hole in the bank or under a shelving rock. +They intend that the rodster shall enter the water quietly, and, after a +few preliminary casts to get the water gear in good working order to +proceed down stream by sliding rather than lifting his feet from the +bottom, noiselessly and cautiously approaching the most likely pools or +eddies behind the roots in mid stream, or still stretches close to the +banks, where the quiet reaches broaden down stream, where nine chances in +ten, on a good trout water, one or more fish will be seen lazily rising +and feeding. + +Again, the down-stream angler contends that when a fish is fastened on a +hook, taking the lure in a current, that he is more likely to be well +hooked, hence more certain of capture when the line is tense, than when +rising to a floating bug at the end of a looping line and leader. +Certainly it is very difficult when casting against the current to keep +the line sufficiently taut to strike quickly and effectively a rising +trout, which as a rule ejects the artificial lure the instant he feels the +gritty impact of the steel. + +In fishing down stream, the advocate of the principle that the greater the +surface commotion made by the flies used, the surer the rise and catch, +has an advantage over his brother who always fishes "fine" and with flies +that do not make a ripple. Drawing the artificial bugs across and slightly +up stream over the mirrored bosom of a pool is apt to leave a wake behind +them which may not inaptly be compared with the one created by a small +stern-wheel steamer; an unnatural condition of things, but of such is a +trout's make-up. + +--W.C. HARRIS: _Fishing Up or Down Stream_. + + ++Theme CXV.+--_Persuade a friend, to choose some sport from one of the +following pairs:_-- + + 1. Canoeing or sailing. + 2. Bicycling or automobiling. + 3. Golf or polo. + 4. Basket ball or tennis. + 5. Football or baseball. + + ++Theme CXVI.+--_Choose one side of a proposition. Name the probable points +on the other side and write out a refutation of them_. + + ++Theme CXVII.+--_State a proposition and write the direct argument._ + + ++Theme CXVIII.+--_Exchange theme CXVII for one written by a classmate and +write the refutation of the arguments in the theme you receive._ + + +(Theme CXVII and the corresponding Theme CXVIII should be read before the +class.) + + +SUMMARY + +1. Argument is that form of discourse which attempts to prove the truth of +a proposition. + +2. Inductive reasoning is that process by which from many individual cases +we establish the probable truth of a general proposition. + +3. The establishing of a general truth by induction requires-- + _a._ That there be a large number of facts, circumstances, or specific + instances supporting it. + _b._ That these facts be true. + _c._ That they be pertinent. + _d._ That there be no facts proving the truth of the contrary + proposition. + +4. Deductive reasoning is that process which attempts to prove the truth +of a specific proposition by showing that a general theory applies to it. + +5. The establishing of the truth of a specific proposition by deductive +reasoning requires-- + _a._ A major premise that makes an affirmation about _all_ the members + of a class. + _b._ A minor premise that states that the individual under consideration + belongs to the class named. + _c._ A conclusion that states that the affirmation made about the class + applies to the individual. These three statements constitute a + syllogism. + +6. An enthymeme is a syllogism with but one premise expressed. + +7. Errors of deduction arise-- + _a._ If terms are not used throughout with the same meaning. + _b._ If the major premise does not make a statement about every member + of the class denoted by the middle term. + _c._ If either premise is false. + +8. Belief in a specific proposition may arise-- + _a._ Because of the presentation of evidence which is true and + pertinent. + _b._ Because of a belief in some general principle or theory which + applies to it. + +In arguing therefore we-- + _a._ Present true and pertinent facts, or evidence; or + _b._ Appeal directly to general theories, or by means of facts, maxims, + allusions, inferences, or the quoting of authorities, seek to call + up such theories. + +9. Classes of arguments:-- + _a._ Arguments from cause. + _b._ Arguments from sign and attendant circumstances. + _c._ Arguments from example and analogy. + +10. Arrangement. + _a._ Arguments from cause should precede arguments from sign, and + arguments from sign should precede arguments from example. + _b._ Inductive arguments usually precede deductive arguments. + _c._ Arguments should be arranged with reference to climax. + _d._ Arguments should be arranged, when possible, in a coherent order. + +11. In making a brief the above principles of arrangement should be +observed. Attention should be given to unity so that the trivial and false +may be excluded. + +12. Persuasion is argument that aims to establish the wisdom of a course +of action. + +13. Persuasion appeals largely to the feelings. + _a._ Those feelings of satisfaction resulting from approval, + commendation, or praise, or the desire to avoid blame, disaster, + or loss of self-esteem. + _b._ Those feelings resulting from the proper and legitimate use of + one's powers. + _c._ Those feelings which arise from possession, either actual or + anticipated. + +14. Persuasion is concerned with-- + _a._ Questions of right. + _b._ Questions of expediency. + + + + +APPENDIX + + +I. ELEMENTS OF FORM + ++1. Importance of Form.+--The suggestions which have been made for the +correction of the Themes have laid emphasis upon the thought. Though the +thought side is the more important, yet careful attention must also be +given to the form in which it is stated. If we wish to express our +thoughts so that they will be understood by others, we shall be surer to +succeed if we use the forms to which our hearers are accustomed. The great +purpose of composition is the clear expression of thought, and this is +aided by the use of the forms which are conventional and customary. + +Wrong habits of speech indicate looseness and carelessness of thought, and +if not corrected show a lack of training. In speaking, our language goes +directly to the listener without revision. It is, therefore, essential +that we pay much attention to the form of the expression so that it may be +correct when we use it. Our aim should be to avoid an error rather than to +correct it. + +Similarly in writing, your effort should be given to avoiding errors +rather than to correcting those already made. A misspelled word or an +incorrect grammatical form in the letter that you send to a business man +may show you to be so careless and inaccurate that he will not wish to +have you in his employ. In such a case it is only the avoidance of the +error that is of value. You must determine for yourself that the letter is +correct before you send it. This same condition should prevail with +reference to your school themes. The teacher may return these for +correction, but you must not forget that the purpose of this correction is +merely to emphasize the correct form so that you will use it in your next +theme. It will be helpful to have some one point out your individual +mistakes, but it is only by attention to them on your own part and by a +definite and long-continued effort to avoid them that you will really +accomplish much toward the establishing of correct language habits. In +this, as in other things, the most rapid progress will be made by doing +but one thing at a time. + +Many matters of form are already familiar to you. A brief statement of +these is made in order to serve as a review and to secure uniformity in +class work. + + +1. _Neatness._--All papers should be free from blots and finger marks. +Corrections should be neatly done. Care in correcting or interlining will +often render copying unnecessary. + +2. _Legibility._--Excellence of thought is not dependent upon penmanship, +and the best composition may be the most difficult to read. A poorly +written composition is, however, more likely to be considered bad than one +that is well written. A plain, legible, and rapid handwriting is so +valuable an accomplishment that it is well worth acquiring. + +3. _Paper._--White, unruled paper, about 8-1/2 by 11 inches, is best for +composition purposes. The ability to write straight across the page +without the aid of lines can be acquired by practice. It is customary to +write on only one side of the paper. + +4. _Margins._--Leave a margin of about one inch at the left of the sheet. +Except in formal notes and special forms there will be no margin at the +right. Care should be taken to begin the lines at the left exactly under +each other, but the varying length of words makes it impossible to end the +lines at the right at exactly the same place. A word should not be crowded +into a space too small for it, nor should part of it be put on the next +line, as is customary in printing, unless it is a compound one, such as +steam-boat. Spaces of too great length at the end of a line may be avoided +by slightly lengthening the preceding words or the spaces between them. + +5. _Spacing._--Each theme should have a title. It should be placed in the +center of the line above the composition, and should have all important +words capitalized. Titles too long for a single line may be written as +follows:-- + + + MY TRIP TO CHICAGO + ON A BICYCLE + + +With unruled paper some care must be taken to keep the lines the same +distance apart. The spaces between sentences should be somewhat greater +than those between words. Paragraphs are indicated by indentations. + +6. _Corrections._--These are best made by using a sharp knife or an ink +eraser. Sometimes, if neatly done, a line may be drawn through an +incorrect word and the correct one written above it. Omitted words may be +written between the lines and the place where they belong indicated by a +caret. If a page contains many corrections, it should be copied. + +7. _Inscription and Folding._--The teacher will give directions as to +inscription and folding. He will indicate what information he wishes, such +as name, class, date, etc., and where it is to be written. Each page +should be numbered. If the paper is folded, it should be done with +neatness and precision. + + ++2. Capitals.+--The use of capitals will serve to illustrate the value of +using conventional forms. We are so accustomed to seeing a proper name, +such as Mr. Brown, written with capitals that we should be puzzled if we +should find it written without capitals. The sentence, Ben-Hur was written +by Lew Wallace, would look unfamiliar if written without capitals. We are +so used to our present forms that beginning sentences with small letters +would hinder the ready comprehension of the thought. Everybody agrees that +capitals should be used to begin sentences, direct questions, names of +deity, days of the week, the months, each line of poetry, the pronoun I, +the interjection O, etc., and no good writer will fail to use them. Usage +varies somewhat in regard to capitals in some other places. Such +expressions as Ohio river, Lincoln school, Jackson county, state of +Illinois, once had both names capitalized. The present tendency is to +write them as above. Even titles of honor are not capitalized unless they +are used with a proper name; for example, He introduced General Grant The +general then spoke. + + ++3. Rules of Capitalization.+--1. Every sentence and every line of poetry +begin with capitals. + +2. Every direct quotation, except brief phrases and subordinate parts of +sentences, begins with a capital. + +3. Proper nouns and adjectives derived from proper nouns begin with +capitals. Some adjectives, though derived from proper nouns, are no longer +capitalized; _e.g._ voltaic. + +4. Titles of honor when used with the name of a person begin with +capitals. + +5. The first word and every important word in the titles of books, etc., +begin with capitals. + +6. The pronoun I and the interjection O are always capitalized. + +7. Names applied to the Deity are capitalized and pronouns referring +thereto, especially if personal, are usually capitalized. + +8. Important words are often capitalized for emphasis, especially words in +text-books indicating topics. + + ++4. Punctuation.+--The meaning of a sentence depends largely on the +grouping of words that are related in sense to each other. When we are +reading aloud we make the sense clear by bringing out to the hearer this +grouping. This is accomplished by the use of pauses and by emphasis and +inflection. In writing we must do for the eye what inflection and pauses +do for the ear. We therefore use punctuation marks to indicate inflection +and emphasis, and especially to show word grouping. Punctuation marks are +important because their purpose is to assist in making the sense clear. +There are many special rules more or less familiar to you, but they may +all be included under the one general statement: Use such marks and only +such marks as will assist the reader in getting the sense. + +What marks we shall use and how we shall use them will be determined by +custom. In order to benefit a reader, marks must be used in ways with +which he is familiar. Punctuation changes from time to time. The present +tendency is to omit all marks not absolutely necessary to the clear +understanding of the sentence. + +There are some very definite rules, but there are others that cannot be +made so definite, and the application of them requires care and +judgment on the part of the writer. Improvement will come only by +practice. Sentences should not be written for the purpose of illustrating +punctuation. The meaning of what you are writing ought to be clear to you, +and the punctuation marks should be put in _as you write_, not inserted +afterward. + + ++5. Rules for the Use of the Comma.+--1. The comma is used to separate +words or phrases having the same construction, used in a series. + + Judges, senators, and representatives were imprisoned. + + The country is a good place to be born in, a good place to die in, a + good place to live in at least part of the year. + + +If any conjunctions are used to connect the last two members, the comma +may or may not be used in connection with the conjunction. + + + The cabbage palmetto affords shade, kindling, bed, and food. + + +2. Words or expressions in apposition should be separated by a comma. + + + The native Indian dress is an evolution, a survival from long years of + wild life. + + +3. Commas are used to separate words in direct address from the rest of +the sentence. + + + Bow down, dear Land, for thou hast found release. + O, Sohrab, an unquiet heart is thine! + + +4. Introductory and parenthetical words or expressions are +set off by commas. + + + However, the current is narrow and very shallow here. + + This, in a general way, describes the scope of the small parks or + playgrounds. + + +If the parenthetical expression is long and not very closely related to +the rest of the sentence, dashes or marks of parenthesis are frequently +used. Some writers use them even when the connection is somewhat close. + + +5. The comma is frequently used to separate the parts of a long compound +predicate. + + + Pine torches have no glass to break, and are within the reach of any man + who can wield an ax. + + +6. A comma is often used to separate a subject with several modifiers, or +with a long modifier, from the predicate verb. + + + One of the mistakes often made in beginning the study of birds with +small children, is in placing stress upon learning by sight and name +as many species of birds as possible. + + +7. Participial and adjective phrases and adverb phrases out of their +natural order should be separated from the rest of the sentence by commas. + + + A knight, clad in armor, was the most conspicuous figure of all. + + To the mind of the writer, this explanation has much to commend it. + + +8. When negative expressions are used in order to show a contrast, they +are set off by commas. + + + They believed in men, not in mere workers in the great human workshop. + + +9. Commas are used in complex sentences to separate the dependent clause +from the rest of the sentence. + + + The great majority of people would be better off, if they had more money + and spent it. + + While the flour is being made, samples are sent every hour to the + testing department. + + +If the connection is close, the comma is usually omitted, especially when +the dependent clause comes last. + + + I will be there when the train arrives. + + +10. When a relative clause furnishes an additional thought, it should be +separated from the rest of the sentence by a comma. + + + Hiram Watts, who has been living in New York for six years, has just + returned to England. + + +If the relative clause is restrictive, that is, if it restricts or +limits the meaning of the antecedent, the comma is unnecessary. + + + This is the best article that he ever wrote. + + + +11. Commas are used to separate the members of a compound sentence when +they are short or closely connected. + + + Ireland is rich in minerals, yet there is but little mining done there. + + Breathe it, exult in it, + All the day long, + Glide in it, leap in it, + Thrill it with song. + + +12. Short quotations should be separated from the rest of the sentence by +a comma. + + + "There must be a beaver dam here," he called. + + +13. The omissions of important words in a sentence should be indicated by +commas. + + + If you can, come to-morrow; if not, come next week. + + ++6. Rules for the Use of the Semicolon.+--1. When the members of a +compound sentence are long or are not closely connected, semicolons should +be used to separate them. + + + Webster could address a bench of judges; Everett could charm a + college; Choate could delude a jury; Clay could magnetize a senate, + and Tom Corwin could hold the mob in his right hand; but no one + of these men could do more than this one thing. + +--Wendell Phillips. + + We might as well decide the question now; for we shall surely be + obliged to soon. + + +2. When the members of a compound sentence themselves contain commas, they +should be separated from one another by semicolons. + + + As Caesar loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at + it; as he was valiant, I honor him; but, as he was ambitious, I slew + him. + +--Shakespeare. + + +3. The semicolon should be used to precede _as, namely, i.e., e.g., viz_. + + + Some adjectives are compared irregularly; as, good, bad, and little. + + +4. When a series of distinct statements all have a common dependence on +what precedes or follows them, they may be separated from each other by +semicolons. + + + When subject to the influence of cold we eat more; we choose more + heat-producing foods, as fatty foodstuffs; we take more vigorous + exercise; we put on more clothing, especially of the non-conducting + kinds--woolens. + + ++7. Rules for the Use of the Colon.+--1. The colon is used +before long or formal quotations, before enumerations, and before +the conclusion of a previous statement. + + + Old Sir Thomas Browne shrewdly observes: "Every man is not only + himself. There have been many Diogeneses and many Timons + though but few of the name. Men are lived over again. The world + is now as it was in ages past. There were none then, but there has + been one since, that parallels him, and is, as it were, revived self." + +--George Dana Boardman. + + Adjectives are divided into two general classes: descriptive and + definitive adjectives. + + The following members sent in their resignations: Mrs. William M. + Murphy, Mrs. Ralph B. Wiltsie, and Mrs. John C. Clark. + + +2. The colon is used to separate the different members of a compound +sentence, when they themselves are divided by semicolons. + + + It is too warm to-day; the sunshine is too bright; the shade, too + pleasant: we will wait until to-morrow or we will have some one else + do it when the busy time is over. + + ++8. Rules for the Use of the Period.+--1. The period is used at the close +of imperative and declarative sentences. + +2. All abbreviations should be followed by a period. + + ++9. Rule for the Use of the Interrogation Mark.+--The interrogation mark +should be used after all direct questions. + + ++10. Rule for the Use of the Exclamation Mark.+--Interjections and +exclamatory words and expressions should be followed by the exclamation +mark. Sometimes the exclamatory word is only a part of the whole +exclamation. In this case, the exclamatory word should be followed by a +comma, and the entire exclamation by an exclamation mark. + + +See, how the lightning flashes! + + ++11. Rules for the Use of the Dash.+--1. The dash is used to show sudden +changes in thought or breaks in speech. + + +I can speak of this better when temptation comes my way--if it ever does. + + +2. The dash is often used in the place of commas or marks of parenthesis +to set off parenthetical expressions. + + +In the mountains of New York State this most valuable tree--the spruce-- +abounds. + + +3. The dash, either alone or in connection with the comma, is used to +point out that part of a sentence on which special stress is to be placed. + + +I saw unpruned fruit trees, broken fences, and farm implements, rusting in +the rain--all evidences of wasted time. + + +4. The dash is sometimes used with the colon before long quotations, +before an enumeration of things, or before a formally introduced +statement. + + ++12. Rules for the Use of Quotation Marks.+--1. Quotation marks are used +to inclose direct quotations. + + +"In all the great affairs of life one must run some risk," she remarked. + + +2. A quotation within a quotation is usually indicated by single quotation +marks. + + +"Can you tell me where I can find 'Rienzi's Address'?" asked a young lady +of a clerk in Brooklyn. + + +3. When a quotation is interrupted by parenthetical expressions, the +different parts of the quotation should be inclosed in quotation marks. + + +"Bring forth," cried the monarch, "the vessels of gold." + +4. When the quotation consists of several paragraphs, the quotation marks +are placed at the beginning of each paragraph and at the close of the last +one. + + ++13. Rule for the Use of the Apostrophe.+--The apostrophe is used to +denote the possessive case, to indicate the omission of letters, and to +form the plural of signs, figures, and letters. + + +In the teacher's copy book you will find several fancy A's and 3's which +can't be distinguished from engravings. + + + +II. REVIEW OF GRAMMAR + + +THE SENTENCE + + ++14. English grammar+ is the study of the forms of English words and their +relationship to one another as they appear in sentences. A _sentence_ is a +group of words that expresses a complete thought. + + ++15. Elements of a Sentence.+--The elements of a sentence, as regards the +office that they perform, are the _subject_ and the _predicate_. The +_subject_ is that about which something is asserted, and the _predicate_ +is that which asserts something about the subject. + +Some predicates may consist of a single word or word-group, able in itself +to complete a sentence: [The thrush _sings_. The thrush _has been +singing_]. Some require a following word or words: [William struck +_John_ (object complement, or object). Edward became _king_ (attribute +complement). The people made Edward _king_ (objective complement)]. + +The necessary parts of a sentence are: some name for the object of thought +(to which the general term _substantive_ may be given); some word or group +of words to make assertion concerning the substantive (general term, +_assertive_); and, in case of an incomplete assertive, one of the above +given completions of its meaning (object complement, attribute complement, +objective complement). + +In addition to these necessary elements of the sentence, words or groups +of words may be added to make the meaning of any one of the elements more +exact. Such additions are known as _modifiers_. The word-groups which are +used as modifiers are the _phrase_ and the _clause_. + +[The thrush, sings _in the pine woods_ (phrase). The wayfarer _who hears +the thrush_ is indeed fortunate (clause).] + +Both the subject and the predicate may be unmodified: + +[Bees buzz]; both may be modified: [The honey bees buzz in the clover]; +one may be modified and the other unmodified: [Bees buzz in the clover]. + +The unmodified subject may be called the _simple subject_, or, merely, the +_subject_. If modified, it becomes the _complete subject_. + +The assertive element, together with the attribute complement, if one is +present, may be called the _simple predicate_. If modified, it becomes the +_complete predicate_. + +Some grammarians call the assertive element, alone, the _simple +predicate_; modified or completed, the _complete predicate_. + + ++16. Classification of Sentences as to Purpose.+--Sentences are classified +according to purpose into three classes: _declarative_, _interrogative_, +and _imperative_ sentences. + +A _declarative_ sentence is one that makes a statement or declares +something: [Columbus crossed the Atlantic]. + +An _interrogative_ sentence is one that asks a question: [Who wrote +_Mother Goose_?]. + +An _imperative_ sentence is one that expresses a command or entreaty: +["Fling away ambition"]. + +Each kind of sentence may be of an exclamatory nature, and then the +sentence is said to be an _exclamatory_ sentence: [How happy all the +children are! (exclamatory declarative). "Who so base as be a slave?" +(exclamatory interrogative). "Heap high the farmer's wintry hoard!" +(exclamatory imperative)]. + +Notice that the exclamation point follows the declarative and imperative +forms, but the interrogative form is followed by the question mark. + + +WORDS AND THEIR OFFICES + + ++17. The Individual Elements+ of which every sentence is composed are +_words_. Every word is the sign of some idea. Each of the words _horse, +he, blue, speaks, merrily, at_, and _because_, has a certain naming value, +more or less definite, for the mind of the reader. Of these, _horse, blue, +he, merrily_, have a fairly vivid descriptive power. In the case of _at_ +and _because_, the main office is, evidently, to express a relation +between other ideas: ["I am _at_ my post"], ["I go _because_ I must"]. The +word _speaks_ is less clearly a relational word; at first thought it would +seem to have only the office of picturing an activity. That it also fills +the office of a connective will be evident if we compare the following +sentences: He _speaks_ in public. He _is_ a public _speaker_. It is +evident that _speaks_ contains in itself the _naming_ value represented in +the word _speaker_, but also has the _connecting_ office fulfilled in the +second sentence by _is_. + +All words have, therefore, a naming office, and some have in addition a +connecting or relational office. + + +PARTS OF SPEECH + + ++18. Parts of Speech.+--When we examine the different words in sentences +we find that, in spite of these fundamentally similar qualities, the words +are serving different purposes. This difference in purpose or use serves +as the basis for dividing words into eight classes, called Parts of +Speech. Use alone determines to which class a word in any given sentence +shall belong. Not only are single words so classified, but any part of +speech may be represented by a group of words. Such a group is either a +_phrase_ or a _clause_. + +A _phrase_ is a group of words, containing neither subject nor predicate, +that is used as a single part of speech. + +A _clause_ is a group of words, containing both subject and predicate, +that is used as part of a sentence. If used as a single part of speech, it +is called a _subordinate_, or _dependent_, clause. Some grammarians use the +word _clause_ for a subordinate statement only. + + ++19. Classification.+--The eight parts of speech may be classified as +follows:-- + + I. Substantives: nouns, pronouns. + II. Assertives: verbs. +III. Modifiers: adjectives, adverbs. + IV. Connectives: prepositions, conjunctions. + V. Interjections. + + ++20. Definitions.+--The parts of speech may be defined as +follows:-- + +(1) A _noun_ is a word used as a name. + +(2) A _pronoun_ is a word used in place of a noun, designating a person, +place, or thing without naming it. + +(3) An _adjective_ is a word that modifies a substantive. + +(4) A _verb_ is a word that asserts something--action, state, or being--- +concerning a substantive. + +(5) An _adverb_ is a word that modifies a verb, adjective, or another +adverb. + +(6) A _preposition_ is a word that shows the relation of the substantive +that follows it to some other word or words in the sentence. + +(7) A _conjunction_ is a word that connects words or groups of words used +in the same way. + +(8) An _interjection_ is a cry expressing emotion, but not forming part of +the sentence. + + + NOUNS + + ++21. Classes of Nouns.+--Nouns are divided into two general classes: +_proper_ nouns [Esther] and _common_ nouns [girl]. + +Common nouns include _abstract_ nouns [happiness] and _collective_ nouns +[army]. + +Any word mentioned merely _as a word_ is a noun: [_And_ is a conjunction]. + + ++22. Inflection.+--A change in the form of a word to denote a change in +its meaning is termed _inflection_. + + ++23. Number.+--The most common inflection of the noun is that which shows +us whether the name denotes one or more than one. The power of the noun to +denote one or more than one is termed _number_. A noun that denotes but +one object is _singular_ in number. A noun that denotes more than one +object is _plural_ in number. + +The plural number of nouns is regularly formed by adding _s_ and _es_ to +the singular [bank, banks; box, boxes]. + +Other points to be noted concerning the plural of nouns are as follows:-- + +1. The irregular plural in _en_ [child, children]. + +2. Formation of the plural by internal change [goose, geese]. + +3. Fourteen nouns ending in _f_ or _fe_ change the _f_ or _fe_ into _yes_ +[leaf, leaves]. + +4. Nouns ending in _y_, preceded by a consonant, change the _y_ to _i_ and +add _es_ [enemy, enemies]. + +5. Letters, figures, signs, etc., form their plural by adding '_s_:[You +have used too many _i_'s]. + +6. Nouns taken from other languages usually form their plurals according +to the laws of those languages [phenomenon, phenomena]. + +7. A few nouns in our language do not change their form to denote number. + (_a_) Some nouns have the same form, for both the singular and the +plural [sheep, deer]. + (_b_) Some nouns are used only in the plural [scissors, thanks]. + (_c_) Some nouns have no plurals [pride, flesh]. + (_d_) Some nouns, plural in form, have a singular meaning [measles, +news, politics]. + +8. Compound nouns usually form their plural by pluralizing the noun part +of the compound [sister-in-law, sisters-in-law]. If the words of the +compound are both nouns, and are of equal importance, both are given a +plural ending [manservant, menservants]. When the compound is thought of +as a whole, the last part only is made plural [spoonful, spoonfuls]. + + 9. Proper names usually form their plurals regularly. If they are +preceded by titles, they form their plurals either by pluralizing the +title or by pluralizing the name [The Misses Hunter or the Miss Hunters. +The Messrs. Keene or the two Mr. Keenes. The Masters Burke. The Mrs. +Harrisons.] + + 10. A few nouns have two plurals differing in meaning or use [cloth, +cloths, clothes; penny, pennies, pence]. + + ++24. Case.+--Case is the relation that a noun or pronoun +bears to some other word in the sentence. + +Inflection of nouns or pronouns for the purpose of denoting +case is termed _declension_. There are three cases in the English +language: the _nominative_, the _possessive_, and the _objective_; but +nouns show only two forms for each number, as the nominative and +objective cases have the same form. + ++25. Formation of the Possessive.+--Nouns in the singular, and those in +the plural not already ending in _s_, form the possessive regularly by +adding '_s_ to the nominative [finger, finger's; geese, geese's]. + +In case the plural already ends in _s_, the possessive case adds only the +apostrophe [girls']. + +A few singular nouns add only the apostrophe, when the addition of the +'_s_ would make an unpleasant sound [Moses']. + +Compound nouns form the possessive case by adding '_s_ to the last word. +This is also the rule when two names denoting joint ownership are used: +[Bradbury and Emery's Algebra]. + +Notice that in the following expression the '_s_ is affixed to the second +noun only: [My sister Martha's book]. + +Names of inanimate objects usually substitute prepositional phrases to +denote possession: [The hardness _of the rock_, not The rock's hardness]. + + ++26. Gender.+--Gender is the power of nouns and pronouns to denote sex. +Nouns or pronouns denoting males are of the _masculine_ gender; those +denoting females are of the _feminine_ gender; and those denoting things +without animal life are of the _neuter_ gender. + + ++27. Person.+--Person is the power of one class of pronouns to show +whether the speaker, the person spoken to, or the person or thing spoken +of is designated. According to the person denoted, the pronoun is said to +be in the _first, second_, or _third_ person. Nouns and many pronouns are +not inflected for person, but most grammarians attribute person to them +because the context of the sentence in which they are used shows what +persons they represent. + + ++28. Constructions of Nouns.+--The following are the usual constructions +of nouns:-- + +(_a_) The _possessive_ case of the noun denotes possession. + +(_b_) Nouns in the _nominative_ case are used as follows:-- + +1. As the subject of a verb: [The western _sky_ is all aflame] + +2. As an attribute complement: [Autumn is the most gorgeous _season_ of +the year]. + +3. In an exclamation: [Alas, poor _soul_, it could not be!]. + +4. In direct address: [O hush thee, my _baby_!]. + +5. Absolutely: [The _rain_ being over, the grass twinkled in the +sunshine]. + +6. As a noun in apposition with a nominative: [Columbus; a _native_ of +Genoa, discovered America]. + +(_c_) Nouns in the _objective_ case are used as follows:-- + + 1. As the direct object of a verb, termed either the direct object or the +object complement: [I saw a _host_ of golden daffodils]. + + 2. As the objective complement: [They crowned him _king_]. + + 3. As the indirect object of a verb: [We gave _Ethel_ a ring]. + + 4. As the object of a preposition: [John Smith explored the coast of _New +England_]. + + 5. As the subject of an infinitive: [He commanded _the man_ (_him_)to go +without delay]. + + 6. As the attribute of an expressed subject of the infinitive _to be_: [I +thought it to be _John_ (_him_)]. + + 7. As an adverbial noun: [He came last _week_]. + + 8. As a noun in apposition with an object: [Stanley found Livingstone, +the great _explorer_]. + + ++29. Equivalents for Nouns.+ + +1. Pronoun: [John gave _his_ father a book for Christmas]. + +2. Adjective: [The _good_ alone are truly great]. + +3. Adverb: [I do not understand the _whys_ and _wherefores_ of the +process]. + +4. A gerund, or infinitive in _ing_: [_Seeing_ is _believing_]. + +5. An infinitive or infinitive phrase: [With him, _to think_ is _to +act_]. + +6. Clause: [It is hard for me to believe _that she took the money_]. Noun +clauses may be used as subject, object, attribute complement, and +appositive. + +7. A prepositional phrase: [_Over the fence_ is out]. + + + PRONOUNS + + ++30. Antecedent.+--The most common equivalent for a noun is the pronoun. +The substantive for which the pronoun is an equivalent is called the +_antecedent_, and with this antecedent the pronoun must agree in _person, +number_, and _gender_, but not necessarily in _case_. + + ++31. Classes of Pronouns.+--Pronouns are commonly divided into five +classes, and sometimes a sixth class is added: (1) personal pronouns, (2) +relative pronouns, (3) interrogative pronouns, (4) demonstrative pronouns, +(5) adjective pronouns,(6) indefinite pronouns (not always added). + + ++32. Personal Pronouns.+--Personal pronouns are so called because they +show by their form whether they refer to the first, the second, or the +third person. There are five personal pronouns in common use: _I, you, he, +she_, and _it_. + + ++33. Constructions of Personal Pronouns.+--The personal pronouns are used +in the same ways in which nouns are used. Besides the regular uses that the +personal pronoun has, there are some special uses that should be +understood. + +1. The word _it_ is often used in an indefinite way at the beginning of a +sentence: [It snows]. When so used, it has no antecedent, and we say it is +used _impersonally_. + +2. The pronoun _it_ is often used as the _grammatical_ subject of a +sentence in which the _logical_ subject is found after the predicate verb: +[_It_ is impossible for us to go]. When so used the pronoun _it_ is called +an _expletive. There_ is used in the same way. + + ++34. Cautions and Suggestions.+ + +1. Be careful not to use the apostrophe in the possessive forms _its, +yours, ours_, and _theirs_. + +2. Be careful to use the nominative form of a pronoun used as an attribute +complement: [It is _I_; it is _they_]. + +3. Be sure that the pronoun agrees in number with its antecedent. One of +the most common violations of this rule is in using _their_ in such +sentences as the following:--Every boy and girl must arrange _his_ desk. +Who has lost _his_ book? The use of _every_ and the form _has_ obliges us +to make the possessive pronouns singular. + +_His_ may be regarded as applying to females as well as males, where it is +convenient not to use the expression _his or her_. + +4. The so-called subject of an infinitive is always in the objective case: +[I asked _him_ to go]. + +5. The attribute complement will agree in case with the subject of the +verb. Hence the attribute complement of an infinitive is in the objective +case: [I knew it (obj.) to be _him_]; but the attribute complement of the +subject of a finite verb is in the nominative case: [I knew it (nom.) was +_he_]. + +6. Words should be so arranged in a sentence that there will be no doubt +in the mind concerning the antecedent of the pronoun. + +7. Do not use the personal pronoun form _them_ for the adjective _those_: +[_Those_ books are mine]. + + ++35. Compound Personal Pronouns.+--To the personal pronouns _my, our, +your, him, her, it_, and _them_, the syllables _self_ (singular) and +_selves_ (plural) may be added, thus forming what are termed _compound +personal_ pronouns. These pronouns have only two uses:-- + +1. They are used for emphasis: [He _himself_ is an authority on the +subject]. + +2. They are also used reflexively: [The boy injured _himself_]. + + ++36. The Relative or Conjunctive Pronouns.+--The pronouns _who, which, +what_ (= that which), _that_, and _as_ (after _such_) are more than +equivalents for nouns, inasmuch as they serve as connectives. They are +often named _relative pronouns_ because they relate to some antecedent +either expressed or implied; they are equally well named _conjunctive +pronouns_ because they are used as connectives. They introduce subordinate +clauses only; these clauses are called _relative clauses_, and since they +modify substantives, are also called _adjective clauses_. + + ++37. Uses of Relative Pronouns.+--_Who_ is used to represent persons, and +objects or ideas personified; _which_ is used to represent things; _that_ +and _as_ are used to represent both persons and things. + +When a clause is used _for the purpose_ of pointing out some particular +person, object, or idea, it is usually introduced by _that_; but when the +clause supplies an additional thought, _who_ or _which_ is more frequently +used. The former is called a _restrictive clause_, and the latter, a +_non-restrictive clause_. + +[The boy that broke his leg has fully recovered (restrictive).] Note the +omission of the comma before _that_. [My eldest brother, who is now in +England, will return by June (non-restrictive).] Note the inclosure of the +clause in commas. See Appendix 5, rule 10. + +In the first sentence it is evident that the intent of the writer is to +separate, in thought, _the boy that broke his leg_ from all other boys. +Although the clause does indeed describe the boy's condition, it does so +_for the purpose_ of _limiting_ or _restricting_ thought to one especial +boy among many. In the second sentence the especial person meant is +indicated by the word _eldest_. The clause, _who is now in England_, is +put in for the sake of giving an additional bit of information. + + ++38. Constructions of Relative Pronouns.+--Relative pronouns may be used +as subject, object, object of a preposition, subject of an infinitive, and +possessive modifier. + +The relative pronoun is regarded as agreeing in person with its +antecedent. Its verb, therefore, takes the person of the antecedent: [_I_, +who _am_ your friend, will assist you]. + +The case of the relative is determined by its construction in the clause +in which it is found: [He _whom_ the president appointed was fitted for +the position]. + + ++39. Compound Relative Pronouns.+--The compound relative pronouns are +formed by adding _ever_ and _soever_ to the relative pronouns _who, +which_, and _what_. These have the constructions of the simple relatives, +and the same rules hold about person and case: [Give it to _whoever_ +wishes it. Give it to _whomever_ you see]. + + ++40. Interrogative Pronouns.+--The pronouns _who, which_, and _what_ are +used to ask questions, and when so used, are called _interrogative_ +pronouns. _Who_ refers to persons; _what_, to things; and _which_, to +persons or things. Like the relatives _who_ has three case forms; _which_ +and _what_ are uninflected. + +The implied question in the sentence, I know whom you saw, is, Whom did +you see? The introductory _whom_ is an interrogative pronoun, and the +clause itself is called an _indirect question_. + +The words _which, what_, and _whose_ may also be used as modifiers of +substantives, and when so used they are called _interrogative adjectives_: +["_What_ manner of man is this?" _Whose_ child is this? _Which_ book +did you choose?]. + + ++41. Demonstrative Pronouns.+--_This_ and _that_, with their plurals +_these_ and _those_, are called _demonstrative pronouns_, because they +point out individual persons or things. + + ++42. Indefinite Pronouns.+--Some pronouns, as _each, either, some, any, +many, such_, etc., are indefinite in character. Many indefinites may be +used either as pronouns or adjectives. Of the indefinites only two, _one_ +and _other_, are inflected. + + + SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL + +NOM. AND OBJ. one ones other others + +POSS. one's ones' other's others' + + ++43. Adjective Pronouns or Pronominal Adjectives.+--Many words, as has +been noted already, are either pronouns or adjectives according to the +office that they perform. If the noun is expressed, the word in question +is called a _pronominal adjective_; but if the noun is omitted so that the +word in question takes its place, it is called an _adjective pronoun_. +[_That_ house is white (adjective). _That_ is the same house (pronoun).] + + +ADJECTIVES + + ++44. Classes of Adjectives.+--There are two general classes of adjectives: +the _descriptive_ [blue, high, etc.], so called because they describe, and +the _limiting_ or _definitive_ adjectives [yonder, three, that, etc.], so +called because they limit or define. It is, of course, true that any +adjective which describes a noun limits its meaning; but the adjective is +named from its descriptive power, not from its limiting power. A very +large per cent of all adjectives belong to the first class,--_descriptive_ +adjectives. Proper adjectives and _participial_ adjectives form a small +part of this large class: [_European_ countries. A _running_ brook]. + + ++45. Limiting or Definitive Adjectives.+--The _limiting_ adjectives +include the various classes of _pronominal adjectives_ (all of which have +been mentioned under pronouns), the _articles_ (_a_, _an_, and _the_), +and adjectives denoting _place_ and _number_. + + ++46. Comparison of Adjectives.+--With the exception of the words _this_ +and _that_, adjectives are not inflected for number, and none are +inflected for case. Many of them, however, change their form to express a +difference in degree. This change of form is called _comparison_. There +are three degrees of comparison: the _positive_, the _comparative_, and +the _superlative_. Adjectives are regularly compared by adding the +syllables _er_ and _est_ to the positive to form the comparative and +superlative degrees. In some cases, especially in the case of adjectives +of more than one syllable, the adverbs _more_ and _most_ are placed before +the positive degree in order to form the other two degrees [long, longer, +longest; beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful]. + ++47. Irregular Comparison of Adjectives.+--A few adjectives are compared +irregularly. These adjectives are in common use and we should be familiar +with the correct forms. + + +POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE + +bad } +evil } worse worst +ill } + +far farther farthest + +good } better best +well } + +fore former { foremost + { first + +late { later { latest + { latter { last + +little less least + +many } more most +much } + +near nearer { nearest + { next + +old { older { oldest + { elder { eldest + + +The following words are used as adverbs or prepositions in the positive +degree, and as _adjectives_ in the other two degrees:-- + + +(forth) further furthest + +(in) inner { innermost + { inmost + +(out) { outer { outermost + { utter { utmost + { uttermost + +(up) upper { upmost + { uppermost + + ++48. Cautions concerning the Use of Adjectives.+ + +1. When two or more adjectives modify the same noun, the article is +placed only before the first, unless emphasis is desired: [He is an +industrious, faithful pupil]. + +2. If the adjectives refer to different things, the article should be +repeated before each adjective: [She has a white and a blue dress]. + +3. When two or more nouns are in apposition, the article is placed only +before the first: [I received a telegram from Mr. Richards, _the_ broker +and real estate agent]. + +4. _This, these, that_, and _those_ must agree in number with the noun +they modify: [_This kind_ of flowers; _those sorts_ of seeds]. + +5. When but two things are compared, the comparative degree is used: +[This is the more complete of the two]. + +6. When _than_ is used after a comparative, whatever is compared should +be excluded from the class with which it is compared: [I like this house +better than any other house; not, I like this house better than any +house]. + +7. Do not use _a_ after _kind of, sort of_, etc.: [What kind of man is +he? (not, What kind of _a_ man)]. _One_ man does not constitute a class +consisting of many kinds. + + ++49. Constructions of Adjectives.+--Adjectives that merely describe or +limit are said to be _attributive_ in construction. When the adjective +limits or describes, and, at the same time, adds to the predicate, it is +called a _predicate adjective_.Predicate adjectives may be used either as +attribute or objective complements: [The sea is _rough_ to-day (attribute +complement), He painted the boat _green_ (objective complement)]. + + ++50. Equivalents for Adjectives.+--The following are used as equivalents +for the typical adjective:-- + +1. A noun used in apposition: [Barrie's story of his mother, "_Margaret +Ogilvy_," is very beautiful]. + +2. A noun used as an adjective: [A _campaign_ song]. + +3. A prepositional phrase: [His little, nameless, unremember'd acts _of +kindness_ and _of love_]. + +4. Participles or participial phrases: [We saw a brook _running_ between +the alders. Soldiers _hired to serve a foreign country_ are called +mercenaries]. + +5. Relative clauses: [This is the house _that Jack built_]. + +6. An adverb (sometimes called the _locative_ adjective): [The book _here_ +is the one I want]. + + + + VERBS + + ++51. Uses of Verbs.+--A _verb_ is the word or word-group that makes an +assertion or statement, and it is therefore the most important part of the +whole sentence. It has been already shown that such a verb as _speaks_ +serves the double purpose of suggesting an activity and showing relation. +The most purely _relational_ verb is the verb _to be_, which is called the +_copula_ or _linking verb_, for the very reason that it joins predicate +words to the subject: [The lake _is_ beautiful]. _To be_, however, is not +always a pure _copula_. In such a sentence as, "He that cometh to God must +believe that He _is_," the word _is_ means _exists_.Verbs that are like +the copula, such as, _appear, become, seem_, etc., are called _copulative_ +verbs. Verbs that not only are relational but have descriptive power, such +as _sings, plays, runs_, etc., are called _attributive_ verbs. They +attribute some quality or characteristic to the subject. + + ++52. Classes of Verbs.+--According to their uses in a sentence verbs are +divided into two classes: _transitive_ and _intransitive_. + +A _transitive_ verb is one that takes a following substantive, expressed +or implied, called the _object_, to designate the receiver or the product +of the action: [They seized the _city_. They built a _city_]. The +transitive verb may sometimes be used _absolutely_:[The horse eats]. Here +the object is implied. + +An _intransitive_ verb is one that does not take an object to complete its +meaning; or, in other words, an intransitive verb is one that denotes an +action, state, or feeling that involves the subject only: [He ran away. +They were standing at the water's edge]. + +A few verbs in our language are always transitive, and a few others are +always intransitive. The verbs _lie_ and _lay, rise_ and _raise, sit_ and +_set_, are so frequently misused that attention is here called to them. +The verbs _lie, rise_, and _sit_ (usually) are intransitive in meaning, +while the verbs _lay, raise_, and _set_ are transitive. The word _sit_ may +sometimes take a reflexive object: [They sat _themselves_ down to rest]. + +The majority of verbs in our language are either transitive or +intransitive, according to the sense in which they are used. + + [The fire _burns_ merrily (intransitive). + The fire _burned_ the building (transitive). + The bird _flew_ swiftly (intransitive). + The boy _flew_ his kite (transitive).] + +Some intransitive verbs take what is known as a _cognate object_: [He died +a noble _death_.] Here the object repeats the meaning of the verb. + + ++53. Complete and Incomplete Verbs.+--Some intransitive verbs make a +complete assertion or statement without the aid of any other words. Such +verbs are said to be of _complete predication_: [The snow melts]. + +All transitive verbs and some intransitive verbs require one or more words +to complete the meaning of the predicate. Such verbs are said to be +incomplete. Whatever is added to complete the meaning of the predicate is +termed a _complement_. The complement of a transitive verb is called the +_object complement_, or simply the _object_: [She found the _book_]. +Some transitive verbs, from the nature of their meaning, take also an +_indirect_ object: [I gave _her_ the book]. When a word belonging to +the subject is added to an intransitive verb in order to complete the +predicate, it is termed an _attribute complement_. This complement may be +either a noun or an adjective: [He is our _treasurer_ (noun). This rose is +_fragrant_ (adjective)]. Among the incomplete intransitive verbs the most +conspicuous are the copula and the copulative verbs. + + ++54. Auxiliary Verbs.+--English verbs have so few changes of form to +express differences in meaning that it is often necessary to use the +so-called _auxiliary_ verbs. The most common are: _do, be, have, may, +must, might, can, shall, will, should, would, could_, and _ought_. Some of +these may be used as principal verbs. A few notes and cautions are added. + +_Can_ is used to denote the ability of the subject. + +_May_ is used to denote permission, possibility, purpose, or desire. Thus +the request for permission should be, "May I?" not "Can I?" + +_Must_ indicates necessity. + +_Ought_ expresses obligation. + +_Had_ should never be used with _ought_. To express a moral obligation in +past time, combine _ought_ with the perfect infinitive: [I ought _to have +done_ it]. + +_Should_ sometimes expresses duty: [You should not go]. + +_Would_ sometimes denotes a custom: [He would sit there for hours]. +Sometimes it expresses a wish: [Would he were here!]. For other uses of +_should_ and _would_, see Appendix 60. + + ++55. Principal Parts.+--The main forms of the verb--so important as to be +called the _principal parts_ because the other parts are formed from them-- +are the _root infinitive_, the _preterite_ (_past_) _indicative_, and the +_past participle_ [move, moved, moved; sing, sang, sung; be, was, been]. +The _present_ participle is sometimes given with the principal parts. + + ++56. Inflection.+--As is evident from the preceding paragraph, verbs have +certain changes of form to indicate change of meaning. Such a change or +_inflection_, in the case of the noun, is called _declension;_ in the +case of the verb it is called _conjugation_. Nouns are _declined_; verbs +are _conjugated_. + + ++57. Person and Number.+--In Latin, or any other highly inflected +language, there are many terminations to indicate differences in person +and number, but in English there is but one in common use, _s_ in the +third person singular: [_He runs_], _St_ or _est_ is used after _thou_ in +the second person singular: [_Thou lovest_]. + + ++58. Agreement.+--Verbs must agree with their subjects in +person and number. The following suggestions concerning +agreement may be helpful:-- + +1. A compound subject that expresses a single idea takes a singular verb: +[Bread and milk _is_ wholesome food]. + +2. When the members of a compound subject, connected by _neither ... nor_, +differ as regards person and number, the verb should agree with the nearer +of the two: [Neither they nor I _am_ to blame]. + +3. When the subject consists of singular nouns or pronouns connected by +_or, either ... or, neither ... nor_, the verb is singular: [Either this +book or that _is_ mine]. + +4. Words joined to the subject by _with, together with, as well as_, etc., +do not affect the number of the verb. The same is true of any modifier of +the subject: [John, as well as the girls, _is_ playing house. One of my +books _is_ lying on the table. Neither of us _is_ to blame]. + +5. When the article _the_ precedes the word _number_, used as a subject, +the verb should be in the singular; otherwise the verb is plural: [_The_ +number of pupils in our schools _is_ on the increase. _A_ number of +children _have_ been playing in the sand pile]. + +6. The pronoun _you_ always takes a plural verb, even if its meaning is +singular: [You _were_ here yesterday]. + +7. A collective noun takes a singular or plural verb, according as the +collection is thought of as a whole or as composed of individuals. + + ++59. Tense.+--The power of the verb to show differences of time is called +_tense_. Tense shows also the completeness or incompleteness of an act or +condition at the time of speaking. There are three _primary_ tenses: +_present, preterite_ (_past_), and _future_; and three _secondary_ tenses +for completed action:_present perfect, past perfect_ (_pluperfect_), and +_future perfect_. + +English has only two simple tenses, the present and the preterite: _I +love, I loved_. All other tenses are formed by the use of the auxiliary +verbs. By combining the present and past tenses of _will, shall, have, +be_, or _do_ with those parts of the verb known as infinitives and +participles, the various tenses of the complete conjugation of the verb +are built up. The formation of the _preterite_ tense, and the consequent +division of verbs into _strong_ and _weak_, will be discussed later. + ++60. The Future Tense.+--The future tense is formed by combining _shall_ +or _will_ with the root infinitive, without _to_. + +The correct form of the _future tense_ in assertions is here given:-- + + + SINGULAR PLURAL + +1. I shall fall 1. We shall fall +2. Thou wilt fall 2. You will fall +3. He will fall 3. They will fall + + +_Will_, in the _first_ person, denotes not simple futurity, but +determination: [I will (= am determined to) go]. + +_Shall_, in the _second_ and _third_ persons, is not simply the sign of +the future tense in declarative sentences. It is used to denote the +determination of the speaker with reference to others. + +Notice:-- + +1. In clauses introduced by _that_, expressed or understood, if the noun +clause and the principal clause have _different_ subjects, the same +auxiliary is used that would be used were the subordinate clause used +independently: [I fear we _shall_ be late. My friend is determined that +her son _shall_ not be left alone]. + +2. In all other subordinate clauses, _shall_, for all persons, denotes +simple futurity; _will_, an expression of willingness or determination: +[He thinks that he _shall_ be there. He promises that he _will_ be there]. + +3. In questions, _shall_ is always used in the first person; in the second +and third persons the same auxiliary is used which is expected in the +answer. + +(NOTE.--_Should_ and _would_ follow the rules for _shall_ and _will_.) + + ++61. Tenses for the Completed Action.+ + +1. To represent an action as completed at the _present_ time, the past +participle is used with _have_ (_hast, has_). This forms the _present +perfect_ tense: [I _have finished_]. + +2. To represent an action as completed in _past_ time, the past participle +is combined with _had_ (_hadst_). This forms the _past perfect_, or +_pluperfect_, tense: [I _had finished_]. + +3. To represent action that will be completed _in future_ time, _shall +have_ or _will have_ is combined with the past participle. This forms the +_future perfect_ tense: [I _shall have finished_]. + + ++62. Sequence of Tenses.+--It is, in general, true that the tense of a +subordinate clause changes when the tense of the main verb changes. This +is known as the Law of the Sequence (or _following_) of Tenses: [I know he +means well. I knew he meant well]. + +The verb in the main clause and the verb in the subordinate clause are not +necessarily in the same tense. + + + [I think he _is_ there. I thought he was there. + I think he _was_ there. I thought he had been there. + I think he _will be_ there. I thought he would be there.] + + +In general, the principle may be laid down that in a complex sentence the +tense for both principal and subordinate clauses is that which the sense +requires. + +General truths and present facts should be expressed in the +present tense, whatever the tense of the principal verb: [He +believed that truth _is_ unchangeable. Who did you say _is_ president +of your society?]. + +The _perfect infinitive_ is used to denote action completed at +the time of the main verb: [I am sorry _to have wounded_ you]. + ++63. Mode.+--A statement may be regarded as the expression of a fact, of a +doubt or supposition, or of a command. The power of the verb to show how +an action should be regarded is called _mode (mood_). In our language +there is but a slight change of form for this purpose. The distinction of +mode which we must make is a distinction that has regard to the thought or +attitude of mind of the speaker rather than to the form of the verb. + +The _indicative_ mode is used to state a fact or to ask questions of fact: +[I shall write a letter. Shall I write a letter?]. + +The _subjunctive_ mode indicates uncertainty, unreality, and some forms of +condition: [If she were here, I should be glad]. + +The _imperative_ mode expresses a command or entreaty: [Come here]. + + ++64. The Subjunctive Mode.+--The subjunctive is disappearing from +colloquial speech, and the indicative form is used almost entirely. + +The verb _to be_ has the following indicative and subjunctive forms in the +present and preterite:-- + + + IND. SUBJ. IND. SUBJ. + { I am I be { I was I were + { Thou art Thou be { Thou wast Thou were +PRESENT { He is He be PRETERITE { He was He were + { We are We be { We were We were + { You are You be { You were You were + { They are They be { They were They were + + +In other verbs the indicative and subjunctive forms are the same, except +that the second and third persons singular subjunctive have no personal +endings. + + +INDICATIVE Thou learnest He learns +SUBJUNCTIVE Thou learn He learn + + +The subjunctive idea is sometimes expressed by verb phrases, containing +the auxiliary verbs _may (might), would_, or _should_. _May, would_, and +_should_ are not, however, always subjunctive. In "I _may_ go" (may = am +allowed to), _may_ is indicative. In "you _should_ go" (= ought to), +_should_ is indicative. + +The subjunctive mode is used most frequently to express:-- + +1. A wish: [The Lord be with you]. + +2. A condition regarded as doubtful: [If it be true, what shall we +think?], or a condition regarded as untrue: [If I were you, I should go]. +When condition is expressed by the subjunctive without _if_, the verb +precedes the subject: [Were my brother here, he could go with me]. + +3. A purpose: [He studies that he may learn]. + +4. Exhortations: [Sing we the song of freedom]. + +5. A concession,--supposed, not given as a fact: [Though he be my enemy, I +shall pity him]. + +6. A possibility: [We fear lest he be too late]. + +The tenses of the subjunctive require especial notice. In conditional +clauses, the _present_ refers either to present or future time: [Though +the earth be removed, we shall not fear]. + +The _preterite_ refers to present time. It implies that the supposed case +is not a fact: [If he were here, I should be much pleased]. + +The _pluperfect_ subjunctive expresses a false supposition in past time: +[If you had been here, this would not have happened]. + +The phrases with _may, might, can, must, could, would_, and _should_ are +sometimes called the _potential mode_, but the constructions all fall +within either the indicative or the subjunctive uses, and a fourth mode is +only an incumbrance. + + ++65. The Imperative Mode.+--The imperative is the mode of command and +entreaty. It has but one form for both singular and plural, and but one +tense,--the present. It has but one person,--the second. The subject is +usually omitted. The case of direct address, frequently used with the +imperative, should not be confused with the subject. In, "John, hold my +books," the subject is _you_, understood. Were _John_ the subject, the +verb must be _holds_. _John_ is, here, a compellative, or vocative. + + ++66. Voice.+--Verbs are said to be in the _active_ voice when they +represent the subject as acting, and in the _passive_ voice when they +represent the subject as being acted upon. Intransitive verbs, from their +very nature, have no passive voice. Transitive verbs may have both voices, +for they may represent the subject either as acting or as being acted +upon. + +The direct object in the active voice generally becomes the subject in the +passive; if the subject of the active appears in the passive, it is the +object of the preposition _by_: [My dog loves me (active). I am loved by +my dog (passive)]. + +Verbs of calling, naming, making, and thinking may take two objects +referring to the same person or thing. The first of these is the direct +object and the second is called the objective complement: [John called him +_a coward_]. The objective complement becomes an attribute complement when +the verb is changed from the active to the passive voice: [He was called +_a coward_ by John]. + +Certain verbs take both a direct and an indirect object in the active: +[John paid him nine _dollars_]. If the indirect object becomes the subject +in the passive voice, the direct object is known as the _retained object:_ +[He was paid nine _dollars_ by John]. + + ++67. Infinitives.+--The infinitive form of the verb is often called a +verbal noun, because it partakes of the nature both of the verb and of the +noun. It is distinguished from the _finite_, or true, verb because it does +not make an assertion, and yet it assumes one. While it has the modifiers +and complements of a verb, it at the same time has the uses of a noun. + +There are two infinitives: the _root infinitive_ (commonly preceded by +_to_, the so-called _sign_ of the infinitive), and the _gerund_, or +_infinitive in -ing_. + +1. Root infinitive: [_To write_ a theme requires practice]. + +2. Gerund: [_Riding_ rapidly is dangerous]. In each of these sentences +the infinitive, in its capacity as noun, stands as the subject of the +sentence. In 1, _to write_ shows its verb nature by governing the object +_theme;_ in 2, _riding_ shows its verb nature by taking as a modifier the +adverb _rapidly_. + +Each form of the infinitive is found as the subject of a verb, as its +object, as an attribute complement, and as the object of a preposition. +The root infinitive, together with its subject in the objective case, is +used as the object of verbs of knowing, telling, etc.: [I know _him to be +a good boy_]. See also Appendix 85 for adjective and adverbial uses. + +The infinitive has two tenses: the _present_ and the _perfect_. The +_present_ tense denotes action which is not completed at the time of the +principal verb: [He tries _to write_. He tried _to write_. He will try _to +write_]. The _perfect_ infinitive denotes action complete with reference +to the time of the principal verb: [I am glad _to have known_ her]. + + ++68. Participles.+--Participles are verbal adjectives: [The girl _playing_ +the piano is my cousin]. _Playing_, as an _adjective_, modifies the noun +_girl_; it shows its _verbal_ nature by taking the object _piano_. + +The _present participle_ ends in _-ing_. When the _past participle_ has an +ending, it is either _-d, -ed, -t_, or _-en_. The _perfect participle_ is +formed by combining _having_ with a past participle; as, _having gone_. + +There is danger of confusing the present participle with the gerund, or +infinitive in _-ing_, unless the adjective character of the one and the +noun character of the other are clearly distinguished: [The boy, _driving_ +the cows to pasture, was performing his daily task (participle). _Driving_ +the cows to pasture was his daily task (gerund)]. + +Participles are used to form verb-phrases. The present participle is used +for the formation of the progressive conjugation; the past participle, for +the formation of the compound or perfect tenses. Participles are also used +in all the adjective constructions. + +One especial construction requires notice,--the _absolute_ construction, +or the _nominative absolute_, as it is called: [_The ceremony having been +finished_, the people dispersed]. The construction here is equivalent to a +clause denoting _time_ or _cause_ or some _circumstance_ attendant on the +main action of the sentence. The participle is sometimes omitted, but the +substantive must not be, lest the participle be left apparently belonging +to the nearest substantive; as, Walking home, the rain began to fall. As +the sentence stands, _walking_ modifies _rain_. + + ++69. Conjugation.+--The complete and orderly arrangement of the various +forms of a verb is termed its conjugation. Complete conjugations will be +found in any text-book on English grammar. + +The passive voice must not be confused with such a form as the progressive +conjugation of the verb. The passive consists of a form of _to be_ and a +_past participle_: [I am instructed]. The progressive tenses combine some +form of _to be_ with a _present_ participle: [I am instructing]. + +It may be well to distinguish here between the passive voice and a past +participle used as an attribute complement of the verb _be_. Both have the +same form, but there is a difference of meaning. The passive voice always +shows action received by the subject, while the participle is used only as +an adjective denoting condition: [James _was tired_ by his day's work +(passive voice). James was _tired_ (attribute complement)]. + + ++70. Weak and Strong Conjugations.+--Verbs are divided into two classes as +regards their conjugations. It has been the custom to call all verbs which +form the preterite and past participle by adding _-d_ or _-ed_ to the +present, _regular_ verbs [love, loved, loved], and to call all others +_irregular_. A better classification, based on more careful study of the +history of the English verb, divides verbs into those of the _weak_ and +those of the _strong_ conjugations. + +The _weak verbs_ are those which form the preterite by adding _-ed, -d_, +or _-t_ to the present: _love, loved_. There is also infrequently a change +of vowel: _sell, sold_; _teach, taught_. + +All verbs which form the preterite without the addition of an ending are +_strong verbs_. There is usually a change of vowel. The termination of the +past participle in _-n_ or _-en_ is a sure indication that a verb is +_strong_. Some verbs show forms of both conjugations. + +A complete list of _strong_ verbs cannot be given here, but a few of the +most common will be given, together with a few _weak_ verbs, in the use of +which mistakes occur. + + +PRESENT PRETERITE PAST PARTICIPLE +am was been +arise rose arisen +bear bore borne, born[1] +begin began begun +bid (command) bade bidden +bite bit bitten +blow blew blown +break broke broken +bring brought brought +burst burst burst +catch caught caught +choose chose chosen +climb climbed climbed +come came come +do did done +drink drank drunk[2] +drive drove driven +drown drowned drowned +eat ate eaten +fall fell fallen +fly flew flown +freeze froze frozen +get got got +give gave given +go went gone +grow grew grown +have had had +hide hid hidden +hurt hurt hurt +know knew known +lay laid laid +lie (recline) lay lain +lead led led +read read read +ride rode ridden +ring rang rung +run ran run +see saw seen +shake shook shaken +show showed shown +sing sang sung +sink sank sunk +sit sat sat +slay slew slain +speak spoke spoken +spring sprang sprung +steal stole stolen +swell swell { swelled + { swollen +swim swam swum +take took taken +tear tore torn +throw threw thrown +wear wore worn +wish wished wished +write wrote written + +[Footnote 1: Used only in the passive sense of "born into the world."] +[Footnote 2: _Drunken_ is an adjective.] + + +CAUTION.--Do not confuse the preterite with the past participle. Always +use the past participle form in the compound tenses. + + + +ADVERBS + + ++71. Classes of Adverbs.+--Adverbs vary much as to their use and meaning. +It is therefore impossible to make a very accurate classification, but we +may divide them, according to use, into _limiting, interrogative_, and +_conjunctive_ adverbs. + +_Limiting_ adverbs modify the meaning of verbs, etc.: [He rows _well_]. + +_Interrogative_ adverbs are used to ask questions: [_When_ shall you come? +He asked _where_ we were going (indirect question)]. + +_Conjunctive_ adverbs introduce clauses: [We went to the seashore, _where_ +we stayed a month]. Here _where_ is used as a connective and also as a +modifier of _stayed_. + +Conjunctive adverbs introduce the following kinds of clauses: + +1. Adverbial clauses: [Go _where_ duty calls]. + +2. Adjective clauses: [This is the very spot _where_ I put them]. + +3. Noun clause: [I do not know _how_ he will succeed]. + +Adverbs may also be classified, according to meaning, into adverbs of +_manner, time, place_, and _degree_. The classification is not, however, a +rigid one. + +Adverbs of _manner_ answer the question How? Most of these terminate in +_-ly_. A few, however, are identical in form with adjectives of like +meaning: [She sang very loud]. + +Adverbs of _time_ answer the question When? + +Adverbs of _place_ answer the question Where? This class, together with +the preceding two classes, usually modify verbs. + +_Adverbs of degree_ answer the question To what extent? These adverbs +modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. + + ++72. Phrasal Adverbs.+--Certain phrases, adverbial in character, cannot +easily be separated into parts. They have been called _phrased adverbs;_ +as, arm-in-arm, now-a-days, etc. + + ++73. Inflection.+--Some adverbs, like adjectives, are compared for the +purpose of showing different degrees of quality or quantity. + +The comparative and superlative degrees may be formed by adding the +syllables _er_ and _est_ to the positive degree. The great majority of +adverbs, however, make use of the words _more_ and _most_ or _less_ +and _least_ to show a difference in degree: [Fast, faster, fastest; +skillfully, more skillfully, most skillfully; carefully, less carefully, +least carefully]. + +Some adverbs are compared irregularly:-- + +badly } worse worst +ill (evil)} +far } { farther { farthest +forth } { further { furthest +late later { latest + { last +little less least +much more most +nigh nigher { nigher + { next +well better best + + ++74. Suggestions and Cautions concerning the Use of Adverbs.+ + +1. Some words, as _fast, little, much, more_, and others, have the same +form for both adjective and adverb, and use alone can determine what part +of speech each is. + +(Adjective) He is a fast driver. She looks well (in good health). + +(Adverb) How fast he walks! I learned my lesson well. + +2. Corresponding adjectives and adverbs usually have different forms which +should not be confused. + +(Adjective) She is a good student. + +(Adverb) He works well. + +3. The adjective, and not the adverbial, form should be used after a +copulative verb, since adverbs cannot modify substantives: [I feel bad; +not, I feel badly]. + +4. Two negatives imply an affirmative. Hence only one should be used to +denote negation: [I have nothing to say. I have no patience with him]. + + ++75. Equivalents for Adverbs.+ + +1. A phrase: [The child ran away _with great glee_]. + +2. A clause: [I will go canoeing _when the lake is calm_]. + +3. A noun: [Please come _home_. I will stay five _minutes_]. + + + +PREPOSITIONS + + ++76. Classes of Prepositions.+--The _simple_ prepositions are: _at, after, +against, but, by, down, for, from, in, of, off, over, on, since, through, +till, to, under, up_, and _with_. + +Other prepositions are either derived or compound: such as, _underneath, +across, between, concerning_, and _notwithstanding_. + + ++77. Suggestions concerning the Use of Prepositions.+--Mistakes are +frequently made in the use of the preposition. This use cannot be fully +discussed here, but a partial list of words with the required preposition +will be given. + + +afraid _of_. +agree _with_ a person. +agree _to_ a proposal. +bestow _upon_. +compare _to_ (to show similarity). +compare _with_ (to show similarity or difference). +comply _with_. +conform _to_. +convenient _for_ or _to_. +correspond _to_ or _with_ (a thing). +correspond _with_ (a person). +dependent _on_. +differ _from_ (a person or thing). +differ _from_ or _with_ (an opinion). +different _from_. +disappointed _in_. +frightened _at_ or _by_. +glad _of_. +need _of_. +profit _by_. +scared _by_. +taste _of_ (food). +taste _for_ (art). +thirst _for_ or _after_. + + +_Like_, originally an adjective or adverb, is often, in some of its uses, +called a preposition. It governs the objective case, and should not be +used as a conjunction: [She looks like _me;_ not, She looks like I do]. +The appropriate _conjunction_ here would be _as_: [She speaks _as_ I do]. + +The prepositions _in_ and _at_ denote rest or motion _in_ a place; _into_ +denotes motion _toward_ a place: [He is _in_ the garden. He went _into_ +the garden]. + + ++78. Prepositional Phrases.+--The preposition, with its object, forms what +is termed a prepositional phrase. This phrase is _adjective_ in force when +it modifies a substantive; and _adverbial_, when it modifies a verb, +adjective, or other adverb: [In the cottage _by the sea_ (adjective). He +sat _on the bench_ (adverb)]. + +Some prepositions were originally adverbs; such as, _in, on, off, up_, and +_to_. Many of them are still used adverbially or as adverbial suffixes: +[The ship lay to. A storm came on]. + + + +CONJUNCTIONS + + ++79. Classes of Conjunctions.+--Conjunctions are divided according to +their use into two general classes: the _cooerdinate_ and the _subordinate_ +conjunctions. + +_Cooerdinate_ conjunctions are used to connect words, phrases, and clauses +of equal rank; _subordinate_ conjunctions connect clauses of unequal rank. + +The principal cooerdinate conjunctions are _and, but, or, nor_, and _for_. +_And_ is said to be _copulative_ because it merely adds something to what +has just been said. Other conjunctions having a copulative use are _also, +besides, likewise, moreover_, and _too_; and the correlative conjunctions, +_both ... and, not only ... but also_, etc. These are termed _correlative_ +because they occur together. _But_ is termed the _adversative_ cooerdinate +conjunction because it usually introduces something adverse to what has +already been said. Other words of an adversative nature are _yet, however, +nevertheless, only, notwithstanding_, and _still_. _Or_ is alternative in +its force. This conjunction implies that there is a choice to be made. + +Other similar conjunctions are _either ... or, neither ... nor, or, else_. +_Either ... or_ and _neither ... nor_ are termed _correlative_ +conjunctions, and they introduce alternatives. _For, because, such_, and +as are _cooerdinate_ conjunctions only in such a case as the following: +[She has been running, for she is out of breath]. + +Some of the most common conjunctions of the _subordinate_ type are those +of place and time, cause, condition, purpose, comparison, concession, and +result. _That_ introducing a subordinate clause may be called a +_substantive_ conjunction: [I knew _that_ I ought to go]. + +There are a number of subordinate conjunctions used in pairs which are +called _correlatives_. The principal pairs are _as ... so, as ... as, so +... as, if ... then, though ... yet_. + + ++80. Simple and Compound Sentences.+--In the first section of this review +the parts of a sentence were named as the _subject_ and _predicate_. + +The _subject_ may itself consist of two parts joined by one of the +cooerdinating conjunctions: [Alice _and_ her cousin are here]. The +predicate may be formed in a similar fashion: [John played _and_ made +merry all day long]. Both subject and predicate may be so compounded: +[John _and_ Richard climbed the ladder _and_ jumped on the hay]. + +In all these cases the sentence, consisting as it does of but one subject +and one predicate, is said to be _simple_. + +When two clauses--that is, two groups of words containing each a subject +and predicate--are united by a cooerdinate conjunction, the sentence is +said to be _compound_: [John wished to play Indian, _but_ Richard +preferred to play railroad]. + +The cooerdinating conjunction need not actually appear in the sentence. Its +omission is then indicated by the punctuation: [John wished to play +Indian; Richard preferred another game]. + + ++81. Subordinate Conjunctions and Complex Sentences.+--A _subordinate_ +conjunction is used to join a subordinate clause to a principal clause, +thus forming a _complex_ sentence. The test to be applied to a clause in +order to ascertain whether it is a subordinate clause, is this: if any +group of words in a sentence, containing a subject and predicate, fulfills +the office of some single part of speech, it is a _subordinate_ clause. In +the sentence, "I went because I knew that I must," the clause, "because I +knew that I must" states the reason for the action named in the main +clause. It, therefore, stands in _adverbial_ relation to the verb "went." +"That I must" is the object of "knew." It, therefore, stands in a +_substantive_ relation to the verb. + +Subordinate clauses are often introduced by subordinate conjunctions +(sometimes by relative pronouns or adverbs); but, whenever such a +clause appears in a sentence, otherwise simple, the sentence is _complex_. +If it appears in a sentence otherwise compound, the sentence is +_compound-complex_. + +The different types of subordinate clauses will be discussed later. + + + +SENTENCE STRUCTURE + + ++82. Phrases.+--Phrases are classified both as to structure and use. + +From the standpoint of structure, a phrase is classified from its +introductory word or words, as:-- + +1. _Prepositional_: [They were _in the temple_]. + +2. _Infinitive_: [He tried _to make us hear_]. + +3. _Participial_: [_Having finished my letter_]. + +Classified as to use, a phrase may be-- + +1. A _noun_: [_To be good is to be truly great_]. + +2. An _adjective_: [The horse is an animal _of much intelligence_]. + +3. An _adverb_: [He lives _in the city_]. + + ++83. Clauses.+--It has been already shown that clauses may be either +principal or subordinate. A principal clause is sometimes defined as "one +that can stand alone," and is therefore independent of the rest of the +sentence. This statement is misleading, for, although true in most cases, +it does not hold in cases like the following:-- + +1. As the tree falls, so it must lie. + +2. That sunshine is cheering, cannot be denied. + +The genuine test for the subordinate clause is the one already given in +connection with the study of the subordinate conjunction. It must serve +the purpose of some single part of speech. All other clauses are principal +clauses. + + ++84. Classification of Subordinate Clauses.+--_A._ Subordinate clauses may +be classified into _substantive_ and _modifying_ clauses. + +_Substantive clauses_ show the various substantive constructions. Thus:-- + +1. Subject: ["_Thou shalt not covet_," is the tenth commandment]. + +2. Object: [I know _what you wish_]. + +3. Appositive: [The truth _that the earth is spherical_ is generally +believed]. + +4. Attribute complement: [The truth is _that she is not well_]. + +_Modifying clauses_ show adjective and adverbial constructions. + +Thus:-- + +1. Adjective: [The house _which you see_ is mine]. + +2. Adverb: [I will go _when_ it is possible]. + +_B._ Subordinate clauses may also be classified according to the +introductory word. + +(_a_) Clauses introduced by _relative_ or _interrogative pronouns_: _who, +which, what, that_ (= who or which), _as_ (after such), and the compound +relatives, _whoever, whichever, whatever_ (the first three are both +relative and interrogative): [The school _that stands on the hillside_ is +painted white. I know _whom you_ mean]. + +(_b_) Clauses introduced by a relative or interrogative adjective: [The +man _whose library is well furnished_ is rich. I see _which way I ought to +take_]. + +(_c_) Clauses introduced by a relative or interrogative adverb, such as +_when, whenever, since_ (referring to time), _until, before, after, where, +whence, whither, wherever, why, as, how_: [I know the house _where lie +lives_]. + +(_d_) Clauses introduced by a subordinate conjunction, such as _because, +since_ (= because), _though, although, if, unless, that_ (= in order +that), _as, as if, as though, then_: [I will go _since you wish it_]. + +_C._ Subordinate clauses may also be classified according to the nature of +the thought expressed. + +(_a_) General description: [The house, _which stands on the hill_, has a +fine view]. + +(_b_) Place: [The house _where he was born_ is torn down]. + +(_c_) Time: [He works _whenever he_ can]. + +(_d_) Cause: [_Since you wish it_, I will go]. + +(_e_) Concession: [_Although he is my friend_, I can see his faults]. + +(_f_) Purpose: [Run, _that you may obtain the prize_]. + +(_g_) Result: [She was so tired _that she stumbled_]. + +(_h_) Condition: [_If it rains_, we shall not go]. + +(_i_) Comparison: [You look as _if you were tired_]. + +Note that the subordinate clauses in the above examples are modifying +clauses. + +(_j_) Direct quotation: [She said, "_I will go_"]. + +(_k_) Indirect statement: [She said _that she would go_]. + +(_l_) Indirect question: [I knew _where his house_ was]. + +Note that the subordinate clauses in the above examples are substantive +clauses. + + ++85. The Framework of a Sentence+ has been already described as consisting +of the _subject_, the _verb_, and, if the verb be incomplete, of some +completing element, _object_ or _attribute complement_. Occasionally an +_objective complement_ must be added. Besides these elementary parts, both +subject and predicate may have modifiers. + +The usual modifiers of the subject are:-- + +1. Adjective: [The _golden_ bowl is broken]. + +2. Adjective phrase: [The house _on the hill_ is beautiful]. + +3. Adjective clause: [The house _which stands on the hill_ is beautiful]. + +4. Noun or pronoun in possessive case: [_Helen's_ paint box is lost]. + +5. Noun in apposition: [Mr. Merrill, the _president_ of the club, will +open the debate]. + +6. Adverb used as an adjective: [My _sometime_ friend]. + +7. Infinitive used adjectively: [Work _to do_ is a blessing]. + +8. Participle: [The child, _lagging_ behind, lost her way]. + +The modifiers of the predicate are:-- + +1. Adverb: [The snow melted very _quickly_]. + +2. Noun used adverbially: [I walked a _mile_]. + +3. Infinitive used adverbially: [We were called together _to decide_ an +important question]. + +4. Adverbial phrase: [She ran _along the road_]. + +5. Adverbial clause: [Go _when you can_]. + +6. Nominative absolute: [The _speeches being over_, the audience +dispersed]. + +Occasionally, adverbs and phrases of adverbial character modify the entire +thought in a sentence, rather than some single word: [_To speak plainly,_ +I cannot go. _Perhaps_ I may help you]. + + + +LIST OF SPECIAL WORDS + + ++86. Special Words.+--A list is here given of words which +appear as various parts of speech:--- + ++a+ (1) Adjective: _A_ book. (2) Preposition: I go a-fishing. + ++about+ (1) Preposition: Walk _about_ the house. (2) Adverb: We walked + _about_ for an hour. _By, over, up_, etc., are used in the + same way. + ++above+ (1) Preposition: The sun is _above_ the horizon. (2) Adverb: Go + _above_. (3) Noun: Every good gift is from _above_. (4) + Adjective: The _above_ remarks are discredited. _Below_ has + the same uses. + ++after+ (1) Preposition: _After_ our sail. (2) Conjunctive adverb: He + came _after_ she went away. + ++all+ (1) Pronoun: _All_ went merry as a marriage bell. (2) Noun: I + gave my _all_. (3) Adjective: _All_ hands to the rescue. + (4) Adverb: The work is _all_ right. + ++as+ (1) Conjunctive pronoun: I give such _as_ I have. (2) Conjunctive + adverb: I am not so old _as_ she. (3) Adverb: What other + grief is _as_ hard to bear? (4) Conjunction: _As_ it was hot, + we did not go. (5) Preposition: I warned her _as_ a friend. + (6) Compound Conjunction: He looks _as_ if he were not well. + ++before+ (1) Preposition: He stood _before_ the door. (2) Conjunctive + Adverb: I will do it _before_ I go. (3) Adverb: She has never + been here _before_. + ++both+ (1) Adjective: _Both_ white and red pines are beautiful. (2) + Pronoun: _Both_ are yours. (3) Conjunction: She is _both_ + good and beautiful. + ++but+ (1) Conjunction: John reads _but_ Richard plays. (2) Preposition: + All _but_ him are at home. (3) Adverb: We can _but_ fail. + ++either+ (1) Adjective: _Either_ dress is becoming. (2) Conjunction: + _Either_ this dress or the other is becoming. (3) Pronoun: + _Either_ is right. + ++fast+ (1) Noun: A long _fast_. (2) Verb: They _fast_ often. (3) Adverb: + The rain fell _fast_. (4) Adjective: He is a _fast_ walker. + ++for+ (1) Subordinate Conjunction: I must go, _for_ I promised. (2) + Cooerdinate Conjunction: She stayed at home, _for_ I saw her. + (3) Preposition: I have nothing _for_ you. + ++hard+ (1) Adjective: _Hard_ labor. (2) Adverb: He works _hard_. + ++like+ (1) Noun: We may never see her _like_ again. (2) Adjective: This + process gives _like_ results. (3) Adverb: _Like_ as a father + pitieth his children. (4) Preposition: She looks _like_ me. + (By some grammarians _like_ in this case is considered a + _adjective_ with the preposition _to_ omitted.) (5) Verb: + You _like_ your work. + ++little+ (1) Adjective: A _little_ bread. (2) Noun: I wish a _little_. + (3) Adverb: He laughs _little_. _Much_ has the same uses. + ++many a+ (1) Adjective: _Many a_ tree. + ++notwithstanding+ (1) Preposition: _Notwithstanding_ the rain, we were + content. (2) Conjunction or Preposition: She is happy, + _notwithstanding_ (the fact that) she is an invalid. + ++only+ (1) Adjective: This is the _only_ way. (2) Adverb: _Only_ + experienced persons need apply. (3) Conjunction: I should + go, _only_ it is stormy. + ++since+ (1) Preposition: _Since_ that day I have not seen her. (2) + Conjunction: _Since_ you lost it, you must replace it. + (3) Adverb: I have not seen her _since_. (4) Conjunctive + Adverb: You have been here _since_ I have. + ++still+ (1) Adjective: The lake is _still_. (2) Adverb: The tree is + _still_ lying where it fell. (3) Conjunction: He is + entertaining; _still_ he talks too much. (4) Verb: Oil + is said to _still_ the waves. (5) Noun: In the _still_ of + noonday the song of the locust was loud. + ++than+ (1) Conjunction: I am older _than_ she. (2) Preposition: _Than_ + whom there is none wiser. + ++that+ (1) Demonstrative Pronoun: _That_ is right. (2) Conjunctive + Pronoun: He _that_ lives nobly is happy. (3) Adjective: + _That_ book is mine. (4) Conjunction: I say this _that_ you + may understand my position. (5) Substantive Conjunction: + _That_ this is true is evident. + ++the+ (1) Adjective (article): _The_ lake. (2) Adverb: _The_ more ... + _the_ merrier. + ++then+ (1) Adverb: I shall know _then_. (2) Conjunction: If you so + decide, _then_ we may go. + ++there+ (1) Adverb: The stream runs _there_. (2) Expletive: _There_ are + many points to be considered. (3) Interjection: _There! + there!_ it makes no difference! + ++what+ (1) Conjunctive Interrogative Pronoun: I heard _what_ you said. + Pronoun: _What_ shall I do? (3) Interrogative Adjective: + _What_ game do you prefer? (4) Conjunctive Adjective: I + know _what_ books he enjoys. (5) Adverb: _What_ with this + and _what_ with that, he finally got his wish. (6) + Interjection: _What! what!_ + ++while+ (1) Noun: A long _while_. (2) Verb: To _while_ away the time. + (3) Conjunctive Adverb: I stay in _while_ it snows. + + + +III. FIGURES OF SPEECH + + ++87. Figures of Speech.+--A figure of speech is a change from the usual +form of expression for the purpose of producing a greater effect. These +changes may be effective either because they are more pleasing to us or +because they are more forcible, or for both reasons. + +While figurative language is a change from the usual mode of expression, +we are not to think of it as being unnatural. It is, in fact, as natural +as plain language, and nearly every one, from the illiterate to the most +learned, makes use of it, more or less, in his ordinary conversation. This +arises from, the fact that we all enjoy comparisons and substitutions. +When we say that we have been pegging away all day at our work, or that +the wind howls, or that the man has a heart of steel, we are making use of +figures of speech. Figurative language ranges from these very simple +expressions to the beautiful figures of speech found in so much of our +poetry. Written prose contains many beautiful and forcible examples, but +it is in poetry that we find most of them. + + ++88. Simile.+--A simile is an expressed comparison between objects +belonging to different classes. We must remember, however, that all +resemblances do not constitute similes. If we compare two trees, or two +beehives, or two rivers, our comparison is not a simile. If we compare a +tree to a person, a beehive to a schoolroom, or time to a river, we may +form a good simile, since the things compared do not belong to the same +class. The best similes are those in which the ideas compared have one +strong point of resemblance, and are unlike in all other respects. + + +1. How far that little candle throws its beams! + So shines a good deed in a naughty world. + +--Shakespeare. + + +2. For very young he seemed, tenderly reared; + Like some young cypress, tall, and dark, and straight. + +--Matthew Arnold. + + +3. In the primrose-tinted sky + The wan little moon + Hangs like a jewel dainty and rare. + +--Francis C. Rankin. + + ++89. Metaphor.+--A metaphor differs from a simile in that the comparison +is implied rather than expressed. They are essentially the same as far as +the comparison is concerned, and usually the one kind may be easily +changed to the other. In a simile we say that one object _is like_ +another, in a metaphor we say that one object _is_ another. + + +EXERCISES + + +Select the metaphors in the following and change them to +similes:-- + + +1. In arms the Austrian phalanx stood, + A living wall, a human wood. + +--James Montgomery. + + +2. The familiar lines + Are footpaths for the thoughts of Italy. + +--Longfellow. + + +3. Life is a leaf of paper white, + Whereon each one of us may write + His word or two, and then comes night. + +--Lowell. + + ++90. Personification.+--Personification is a special form of the metaphor +in which life is attributed to inanimate objects or the characteristics of +persons are attributed to objects, animals, or even to abstract ideas. + + +EXERCISES + + +Explain why the following quotations are examples of personifications:-- + + +1. The day is done; and slowly from the scene + The stooping sun upgathers his spent shafts + And puts them back into his golden quiver. + +--Longfellow. + + +2. Time is a cunning workman and no man can detect his joints. + +--Charles Pierce Burton. + + +3. The sun is couched, the seafowl gone to rest, + And the wild storm hath somewhere found a nest. + +--Wordsworth. + + +4. See the mountains kiss high heaven, + And the waves clasp one another; + No sister flower would be forgiven + If it disdained its brother. + +--Shelley. + + ++91. Apostrophe.+--Apostrophe is like personification, but has an +additional characteristic. When we directly address inanimate objects or +the absent as if they were present, we call the figure of speech thus +formed apostrophe. + +The following are examples of apostrophe:-- + + +1. Break, break, break, + At the foot of thy crags, O Sea! + +--Tennyson. + + +2. Backward, turn backward, O Time, in your flight, + Make me a child again just for to-night! + Mother, come back from the echoless shore, + Take me again to your heart as of yore. + +--Elizabeth Akers Allen. + + ++92. Metonymy.+--Metonymy consists in substituting one object for another, +the two being so closely associated that the mention of one suggests the +other. + + 1. The pupils are reading George Eliot. + 2. Each hamlet heard the call. + 3. Strike for your altars and your fires. + 4. Gray hairs should be respected. + + ++93. Synecdoche.+--Synecdoche consists in substituting a part of anything +for the whole or a whole for the part. + + 1. A babe, two summers old. + 2. Give us this day our daily bread. + 3. Ring out the thousand years of woe, + Ring in the thousand years of peace. + 4. Fifty mast are on the ocean. + + ++94. Other Figures of Speech.+--Sometimes, especially in older rhetorics, +the following so-called figures of speech are added to the list already +given: irony, hyperbole, antithesis, climax, and interrogation. The two +former pertain rather to style, in fact, are qualities of style, while the +last two might properly be placed along with kinds of sentences or +paragraph development. Since these so-called figures are not all mentioned +elsewhere in this text, a brief explanation and example of each will be +given here. + +1. _Irony_ consists in saying just the opposite of the intended meaning, +but in such a way that it emphasizes that meaning. + + What has the gray-haired prisoner done? + Has murder stained his hands with gore? + Not so; his crime is a fouler one-- + God made the old man poor. + +--Whittier. + + +2. _Hyperbole_ is an exaggerated expression used to increase +the effectiveness of a statement. + + +He was a man of boundless knowledge. + + +3. _Antithesis_ consists merely of contrasted statements. This contrast +may be found in a single sentence or it may be extended through an entire +paragraph. + + + Look like the innocent flower, + But be the serpent under it. + +--Shakespeare. + + +4. _Climax_ consists of an ascendant arrangement of words or ideas. + + +I came, I saw, I conquered. + + +5. When a question is asked, not for the purpose of obtaining information +but in order to make speech more effective, it is called the figure of +_interrogation_. An affirmative question denies and a negative question +affirms. + + 1. Am I my brother's keeper? + 2. Am I not free? + + + +IV. THE RHETORICAL FEATURES OF THE SENTENCE + + ++95. Unity, Coherence, and Emphasis in Sentences.+--On pages 153-155 we +have considered the principles of unity, coherence, and emphasis as +applied to the whole composition. In much the same way these principles +are applicable to the sentence. A sentence possesses unity if all that it +contains makes one complete statement, and no more; and if all minor ideas +are made subordinate to one main idea. The effect must be single. A +sentence exhibits coherence when the relation of all of its parts is +perfectly clear. We secure emphasis in the sentence by placing ideas that +deserve distinction in conspicuous positions; by arranging the members of +a series in the order of climax; by using specific rather than general +terms; by expressing thoughts with directness and simplicity; and by +employing the devices of balance and contrast. + +We must remember that, in the sentence as well as in the whole composition +and the paragraph, if coherence and unity are secured, emphasis is quite +likely to follow naturally. On the other hand, a violation of coherence or +unity often results in a lack of emphasis. + + ++96. Unity in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+-- + +1. _The presence of more than one main thought_. (Stonewall Jackson was a +general in the Confederate Army, and he is said to have been a very +religious man.) In this sentence two distinct thoughts are embodied, and +in such a way that their relation to each other is altogether illogical. +The effect is not that of a single thought. To possess unity the two or +more thoughts of a compound sentence should sustain some particular +relation, like cause and effect, contrast, series, details of a picture. +We can unite the two thoughts in a perfectly logical sentence, thus: +(Stonewall Jackson, the Confederate general, is said to have been a very +religious man.) + +2. _The addition of too many dependent clauses_. (The boy was startled +when he awoke, for he heard the plan of his captors, who were preparing to +seize the boat, which had been left by his friends who had so mysteriously +deserted him at a time when he needed them most.) Here, the numerous +dependent clauses tacked on obscure the main thought. The sentence should +be broken up and, where possible, clauses should be reduced to phrases and +words. (The boy was startled when he awoke, for he heard the plan of his +captors. They were preparing to seize the boat left by his friends, who +had deserted him in the hour of greatest need.) + +3. _The presence of incongruous ideas_. (With his hair combed and his +shoes blacked, he gave the impression of being a very strong man.) The +ideas of this sentence have no logical relation to each other. There is +little likelihood, too, of making them more congruous by any change in the +sentence. Blacking one's shoes and combing one's hair do not make one look +strong. The remedy for such a sentence is to separate the incongruous +ideas. + +4. _A needless change of construction_. (Silas was kindly received by the +men in the tavern; and when they had listened to his story and his answers +to their questions had been noted, they began to think of catching the +thief.) Confusion arises from such sudden and needless changes of the +subject. By keeping the same subject throughout, we secure unity of +impression. (The men in the tavern received Silas kindly; and when they +had listened to his story and had noted his answers to their questions, +they began to think of catching the thief.) + +5. _Making the sentence too short and fragmentary to serve as a logical +unit of the paragraph_. (I went to the park yesterday. It was a pleasant +day. I saw many animals. I had a good time, etc.) Each of these sentences, +when considered in its relation to the others, and to the development of +the thought, is altogether too incomplete and unimportant in ideas +expressed to stand alone. Unity of impression and dignity of thought are +gained by combining the sentences. (Yesterday was a pleasant day; so I +went to the park, where I saw many animals, and had a good time.) + + ++97. Coherence in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+-- + +1. _The wrong placing of modifiers_. (The victorious general was +returning to his native city after many hard-fought campaigns with his +staff officers.) It is not likely that the campaigns here referred +to were waged against the staff officers. By changing the position of +phrases we express the thought that the writer had in mind. (After many +hard-fought campaigns, the victorious general, with his staff officers, +was approaching his native city.) Especial care should be taken in placing +the correlatives _either, or; neither, nor; not only, but also;_ and the +word _only_. Incoherence frequently arises through the wrong placing of +these words. + +2. _The careless use of pronouns_. (Argument plays a very little part in +that work, and those that do occur are not interesting.) (He repeated to +his father what he had told him the night before when he was in his room.) +In both sentences, the relation between pronouns and antecedents is not +clear, and incoherence results. With the ambiguity in the use of the +pronouns remedied, the sentences are entirely coherent. (Argument plays a +very little part in that work, and whatever argumentative material is +found is not interesting.) (He repeated to his father what he had told +this parent the night before in his room.) + +3. _Careless participial and infinitive relations_. (After carefully +preparing my lessons, a friend came in.) (Standing on Brooklyn Bridge, a +great many ferryboats can be seen.) The relation of the parts is +manifestly illogical and absurd. The sentences should read: (After I had +carefully prepared my lessons, a friend came in.) (While standing on +Brooklyn Bridge, one can see a great many ferryboats.) + +4. _The use of wrong connectives_. (It rained yesterday, and I went to +school.) We assume that the pupil wishes to convey the thought that he +went to school yesterday in spite of the rain. But by his use of the +coordinating conjunction, "and," he has failed to establish a logical +relation between the two clauses. In this case unity is violated as well +as coherence. Use different connectives and note the result, (Although it +rained yesterday, I went to school) or, (It rained yesterday, but I went +to school). + +5. _Failure to observe parallelism in form_. (The stranger seemed +courteous in his conduct and to have a solicitude for my welfare.) +Although this sentence is grammatically correct, the shift in structure +from the adjective and its phrase to the infinitive phrase leads to +confusion in thought. How much clearer and smoother this rendering: (The +stranger seemed courteous in his conduct and solicitous for my welfare.) + + ++98. Emphasis in the sentence is affected unfavorably by+-- + +1. _Weak beginnings and endings_. (A fire in the city is an exciting event +to the average boy.) (It seemed that the unprincipled fellow had forged +his father's name.) In the first sentence, the important words are +"exciting event," and they should occupy the most conspicuous position,-- +at the end of the sentence. The effectiveness is much improved by this +order: (To the average boy, a fire in the city is an exciting event.) In +the second sentence the weak place is the beginning. The subject and its +modifiers are striking enough to demand their rightful position,--as the +introductory words; in "forged his father's name" we have ideas startling +enough for a place at the end of the sentence. "It seemed that" can be +reduced to one word, "apparently," and this can be made parenthetical. +(The unprincipled fellow, apparently, had forged his father's name.) This +sentence, it will be observed, illustrates the periodic or suspended +structure, a type particularly effective to employ for sustaining interest +as well as for securing emphasis. + +2. _Failure to observe the order of climax_. (Dazed, broken-hearted, +hungry, the poor mother resumed her daily tasks.) Clearly, the strongest +idea is suggested by "broken-hearted." A better order would be: (Hungry, +dazed, broken-hearted, the poor mother resumed her daily tasks.) + +3. _The use of superfluous words_. (I rushed hurriedly into the burning +house and hastily snatched my few possessions.) In this sentence, "rushed" +and "snatched" lose rather than gain force by adding "hurriedly" and +"hastily." Look up definitions of "rush" and "snatch." When we wish to +express strong emotion or to describe action resulting from excitement, we +only weaken the impression by using unnecessary words. Simple, direct +sentences are most forceful. In aiming to secure sentence emphasis, then, +we should avoid circumlocution, redundancy, tautology, and verbosity. +(Look up these terms in the Century Dictionary.) + +4. _The use of general rather than specific terms_. (He approached the +brook cautiously, and concealing himself in the bushes, began fishing.) A +consideration of the choice of words in the sentence belongs strictly to +the study of diction; however, force in the sentence is dependent in a +large measure on the words employed. Observe how forceful the following +sentence is as contrasted with the first example: (He crept noiselessly to +the fishing hole, and hiding in the willows, threw his hook into the +stream.) + +5. _Failure to employ balance and contrast_. (Worth makes the man; but the +fellow is made by the want of it.) (His life was spent in repenting of +past misdeeds; in doing what was wrong, while he inculcated principles of +righteousness.) Compare these with: (Worth makes the man; the want of it, +the fellow.) (His life was spent in sinning and repenting; in inculcating +what was right, and doing what was wrong.) Here the regularity of form +gives pleasure to the taste, while the position of balanced and parallel +parts adds clearness, coherence, and emphasis to the thoughts expressed. +This method of sentence structure, if employed too frequently, however, +will lead to a mannerism difficult to overcome. The caution to be heeded +in the case of this type of sentence as well as in the case of every other +is, "Nothing too much." Observe the law of variety. + + +EXERCISES + +Point out the specific faults and correct:-- + +1. He neither gave satisfaction as butler nor as coachman. + +2. Elaine deserves our sympathy from the beginning to the end of the +novel. + +3. John only played once and won; and then, after watching the other +players for a time, he got up and left the room. + +4. The boy had an unconquerable fear of reptiles which no reasoning could +overcome. + +5 The Vicar's son Moses was a good student of the classics, but he made a +bad bargain in his purchase of the green spectacles. + +6. In all of his behavior toward Lynette, Gareth was patient and +courteous, which reflected much credit on his knightly character. + +7. Johnson was a man with a heroic soul, a wonderful intellect, and a kind +heart. + +8. After they had all assembled and come together, Odysseus addressed +them. + +9. He had reached the age of seventy, and his death was due to a nervous +disorder. + +10. The boys were only injured a little. + +11. George Eliot's writings are filled with the philosophy of life, if we +are wise enough to discover it. + +12. Addison was sincere and kindly in his attitude toward men, and Pope +was hypocritical and spiteful. + +13. With reputation, character, and wealth gone, the poor man had little +to live for. + +14. Lancelot loved Queen Guinevere dearly, and he was Arthur's most +valorous knight. + +15. We are at peace with all the world and the rest of mankind. + +16. Cedric lived with two great ends in view,--the union of Athelstane and +Rowena and to see a restored Saxon monarchy. + +17. James was walking backward and forward on the mountain side, which at +this place was very precipitous and from which a little silvery stream +issued to begin its rapid descent to the quiet hamlet that lay far below. + +18. In our efforts to succeed in life we work hard that we may make names +for ourselves and to acquire property. + +19. He is a good hunter, but his wife is a Methodist. + +20. Going up the street I saw the strangest-looking man. + +21. James speaks German fluently, and he did not begin to study it until +last year. + +22. On returning to the deck, the sea assumed a very different aspect. + + + +V. LIST OF SYNONYMS + + +Abandon, cast off, desert, forswear, quit, renounce, withdraw from. + +Abate, decrease, diminish, mitigate, moderate. + +Abhor, abominate, detest, dislike, loathe. + +Abiding, enduring, lasting, permanent, perpetual. + +Ability, capability, capacity, competency, efficacy, power. + +Abolish, annul, eradicate, exterminate, obliterate, root out, wipe out. + +Abomination, curse, evil, iniquity, nuisance, shame. + +Absent, absent-minded, absorbed, abstracted, oblivious, preoccupied. + +Absolve, acquit, clear. + +Abstemiousness, abstinence, frugality, moderation, sobriety, temperance. + +Absurd, ill-advised, ill-considered, ludicrous, monstrous, paradoxical, +preposterous, unreasonable, wild. + +Abundant, adequate, ample, enough, generous, lavish, plentiful. + +Accomplice, ally, colleague, helper, partner. + +Active, agile, alert, brisk, bustling, energetic, lively, supple. + +Actual, authentic, genuine, real. + +Address, adroitness, courtesy, readiness, tact. + +Adept, adroit, deft, dexterous, handy, skillful. + +Adequate, adjoining, bordering, near, neighboring. + +Admire, adore, respect, revere, venerate. + +Admit, allow, concede, grant, suffer, tolerate. + +Admixture, alloy. + +Adverse, disinclined, indisposed, loath, reluctant, slow, unwilling. + +Aerial, airy, animated, ethereal, frolicsome. + +Affectation, cant, hypocrisy, pretense, sham. + +Affirm, assert, avow, declare, maintain, state. + +Aged, ancient, antiquated, antique, immemorial, old, venerable. + +Air, bearing, carriage, demeanor. + +Akin, alike, identical. + +Alert, on the alert, sleepless, wary, watchful. + +Allay, appease, calm, pacify. + +Alliance, coalition, compact, federation, union, fusion. + +Allude, hint, imply, insinuate, intimate, suggest. + +Allure, attract, cajole, coax, inveigle, lure. + +Amateur, connoisseur, novice, tyro. + +Amend, better, mend, reform, repair. + +Amplify, develop, expand, extend, unfold, widen. + +Amusement, diversion, entertainment, pastime. + +Anger, exasperation, petulance, rage, resentment. + +Animal, beast, brute, living creature, living organism. + +Answer, rejoinder, repartee, reply, response, retort. + +Anticipate, forestall, preclude, prevent. + +Apiece, individually, severally, separately. + +Apparent, clear, evident, obvious, tangible, unmistakable. + +Apprehend, comprehend, conceive, perceive, understand. + +Arraign, charge, cite, impeach, indict, prosecute, summon. + +Arrogance, haughtiness, presumption, pride, self-complacency, +superciliousness, vanity. + +Artist, artificer, artisan, mechanic, operative, workman. + +Artless, boorish, clownish, hoidenish, rude, uncouth, unsophisticated. + +Assent, agree, comply. + +Assurance, effrontery, hardihood, impertinence, impudence, incivility, +insolence, officiousness, rudeness. + +Atom, grain, scrap, particle, shred, whit. + +Atrociousness, barbaric, barbarous, brutal, merciless. + +Attack, assault, infringement, intrusion, onslaught. + +Attain, accomplish, achieve, arrive at, compass, reach, secure. + +Attempt, endeavor, essay, strive, try, undertake. + +Attitude, pose, position, posture. + +Attribute, ascribe, assign, charge, impute. + +Axiom, truism. + + +Baffle, balk, bar, check, embarrass, foil, frustrate, hamper, hinder, +impede, retard, thwart. + +Banter, burlesque, drollery, humor, jest, raillery, wit, witticism. + +Beg, plead, press, urge. + +Beguile, divert, enliven, entertain, occupy. + +Bewilderment, confusion, distraction, embarrassment, perplexity. + +Bind, fetter, oblige, restrain, restrict. + +Blaze, flame, flare, flash, flicker, glare, gleam, gleaming, glimmer, +glitter, light, luster, shimmer, sparkle. + +Blessed, hallowed, holy, sacred, saintly. + +Boasting, display, ostentation, pomp, pompousness, show. + +Brave, adventurous, bold, courageous, daring, dauntless, fearless, +gallant, heroic, undismayed. + +Bravery, coolness, courage, gallantry, heroism. + +Brief, concise, pithy, sententious, terse. + +Bring over, convince, induce, influence, persuade, prevail upon, win over. + + +Calamity, disaster, misadventure, mischance, misfortune, mishap. + +Candid, impartial, open, straightforward, transparent, unbiased, +unprejudiced, unreserved. + +Candor, frankness, truth, veracity. + +Caprice, humor, vagary, whim. + +Caricature, burlesque, parody, travesty. + +Catch, capture, clasp, clutch, grip, secure. + +Cause, consideration, design, end, ground, motive, object, reason, +purpose. + +Caution, discretion, prudence. + +Censure, criticism, rebuke, reproof, reprimand, reproach. + +Character, constitution, disposition, reputation, temper, temperament. + +Characteristic, peculiarity, property, singularity, trait. + +Chattering, garrulous, loquacious, talkative. + +Cheer, comfort, delight, ecstasy, gayety, gladness, gratification, +happiness, jollity, satisfaction. + +Churlish, crusty, gloomy, gruff, ill-natured, morose, sour, sullen, surly. + +Class, circle, clique, coterie. + +Cloak, cover, gloss over, mitigate, palliate, screen. + +Cloy, sate, satiate, satisfy, surfeit. + +Commit, confide, consign, intrust, relegate. + +Compassion, forbearance, lenience, mercy. + +Compassionate, gracious, humane. + +Complete, consummate, faultless, flawless, perfect. + +Confirm, corroborate. + +Conflicting, discordant, discrepant, incongruous, mismated. + +Confused, discordant, miscellaneous, various. + +Conjecture, guess, suppose, surmise. + +Conscious, aware, certain. + +Consequence, issue, outcome, outgrowth, result, sequel, upshot. + +Continual, continuous, incessant, unbroken, uninterrupted. + +Credible, conceivable, likely, presumable, probable, reasonable. + +Customary, habitual, normal, prevailing, usual, wonted. + + +Damage, detriment, disadvantage, harm, hurt, injury, prejudice. + +Dangerous, formidable, terrible. + +Defame, deprecate, disparage, slander, vilify. + +Defile, infect, soil, stain, sully, taint, tarnish. + +Deleterious, detrimental, hurtful, harmful, mischievous, pernicious, +ruinous. + +Delicate, fine, minute, refined, slender. + +Delightful, grateful, gratifying, refreshing, satisfying. + +Difficult, hard, laborious, toilsome, trying. + +Digress, diverge, stray, swerve, wander. + +Disown, disclaim, disavow, recall, renounce, repudiate, retract. + +Dispose, draw, incline, induce, influence, move, prompt, stir. + + +Earlier, foregoing, previous, preliminary. + +Effeminate, feminine, womanish, womanly. + +Emergency, extremity, necessity. + +Empty, fruitless, futile, idle, trifling, unavailing, useless, vain, +visionary. + +Erudition, knowledge, profundity, sagacity, sense, wisdom. + +Eternal, imperishable, interminable, perennial, perpetual, unfailing. + +Excuse, pretense, pretext, subterfuge. + +Exemption, immunity, liberty, license, privilege. + +Explicit, express. + + +Faint, faint-hearted, faltering, half-hearted, irresolute, languid, +listless, purposeless. + +Faithful, loyal, stanch, trustworthy, trusty. + +Fanciful, fantastic, grotesque, imaginative, visionary. + +Fling, gibe, jeer, mock, scoff, sneer, taunt. + +Flock, bevy, brood, covey, drove, herd, litter, pack. + +Fluctuate, hesitate, oscillate, vacillate, waver. + +Folly, imbecility, senselessness, stupidity. + + +Grief, melancholy, regret, sadness, sorrow. + + +Hale, healthful, healthy, salutary, sound, vigorous. + + +Ignorant, illiterate, uninformed, uninstructed, unlettered, untaught. + +Impulsive, involuntary, spontaneous, unbidden, voluntary, willing. + +Indispensable, inevitable, necessary, requisite, unavoidable. + +Inquisitive, inquiring, intrusive, meddlesome, peeping, prying. + +Intractable, perverse, petulant, ungovernable, wayward, willful. + +Irritation, offense, pique, resentment. + + +Probably, presumably. + + +Reliable, trustworthy, trusty. + +Remnant, trace, token, vestige. + +Requite, repay, retaliate, satisfy. + + +VI. LIST OF WORDS FOR EXERCISES IN WORD USAGE + +Ability, capacity. + +Accept, except. + +Acceptance, acceptation. + +Access, accession. + +Accredit, credit. + +Act, action. + +Admire, like. + +Admittance, admission. + +Advance, advancement, progress, progression. + +Affect, effect. + +After, afterward. + +Aggravating, irritating, provoking, exasperating. + +Allege, maintain + +Allow, guess, think. + +Allusion, illusion, delusion. + +Almost, most, mostly. + +Alone, only. + +Alternate, choice. + +Among, between. + +Amount, number, quantity. + +Angry, mad. + +Apparently, evidently. + +Apt, likely, liable. + +Arise, rise. + +At, in. + +Avocation, vocation. + +Awfully, very. + + +Balance, rest, remainder. + +Begin, commence. + +Beside, besides. + +Both, each, every. + +Bring, fetch. + +By, with. + + +Calculate, intend. + +Carry, bring, fetch. + +Casuality, casualty. + +Character, reputation. + +Claim, assert. + +Clever, pleasant. + +College, university, school. + +Completeness, completion. + +Compliment, complement. + +Confess, admit. + +Construe, construct. + +Contemptible, contemptuous. + +Continual, continuous. + +Convince, convict. + +Council, counsel. + +Couple, pair. + +Credible, creditable, credulous. + +Custom, habit. + + +Deadly, deathly. + +Decided, decisive. + +Decimate, destroy. + +Declare, assert. + +Degrade, demean. + +Depot, station, R.R. + +Discover, invent. + +Drive, ride. + + +Each other, any other, one another. + +Emigration, immigration, migration. + +Enormity, enormousness. + +Estimate, esteem. + +Exceptional, exceptionable. + +Expect, suppose. + + +Falseness, falsity. + +Fly, flee. + +Funny, odd. + +Grant, give. + +Habit, practice. + +Haply, happily. + +Healthy, healthful, wholesome. + +Human, humane. + + +Lady, woman. + +Last, latest, preceding. + +Learn, teach. + +Lease, hire. + +Less, fewer. + +Lie, lay. + +Loan, lend. + +Love, like. + + +Mad, angry. + +Majority, plurality. + +Manly, mannish. + +May, can. + +Mutual, common. + + +Necessities, necessaries. + +Nice, pleasant, attractive. + +Noted, notorious. + + +Observation, observance. + +Official, officious. + +Oral, verbal. + + +Part, portion. + +Partly, partially. + +Persecute, prosecute. + +Person, party. + +Practicable, practical. + +Prescribe, proscribe. + +Prominent, predominant. + +Purpose, propose. + + +Quite, very, rather. + + +Relation, relative. + +Repair, mend. + +Requirement, requisite. + +Rise, raise. + + +Scholar, pupil, student. + +Sensible of, sensitive to. + +Series, succession. + +Settle, locate. + +Sewage, sewerage. + +Shall, will. + +Should, would. + +Sit, set. + +Splendid, elegant. + +Statement, assertion. + +Statue, statute, stature. + +Stay, stop. + + +Team, carriages. + +Transpire, happen. + + +Verdict, testimony. + +Without, unless. + +Womanly, womanish. + + +INDEX + +Abbott. +Action: observation of. +Actuality: in argument. +Adams. +Adjectives. +Advantages: + of expressing ideas gained from experience; + of imaginative theme writing. +Adverbs. +Agreement. +Allen, Elizabeth A. +Allen, James Lane. +Ambiguity. +Analogy: argument from. +Antithesis. +Apostrophe: + rule for; + as figure of speech. +Argument: + purpose of; + use of explanation in; + by stating advantages and disadvantages; + by use of specific instances; + refutation or indirect; + differs from exposition; + clear thinking essential; + by inference; + from cause; + from sign; + from example; + from analogy; + differs from persuasion; + with persuasion. +Argumentative themes. +Arnold. +Arrangement: + _see_ coherence; + in argument; + summary of. +Attendant circumstances: argument from. +Authority: appeals to in argument. +Auxiliary verbs. +Ayton. + + +Bagley. +Baldwin. +Ballad. +Bancroft. +Belief: + necessity in debate; + establishing a general theory; + basis of. +Beveridge. +Biography. +Blank verse. +Boardman. +Bourdillon. +Bowles. +Bradley. +Brief. +Brown. +Browning. +Bryant. +Budgell. +Burke. +Burns. +Burroughs. +Byron. + + +Cable. +Camp. +Capitals. +Cary. +Case. +Cause and effect: + development of paragraph by use of; + development of composition by use of; + use in exposition; + use in argument. +Cautions and suggestions: + use of figures of speech; + in debating; + use of pronouns; + use of adjectives; + use of verbs; + use of adverbs; + prepositions. +Character sketch. +Choice of words: + adapted to reader; + as to meaning; + simple. +Clark. +Classification. +Clauses: restrictive and non-restrictive. +Clearness. +Climax: + in narration; + in argument; + as figure of speech. +Coherence: + definition; + in outline; + in composition; + arrangement of details; + arrangement of facts in exposition; + aided by outline; + in argument; + in sentences. +Coleridge. +Colon: rules for. +Colton. +Comma: rules for. +Comparison: + as an aid to formation of images; + development of a paragraph by; + definitions supplemented by; + as a method of developing a composition; + as an aid in establishing fundamental image; + as an aid to effectiveness in description; + use in exposition; + analogy; + of adjectives; + of adverbs. +Complete and incomplete verbs. +Composition: + kinds of; + general principles of. +Conclusion. +Conjugation. +Conjunctions. +Connolly. +Connor. +Constructions: + of nouns; + of personal pronouns; + of relative pronouns; + of adjectives. +Contrast: + development of a paragraph by; + development of a composition by; + use in exposition. +Conversation. +Cooper. +Copeland-Rideout. +Correction of themes. + + +Darwin. +Dash: rules for. +Debate: + value of; + statement of question; + necessity of belief; + order of presentation; + cautions. +Deductive reasoning: errors of. +Definition: + by synonym; + by use of simpler words; + definitions to be supplemented; + first step in exposition; + logical; + difficulty in framing; + inexact. +Description: + Chapter VIII (_see also_ descriptive themes); + defined; + effectiveness in; + classes of objects frequently described: + buildings; + natural features; + sounds; + color; + animals; + plants; + persons; + impression of; + impression as purpose of; + in narration; + general description. +Descriptive themes. +Details: + selection of; + paragraph developed by; + related in time-order; + related with reference to position in space; + used in general description; + in general narration; + composition developed by giving details in time-order; + by giving details with reference to position in space; + selection of, affected by point of view; + selection of essential; + selection and subordination of minor; + arrangement of; + in narration; + arrangement; + selection of facts in exposition; + exposition by use of. +Dewey. +Diction. +Discourse: forms of + presupposes an audience. +Division. +Dixey. +Dramatic poetry. +Dryer. +Dunbar, Mary Louise. + + +Ease. +Effectiveness in description + comparison and figures of speech, as aids to. +Elegance. +Elegy. +Eliot, George. +Emphasis + in sentences. +Enthymeme. +Epic. +Equivalents: for nouns + for adjectives. + for adverbs +Essentials of expression. +Euphony. +Evidence. +Examples: use in exposition + argument from _(see also_ specific instances). +Exclamation mark: rule for. +Expediency: questions of. +Experience: ideas gained from, Chapter I; relation to imagination + impressions limited to. +Exposition: Chapter X (see _also_ expository themes); purpose of + importance of + clear understanding necessary + of terms + of propositions + by repetition + by examples + by comparison and contrast + by obverse statements + by details + by cause and effect + by general description + by general narration + by use of specific instances. +Expository themes. +Expression: essentials of. + + +Fallacy. +Feelings: appeal to, in persuasion. +Feet. +Fields. +Figures of speech + use of + as an aid to effectiveness in description. +Ford. +Form: importance of + directions as to. +Forms of discourse. +Fundamental image. + + +Gender. +General theory: how established, + basis of + appeals to. +George, Marian M. +Gilman. +Grammar review. +Gray. + + +Hare. +Harland. +Harris. +Hawthorne. +Henry. +Higginson and Channing. +Hinman. +History: writing of. +Hoar. +Holland. +Holmes. +Howells. +Hyperbole. + + +Ideas: from experience, Chapter I; +from imagination, Chapter II; from +language, Chapter III. + pleasure in expressing + sources of + advantages of expressing ideas gained from experience + from imagination + ideas from pictures + acquired through language. +Images: making of + complete and incomplete + reproduction of + other requirements to determine meaning + fundamental + union with impression. +Imagination, Chapter II. +Impression: + of description, + as purpose of description, + necessity of observing impressions, + limited to experience, + affected by mood, + union with image. +Improbability. +Incentive moment. +Indentation. +Inductive reasoning: + errors of. +Inference: use in argument. +Infinitives. +Interrogation. +Interrogation mark: rule for. +Introduction. +Invitations. +Irony. +Irving. + + +Jackson, Helen Hunt. +Jordan and Kellogg. + + +Kellogg. +Kingsley. +Kipling. + + +Language: + as a medium through which ideas are acquired, + adapted to reader, +Letter writing: Chapter VI; + importance of, + paper, + beginning, + body, + conclusion, + envelope, + rule of, + business letters, + letters of friendship, + adaptation to reader, + notes. +Lodge. +Longfellow. +Lovelace. +Lowell. +Lyric poetry. + + +Macaulay. +Macy-Norris. +Madame de Stael. +Matthews. +Maxims: appeals to in argument. +McCarthy, Justin. +Meaning of words. +Memory. +Metaphor: + mixed. +Methods of developing a composition: + with reference to time-order, + with reference to position in space, + by use of comparison or contrast, + by use of generalization and facts, + by stating cause and effect, + by a combination of methods. +Metonymy. +Metrical romance. +Metrical tale. +Mill. +Mill, J. S. +Miller, Mary Rogers. +Milton. +Mode. +Montgomery. +Morris, Clara. +Motive, in persuasion. + + +Narration: Chapter IX _(see also_ narrative themes below); + kinds of, + use of description in, + general narration, + narrative poetry. +Narrative themes. +Newcomer. +Notes: + formal, + informal. +Nouns. +Number. + + +Observation: + of actions, + order of, + accuracy in, + observation of impression. +Obverse statements. +Ode. +Ollivaut. +Oral compositions. +Order of events. +Outline: + of a paragraph. + the brief. + making of. + use of in exposition. + + +Palmer. +Paragraph: + defined, + topic statement, + importance of, + length, + indentation, + reasons for studying, + methods of development-- + by specific instances, + by giving details, + in time-order, + as determined by position in space, + by comparison, + by cause and effect, + by repetition, + by a combination of methods. +Paraphrasing. +Participles. +Partition. +Parts of speech. +Period: rules for. +Person. +Personification. +Persuasion: + differs from argument, + importance and necessity of, + motive in, + material of, + appeal to feelings, + with argument. +Phelps, Elizabeth Stuart. +Philips, David Graham. +Phillips, Wendell. +Phrases. +Plot: + interrelation with character. +Poe. +Poetry: Chapter VII; + aim of, + kinds of. +Point: of a story, + _see also_ climax. +Point of view: + selection of details effected by, + implied, + changing, + place in paragraph. +Possibility: in argument. +Post. +Prepositions. +Preston and Dodge. +Principal parts of verbs. +Probability: + in narration, + in argument. +Procter, Adelaide. +Pronouns. +Pronunciation. +Proportion of parts: for emphasis. +Propositions: + specific, + general, + exposition of, + necessary to argument, + of fact and of theory, + statement of. +Proverbs: use in argument. +Punctuation. + + +Quotation marks: rules for. + + +Rankin. +Read. +Reasoning: + inductive, + errors of induction, + deductive, + relation between inductive and deductive, + errors of deduction. +Reasons: number and value of. +Recitations: + preparation for, + topical. +Refutation. +Reid, Captain Mayne. +Repetition: + developing a paragraph by, + exposition by use of. +Reproduction: + of a story, + of the thought of a paragraph. +Restrictive and nonrestrictive clauses. +Rhyme. +Rhythm: variation in. +Richards, Laura E. +Right: questions of. +Robertson. +Roosevelt. +Ruskin. + + +Scansion. +Scott. +Semicolon: rules for. +Sentences: + length, + in conversation, + relations, + rhetorical features. +Sewell, Anna. +Shakespeare. +Shelley. +Sign: argument from. +Simile. +Slang. +Smith. +Song. +Sonnet. +Sources of ideas. +Specific instances: + development of a paragraph by use of, + use in argument and exposition, + development of a composition by use of, + use in exposition. +Spelling. +Spencer. +Stanza. +Stevenson. +Stoddard. +Strong verbs. +Subject: + selection of, + adapted to reader, + sources, + should be definite, + narrowing. +Suggestions, _see_ cautions. +Summaries, at the end of the chapters. +Summarizing paragraph. +Syllogism. +Symons. +Synecdoche. +Synonyms. + + +Tarkington. +Taylor. +Tennyson. +Tense. +Terms: + specific, general, + explanation of, + exposition of, + use in argument and exposition. +Themes: _see_ descriptive, narrative, expository, argumentative, and + reproduction themes. +Thoreau. +Thurston. +Time-order. +Title: selecting of. +Topic statement. +Transition from one paragraph to another. +Transition paragraph. +Trowbridge. +Turner. + + +Unity: + aided by time relations, + aided by position in space, + definition, + in life; + in outline, + in composition, + in sentences, + selection of details giving, + selection of facts in exposition, + aided by outline. + + +Van Dyke. +Van Rensselaer (Mrs.). +Variety. +Verbs. +Verse: names of. +Vocabulary: + how to increase, + words applicable to classes of objects. +Voice. + + +Wallace. +Warner. +Wessels. +Whittier. +Wilcox, Ella Wheeler. +Woode. +Words: + choice of, + spelling, pronunciation, meaning, use, + relations of, + adapted to reader, + selection, + use of simpler words, + selection, + applicable to classes of objects, + offices of, + special list of. +Wordsworth. + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Composition-Rhetoric, by Stratton D. 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